ler THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Landscape Architecture GIFT OF Professor Harry W. Shepherd In the Press, and will be Published in December, 1824. BY MESSRS. LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, BROWN, AND GREEN, AN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AGRICULTURE ; ^ ficotp attfc practice VALUATION, TRANSFER, LAYING (JUT, -IMPROVEMENT, AND MANAGEMENT OF LANDED PROPERTY; * THE CULTIVATION AND ECONOMY OF THE ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS OF AGRICULTURE, INCLUDING ALL THE LATEST IMPROVEMENTS; A GENERAL HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE IN ALL COUNTRIES; AND 3 Statistical fltteto of its present State, WITH : SUGGESTIONS FOR ITS FUTURE PROGRESS IN THE BRITISH ISLES. By J. C. LOUDON, F.L.S. H.S., &c. AUTHOR OP THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF GARDENING. Illustrated ivith upwards of 700 Engravings on Wood, by JBranston. -L HOUGH the term Encyclopaedia applied to any single art may be sufficiently indicative of the comprehensive manner in which it is intended to treat of that art ; yet it may not be improper to state the grounds on which this work lays claim to being the most complete body of Agriculture hitherto submitted to the public. The subject of Agriculture admits of two grand divisions; the improvement and general management of landed property, which may be termed territorial economy; and the cultivation and treatment of its more useful animal and vegetable productions, which is properly husbandry or agriculture in a more limited sense. Numerous as have been the publications on rural matters during the last twenty years, there are but few of them whose titles might lead to a supposition that they embraced both departments. Of these few, the two principal may be cited : the " Complete Farmer," as the most volu- minous, and the " Code of Agriculture," as the most recent. The " Complete Farmer, or Dictionary of Husbandry," in two thick quarto volumes, with numerous plates, was published in 1807 ; it is copious to excess; was the best dictionary of husbandry at the time it was published, but is now obsolete, both as to its letter-press and engravings, The "Code of Agriculture," in one vol. 8vo., published in 1817, professes to be " a general view of the principles of the art, and an account of its most approved prac- tices." (Pref. p. 1 1.) By inspecting the contents of the work, however, it will be found that the term Agriculture, when applied to the Code, must be taken in its more limited sense, and that the book, like the " Complete Farmer, 'V extends only to the husbandry department. The Encyclopaedia of Agriculture combines territorial economy and husbandry : it is arranged on the model of the Encyclopaedia of Gardening, and some idea of its com- prehensiveness may be formed from the following outline of its contents. PART I. HISTORY. BOOK I. Among ancient and modern nations. Chap. I. Ages of antiquity. Sections and subsections. Egypt, Greece, Jews, &c. II. Romans. Roman authors, proprietors, occupants, natural circumstances, culture, produce, science of Roman farming, extent and decline of Roman agriculture. III. Middle ages. Italy, France, Germany, Britain, Saxon Britons, Norman Britons, &c. &c. Ultra European countries. , IV. Modern times. Italy, Switzerland, France, Holland, Germany, Poland, Russia, Sweden, Norway, Spain, Portugal, European Turkey, Britain. V. Ultra European countries. Asia, Asiatic Turkey, Persia, Tartary, Arabia, Hindostan, Cochin China, China, Australasia, &c. Africa, Abyssinia, Egypt, Coast, Cape of Good Hope, Islands. North, America, United States, British Possessions, Mexico, West Indies. South America. BOOK II. Agriculture, as influenced by geographical, civil, and political circumstances. Chap. I. Geographical. II. Civil and political. III. Character of the agriculture of Britain. PART II. SCIENCE OF AGRICULTURE. BOOK I. Vegetable kingdom. Chap. I. Systematic botany. II. Vegetable anatomy. External structure, internal structure. III. Vegetable chemistry. Compounds, simple^ IV. Vegetable physiology. Germination, food, nutrition, developement, sexuality, propagation, vitality. V. Vegetable pathology. Wounds, diseases, decay. VI. Vegetable distribution. Geographical, physical, civil, characteristic, economical, systematic, arithmetical distribution in Britain. VII. Vegetable culture. Its origin and principles. BOOK II. Animal kingdom. Chap. I. Systematic soology. II. Animal anatomy. External, internal. III. Animal chemistry. Simples, compounds. .. IV. Animal physiology. Digestion, circulation, reproduction. ' V. Animal pathology! Diseases, accidents, decay. VI. Animal distribution. VII. Principles of animal culture. Breeding, rearing, fattening. BOOK III. Mineral kingdom and the atmosphere in reference to agriculture. Chap. I. Geological structure of the globe. II. Earths and soils. Classification, nomenclature, analysis, use, improvement, &c. III. Manures. Animal, vegetable, theory of action, species, preservation, application. Mineral manures, operation, species, application, &c. IV. Meteorology. Heat, light, electricity, water, air, climate of Britain. BOOK IV. Mechanical agents employed in agriculture. Chap. I. Implements. Tools, instruments, utensils, hand-machines. II. Machines and implements for beasts of labor. Ploughs, cultivators, hoes," drills,' harrows, rollers, rakes, reaping machines, threshing machines, hay machines, carts, waggons, steamers, boilers, cutters, &c. III. Edifices. Farm house, houses for live stock, dead stock, crop, labor, sheds, shelters, &c. IV. Fences, gates, &c. BOOK V. Operations of agriculture. Chap. I. Manual. Common, simple, on the soil, with plants, with animals, mixed. II. Operations with laboring cattle. On the soil, on the road, in machinery, mixed. III. Scientific operations. Of measurement, quantities, value, accounts, order, neatness, and propriety. PART III. AGRICULTURE AS PRACTISED IN BRITAIN. BOOK I. Valuation, transfer, purchase, &c. of landed property. Chap. I. Tenures. II. Estimation. HI. Sale. IV. Purchase. BOOK II. Laying out of landed property. Chap. I. Appropriating commonable lands. Origin, general principles, practice of commissioner* of enclosure. II. Consolidating detached property. By exchange, purchase, &c. III. Roads. Former principles, general principles, principles of M'Adam, kinds, direction, form, materials, paved roads, rail roads, preservation, repairs, &c. Chap. IV. Canals. Kinds, direction, powers by act of parliament, execution, preservation. V. Mills, manufactories, villages, markets, cottages, c. VI. Mines, quarries, pits, and metalliferous bodies, c. VII. Fisheries. Marine fisheries, river, lake, and stream fisheries. VIII. Plantations and woodlands. Soils, trees, formation, culture, management, sale, &c. IX. Orchards. Soil, situation, climate, sorts of trees, culture, gathering, storing, cyder making, &c. X. Culturable lands. Farms, farmeries, market gardens, orchards, nurseries, cottage lands, AC. BOOK III. Improvement of landed property. Chap. I. Draining. Theory, bogs, hills, vallies, mixed soils, retentive soils, draining implements, &c. II. Embanking. Theory, banks, sluices, course of rivers, jetties, piers, &c. III. Irrigation. Theory, terms in use, implements in use, flowing, flooding, catchwork, warping, wells, ponds, tanks, and other reservoirs in fields or farm yards, boring for water, .filtering for the farmery or domestic purposes. IV. Bringing waste lands into culture. Improving the climate, soil, roads, water, rivers, wastes, bogs, mountains, rocks, woods, &c. V. Improving the condition of lands already in a state of cultivation. Buildings, roads, fields, fences, water-courses, climate, &c. VI. Execution of improvements. By the landlord, by the tenant; general cautions, &c. BOOK IV. Management of landed property. Chap. I. Executive establishment. Duties, qualifications, stewards, substewards, bailiffs, cround- officers, &c. II. Administrator or manager. Principles of conduct, tenants, letting, selling, rents, reductions, covenants, cottagers, accounts, maps, &c. BOOK V. Selection, hiring, and stocking of farms. Chap. I. Considerations as to the farm before hiring. Climate, soil, subsoil, elevation, surface, aspect, markets, extent, tenure, rent, taxes, vicinage, &c. II. Considerations as to the farmer before hiring. Personal character, professional knowledge, experience, capital, &c. , III. Choice of stock. Live stock for labor, breeding, feeding, implements, servants, &c. IV. Management. Accounts, arrangement of labor, servants, markets, domestic and personal matters. BOOK VI. Culture of farm lands. Chap. I. General processes. Rotations, fallows, manures, lime, composts. II. Culture of cereal grasses. Wheat, rye, barley, oats, other species. III. Leguminous agricultural plants. Pea, bean, tare, others, i IV. Roots or leaves. Potatoe, turnip, carrot, parsnip, beet or mangold, cabbage tribe, others. V. Herbage plants. Clovers, lucerne, saintfoin, others. VI. Cultivated grasses. Hay grasses, temporary, permanent, pasture grasses, Woburn experiments. VII. Management of permanent grass lands. Mowing or meadow, pastures for feeding, rearing, improvement of grass lands by temporary conversion to tillage, draining, paring, dragging, &c. VIII. Plants grown for various arts and manufactures. Cloathing arts, brewery, distillery, oil plants, domestic economy, medicine. IX. Marine Plants. Process of kelp making, establishing kelp plantations on marine shores, &c. X. Weeds. Annuals, biennials, perennials. BOOK VII. Economy of live stock and the dairy. Chap. I. Horse. Varieties, organology, criteria, breeding, rearing, training, feeding, managing working, shoeing, diseases. Ass, mule, hinny. II. Neat cattle. Varieties, organology, criteria, &c. Buffalo, dairy cows, dairy management. III. Sheep. Varieties, organology, criteria, &c. . IV. Swine. Goat, rabbit, and various others. V. Birds. Gallinaceous, anserine, various birds of luxury, of song, diseases, &c. VI. Fish and amphibious animals. Carp, tortoise, c. VII. Cultivated insects and worms. Silkmoth, leech, &c. VIII. Vermin or animals noxious in agriculture. Quadrupeds, birds, insects, worms, &c. PART IV. STATISTICS OF BRITISH AGRICULTURE. BOOK I. Present state of agriculture in the British Isles. Chap. I. Practitioners. Operators, commercial cultivators, professors, artists, patrons. II. Kinds of farms. III. Topographical survey. England, county by county. Wales, ditto. Scotland, ditto. Ireland ditto. IV. Literature of agriculture. British, French, German, Italian, Dutch, Spanish, Rassian Swedish, American. V. Police and laws. BOOK II. Future progress of agriculture in Britain. Chap. I. Improvement by increase of profits. II. By increased taste for agricultural knowledge. III. By better education of practitioners. KALENDARIAL INDEX. GENERAL INDEX. Whoever will compare the above rude outline with the contents of any agricultural work extant, will be convinced of the superior comprehensiveness of the Encyclopaedia ; and when the immense number of engravings is considered, illustrative of the history of agriculture, of its implements, machines, buildings, operations, farms, estates, roads, waters, plants, weeds, animals, vermin, &c. , it may be safely affirmed that no preceding work (unless it be the Encyclopaedia of Gardening) ever contained such a body of in- struction within the same limits. 766 This Day is Published, the Second Edition, conqdete, in One large Volumc,8vo. of 1234 pages, closely printed, with Seven Hundred and Fifty-seven Engravings on Wood, Price 2. BY MESSRS. LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, BROWN, & GREEN, AN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF GARDENING; COMPRISING "Cfie 'Cfieorp ana practice OF HORTICULTURE, FLORICULTURE, ARBORICULTURE, AND LANDSCAPE GARDENING, INCLUDING ALL THE LATEST IMPROVEMENTS; A GENERAL HISTORY OF GARDENING IN ALL COUNTRIES; AND a Statistical flieto of it0 present State, WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR ITS FUTURE PROGRESS, IN THE BRITISH ISLES. By J. C. LOUDON, F.L.S. H.S., &c. 1 HIS Work is by far the most complete body of Gardening ever published, con- taining all Improvements both foreign and domestic up to the present time ; and, con- sidering its numerous engravings (757), valuable tables of fruits, flowers, &c., and copious letter press, it is, perhaps, the cheapest book ever published. It is calculated, by its indexes, to serve both as a Gardener's Kalendar, and Gardener's Dictionary : it contains a copious Introduction to Botany ; engraved plans and elevations of all man- ner of hot-houses, ornamental buildings, kitchen gardens, flower gardens, shrubberies, pleasure grounds, and parks both of this and other countries ; of many curious fruits and flowers; of all the garden implements, utensils, and machines; and of all the insects which annoy gardens. Besides the culinary, fruit, and flower gardening, and the lay- ing out of grounds, it treats of trees, shrubs, planting, forest management, nurseries, market gardens, and botanic gardens ; of gardeners' societies, and lodges ; of the duties of head gardeners in every situation and rank of servitude, from that of the tradesman's town garden, of a few poles in extent, to the first-rate gardens of the nobility, including public and royal gardens : it treats of the improvement of the taste of the patrons and employers of gardeners ; of the education of young gardeners, and the general conduct of a gardener's life ; and contains the only catalogue ever given of all the books on gar- dening that have been printed in this or in other countries : in short, it is of itself a gar- dener's library, comprising a condensed view of all that has been written on the subject of gardening, and the first attempt at a history of the art in all ages and countries that has ever been published. To beginners of every description, the work is invaluable ; and few are the practical men that may not receive from it a great accession of knowledge. As a reward for good conduct, or a stimulus to improvement, no book is so well fitted for being presented by a gentleman to his head gardener, or by a head gardener to his deserving apprentice. One of our first horticulturists (we might say our very first) has declared, that the work has met his " unqualified approbation ;" and another has observed that " a copy of it ought to be in every gardener's shed in the kingdom." WORKS ON GARDENING, RURAL ECONOMY, &c. RECENTLY PUBLISHED BY LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, BROWN, AND GREEN, London. i. THE SCIENCE OF HORTICULTURE ; COMPRISING A PRACTICAL SYSTEM FOR THE MANAGEMENT AND TRAINING OF FRUIT-TREES Exemplified by Sketches from Trees actually trained. TO WHICH ARE ADDED, AN ESSAY ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE PINE-APPLE; Including the Results of a Course of Experiments in growing Peaches and Nectarines, in Pots, in a Conservatory, and a Description of a Liquid Manure adapted to all Plants, and the manner of applying it. BY JOSEPH HAYWARD, Second Edition, 12s. bds. 2. BY THE SAME AUTHOR. THE SCIENCE OF AGRICULTURE Explained and Elucidated by A COMMENTARY AND COMPARATIVE INVESTIGATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY Of Mr. KIRWAN and Sir HUMPHRY DAVY, and the Code of Agriculture of Sir JOHN SINCLAIR and other Authors on the subject. CONTENTS : Introduction. General View of the Subject On Breeding or Raising Vegetables. On Breeding and Rearing Animals. On Cultivating the Earth. Arrangement of Chemical Principles. On the Roots of Plants. On the Use and Office of the Leaves. On the Rust or Black Blight in Wheat. On Fallowing Land, and Paring and Burning. On Hay-making. On Orchards and Cyder In 8vo. nearly ready. 3. A TREATISE ON THE CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT OF FRUIT-TREES, In which a New Method of Pruning and Training is fully described. To which is added, a new and im- proved Edition of " Observations on the Diseases, Defects, and Injuries in all kinds of Fruit and Forest Trees : with an Account of a particular Method of Cure." Published by order of Government. BY WILLIAM FORSYTH, F. A.S. & F.S.A. Gardener to His Most Gracious Majesty at Kensington and St. James's. In 8vo. the Seventh Edition, with Plates and Portrait, 13s. bds. This Edition contains Additions of new Fruits, and References to their Figures ; also a Calendarial Index. 4. THE DIFFERENT MODES OF CULTIVATING THE PINE-APPLE, From its first Introduction into Europe, to the late Improvements of T. A. KNIGHT, Esq. BY A MEMBER OF THE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. In 8vo. Price 9s. bds. with 74 Wood Engravings, exhibiting the best Plans of Pine-Stoves and Pit*. Works ixi Gardening, Rural Economy, $c. 5. A TREATISE ON THE CULTURE OF THE APPLE & PEAR, AND ON THE MANUFACTURE OF CYDER AND PERRY. By T. A. KNIGHT, Esq. F.R.S. & L.S. Fifth Edition, Price 4s. 6. THE GARDENER'S REMEMBRANCER; Containing practical Methods of Gardening, both in the natural Way, and in the artificial forcing Scheme. To which is now added, the Culture of the Cucumber, the Plan of a lately invented Brick Frame for forcing Fruits, Flowers, and esculent Vegetables, without the Influence of Fire Heat ; and on the Management of Timber-Trees. BY JAMES MACPHAIL, Upwards of Twenty Years Gardener and Steward to the late Earl of Liverpool. Second Edition, corrected and improved, 12mo. 7s. 6d. 7. ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, IN A COURSE OF LECTURES, FOR THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE, Delivered between 1802 and 1812. BY SIR HUMPHRY DAVY, Bart. P.R.S. M.B.A., &c. In 8vo. (the 3d Edition) Price 15s. bds. 8. A TREATISE ON THE CULTURE OF THE VINE ; With new Hints on the Formation of Vineyards in England. 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PREFACE. sc /A L'I THE term Encyclopaedia, applied to a single art, is meant to convey the idea of as complete a treatise on that art as can be composed at the time of its publication. No art has been more extended in its objects, or improved in its practices within the last fifty years than Gardening. During that period numerous books have been written in various departments of the subject ; but in no work has the whole Art of Gardening been included. The only books which have any pretensions to completeness are the Gardener's Dictionaries : but though some of these are copious on the culture of plants, and others, in botanical description ; yet in none is the subject of design, taste, and the arrangement of gardens, adequately treated of; and scarcely any thing is contained in these books, either on the History or Statistics of Gardening. In the voluminous edition of Miller's Dic- tionary, by Professor Martyn, though the title announces " the addi- tion of all the modern improvements of landscape-gardening," there is not an article bearing that title throughout the work ; nor a single quotation or abridgement from the writings of Wheatley, G. Mason, Price, Repton, or any modern author, on the art of laying out grounds. The Encyclopaedia of Gardening now submitted to the public treats of every branch of the Art, and includes every modern im- provement to the present year. Though -this work, like every other of the kind, can only be consi- dered as a compilation from books, yet, on various subjects, especially in what relates to Gardening History and Statistics, it was found ad- visable to correspond with a number of persons both at home and abroad. The favours of these Correspondents are here thankfully acknowledged ; and their farther assistance, as well as that of every Reader willing to correct an error or supply a deficiency, is earnestly entreated, in order to render any future edition of the work as per- fect as possible. Besides modern books, it became necessary to consult some com- paratively ancient and scarce works only to be met with in par- ticular collections. Our respectful acknowledgments are, on this A 2 iv PREFACE. account, due to the Council and Secretary of the Linnaean Society ; to the Council and Secretary of the Horticultural Society ; to Robert Brown, Esq. the possessor of the Banksian library ; and to William Forsyth, Esq., whose collection of British works on Gardening is more than usually complete. It remains only to mention, as a key to this work, that to save room, the prencms and other additions to names of persons are not inserted ; only contracted titles of the books referred to are given ; and the names of gardens or country residences are mentioned, with- out, in many cases, designating their local situation. By turning to the General Index, the names of persons will be found, with the addition of their prenoms and other titles, where known, at length ; and there the abridged titles of books are also given complete, and the names of residences, accompanied by that of the county or country in which they are situated. The botanical nomenclature which has been followed is that of Sweet's Hortus Suburbanus Lon- dinenstSj with only one or two exceptions ; the reasons for which are given where they occur. The systematic names of insects, or other animals, or of minerals, are generally those of Linnaeus : some ex- ceptions are also noted. In various parts of the work etymological and other explanations will be found, which, to one class of readers, may be unnecessary. But it is to be considered that we address ourselves to Practical Gardeners as well as to the Patrons of Gar- dening ; and our opinion is, that to enlighten, and generally to raise the intellectual character of the former, will ultimately be found the. most efficient mode of improving them in their profession, and thus rendering them more truly valuable to the latter. By referring to the Kalendarial Index, those parts of this work which treat of Garden Culture and Management may be consulted monthly, as the operations require to be performed ; and by recourse to the General Index, the whole may be consulted in detached por- tions, as in a Dictionary of Gardening. Although this second edition forms a less bulky volume than the first, yet it contains considerably more printed matter ; besides above a hundred new engravings. These important additions we have been enabled to make by printing all those parts of the work which may be considered as of secondary importance, in a smaller type than that of the general text. J. C. L. Bayswater, Ajnil 8, 1824. CONTENTS. PART I. GARDENING CONSIDERED IN RESPECT TO ITS ORIGIN, PROGRESS, AND PRESENT STATE AMONG DIFFERENT NATIONS, GOVERNMENTS, AND CLIMATES. BOOK I. HISTORY OF GARDENING AMONG ANCIENT AND MODERN NATIONS. CHAP. I. Page Of the Origin and Progress of Gardening in the earliest ages of Antiquity, or from the 10th .century before the vulgar aera to the found- ation of the Roman Empire I. Of the fabulous Gardens of Antiquity - ib. II. Jewish Gardens. B.C. 1500. - - 4 III. Phseacian Gardens. B.C. 900. - - ib. IV. Babylonian or Assyrian Gardens. B.C. 2000. - - - - 5 V. Persian Gardens. B. C. 500. - 6 VI. Grecian Gardens. B. Q 300. - - ib. VII. Gardening in the ages of Antiquity, as to Fruits, Culinary Productions, and Flowers - - 7 CHAP. II. Chronological History of Gardening, from the time of the Roman Kings, in the sixth cen. tury B. C. to the Decline and Fall of the Empire in the fifth century of our sera - 9 I. Roman Gardening as an Art of Design and Taste ... ib. II. Roman Gardening considered as to the Cul- ture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament 13 III. Roman Gardening in respect to its Pro- ducts for the Kitchen and the Dessert ib. IV. Roman Gardening considered in respect to the Propagation and Planting of Tim- ber-trees and Hedges - - - 14 V. Roman Gardening as a Science, and as to - the Authors it produced - 15 CHAP. III. Chronological History of Gardening, in conti- nental Europe from the Time of the Romans to the' present Day, or from A. D. 500 to A. D. 1823. - . . . I. Of the Revival, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Italy 1. Italian Gardening, in respect to Design and Taste 2. Italian Gardening in respect to the Cul- ture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament 3. Italian Gardening in respect to its Products for the Kitchen and the Dessert 4. Italian Gardening, in respect to the plant- ing of Timber-trees and Hedges 5. Italian Gardening, as empirically practised 6. Italian Gardening, as a Science, and as to the Authors it has produced II. Of the Revival, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Holland and Flanders - 1. Dutch Gardening, as an Art of Design and Taste 2. Dutch Gardening, in respect to the Cul ture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament 3. Dutch Gardening in respect to the Cul- ture of Fruits and Culinary Vegetables - - 16 B - ib. - ib. . 23 - ib. K - ib. 2!) Page 4. Dutch Gardening, in respect to the plant- ing of Timber-trees and Hedges - 31 5. Dutch Gardening, as empirically practised 32 6. Dutch Gardening, as a Science, and in re- spect to the Authors it has produced - 33 III. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in France - . ib. 1. French Gardening, as an Art of Design and Taste - . . ib. 2. French Gardening, in respect to the Cul- ture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament 39 3. French Gardening, in respect to its horti- cultural Productions . - 40 4. French Gardening, in respect to the plant- ing of Timber-trees and Hedges - 41 5. French Gardening, as empirically prac- tised - . .42 6. French Gardening, as a Science, and s to the Authors it has produced - - 43 IV. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Germany - ib. 1. German Gardening, as an Art of Design and Taste - - ib. 2. German Gardening, in respect to the Cul- ture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament 47 3. German Gardening, in respect to horticul- tural'Productipns - - 49 4. German Gardening, as to planting Timber- trees and Hedges - - - 50 5. German Gardening, as empirically prac- tised . ib. 6. German Gardening, as a Science, and as to the Authors it has produced - - 51 V. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Switzerland VI. -Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Sweden and Norway VII. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Russia - 55 1. Russian Gardening, as an Art of Design and Taste 2. Russian Gardening, in respect to the Cul- ture of Rowers and Plants of Ornament 59 3. Russian Gardening, in respect to its horti- cultural Productions - ib. 4. Russian Gardening, in respect to the Cul- ture of Timber-trees and Hedges - 60 5. Russian Gardening, as empirically prac- tised - ib. 6. Russian Gardening, as a Science, and as to the Authors it has produced - 61 VIII. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Poland - - ib. IX. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Spain and Portugal - 63 1. Spanish Gardening, as an Art of Design . and Taste - - 64 2. Spanish and Portuguese Gardening, in re- spect to the Culture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament - - 65 3. Spanish and Portuguese Gardening, in re- spect to its horticultural Productions and Planting - . .66 X. Of the Rise, Progress, and present state* of Gardening in European Turkey - 'ib. A 3 CONTENTS. CHAP. IV. Page Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in the British Isles - - 68 I. British Gardening, as an Art of Design and Taste - - - - 69 1. Gardening in England, as an Art of De- sign and Taste - - ib. 2. Gardening in Scotland, as an Art of Design and Taste - - - 80 3. Gardening in Ireland, as an Art of Design and Taste - - 82 II. British Gardening, in respect to the Cul- ture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament 83 1. Gardening in England, in respect to the Culture of Flowers and the Establishment of Botanic Gardens - - 84 2. Gardening in Scotland, in respect to the Culture of Flowers and the Establish- ment of Botanic Gardens - - 86 3. Gardening in Ireland, in respect to Flori- culture and Botany . ... 87 III. British Gardening, in respect to its horti- cultural Productions - - - 88 1. Gardening in England, in respect to its horticultural Productions - - ib. 2. Gardening in Scotland, in respect to its horticultural Productions - - 91 3. Gardening in Ireland, in respect to its hor- ticultural Productions - - 92 IV. British Gardening, in respect to the plant- ing of Timber-trees and Hedges - ib. 1. Gardening in England, in respect to the planting of Timber-trees and Hedges - ib. 2. Gardening in Scotland, in respect to the planting of Timber-trees and Hedges - 93 3. Gardening in Ireland, in respect to the planting of Timber-trees and Hedges - 94 V. British Gardening, as empirically practised ib. VI. British Gardening, as a Science, and as to the Authors it has produced - - 96 CHAP. V. Page Of the present State of Gardening in Ultra- European Countries - - 97 I. Syrian, Persian, Indian, and African Gar- dens of modern Times ' ~ - 98 II. Chinese Gardening - 101 III. Gardening in Anglo- North America, or the United States and British Provinces 104 IV. Gardening in Spanish North America, or Mexico - - - 106 V. Gardening in South America - - 107 VI. Gardening in the British Colonies, and in other Foreign Settlements of European Nations - ib. BOOK II. GARDENING CONSIDERED AS TO ITS PRO- GRESS AND PRESENT STATE UNDER DIF- FERENT POLITICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL CIRCUMSTANCES. CHAP. I. Page Gardening as affected by different Forms of Government, Religions, and States of Society 110 I. Gardening as affected by different Forms of Government and Religions - -111 II. Gardening as aflected by different States of Society - - ib. CHAP. II. Gardening as affected by different Climates, Habits of Life, and Manners - -112 I. Influence of Climate, in respect to Fruits culinary Plants, Flowers, Timber-trees and horticultural Skill 113 114 III. Of the Climate and Circumstances of Bri- tain, in respect to Gardening - - 118 II. Influence of Climate and Manners on Gar dening, as an Art of Design and Taste PART II. GARDENING CONSIDERED AS A SCIENCE. BOOK I. THE STUDY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. CHAP. I. Page Origin, Progress, and present State of the Study of Plants - 120 CHAP. II. Glossology, or the Names of the Parts of Plants 122 CHAP. III. Phytography, or the Nomenclature and De- , scription of Plants - 123 I. Names of Classes and Orders - <*. II. Names of Genera III. Names of Species IV. Names of Varieties and Subvarieties V. Descriptions of Plants VI. Of forming and preserving Herbarians VII. Of Methods of Study CHAP. IV. Taxonomy, or the Classifications of Hants . ib- I. The Hortus Britannicus arranged according to the Linnsean System II. The Hortus Britannicus arranged according to the Jussieuean System CHAP. V. Vegetable Organology, or the external Struc ture of Plants I. Perfect Plants # I. Conservative Organs ib. . Conservative Appendages - ib. 3. Reproductive Organs - 139 4. Reproductive Appendages - ib. II. Imperfect Plants - - 140 1. Filices, Equisitacese, and Lycopodineae ib. 2. Musci - - ib. 3. Hepatic* - 1 4. Algae and Licbense ~- *. 5. Fungi - - 1 CHAP. VI. Page Vegetable Anatomy, or the internal Structure of Plants . - 142 I. Decomposite Organs . . ib. II. Composite Organs - - -144 III. Elementary or Vascular Organs - 146 CHAP. VII. Vegetable Chemistry, or primary Principles of Plants . . .147 I. Compound Products . . ib. II. Simple Products . . - 157 CHAP. VIII. Functions of Vegetables \ <- . I 'ib. I. Germination of the Seed - - 158 II. Food of the vegetating Plant . -160 III. Process of Vegetable Nutrition - .165 IV. Process of Vegetable Developement - 172 V. Anomalies of Vegetable Developement -177 VI. Of the Sexuality of Vegetables - .181 VII. Impregnation of the Seed . .182 VIII. Changes consequent upon Impregnation 183 IX. The propagation of the Species - -184 X. Causes limiting the Propagation of the Spe- cies - - . .186 XI. Evidence and Character of Vegetable Vi- tality - . . 187 CHAP. IX. Vegetable Pathology, or the Diseases and Casu- alties of Vegetable Life - . 191 I. Wounds and Accidents - - ib. II. Diseases - .i . - 192 III. Natural Decay . . - 195 CHAP. X. Vegetable Geography and History, or the Dis- tribution of Vegetables relatively to the Earth and to Man - . .196 I. Geographical Distribution of Vegetables - 197 II. Physical Distribution of Vegetables - ib. III. Civil Causes affecting the Distribution of Plants . . .902 CONTENTS. IV. Characteristic or Picturesque Distribution ^ of Vegetables - V. Systematic Distribution of Vegetables 20 VI. Economical Distribution of Vegetables 206 VII. Arithmetical Distribution of Vegetables ib VIII. Distribution of the British Flora, indige nous and exotic . n CHAP. XI. Origin of Culture, as derived from the Study of Vegetables - - - 21 BOOK II. OF THE NATURAL AGENTS OF VEGETABLE GROWTH AND CULTURE. CHAP. I. Of Earths and Soils . . _ 217 1. Of the Geological Structure of the Globe and the Formation of Earths and Soils . ib. II. Classification and Nomenclature of Soils -219 III. Of discovering the Qualities of Soils - 221 1. Of discovering the Qualities of Soils by means of the Plants which grow on them .... ft. 2. Of discovering the Qualities of Soils by chemical Analysis - - ib. 3. Of discovering the Qualities of a Soil mechanically and empirically . . 222 IV. Of the Uses of the Soil to Vegetables . 223 V. Of the Improvement of Soils - - 226 1. Pulverisation - . _ $ . 2. Of the Improvement of Soils by Compres- sion . . . .228 3. Of the Improvement of Soils by Aeration or Fallowing . . _ ib 4. Alteration of the constituent Parts of Soils 229 5. Changing the Condition of Lands, in re- spect to Water ... 231 6. Changing the Condition of Lands, in re- spect to Atmospherical Influence - 232 7. Rotation of Crops . 233 CHAP. II. Of Manures ... 234 I. Of Manures of Animal and Vegetable Origin 235 1. The Theory of the Operation of Manures of Animal and Vegetable Origin - ib. ; 2. Of the different Species of Manures of Animal and Vegetable Origin . 236 , 3. Of the fermenting, preserving, and apply- ing of Manures of Animal and Vegetable Origin - _ 241 I 1. Of Manures of Mineral Origin - . 243 1. Theory of the Operation of Mineral Ma- nures - . . ib 2. Of the different Species of Mineral Ma- nures . 244 CHAP. III. Of the Agency of Heat, Light, Electricity, and Water, in Vegetable Culture - . 249 I. Of Heat and Light - . & II. Of Electricity - - - - 253 III. Of Water . . #. CHAP. IV. Of the Agency of the Atmosphere in Vegeta- tion - . 254 I. Of the Elements of the Atmosphere - _ ib. II. Of the Means of prognosticating the Weather 264 III. Of the Climate of Britain - -266 BOOK III. MECHANICAL AGENTS EMPLOYED IN GAR- DENING. CHAP. I. Implements of Gardening II. Instruments 1 Instruments of Operation 2. Instruments of Direction 3. Instruments of Designation III. Utensils - -. .282 1. Utensils of Preparation and Deportation - ib. 2. Utensils of Culture - . -283 3. Utensils of Protection - .'286 4. Utensils for entrapping Vermin . 287 IV. Machines . . //,. 1. Machines of Labor . 288 2. Machines for Vermin, and Defence against the enemies of Gardens - . 292 3. Meteorological Machines . . 293 V. Various Articles used in Gardening Oper- ations . . 295 1. Articles of Adaptation . ib. 2. Articles of Manufacture - . 297 3. Articles of Preparation . ib. CHAP. II. Structures used in Gardening . . 298 I. Temporary or Moveable Structures . ib. 1. Structures Portable, or entirely Moveable ib. 2. Structures partly Moveable - - 300 II. Fixed Structures ... 303 III. Permanent Horticultural Structures -310 1. Of the Principles of Design in Hot-houses 311 2. Forms of Hot-house Roofs . . 314 3. Details of the Construction of Roofs, or the glazed part of Hot-houses - - 318 4. Glazing of Hot-house Roofs - . 319 5. Walls and Sheds of Hot-houses - - 322 6. Furnaces and Flues ... 323 7. Steam Boilers and Tubes - . 326 8. Trellises - - . .328 9. Paths, Pits, Stages, Shelves, Doors, &c. - 329 10. Details for Water, Wind, and Renewal of Air ii- ' . 331 IV. Mushroom-houses - _ . 332 V. Cold Plant-habitations . 334 CHAP. III. Edifices used in Gardening - . ib. I. Economical Buildings - . . _ ib. II. Anomalous Buildings - . 339 1. Of the Ice-house and its Management - ib. 2. Of the Apiary and the Management of Bees . . 341 3. Of the Aviary, and of Menageries, Pisci- naries, &c. - 346 III. Decorative Buildings - . 348 1. Useful Decorative Buildings - - ib. 2. Convenient Decorations - . 355 3. Characteristic Decorations - - 360 CHAP. IV. Of the Improvement of the Mechanical Agents of Gardening - - - 361 BOOK IV. OF THE OPERATIONS OF GARDENING. CHAP. I. Operations of Gardening, in which Strength is chiefly required in the Operator - - 363 I. Mechanical Operations common to all Arts of Manual Labor - - - ib II. Garden-labors on the Soil - - 364 III. Garden-labors with Plants - - 367 CHAP. II. Operations of Gardening in which Skill is more required than Strength - - - 369 . Of transferring Designs from Ground to Paper or Memory - - ib. I. Of transferring Designs from Paper or Memory to Ground - - . 373 1. Transferring Figures and Designs to plane Surfaces - - . ib. 2. Tranferring Figures and Designs to irregu- lar Surfaces - .. . .375 3. Of the Arrangement of Quantities - 377 II. Of carrying Designs into Execution - 373 CHAP. III. Scientific Processes and Operations .. - 384 1. Preparation of fermenting Substances for Hot-beds, Manures, and Composts - ib'. I. Operations of Propagation - - 387 1. Propagation by natural Methods - - ib. 2. Propagation by Layering I . . -388 3. Propagation by Inarching - - 390 4. Propagation by Grafting .. . 391 5. Propagation by Budding . . 3<>7 6. Propagation by Cuttings . ' - 399 CONTENTS. Page III. Operations of Rearing and Culture - -Wl 1. Sowing, Planting, and Watering - ib. '2. Transplanting ... 402 3. Pruning - - - 406 k Training - - - 411 .-;. Blanching - - 415 IV. Operations for inducing a State of Fruit- fulness in barren and unblossoming Trees and Plants - - ib. V. Operations for retarding or accelerating Vegetation - - 418 1. Operations for retarding Vegetation - ib. 2. Operations for accelerating Vegetation - 419 VI. Operations to imitate warm Climates - 423 VII. Operations of Protection from Atmospher- ical Injuries - - 424 VIII. Operations relative to Vermin, Diseases, and other Casualties of Plants and Gardens - - - 426 Page 1. Of the Kinds of Vermin most injurious to Gardens . . 426 2. Operations for subduing Vermin - 436 3. Operations relative to Diseases and other Casualties _ 437 IX. Operations of Gathering, Preserving, and Keeping . . 438 CHAP. IV. Operations relative to the final Products de- sired of Gardens, and Garden-scenery - 443 I. Of the Vegetable Products desired of Gar- dens . 444 II. Of the Superintendence ami Management of Gardens - ,..... - 445 III. Of the Beauty and Order of Garden- scenery . . . .451 PART III. GARDENING AS PRACTISED IN BRITAIN. BOOK I. HORTICULTURE. CHAP. I. Page The Formation of a Kitchen-garden - 455 I. Situation - ib. II. Exposure and Aspect - 456 III. Extent .... - 457 IV. Shelter and Shade - 458 V. Soil - 460 VI. Water - ... - 463 VII. Form - - 464 VIII. Walls ... - - 465 IX. Ring-fence and Slip X. Placing the Culinary Hot-houses -472 and Melonry - - ib. XI. Laying out the Area . 473' CHAP. II. Of the Distribution of Fruit-trees in a Kitchen- garden - 476 I. Of the Selection and Arrangement of Wall Fruit-trees - - 477 II. Of the Selection and Arrangement of Espaliers and Dwarf-standards - . 479 III. Of tall Standard Fruit-trees in a Kitchen- garden ----- 480 IV. Fruit-shrubs - - - - 481 CHAP. III. Of the Formation and Planting of an Orchard, subsidiary to the Kitchen-garden - - 482 CHAP. IV. Of the general Cultivation and Management of a Kitchen-garden - 485 I. Culture and Management of the Soil ib. II. Manure - - - - 48G III. Cropping - - 487 IV. Thinning - 489 V. Pruning and Training 490 VI. Weeding, Stirring the Soil, Protecting Supporting, and Shading - 493 VII. Watering - - ib. VIII. Vermin, Insects, Diseases, and Accidents 494 IX. Gathering and Preserving Vegetables and Fruits, and sending them to a Distance 495 X. Miscellaneous Operations of Culture and Management - ib. CHAP. V. - 496 Of the general Management of Orchards I. General Culture - - . II. Pruning Orchard-trees - - 497 III. Of gathering and storing Orchard-fruits - 499 IV. Of packing Orchard and other Fruits for Carriage - - 501 CHAP. VI. Construction of the- Culinary Forcing Struc- tures and Hot-houses SOU Page I. Of the Construction of the Pinery - -502 II. Of the Construction of the Vinery 506 III. Construction of the Peach-house 508 IV. Construction of the Cherry-house and Fig house 510 V. Of Constructing Hot-houses in Ranges' ib. VI. Construction of Culinary Pits, Frames, and Mushroom-houses ' - - ib. VII. Details in the Construction of Culinary Hot-houses - - - 512 CHAP. VII. Of the general Culture of Forcing Structures and Culinary Hot-houses - - 513 I. Culture of the Pinery - -514 1. Varieties of the Pine and General Mode of Culture - f ' ' - ib. 2. Soil - - - - ib. 3. Artificial Heat - - - 515 4. Propagation of the Pine-apple - 516 5. Of rearing the Pine-apple in the Nursing Department - - - 517 6. Succession Department - - 521 7. Fruiting Department - 525 8. General Directions common to the Three Departments of Pine-apple Culture - 531 9. Compendium of a Course of Culture - 537 10. Recent Improvements in the Culture of the Pine-apple - - 538 II. Of the Culture of the Vinery - - 541 1. Of the General Culture of the Grape in Vineries - - - ib. 2. Of particular Modes of cultivating the Grape, adapted to particular Situations 553 3. Of Gathering and Keeping forced Grapes 5i6 4. Of the Insects and Diseases attendant on forced or Hot-house Grapes - - 5oi III. Culture of the Peach-house - -558 IV. Of the Culture of the Cherry-house - 563 V. Of the Culture of the Fig-house - -566 VI. Of the Culture and Forcing of the Cucum- , ber - - - - - 569 VII. Of the Culture of the Melon - -580 VIII. Forcing the Strawberry in Hot-houses, Pits, and Hot-beds - - - 588 IX. Forcing Asparagus in Pits and Hot-beds 590 X. Forcing Kidneybeans - - - 592 XI. Forcing Potatoes - ... 593 XII. Forcing Peas - - - 595 XIII. Forcing Salads, Pot-herbs, &c. - - 596 XIV. Culture of the Mushroom - - ib. CHAP. VIII. Horticultural Catalogue. Hardy Herbaceous Culinary Vegetables - - - 606 I. The Cabbage Tribe - - - 607 1. White Cabbage - - - /A. 2. Red Cabbage - - - 610 3. Savoy - - ib. 4. Brussels Sprouts - 611 5. Borecole - - ib. 6. Cauliflower - iiJ 7. Broccoli *.'-' -' - el* CONTENTS. Page 8. Of Insects which infest the Cabbage Tribe 617 Page 8. Hyssop . 677 II. Leguminous Plants - 618 9. Chamomile - ib. 1. Pea - ib. 10. Elecampane - - ib. 2. Garden-bean - 620 11. Licorice - 678 3. Kidneybean -621 12. Wormwood - - - ib III. Esculent Roots 623 13. Blessed Thistle - . ib. 1. Potatoe - ib. 14. Balm - - - ib. 2. Jerusalem Artichoke . 628 XI. Plants used as Preserves and Pickles - 679 3. Turnip - ib. 1.; Love- Apple - - - ib. 4. Carrot - 630 2. Egg-Plant - - ib. 5. Parsnep - 631 3. Capsicum . -680 I). Red Beet 7. Skirret - 632 - ib. 4. Samphire, three Species of different Orders and Genera - - - ib. 8. Scorzonera, or Viper's Grass 9. Salsify, or Purple Goat's Beard 10. Radish - 633 - ib. - 634 XII. Edible Wild Plants, neglected, or not in Cultivation - - - 681 1. Greens and Pot-herbs from Wild Plants - ib. IV. Spinaceous Plants - 635 2. Roots of Wild Plants edible - - 682 1. Spinage ... - ib. 3. Leguminous Wild Plants edible - - 683 2. White Beet . 636 4. Salads from Wild Plants - - ib. 3. Orache, or Mountain Spinage - 637 5. Substitutes for Chinese Teas from Wild 4. Wild Spinage - ib. Plants - - . ib 5. New Zealand Spinage - \b. 6. Wild Plants applied to various Domestic 6. Sorrel - 638 Purposes . . ib. 7. Herb-patience, or Patience- Dock V. Alliaceous Plants - 639 - ib. 7. Poisonous Native Plants to be avoided in searching for edible Wild Plants - 684 1. Onion 2. Leek - - A XIII. Foreign hardy herbaceous Culinary Ve- getables, little used as such in Britain - 684 3. Chive - 642 XIV. Edible Fungi . . 685 4. Garlic - ib. 1. Cultivated Mushroom ' '' . ib 5. Shallot .... - ib. 2. Morel - - .686 G. Rocambole . 643 3. Truffle, or Subterraneous Puff-ball - ib VI. Asparaginous Plants - ib. XV. Edible Fuel - . ib. 1. Asparagus - - - ib. 2. Sea-kale . 648 CHAP. IX. 3. Artichoke 4. Cardoon, or Chardoon 5. Rampion - 650 - 651 - 652 Horticultural Catalogue. Hardy Fruit-trees, Shrubs, and Plants . . - 687 I. Kernel-Fruits - - - 688 1 ADD!P A 7. Alisander, or Alexanders - 653 -n.ppit: * to. 2. Pear . . . - - 703 8. Bladder- Campion 9. Thistle - ib. - ib. 3. Quince - . - 710 4. Medlar . . . . ib VII. Acctarious Plants - 654 5. True-Service - - - 711 1. Lettuce - ib. II. Stone-Fruits - - - ib. 2. Endive - 655 I. Peach . ... ib. 3. Succory, or Wild Endive - 656 2. Nectarine - - - 718 4. Dandelion - 657 3. Apricot . . - 719 5. Celery - - ib. 4. Almond - - . - 721 6. Mustard .... - 660 5. Plum . . . . -722 7. Rape - ib. 6. Cherry . . . - 725 8. Corn-Salad, or Lamb-Lettuce - ib. III. Berries - - - 728 9. Garden-Cress - - . 661 1. Black, or Garden Mulberry . - ib. 10. American Cress - ib. 2. Barberry . . - 730 11. Winter Cress ... . 662 3. Elder . . " . -731 12. Water- Cress - ib. 4. Gooseberry . . . - ib. 13. Brook-lime - 663 5. Black Currant - - - 735 14. Garden. rocket - ib. 6. Red Currant - - - - - 736 15. Scurvy-grass ... 16. Burnet - ib. - ib. 7. Raspberry - - - 737 8. Cranberry . . - - 738 17. Wood-Sorrel . 664 9. Strawberry - - - 739 18. Small Salads - ib. IV. Nuts . - ... 742 VIII. Pot-herbs and Garnishings - ib. 1. Walnut - - - - ib. 1. Parsley - ib. 2. Chestnut - , - -743 2. Purslane - 665 3. Filbert - - - 744 3. Tarragon - ib. V. Native, or neglected Fruits, deserving Cul- 4. Fennel - ib. tivation - - 745 5. Dill . 666 6. Chervil - ib. CHAP. X. 7. Horse-radish 8. Indian Cress, or Nasturtium 9. Marigold, or Pot-marigold ~. 667 - 668 Horticultural Catalogue. Exotic Fruits - 746 I. Exotic Fruits in general Cultivation - 747 1. Pine-apple - - - - ib. 10. Borage IX. Sweet Herbs ~- ib. 2. Grape- Vine - 748 1. Thyme 669 3. Fig ... . 759 4. Melon - - 763 2. Sage ... if. 5. Cucumber - - 764 3. Clary ... 4. Mint to. - 670 II. Exotic Fruits, well known, but neglected 5. Marjoram 6. Savory 7. Basil - ib. - 671 as such - - . 765 1. Orange Tribe - ib. 2. Pomegranate - - 777 8. Rosemary 9. Lavender 10. Tansy 11. Costmary, or Alecost X. Plants used in Tarts, Confectionary, Domestic Medicine I 672 - ib. '. 673 and 3. Olive .... ib. 4. Indian Fig, or Prickly Pear . . 778 III. Exotic Fruits little known, some of which merit Cultivation for their Excellence or Rarity . . -779 IV. Exotic Esculents, not hitherto cultivated 1. Rhubarb - ib. as such ~ 785 2. Pompion and Gourd 3. Angelica - 674 - 676 CHAP. XI. 4. Anise - ib. Horticultural Productions which may be ex- 5. Coriander 6. Caraway - ib. pected from a first-rate Kitchen-garden ma- naged in the best Style - - 787 7. Rue '- 677 I. January . . fb. CONTENTS. II. February III. March IV. April V. May VI. June VII July II 11. August IX. September X. October XI. November XII. December BOOK II. FLORICULTURE. CHAP. I. Of the Formation of the Flower-garden CHAP. II. Of Planting the Flower-garden CHAP. III. Of Forming the Shrubbery - ib - 7 - ib - ib - ib - ib. - ib. - ib. - 789 - ib. - 797 - 802 CHAP. IV. ; Of Planting the Shrubbery . CHAP. V. Of the Hot-houses used in Ornamental Horti- MM culture - 811 CHAP. VI. Of the General Culture and Management of the Flower-garden and Shrubbery . . 820 CHAP. VII. General Culture and Management of the Orna- mental or Botanic Hot-houses - - 824 CHAP. VIII. Floricultural Catalogue. Herbaceous Plants 828 I. Florists', or Select Flowers - - ib. 1. Hyacinth - - - 828 2. Tulip . - . 831 I. Ranunculus . - 834 4. Anemone - - . 836 5. Crocus - - . 838 6. Narcissus - - . 839 7. Iris . - - 840 8. Fritillary - . - 841 9. Lily . . .842 10. AmaryUideae - . . ib. II. Ixiae and Gladioli - . 843 12. Tuberose - - . ib la Pzeony - - -844 14. Dahlia . . . j&. 15. Auricula - _ 846 16. Primula, or Primrose Family . 853 17. Carnation - - - 855 18. Pink - . .860 19. Double Rocket . - 861 20. Cardinal Flower - - 862 21. Pyramidal Bellflower - - 863 22. Chrysanthemum - - ib. 23. Hydrangea - - - 864 24. Balsam ... 865 25. Mignonette - - - 866 II. Border-Flowers - - ib. 1. Species and Varieties of Perennial fi- brous, ramose, tuberous, and creeping J rooted Herbaceous Border Flowers, ar- ranged as to their Time of Flowering, Height, and Color - - 867 2. Species and Varieties of bulbous-rooted Border-Flowers - - 874 3. Species and Varieties of Biennial Border- Flowers . - - 877 4. Species and Varieties of Hardy Annual Border-Flowers. - - 878 5. Species and Varieties of Half-hardy Annual Border-Flowers - - 881 III. Flowers for particular Purposes - ib. 1. Flowers which reach from five to seven feet in height, for covering naked Walls, or other upright Deformities, and for shutting out distant Objects which it is desirable to exclude - . 882 2. Flowers for concealing Defects on hori- zontal Surfaces: as naked sub-barren Sl>ots, unsightly Banks, &c. - - ib. 3. Flowers which will grow under the Shade and Drip of Trees . - 4. Flowers for ornamenting Pieces of Water, or planting Aquariums . - 5. Flowers for ornamenting Rocks, or Ag- gregations of Stones, Flints, Scoria; formed in imitation of Rocky Surfaces, &c. - - - - 6. Evergreen-leaved Flowers, or such as are adapted for preserving an Appearance of Vegetation on Beds and Borders Page 882 ib. 884 during the Winter Months - . ib. 7. Flowers for Edgings to Beds or Borders - 885 8. Highly odoriferous Flowers . ib. 9. Other selections of Flowers . ib 10. Botanical and other Assemblages of Plants. Dial- Plants, Parasites, Ferns and Mosses, Alpines, and a Selection for a small Garden - - ib. CHAP. IX. Catalogue of Hardy Trees, with showy Flowers 887 I. Deciduous Trees with showy Flowers - 888 II. Evergreen Trees - . . 889 CHAP. X. Ornamental Shrubs . - - ib I. Select Shrubs -.. . . ib 1. Rose - - . ib. 2. Select American and other Peat-Earth Shrubs, viz. of Magnoliaceae, Mag. ; nolia; of Rhodoraceae, Rhodendron, Azalea, Kalmia ; of the genera Cistus, Arbutus, Vaccinium, Andromeda, Erica, Daphne, and various others - 893 II. General Catalogue of Shrubs - - 895 1. Deciduous Shrubs, arranged as to their Time of Flowering, Height, and Color of the Flower . ib. 2. Evergreen Shrubs - _ 898 3. Climbing and Twining Shrubs , 900 III. Selections of Shrubs for particular Pur- poses . . 901 1. Shrubs for concealing vertical and hori- zontal Deformities - - ib 2. Shrubs of rapid and bulky Growth - ib. 3. Shrubs which thrive under the Shade and Drip of Trees ... fa 4. Shrubs for planting by the Sides of Pieces of Water, or in Marshy Grounds, and among Rocks . 902 5. Shrubs for forming Edgings and Hedges in Gardens - - ib. 6. Shrubs whose Flowers or Leaves have vo- latile Odors, and diffuse them in the surrounding Air - . fa 7. Shrubs ornamental by their Fruit as well as Flowers - . - ib 8. Selections of Shrubs for botanical or economical Purposes, parasitic Trees, and Shrubs for a small Shrubbery . ib. [CHAP. XI. Frame Exotics - . . 903 I. Frame Woody Plants . . fa I. Frame SucOilents '. - 904 II. Frame Herbaceous Plants - . ib [V. Frame Bulbs - . . ib. V. Frame Biennials - . . fa VI. Frame Annuals - . ib. CHAP. XII. hreen-house Plants - . * . 905 . Select Green-house Plants . . fa 1. Geranium - - . . " fa 2. Exotic Heaths - - " 806 3. Camellia - - - 909 4. Various Genera which may be considered as select Green-house Plants, showy, fragrant, and of easy culture - 911 I. Woody Green-house Plants . fa II. Climbing Green-house Plants - . 917 V. Succulent Green-house Plants . . 918 r. Bulbous Green- house Plants . . fa VI. Herbaceous and stemless Green-house Plants - - - 919 VII. Of Selections of Green-house Plants for particular Purposes - Q19 CHAP. XIII. )ry-s-tove Plants . ib CONTENTS. I. Woody Dry-stove Plants II. Climbing Dry-stove Plants I IT. Succulent Dry-stove Plants IV. Bulbous Dry-st*ve Plants V. Herbaceous Dry-stove Plants CHAP. XIV. Hot-house, or Bark-stove Plants I. Woody Bark-stove Plants II. Climbing Bark-stove Plants III. Bulbous-rooted Bark-stove Plants IV. Perennial Herbaceous Bark-stove, Plants - V. Annual Herbaceous Bark-stove Plants VI. Aquatic Stove Plants VII. Scitaminous, or Reedy Stove Plants VIII. Selections of Bark-stove Plants for par- ticular Purposes IX. Selection of Dry and Bark-stove Plants, for such as have only one Hot-house to contain them - ib. - 933 CHAP. XV. Monthly Catalogue of the leading Productions of Ornamental Horticulture - - ib. BOOK III. ARBORICULTURE, OR PLANTING. CHAP. I. Of the Uses of Trees and Plantations, and the Profits attending their Culture - - 935 I. Of the Uses of Trees individually, as Objects of Consumption - - ib. II. Of the Uses of Trees collectively as Plant- ations - - - 937 III. Of the Profits of Planting - - 940 CHAP. II. Of the different kinds of Trees and Plantations ib. I. Of the Classification of Trees relatively to their use and effect in Landscape - ib. II. Of the Classification of Plantations, or Assemblages of Trees . 912 CHAP. III. Of the Formation of Plantations, in which Utility is the principal Object - . 943 CHAP. IV. On forming Plantations, in which Ornament or Effect is the leading Consideration - 950 CHAP. V. Of the Culture and Management of Plantations 958 CHAP. VI. Of appropriating the Products of Trees, pre- paring them for Use or Sale, and estimating their Value - 967 CHAP. VII. Of the Formation of a Nursery-Garden for the Propagation and Rearing of Trees and Shrubs - 973 CHAP. VIII. Of the Culture and Management of a Nursery for Trees and Shrubs - - 974 Page I. Coniferous Trees and Shrubs, their Seeds, Sowing, and Rearing - - 975 II. Trees and Shrubs bearing Nuts, Acorns, Masts, Keys, &c. their Sowing and Rearing - ... 977 III. Trees and Shrubs with berried Stones, their Sowing and Rearing - - 978 IV. Trees and Shrubs bearing Berries and Capsules with small Seeds - - 979 V. Trees and Shrubs bearing leguminous Seeds, their Sowing and Rearing - ib. VI. Trees and Shrubs bearing small soft Seeds, their Sowing and Rearing - - 980 VII. Culture common to all the Classes of Tree-seeds - - ib. VIII. Of propagating Trees by Layers, Cut- tings, Suckers, Grafting, &c. - - 981 CHAP. IX. Arboricultural Catalogue - - 982 I. Resinous or Coniferous Trees - . 983 II. Hard- wooded non-resinous Trees - 987 III. Soft-wooded Trees - . <); BOOK IV. LANDSCAPE-GARDENING. CHAP. I. Of the Principles of Landscape- Gardening - 995 I. Of the Beauties of Landscape-Gardening, as an inventive and mixed Art, and of the Principles of their Production - - 996 II. Of the Beauties of Landscape-Gardeningj considered as an imitative Art, and of the Principles of their Production - 998 CHAP. II. Of the Materials of Landscape- Gardening - 1002 I. Of operating on Ground - - ib. II. Of operating with Wood - -1005 III. Of operating with Water - -1009 IV. Rocks - - . 1013 V. Buildings - - - 1014 VI. Of the Accidental Accompaniments to the Materials of Landscape - - 1016 CHAP. III. Of the Union of the Materials of Landscape. Gardening, in forming the constituent Parts of a Country- Residence - - 1018 CHAP. IV. Of the Union of the constituent Scenes in forming Gardens or Residences of particular Characters ; and of laying out Public Gar- dens - 10S1 I. On laying out Private Gardens, or Resi- dences - - - 1022 II. Public Gardens - - 1028 1. Public Gardens for Recreation - ib. 2. Public Gardens of Instruction . 1030 3. Commercial Gardens - 1033 CHAP, V. Of the Practitioners of Landscape! Garden ing 1036 I. Of the Study of the given Situations and Circumstances, and the Formation of a Plan of Improvement - 1037 II. Of carrying a Plan into Execution - 1038 PART IV: STATISTICS OF BRITISH GARDENING. BOOK I. OF THE PRESENT STATE OF GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES. CHAP. I. Page Of the different Conditions of Men engaged in the Practice or Pursuit of Gardening - 1040 I. Of Operators, or Serving Gardeners - . ib. Page II. Tradesmen-Gardeners - , . 1041 III. Garden Counselors, Artists, or Professors 1042 IV. Patrons of Gardening ... ib. CHAP. II. Of the different Kinds of Gardens in Britain, relatively to the different Classes of Society, and the different Species of Gardeners . 1043 I. Private British Gardens - . ib CONTENTS. II. Commercial Gardens III. Public Gardens - 1057 CHAP. III. Topographical Survey of the British Isles in respect to Gardening - - 1060 I. Gardens and Country- Residences of Eng- land 1061 II. Wales - - - 1084 III. Scotland - - - -,1086 IV Ireland 1093 CHAP. IV. I. Of the Literature of Gardening - - 1097 1. British Works on Gardening - - 1099 II. Of the Literature of Gardening in Foreign Countries - - 1115 1. Works on Gardening published in France, exclusive of Translations - - ib. 2. Works on Gardening published in Ger. many, including Denmark and Swit- zerland, exclusive of Translations - 1122 3. Works on Gardening published in Italy, exclusive of Translations - - 1128 4. Works on Gardening originated and published in Holland, exclusive of Translations - - - 1129 5. Works on Gardening, published in Sweden, Norway, and Iceland, exclusive of Translations - - - ib. 6. Works on Gardening, published in Po- land and Russia - 1131 7. Works on Gardening, published in Por- tugal and Spain - - ib. 8. Works on Gardening, published in North America - - - Ib. Page - 1131 CHAP. V. Of the Professional Police, and Public Laws relative to Gardeners and Gardening BOOK II. OF THE FUTURE PROGRESS OF GARDENING IN BRITAIN. CHAP. I. Page Of the Improvement of the Taste of the Patrons of Gardening - - - 1133 CHAP. II. Of the Education of Gardeners - "- 1135 I. On the degree of Knowledge which may be attained by Practical Men, and on the ge- neral Powers of the human Mind, as to Attainments - ib. II. Of the Professional Education of Gar- deners - - 1136 III. Of the Intellectual Education which a Gardener may give himself, independ- ently of acquiring his Profession - 1138 IV. Moral, Religious, and Physical Education of Gardeners - - - 1141 V. Of Economical Education, or the general Conduct and Economy of a Gardener's Life - 1143 KALENDARIAL INDEX - 1147 GENERAL INDEX - 1165 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF GARDENING THE earth, Herder observes, is a star among other stars, and man, an improving animal acclimated in every zone of its diversified surface. The great mass of this star is composed of inorganic matters called minerals, from the decomposing surface of which proceed fixed organic bodies called vegetables, and moving organic bodies called animals. Minerals are said to grow, or undergo change only ; vegetables to grow and live ; and animals to grow, live, and move. Life and growth imply nourishment ; and primitively, vegetables seem to have lived on minerals ; and animals, with some exceptions, on vegetables. Man, supereminent, lives on both ; and, in consequence of his faculty of improving himself and other beings, has contrived means of increasing the number, and ameliorating the quality of those he prefers. This constitutes the chief business of private life in the country, and includes the occupations of housewifery, or domestic economy, agriculture, and gardening. Gardening, the branch to which we here confine ourselves, as compared with agri- culture, is the cultivation of a limited spot, by manual labor, for culinary and orna- mental products ; but relative to the present improved state of the art, may be defined the formation and culture, by manual labor, of a scene more or le_ss extended, for various purposes of utility, ornament and recreation. Thus gardening, like most other arts, has had its origin in the supply of a primitive want ; and, as wants became desires, and desires increased, and became more luxurious and refined, its objects and its province became extended ; till from an enclosure of a few square yards, containing, as Lord Walpole has said, " a gooseberry-bush and a cab- bage," such as may be seen before the door of a hut on the borders of a common, it has expanded to a park of several miles in circuit, its boundaries lost in forest scenery, a palace bosomed in wood near its centre ; the intermediate space varied by artificial lakes or rivers, plantations, pleasure-grounds, flower-gardens, hot-houses, orchards, and potageries : producing for the table of the owner and his guests, the fruits, flowers, and culinary vegetables, of every climate of the world ! displaying the finest verdant landscapes to invite him to exercise and recreation, by gliding over velvet turf, or po- lished gravel walks, sheltered, shady, or open in near scenes ; or with horses and chariots along rides and drives " of various view" in distant ones. From such a variety of products and objects, and so extended a scene of operations, have arisen the different branches of gardening as an art ; and from the general use of gardens, and of their products by all ranks, have originated their various kinds, and the different forms which this art has assumed as a trade or business of life. Gardening is practised for private use and enjoyment, in cottage, villa, and mansion gardens ; for public recreation, in umbrageous and verdant promenades, parks, and other scenes, in and near to large towns ; for public instruction, in botanic and experimental gardens ; for public example, in national or royal gardens ; and for the purpose of commerce, in market, orchard, seed, physic, florists', and nursery gardens. To aid in what relates to designing and laying out gardens, artists or professors have arisen ; and the performance of the operative part is the only source df living of a nu- merous class of serving gardeners, who acquire their art by the regular routine of ap- prenticeship, and probationary labor for some years as journeymen. B The products of the kitchen-garden form important articles of human food for all ranks of society ; and furnish the chief luxuries of the tables of the rich, and a main support of the families of the poor. One oF the first objects of a colonist on arriving at a new settlement is to plant a garden, as at once a proof of possession, and a pledge of immediate enjoyment ; and indeed the history of the civilisation of mankind bears evidence, that there are few benefits which a cultivated people can bestow on savage tribes, greater than that of distributing among them the seeds of good fruits and oler- aceous herbs, and teaching them their culture. The pleasure attending the pursuit of gardening is conducive to health and repose of mind ; and a taste for the enjoyment of gardens is so natural to man, as almost to be universal. Our first most endearing and most sacred associations, Mrs. Holland ob- serves, are connected with gardens ; our most simple and most refined perceptions of beauty are combined with them ; and the very condition of our being compels us to the cares, and rewards us with the pleasures attached to them. Gardening has been the inclination of kings and the choice of philosophers, Sir William Temple has observed ; and the Prince de Ligne, after sixty years' experience, affirms, that the love of gardens is the only passion which augments with age : " Je voudrois," he says, " ^chauffer tout 1'univers de mon gdut pour les jardins. lime semble qu'il est impossible, qu'un me"- chant puisse 1'avoir. II n'est point de vertus que je ne suppose a celui qui aime a parler et a faire des jardins. Peres de famille, inspirez la jardinomanie a vos enfans." (Memoires et Lettres, torn, i.) That which makes the cares of gardening more necessary, or at least more excusable, the former author adds, is, that all men eat fruit that can get it ; so that the choice is only, whether one will eat good or ill ; and for all things produced in a garden, whether of salads or fruits, a poor man will eat better that has one of his own, than a rich man that has none. To add to the value and extend the variety of garden productions, new vegetables have been introduced from every quarter of the globe ; to diffuse instruction on the sub- ject, numerous books have been written, societies have been established, and premiums held out for rewarding individual merit; and where professorships of rural economy exist, gardening may be said to form a part of public instruction*. A varied and voluminous mass of knowledge has thus accumulated on the subject of gardening, which must be more or less necessary for every one who would practise the art with success, or understand when it is well practised for him by others. To combine as far as practicable the whole of this knowledge, and arrange it in a syste- matic form, adapted both for study and reference, is the object of the present work. The sources from which we have selected, are the modern British authors of decided reputation and merit ; sometimes recurring to ancient or continental authors, and occa- sionally, though rarely, to our own observation and experience ; observation in all the departments of gardening, chiefly in Britain, but partly also on the Continent ; and exjyerience during nearly twenty years' practice as an architect of gardens. With this purpose in view, Gardening is here considered, in PART BOOK I. As to its origin, progress, and f 1. Among the different nations of the world. present state, (. 2. Under different political and geographical circumstances. C 1. The study of the vegetable kingdom. TT A . , , , 3 2. The study of the natural agents of vegetable growth and culture. , II. As a science founded - < 3 Tne gtudy of the mec h an ical agents employed in gardening; (_ 4. The study of the operations of gardening. rl. The practice of horticulture. III. As an art, comprehending ) | gj JljSSSe (_ 4. The practice of landscape gardening. A Kalendarial Index to those parts of the work which treat of culture and manage- ment, points out the operations as they are to be performed in the order of time and of the season : and A General Index explains the technical terms of gardening ; gives an outline of the culture of every genus of plants, native or introduced in British gardens ; and presents an analysis of the whole work in alphabetical order. PART I. GARDENING CONSIDERED IN RESPECT TO ITS ORIGIN PRO GRESS, AND PRESENT STATE AMONG DIFFERENT NATIONS GOVERNMENTS, AND CLIMATES. 1. The history of gardening may be considered chronologically, or in connection with that of the different nations who have successively flourished in different parts of the world ; politically, as influenced by the different forms of government which have pre- vailed ; and geographically, as affected by the different climates and natural situations of the globe. The first kind of history is useful as showing what has been done ; and what is the relative situation of different countries as to gardens and gardening'; and the political and geographical history of this art affords interesting matter of instruction as to its past and future progress. BOOK I. HISTORY OF GARDENING AMONG ANCIENT AND MODERN NATIONS. 2. The chronological history of gardening may be divided into three periods ; the ages 0 of tulips. Henry Munting was succeeded by his son, Abraham, esteemed for his posthumous work, Phytographia Curiosa. Both these gardens are still kept up, but without that enthusiastic ardor which distinguished the citizens of Holland, when under more auspicious political circumstances than they are at the present time. 135. The Antwerp garden was formerly one of considerable repute in the Low Countries. In 1579 a cata- logue of this garden was given by Dodoens (Florum et Coronarium arb. Hist.) which contained a consider- able number of plants, including a great variety of tulips and hyacinths. 136. The garden of Clifford, near Haerlem, of which Linnajus published the history, was the most cele- brated in 1 /o7. Clifford got all the new plants from England, and corresponded with the botanists of every country. Boerhaave gave him the plants of the Leyden garden ; Siegesbeck sent him those of Russia ; Haller, those of the Alps ; and Burman, Roell, Gronovius, and Miller, sent him portions of the seeds which they received from different parts of the world. This garden had four magnificent hot-houses ; one for the plants of the Levant and the south of Europe, one for Africa, one for India, and one for America. 137. The botanic garden of Utrecht was founded in 1630, and contains several palms and other exotics, brought there at that time. It is still kept intolerable order, but displays no kind of scientific arrange- ment (Hort. Tour, 244.) 138. The botanic garden of Ghent, established by Buonaparte in 1797, is, in the present day, the richest and best garden of the Netherlands. The area is about three acres : it has a considerable collection of hardy herbaceous plants, arranged after the Linnasan method ; a pleasure-ground, in which the trees and shrubs are distributed in natural families, and so as to combine picturesque effect ; an excellent rosary, chiefly trained in the tree manner ; and a range of hot-houses, in part with glass roofs. In the pleasure- ground the busts of eminent botanists are distributed with good effect ; and on the large boxes of palms, and other exotics, are marked the name of the donor, or the year in which the plant or tree was originated, or introduced to the garden. On the whole, it is more complete than any garden we have seen south of the Rhine, excepting that of Paris. 139. The royal botanic garden of Brussels has a good collection of orange-trees ; but in all other respects is of a very inferior description. 140. The private botanic gardens of Van Schenen and Dr. Daaler, at Antwerp, are mentioned with ap- probation in the Horticultural Tour. (p. 121.) 141. Ttie botanic garden of M.Parmentier, mayor of Enghien, is not only the richest in the low countries, but, perhaps, in Europe. In 1817, Neill and his companions considered it as only exceeded in exotics by the collection at Kew, or at Messrs. Loddiges. 142. Festivals of Flora are held twice a year, at midsummer and midwinter, by the Agricultural Society of Ghent, and others. The plants are exhibited for three days. " By a pleasing fiction, the plants alone are said to be competitors, and the successful plant is said to be crowned." The reward is an honorary medal. (Hort. Tour, &c. p. 521.) 143. Florists' flowers began to be objects of commerce in Holland, about the beginning of the seventeenth century. Double flowers were then first noticed, or brought into repute, which may be said to have created a new aera in gardening, and certainly laid the found- ation in Holland of a considerable commerce : the more valuable, as it is totally inde- pendent of political or civil changes, and founded on the peculiar qualities of the soil and climate for growing bulbous roots. The florimania, as it is termed by the French, ex- isted in the highest degree among the Dutch, from the beginning to the middle of the seventeenth century. Many noted instances are on record, of the extravagant sums given for flowers possessing certain qualities agreed on by florists as desiderata, and established about this time as canons of beauty. Hirschfield states, that in the register of the city of Alkmaar, in the year 1637, they sold publicly, for the benefit of the Orphan Hospital, 120 tulips, with their offsets, for 9000 florins ; and that one of those flowers, named the Viceroy, was sold for 4203 florins. When we consider the value of money at this remote period, .these sums appear enormous, a florin at that time in Holland (Anderson's His- tory of Commerce) being the representative of nearly an English bushel of wheat. 144. The commercial flower-gardens or bloemesteries of Haerlem have long been the most celebrated for bulbous-rooted flowers. The name of Van Eden has been noted for upwards of a century; and there are now four gardens occupied by different members of this family, celebrated florists. That of Voorhelm is of equal antiquity and celebrity. Of the gardens of both families, and of several others, accounts will be found in the Horti- cultural Tour. The most extensive and best managed is said to be that of Schneevoght, lately a partner with Voorhelm. 145. The florimanists, Bosc observes, were much more numerous towards the middle of the last century than at this moment (1809). " One does not now hear of twenty thousand francs being given for a tulip ; of a florist depriving himself of his food, in order to increase the number and variety of his anemonies, or passing entire days in admiring the colours of a ranunculus, the grandeur of a hyacinth, or trembling, lest the breath of an over-curious admirer should hurt the bloom of an auricula." The general price of choice bulbs now, it is observed in the Horticultural Tour, varies from three to ten guilders (a guild. = Is. Sd.) ; a few kinds are valued at from ten to twenty guilders ; and the most select, new, and consequently rare, varieties, seldom fetch more than from twenty to 50 guilders. Among the most precious at this time are, the Universal Con- queror, Pompe Funebre, and Charbonier Noir, with yellow grounds ; Louis XVI. and Toilette Sup^rieure, with white grounds, and the price of them is one hundred guilders (8 2s. 6d.) a bulb. (Hort. Tour. p. 195.) BOOK I. GARDENING IN HOLLAND. 31 SUBSECT. 3. Dutch Gardening in respect to the Culture of Fruits and Culinary Vegetables. 146. The Dutch and Flemings are eminent as fruit-gardeners, but, as Harte observes, they are better operators than writers, and having at the same time a good deal of the spirit of gens de metier, we have almost nothing to offer in the way of historical inform- ation. Those gardens, which Gesner and Stephanus inform us were so richly stocked with flowers early in the sixteenth century, would, no doubt, be equally so with fruits and legumes. One of the earliest books on the horticulture of the Low Countries, is that of Van Osten, published about the end of the seventeenth century. They appear at that time to have had all the fruits, now in common cultivation, in considerable variety, excepting the pine-apple, which Miller informs us was introduced about that time by Le Cour, of Leyden, from the West Indies, although not mentioned by Van Osten or Com- melin. It is generally said, that about the same period all the courts in Europe were supplied with early fruits from Holland. Benard admits (quoted in Repertory of Arts, 1802,) that -this was the case with the court of France, so late as the reign of Louis the Fourteenth. Miller informs us that Le Cour paid great attention to gardening, and especially to the culture of wall-fruits, and that he tried the effects of different kinds of walls and modes of training. Speechly, early in the eighteenth century, made a tour in that country, chiefly to observe the Dutch mode of cultivating the pine and the grape ; they forced, he informs us (2V. on the Vine), chiefly in pits and low houses, and produced ripe grapes of the sweet-water kind in March and April. The Low Countries are celebrated for good varieties of the apple and pear. The supplies of these articles sent to the markets of Brussels, Antwerp, and Amsterdam, are equal, if not beyond any thing of the kind to be met with elsewhere in Europe. The climate of Flanders suits these fruits ; that of Holland is rather adverse to flavor, from its moisture ; but peaches, pines, and melons attain a larger size than in France. Tournay is so much celebrated for its pears, that the Ghent Society, in 1816, offered a prize for " the best explanation of the causes of the superiority in size, beauty, and flavor, of the pears grown at Tournay." (Hort. Tour, 333.) Forcing in pits and frames, is carried to great perfection in Holland, and melons and pines are, at the present time, sent to the London and Paris markets, and sold for very moderate prices. 147. The culinary vegetables of Holland are brought to great perfection. All the plants of culture, and especially the cabbage tribe, turnip, onion, carrot, &c. are grown to a large size, and very succulent. Of plants edible in their natural state, as the parsley and other herbs, and the fungi, they have excellent varieties. For leguminous crops the climate is sometimes too moist. Brussels is noted for the greens or sprouts, which bear the name of that town ; and Van Mons informs us (Hort. Trans, iii. 197.) that they are mentioned in the market regulations of that city so early as 1213. The Caledonian Tourists, in 1817, found the markets of Ghent and Amsterdam better supplied with culinary vegetables than any in Holland. The cauliflower was excellent. The Dutch also excel in asparagus, carrots, and purslane. 148. Forcing- houses have been long in use in Holland, but the date of their introduc- tion we have not been able to learn. It is singular that they are not once mentioned in the early editions of Van Osten, published from 1689 to 1750 ; but Adanson (Families des Plantes, Preface,} writing about the latter period, speaks of the hot-houses of the Dutch in terms which evidently refer to forcing-houses. Orangeries, and botanic houses, we have seen, (133.) were in use so early as 1599. Within the last twenty years the demand for forced productions has greatly diminished in Holland. Summer, or what are called main crops, are now chiefly attempted, both in public and private gardens ; but after the annexation of Holland to France, and since its subsequent union with Flanders, the spirit for enjoyments of even this sort, has declined with the means of procuring them. SUBSECT. 4. Dutch Gardening, in respect to the planting of Timber-trees and Hedges. 149. Planting is not very general in Holland. In a country so thickly peopled, and so conveniently situated in respect to marine commerce, it is not likely that much ground would be devoted to merely useful plantations. In the more inland parts of Flanders, there are natural forests and extensive copses ; these have been, and continue to be kept up, and in some cases increased in extent by planting land too poor for culti- vation. In Radcliff's Agricultural Survey of that country, some account will be found of their management. We observed, in 1819, some belts and clumps forming, in the English manner, on some waste lands near Cambray, and that the Duke of Wellington was planting on his estate at Waterloo. Between Aranagoen and Rhenen, a tract of land, several miles in extent, and no better in quality than Bagshot-heath, is planted with Scotch firs, Weymouth pines, beech, and birch; and many hundred acres adjoining have been sown with acorns for copse, and enclosed with thorn hedges. 150. Avenues, hedge-rows, and ozier-holts, are the principal plantations of the Dutch. In these they excel, and the country in consequence resembles a series of gardens. 12 HISTORY OF GARDENING. PART I. Avenue trees, chiefly elms and oaks, are trained for eight or ten years hi the nursery ; repeatedly removed so as to become furnished with numerous fibrous roots, and pruned so as to have clean smooth stems from ten to fifteen feet high. Avenues, being public property, are under the care of proper officers. Judging from the vigorous growth of the trees, and the manner in which they are pruned, these officers seem to under- stand their business, and to do their duty. In Rotterdam, on the quays, are perhaps the finest trees in Holland: they are narrow-leaved elms, upwards of fifty feet high, with clear stems of twenty-five feet, and upwards, of a century old. At the Hague are re- markably fine limes in the Mall, on the road to Scheveling ; and oaks, elms, and beeches, round the palace called the House in the Wood. The hornbeam is a very common plant for the garden-hedges. Every plant in the row or hedge is trained with an upright stem, and the side shoots are shorn so closely, that we often find hedges of six or eight feet high, not more than eighteen inches wide at base, contracted to six inches wide at top. These hedges receive their summer shearing in July, by which time scarlet runners are ready to shoot up from the garden side of their base, which in the course of two months, cover the hedge with their fresh verdure and brilliant blossoms, and present a good crop in October and the beginning of November. The Dutch have also very excellent field-hedges of birch and willow, as well as of all the usual hedge- plants, and the gardeners are particularly dexterous at cutting, training, and shearing them. The deep moist grounds on the banks of their estuaries are particularly favorable for the growth of the willow, and the hoops of two years' growth from the Dutch willow fa variety of Salix alba, with a brownish bark,) are in great esteem in commerce. Their common basket willows (S. viminialis) are also excellent. SU.BSECT. 5. Dutch Gardening, as empirically practised. 151. Hapjiily the use of gardens is universal in the Netherlands; and of the Dutch and Flemings it may be truly said in the words of Lord Temple, " that gardening has been the common favorite of public and private men ; a pleasure of the greatest, and a care of the meanest, and indeed an employment and a possession, for which no man there is too high nor too low." The gardens of the cottagers in these countries are undoubtedly better managed and more productive than those of any other country; no man who has a cottage is without a garden attached ; often small, but rendered useful to a poor family by the high degree of culture given to it. Every available particle of matter capable of act- ing as manure is assiduously collected, and thrown into a neat ridge, cone, or bed, which is turned over frequently ; and when sufficiently fermented and ameliorated, applied to the soil. The plants in general cultivation in the cottage-gardens are the cabbage tribe, including Brussels sprouts, the white beet for the leaves and stalks, the parsnip, carrot, yellow and white turnip, potatoe, the pea, bean, and kidney-bean ; the apple, pear, and currant, and in some places, the vine trained over the cottage, are the fruits ; and double stocks, rockets, wall-flowers, pinks, violets, roses, and honey-suckles, the leading flowers and plants of ornament. It is almost unnecessary to add, that the gardens of the trades- men, farmers, citizens, private gentlemen, and princes, rise in gradation, in extent, riches, and high keeping. 152. The principal nurseries, florists* gardens, and market-gardens are in the neigh- bourhood of Amsterdam, Haerlem, and Antwerp. These gardens formerly supplied trained trees, vines, and all the most valuable plants to Britain, and other parts of Europe ; and the florists still continue to monopolise the commerce of bulbous roots. Great part of the fruit-trees sent by London and Wise from their nursery at Brompton Park, in the beginning of the 18th century, were previously imported from Holland ; many of them reared in large wicker-baskets, were sent over in that state, and produced fruit the first year after final planting. Justice (Brit. Card. Dir.) gives credit to the Dutch nurserymen for accuracy and punctuality ; he mentions Voerhelms and Van Zompel as tradesmen which he could recommend ; and it is remarkable, that the same establishment (Voorhelm and Schneevooght) is the most eminent at this day. Garden- seeds, for which Holland has long been celebrated, are chiefly grown by the market- gardeners and small farmers round Haerlem. Roses are extensively grown at Noord- wyck, between Leyden and Haerlem, for the apothecaries, and the dried leaves are sent to Amsterdam and Constantinople. The sorts are, the Dutch 100-leaved and the com- mon cabbage rose. A striking characteristic of Dutch fruit and forest tree nurseries is the length of time the trees are trained in the nursery. They are so often removed there, as to have a large fasciculus of fibrous roots, and the fruit-trees commonly bear for a year or two before they are sold, at least for local planting. Ready-grown hedges and shrubs, of various sizes and shapes, may be purchased ; and as they have been transplanted every third year, like the trees, there is little risk of their not succeeding. At Brussels, pro- fessor Van Mons has established a fruit-tree nursery, which he calls Pepiniere de la Fide- lite, in which are grown upwards of 800 new varieties of pear, raised by himself and M . Duquesne of Mons, since 1 803, besides new varieties of the other hardy fruit-trees. BOOK I. GARDENING IN FRANCE. 3 1 53. The operative gardeners in Holland are for the most part apprenticed, and serve as journeymen before they are employed to undertake the care of gardens where several hands are employed ; but so general is horticultural knowledge, that every labourer is considered as capable of cropping and dressing an ordinary tradesman or farmer's garden. 154. There are few or no artist-gardeners in Holland. Eminent practical gardeners are employed to lay out walled kitchen-gardens ; and artists from Paris, generally called in to lay out parks or pleasure-grounds of more than ordinary extent. SUBSECT. 6. Dutdi Gardening, as a Science, and in reject to the Authors it has produced, 155. Horticulture as a science, has been less cultivated in the Netherlands than in Italy or France. The botanists of the country were not among the first to advance the study of physiology, nor has any of their practical men appeared with the science of a Quintiney or a Miller. " The patience and riches," Bosc observes, " which produced so high a degree of florimania in Holland, might have been usefully employed in ad- vancing vegetable physiology; but science owes nothing to the Dutch in this branch." At the present time, when science is so rapidly and so universally spread, the learned in the Netherlands are unquestionably on a footing with those of other countries; a proof of which may be derived from the remarks of Van Mons, Van Marum, and other Dutch and Flemish correspondents of our Horticultural and Linna?an Societies. The ma- jority of working gardeners may be considered as nearly on a par with those of this country in point of science, and before them in various points of practice. 156. The Dutch and Flemings have few authors on gardening, and the reason may be, the universality of practical knowledge in that country. Commelin and Van Osten are their principal authors. The former published the Hortua Amstelodamus, in 2 vols. folio, in 1697, and subsequently a small work on orange-trees; and Van Osten, who was gardener at Ley den, published his Dutch Gardener about 1710. Various French works on gardening have been printed at the Hague, and other parts of Holland. SECT. III. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in France* 157. Three 4) ; residence of the director -general (25) ; of the inspectors of the garden (26) ; of the inspectors of the forest (27) ; of the huntsmen (28) ; of the foresters (29). Besides all these things and many more., there is a fruit-garden (30) ; kitchen-garden (31) ; private orangery (32) ; area for greenhouse plants in summer (3?); and lofty water-engine for conveying water to the castle (34). The Ducal gardens of Saxegotha are remarkable for their fine lawns, and for a ruined castle, which was first built complete, and then ruined expr^s, by firing cannon against it. SUBSECT. 2. German Gardening, in respect to the Culture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament, 215. Floriculture was but little attended to in Germany, previously to the intro- duction of botanic gardens ; but on the establishment of these, plants of ornament were eagerly sought after in most of them : that of Altorf was famous for orange-trees, and that of Copenhagen for bulbous roots. 216. The earliest private botanic garden in Europe, next to those of Italy, is said [Keith's Botany, p. 18.) to have been one formed by William, Landgrave of Hesse, early in the sixteenth century. Since that period more private botanic gardens have been formed in Germany than in any other continental country. At Carlsrouhe, the Prince of Baden Dourlach formed a botanic garden in 1715, in which, in 1737, there were 154 varieties of oranges and lemons. Many might be named from that period to the present : the latest is that of the Prince of Salm-Dyck. It was laid out in 1820, by Blaikie, of St. Germains ; and is calculated to contain all the hardy plants which can be procured, arranged in groups, according to the Jussieuean system. The prince is advantageously known, by his works on succulent plants. 217. The first public botanic garden in Germany, according to Deleuze (Annales du Musee, torn. 8.), was established by the Elector of Saxony, at Leipzic, in 1580 ; this magistrate having undertaken the reform of public instruction throughout his dominions. Those of G lessen, Altorf, Rlntel, Ratisbon, Ulm, andJenna, soon followed. In 1605, Jungerma'n, a cele- brated botanist, obtained one for the university, which the landgrave had just founded at Giessen. After having disposed of it, he went to Altorf, and solicited the same favor for this city. The senate of Nuremberg agreed to his wishes in 1620, although the country was then a prey to the disasters of war. Jungerman, 48 HISTORY OF GARDENING. '* PART!. named Professor, gloried in the prosperity of a university which he looked upon as his work, and in 1635 he publisheu the catalogue of the plants he had collected. Ten years afterwards they constructed a green- house, and the garden of Altorf (Pref. to the Nuremberg Hesperidcs] was then the most beautiful or Ger- many. That which Ernest, Count of Shawenbourg, established in 1621, at Rintel, in Westphalia, also ac- quired much celebrity. Those of Ratisbon and Ulm are of the same epoch. From 1555, when the univer- sity of Jenna was founded, the professors of botany, during the summer season, took the students to the country to herbalise. They soon found it would be much more advantageous to collect in one place the plants they wished them to be acquainted with, and the government constructed a garden in 1629. The direction of it was given to Rolfine, who has left a curious work on plants, containing a history of the principal gardens of Europe of his time. At Leipsic, towards the end of the seventeenth century, the garden of Gaspard Bose was celebrated. He introduced many American plants, and among others the dwarf almond. 218. At Vienna and Frankfort, L'Ecluse prosecuted the study of botany, and enriched the gardens at these places with an immense number of plants. Maximilian II., who occupied the imperial throne from 1564 to 1576, seconded his views, and caused a magnificent garden to be constructed at Vienna for the plants which he collected, charging his ambassadors at Constantinople and other countries, to procure new plants ; and giving the care of the garden to L'Ecluse. Rodolph II., who succeeded Maximilian, also en- riched this garden, of which Sweert published a catalogue (Florilcgimri) in 1612. The Schoenbrunn botanic garden was begun with the palace, in l/5o, by the Emperor Francis I. He de- sired that that establishment should be worthy of the imperial magnificence, and that it should extend the domain of botany, in bringing together vegetables then unknown in Europe. By the advice of Van Swieten, he procured two celebrated florists, the one from Leyden and the other from Delft. The first, Adrian Steckhoven, directed the construction of the hot-houses ; and the second Van der Schott, brought all the plants which he could collect in the gardens and nurseries of Holland. Thus the first year they were in possession of many curious species ; but this was only a step towards the end they had in view. The Emperor proposed to the celebrated Jacquin to go to the Antilles. This botanist departed in 1754, ac- companied by Van der Schott, and two Italian zoologists, employed to procure animals for the menagerie and the museum. These travellers visited Martinique, Grenada, St. Vincent, St. Eustace, St. Christopher, Jamaica, Cuba, Curaccao, and other places. In 1755 they sent home their first packages, and in 1756, Van der Schott arrived with a collection of trees and shrubs almost all in good condition. The trees were five or six feet high, and many had already borne fruit ; they were taken up with balls, and the earth enveloped with leaves of bananas, tied by cords of Hibiscus tiliaceus. Thus packed, one with another, they weighed 100 Ibs. These vegetables, and the water necessary to water them, formed the greater part.of the cargo of a vessel which had been forwarded from Martinique for Leghorn. From Leghorn the plants were trans- ported on the backs of mules, and placed in the plain ground in the hot-houses built to receive them. The third and the fourth quantities came in the same manner. The fifth and sixth arrived from Caraccas, by Amsterdam. At last Jacquin left Havannah, and conducted to Schoenbrunn the last collection in 1759. During this time presents and purchases were received from other countries, and in proportion as the plants increased, they built hot-houses and orangeries, of a grandeur suitable to the plants destined to grow in them. One range is 270 feet long, and 30 feet high within ; another above SOU feet long, and about the same height ; and there are three more ranges, each about 240 feet long. An accident in 1780 caused the loss of most of the plants of the great hot-house. Van der Schott being sick, the gardener who supplied his place, forgot, during a very cold night, to light the stoves. Perceiving it in the morning, he thought to remedy the evil in making a very brisk fire. This sudden change of tem- perature caused many of the trees to perish, whose trunks were of the thickness of the arm. To repair this loss, Joseph II. engaged the naturalists to undertake a new voyage. Professor Maester was named chief of the expedition, with Dr. Stupiez, for a companion ; the gardeners Bose and Bredemyer, and the draftsman Mol. They went direct to Philadelphia, visited the United States, Florida, and New Provi- dence, sent home a large collection, and Bose afterwards got charge of the garden of Schoenbrunn. The hot-houses of Schoenbrunn, To wnson observes (Voyage in Hungary], are the most spacious that have yet been constructed in Europe; the trees of the tropics there develope their branches in full liberty, and bear flowers and fruits. The most rare palms, the Cocos nucifera, the Caryota urens, the Elais guinensis, grow there with vigor. The Corypha umbraculifera extends its large leaves for twelve feet round, and birds of Africa and America there fly from branch to branch among the trees of their country. Jacquin published successively three great works, illustrating the plants of these gardens, viz. Hortus Schoen., Icones plant, rariorum, and Fragmenta Botanica. We found these gardens in 1814 in suitable order; but the edifices requiring renovation. It is difficult for a mere European traveller to form any idea of the grandeur of the palms sending out their immense leaves from the capitals of their column-like trunks. There are at Vienna two other public botanic gardens ; the one formed in what was a large gravel-pit exclusively devoted to the plants of Austria; and the other of smaller extent, attached to the university, and devoted to a small general collection. Considerable compartments in the gardens of Princes Lichtenstein, and Schwartzenberg, in Leopoldstadt, are devoted to the culture of ornamental plants systematically arranged. The botanic garden of Pesth was established in 1812, and enlarged in 1815 ; it was placed under the direction of the professor Kitaibel, known in the scientific world as the author of Plantte rariores Hungarue. 219. The botanic garden of Dresden is small ; but is rich in exotics lately procured from England, and carefully managed by Traugott Seidel. The botanic garden of Berlin was established in the time of Frederick IT. and is one of the few gardens in which the arrangement of the plants is according to their native habitations. It has lately been greatly enriched by Link and Otto ; as have those of Munich, Stuttgard, Baden, Hesse, and most others in Germany, by their respective directors and gardeners. The botanic garden of Konigsberg, was enlarged and re-arranged in 1812, and deserves notice for its singularly varied surface, and agreeable recluse walks. The botanic garden of Copenhagen was established before 1640. It was rich in hardy plants and trees, about the enrt of the last century, but is at present rather neglected. Sperlin in 1642, and Pauli in 1653, published catalogues of this garden. 220. The taste for plants in Germany is very considerable among the higher classes ; and not only public bodies but private gentlemen, and princes of every degree, spend a much greater proportion of their income, in the encouragement of this branch of gardening, than is done by the wealthy of England. Since the restoration of tranquillity, this taste has received a new stimulus by the opportunity afforded of procuring plants from England. Among the lower classes, however, a taste for flowers is less popular in Germany than in Italy, Holland, and France ; probably owing to their frugal habits, and comparatively sober enjoyments. BOOK I. GARDENING IN GERMANY. 49 SUBSECT. 3. German Gardening) in respect to horticultural Productions. 221. In all probability horticulture was first introduced to Germany by the Eimians y and afterwards revived by the religious houses. The native fruits and culinary plants of Germany are the same as those of France, already enumerated. In the museum of the arsenal in Dresden, are still preserved, and shown to strangers, the gardening tools with which Augustus the Second, Elector of Saxony, worked with his own hands. This magistrate died in 1566. He is said to have planted the first vineyard in Saxony, and to have greatly increased the varieties of the hardy fruits. 222. The more common fruits of Germany, the cherry, the pear, the plum, and the apple, are natives, or naturalised in the woods. Good varieties would no doubt be brought from Italy by the monks, who established themselves in Germany in the dark ages, and from the convents be introduced to the gardens of the nobles, as the latter became somewhat civilised. This would more especially be the case with those pro- vinces situated on the Rhine, where the genial soil and climate would bring them to greater perfection, and, in time, render them more common than in the northern districts. Dr. Diel, however, a native of the best part of this tract of country (Nassau Dietz), complains (Obst. Orangerie in Scherben, 1st band.}, so late as 1804, that apples, pears, and cherries, were most commonly raised from seeds, and planted in orchards, without being grafted. 223. Thejiner f)-uits only thrive in the south of Germany, the apricot appears to have been some time introduced in Austria and Hungary, and produces well as a standard in the neighbourhood of Vienna. The peach is most commonly grown against walls. The mulberry produces leaves for the silk-worm as far north as Frankfort on the Oder, but ripens its fruit with difficulty, unless planted against walls. The vine is cultivated as far north as the fifty-second degree of latitude, in vineyards, and somewhat farther in gardens. The fig, -to nearly the same extent, against walls, its branches being every where protected in winter ; it is, however, a rare fruit in Germany. At Vienna it is kept in large tubs and boxes, and housed during winter in the wine-cellars. 224. The pine-apple, Beckman informs us, was first brought to maturity by Baron Munchausen, at Schwobber, near Hamelln. The large buildings erected by the baron for this fruit, are described in the Nuremberg Hebrides for 1714. It was ripened also by Dr. Kaltschmidt at Breslaw, in 1702, who sent some fruit to the imperial court. At present there are very few pineries to be found throughout the whole empire. In Austria the best varieties of hardy fruit-trees are said (Bright 1 s Travels] to have been introduced from Holland, by Van der Schott, about the middle of the seventeenth century ; but many of them must have been in the imperial gardens long before this period, from the connection o'f Austria with the Netherlands ; yet Meyer, in 1776, speaking of fruits, says, that " the age of Schoenbrunn will be for Franconia what that of Louis the Fourteenth was for France." The Rev. J. V. Sickler, in Saxegotha, Counsellor Diel, at Nassau Dietz, and Counsellor Ransleben, at Berlin, have established, within the last fifty years, fruit-tree nurse- ries, where all the best Dutch, French, and English varieties may be purchased. Diel and Ransleben prove the sorts, by fruiting the original specimens in pots in a green-house. Sickler has fruited an immense number of sorts in the open air, and published descriptions of them in Der Teutsche Obst. Gartner ; a work of which 48 volumes have already appeared. In Hanover George II., after establishing an agricultural society, is said to have introduced the best English fruits about 1751. In Saxony the Earl of Findlater resided many years, and planted a vineyard at his country-seat in the neighbourhood of Dresden, said to be the most northerly in Germany. He introduced fl'ued walls, and trained the best sorts of English peaches and apricots on them. The whole of his horticultural efforts and his chateau were destroyed by the French army in 1813, for no other reason than his being an Eng- lishman. A public walk and seat at Carlsbad remain to commemorate his taste and public spirit. At Potsdam the best fruits were introduced by Frederick II., who was passionately fond of them, and cultivated all the best Dutch varieties on walls, espaliers, under glass, and in the open garden. He was particularly fond of pine-apples, of which he grew a great number in pits ; and is censured by an English traveller (Burnett), because, on his death-bed, he made enquiries after the ripening of one of them, of which he expected to make a last bonne bouche. Potsdam and Schwobber are the only parts of Germany where forcing has ever been practised to any extent. There are now in the royal gardens of Prussia, excellent pine-apples reared under the care of the director Linne, who has visited England. At Weimar, the chief proprietor of the Landes Industrie comtoir, and author of a work on potatoes, has an excellent garden and extensive hot-houses where he raises the finest fruits. The whole, Jacobs ob- serves (Travels, 1819, 332.), is kept in excellent order. In Hungary horticulture has been much neglected, but fruit-tree nurseries were established there by government in 1808, and subsequently by private gentlemen. Plums, Dr. Bright informs us, are culti- vated in order to make damson brandy. The Tokay wine is made from the variety of grape figured and described by Sickler, in his Garden Magazine of 1804, as the Hungarian blue. The soil of the Tokay vine- yards is a red brown clay, mixed with sand, incumbent on a clayey slate rock ; and it is observed by a Hungarian writer quoted by Dr. Bright, that " in proportion as the soil is poor and stony, and the vine feeble, the fruit and wine, though small in quantity, become more excellent in their quality." Tokay wine is made in the submontane district which extends over a space about twenty miles round the town of that name. The grapes are left on the plants till they become dry and sweet, they are then gathered one by one, put in a cask with a perforated bottom, and allowed to remain till that portion of the juice escape, which will run from them without any pressure. This, which is called Tokay essence, is generally in very small quantity. The grapes are then put into a vat and trampled with the bare feet ; to the squeezed mass is next added an equal quantity of good wine, which is allowed to stand for twenty-four hours, and is then strained. This juice, without farther preparation, becomes the far-famed wine of Tokay, which is difficult to be obtained, and sells in Vienna at the rate of 121. per dozen. The Tokay vineyards are chiefly the property of the emperor. .E 50 HISTORY OF GARDENING. PART L In Denmark, notwithstanding the severity of the climate, they succeed in bringing to a tolerable degree of perfection most of the best sorts of fruits. Glass frames, portable canvass covers, and mats, are used to protect the blossom of the more tender trees against walls ; and the hardier sorts, as the apple and cherry yre, in spring, before the blossom expands, watered every night, in order at once to protect and retard it by an envelope of ice. This ice is again thawed oft' before sunrise by copious waterings. 225. The culinary vegetables of Germany are the same as those of Britain ; but they are without the greater part of our best varieties. The Brassica tribe and edible roots arrive at greater perfection there than in France. The popular sorts are the field-cabbage and the borecoles ; they are used newly gathered, and boiled and eaten with meat, in broths or soups, and pickled in the form of sour kraut for winter use. The potatoe, kidney- bean, onion, and lettuce, are also in general use ; and the first gardens possess all the oleraceous and acetaceous vegetables grown in France and Holland. SUBSECT. 4. German Gardening, as to planting Timber-trees and Hedges. 226. Planting as a matter of profit has been little attended to in Germany from the num- ber and extent of the native forests. In some districts, however, Pomerania for example, barren sandy tracts are sown with acorns and Scotch pine-seeds, chiefly for the sake of fuel and common husbandry timber. Much attention, as Emmerich informs us (Culture of Forests), and as appears by the number of German works on Forstwissenschaft, is in general paid to the management of forests already existing ; as far as we have been able to observe, this extends to filling up vacancies by sowing, and occasionally draining and enclosing ; thinning and pruning are little attended to in most districts. The oak, the beech, and the Scotch pine, are the prevailing native trees of Germany. 227. Mows of trees along the public roads are formed and preserved with great care, especially in Prussia. The mulberry is the tree used in some of the warmer districts, and in other places the lime and the elm ; the Lombardy poplar is also common near most towns of Germany, especially Berlin, Dresden, and Leipzic. Some attention is every where paid to public avenues ; and the highways being, as in France, generally kept up by the government, improvements can be executed promptly and with effect. There being, in general, no accompanying hedges, and the trees being trained with naked stems to ten or fifteen feet high, according to the lowness or exposure of the situation, little injury is done to the materials of the road in wet weather. The breeze passes freely between the stems of the trees. The traveller and his horses or cattle are shaded during sunshine, and sheltered during storms ; and the man of taste is furnished with a continued frame and foreground to the lateral landscapes. 228. Hedges, though not general in Germany, are used on the Rhine and in Holstein, the plants generally hawthorn, but sometimes hornbeam or a mixture of native shrubs. Hungary is the most backward province in respect to planting and hedges, as well as to every thing else. A hedge there is rare ; and there are scarcely any public avenues be- yond Presburg. Existing woods are subjected to a sort of management for the sake of the fuel they afford, and for their produce in timber and charcoal for the mines. SUBSECT. 5. . German Gardening, as empirically practised. 229. The use of gardens is as general in the best districts of Germany as in England ; but in Hungary and some parts of Bohemia, Gallicia, and Prussia, many of the lower orders are without them, or if permitted to enclose a few yards of ground near their wooden hovels, they seem too indolent and indifferent, or too much oppressed by the exactions of their landlords, to do so. The cabbage tribe, and chiefly red greens, and the potatoe, are the universal plants of the cottage-gardens of Germany ; lettuce, pease, onions, and turnips, with some other sorts, and the common fruit-trees, are introduced in some districts. Flowers are not very general, but the rose, thyme, and mint, are to be seen in many places, and a variety of ornamental plants in the better sort of cottage- gardens. 230. Farmer's gardens, as in most countries, are a little larger than those of the lowest class of cottagers ; but inferior in point of order and neatness to that of the man who lives in his own cottage. 231. The gardens of the hereditary families are not, in general, much attended to ; their appearance is too frequently that of neglect and disorder. Cabbage, potatoes, apples, and pears, and perhaps a few onions, are the produce expected from them ; these are cul- tivated by a servant, not always a gardener, and who has generally domestic occupations to perform for the family. It will readily be imagined that, in such an extensive country, there are innumerable exceptions ; in these, the gardens are better arranged, and the pro- duce of a more varied description. Next to the gardens of the princes or rulers, the best are those of the wealthy bankers and citizens. These are richly stocked with fruit-trees, generally contain hot-houses, and are liberally kept up. Some of them contain collections of exotics. The best private gardens in Denmark belong to this class, and the remark will apply in the vicinity of all towns and cities in proportion to their rank as com- mercial places. BOOK I. GARDENING IN GERMANY. *i 232. There are very few good gardens in Hungary , that of Prince Esterliazy, the greatest proprietor of that country, is extensive, abounds in hot-houses, and contains a very full collection of plants. The prince has an English gardener, whom he sends frequently to this country to collect whatever is new. 233. The German princes and rulers are in general attached to gardens, and have very considerable ones at their principal residences ; some of these have been mentioned, and various others might be added. These gardens are under the direction of intelligent men, who, in general, have spent part of their time in botanic gardens ; and, in many cases, have studied or practised in Holland, or in the Paris gardens. 234. There are market-gardens near most large towns, but nurseries are much less com- mon. There are extensive gardens of both sorts at Hamburg ; but the best fruit-tree nurseries are supposed to be those of Sickler and Diel already mentioned. There is a good nursery at Wurtzburg, in Franconia, established by Meyer ; one at Frankfort on the Oder, and three at Vienna. In most places, the principal market-gardeners propagate a few fruit-trees for sale. 235. The operative part of gardening, in the better classes of gardens, is performed by men, who have, agreeably to the general custom in Germany, not only served an appren- ticeship, but travelled and worked for a certain time in different parts of the country, or of other countries. TJie term of apprenticeship is three years and a half, and for travel three years, unless the apprentice is the son of a master-gardener ; in which case, the term for travel is reduced to one year. All apprentices must be able at least to read and write, and are taught to draw, and furnished with written secrets in gardening by their master, during the term of apprenticeship. When that is completed, the youth is initi- ated into what may be called the free-masonry of gardening, and, being furnished with a pass-word, he pro- the next inn of a similar description. In this way he may walk over the whole of the German empire, Denmark, and a part of Holland, at the general expense ; the numerous ramifications of the society ex- tending over the whole of this immense tract. Such institutions exist for every trade in Germany, but being disliked by the governments, and being politically considered of an arbitrary and injurious nature, are now on the decline. On his return from probation, the travelled journeyman is entitled to take a master's place ; and very commonly he continues travelling tiH he hears of one. The regular German gardener is a careful, neat-handed, and skilful workman ; and, if allowed sufficient time, or assistance, will keep a garden in good order, and produce all the crops required of him in their proper seasons. 236. The artists or architects of gardens, in Germany, are generally the Land baumeister, or those architects who have directed their attention chiefly to country-buildings. Where only a kitchen or flower-garden is to be formed, an approved practical gardener is com- monly reckoned sufficient. It occasionally happens, that a nobleman, who wishes to lay out an extensive garden, after fixing on what he considers a good gardener of some edu- cation, and capable of taking plans, sends him for a year or two to visit the best gardens of England, Holland, or France. On his return, he is deemed qualified to lay out the garden required ; which he does, and afterwards attends to its culture, and acts as a garden-architect ( Garten baumeister) to the minor gentry of his neighbourhood. SUBSECT. 6. German Gardening, as a Science, and as to the Authors it has produced. 237. The Germans are a scientific people : they are a reading people, and in conse- quence the science of every art, in so far as developed in books, is more generally known there than in any other country. Some may wish to except Scotland ; but, though the Scotch artisan reads a great deal, his local situation and limited intercourse with other nations, subject him to the influence of the particular opinions in which he has been edu- cated : he takes up prejudices at an early period, and with difficulty admits new ideas from books. On the other hand, the Germans of every rank are remarkable for liberality of opinion : all of them travel ; and, in the course of seeing other states, they find a variety of practices and opinions, different from those to which they have been accustomed ; prejudice gives way ; the man is neutralised ; becomes moderate in estimating what belongs to himself, and willing to hear and to learn from others. 238. There are horticultural societies and professorships of rural economy in many of the universities ; one or two gardeners' magazines, and almanacks of gardening ; and some eminent vegetable physiologists are Germans. Even in Hungary, it appears (JBright's Travels), a Georgicon, or college of rural economy, has been established by Graff Festetits at Keszthely, in which gardening, including the culture and management of woods and copses, forms a distinct professorship. The science of France may be, and we believe is, greater than that of Germany in this art, but it is accumulated in the capital ; whereas, here it emanates from a great number of points distributed over the country, and is conse- quently rendered more available by practical men. The minds of the gardeners of France are, from general ignorance, less fitted to receive instruction than those of Germany ; their personal habits admit of less time for reading ; their climate and soil require less artificial agency. The German gardener is generally a thinking, steady person; the climate, in most places, requires his vigilant attention to culture, and his travels have en- E 2 52 HISTORY OF GARDENING. PART I. larged his views. Hence he becomes a more scientific artisan than the Frenchman, and is in more general demand in ether countries. Some of the best gardens in Poland, Russia, and Italy, are under the care of Germans. 239. The Germans have produced few original authors on gardening, and none that can be compared to Quintinye or Miller. They have translations of all the best European books; and so vigilant are they in this respect, that even a recent and most useful work on exotic gardening, by Gushing, hardly known in England, has not escaped the Leipsic book-makers. Hirschfield has compiled a number of works, chiefly on landscape-gar- dening ; J. V. Sickler and Counsellor Diel have written extensively on most departments of horticulture, especially on the hardy fruits. (Sulzer's Theory of the Fine Arts ; Ersches Handbuch, &c. 2 Band. 1 Abth.) SECT. V. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Switzerland. 240. Extensive gardens are not to be expected in a country of comparative equalisation of property, like Switzerland ; but no where are gardens more profitably managed or more neatly kept, than in that country. " Nature," Hirschfield observes, " has been liberal to the inhabitants of Switzerland, and they have wisely profited from it. Almost all the gardens are theatres of true beauty, without vain ornaments or artificial decorations. Convenience, not magnificence, reigns in the country-houses ; and the villas are distin- guished more by their romantic and picturesque situations, than by their architecture." He mentions several gardens near Geneva and Lausanne ; Delices is chiefly remarkable because it was inhabited by Voltaire before he purchased Ferney, and La Grange and La Boissier are to this day well known places. Ferney is still eagerly visited by every stranger, but with the chateau of the Neckar family, that of the Empress Josephine, of Beauharnois, and others, eulogised in the local guides, pre- sent nothing in the way of our art particularly deserving of notice ; though their situations, looking down on so mag- nificent a lake, the simplicity of their architecture, and the romantic scenery by which they are surrounded, render them delightful retirements, and such as but few countries can boast. The villa-gardens excel in rustic buildings (Jig. 17.) and arbors ; and are, for the most part, a mixture of orchards on hilly surfaces, cultivated spots, and rocks. However insignificant such grounds may look on paper (Jig. 18.), in the reality they are pleasing and romantic. The public promenades at Berne are most beautiful, and kept with all the care of an English flower-garden. Swit- 1 8 zerland has the pecu- liar advantage of pro- ducing a close turf, which in most places, and particularly at Lausanne and Berne, is as verdant as in England. Harte says great part of the Pays de Vaud is like the best part of Berk- shire ; and indeed every one feels that this is the country most congenial to an Englishman's taste ^r^^^^WMmmm and feelings. 241. Thejirst botanic garden which appeared in Switzerland was that of the celebrated Conrad Gesner, at Zurich, founded before the middle of the sixteenth century. He had not, Deleuze observes, sufficient fortune to obtain much ground, or to maintain many gardeners ; but his activity supplied every thing, and he assembled in a small spot what he had been able to procure by his numerous travels and extensive correspondence. Public gardens were, in the end of this century, established at Geneva, Basil, and Berne, and subsequently in most of the cantons. The first of these gardens at present is that of Geneva, lately enlarged and newly arranged under the direction of that active and highly valued botanist, Decandolle. The garden of Basil is rich in the plants of all the moun- tainous regions which lie around it, including the Tyrol and Piedmont. A taste for flowers is perhaps more popular in Switzerland than in Germany ; for though frugality is not less an object in every branch of rural economy, yet real independence is more gene- BOOK I. GARDENING IN SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 55 ral ; a poor man here, as Burns used to say, has generally some other estate than that of sin and misery ; some little spot that he can call his own, and which he delights to cultivate and ornament. Speaking of Zurich, Simond observes (Tour, &c. 1819, p. 404.), " Haer- lem excepted, there is not a town where more attention was ever paid to fine flowers : many new plants, as the Hortensia, Volkameria, &c., are here grown in perfection. The taste for flowers is particularly displayed on the occasion of the birth of a child. When the news is carried about to all the relations and friends of the family ; the maid is dressed in her best attire, and carries a huge nosegay of the finest flowers the season affords. 242. Horticulture is carefully practised in Switzerland ; vineyards are formed as far north as Lausanne ; and the apple, pear, plum, cherry, and wal- nut are common on every farm ; the three first are in every cottage- garden. The filbert, gooseberry, currant,, raspberry, and strawberry are natives ; but only the filbert, raspberry, and strawberry are com- mon in the woods and copses. In the sheltered valleys of this country, the apple and the pear are most prolific. Stewed pears is a common ' dish among the cottagers in autumn ; the fruit is also dried, and in winter forms an excellent soup ingredient. The cabbage, the potatoe, the white beet grown for the leaves as spinach, and their foot-stalks as chard, and the kidney-bean for haricots and soups, are the popular vegetables. Particular attention is paid to bees, which are kept in neat rustic sheds (Jig. 19.), or the hives carefully thatched with bark or moss. 243. There is little or no forest planting in Switzerland, but hedges of hawthorn are not uncommon. The walnut is there a very common high-road tree in the autumnal months, and furnishes the pauper traveller with the principal part of his food. Poor Italians have been known to travel from Naples and Venice to Geneva on this sort of fare. They begin with Indian corn and grapes, which they steal from the fields, till they arrive at Milan, and the rest of the road they depend on walnuts, filberts, and apples. SECT. VI. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Sweden and Norway. 244. Gardening is patronised by the higher classes, and practised round the principal towns of Sweden and Norway. " All the Swedes with whom I have ever met," observes Hirschfield, " whether elevated by birth, or enlightened by education, were estimable friends of beautiful nature and of gardens." Sir J. E. Smith (Lin. Trans., vol. i.) ex- presses an equally high opinion of this people. Mediocrity of circumstances, a poor court, political liberty, and a varied and comparatively unproductive country, seem to have contributed to give a more thinking turn to the Swedish nobles, than in countries natu- rally prolific. Their immense public works, canals, harbors, and excellent roads, careful agriculture, extensively worked mines, botanic gardens, literary institutions, and scientific authors are proofs of what we assert. 245. The ancient style of gardening appears to have been introduced to Sweden, at least previously to 1671 ; for Hermand, who published his Regnum Suecia in that year, men- tions the gardens of the palace as well as the Vivarium, or park. The gardens, he says, were used for delight and recreation. They lay between the Palatium and Vivarium, and the latter contained some wooden buildings, in which were kept lions, leopards, and bears. This garden and park appear to have been formed by Gustavus Adolphus, about 1620. Charles the Twelfth procured plans from Le Notre, and had the trees and plants sent from Paris. It is remarked by Dr. Walker, as a curious fact, that though the yew- tree is a native of Sweden, those plants of this species sent from Paris, to plant Le Notre's designs, died at Stockholm the first winter. 246. The mixed style is exemplified in Haga, formed ori a rocky situation, about the middle of the eighteenth century, by Gustavus III., with the assistance of Masretier. It is the Trianon of Sweden. The approach is a winding walk through rocks and luxuriant verdure. Drottningholm is a royal palace, formed by the same prince on the island of that name. The gardens are in a sort of Anglo-Chinois manner, but as far as art is con- cerned, in no respect remarkable. Both these gardens are surrounded or intermingled with water, rocks, Scotch pine, spruce fir, and buildings, forming a picturesque assem- blage of saxatile and verdant beauty. There are some confined spots laid out in the English taste, chiefly by British merchants in the neighbourhood of Gottenburg, as there are also near Christiana and Tronijem, in Norway ; but it may be remarked, that this style is not likely to be generally adopted in either country, because they already possess much greater beauties of the same kind, which it is our aim to create, and with which those created would not bear a comparison. 247. A taste f or fowers is not popular in Sweden; if a farmer or cottager has any spare room in his garden, he prefers rearing a few plants of tobacco. But the study of every branch of natural history is in repute among the higher classes and literati ; and the ce- E 3 54 HISTORY OF GARDENING. PART I. Icbrity of the Swedish botanists, and of the Upsal garden, is universal. It was difficult, Deleuze observes, to form vegetable collections in the northern countries ; but industry can conquer obstacles, and the more precautions necessary to secure the plants from the vigor of the climate, the more will culture be perfected. 248. The botanic garden of Upsai was founded in 1657, under the auspices of King Charles Gustavus, and by the attention of Olaus Rudbeck. This learned man, seconded by the credit of the Count of Gardie, chancellor of the academy of Upsal, and who had himself a fine botanic garden at Jacobsdahl, obtained funds necessary for the construction of a garden and green-house, and to collect foreign plants ; and he augmented its riches by the gift he made of his own garden in 1662. The progress of this establishment may be seen by comparing the three catalogues given by Rudbeck in 1658, 1666, 1685. The latter enumerates 1870 plants, among which are 630 distinct species of exotics. (Bib. jBanksiana.) In 1702, the fire which consumed the half of the city of Upsal, re- duced the green-house to ashes, and the garden was in a deplorable condition till 1740, when its walls were rebuilt. Two years afterwards the botanical chair and the direction of the garden were given to Linnaeus ; and the university, undoubtedly excited by that reformer of natural history, took charge of all the necessary expenses for the acquisition and preservation of plants. Linnaeus, feeling how essential it was to be assisted in all the details of culture, obtained Diderich Nutzel, a clever gardener, who had visited attentively the gardens of Germany, Holland, and England, and who had then the charge of that of Cliffort, in Holland. He there constructed new green- houses, intended for plants of different climates; and he solicited successfully the principal botanic gardens of Europe for specimens. Soon after, several of his pupils, whom he had excited with enthu- siasm for botany, went across the seas to collect seeds and specimens ; and many tropical plants, first grown at Upsal, were sent from thence to the southern countries of Europe. The description and plan of the garden of Upsal may be seen in the Amocnitates Academics. (Dissert. 7. t. i. p. 172.) Linnseus, in 1748 and 1753, published the catalogue of the plants cultivated there, and since his time, others have appeared, containing the additions which have been made by his successors. In 1804, the large orangery, built by Linnaeus, was found to be considerably out of repair, and was taken down and rebuilt. A magnificent lecture-room and museum was at the same time added. The ceilings of these rooms are supported by columns, which being hollow, are used as flues, and thus afford an elegant and effectual means of heating the air. On the whole, the garden is respectably kept up ; and many hardy plants, natives of North America in particular, are found here in greater luxuriance than in France or Germany. 249. In horticulture the Swedes are considered as successful operators ; but their short summers are adverse to the culture of many sorts of fruits and culinary vegetables in the open air ; and there is not yet sufficient wealth to admit of forcing, or forming artificial climates to any extent. The apple, pear, and plum ripen their fruits in the best districts, especially in warm situations ; but where the better varieties are grown, they are always planted against walls, and protected, as in Denmark. The Rubus chanuemorus, or cloud- berry (fig. 20.), is very common in Lapland ; its fruit is delicious, and sent in immense quantities, in autumn, from all the north of the Gulf of Bothnia, to Stockholm, where it is used for sauces, in soups, and in mak- ing vinegar. Dr. Clarke was cured of a bilious fever, chiefly from eating this fruit. There are a few forcing- houses near Gottenburg and Stockholm for peaches and vines ; and one or two instances of pines being attempted in pits near the capital and in East Goth- land. The borecoles, red and green, the rutabaga and potatoe are the popular vegetables ; but the best gardens have most of the Dutch and English varieties of the culinary tribe. 250. The towns and cities of Norway, Dr. Clarke informs us (Scandinavia, ch. 17. 1806), were formerly supplied with culinary herbs from England and Holland ; but gardening became more general after the publication by Christian Gartner of a manual adapted to Sweden. Now all sorts of vegetables are common round Tronijem. The gardens of the citizens are laid out in the Dutch taste, and full of fruits and flowers. Of these are enu- merated, apples, pears, plums, cherries, strawberries, cabbages, cauliflowers, turnips, cu- cumbers, potatoes, artichokes, lupines, stocks, carnations, pinks, lilies, roses, and many other garden-flowers. In the garden of the minister of Enontekis (Jig. 21.), a village situated 287 miles north of Tornea, and perhaps the best garden in Lapland, Dr. Clarke found pease, carrots, spinach, potatoes, turnips, parsley, and a few lettuces. The tops of the potatoes were used boiled, and considered a delicate vegetable. BOOK I. GARDENING IN RUSSIA. 5i 251. Planting is little wanted in Stveden, for seedling Scotch pines, spruce firs, and birch, rise up in abundance wherever old ones have been cut down. Enclosures in Swe- den, as in Switzerland, are most frequently made of stone or of wood. Trees are planted along the roads in several places, and especially near Stockholm. The lime, the birch, and the ash, or trembling poplar, are the species used. SECT. VII. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Russia. 252. The history of gardening in Russia is very different from that of any of those countries which have yet come under review. Peter the Great sought, by one giant stride, to raise the character of his nation to a level with that of other countries ; and, by extra- ordinary efforts, introduced excessive refinement amidst excessive barbarism ; asembled magnificent piles of architecture in a marsh, and created the most sumptuous palaces and extensive parks and gardens, in the bleak pine and birch forests which surrounded it. As a man of Cronstadt rhymes, " Built a city in a bog, And made a Christian of a hog." Nothing can be more extraordinary in the way of gardening, than these well-known facts, that a century ago there was scarcely such a thing, in any part of Russia, as a garden ; and, for the last fifty years, there have been more pine-apples grown in the neigh- bourhood of Petersburg than in all the other countries of the continent put together. SUBSECT. 1. Russian Gardening, as an Art of Design and Taste. 253. Russian gardening, as an art of design, began, like every other art, with Peter the Great. This emperor's first effort was made in 1714, when the garden of the sum- mer-palace, on the banks of the Neva, in Petersburg, was laid out in the Dutch taste. But the grandest and most superb garden, in the geometric manner, is that which he con- structed soon afterwards, about thirty wersts from the city, on the shores of the gulf. This imperial residence, as far as respects the gardens, has been justly called the Versailles of Russia ; and the Prince de Ligne, an excellent judge, gives the preference to its water- works. The whole was originally designed and laid out by Le Blond, a pupil of Le Notre, and for some time court architect of St. Petersburg. This, with the other suburban palaces and gardens, have been minutely described by Georgi, and more generally by Storch, from whom we select the following outline : 254. Peterhoff, in respect to situation, is perhaps unrivalled. About five hundred fathoms from the sea- shore this region has a second cliff, almost perpendicular, near twelve fathoms high. Bordering on this precipice stands the palace, thereby acquiring a certain peculiar prospect over the gardens and the gulf, to the snores of Carelia and St. Petersburg, and to Cronstadt. It was built in the reign of Peter the Great, by the architect Le Blond, but has received, under the succeeding monarchs, such a variety of improve- ments, that it has become a sort of specimen of the several tastes that prevailed in each of these asras, the influence whereof is visible in the numerous architectural ornaments, which are all highly gilt. The inside is correspondent with the destination of this palace; throughout are perceptible the remains of antiquated splendor, to which is contrasted the better taste of modern times. The gardens are more interesting by their peculiar beauties. The upper parts of them, before the land-side of the palace, are disposed into walks, plantations, and parterres, which acquire additional elegance by a large basin and canal, plentifully furnished with fountains of various designs and forms. The declivity before the back-front of the palace towards the sea has two magnificent cascades, rolling their streams over the terraces into large basins, and beneath which vast sheets of water, we walk as under a vault, without receiving wet, into a beautiful grotto. The whole space in front of this declivity, down to the sea-shore, is one large stately garden in the old- fashioned style, and famous for its jets-tfeau, and artificial water- works. Some of them throw up columns of water, a foot and a half in diameter, to a height of two and a half or three fathoms. A pellucid canal, lined with stone, ten fathoms wide, running from the centre of the palace-facade into the gulph of Finland, divides these gardens in two. In a solitary wood stands the summer-he use, called Monplaisir, which among other things is remarkable for its elegant kitchen, wherein the Empress Elizabeth occasionally amused herself in dressing her own dinner. In another portion of the gardens, close to the shore of the gulf, stands a neat wooden building, formerly a favorite retreat of Peter the Great, as he could here have a view of E 4 56 HISTORY OF GARDENING. PAKT I. Cronstadt and the fleet. The bath is likewise worthy of observation, situated hi the midst of a thicket We enter a large oval space, enclosed by a wooden wall, without a covering at top, but open to the sky, and shaded by the surrounding trees. In this wall are chambers and recesses furnished with all that con- venience or luxury can require to that end. In the centre of this area is a large basin, surrounded by a gallery, and provided with steps, rafts, and gondolas : the water is conducted hither by pipes, which fill the basin only to a certain height." These gardens still exist, and the water-works are kept in tolerable re- pair. There is adjoining a small specimen of English gardening, laid out by Meader, once gardener at Alnwick castle in Northumberland, and who is author of The Planter's Guide. 255. At Petrowka, near Moscow, is the principal private ancient garden in Russia. The hedges and alleys are chiefly formed of spruce fir, which are shorn, and seem to flourish under the shears. It contains also a labyrinth, and a turf amphitheatre, on which the proprietor, Comte Razumowski, had operas performed by his domestic slaves. Sophiowski, in Podolia, is a magnificent residence of the Countess Potocki, laid out by a Polish archi- tect, Metzel, in the manner of Switzer. It has a magnificent terrace or promenade, and extensive ave- nues, conservatories, and gardens. 256. Thejirst attempt at the modern style of gardening in Russia was made by Catherine, about 1778, at Zarskoje-selo, at that time enlarged and re-laid out. The gardener employed was Busch, a German, and father of their present superintendant. The gor- geous magnificence of this residence is well known. " A natural birch forest, on ground somewhat varied, forms the ground-work of the park and gardens. The gate by which they are approached, is an immense arch of artificial rock-work, over which is a lofty Chinese watch-tower. The first group of objects is a Chinese town, through which the approach leads to the palace ; a building, which, with its enclosed entrance, court, offices, baths, conservatories, church, theatre, and other appendages, it would seem like exaggeration to describe. The rest of the garden-scenery consists of walks, numer- ous garden-buildings, columns, statues, &c. with bridges of marble and wood, a large lake, and extensive kitchen-gardens and hot-houses." The following more detailed description is from the pen of Storch already mentioned. 257. Zarskoje-selo, the famous summer- residence of Catherine the Second, is situated in an open plea- sant region, diversified by little hills, meads, and woodlands. The space of the whole domain contains four hundred and twenty thousand square fathoms. This princely seat owes its origin to Catherine the First, and its enlargement and embellishment to Elizabeth ; but it is indebted for its completion in ele- gance and taste, and the greater part of its present magnificence, to the creative reign of Catherine the Second. We are now in a. small wood within sight of the palace. On the left we have the park wall, and before us the entrance on the Petersburg side. It consists of two portals, composed of blocks of sand- stone, in the form of rocky fragments, over one of which is a Chinese watch-house. By this passage we enter the foregrounds of the palace, having the gardens to the right, and a Chinese village to the left, through which the way leads over a Chinese bridge to the park. Before us lies the road to the little neighbouring town Sophia, which goes through a colossal gate of cast-iron. The court of the palace forms an amphitheatre of buildings opposite the grand parade, closed on each side by an iron palisade. The gardens are laid out in the English manner : among their curiosities that admit of a description, the following objects may principally be recorded. A small temple containing a collection of antique and modern statues ; a solitude for dinner-parties like that in the hermitcgs j a magnificent bath ; a coach-hill, similar to that at Oranienbaum ; picturesque ruins ; a small town to commemorate the taking of Taurida, &c. Two artificial lakes are connected by a running stream, crossed by an arched bridge, covered at the top by a roof resting on two rows of marble columns, on the model of the bridge at Stowe. On one of the islands on these lakes stands a Turkish mosque, on another a spacious hall for musical entertainments. In a thick shrubbery we come upon a pyramid in the Egyptian form, in the vicinity whereof are two obelisks. This majestic sanctuary of art and nature, continues Storch, is at the same time a magnificent temple of merit. Formed of the rocky foundations of the earth, here the monuments of great achievements tower towards the skies, fearless of the destructive vicissitudes of time. A marble obelisk reminds us of the victory near Kagul, and of the victor Romanzoff Zudunaisky. To the Dey of Tschesmi, and the hero Orlof Tschesmenskoy, a marble column on a pedestal of granite is devoted. A grand triumphal arch proclaims the patriotic ardor of Prince Orlof, with which he faced rebellion and the plague in the capital, and quelled them both. The victory in the Morea and the name of Feador Orlof are handed down to posterity by a rostral column. Plain and gigantic as the sentiments of the heroes whose memories are perpetuated in these masses of rocks, they stand surrounded by the charms of Nature, who softens her majesty through the veil of artless graces. 258. Paulowsky presents the best specimen of the English style, in the neighbourhood of the Russian capital, or indeed in the empire. It was begun during the reign of Catherine, in 1780, from a design said to have been furnished by the celebrated Brown, from a description sent him by Gould, an Englishman, the gardener of Potemkin, and finished afterwards during the reign of Paul. This place possesses considerable variety of surface, and a varied clothing of wood, the Scotch pine and aspen being natural to these grounds, as well as the birch. Near the palace, there is a profusion of exotics of every description, including a numerous collection of standard roses, which, with some of the American shrubs, require to be protected with straw and mats during winter. The Chevalier Storch has given a very interesting description of these gardens, in his Briafe iiber Patdowsky, &c. 1802. 259. The gardens of Potemkin, a man whose mind, as the Prince de Ligne has ob- served, contained mines of gold and steppes, and one of the most extravagant encouragers of our art that modern times can boast, were of various kinds, and situated in different parts of the empire. The most extensive gardens of this prince were in the Ukraine ; but the most celebrated were those belonging to the palace of Taurida, now an imperial residence in St. Petersburg. The grounds are level, with several winding and straight BOOK I. GARDENING IN RUSSIA. 57 canals, and walks, adorned with numerous buildings, a rich collection of exotics, and most extensive hot-houses of every description. Their grand feature, in Potemkin's time, was the conservatory, or winter-garden (Jig, 22.), attached to the palace. The plan of this part of the building is that of a semicircle, embracing the end of a saloon, nearly 300 feet long. It is lighted by immense windows, between columns, has an opaque ceiling, and is at present heated by common German stoves. It is too gloomy for the growth of plants, but those grown in the glass sheds of the kitchen-garden are carried there, sunk in the ground, and gravel-walks, turf, and every article added, to render an illusion to a romantic scene in the open air as complete as possible. The effect was, after all, it is said, never satisfactory but when illuminated. This palace, the original exterior of which was in a very simple style, and the interior most magnificent, is said to have been the design of Potemkin, but it was entirely re- modelled at his death by Catherine, used as barracks by Paul, and is now very imperfectly restored. (Ed. Encyc. art. Landscape Gardening. ) This winter-garden or conservatory, so much spoken of, is thus described by Storch : " Along one side of the vestibule is the winter-garden, an enormous structure, disposed into a garden, only separated from the grand hall by a colonnade. As, from the size of the roof, it could not be supported without pillars, they are disguised under the form of palm-trees. The heat is maintained by concealed flues placed in the walls and pillars, and even under the earth leaden-pipes are arranged, incessantly filled with boil- ing water. The walks of this garden meander amidst flowery hedges, and fruit-bearing shrubs, winding over little hills, and producing, at every step, fresh occasions for surprise. The eye of the beholder, when weary of the luxuriant variety of the vegetable world, finds recreation in contemplating some exquisite production of art : here a head, from the chisel of a Grecian sculptor, invites to admiration ; there a motley collection of curious fish, in crystal vases, suddenly fixes our attention. We presently quit these objects, in order to go into a grotto of looking-glass, which gives a multiplied reflection of all these won- ders, or to indulge our astonishment at the most extraordinary mixture of colors in the faces of an obelisk of mirrors. The genial warmth, the fragrance and brilliant colors of the nobler plants, the volup- tuous stillness that prevails in this enchanted spot, lull the fancy into sweet romantic dreams ; we imagine ourselves in the blooming groves of Italy ; while nature, sunk into a death-like torpor, announces the severity of a northern winter through the windows of the pavilion. In the centre of this bold creation, on a lofty pedestal, stood the statue of Catherine II., surrounded by the emblems of legislature, cut in Carrara marble. It has been thrown out of the building on its being made into barracks." The gardens at Potemkin's other residences, as well as many imperial and private gardens in Russia, were laid out by Gould, a pupil of Brown. Sir John Carr relates an anecdote on Gould's authority, which was confirmed to us, in 1813, by the present gardener, Call, his successor, and deserves a place here. In one of the prince's journeys to the Ukraine, Gould attended him with several hundred assistants, destined for operators, in laying out the grounds of Potemkin's residence in the Crimea. Wherever the prince halted, if only for a day, his travelling pavilion was erected, and surrounded by a garden in the English taste, composed of trees and shrubs, divided by gravel- walks, and ornamented with seats and statues, all carried forward with the cavalcade." On another occasion, " having accidently discovered the ruins of a castle of Charles XII. of Sweden, he immediately not only caused it to be repaired, but surrounded by gardens in the English taste." (Carr's Baltic, &c.) 260. The most extensive seats laid out in the modern style, in the neighbourhood of Moscow, are those of Gorinka, a seat of Count Alexy Razumowsky (Jig. 23.), and ' Petrowka, a seat of Petrowsky Razumowsky. The former is remarkable for its botanical riches, and an immense extent of glass. The grounds are of great extent, but the sur- face flat, and the soil a dry sand. A natural forest of birch and wild cherry clothes the park, and harmonises the artificial scenes. The mansion, built by an English artisan, is highly elegant; and the attached conservatories and stoves, and decorated lawn, form a splendid and delightful scene, unequalled in Russia. 23 58 HISTORY OF GARDENING. PART I. 261. Petrowka contains both an ancient garden, already referred to, and a large extent of ground, laid out in the modern style, and adorned with buildings, from designs by Signor Camporezi. There is some variety of surface, abundance of birch and fir woods, with some oaks and aspens interspersed, and a large piece of water. Among the ornamental buildings is a cotton-manufactory, in actual use as such. The practice of introducing manufactories as garden-buildings, is very general in Russia, and almost peculiar to that country. 262. Among other gardens near Moscow may be mentioned those of Count Alexy Razumowsky, and of Paschow, in Moscow; of Zaritzina (fig. 24.), a singular Turkish palace, built by Potemkin for Catherine ; of Astankina Count Cheremetow, Peckra, Prince Galitzin, and various others,' which would well bear description. In general, ex- tent, exotics, and magnificent artificial decorations are more the object of the modern style 24 in Russia, than scenes merely of picturesque beauty. We think this may be accounted for, partly from the general want of refinement of taste in that country, and partly from its inaptitude for that style. The nobles of Russia, suddenly rendered aware of being distanced in point of civilisation by those of most other European countries, are resolved not merely to imitate, but even to surpass them in the display of wealth. The most obvious marks of distinction, in refined countries, are necessarily first singled out by rude and ambitious minds, and large magnificent houses and gardens are desired, rather than comfortable and elegant apartments, and beautiful or picturesque scenes ; since, as every one knows, it is much more easy to display riches than to possess taste ; to strike by what is grand, than to charm by what is beautiful. 263. Around Petersburg and Moscow are several public gardens and various private ones, which their owners, with great liberality, convert into places of public entertainment, to which all the people of decent appearance are at liberty to come. The country-seats of the two brothers Nariskin deserve our particular notice, as being frequented on Sundays by great numbers of the higher classes. A friendly invitation, in four different lan- guages, inscribed over the entrance to the grounds, authorises every one, of decent appearance and behaviour, to amuse himself there in whatever way he pleases, without fear of molestation. In several pavilions are musicians, for the benefit of those who choose to dance ; in others are chairs and sofas, ready for the reception of any party who wish to recreate themselves by sedate conversation, after roaming about with the great throng ; some parties take to the swings, the bowling-green, and other diversions ; on the canals and lakes are gondolas, some constructed for rowing, others for sailing ; and if this be not enough, refreshments are spread on tables, in particular alcoves, and are handed about by persons in livery. This noble hospitality is by no means unenjoyed ; the con- course of persons of all descriptions, from the star and riband, to the plain well-dressed burgher, forms such a party-colored collection, and sometimes groups so humorously contrasted, that for this reason alone it is well worth the pains of partaking once in the amusement. (Starch's Petersburgh, p. 441.) 264. In the country parts of Russia, hundreds or even thousands of miles may be gone over without meeting with any country-seat worth mentioning. The nearest to Moscow, southwards, which we have seen, is that of Sophiowski, in Podob'a, 1000 wersts distant. BOOK I. GARDENING IN RUSSIA. 59 SUBSECT. 2. Russian Gardening, in respect to the Culture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament- 265. Dutch flower-roots, would doubtless be introduced in the imperial gardens with the Dutch taste in design ; and soon after copied by such of the nobility as could afford to copy in matters of this kind. It was reserved, however, for Catherine the Second to give the first impulse to this taste, by establishing at Petersburg, the first public botanic- garden in 1785, for the use of the academy of sciences. Another was soon after formed for the medical college. 266. The botanic garden of the university of Moscow was founded by the present emperor, in 1801, but was unfortunately destroyed by the French in 1812; at which time the university was burned down. Both, however, are now restored to their original splendor! 267. The first private botanic garden formed in Russia was that of Count Dimidow, begun during Peter the Great's reign. It was chiefly devoted to native plants ; but still the hot-houses for exotics occupied more than one acre of ground. Two botanists were sent to travel over the whole of Asiatic Russia. In 1786 a catalogue was pub- lished, when the collection amounted to 4363 species or varieties, exclusive of 572 varieties of fruit-trees, 600 varieties of florists' flowers, and 2000 species which had not flowered. " Une seule anecdote," says Deleuze, " will prove how eager Dimidow was to enrich his garden. Being at Rome, in 1773, he found in the garden of the Petits Au- gustins del corso, the handsomest orange-tree he had ever seen. The monks did not wish to part with it, and he was obliged to employ a good deal of money and influence to over- come their scruples. Having succeeded, he caused the tree, which was planted in the open air, to be taken up with an immense ball, put in a large box, set on a carriage made on purpose, and transported to Moscow." (Annales, &c. torn. ix. 174.) 268. The botanic garden of Gorinka, already mentioned, presents the most extensive private establishment not only in Russia but perhaps in the world. The great extent of glass has been already mentioned. When we saw these hot-houses, in 1814, they were much injured by the French ; but the whole garden is now, we understand, completely reinstated. Dr. Fischer, its director, is a well known botanist, and corresponds with most botanical cultivators in Europe. A catalogue of this garden was published by Dr. Redowsky, in 1804. (Bib. Ranks.} Its proprietor having lately died, this garden will probably share the fate of many others. There are other private botanic gardens near Petersburg and Moscow ; and good collections of orna- mental plants at Pawlowsky and Gatschina, both imperial residences. The Baron Rahl has an extensive range of hot-houses, devoted chiefly to orange-trees and tender plants ; and many of the Dutch and German merchants cultivate flowers in the gardens of their summer-residences, on the Strelna road, at Petersburg. Excepting however among the first of the nobility, and the wealthy foreign merchants, ornamental culture of every description is quite unknown in Russia. The taste of the ordinary nobleman is too gross ; the peasant is out of the question, and there Is no middle class in the empire of the Tzars. 269. The climate of Russia is adverse to floriculture. Dr. Howison remarks (Caled. Mem. iii.), " that there is scarcely any plant, or flowering shrub, which can resist the intense frost and cold of the winter in Britain, to be found out of doors in Russia ; and, at times, even the hardy whin-bush is destroyed." He says, the gardener, in the Tauridon palace, Call, showed him " lilac-trees, laburnums, different varieties of thorn, whin-bushes, &c. growing in large wooden tubs, filled with earth, and which were preserved there all winter, with the intention of being sunk in the borders of the garden, as soon as the weather should grow warm enough to admit of it. In the gardens of the villas and country-houses of the higher classes of Russians and foreigners settled in the country, in the short period of a week from the disappearance of the winter, a beautiful and rich display of shrubs and flowers in full blow, consisting of hydrangea, various species of geranium and myrtle, wall-flower, carnation, &c. become visible. All these are, in like manner, reared in hot-houses. As their bloom fades, fresh plants are brought from the conservatory to replace them, thus keeping up an artificial garden, as it may be called, during the whole warm season ; and when the cold weather begins again, the whole are removed and replaced in the green-house." SUBSECT. 3. Russian Gardening, in respect to its horticultural Productions. 270. Dutch and German fruits were introduced to Russia with the Dutch and French taste in gardening, by Peter the Great. With the English style, Catherine introduced English gardeners and English fruits. Before this period, the wild pear, the wild cherry, the black currant, the cranberry, and the strawberry must have been almost the only fruits seen in aboriginal Russia ; all these may be gathered in the woods. The apple is abundant in the Ukraine, and a century ago, as at present, may have been sent to Moscow for the use of the higher classes. At present, the imperial family, and a few, perhaps six or eight of the first nobility, enjoy almost all the European fruits in tolerable perfection, chiefly by the influence of glass and fire heat. The quantity of pines and grapes grown in the neighbourhood of Petersburg, is indeed an astonishing feature in its 60 HISTORY OF GARDENING. PART I. horticulture. Pines, grapes, and peaches, being grown so as to ripen in August and September, enjoy, in these months, abundance of sun, and nearly equal in flavor those grown in England or Holland ; but the apple, pear, cherry, and plum, being in that part of the empire considered as only half hardy fruits, rarely ripen in the open air so as to be fit for the dessert ; and are generally planted in houses, or against walls, and brought forward by glass. About Petersburg the branches of the cherry-tree are protected by burying in the soil, as the French do those of the fig-tree, in the fruit-gardens of Argenteuil. The climate being less severe about Moscow, the hardier fruits ripen somewhat better in the open air, but still far inferior to what they do at Edinburgh, which is in the same parallel of latitude. We have seen apples, pears, cherries, &c. fit to eat, in the hot-houses of the imperial gardens at Tzaritzina, in April, but without flavor. 271. Almost all the horticulture of Russia is contained in Moscow and around Peters- burg ; elsewhere scarcely any sort of fruit-tree is to be found but the wild pear. Kitchen- gardens are rare, even in Podolia, a very fine Polish province in the Ukraine, with a deep rich soil, level surface, and favorable climate. The only fruits a Russian peasant or minor Russian nobleman can taste are the wild pear (groutchky}, dried or green, the strawberry, and the cranberry. Of the last, a cooling acid beverage is made by infusion in water. 272. If any culinary vegetables were known in Russia, before the beginning of the last century, it could only have been the dwarf, ragged-leaved brown kale and the mush- room ; the potatoe is but lately introduced, and that only in a few places. Many of the peasants refuse to eat or cultivate this root, from mere prejudice, and from an idea very natural to a people in a state of slavery, that any thing proposed by their lords must be for the lord's advantage, and not for theirs ; thus the first handful of food thrown to untamed animals operates as a scare. The example of the court, and the number of foreigners employed in the Russian service, civil and military, in their literary institutions, and established as medical or commercial men in the towns, will, no doubt, gradually introduce a variety of culinary plants. The late war may also have had some influence, by giving the, till then, untravelled noble a taste for the comforts of Germany and France ; but, unfortunately, the Russians are averse to a country life, and will continue to be so" till they acquire a taste for domestic enjoyments and rural recreations. Dr. Howison (Mem. of Caled. Hort. Soc. vol. iii. 77.) has given " an account of the most important culinary vegetables cultivated in the interior of the Russian empire." Of these, the cucumber, melon, yellow turnip, radish, and bulbous celery, were introduced from Germany, and are known but to a few. The remaining sorts mentioned are, the variegated cabbage, introduced from the South Sea Islands; mustard, from Sarepta, near the Chinese wall ; and an onion from Chinese Tartary! These were introduced by Hasenkampf, of the late Russian embassy to China. The English and German court-gardeners grow abundance of all our best vegetables, and contrive to prolong the season of some of them, as cauliflowers, celery, cabbage, &c. by earthing them in cellars. A succession of salad- ing is kept up in hot-houses, during winter, and even the first crops of all the common oleraceous and acetaceous plants are reared under glass and by fire heat in some of the best gardens. In Storch's Petersburg (chap, iv.), the dependence of Russia on foreign countries for her culinary vegetables and fruits is amply detailed. In the Crimea, according to Mary Holderness, horse-radish, asparagus, carrot, dock, sorrel, nettles, capers, and mustard, are gathered wild, and used as pot-herbs. Cabbages are culti- vated, and they attain a great size : onions, pompions, water-melons, and capsicum, are also grown, (Notes, &c. 125.) SUBSECT. 4. Russian Gardening, in respect to the Culture of Timber-trees and Hedges. 273. Forest or hedge planting is scarcely known in Russia. There are yet abundance of natural forests for timber and fuel, and in the northern parts where no system of pas- turage can take place, enclosures are not now, and probably never will be, of any use. Hedges are in use in the gardens of the capital, and of the city of residence. The time is not yet come for planting the sides of the high-roads, though that would be a grand feature of improvement. In some governments, towards the south, this has been partially done in a few places, by stakes of the silvery-leaved, or Huntingdon willow (Salix alba], but the trembling poplar, birch, and lime, are the proper trees for the northern parts, and the cherry, alder, sycamore, oak, elm, walnut, &c. may be introduced in advancing southwards. SUBSECT. 5. Russian Gardening, as empirically practised. 274. The very limited use of gardens in this country has been already noticed. Few are to be seen attached to the isbas, or log-houses of the boors, and not many to the rich privileged slaves, or the native freedmen of the towns. There is no such thing as a Rus- sian farmer ; every proprietor farms the whole of his own estate by means of his slaves and an agent. The greater part of these proprietors have no gardens, or if they have, they are wretched spots, containing a few borecoles, and but rarely potatoes or legumes. The use of gardens is, therefore, almost entirely confined to the imperial family, the highest class of nobles, and a few foreigners, who have settled in the principal cities. 275. There are nurseries established in different districts by government, especially in Courland and the Ukraine. In the Nitika nursery, in the Crimea, apple, pear, peach, almond, vine, fig, olive, and pomegranate plants ar.e propagated under Stevens, a Ger- man, and sold at low prices. BOOK I. GARDENING IN POLAND. Gl 276. The head operative gardeners of Russia are almost all foreigners or sons of foreigners. Sometimes a nobleman sends a slave as an apprentice to a gardener, for his own future use ; but generally the assistant labourers are mere Russian boors, slaves of the lord ; or other slaves who have obtained permission to travel and work on their own account for a few years. These boors make very tractable labourers ; for the Russian is imitative and docile, to a high degree. They require, however, to be excited by interest or fear. The freed slaves on the government estates in the Ukraine, Mary Holderness informs us (Notes on the Crimea, &c. 1821.), dig sitting and smoking. 277. The garden-artists of Russia are the English or German head-gardeners attached to the establishment of the emperor, or of some eminent noble. Gould, Potemkin's gardener, was the Brown of Russia in Catherine's time. This man had a character in some degree analogous to that of his master ; he lived in splendor, kept horses and women, and gave occasionally entertainments to the nobility. A few years ago he returned to England, and died at an advanced age in 1816, at Ormskirk in Lancashire, his native town. A foreigner once established as head-gardener to the emperor, or any of the first nobility in Russia, becomes in some degree a despot, like his master, and unless he commits very gross errors indeed his conduct is never enquired into, nor does he lose his place but with life, or return home. He is not very liberally paid, but he enjoys every comfort the state of society there affords ; lives in a house that would be reckoned a considerable mansion in England, and has abundance of servants, and a carriage and horses, at his command. His country, and its broad cloth, procure him the respect of the nobles, and the dread of the slaves ; the former he may render tributary by presents of seeds, and the latter he may kick and beat at pleasure. If at any time he goes too far, a few radishes to the police-bailiffs, or a few peachei, or a melon, to the chevaliers their masters, will restore every thing to harmony. SUBSECT. 6. Russian Gardening, as a Science, and as to the Authors it has produced. 278. Science of every kind stagnates in Russia. However adroit the foreign gar- deners may be, in adapting practices to the climate, it can hardly be expected, in the circumstances in which they are placed, that they should increase the knowledge brought with them. Separated from their friends, surrounded by strangers using a language with which they never become familiar, without the means of procuring new books, and rarely coming in contact with intelligent gardeners or naturalists ; much of the know- ledge they carried with them, is unavoidably forgotten or neglected. We regret to add, that it has been remarked by various travellers, that even the moral sense of Englishmen, who settle in Russia, becomes in time contaminated by the baneful influence of Russian manners. The want of common honor and honesty which pervades all ranks of the natives in Russia, from the first minister to the meanest slave, is incredible. One won- ders at first, how such an immoral state of society can exist ; but the refined moral habits of civilised nations, like their refinements in cookery and dress, may all be traced to the simple principle of self-preservation : and as a savage can put up with a homely fare and a coarse garb, so it would appear a barbarous people may hang together by a sort of tattered moral principle. 279. We know of no original Russian author on gardening. There is a poem, On Gardens, by Samboursky, translated into the French language by Masson de Blamont : there is also a poem on glass, by the Russian poet Lomanosow, which, as containing a eulogium on hot-houses, may be considered as belonging to this subject. Some transla- tions have been published in German ; and various papers on botanical, physiological, and agricultural subjects, appear from time to time, in the Transactions of the Imperial CEconomical Society. SECT. VIII. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Poland. 280. Gardening, as an art of design, was introduced into Poland by the electoral kings about the end of the seventeenth century, and especially by Stanislaus Augustus, the third elector. 281. In respect to 'gardens in the geometric style of design, the most ancient royal ex- ample is the Jardin Electoral de Saxe. It was never completed, and is now a public garden. Le Jardin Kraszinski is another public garden ; but by far the most remarkable is that of Lazienki, or the Bath, formed by the last king, on the site of an ancient park, at Ujasdow, within the suburbs of the city. At the beginning of the reign of Stanislaus, in 1764, it was a marshy wood, planted with alders, with some canals and other stagnated pieces of water, near which was a grotesque edifice, called the Bath, and from which this park takes its name. The palace of Lazienki (fig. 25.), a beautiful piece of Roman architecture, from the designs of Camsitzer, a German artist, is placed on an island in a considerable piece of water. It consists of a centre and two wings. The centre is placed in the middle of a narrow part of the lake, and the wings are on opposite shores, and joined to the centre by arches with orangeries over. The entrance is by a carriage -portico, in one of the wings, to which you arrive without seeing the lake ; and on entering the orangery, its first effect is surprising and delightful. On the north shore of this lake is an open amphitheatre of stone with its orchestra on the brink of the water ; and near the margin an island of trees, which served as the prosce- nium. This theatre was at all times open to the public ; and in addition to the ordinary exhibitions, ships and naval engagements were occasionally exhibited. The gaiety which reigned here during the first years of the reign of Stanislaus, the singular effect of the illuminations, the ships, and the resounding of the music 68 HISTORY OF GARDENING. PART I. in the woods, arc still recollected by some of the oldest inhabitants of Warsaw, and gpofcen of with feelings of regret The grounds were not extensive, nor, excepting near the palace, much ornamented : they con- sisted of a number of broad green alleys, crossing each other at right angles ; of smaller covered paths, leading to open circles of turf for dances and music, and for tents and booths on extraordinary occasions. In several places coffee-rooms and ice-cellars were established, and still remain ; and there are two pavilions for the king's mistresses; and another, which served as a seraglio, for strangers or visitors of the king: the three being connected with the palace by arbor-like paths, or arcades of trellis work, covered by creepers. 25 One thing deserves to be remarked as to these gardens, which is, perhaps, not to be found in any others in Europe. Pedestals, as if for placing statues, were ranged in different parts of the grounds, particularly along the broad walk leading from the palace to the amphitheatre. On these pedestals on extraordinary occasions, selected living figures, male and female, dressed in character, were placed, and taught to main- tain certain attitudes, after the manner of the representations called Tableaux, and which are sometimes, though rarely, produced in private circles at Paris and Vienna on days when theatrical amusements are forbidden. It is not to be wondered at that so luxurious a king should have wanted decision of character, lost his honor, kingdom, and, in short, every thing worth having. In 1813 this seat was nearly in the state in which it was left by Stanislaus ; but we understand it has since undergone several changes. 282. The principal private garden in the ancient style was that of Villaneuve, the property of Count Stanislaus Pototcky, a few miles from the capital, but now modernised. Judging from the excellent views of these gardens, painted by B. Cannaletti, and now in the zaniosk, or castle, in Warsaw, they must have been elegant of the kind. At Cracovie there are the remains of a geometric garden, of a few acres, laid out by Marshal Loudon, when Austrian governor of that city ; one of a convent of some extent, and a small public garden. But in the south of Poland, and especially in Gallicia, the only thing remark- able as to design in gardens, is the powerfully walled enclosures of the convents and religious houses, in some of which are venerable orchards, broad grass-walks, mossy trees, and curious sun-dials. 26 283. English gardening was introduced into Poland by the Princess Isabella Czartoryska, at Pulhawa. This lady, highly accomplished, of great taste, and much good sense, had been a considerable time in England. She carried to Poland a gardener, Savage, and with his assistance, and that of Vogel and Frey, artists of Warsaw, she laid out Pulhawa, between 1780 and 1784, and published in Polish (Mysli Rozne o Sposobie Zakladania Ogrodow) a work with plates, on English gardening, in 1 801 . The situation of Pulhawa, like almost every other with which we are acquainted in Poland or Russia, is flat and sandy ; but is somewhat relieved by the Vistula. On the brink of this river, on a wooded bank, stands the house, a plain Grecian building, which with the grounds are described by Burnet, in his view of Poland, (chap, xi.) There are several decorative buildings, and statues {jig. 26. ) ; de- tached clumps of shrubs are more frequent in these gardens than would be admitted by a good taste in England ; but all Poland is a natural forest ; and as the grand object of improvement in every country, is to obtain applause by the employment of art and expense, artificial forms, from their rarity, are better calculated for this purpose than such as are more universally beautiful, but so common locally as to want the charm of novelty, or whose beauties are too refined to be generally understood. Thus clumps in Poland may be as much esteemed as groups are in England, on the same principle, that, in a wild country, butcher-meat is more esteemed than game, because the latter is the common food. Zamoyst the seat of Count Zamoski, and Villaneuve the residence of Count Potocky, are also examples of the modern style. The first are of limited extent, but the latter, near Warsaw, are very extensive, and were laid out chiefly from the designs of Princess Czartoryska. The gardens of General Benningsen, near Wilna, were in a mixed style, surrounded by oak and pine forests. They were destroyed during the retreat of the French army in 181. Those of Colonel Lachanitzki, at Poniemenia, on the banks of the Niemen, at Grodno, are not extensive, but contain more romantic and picturesque scenery than any garden we have seen in Poland. 284. The oldest botanic garden in Poland is that of Wilna, founded by Catherine, soon after the dismemberment of that country ; the most thriving is that of Cracovie, placed in 1812 under the direction of Professor Oestricher, a zealous botanist. A garden was also begun about 1810, in Warsaw, on the steep banks of the Vistula. Of the original BOOK I. GARDENING IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 68 Warsaw garden, of which a catalogue was published towards the middle of the last cen- tury, we could, in 1813, procure no account. Count Benningsen had an excellent botanic garden at his seat near Wilna, which, as already observed, was destroyed and the chateau burned down in 1812. It was rich in hardy plants. At Pulhawa the Princess Isabella Czartoryska has a considerable collection, and used frequently to send her gardener (Savage), lately deceased, to England to procure the newest exotics. 285. A few flowers are cultivated in some of the wealthier citizens' gardens, around War- saw, and a few in gardens of the conventual institutions ; but in a general point of view, they are as uncommon in Poland as in Russia. In both countries a few may occasionally be seen on market-days, which have been gathered in the fields, and brought in by the peasants ; these are purchased by the minor nobles to decorate their rooms, by the monks to display on their altars, or by devotees to present to the virgin or the image of their patron saint. The floors of the higher classes, in Poland, are often strewed with the leaves of the Acorus calamus, which abounds in the marshes of that country. In some districts, towards Courland, the spray of the spruce fir is used for this purpose ; a practice, as Mary Woolstonecraft has remarked, common in Sweden and Norway. 286. The horticulture of Poland is at a very low ebb : excepting in a few of the noble- men's gardens and those of the richest monasteries, there was till lately no vegetable but the kohl rabi, and no fruit but the apple, pear, and cherry. Towards the sea-coast, and on the borders of Austria, there is greater variety. The potatoe is now in more general use in Poland than in Russia, though a slight prejudice still exists against it, from its having been introduced by the Germans. The cucumber is cultivated in many places for salting, or preserving by barrelling and sinking the barrel in their wells. In some places, the common carnation poppy is grown for the seed, which taken when beginning to ripen, and strewed on a sort of milk-porridge, or milk-paste, made from the meal of buck-wheat, or Polish millet (Dactylon sanguinale), is reckoned a delicacy. Bees are kept by some of the freed men or minor nobles. The Polish hives and mode of taking the honey, to be afterwards described, are exceedingly simple, and never requiring the death of the insects, seem preferable to any mode of bee-culture yet devised by the bee-masters of other coun- tries. Hirschfield mentions, that the gardens of Prince Casimir Poniatowski, elder brother of the last king, contained at one time 5000 annanas, in a range of hot-houses 600 feet long. In 1813, the only pines grown in Poland, were a few at Pulhawa, and some grown by a German, who rented the hot-houses belonging to the late king's establishment at Warsaw. Only one or two instances then existed of vines and peaches being grown near the capital, but there were abundance of these and other fruits at Pulhawa and Zamoyst, and some few at Villaneuve. The Polish noblemen have gained in every kind of knowledge from having been so long a period in the French service ; and since the re- establishment of peace, they have set about agricultural and gardening improvements, with a considerable degree of energy. 287. Planting in Poland is but little required for purposes of utility. Some public avenues have been formed near Warsaw and Posen ; and the elm, one of the best avenue trees, thrives at both places. There are scarcely any hedges in the country, excepting in gardens and near towns. 288. Original Polish authors on gardening are not to be expected : but translations of various works on rural economy were pointed out to us in the library of the Dominicans, at Grodno ; but the only Polish work on gardening, which may be considered as original, we believe to be Mysli Rozne o Sposobie Zakladania Ogrodow, &c. 1808 ; or, " Various Thoughts on the Manner of planting Gardens," by Princess Isabella Czartoryska. SECT. IX. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Spain and Portugal. 289. The love of gardens, or of rural life, it is alleged by Hirschfield, is far from being general in Spain : not however from lightness of character or bad taste, but from a kind of supineness which cannot be better described than by calling it Spanish. This supine- ness is the more incomprehensible, as the country, though desert and uncultivated in many places, is yet full of natural charms in others, thus indicating as it were a field of exertions for the hand of man. In many provinces, Puente informs us, one may travel several leagues without seeing a tree, and according to the same author, the environs of Madrid neither present pavilions nor country-houses, and it was not till towards the end of the eighteenth century that they began to repair the roads around the capital, and border them with trees. 290. The Arabs of Spain attended to agriculture, translated and commented on the ancient authors, and though they occupied themselves more particularly in the study of medicine and botany, they did not neglect the culture of gardens. Many of them travelled to their brethren in Asia, to pursue natural history, and bring plants to Europe. Ebn-Alwan has left us a list of plants in the garden of Seville, in the eleventh century, 64 HISTORY OF GARDENING. PART I. which are more numerous than those which were cultivated by the Greeks and Romans. The recent substitution of a representative for a despotic government, so happily brought about ( 1 820), can hardly fail of acting as a stimulus to exertion in our art, in common with every other. SUBSECT. J . Spanish Gardening, as an Art of Design and Taste. 291. The oldest garden in Spain is said to be that of the Moorish palace of Alcazar, near Seville ; the greater part of this palace was constructed by Peter the Cruel, between the years 1353 and 1364, who exactly copied the Arabian style of the ancient part of the edifice ; and the remainder was erected by Charles V. The outside of the Alcazar is miserable in its appearance, but the first court after entering the gate has a very grand effect; the part looking into that court is purely Arabic in its style, though ascertained to have been constructed since the conquest by the Christians. The courts are orna- mented with marble fountains, and are well shaded with corridors, supported by marble pillars. The garden of the Alcazar is said to have been laid out by the Moors, and is preserved in its original state. It contains walks paved with marble, parterres laid out with evergreens, and shaded with orange-trees. In many parts of it there are baths, supplied by marble fountains from an aqueduct, and they have a contrivance for ren- dering the walks one continued fountain by forcing up small streams of water from minute pipes in the joinings of the slabs, which in this climate produces a most grateful effect. As a specimen of an Arabian garden in its original state, this is an interesting object, and we naturally associate with it recollections gathered from the Eastern writers ; especially from the Song of Solomon, in which the descriptions very well agree with this garden ; for, in addition to the other circumstances, it is completely walled round, and is secluded from every one, except the inhabitants of one part of the palace. (Jacob's Travels in the South of Spain.) 292. The remains of a reputed Moorish garden still exists at Grenada, another residence of the Arabian kings. It is situated on the Serra del sol, or mountain of the sun, occu- pies above twenty acres, is covered with wood cut into quarters by straight and winding walks, and interspersed with fountains ; the latter sometimes ostentatiously displayed, and at other times secreted so as to escape notice till they are brought to play on the spectator, and raise a laugh at his expense. Sir John Carr mentions that they take a particular delight in playing off these reversed showers which rise from the principal walks and places of repose, against the ladies. Several of these fountains, and many of the walks were formed by Charles V., so that excepting certain venerable cypresses, and the old palace, no other part can with certainty be traced to the days of the Moorish kings. 293. In the beginning of the jifteenth century, soon after the union of Spain under one monarch, Charles V. made considerable improvements, and formed gardens and foun- tains at different palaces, of which little now remain. 294. In the beginning of the seventeenth century, under the reign of Philip IV. were laid out the finest gardens in Spain. These are the gardens of the Escurial in Madrid, of Ildephonso in its neighbourhood, and of Aranjuez near Toledo. Evelyn in 1667, being anxious to receive some account of them, writes to the Earl of Sandwich, then the English ambassador at Madrid, who answers him in such a way that Evelyn was " ex- ceedingly affected with the descriptions, and greatly instructed in many particulars." The gardens of the Escurial adjoin the palace from which you descend to them by vast terraces and stairs of marble varied by fountains. The garden, or rather park below, is of great extent, and the compart- ments formed by the intersection of the alleys, are filled with different sorts of fruit-trees. This is the gene- ral outline, and for the details of the statues, fountains, trellis-work, basins, &c. we must refer the reader to Thompson's Description of the Escurial , or the art. Escurial, in the Encyc. Brit. The garden of Ildephonso is situated around a summer-house, or Chateau de plaisance of that name; and here nature and art, says P. Caimo (Lettres d'un vago Italiano, &c.), combine to spread their respec- tive beauties, and render this garden as magnificent as agreeable. Fountains, jets-d'eau, canals, temples, covered seats, cabinets, bowers, grottoes, labyrinths, pastures, hedges of myrtle and laurel, are so distributed as to produce the best effect. The water is collected in streams from the surrounding mountains, and made to unite in a torrent which precipitates itself into an immense reservoir. Hence, from this abundant source, the fountains are as powerful as numerous, and no species of artificial ornament is omitted that can embellish a garden. The alleys are very long, some of them three fourths of a league. Most of them are kept shorn on the sides forming a thick close surface from the ground to the summits of the trees, and statues are placed at regular distances. The garden of Ildephonso occupies a ridge, rising to the south, and falling both to the east and to the west. Near the palace it is laid out in the old taste, with clipped hedges and straight walks, highly adorned and refreshed with numerous fountains; but in proportion to the distance it becomes more wild, till it ter- minates in the uncultivated and pathless forest, where the craggy rocks appearing among oaks and pines, pre- sent a striking contrast with the works of art. This garden, Townsend observes, is delightful for its walks, which although shady, are neither damp nor gloomy ; and if it be true that beauty is founded on utility, this place will always deserve to be admired. In the present day, it is not uncommon to build the mansion in the middle of a field, open and exposed to every wind, without shelter, without a fence, wholly unconnected with the garden. Near the habitation all is wild ; and art, if any where, appears only at a distance. In all this we can trace no utility, nor will succeeding generations discover beauty. On the contrary in the gar- den of St. Ildephonso, we find every thing, which in a sultry season is desirable ; a free circulation of air, a deep shade, and refreshing vapors to absorb the heat ; whilst from its contiguity to the mansion the access to it is easy, and at any time these comforts may be instantly enjoyed ; yet without their numerous BOOK I. GARDENING IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 65 fountains, the clipped hedges, and the narrow walks, the circulation would be less rapid, the shade less deep, and the refreshing vapor would be wanting. (Townsend's Travels in Spain, i. 360.) Of the palace and gardens of Aranjuez, Baretti observes (Tour in 1776, vol. ii.), " that a poet would say, that Venus and Love had here consulted with Catullus and Petrarch, in order to construct a country- residence worthy of Psyche, of Lesbia, of Laura, or of some Infanta of Spain." The park, which is several leagues in circumference, is intersected by alleys, three, and even four m iles in length ; these alleys are formed of double rows of elms, and are sufficiently wide for four carriages to drive abreast. On each side, between the rows of trees, is a canal kept clear by a continual stream which passes through it. This water has contributed to render the trees of an enormous size and thick verdure from top to bottom. The com- partments, or islands, formed by the alleys and the canals, are covered with copse, and occupied with deer, but verges into an open hilly country. The palace is near the centre of the park, on the margin of the river, and both banks are united by a bridge of five arches. In front of the palace is an immense cir- cular level lawn, ornamented with four trees in its centre. On the whole, according to Baretti's description this must have been the finest park in the old style in the world. 295. Of private gardens, a few are mentioned by Townsend, and Sir John Carr, some as belonging to British merchants, and situated round the principal sea-ports, and a few to Spanish nobles in the interior. At the Retiro, near Malaga, a seat of Couut Villacasa, and formerly a royal residence, are gardens in the Moorish style, with straight cypress walks, and excellent water-works. The archbishop of Valencia has a country-house and beautiful gardens at Puzol, near the city. The hermitages of Montserrat, near Tarra- gona, abound in oak, olives, ash, elm, box, myrtle, eglantine, jessamine, rosemary, lavender, thyme, and other aromatic shrubs and plants, tastefully disposed among the rocks and declivities, by the hand of nature, with very little assistance from man. Granjas, the seat of Don Ramon Fortuny, near Tarragona, appears to be in good taste, combining the ancient style with the cultivation of the orange, fig, vine, olive, and other fruits, and with an accidental mixture of rocks and picturesque scenery. A very interesting engraving of this peculiar and beautiful residence is given by Sir John Carr, in his travels in Spain ; the doors of the dining-room, he informs us, open into a small garden, the walls of which are covered with myrtles, jessamines, and roses, and the view is over an orchard of olives, oranges, and pomegranates. In the centre of the garden are grotesque water- works. We are not aware of any attempt to introduce the modern style of landscape-gardening in this country. 296. Gardening in Portugal is very little attended to as an art of taste. Travellers mention a few villas belonging to merchants in the neighbourhood of Lisbon ; and, as usual, there are some avenues or public walks near the town. Montserrat, near Cintra, a seat of the late eminent merchant, Beckford, was formed at immense expense by a na- tive of Cornwall for M. de Vismes, and further improved by the former gentleman. It is laid out in the geometric style ; abounds in inequalities, stairs, terraces, statues, and orange-trees. Of late, we are informed, it has been much neglected. Repton (Frag, on Lands. Card. 1815,) gives an engraving of a plan which he had sent out to Lisbon, for laying out a small garden in the modern style. SUBSECT. 2. Spanish and Portuguese Gardening, in respect to the Culture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament. 297. The study of plants is of great antiquity in Spain. This study was introduced by the Arabs ; there was a considerable collection of plants at Seville early in the eleventh century ; and half the common plants of the country, Harte informs us, have names derived from the Arabic. The succeeding seven centuries present a blank in this branch of gardening history. According to Deleuze, the taste shown for botany in Spain and Portugal, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, declined with the sciences ; and that country where they had been cultivated when the rest of Europe was in a state of barbarism, appeared to sink into apathy, after having shone with the greatest eclat under Charles the Fifth and Emanuel of Portugal. 298. The public garden of Madrid was established in 1753. Ferdinand the Sixth gave its direction to his first physician, Don Joseph Sagnol. He bought the private garden of Don Joseph Queer, who cultivated at home a great number of foreign plants : he named this botanist professor, and added Don Jean Minuart. At the same time, he arranged instructions for travellers going to America, and ordered them to bring home seeds, and to add the indication of the climate, and the nature of the soil where they collected them. They also sent travellers with particular orders to make collections of vegetables. It is from these treasures that the royal garden of Madrid has become the nursery of the plants of Peru, Mexico, and Chili ; and from thence they have been sent to other gardens of Europe. The same king, Sir J. E. Smith informs us (Suppt. Encyc. JBrit. art. Botany), invited Linnseus, with the offer of a large pension, to superintend a college formed for the purpose of making new enquiries into the history of nature and the art of agriculture. Linnaeus, as appears by his correspondence, recommended Lrefling. 299. A taste for flowers and plants of ornament is not very general in Spain, though odoriferous flowers, as the jessamine, the orange, &c. are said to be in repute with the ladies ; and various sorts are grown in the conventual gardens of the priests, for official decorations in churches and oratories. 300. The botanic garden of Coimbra in Portugal was founded in 1773. F 66 HISTORY OF GARDENING. PART I. SUBSECT. 3. Spanish and Portuguese Gardening, in respect to its horticultural Productions and Planting, 301. Horticulture has made but little progress in Spain. The earliest of the few Spanish authors who have written on gardens, is Herrera, whose book on rural economy appeared early in the seventeenth century. It contains a treatise on gardens (De las Huertas], in which he distinguishes only two sorts; one for " delight and provision for the house," and the other for supplying the public market. Private gardens, he says, need not be extensive ; those for selling vegetables and fruits should be near a town or village, and well supplied with water. He gives directions for cultivating the vine, fig, olive, apple, pear, and the common culinary plants. Of these, the soil and climate are peculiarly favorable to the alliaceous and cucurbitaceous tribes, some sorts of which, as the onion and winter-melon, form articles of foreign commerce. 302. The fruits of Spain are more numerous than those of any other European country. Besides all those of Italy, native or acclimated, Spain possesses the date, tamarind, and various fruits of the West Indies. The varieties of the grape, fig, melon, and orange are numerous, and many of them excellent. The pine-apple is little cultivated in Spain ; but is grown in a few places, in the southern provinces (Jacob}, in the open air. 303. Culinary herbs and roots are not much attended to in Spain. Onions and garlic are in universal use ; and the sweet potatoe (Convolvulus batatus) is cultivated in various places. The British residents import their potatoes from their native country. 304. Forcing is unknown in Spain, but there are hot-houses for plants at Madrid, and at Coimbra and Montserrat in Portugal. 305. Planting timber-trees or hedges is scarcely known in either Spain or Portugal. SECT. X. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in European Turkey. 306. Of Turkish gardening, when the country was under the Romans, nothing is known. The Roman taste would pass to Byzantium when the seat of empire was removed there in the fourteenth century by Constantine ; but as to its history when the rest of Europe was enveloped in ignorance and superstition, very little is known. The numerous Greek authors on rural matters (Geoponici), who wrote between the fourth and fourteenth centuries, do little more than copy Columella and other Latin georgical writers ; they mention very few plants as ornamental, and treat chiefly of agriculture, vineyards, and poultry. 307. The modern taste for gardens in Turkey is materially influenced by their national character, and the nature of the climate. Gardens of taste are considered places of shade, repose, and luxurious enjoyment ; not of active recreation, or a varied display of verdant scenery. " For some miles round Adrianople," Lady M. W. Montague observes, in 1717, " one sees nothing but gardens. The rivers are bordered with fruit-trees, under which the citizens divert themselves in the evenings ; not in walking, which is not a Turkish pleasure, but in seating themselves on a carpet spread on the turf, under the thick shade of a tree ; there they take coffee, and smoke amidst vocal or instrumental music, groups of dancing females, and other sports." 308. The gardens of the sultan at Constantinople acquired a degree of celebrity through the letters of Lady M. W. Montague, to which, it appears from subsequent authors who have examined them, they are by no means entitled. These gardens were visited by Dr. Pouqueville in 1798, and it is generally allowed that he has described them with as little imagination and as much accuracy as any writer. The grand seignior's gardener was then a German, a native of Rastadt, by name Jaques, whose salary was 6000 piastres a-year. He conducted Dr. Pouqueville and his companion between the first and second ram- parts of the town, which form the natural fortifications of the seraglio on the side to the sea. Tfie palace is, properly speaking, a town within itself, having its walls crowned with battlements, and its bastions and its gates, like an old fortified place. Dr. Clarke says, that the seraglio occupies the whole site of the ancient Byzantium ; and Pouqueville, that the present manege is placed where there was a hippo- drome at the time of the lower empire ; so that the destination of the place has not been much altered for the last fifteen hundred years. The first garden they saw was a place enclosed on three sides, with a palisade, the fourth side being formed by the rampart. It was filled with shrubs ; such as early roses, heliotropes, and others, distributed in clumps, with several beams, and a great deal of rubbish lying about. At last they arrived at the entrance of the sultan's garden. The gateway to the gardenia of white marble, about fifteen feet high, by four wide, decorated with columns, in a very bad taste. A treillage, twenty-five feet high and fifteen wide, extremely massy, forms a cross, running each way, from one side to the other of the garden, dividing it into four equal divisions. In the centre of the cross, it forms a dome over a small basin of white marble, in which \sajet-tfeau Jaques ordered some of the men to make it play, but the water did not rise above six feet It was, indeed, an exhibition much below mediocrity- The four squares formed by this cross, are planted with flowers, and in the middle of each are basins again, with jets-est sorts of Seville and Portugal. And thus much I could not but say in defence of our climate, which is so much and so generally decried abroad. The truth is, our climate wants no heat to produce excellent fruits ; and the default of it is only the short season of our heats and summers, by which many of the latter are left behind, and im- perfect with us. But all such as are ripe before the end of August are, for aught I know, as good with us as any where else. This makes me esteem the true regions of gardens in England to be the compass of ten miles about London ; where the incidental warmth of air, from the fires and steams of so vast a town, makes fruits, as well as corn, a great deal forwarder than in Hampshire or Wiltshire, though more southward by a full degree." SECT. II. Influence of Climate and Manners on Gardening, as an Art of Design and Taste. 526. Taste in gardening depends jointly on the state of society, and on climate. Since the introduction of the modern or natural style of gardening into Britain, it has been a common practice to condemn indiscriminately every other taste as unnatural and absurd. If by unnatural, an allusion is made to the verdant scenery of uncultivated nature, we allow that this is the case ; but we would ask, if for that reason, it follows that ancient gardens were not as natural and reasonable in their day, as any of the man- ners and customs of those times? Gardening, as a liberal art, is destined to create scenes, in which both beauty and use are combined ; admitting, therefore, that both styles are alike convenient, to say that the modern only is beautiful, is to say that there is only one sort of beauty adapted to gardening ; or that there is no beauty but that of the picturesque ; or that all former ages, and every country, excepting Britain, is in a state of barbarism with respect to this art. If we take the term natural in a more exten- sive sense, and apply it to the climate, situation, condition, and manners of a people ; and if we allow these to be natural, why may not their gardening be natural, as well as their particular customs and dress ? The gardening we now condemn so unreservedly, BOOK II. IN DIFFERENT CLIMATES. 115 has subsisted, as we have seen, from the earliest ages in warm climates; and still pre- vails there, as well as in more temperate countries, whose inhabitants are not altogether ignorant of the modern style. It may, therefore, be said to have grown up with man- kind, and at all events must be perfectly suited to the wants and wishes of the inhabit- ants of such countries. 527. The fitness and beauty of any style must depend on the purposes to which it is applied, and the kind of rural beauty already prevalent in the country of its adoption. The gardens of the cast, we have every reason to believe, were used more as arbors or conservatories are in tnis country, than as places of exercise and active enjoyment. The object was repose, indolent re- creation, sedentary or luxurious enjoyment. To breathe the fresh air, shaded from a tropical sun ; to inhale the odor of flowers ; to listen to the murmur of breezes or fountains ; to the singing of birds ; or to observe the minute beauties of the surrounding foliage, were, and still continue to be, the ordinary class of beauties desired in an eastern garden. A higher and more voluptuous kind, consisted in using it as a banqueting-place, bath, or seraglio, as is still the case in Turkey and Persia ; in feasting the eyes with the sight of dancing beauties ; in ravishing the ears with concerts of vocal or instrumental music, and in firing every sense with wine. Exercise was incompatible with that languor of body, which is attendant on a warm climate and a distant prospect ; inconsistent with security from wild beasts, and that privacy which selfishness or jealousy might dictate. " The Persians," Chardin observes, " do not walk in gardens o much as we do, but content themselves with a bare prospect, and breathing the fresh air. For this reason, they set themselves down in some part of the garden at their first coming in, and never move from their seats till they are going out of it." (Travels, ch. vi.) " Nothing surprises the people of the East Indies so much as to see Europeans take pleasure in exercise. They are astonished to see people walk who might sit still." (Kinderley 's Letters from the East Indies, p. 182.) Add to this, that the natural surface of warm countries is generally so parched with heat, as to be far less agreeable to look on than the verdure of a limited space, kept luxuriant by water. " Before the end of May," Russel remarks, " the whole country round Aleppo putfc on so parched and barren an aspect, that one would scarcely think it capable of produc- ing any thing but the very few plants which still have vigour enough to resist the extreme heats." (Russers Aleppo, p. 13.) If to these we subjoin the use of fruit, and, what is common to every exertion of man, a desire of obtaining applause for the employment of wealth and skill, we shall include every object sought in an eastern garden. An eastern garden, therefore, appears to have been a collection of all those beauties found scattered about in general nature, in order to adapt them to the use and enjoyment of man. 528. The plan of an eastern garden was well calculated to attain the ends in view. Moderate extent and immediate connection with the house, are necessary and obvious ingredients in their design. The square form was adapted for the enclosure as the sim- plest ; the trees ranged in rows, to afford continuity of shade ; and the walks laid out parallel between them, to admit uninterrupted progress ; that walk parallel to, and close under the house, as a raised platform or terrace, to give elevation and dignity to the house, to give the master a commanding view of the garden, and to serve as a connecting link between art and comparative nature. By leaving open plots or squares of turf in the areas, formed by intersecting rows of trees, a free circulation of air would be faci- litated ; and the same object, as Pliny informs us, is promoted by the quincunx, which admits the breeze from every quarter of the compass more readily than any other dis- position. A picturesque or natural arrangement, would have stagnated the air, and defeated one of the grand purposes in view. The same reasons would guide them in their choice of spreading broad-leaved trees; and to thicken their boughs, or deprive them of such branches as were too low, or tended to destroy the balance of the tree, the pruning-knife would be occasionally applied. Water in every form suggests the idea of coolness ; but agitated in cascades, fountains, or jets-d'eau, it is used to the best ad- vantage, and the heat of the atmosphere is moderated in proportion to the evaporation which takes place. In still ponds or basins it lias another property, that of reflecting the objects around it. Buildings, as arbors, aviaries, covered seats, banqueting-houses, baths, and grottoes, would become requisite for their respective uses, and would abound in pro- portion to the wealth or rank of the owner. Fruit-trees would be introduced in ap- propriate situations for the sake of their fruit, and a choice of odoriferous flowers and shrubs would fringe the margin of the walks, to admit of a more easy inspection of their beauties, and nearer contact of their odors with the olfactory nerves ; they would also be disposed in greater profusion, in curious knots or parterres near to the house, or in front of the resting-places or banqueting-rooms. In time, even artificial objects of value, as dials, statues, vases, and urns, would be added, in order to create as much variety and interest in a small spot as was consistent with its utility. Such we have found to be the general arrangement of eastern gardens ; and as there seems no more obvious way of attaining the wants of those to whom they belonged, we may pronounce it to be perfectly reasonable and natural. 529. As to the more extensive paradises or parks in which wild beasts were admitted, and even whole regiments exercised, we have but few authentic particulars respecting them. Those of Assyria must be regarded as royal extravagancies, calculated to excite astonish- ment and admiration at their magnitude, and the art and expense employed in their construction ; and if any reliance is to be placed in the account given by ancient authors of the hanging gardens of Babylon, their design will be found singularly to unite this object with the minor beauties of the confined garden ; to combine the splendor of mag- nificence with the delights of the justest feelings of nature. They were situated over, or according to some, adjoining to Kin Fusiform perennial. _v. Annual. 5 ^ BtVnma/. Annual grass. fSciiaminoHS plant. vP^* Aquatic. /{* Parasite. \& Succulent. LJ Bark-store. I Dry-stoie. LJ Gretn-hctise. 1 Frame. |^j BarAr time deciduous tree. i^? Dry-ttove deciduous shrub. CCK Green-Aotae aquatic. LfiL frame 2. - - 12. together, - J C Papaveraceas, I Crucifera?, &c. tals in- * serted in Ovary solitary, 1 placenta cen- r 3. - 16. C Caryophyllea?, I Lineae, &c. Dicoty- the re- tral, - - - J ledonea?, ceptacle, Fruit in scat- having tered cells, t" SimaroubeaD, the calyx- but joined on 4. - 2. t Ochriacea?. Cotyledoneas ; and co- the same furnished with two or more cotyle- dons, or seed- rolla dis- tinct, - Pistils free, adhering 1 inserted in . base, - --. or more or less ogether, always the calyx, - - - 5. Calyciflora?, 36. r Terebintacea>, -? Leguminosae, I &c. lobes, - - Stamens adhering to a co-~ rolla, which is not attached - 6. Corolliflora?, 16. C Oleinas, Jasmi- I. neae, &c. to the calyx, * Calyx and corolla forming only a single" envelope, El. Monochla- ~i -.,, myde*, j 16 ' f Plumbagineae, I Plantagineae, &c. Monocotyle- "| 'Jtth I In which the is visible, neco - 1 In which the fructification is concealed, tyledon, or seed-lobe, - J 8. Phanerogameaa, 18. 9. Cryptogameae, 5. Naiadea?, liaceas, &c. Acotyledo- nea? ; vege- table beings composed of With leafy expansions, and known "I 1ft v n r, artiat a f Musci, Hepa- a cellular tis- sexes, J ll LeJB " * \ ticae. sue unprovi- sels.andof Without leafy expansions, and not of) ,, . f Lichenea?, Hypo- which the known sexes, - - - - - j 1L A P h yUe*> - * j xyloneae, Agan- embryo is c ce * A1 8 ffi - without coty- ledons, The names of the classes are of very little consequence in this method, and the number of orders is not to be considered as fixed. That part of a system so new and so comprehensive necessarily admits of much improvement by perfecting the groups, the progress to which will more frequently be attained by subdi- viding than by uniting. The names of the orders indicate at the same time examples of each, as Ranunculacea?, Ranunculus, &c. SECT. I. The Hortus Britannicus arranged according to the Linncean System, 588. The plants grown in Britain, whether native or exotic, are thus arranged according to the lAnneean system. The genera, of which there are species natives of the country, are here marked (*), for the sake of those who may wish to arrange a herbarium or growing collection of indigenous plants according to this method. The authorities followed are, Sweet's Hort. Suburb. Land. 1818, and Smith's Comp. Flora Brit. 1816. CLASS I. Monandria. Stamen 1. Containing only two Orders. 1. Monogynia. Style 1. Containing of the natural order of Jussieu, Cannece, the genera Canna, Maranta, Thalia, Phry- nium ; of the beautiful order Scitanrnuxe, Hedychium, Al- pirua, Hellenia, Zingiber, Elettaria, Costus, Ktempferia, Amomum, Curcuma, Globba ; of Juncta; Philydrum ; of Onagraiite, Lopezia ; of Nyctagiaet, Boerhaavia ; of Cheno- vodetf, Pollichia; *Salicomia; of Naiadet, *Hippuris. $OGe\i. 65 Sp. 2. Digynia. Styles 2. Containing of Chempodea, Corisper- mum, Blitum ; of Naiada, * CalUtriche. 3 Gen. 5 Sp. CLASS II. Diandria. Stamens 2. Orders 3. 1. Monogynia. This, the most natural and numerous order, comprehends the elegant and fragrant Jatmineir, the Jas- mine, Lilac, Olive, &c. ; also Veronica, and a few labiate flowers with naked seeds, as Saivia, Rosemary, &c. natural allies of the fourteenth class ; but having only two stamens, they are necessarily ranged here in the artificial system It contains of Jasnunete, Nyctanthes, Jasminium ; of Oleina, *Ligustrum, Olea, Notelaea, Chionanthus, Linociera, Ornus, Syringa ; of Bignoniaceas, Catalpa ; of Thymeleit, Pimelea ; of Onagrarvf, Fontanesia, * Circaea ; of Serophu- larina, * Veronica, Gratiola, Schwenkia, Calceolaria; Acanthacea, Elytraria, Justicia, Eranthemum ; of Lenti- bularia, * Pinguicula, * Utricularia ; of Verbenacea, Galipea ; Ghinia, Stachytarpheta ; of Labiate, * Lycopus, Amethystea, Cunila, Ziziphora, Hedeoma, Monarda, Rosmarinus, * Salvia, ColBnsonia ; of Diptacea, Morina ; of A cjena. 36 Gen. 276 Sp. 2. Digyma, consists only of Gramineas, *Anthoxanthum, a grass which, having but two stamens, is separated from its natural family in the third class. 1 Gen. 2 Sp. 3. Trigynia. It contains of Piperac&e, Piper. 1 Gen. 28 Sp. CLASS III. Triandria. Stamens 3. Orders 3. 1. Monogynia. Valeriana is placed here Because most of its species have three stamens. Here also we find the sword- leaved plants, Ira, Gladialut, Ixia, &c., also Crocut, and numerous grass-like plants, Scluzniu, Cyvtrut, Scirpus, &c It contains of Dipsacett, * Valeriana, Fedia; of yyctapntir, s ; of Terebiniactte, Cneorum, Comocladia ; of gia ; of Chenopodett, Polycnemum ; of Acerina; Hij>pocratea ; of Iridett, *Crocus, Trichonema, Geissorhi/.a, Hesperantha, Sparaxis, *Ixia, Anomatheca, Tritonia, M'atsonia, Gladio- lus, Melasphterula, Antholyza, Babiana, Aristea, Witsenia, Lapeyrousia, Moraa, *Iris", Marica, Pardanthus ; of Cmn- melinete, Commelina, Aneilema, Callisia ; of Poniederea, I^eptanthus ; of Hxmodoraceie, Wachendorfia, Xjphidium, Dilatris, Hsemodorum ; of Rettiacece, Xyris ; of Cyperocets, Mariscus, Kyllinga, *Cyperus, Isolepis, *Scirpus, Kfeocharis, Rhynchospora, "Schosnus, Cladium, Trichophorum, *Eri- ophorum ; of Graminea, *N"ardus, Lygeum, Comucopiae, Cenchrus, *Sesleria, Ijmnetis. 56 Gen. 346 Sp. 2. Digynia. This important order consists of the true Grasses. Their habit is more easily perceived than defined ; their value, as furnishing herbage for cattle, and ^rain for man, is sufficiently obvious. No poisonous plant is found among them, except the LoKum temulentum, said to be intoxicating and pernicious in bread. Their genera are not easily denned. Linnaeus, Jussieu, and most botanists, pay regard to the BOOK I. LINN^EAN HORTUS BRITANNICUS. 131 number of florets in each spikelet; but in Arundo this Is of no moment. Magnificent and valuable works on this family have been published in Germany by the celebrated Sclireber and by Dr. Host. The Ft. Grata also is rich in this depart- ment, to which the late Dr. Sibthorp paid great attention. Much is to be expected from scientific agriculturists; but nature so absolutely, in general, accommodates each grass to its own soil and station, that nothing is more difficult than to overcome their habits, insomuch that few grasses can be generally cultivated at pleasure It contains of Graminett, Trichodium, Sporobolus, *Agrostis, * Knappia, Perotis, *Polypogon, *Stipa, Trisetum, *Avena, *Bronius, *Fes- tuca, *Triticum, *Secale, *Hordeum, *Elymus, *Lolium, Koeleria, Glyceria, *Poa, Triodia, Calamagrostis, *Arundo, *Aira, *Melica, Echinaria, Lappago, Eleusine, Chrysurus, *C.vnosurus, Beckmannia, *Dactvlis, Uniola, *Briza, Cyno- *Phleum, Crypsis, don, *Milium, *Lagurus, > *Phalaris, Tozettia, Paspalum, Digitaria, *Panicum, ^uiu- pogon, Pennisetuui, Saccharum, Rotbollia, Michrochloa, ieersia. 50 Gen. 314 Sp. 3. Trigynia is chiefly composed of little pink-like plants, or, Caryophyllea;, as Hulosleum Tilla-a muicosa has the number proper to this order, but the rest of the genus bears every part of the fructification in fours. This, in Linnaean lan- guage, is expressed by saying the flower of Tillasa is quadri' iidiu, four cleft, and'T. mutcosa excludes, or lays aside one fourth of the fructification It contains of Restiacea;, *Eri- ocaulon ; of Portulacea, *Montia ; of Potugonca-, Kotnigia ; ofCan,op/it/Hea:,*Holosteum, *Po!ycarpon, Mollugo, Minu- artia, t^ueria, Lechea. 9 Gen. 12 Sp. CLASS IV. Tetrandria. Stamens 4. Orders 3. 1. Monogynia. A very numerous and jarious order, of which the Proteacea: make a conspicuous part ; Plantago, remark- able for its capsula circumsfissa, a membranous capsule, separating by a complete circular fissure into two parts, as in Ceittunculus, Rubia, and others of its natural order, whose stipulation is remarkable, and the curious Epintedittm, are found here. It contains of Proteacea;, Petropnila, Isopogon, Protea, Leucospermum, Mimetes, Serruria, Nivenia, Soro- cephalus, Spatalla, Persoonia, Grevillea, Hakea, Lambertia, Xylomelum, Telopea, Lomatia> Rhopala, Banksia, Dry- andra; of Globulana; Globularia, Adina; of Rubiacea;, Cephalanthus ; of Dipsacea;, *Dipsacus, *Scabiosa, Knautia ; of Nyctaginea;, Allionia, Opercularia, Cryi'tospermum ; of R Gali Spermacoce. *Sherardia, *Asperula, Houstonia, Crucianella, *Rubia, Catesbaea, Ixora, PaTetta, Bouvardia, Siderodendrum, Chomelia, Mitchella, Coccocyp- silum, Manettia, Oldenlandia ; of Rutacea;, Zieria; of tiofa- nacece, Witheringia ; of Jasminea, Penasa ; of ..... Curtisia; of Loranthticea, Ohloranthus ; of Verbenacets, /Egiphila, Callicarpa ; of Ericea; Blaeria ; of Scrophulariiutt, Buddlea, Scoparia ; of Gentianea, Exacum, Sebaea, Frasera ; of Plantaginete, *Plantago ; of Primulaceoe, Centunculus ; of Rotacea; *Sanguisorba, "Alchemilla; of Viiei, Cissus; of Berberides, Epimedium ; of Caprifolia;, "Cornus ; of Terebin- tacea, Fagara, Ptelea ; of Onagraria; Ludwigia, Isnardia ; of Salicarite, Ammannia; of Hydrocharidece, *Trapa; of Urticees, Dorstenia ; of Aroideie, Pothos; of Elosaeni, EltE- agnus ; of Sanialacea:, Santalum ; of Thymeiece, Stru- thiola ; of Clienopudea, Rivina, Camphorosma. 78 Gen. 420 Sp. 2. Digynia. It contains of Caryophyllea;, BufFonia ; of .... .... Hamamelis ; of Papaveracete, Hypecoum. 3 Gen. 5 Sp. 3. Tdragynia. It contains of Rhamni, Myginda, *Ilex, some- times furnished with a few barren flowers ; of Boraginete, Coldenia ; of Alismacete, *Potamogeton ; of Naiades, *Rup- pia ; of Caryophyllea; *Sagina, Moenchia ; of Sempervivas, *Tilla3a; ofLinece, *Radiofa. 9 Gen. 35 Sp. CLASS V. Pentandria. A very large class. Stamens 5. Orders 6. 1. Monogynia. 1 Style. One of the largest and most important orders of the whole system. It contains of Boraginea, He- liotropium, *Myosotis, Lappula, *Lithospermum, Batschia, Onosmodium, *Anchusa, * Cynoglossum, *Pulmonaria, *Symphytum, Cerinthe, Onosma, *Borago, Trichodesma, *Asperugo, *Lycopsis, *Echium, Tournefortia, Cordia, Bourreria, Ehretia, Hydrophyllum, Ellisia ; Nolana ? of Primulacea, Aretia, Androsace, *Primula, Cortusa, Solda- nella, Dodecatheon, Cyclamen, *Hottonia, *Lysimachia, *Anagallis, *Samolus, Coris, Diapensia, Pyxidanthera ; of Encece, Cyrilla, Brosstea ; of Rhodoracece, *Azalea ; of Epacridece, Sprengelia, Andersonia, Lysinema, Epacris, Mo- notoca, Leucopogon, Stenanthera, Astroloma, Styphelia ; of Phembaginea, Plumbago; of Convoluulacece, *Convolvulus, Calystegia, Ipomoea, Retzia ; of Bignoniaceat, Cobcea ; of Poltmoniaceoe, *Polemonium, Phlox, Ipomopsis, Caldasia; of Buttneriacea:, Lasiopetalum ; of .......... Galax ; of of Thymeiece, Scopolia; of Campanulacea, Lightfootia, *Campanula, Roella, Phyteuma, Trachelium, Jasione, *Lobelia, Cyphia; of Goodenovits, Goodenia, Euthales, Scaevola, Dampiera; of Rubiacea;, Cinchona, Pinckneya, Mussaenda, Portlandia, Genipa, Gardenia, Oxyanthus, Randia, Webera, Erithalis, Morinda, Nauclea, Cephaelis, Hamellia, Rondeletia, Macrocnemum, Vanguiera, Dentella, Serissa, Psychotria, Coftea, Chiococca, Paederia, Plocama ; of Caprijiihie, *I-onicera, Symphoria, Diervilla, Triosteum, *Hedera; of Cambretacex, Conocarpus; of Santalacece, Thesium ; of tiyctaginece, Mirabilis ; of Solaneae, Ramonda, *Verbascum, *Datura, Brugmansia, *Hyoscyamus, Nico- tiana, Mandragora, *Atropa, Solandra, Physalis, Nicandra, holanum, Capsicum, Cestrum, Vestia, Lycium ; of Myr- tinea, Ardisia ; of Sapoteie, Jacquinia, Achras, Chryso- phyllum, Sideroxylon, Sersalisia, Bumelia ; of Verbenacea, Tectona; of Rhamni, Elaeodendrum, *Rhamnus, Zizyphus, Celastrus, Senacia, *Euonymus, Hovenia, Ceanothus, Poma- erns, Phylica ? ]irunia, Staavia, Plectronia ; of Diosmea, Adenandra, Barosma, Diosma, Agathosma; of Pittosporece, Calodendrum, Bursaria, Billardiera, Pittosporum, Itea; of MelMf Cedrela, Leea ; of Terebintacea:, Mangifera ; of Rosace, Commersoma ; of Roiacete, *Sibbaldia. 11 Gen. 131 Sp. C. Pulygynia. It contains of Raminculacea, *Myosurus, a remarkable instance of few stamens (though they often ex- ceed five) to a multitude of pistils ; also Ceratocephalus, Zanthorhiza. 3 Gen. 3 Sp. CLASS VI. Hexandna. Stamens 6. Orders 4. 1. Monogynia. This, as usual, is the most numerous. The Liliaceous family, with or without a tpatha, called by Lin- naeus the nobles of the vegetable kingdom, constitute its most splendid ornament. The beautiful White Lily is commonly chosen by popular writers to exemplify the sta- mens and pistils. It contains of Pontederea, Pontedera . of MiMacea?, Musa, Urania; of Bromelies, Bromelia, Pitcairnia, Tillandsia, Agave, Furcro3a; of Commelinete , Tradescantia ; ricum, Arthropodium, Phalangiuni, Chforophytum, Caesia, *Narthecium, Dianella, Eustrephus, *Asparagus, Drimia, Uropetalon, * Hyacinthus, Muscari, Lachenalia, Dracaena, Phylloma, Phormium, Hypoxis, Curculigo, Cyanella; of AtnaryUidea;, Haemanthus, *Galanthus, *Leucojum, Stru- maria, Crinum, Cyrtanthus, Brunsvigia, Amaryllis, *Nar- cissus, Pancratium, Eucrosia, Doryanthes, Gethyllis; ot Hemerocallidea:, Blandfordia, Agapanthus, *Hemerocallis, Aletris, Tritoma, Veltheimia, Polianthes, Sanseviera, Tulbagia, Brodiasa ? Aloe ; of Lilia, *Fritillaria, *Lilium, *Tulipa, Alstrcemeria, Gloriosa, Yucca, Erythronium, Uvularia; of Melanthacea:, Bulbocodiur Buonapartea ; of Berberideae, Diphylleia, Nandina ; of Smila- ceas, Streptopus, *Convallaria, Smilacina, *Polygonatum, Ophiopogon ; of Hamadoraceoi, Lophiola, Lanaria, Anigo- zanthos ; of Berberidece, Leontice, Caulophyllum, *Berberis ; of Aroideie, *Acorus, Orontium, Tupistra, Peliosanthes ; Tacca ? of PalAue, Corypha, Licuala, Thrinax, Calamus ; of Juncea;, *Juncus, *Luzula ; of R hamni, Prinos ; of Rubiacea;, Hillia, Richardia ; of Campanulaceee, Canarina ; of Caryo- phyllea; Frankenia; of Salicang, *Peplis; of Gramineec, Bambusa, Ehrharta. 106 Gen. 730 Sp. 2. Digynia has but few genera It contains of Graminea;, Oryz'a, the Rice, of which there now seems to be more than one species ; of Convolvulacea;, Falkia ; of Polygonea:, Atra- phaxis. 3 Gen. 4 Sp. 3. Trigynia. It contains of Polygonex, *Rumex ; ofJuncea- 1 Flage'flaria ; of Alumacea, *Scheuchzeria, *Triglochin ; of Melanthacea:, *Tofieldia, Melanthium, *Colchicum, Helo- nias, Nolina; of SmUaceat Myrsiphyllum, Medeola, Tril- lium; of Naiades, Aponogeton ; of Paltrue, Sabal. 14 Gen. 4. Polygynia. It contains of Menispennete, Wendlandia ; of Hydro'charidca:, Damosonium ; of Alismacea;, *Actinocarpus, *Alisma. 4 Gen. 9 Sp. CLASS VII. Heptandria. Stamens 7. Orders 4. 1. Monogynia. It contains of Primulacea;, *Trientalis ; of Pedicutares, Disandra ; of Nyctaginete, Pisonia ; of Chenopodea, *Petiveria; of Accra:, ./Esculus; of Jonesia; of Aroidete, Dracontium, Calla. 8 Gen. 21 Sp. 2. Digynia. It contains of Portulacea, Limeum. 1 Gen. 1 Sp. 3. Tetragynia. It contains of Naiades, *Saururus. 1 Gen. 4. Heptagyma. It contains of Sempervivae, Septas, 1 Gen. 3 Sp. K2 132 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. CLASS VIII. OctnnJnn. Stamens S. Orders 4. 1. Mtmu^'/iiiti. A very various and rich order, consisting of the well known Ti'twrttlunt, or Nasturtium, wliose original Latin name, given from the flavor of the plant, like garden- cresses, is now become its English one in every body's mouth. The elegant and fanciful Linnqean appellation, equivalent to a trophy vlitnf, alludes to its use for decorating bowers, and the resemblance of its peltate leaves to shields, as well as of its flowers to golden helmets, pierced through and through, and stained with blood. EpUobium, with its allies, makes a beautiful part of this order ; but above all are con- spicuous the favorite Fuchsia, the American genus Vacci- nium ; the immense and most elegant genus Erica, so abundant in southern Africa, but not known in America ; and the fragrant Daphne, of which last the Levant possesses many charming species. It contains of Gerania; t Tropaeo- lum ; of Melasiomacem, Osbeckia, Rhexia ; of Onagraria:, *(Enothera, Gaura, *Epilobium; of Salicaria, Griilea, Lawsonia; of Melanthacus, Roxburghia; of Tremandrea-, Tetratheca; of Myrtacete, Jambolifera; of Diosmeae, Corraea, Boronia ; of Sat/otae, Mimusops ; of Sapindi, Ornitrophe, Dime-carpus, Melicocca, Blighia, Ephielis, Koel- reuteria? of MMa, Guarea; of Terebintacett, Amyris; Do- donaea ? of Aurantits, Ximenia; of Santalacete, Fuchsia, Memecylon ; of Myrtaceie, Baeckia; of Gentianece, *Chlora; of Campanulacetje, Michauxia ; of Papaveracece, Jeffersonia ; of Ericetf, *Oxycoccus, Calluna, * Erica ; of Rhodoracea:, *Men- ziesia; of Thymelece, Lagetta, *Daphne, Dirca, Gnidia, SteU lera, Passerina, Lachntea. 41 Gen. 163 Sp. 2. Digynia has a few plants, but little known ; among them are Galena africana, and Moehringia muscosa. The former belongs to Cfunopodete, and the latter to Caryopkylltxe. 2 Gen. 2 Sp. 3. Trigyrda. Polygonum is a genus whose species differ in the number of their stamens and styles, and yet none can be more natural. Here therefore the Linnaean system claims our indulgence. Paullinia and Cardiosptrmum are more con- stant. It contains of Polygons, *Po!ygonum, Coccoloba; of Sapindi, Paullinia, Seriana, Cardiobpermum, Sapindus. 6 Gen. 50 Sp. 4. Tetragynia. Here we find the curious Part* and Adoxa. It contains of Sempervirif, Calanehoe, Bryophyllum ; of Smilaceas, *Paris ; of Saj'ifragea; *Adoxa ; of Caryophyllecs, Elatine ; of Onagraritf, Haloragis ; of Urticea, Forskohlea. 7 Gen. 10 S P . CLASS IX. Enneandria. Stamens 9. Orders 3. 1. aonogyma. Here we find the precious genus Laurus, in- cluding the Cinnamon, Bay, Sassafras, Camphor, and many other noble plants. It contains of Laurinte, Laurus ; of Terebintacete, Anacardium ; of Polygonea, Eriogonum. 3 Gen. 20 Sp. 2. Trigyma. It contains of Polygonta, Rheum. 1 Gen. 3. Hexagyma. Containing of Butomea, * Butomus. 1 Gen. 1 Sp. CLASS X. Decandria. Stamens 10. Orders 5. 1. Monogynia. A numerous and fine assemblage, beginning with a tribe of flowers more or less correctly papilionaceous and leguminous. It contains of Leguminoste, Edwardsia, Sophora, Ormosia, Anagyris, Thermopsis, Virgilia, Cyclopia, Baptisia, Podalyria, Cnorizema, Podolobium, Oxylobium, Callistachys, Brachysema, Gompholobium, Burtonia, Jack- sonia, Viminaria, Sphserolobium, Aotus, Dillwynia, Eutaxia, Sclerothamnus, Gastrolobium, Euchilus, Pultenaea, Davie- sia, Mirbelia, Cercis, Bauhinia, Hymenasa, Cynometra, Cassia, Cathartocarpus, Parkinsonia, Poinciana, Caesalpinia, Guilandina, Hyperanthera, Hoffmanseggia, Adenanthera, Cadia, Prosopis, Hsematoxylon, Copaifera, Scholia ; of Ru- tacece, Guaiacum, Zygophyllum, Fagonia, Tribulus, Dictam- nus. Ruta ; ofDiotmea Crowea; of Solanacete, Codon; of Ertcea, Monotropa ; of Droieracete, Dionrca ; of ......... Garuga ; of Samydes, Samyda ; of Guttifera, Gomphia ; of Magnolia; f Quassia; ofAurantia, Limonia, Murray a, Cookia; of Malpightacea, Gffirtnera; of Melim, Trichilia, Ekebergia, Heynea, Melia, Swietenia; of Oiuigrariie, Jussieua; of Com- bretacea:, Getonia, Quisqualis ; of Thymelece, Dais ; of M ela- *fom;,Melastoma; ofSalicarte, Acisanthera; of RJwdora- cea, Kalmia, Ledum, Rhodora, *Rhododendron, Epigsea; of Ericete, *Vaccinium, *Andromeda, Enkianthus, Gaul- theria, *Arbutus, Clethra, Mylocaryum, *Pyrola, Chima- phila ; of Santalacea-, Bucida ; of Sapotete t Inocarpus ; of Ebenacete, Styrax. 92 Gen. 443 Sp. 2. Digynia. Here we find Saxifraga, remarkable for having the germen inferior, half inferior, and superior, in different species. It contains of Ebenaoeit, Royena ; of Portulacece, Trianthema, Scleranthus; of Cunoniacetr, Cunonia; of Sam- frageie, Hydrangea, * Chrysosplenium, * Saxifraga, Tiarella, Mitella; of Caryophyllete, Gypsophila, *Saponaria, *Di- anthus. 12 Gen. 1130 Sp. 3. Trigyrda. Contains of Caryophyllete, * Cucubalus, * Silene, *Steilaria, *Arenaria, *Cherleria; of Pol^onete, Brun- nichia ; of Ranunculacea, Garidella ; of Malpighiacas, Mal- pighia, Banisteria ? 9 Gen. 158 Sp. 4. Pentagyrda. Containing of Terebintacea f Averrhoa; Spon- dias ; of Semperviva, * Cotyledon, * Sedum, Penthorum ; of Gtraida 1 Grielum, * Oxalis ; of Caryophyllete, * Agrostemma, * Lychnis, * Cerastium, * Spergula. 1 Gen. 6. Decaeynia. Containing of Chenopodea, Phytolacca. 11 Gen. 164 Sp. CLASS XI. Dodecandria. Stamens 12 to 19. Orders 6. 1. Monogynia. A rather numerous and very various order, with scarcely any natural affinity between the genera. Some of them have twelve, others fifteen or more stamens, which should be mentioned in their characters. It contains of- Arutolochia, * Asarum ; of Papaveracee, Bocconia ; of Sa- poictr, Bassia ; of Melastomacete, Blakea ; of Rliodoraceir, Be- jaria; of Gutttfera;, Garcinia ; of Ebenacea:, Halesia ; of Myrtacex, Decumaria ; of Rhamnete, Aristotelia; of Melne, Canella ; of Capparideae, Crataeva ; of Tiliaccte, Triumfetta ; of Rutaceie, Peganum ; of Ericeas t Hudsonia ; of Ficotdete, Nitraria; of fortulaceif, Portulaca, Talinum, Anacamp- seros ; of Saticariat, * Lythrum, Cuphea ; of Malvaceae, Kleinhofia. 22 Gen. 54 Sp. 3. T 2. Digynia. Containing of Cuncmiaceee, Callicoma ; of T//'-,rw, Hehocarpus; of Rosuceir, *Agrimonia. 3 Gen. 8 Sp. Containing of C,ip,,aridea;t * Reseda; of Eu- -, * Euphorbia; of tibenaceae, Visnea. 3 Gen. Sp. 4. Tetragynia. Containing of Polygonetf, Calligonum. 1 Gen. 5. Pentagyma. Containing of Ficoidece, Glinus. 1 Gen. 1 Sp. 6. Dodecagyma. Containing of Sempervivce, *Sempervivum. 1 Gen. 17 Sp. CLASS XII. Icotandria. Stamens 20 or more, inserted into the Calyx. Orders 3. 1. Monogynia consists of fine trees, bearing for the most part stone-fruits, as the Peach, Plum, Cherry, &c. though the leaves and other parts are bitter, acrid, and sometimes very dangerous, owing to a peculiar essential oil, known by its bitter-almond flavor. The Myrtle tribe, so plentiful in New Holland, is another natural order, comprehended chiefly under Icosandria Monogynia, abounding in a fragrant ami wholesome aromatic oil. It contains of Cacti, Cactus, Rhipsalis; of Loatetr, Bartonia ; of Myrtacep, Philadelphus, Leptospermum, Fabricia, Metrosiderbs, Psidium, Kuji-niii, Caryophyllus, Myrtus, Calyptranthes, Eucalyptus, Punica ; of Rosacetp, Amygdalus, *Prunus, Armeniaca, Chryso- balanus. 18 Gen. 178 Sp. 2. Di-Pentagynia. In this order it is most convenient to in- clude such plants as have from two to five styles, and occasionally, from accidental luxuriance only, one or two more. Pyru* is an example of it. Spirtea stands here, most of its species having five styles, though some have a much greater number. Here is Mfsembryanthtmum, a vast and brilliant exotic genus, of a succulent habit, abound- ing in alkaline salt. It contains of Rosacea, Waldsteinia, * Mespilus, * Pyrus, * Cydonia, * Spiraea ; of FiaiidetF, Sesuvium, Tetragonia, Mesembryanthemum, Aizoon. 9 Gen. 303 Sp. 3. Polygynia. An entirely natural order of genuine Rosaceous flowers. Here we find Rosa, Rubus, Fragaria, Poteniilli,, Tormentilla, Geum, Dryas, and Comarum, all elegant plants, agreeing in the astringent qualities of their roots, bark and foliage, and in their generally eatable, always innocent fruit. The vegetable kingdom does not afford a satisfactory example of a natural order, composed of natural genera, than this ; and Linnaeus has well illustrated it in the Flora Lapponica It contains of Rosaces, *Rosa, *Rubus, Dali- barda, *Fragaria, *Comarum, *Potentilla, *Tormentilla, *Geum, *Dryas, Calycanthus. 10 Gen. 240 Sp. CLASS XIII. Polyandria. Stamens numerous, inserted into the Receptacle. Orders 5. 1. lUonogynia. The genera of this order form a numerous and various assemblage of handsome plants, but many are of a suspected quality. Among them are the Poppv, the Caper-shrub, the Sanguinaria caiutdenjiis, remarkable for its orange juice, like our Celandine; also the beautiful genus Cittua, with its copious but short-lived flowers, some of which have irritable stamens; and the splendid aquatic tribe of Nymphaea. It contains of Capparidex, Capparis ; Marcgravia ? of Raminculacea?, *Acta;a ; of Pavareruceie, Sanguinaria, Podophyllum, * Chelidomum, *Glaucium, *Papaver, Argemone ; of Sarracenia ; of NympfiaacciE, *Nymphaea, Nuphar, Euryale ; of Tiliuceiv, Bixa, Sloanea, Aubletia, Sparmannia, Muntingia, Grewia, *Tilia, Corchorus; of Guttifertf, Grias, Calophyllum, Mam- mea, Ochna, Elaeocarpus; of JUyrtaceie, Alangium ; of Lo asete, Mentzelia ; of Salicaria, Lagerstrcemia ; of Aitranlia; Mele ; of Cisti, Cistus, *Helianthemum. 32 Gen. 161 Sp. 2. Digynia. Containing of Bunoniacece , Bauera ; of Ameniam,-, Fothergilla ; of Magnolia t Curatella ; of Ranunculacea-, Paeonia. 4 Gen. 21 Sp. 3. Trigyrda. Containing of Dilleniacus, Hibbertia ; of Ranun- cidacea, *Delphinium, Aconitum. 3 Gen. 36 Sp. 4. Pentagynia. Containing of Ranunculacett, Cimicifuga, *Aquilegia, Nigella; of Ficoidcte, Reaumuria. 4 Gen. Is Sp. 5. Polygynia. An order for the most part natural, compre- hending some fine exotic trees, as Dillema. Liriodendron, the Tulip-tree, the noble Magnolia, &o. To these succeed a family of plants, either herbaceous or climbing, of great elegance, but of acrid and dangerous qualities, as Anemone, in a single state the most lovely, in a double one the most splendid ornament of our parterres in the spring ; Atrageiie and Clematis, so graceful for bowers; Thalictrum, Adonis, Ranunculus, Trollius, Helleborus and Caltha, all conspicuous in our gardens or meadows, which, with a few less familiar, close this class. It contains of Nympha-acea, Nelumbium ; of DiUeniacetz, Dillenia; Magnoliaceas, Liriodendron, Mag- nolia, Michelia; of Annotut, Uvaria, Illicium, Annona, Porcelia, Xylopia ; of Ranunculacea, *Hepatica, *Anemone, *Pulsatilla, Atragene, *Clematis, *Thalictrum, *Adonis, Knowltonia, *Ficaria, *Ranunculus, *TroIlius, Isopymin, Eranthis, *Helleborus, Coptis, *Caltha, Hydropeltis, ~ drastis. 28 Gen. 185 Sp. Hy- CLASS XIV. Didynanda. Stamens 2 long and 2 short. Or- ders 2, each on the whole very natural. 1. Gymnotperrnia. Seeds naked, in the bottom of the calyx, four, except in Phryma, which has a solitary seed. Corolla monopetalous and irregular, a little inflated at the base, and holding honey, without any particular nectary. Stamens in two pairs, incurved, with the style between them, so that the impregnation rarely fails. The plants of this order are mostly aromatic, and none, we believe, poisonous. The calyx is either in five nearly equal segments, or two-lipped. Most of the genera afford excellent essential characters, taken frequently from the corolla, or from some other part. It contains of Labiate, *Ajuga, Anisomeles, *Teucnum, Westringia, Satureja, Thvmbra, Hyssopus, Pycnanthemum, *Nepeta, Elsholtzia, Lavandula," SicUm-,' livstropogon, *Mentha, Perilla, Hyptis, Lepechinia, *Glechoma, *La- mium, *Galeopsis, *Galeobdolon, * Betonica, * Stachvs, *Ballota, *Marrubium, *Leonurus, Phlomis, Leucas, Le- onotis, Moluccella, *Clinopodium, *(h-iganum, *Thymtis, Acynos, Calamintha, Melissa, Dracocephalum, *Melittis, Ocymum, Plectranthus, Trichostema, Prostanthera, *Scu- tellaria, *Prunella, Cleonia, Prasium, Phryma; of Verlx- benacex, Selago. 48 Gen. 279 Sp. BOOK I. LINN^LAN HORTUS BRITANNICUS. 133 2. AngiMpermuf. Seeds in a capsule, and generally very mime- rous. The plants of this ordur have the greatest possible affinity with some fiunfflfl in Pentandria ttottogynia. Some species even vary from one class to the other, as Hignonia rtidiciiia, and Antirrhinum Liniiria, in which the irregular corolla becomes regular, and the four unequal stamens are changed to five equal ones ; nor does this depend, as has been asserted, on the action of any extraneous pollen upon the stigmas of the parent plant, neither are the seeds always abortive. No method or arrangement, natural or artificial, could provide against such anomalies as these, and therefore imperfections must be expected in every system It con- tains of Vvrbenaceef, Hebenstretia, Clerodendrum, Volka- ineria, Holmskioldia, Vitex, Cornutia, Hosta, Gmelina, Petnea, Citharexylum, Duranta, Lantana, Spielmannia, Zapania, Priva, Aloysia, * Verbena ; of M.yoporiiue, Myopo- rum, Stenochilus, Bontia, Avicennia ; of Pedamve, I'eda- lium ; of liigmniiacea:, Bignonia, Sesamum, Tourrettia, Mar- tinia; of Gesnereie, Gloxinia, Gesneria ; of Orobanchea-. *La- tlmea, *Orobanche; of Acaiithacue, Acanthus, Thunbergia, Barlerin, Kuullia, Blechum, Aphelandra, Crossandra ; of ScrophuluriiH!-, Limosella, Browallia, Stemodia, iNlazus, Lin- drnia, Herpestis, Capraria, Teedia, Besleria, Trevirana, Columnea, Kusselia, ]k>dartia, Halleria, Mimulus, Horne- inannia, *Uigitalis, *Scrophularia, Penstemon, Chelone, Celsia, Alonsoa, Maurandia, Cymbaria, Nemesia, Anarrhi- iium, *Antirrhinum, *Linaria; of Pedicularea;, *Gerardia, *Pedicularig, Melampyrum, *Rhinanthus, JJartsia, Cas- tilleja, *Euphrasia, Bucbnera, Manulea, Erinus, *3ibthorpi ; of Sulnnete ? Brunfelsia, Crescentia, Anthocercis ; of Capri- Jitliai, *Linnaea ; of Itutacax, Melianthos. 81 Gen. 346 Sp. CLASS XV. Tetradynamia. Stamens 4 long and 2 short. Orders 2, perfectly natural. Flowers cruciform 1. SUicttlusa. Fruit a roundish pod, or pouch. In some genera it is entire, as Draba ; in others notched, as Thlaspi, and Iberis. It contains of Cruciftira, *Cakile, *Crambe, *Myagrum, Euclidium, Itapistrum, Bunias, *Coronopus, BisJutVlta, Peltaria, Clypeola, *Isatis, Succowia, Vella, Anastatica, /Ethionema/*Thlaspi, *Hutchinsia, *Tees- dalia, *Iberis, *Lepidium,*Cochlearia, *Subularia, *Draba, Petrocallis, Camelma, *Alyssum, Farsetia, Vesicaria, Lu- naria, Ricotia. 30 Gen. 120 Sp. 2. tiUiquosa. Fruit a very long pod. Some genera have a calyx clausus, its leaves slightly cohering by their sides, as Raphfumt, and Cheiranthus. Others have a spreading or gaping calyx, as Carilaminc, and Sisymbrivm. Cleome is a very irregular genus, allied in habit, and even in the number of stamens of several species, to the Polyan- dria Monogynia. Its fruit, moreover, is a capsule of one cell, not the real two-celled pod of this order. Most of its species are fcetid and very poisonous, whereas scarcely any plants properly belonging to this class are remarkably noxious. Sir J. E. Smith has great doubts concerning the disease called Raphania, attributed by Linnaeus to the seeds of Ra- phanus Raphanistrum. The cruciform plants are vulgarly called antiscorbutic, and supposed to be of an alkalescent nature. Their essential oil, which is generally obtainable in very small quantities by dis- tillation, smells like volatile alkali, and is of a very acrid quality. Hence the fcetid scent of water in which cabbages, or other plants of this tribe, have been boiled. It contains of Crucifera;, Heliophila, *Cardamine, *Ara- bis, Macropodium, *Turritis, *Barbarea, *Nasturtium, CLASS XVI. JUonadelphia. Stamens united by their filaments into one tube. Orders 8, distinguished by the number of their stamens. 1. Triandria. This order contains the singular Cape plant Aphyteia, consisting of a large flower and succulent fruit, springing immediately from the root, without stem or leaves. It contains of LeguminosK, Tamarindus; of Iridete, Pa- tersonia, Ferraria, Tigridia, Galaxia. 5 Gen. 11 Sp. 2. Pentandria. Containing of Tiliacae, Waltheria, Her- mannia ; of Malvaceae, Melochia, Melhania, Ochroma ; of Passiflorea, Passiflora ; of Geraniacece, *Erodium. 7 Gen. 92 Sp. 3. Heptandria. Contains of Qeraniacea, Pelargonium. 1 Gen. 175!Sp. 4. Oclandria. Contains of Melue, Aitonia. 1 Gen. 1 Sp. 5. Decandria. Contains of Geraniacece, *Geranium ; ofLegumi- nosa, Brownea. 2 Gen. 41 Sp. 6. Dodecandria. Contains of Geraniacea;, Monsonia ; ofMalvacea, Helicteres, Dombeya, Pentapetes, Pterospermum. 5 Gen. 13 Sp. 7. Polyandria, a very numerous and magnificent order, com- prising, of Malvaceae, Carolinea, Adansonia, Bombax, La- gunea, Napfea, Sida, Cristaria, Palavia, Malachra, *A1- thffia, *Malva, * Lavatera, Ruizia, Malope, Kitaibelia, Urena, Gossypium, Hibiscus, Pavonia, Achania, Myrodia, Gordonia; of Tiliaceae, Stuartia; of Aurantice, Camellia; of Myrtacee, Barringtonia, Gustavia ; of ...... Careya. 27 Gen. 210 Sp. CLASS XVII. Diadelphia. Stamens united by their filaments into two parcels, both sometimes cohering at the base. Orders 4, distinguished by the number of their stamens. Flowers almost universally papilionaceous. 1. Pentandria. Containing of Scrophularina, Monnieria; of Legumiruace, Petalostemum. 2 Gen. 5 Sp. 2. Hexandria. Containing of Papaver 19 Sp. 2. Hexandria. Containing of Papaveracece, Corydalis, Cysti- capnos, *Fumaria. 3 Gen. 19 Sp. ,~. Octandria. Containing of Polygalete, *Polygala, Securidaca. 2 Gen.2 9 Sp. 4. Decandria is by far the most numerous, as well as natural order of this class, consequently the genera are difficult to characterise. The genera are arranged in sections, variously charac- dr) Stamens all united, that is, all in one set ; as Spartium. (b) Stigma downy, without the character of the preceding section ; as Pitum. (c) Legume imperfectly divided into two alls, always, as in all the following, without the character of the preceding sec- tions ; as Astragalus. (d) Legume rvith scarcely more than one seed ; as Psoralca. (<) Legume composed ofihigle-vatcedjuiitt.i, which are rarely snliturif ; as Herlysarum. (/) Legume of one cdl,mth several seeds ; as Mi'lil^lm. Leguminous plants are rarely noxious to the largt tribes of animals, though some species of Gulega intoxicate fish. The seeds of Cylisu* Laburnum have of late been found violently emetic, and those of Lathyrus salivus have been supposed at Florence to soften the bones, and cause death ; we know of no other similar instances in this class, which is one of the most abundant in valuable esculent plants. The negroes have a notion that the beautiful little scarlet and black seeds of Abrus precatorius, so frequently used for neck- laces, are extremely poisonous, insomuch that half of one is sufficient to kill a man. This is totally incredible. Linnaeus however asserts, Sir J. E. Smith tliinks, rather too abso- lutely, that " among all the leguminous or papilionaceous tribe, there is no deleterious plant to be found." It contains of Legvmlnota, Ni- solia, Dalbergia, Pongamia, Pterocarpus, Amerimnum, Dhrtenx, Abrus, Erythrina, Butea, Piscidia,.Borbonia, *Spartium, *Genista, Lebeckia, Rafnia, Aspalathus, Sarcophyllum, Stauracanthus, *l/lex, Amorpha, Platylobium, Bossisea, Scottia, Templetouia, Goodia, Loddlgesia, Wiborgia, Crotalaria, Hovea, *Ononis, *Anthyllis, Arachis, Lupinus, Cai^popogon, Phaseolus, I)o- lichos, Stizolobium, Glycine, Apios, Ker.nedia, Cvlista, Cli- toria, Galactia, *Pisum, Ochrus, *Orobus, Lathyrus, *Vicia, *Ervum, *Cicer, Liparia, Cytis\is, Mullera, Gec>rt"roya, Ro- binia, Colutea, Swainsona, Sutherlandia, Lessertia, Gly- cyn-hiza, Sesbana, Coronilla, *()rnrthopus, *Hippocrepis, Scorpiurus, Smitliia, jEschvnomene, Hallia, Lespede/a. *Hedysarum, Zornia, Flemingia, Indigofera, Tephrosia, Galega, Phaca, Oxytropis, *Astragalus, Biserula, Dalea, Psoralea, Melilotus, Lupinaster, *Trifolium, *I.otus, Do- rj-ciiium, Trigonella, *Medicago. 88 Gen. 800 Sp. CLASS XVIII. Polyadelphia. Stamens united by their fila- ments into more than two parcels. Orders 3, distinguished by the number or insertion of their stamens, which last particular Linnaeus here overlooked. \.Decandi-ia. Ten stamens. Contains of Malvaceae, the Theo- broma, or Chocolate-nut-tree. 1 Gen. 2 Sp. 2. Dodecandria. Stamens, or rather anthers, from twelve to twenty, or twenty five^ their filaments unconnected with the calyx It contains of Malvaceae, Bubroma, Abroma. 2 Gen. 3Sp. 3. Icoiandria. Stamens numerous, their filaments inserted (in several parcels) into the calyx. It contains of Myrtaceos, Melaleuca, Tristania, Calothanmus, Beaufortia. 4 Gen. 32 Sp. 4. Polyandria. Stamens very numerous, unconnected with the calyx. It contains of Ebenacea, Hopea; of Aurantete, Ci- trus; of Guttijertf, Xanthochymus ; of Hypericince, *Hy pericum, Ascyrum. 5 Gen. 65 Sp. CLASS XIX. Syngenesia. Anthers united into a tube. Flowers compound. Orders 5. This being truly a natural class, its orders are most of them equally so, though some are liable to exceptions. 1. Polygamia xquaKs. In this each floret, taken separately, is perfect or united, being furnished with its own perfect stamens and pistil, and capable of bringing its seed to maturity with- out the assistance of any other floret. The order consists of three sections. (a) Florets all ligulate, or strap shaped, called by Toumefort gemijlosculous. These flowers are generally yellow, sometimes blue, very rarely reddish. They expand in a morning, and close towards noon or in cloudy weather. Their herbage is commonly milky and bitter; as in Leontwlm, Tragopogon, Hieracium, and Cichorium. (b) Planters globose, generally uniform and regular, their JloreU all tubular, five-cleft, and spreading; as Carduus. (c) Flowers discoid, their florets all tubidar, regular, crowded, and parallel, forming a surface nearly Jlat, or exactly conical. Their color is most generally yellow, in some cases pink. Santolina and Bidens are examples of this section. It contains ofCiehm-acece, Geropogon, * Tragopogon, Troxi- mon, Arnopogon, Scorzonera, Picridium, * Sonchus, * Lac- tuca, Chondrilla, *Prenanthes, *Leontodon, *Apargia, *Thrincia, *Picris, * Hieracium, *Crepis, *HeIminthia, ' Andryala, Rothia, Krigia, Hyoseris, Hedypnois^ , * Hipochaeris, *Lapsana, Zacintha, Rhagadiolus, Catananche, * Cichorium, Scolymus; of Cynarocephalce *Arctium, *Serratula, *Carduus, *Cnicus, *Onopordum, Berardia, Cynara, CarUna, Atractylis, Acarna, Stokesia Stobasa, Carthamus, Staehelina, Pteronia ; of Corymbiferae Vernonia, Liatris, Mikania, *Eupatorium, Ageratum, Stevia, Cephalophora, Hymenopappus, Melananthera, Marshallia, Spilanthes, *Bidens, Lagasca, Lavenia, Cacalia, lileinia, Ethulia, Piqueria, *Chrysocoma, Tarchonanthus, Calea, Humea, Bassinia, Caesulia, Ixodia, *Santolina, Anthanasia, Balsamita, Pentzia. 74 Gen. 274 Sp. 2. Polygamia superjlua. Florets of the disk perfect or united ; those of the margin furnished with pistils only ; but all pro- ducing perfect seed. (a) Discoid, the florets of the margin being obsolete or in- conspicuous, from the smallness or peculiar form of the corolla ; as Artemisia. (b) Ligulate, two-lipped, of which Perdicium, a rare exotic genus, is the only instance. (c) Radiant, the marginal florets ligulate, forming spreading, conspicuous rays ; as in Bellis. This seems an approach of the third section of the former order towards what is equi- valent to becoming double in other tribes. Accordingly, the Anthemis nobilis, with Chrysanthemum, Leucanthemum, and some others, occasionally have their whole disk changed to ligulate florets, destitute of stamens, and consequently abortive. Such are actually called double flowers in this class, and very properly. Many exotic species so circum- stanced are met with in gardens. A very few strange anoma- lies occur in this section ; one, Sigesbeckia, having but three stamens, instead of five, the otherwise universal number iu the class ; and Tussilago hybrida, as well as Paradoxa of Ret- zius, having distinct anthers. Nature therefore, even in Uiis most natural class, is not quite without e*ceptions K 3 134 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. It contains of CorymH_ftra>, *Tanncotum, *Artemisis, *Gnaphaliuin, Xeranttiemum, Eliciivy.uin.Carpesiuin, Bac- charis, *Cony/a, Madia, *EriKeron, *Tussilago, *Seiiecio, *Aster, *Solidago, *Cineraria, *Inula, Grindelia.Todolepis, Arnica, Doronicum, Perdirium, TetragonGtheca, Ximenesia, Helenium, *Bellis, 'Bellium, Dahlia, Tagetes, Heterosper- mum, Schkuhria, Pectii, Levsera, Ilelhania, Zinnia, *Chry- Banthemum, *Pyrethrum, *Mricaria, Boltonia, Lidbeckia, Cenia, Cotula, Grangee, Anacyclus, *Antheous, Sanvitalia, *Achillea, Balbisia, Amellus, Starkea, Eclipta, Chrysan- thellum, Siegesbeckia, Verbesina. Synedrella, Galinsogea, Acmella, Zaluzania, Pascalia, Heliopsis, Buphthalmum. 60 Gen. 673 Sp. 3. Polvgamiafrustanea. Florets of the disk, as in the preceding, perfect or united ; those of the margin neuter, or destitute of pistils as well as of stamens ; only some few genera having the rudiments of pistils in their radiant florets. This order is, still more evidently than the last, analogous to double flowers of other classes It contains of Corymbifera, Helianthus, Galardia, Rudbeckia, Cosmea, Coreopsis, Osmites, Pallasia, Sclerocarpus, Cullumia, Berckheya, Didelta, Gorteria, Ga- zania, Crvptostemma, Arctotheca, Sphenogyne; ofCynaro- cephala:, Z"cEgea, *Centaurea, Galactites. 19 Gen. 177 Sp. 4. Polygamia necessaria. Florets of the disk furnished with stamens only; those of the margin or radius, only with pistils ; so that both" are necessary to each other. It contains of Co- nmhifera, Milleria, Flaveria, Baltimora, Silphium, Alcina, Polymnia, Melampodium, Chaptalia, Calendula, Arctotis, Osteospermum, Othonna, Hippia, Gymnostyles, Psiadia, Eriocephalus, Filago, Micropus, Parthonium, Iva. 20 Gen. 100 Sp. 6. Polygamia segregata. Several flowers, either simple or com- pound, but with united tubular anthers, and with a partial calyx, all included in one general calyx. It contains of Co- rumbiferat, Elephantopus, (Edera, Stot:be, Nauenburgia; of Cynarocephalff ? Sphteranthus, Echinops, Rolandra, Brotera, Gundelia. 10 Gen. 17 Sp. CLASS XX. Gynandria. Stamens inserted either upon the style or germen. Orders 3. 1. Monandria. Stamen, or sessile anther, one only. It con - , *Hermi- Disperis, Goodyera, Neottia, Fonthieva, is, Thelymitra, *Listera, Epipactis, Pogonia, Caladenia, Glossodia, Pterostylis, Caleya, Calopogon, Arethusa, Bletia, Geodorum, Calypso, Malays, Corallorrhiza, Isochilus, Or- nithidium, Stelis, Pleurothallis, Octomeria, Aerides, Cryptar- rhena, Dendrobium, Gomesa, Cymbidium, Brassia, Onci- dium, Cyrtopodium, Brassavola, Broughtonia, Epidendrum, Vanilla. 48 Gen. 122 Sp. 2. Diandria. Containing of Orchidete, *Cypripedium ; of Styli- dea, Stylidium ; of Urticeie f Gunnera. 3 Gen. 10 Sp. 3. Hexandria. Containing of Aristoluchite, * Aristolochia. IGen. 19 Sp. CLASS XXI. Monacia. Stamens and pistils in separate flowers, but both growing on the same individual plant. Orders 9. 1. Monandna. Contains of Naiades, Zar.nichellia, *Chara ; of Chenopodete, Ceratocarpus ; of Vrticae, Artocarpus ; ofCasuu- rinete, Casuarina. 5 Gfen. 16 Sp. 2. Diandria. Contains of Cucurbitacea, Anguria; of Naiades, *Lemna. 2 Gen. 5 Sp. 3. Triandria. Contains of Typhinte, *Typha, *Sparganium ; of Grarmnea, Zea, Tripsacum, Coix, Olyra; ofCyperacea, *Carex ; of Amentacea;, Comptonia ; of Chenopodea, Axyris ; of Euphorbiacea:, Tragia; of Laurina, Hernandia. 11 Gen. Empleurum; of Onagrarws, Serpicula; of Plaidaginete, *Lit- torella; of Amentacea, *Alnns; of Euphorbiacea, Cicca, *Buxus, Pachysandra; of Cfienopodete, Biotis; of Urticete, *Urtica, Boehmeria, Morus. 12 Gen. 41 Sp. b. Pentandria. Contains of Meidspermete f Schisandra; ofCorym- biferaf Nephelium, Xanthium, Ambrosia, Franseria ; Cucur- bitaceas, Lutfa; Amaranthacea, Amaranthus. 7 Gen. 4&Sp. 6. Hexandria. Contains of Graminete, Zizania, Pharus ; of Ru- biaceie, Guettarda ; of Palme, Cocos, Bactris, Elate, Sagus. 7 Gen. 11 Sp. 7. Polyandria. Stamens more than seven. Contains of Naiades, *Ceratophyllum , *Myriophvllum ; of Alismacex, *Sagittaria ; of Begoniacete, Begonia; of Euphorbiacea!, Acidoton ^ of Co- ans; ^ f _ _ w Car- pinus76strya, *Corylus,' Platanus, Liquidam'bar ; of Ariodea, *Arum, Caladium ; of Palnur, Caryota. 22 Gen. 189 Sp. 8. Monadelphia. Contains of Palma, Areca; of Comjerce, ?hylla Aieurites,"Hural ofstercutuicea, S'tercul'ia; of Malpighidcae, Heretiera; of Cucurbitacete, Trichosanthes, Momordica, Cu- curbita, Cucumls, *Bryonia, Sicyos. 26 Gen. 158 Sp. 9 Gynandria. Contains of Euphorbiacea, Andrachne. 1 Gen. iSp. CLASS XXII. Dutcia. Stamens and pistils in separate flowers, situated on two separate plants. Orders 1 3. 1. Monandria. Contains of Pandanex, Pandanus. 1 G.en. 2. Diandria. Contains of Urticete, Cecropia; of Ameiiiacea, *Salix; of Euphorbiacea!, Borya. 3Gen. 87 Sp. 3. Triandria. 'Contains of Ericece f *Empetrum; of Terebinta- cae.Stilago; ofSantalacea:? Osyris; of Rcsiiacm, Willdenovia, Restio, Elegia; of Palme, Phoenix. 7 Gen. 12 Sp. 4. Tetrandia. Contains of Rubiacae, Anthospermum ; of Trophis, Schsefferia, Picramnia ; ofTerebtntacea:, Antidesma ; ofOnagraria, Montinia; of Lorantliacea;, *Viscum; of Tere- hintacea, Brucea; afUrticrte, Broussonetia ; of Elaagm, Hip- pophffi; of Amentacea, *Myrica; of Proteacof, Aulax, Leuco- dendron. 13 Gen. 46 Sp. 5. Pentandria. Contains of Terebintacea:, Pistacia, Zanthoxy- lum ; ofEufhorbincea, Securinega ; of Amaranthacea, Iresine ; of Chenopadetf, *Spinacia, Acnida; of Urticete, *Cannabis, *Humulus. 8 Gen. 18 Sp. 0. Hexandria. Contains of Smilacetf, Smilax; *Tamus? of Diosmrina, Rajania, Dioscorea ; of KI-enaeeitMaton ; otPalma, Elais, Chamn-dorea, Borassus. 8 Gen. 36 Sp. 7. Octandria. Stamens H. Contains of Ameniacete, *Populus ; of Sempervivce, *Khodjola. 2 Gen. 15 Sp. 8. Emwandria. Stamens 9. Contains of Eupliarhiacea, *Mer curialis; of HydntcharMea;, *Hydrccharis. 2 Gen. 6 Sp. 9. Decaiuiria. Stamens 10. Contains of Cucurbitactcr t Carica ; of LeguminosK, Gymnocladus; of Euphorbiaeeac, Kiggelaria; of Tereliintacetc, Schinus ; of ......... Coriaria. r> (Jen. 9 Sp. 10. Dodccandria. Stamens 11. Contains of BydrodtarUea, *Stratiotes; of BufflOrbiacat, Hyeenanche; of Terebintacea, Euclea, Datisca; of Meia.tpermca~, IMenispermuni, Cocculus, 6 Gen. la Sp. 11. Icosandria. Stamens 12. Contains of Tiliacece, Flacourtia; of .......... Gelonium, Rottlera. 3 Gen. 6 Sp. 12. Polyandria. Stamens numerous. Contains of .......... Trewia; of Ebtnactis, Embryopteris; of Roiucea; Cliffbrtia; of Cycculca?, Cycas, Zamia. 5 Gen. 26 Sp. 13. MunadelpMu. Stamens united. Contains of Conifers, Araucaria, *Juniperus, *Taxus, *Ephedra ; of 31 e nispermae, Cissampelos ; of Euphorbiacea, Exccecaria, Adelia ; of ........ Loureira, Nepenthes ; of Myristicece, Myristica; of Smilacea: f *Ruscus; of P:ilma; Latania. 12 Gen. 40 Sp. 14. Gynaiulria. Stamens inserted in the style. Contains of Eup/wrbiacece, Cluytia. 1 Gen. 8 Sp. CLASS XXIII. Polygamia. Stamens and pistils separate in some flowers, united in others, either on the same plant or on two or three distinct ones ; such difference in the essential organs being moreover accompanied with a diversity in the accessory parts of the flowers. Orders 2. 1. Slotuxcia. United flowers accompanied with barren or fer- tile, or both, all on one plant. It contains ofMusaceie, Musa ; ofiUf/an 14. Aurantix, or Hesperidea, contains of Octandr. Monogyn. Ximenia ; of Decand. Monog. Limonia, Murraya, Cookja ; of Polyand. Monogyn. JEgle; of Monadelph. Polyand. Ca- mellia ; of Polyadelph. Polyand. Citrus. 7 Gen. 21 Sp. 15. Rutacea, contains of Decandr. Monogy. Guiaicum, Zygo- phyllum, Fagonia, Tribulus, Dictamnus, Ruta, of Dode- candr. Monogy. Peganum; of Didynam. Angiosp. Melian- thus ? 8 Gen. 28 Sp. 16. Diosmetg, contains of Pentandr. Monogy. Adenandra, Ba- rosma, Diosraa, Agathosma; of Octandr. Monogy. Corraea; of Moncec. Tetrandr. Empleunim. 6 Gen. 32 Sp. CLASS IV. DICOTYI.KDONE.^. Thalamiflora, sect. 4. -with fruit in scattered cells, but joined on the same base. Two Orders, but no examples in British Gardens. CLASS V. DICOTYI.EDOKEJE. Calyciflorte, with petals free, or more or less adhering together,' always inserted in the calyx. Thirty-two Orders. Order 1. Terenintaceie, contains of Triandr. Monogy. Cneorum, neandr. Monogy. Anacardium ; of Decandr. Pentagyn. Aver- rhoa, Spondias ; of Monac. Polyandr. Juglans ; of Ditec. Tetrandr. Brucea ; of Diac. Pentandr. Pistacia ; Zanthoxy- lum ; of Diac. Decandr. Schinus ; of Polygam. Monac. Ailanthus ; of Polygam. Diac. Bursera. 19 Gen. 75 Sp. 2. Rhqmni, or Rhamneas, contains of Tetrandr. Tetragyn. My- ginda, *Ilex; of Pentand. Monogyn. Elaeodendrum, *Rham- nus, Zizyphus, Celastrus, Senacia, *Euonymus, Hovenia, Ceanothus, Pomaderris, Phylica, Brunia ? Staavia, Plectro- nia; of Pentandr. Trigy. Cassine, Staphylea; of Hexandr. Monogyn. Prinos; ofMoncec. Tetrandr. Aucuba ; of Polygam. Mentec. Gouania. 20 Gen. 126 Sp. 3. Legvminosas, contains of Decandr. Monogyn. Edwardsia, Sophora, Ormosia, Anagyris, Thermopsis, Virgilia, Cyclopia, Baptisia, Podalyria, Chorizema, Podolobium, Oxylobium, Callistachys, Brachysema, Gompholobium, Burtonia, Jack- sonia, Viminaria, Sphoerolobium, Aotus, Dillwynia, Eutaxia, Sclerothamnus, Gastrolobium, Euchilus, Pultenia, Daviesia, Mirbelia, Cercis, Bauhinia, Hymensea, Cynometra, Cassia, Cathartocarpus, Parkinsonia, Poinciana, Casalpinia, Guilan- dina, Hyeranthera, HotT'manseggia, Adenanthera, Cadia, Prosopis, Haematoxylon, Copaifera, Scholia ; of Monadelph. Triandr. Tamarindus; of Diadelph. Pentandr. Petaloste- rnum ; of Diadelph. Octandr. Securidaca ; of Diadelph. De- candr. Nissolia, Dalbergia, Pongamia, Pterocarpus, Ame- rimnum, Dipterix, Abrus, Erythrina, Butea. Piscidia, Borbonia, *Spartium, *(Tenista, I,ebeckia, Raffnia, Aspa- lathus, Sarcophyllnm, Stauracanthus, *Ulex, Amorpha, Platylobium, Bossiaea, Scottia, Templetonia, Goodia, Lod- digesia, Wiborgia, Crotalaria, Hovea, *Ononis, *Anthyllis y Arachis, Lupinus, Carpopogon, Phaseolus, Dolichos, Stizolo- bium, Glycine, Apios. Kennedia, Cylista, Clitorii, Galactia, *Pisum, Ochrus, *Orobus, *Lathyrus, *\\a&, *Ervum. Cicer, Liparia, Cytisus, Mullera, Geoffroya, Robinia, Colu- tea, Swainsonia, Sutherlandia, Lessertia, Glycyrhiza, Ses- bana, Coronilla, *Ornitbcrpus, *Hippocrepis, Scorpiurus, Smithia, ^Sschynomene, Hallia, Lespedeza, *Hedysarum, Zomia, Fleraingia, Galega, Indigofera, Tephrosia, Phaca, *Oxytrophis, *AstraRalns, Biserrula, Dalea, PsoraUa, *Meli- 136 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. lotus, Luplnaster, *Trlfolium, Lotus, Dorycnhim, Trlgonella, Medicago ; of Diasc. Dtcandr. Gymnocladus ; of Polygam. Monac. Inga, Mimosa, Schrankia, Pesmanthus, Acacia; of Polygam. Diac. Gleditschia, Ceratonia. 145 Gen. 1085 Sp. 4. Roiacea, contains of Diandr. Monogy. Acaena ; of Tetrand. Mnnogy. *Sanguisorba, *Alchemilla; of Pentand. Monogy. Hirtelia ; of Pentand. Pentagyn. *Sibbaldia ; of Dodccandr. Digyn. *.4grimonia; of Kotaadr. Monogy. Amygdalus ; *Prunus, Armeniaca, Chrysobalanus, Waldsteinia, *Mespi- lus, *Pyrus, Cydonia, *Spira?a ; of Icosandr. Polygam. *Rosa, *Rubus, Dalibarda, *Fragaria, *Comarum, *Poten- tilla, *Tormentilla, *Geum, *Dryas, Calycanthus ? of Monac. Pol:/a:idr. *Poterium ; of Diac. Polyandr. ClirTortia. 27 Gen. 316 Sp. 5. Salicarice, contains of Tetrant!. Monogj/. Ammannia; of Pentandr. ISonogy. *Glaux ; of Hexand. Monogy. *Peplis ; of Octand. Monogy. Grislea, Lawsonia ; of Dec'antl. Monogy. Acisanthera; W Dodecand. Monogy. *Lythrnm, Cuphaa; of Polyand. Monogy. Lagerstraemia. 9 Geii. 23 Sp. 6. Mdastomie, of Melastomacete, contains of Octandr. Monogy. Osbeclcia, Rhexia; of Decaml. Monogy. Melastoma; of Do- decand. Monogy. Blakea. 4 Gen. 24 Sp. 7. Myrti, or Myrtacea; contains of Octandr. Monogyn. Baeckia ; of Dotlecand. Monogy. Decumaria ; of Icosandr. Monogyn. Philadelphus, Leptospermum, Fabricia, Metrosideros, Psi- dium, Eugenia, Caryophylius, Myrtus, Calyptranthes, Eu- calyptus, Punica ; of Pulyandr. Monogyn. Alangium ; of Monaddph. Polyandr. Barringtonia, Gustavia ; of Polyadelph. Icosandr. Melaleuca, TrLstania, Calothamnus, Beaufortia. 20 Gen. 121 Sp. 8. CorrJbrelacta, contains of Pentamlr. Monoey. Conocarpus ; of Decandr. Monogy. Combretum, Getonia, Quisqualis ; of Poly- gam. Monac. Terminalia. 5 Gen. 10 Sp." 9. Cucurbitacete, contains of Triand. Monogyn. Melothria ; of Pentand. Monogyn. Gronovia ; of Monac. Diand. Anguria ; of Moncccia P&and. Luffa; ofMona-cia Monaddp h. Tricho- santhes, Momordica, Cucurbita, Cucumis, *Bryonia, Sicyos ; of Diacia Decand. Carica. 11 Gen. 48 Sp. 10. LoatetK, contains oflcosand. Monogyn. Bartonia; of Poly- and. Monogyn. Mentzelia. 2 Gen. 4 Sp. 11. Onagrarue, contains of Monand. Monogyn. Lopezia; of Diand Monogyn. Circaea ; of Tetradyn. Monogy. Ludwigia, Jsnardia; of Octand. Monog. *(Enothera, Gaura, *Epilo- bium ; of Octand. Tetragy. Haloragis ; of Decand. Monogyn. Jussieua ; of Diacia Tetrand. Montmia. 10 G_en. 54 Sp. 12. Ficoideee, contains of Dodecandr. Monog. Nitraria; of Do- decandr. Pentagyn. Glinus ; of Icosandr. Pentagyn. Sesuvium, Tetragonia, Mesembryanthemum, Aizoon ; of Polyand. Pen- tagyn. Reaumuria. 7" Gen. 229 Sp. 13. Semperviva, contains of Tetrandr. Tetragyn. Tillaea ; of Pentandr. Pentagyn. Larochea, Crassula ; of Heptand. Hep- tag. Septas ; of Octandr. Tetragyn. Calanchoe, Bryophyllum ; of Decand. Pentag. *Cotyledon, *Sedum, Penthorurn ; of Decand. Decagyn. *Sempervivum ; of Diacia Pentandr. *Rhodiola. 11 Gen. 12f,Sp. 14. Portulacea, contains of Tetrand. Tetragyn. *Montia; of Pentandr. Monogy. Claytonia ; of Pentandr. Trigyn. *Ta- marix, Turnera, Telep'hium, *Corrigiola, Portula'caria ; of Pentandr. Pentagyn. Guekia ; of Heptand. Digyn. Limeum ; of Decandr. Digyn. Trianthema, *Scleranthus ; of Dodecand, Monogyn. Portulaca, Talinum, Anacampseros. 14 Gen. 39 Sp. 15. Cacti, contains of Pentand. Monogyn, Ribes ; of Icosandr. Monogyn. Cactus, Rhipsalis. 3 Gen. 81 Sp. 16. Saxifrages, contains of Pentand. Monogyn. Itea ; of Pen- tand. DigZm. Heuchera; of Octandr. Tetragy. *Adoxa ; of Decandr. Digyn. Hydrangea; *Chrysosplenium, *Saxifraga, Tiarella, Mitella. 8 Gen. 94 Sp. 17. Cunoniacea, contains of Decandr. Digyn. Cunonia ; of Do- decan. Digyn. Callicoma, Bauera. 2 Gen. 3 Sp. IS. Aralite, or AraHacett, contains of Pentandr. Digyn. Cusso- nia; of Pentandr. Pentagyn. Aralia; of Polygam. Diac. Panax. 3 Gen. 12 Sp. 19. Caprifvlta, contains of Tetrandr. Monogyn. *Comus; of Pentand. Monogy. Lonicera, Syrophorea, l.Hervilla, Trios- teum, *Hederl'; of Pentand. Trigyn. *Viburnum, *Sam- bucus; of Di'lynam. Ar^iosp. *Linnsea ; of Diacia Tetran. *Viscum. 10 Gen. 60 Sp. 20. Umbellifera, contains of Pentandr. Monog. Lagoscia ; of Pentand, Digyn. *Eryngium, *Hydroctyle, Spananthe, *Sa- I'icula, Astrantia, *Bupleurum, *Echinophora, Hasselquis- tia, Torch-Hum, *Caucalis, Artedia, *Daucus, Visnaga, Ammi, *Bunium, *Conium, *Selinum,*Athamanta, *Peu- cedanum, *Crithmum, Cachrys, Ferula, Laserpitium, *He- racleum, *Ligusticum, *Angelica, *Sium, *Sison, Bubon, Cuminum, *CEnanthe, *Phellandrium, *Cicuta, *^thusa, *Meum, *Coriandrum, *Myrrhis, *Scandix, OUveria,*An- thriscus, *Chaerophylium, * Imperatoria, Seseli, Thapsia, *Pastinaca, *Smymium, *Anethum, *Carum, *Pimpi- nella, *Apium, *iEgopodium ; of Polygam. Monacia, Her- mas; of Polygam. Diacia, Arctopus ? 54Gn. 282 Sp. 21. Corymbifme, contains of Syngenes. Polygam. ^Eyualu, Vernonia, Liatris, Mikania, * Eupatorium, Ageratum, Stevia, Cephalophora, Hymenopappus, Melananthera, Mar- shallia, Spilanthes, *Bidens, Lagasca, Lavenia, Cacalia, Kleinia, Ethulia, Piqueria, *Chrysocoma, Tarchonanthus, Calea, Humia, Caesulea, Ixodia, *Santolina, Athanasia, Balsamita, Pentzia ; of Sygena. Polygam. Superflua, *Ta- nacetum, *Artemesia, *Gnaphalium, Xeranthemum, Heli- chrysum, Carpesum, Baccharis, *Conyza, Madia, *Erigeron, *Tussilago, *Senecio,*Aster, *Solidago,*Cineraria, *Inula, Grindelia, Podolepis, Arnica, *Doronicum, Perdicium, Te- tragonotheca, Ximensia, Helenium, *Bellis, Bellium, Dahlia, Tagetes, Heterospermum, Schkuhria, Pectis, Levsera, Rel- hania, Zinnia, *Chrysanthemum, *Pyrethrum, *AIatricaria, Boltonia, Lidbeckia, Cenia, Cotula, Grangea, Anacj-clus, *Anthemis, Sanvitalia, *Achillea, Balblsia, A mellus, Star- Ida, Eclipta, Chrysanthellum, Siegesbeckia, Syndrella, Gal- ingsoga, Acmella, Zaluzania, Pascalia, Heliopsis, Buphthal- mum ; of Syngenes. Polygam. Frustan. Helianthus, Galardia, Rudbeckia, Cosmea, Coreopsis, Osmites, Pallasia, Sclerocar- pus, Cullumia, Berckheya, Didelta, Gorteria, Gazarua, Cryptostemma, Arctotheca, Sphenogvne ; of Syngen. Poly- gam. Nectssar. Milleria, Flaveria, Baltimora, Sylphium, Alcina, Polymnia, M^elampodium, Chaptalia, *Calendula, Arctotis, Osteospermum, Othonna, Hippia, Gymnostyles, Uriocephalus, *Filago, Microi)us, Partlienium, Iva; of Syngenrt. Poh/yam. Kegregata, Elephantopus, (Edera, Stacbe, Nauenbergia; of Momtc. Pentandr. Nepheleum, Xanthiura, Ambrosia, Franseria. 131 Gen. 998 Sp. 22. RiMacetf, contains of Tetrandr. Monogy. Cephalanthus, Spermacoce, *Sherardia, *AsperuIa, Houstonia, *Gallium, Crucianella, Catesbica, Ixora, Pavetta, Bouvardia, Sidero- dendron, Chomelia, Mitchella, Coccocypsilum, Manettia; of Pentandr. Monogy. Cinchona, Pinckneya, Mussamda, Port- landia, Genipa, Gardenia, Oxvanthus, Randea, 'SVebera, Erithalis, Morinda, Nauclea, Cephslis, Hamellia, Ronde- letia, Macronemum, \'anguiera, Dentella, Serissa, Psvcho- tria, Coffea, Cbiococca, Pcederia, Plocama ; of Peniandr. Digyn. Phyllis; of Hejcand. Monogyn. Hillia, Richardia; of Monac. Hexandr. Guettarda; of Diac. Tetrandr. Antho- spernium; of Polygam. Monac. *Valantia. 47 Gen. 23. Cynarocephalu, contains of Syngenes. Polyg. JEqualix, *Arctium, *Serratula, *Carduiis, *Cnicus, *Onopordum, Berardia, Cynara, *Carlina, Atractylis, Acarna, Stokesia, Stoboea, Carthamus, Staehelina, Pteronia ; of Syngenes. Polygam. Frustan. Zoegea, *Centaurea, Galactites , otSyn. genes. Polygam. Segrega. Sphaeranthus, Echinops, Rolandra. Brotera, Gundelia. '23 Gen. 221 Sp. 24. Dipsacea, contains of Diandr. Monogyn, Morina ; of Triand. Monogy. *Valeriana, Fedia ; of Tetrand. Monog. *Dipsacus, *ScaD(osa, Knautia. 6 Gen. 70 Sp. 25. Gentianete, contains of Tetrandr. Monogy. *Exacum, Se- baea, Frasera ; of Pentandr. Monogyn. *!Uenyanthes, *Vil- larsia, Logania, Spjgelia, Lisianthus, *Chironia, Sabbatia, *Erythr8ca, Eusroma ; of Pentandr. Digyn. *Swertia, *Gen tiana ; of Octandr. Monogy. *Chlora. 15 Gen. 21 Sp. 26. Cichoracex, contains of Syngen. Polygam. Squalls, Gero- pogon, *Trasopogon, Troxmion, Amopogon, *Scorzonera, Picridium, *Sonchus, *Lactuca, Chondrilla, *Prenanthes, *Leontodon, *Apargia, *Thrincia, *Picris, *Hieracium, *Crepis, Helminthia, Tolpis, Andryala, Kothia, Kriria, *Hyoseris, *Hedypnois, Seriola, *HypochEeris, *Lapsana, Zacintha, Rhagadiolus, Catananche, *Cichorium, Scolymus. 31 Gen. 214 Sp. 27. Campannlacetf, contains of Pentandr. Monogy. Litfitfootia *Campanula, Roella, *Phyteuma, *Trachelium, '*Jasione, *Lobelia ; of Hexand. Monogyn. Canarina of Octandr Monogyn. Michauxia. 9 Gen. 1 18 Sp. 28. Styltdea:, contains of Gynandr. Diand. Stylidium. 1 Gen. , contains cf Pentandr. Monogyn. *Azalea. *Men-ziesia; of Decandr. Monogyn. Kalmia, Ledum, Rho- dora.Rhododendron, Epigsea ; of Dodecand. Monogyn, Bejaria. 30. Goodenovicf, contains of Pentandr. Monogyn. Goodenla, Eu- thales, Scsevola, Dampiera. 4 Gen. 8 SpT^ 31. Ericece, contains of Tetrand. Monogy. Blaeria ; of Pen- tand. Monogyn. Cyrilla, Brossaea ; of Octand. Monog. *Oxy- coccus, *Calluna, *Erica ; of Decandr. Monog. *Vaccinium *Andromeda, Enkianthus, Gaultheria, *Arbutus, Clethra, Mylocarium, *Pyrola, Chimaphila; of Dodecand. Monogyn. Hudsonia; of Diac. Triandr. *Empetrum. 19 Gen. 410 Sp. 32. Epacridece, contains of Pentandr. Monogf/. Sprengelia, An- dersonia, Lysinema, Epacris, Monotoca, te'ucopogon, Stenan- thera, Astrdoma, Styphelia. 9 Gen. 20 Sp. CLASS VI. DICOTTI.ETONBJE. Cordiflore, with stamens ad- hering to a corolla, which is not attached to the calyx. Twenty-two Orders. Order 1. Myrsinea, contains of Pentandr. Monogyn. Ardisia ; of Polygam. Diac. Myrsine. 2 Gen. 11 Sp. 2. Sapotecp, contains of Pentandr. Monogyn. Jacquinia, Achras Chrysophillum, Sideroxylon, Sersalisia, Bumelia ; of Octand. Monogyn. Mimusops; of Decandr. Monogyn. Inocarpus; of Dodecandr. Mcntog. Bassia. 9 Gen. 22 Sp. 3. Kbenacea, of Decandr. Digyn. Royena; of Dodecandr. Monogy. Halesia; of Dodecandr. Trigyn. Visnea ; of Poly- adelpK. Polyandr. Hopea; of Disc Hexand. Maba ; of Did-c. Polyan. Embryopteris ; of Polygam. Diac. Diospyros. 8 Gen, it Sp. 4. Oleinte, contains of Diandr. Monogyn. *Ligustrum, Olea, No- telaea, Chionanthus, Linociera, Ornus, *Syrinea ; of Poly- gam. Diac. *Fraxinus. 8 Gen. 40 Sp. 5. Jasminea, contains of Diand. Monogyn. Nyctanthes, Jasini- mnn. 2 Gen. 14. Sp. 6. Verbenaceee, contains of Diandr. Monog. Ghinia, Stachytar- pheta; of Tetrand. Monogyn. ^giphila, Callicarpa ; of Pen- tand. Monogyn. Tectona ; of Didynam.Gymnosperm. Selago ; of Dii/ynnfa.- Angioiperm. Hebenstretia, Clerodendrum, Volka- meria,.Holmskioldia, Vitex, Comutia, Hosta, Gmelina, Pe- trsea, Citharexylum, Duranta, Lantana, Spielraannia Zapa- nia, Priva, Aloysia, *Verbena. 23 Gen. 96 Sp. 7. Asdepiadea, contains of Pentand. Digyn, Periploca, Hemides- oy Stap5ia,' Piaranthus, HuemizC CaraUuma. 21 Gen! 126 Sp. 8. Apocynea, contains of Pentandr. Monogyn. Strychnos, Geles- mium, Rauwolfia, Carissa, Arduina, Cerbera, Allamanda. Vinca, Nerium, Wrightia, Echites, Ichnocarpus, Plumeria. Cameraria, Tabernasmonta, Amsonia; of Pentand. Digyn, Apocynum, Melodinns; of Polygam, Monac. Ophioxylon. 19 Gen. 61 Sp. 9. Bignoniacea, contains of Diandr. Monogyn. Catalpa ; of Pen- tandr. Monogyn. Coboea; of Didynam. Angiotnerm. Bignonia Sesamum? Pentstemon, Chelone, Tourrettia? Martynia'-* Gloxinia? Gesneria? 10 Gen. 49 Sp. 10. Pedalinae, contains of Didynam, Angios. Pedalium. 1 Gen. 11. Polemoniacea:, contains of Pentandr. Monog. *Polemonium, Phlox, Ipomopsis. 3 Gen. 22 Sp. 12. Conrolvulacta, contains of Pentandr. Monogy. *Con volvulus *Calystegia, Ipomaea, Retzia; of Pe*ind. Digy. Falkia, Di- chondra, Evolvulus, Hydrolea, *Cuscuta. 9 Gen. 91 Sp. 13. Boraginea, contains of Pentand. Monogyn. Coldenia, Helio- tropiura, *Myosotis, *Lappula, *Lathospermium, Batsehia, Onosmodium, * Anchusa, *Cynoglossum , *Pulmonaria, Svro- phytum, Cerinthe, Onosma, *Borago. Trichodesma, *Aipe- rugo, *Lvcop&is, *Echium, Toumrfbrtia, Cordia, Bourreria, Ehretia, Hydrophyllum, EUsia, Nolana. 25 Gen. 143 Sp. BOOK I. JUSSIEUEAN HORTUS TRITANNICUS. 137 IS. Vgoforwm, oontaim of Didynam. Angtoy, 1 Stenochilus, Bontia, Avicennia. 4 Gen. 11 Sp. 19. Acanihaceir, contains of DtOfldr. iMnnngun. Elytr 14. Solanfcc, contains of Pentandr. Monogy. Ramondia, *Verbas- cum, * Datura, Brugmansia, *Hyosrvamus, Nieotiana, Man- dragora, *Atropa, Solandra, Physalis, Nicandra, *Sola- nurn, Capsicum, (V.truin, *Lycium, Vestra; of Didynam. Angiosperm. Brundfelsia ? Crescentia, Anthocercis. 19 Gen. 175Sp. 15. Scrvphnlarince, contains of Diand. Monogyn. *Veronica, *Gratiola, Schwenkia, Calceolaria ; of Tetrand. Monogyn. Biukllea, Soparia ; of Didynam. Anglos serm. *Limosella, Browallia, Stemodia, J\Ia/.us, Ldndernia, i lerpestis, Capraria, Teedia, Besleria, Trevirana, Columnea, Russelia, Dodartia, Halleria, Mimulus, Hornemannia, *Digitalis, *Scrophularia, Celsia, Alonsoa, Maurandia, Cymbaria, Nemesia, Anar- rhinum, *Antirrhinum, *Linaria, Gerardia, *Pedicularis, *Melampyrum, *Rhinanthus, *Bartsia, Castilleja, *Eu- phrasia, Buchnera, Manulea, Erinus, Sibthorpia, Disandra. 43 Gen. 242 Sp. 16. OrohancheiE, contains of Didynam. Angiosperm. *Lathrcea, *Orobanche. 2 Gen. 7 Sp. 17. LaJriutm, contains of Di/nid. Monogyn. *Lycopus, Amethy- stea, Cunila, Zi/.iphora, Hedeoma/ J\Ionarda, Rosmarinus, Salvia, Collinsonia; of Didynam. Gymnosperm. *Ajuga, Ani- someles, *Teucrium, Westringia, Batnrqa, Thymbra, Hys- sopus, Pycnanthemum, *Nepeta, Elsholtzia, Lavandula, Sideritis, Bystropogon, * Jlentha, Perilla, Hyptfa, Lepechinia, *Glechoma, *Lamium, *Galeopsis, *(ialeobdolon, *Beto- nica, *Stachys, *Ballota, *Marrubium, *Leonurus, Phlomis, Leucas, Leonotis, Moluccella, *Clinopodium, *Origanum, *Thymus, *Acynos,*Calamintha, Melissa, Dracocephalum, Melittis, Ocynuim, Plectranthus, Prostanthera, *Scutellaria, * Prunella, Cleonia, Prasium, Phryma. 57 Gen. 493 Sp. Myoporum, . raria, Justi- cia, Eranthemum ; of Dirhiiunn. Angtotperm. Acanthus, Thunbergia, Barleria, Ruellia, Blechurn, Aphelandra, Cros- sandra. 10 Gen. 61 Sp. 20. Lmtibnl/tria:, contains of Diandr. Monogyn. *Pinguicula, *Utriculai-ia. 2 Gen. 8 Sp. 21. I'rimulacece, contains of Tetrand. Monogy. *Centunculus ; of Pentand. Monngyn. Aretia, Androsace, *Trimula, Cortusa, Soklantlla, Dodecatheon, *Cyclamen, *Hottonia, *Lysima- chia, *Anagallis, *Samolus, Coris ; of Heptand. Monogyn. *Trientalis, Diapensia, Pyxidanthera. 1C (/en. C8 Sp. 2?. GlohularitK, coiitains of Tdra,ul.Mom>gyn. Globularia, Adina. 2 Gen. 7 Sp. CLASS VII. DICOTYLEDONB^. Monochlamydece, in which the Calyx and the Corolla form only a single envelope. Seventeen Orders. Plum- 3 Gen. 'Sp. 2. Plaittaginece, contains of Pentand. Monogy. *Plantago ; of Moncec. Tetrand. *Littorella. 2 Gen. 38 Sp. 3. Nyctagineif, contains of Monand. Monogy. Boerhavia ; of Triand. Monogy. Oxybaphus ; of Tetrand. Monogyn. Allionia, Opercularia, CryptOSpermum ; of Pentand. Munugij. Mirabilis ; of Heptamlr. Monogyn. Pisonia. 7 Gen. 18 Sp. 4. Amarant/iacece, contains of Pentand. Monogy. Gomphrena, I'hiloxerus, Achyranthes, Pupalia, Dieringia, Celosia, Lesti- budesia, Alternanthera, ^Erua, *Illecebrum, Paronychia, Anychia, Mollia ; of Pentand. Digyn. *Herniaria; of nHona-c. Pentand. *Amaranthus ; of Dicec. Hexandr. Iresine. 16 Gen. 78 Sp. 5. Chenopodece, contains of Diandr. Monogy. *Salicornia ; of Diand. Digyn. Corispermum, *Blitum ; of Triand. Monogyn. Polycnemum ; of Tetrandr. Tetrag. Rivina, Camphorosma ; i>f Pttandr. Monogyn. Chenolea ; of Pentfindr. Digyn. *Cheno- podium, *Beta, *Salsola, Kochia, Anabasis, Bosea; of Pen- tandr. Tetragyn. Basella ; of Heptandr. Monogyn. Petiveria ; of Octandr. Digyn. Galenia ; of Decandr. Decagy'n. Phytolacca ; of Moncec. Monandr. Ceratocarpus ; of Monccc. Triandr. Axy- ris; of Moncec. Diotis; of Dicec. Pentandr. Spinacia; of Poly- gam. Moncec. *Atriplex, Rhagodia. 23 Gen. 100 Sp. C. Polygonece, contains of Triand. Trigyn. Kosnigia'; of Hexandr. Digyn. Atraphaxis, of Hexand. Trigyn. llumex ; of Octand. Trigyn. *Polygonum, Coccoloba; .of Enneand. Eriogonum ; of Enneand. Trigyn. Rheum ; of >. Trigyn. Brunnichia; of Dodecandr. Tetragyn. Calli- gonum. 9 Gen. 80 Sp. . Laurimc, contains of Enneandr. Monogyn. Laurus; of Moncec. Tetrand. Hemandia ? 2 Gen. 18 Sp. ', contains of Dicec. Monadelph. Myristica. 1 Gen. Order 1. Phtmbaginea, contains of Pentand. Monogyn. bago ; of PeiUandr. Pentagy. *Armeria, *Statice. 44 8p. J. Myristici,w. 2Sp. 9. Proteaceie, contains of Tetrand. Monogyn. Petrophila, Iso- pogon, Protea, Leucospermum, Mimetes, Serruria, Nivenia, Sorocephalus, Spatalla, Persoonia, Grevillea, Hakea, Lam- bertia, Xylomelum, Telopea, Lomatia, Rhopala, Banksia, Drvandra ; of Di&c. Tetrandr. Aulax, Leucadendron ; of Polygam. Mon6. Grarmnea, contains ot Dicindr Dipyn. *Anthoxanthum ; of Trianti. Munogyn. *Nardus, Lyceum, Cornucopia', ('en- chrus *SesU:ria,' Limnctis ; of 7 'rimntr Trigyn. *Tricho- dium, Sporabolus, *Agrostis, *Knappia, Pterotis, *Pol- pogon, "" ticum, *Glyceria, i' Sporabolus, *Agrostis, 11, *Stipa, Trisetum,*Avena, *15romus,*Fcstuca,*Tri- th-um, *Secale, *Hordeum, *Elymus, *I.oUum, Kreleria, *Triodia, *Calamasrostis, *Arundo,*Aira, GIyceria, *Poji, *Triodia, *Calamasrostis, * Arundo, *Aira, Melica, Echinaria, Lappago, Eleusine, Chrysurus, *Cyno- rus, Beckmannia, *I)actvlis, Uniola, *Briza, *Cynodon, *Milium,*I.agurus, *Alopecurus, *Phleum, Crypsis, *Pha- laris, Torrettia, Paspalium, Pifjitaria, Panicum, (')rthopogon, *Pennisetum, Sarcharum, *Hottlx)llia, Michrochloa, I.eer- sia ; of Herandr. Minui^yn. Barabusa, Khrharta; of Hexamlr. Digyn. Oryza ; of ilotozc. Tnandr. Zea, Tripsacum, Coix, Olvra; of Monac. Hcxandr. Zi/.ania, Pharus; of Pulygam. Moncec. Andropogon, Chloris, Penicillaria, Sorghum, *Hol- cus, Ischsemum, VEgilops, Manisuris. 74 Gen. 377 Sp. CLASS IX. MONOCOTYLBDONRH!. Cryptogamae, in which the fructification is concealed, unknown, or irregular. Five Orders. Order 1. NauKlet, contains of Monandr. Monogyn- *Hippuris; of Dianrlr. Digyn. *Calitriche ; of Tetratui. 'Tetrapyn. *Rup- pia ; of Hciiindr. Trigyn. Apooogeton ; of Hrptand. Tc- traeyn. Saururus; of TUotwc. M^uimlr. * Zannichelia, *Chara; of Mature. Diaitd. *I.emna; of Monac. Polyaiul. *Ceratophyllum,*.Myrioi>hylluin. 10 Gen. 23 Sp. 2. Eaitisetuceie, contains of Crypteg. Gonopterid. *Equisetum. 1 Gen. 7 Sp. 3. Maniliaceae, contains of Cryptogam. Hydropterid. *Isoetes, *Pilularia. 2 Gen. 2 Si.. ' 4. Lycopodinea:, contains 61 Cryptogam. Stachyopierid. *Lycopo dium, Psilotum. 2 Gen. 12 Sp. 5. Filices, contains ot Cryptogam. Stadtyofierid. *O^)hioglossum, *Botr>-chiuin ; of Crypto. PoropterO. Marattia; of Cryftog. Sdaanotopterid. Lyg.xlium, Anemia, *()smunda ; of ( .Vm>/. Filic. Acmticani, Hemi, Menbdam, (irammitis, *Po- Ivpodium, Allantodia, *Aspidum, *Asplunium, *Scoloj>en- drium, Diplazium, *Pteris, Vittaria, Onoclea, *Blechnum, Woodwardia, Doodia, *Adiantum, Cheilanthes, Lonchitis, Davallia, Dicksonia, Cyathea, *Trichomanes, *Hymenc- pbyllum. 32 Gen. 139 Sp. CHAP. V. Vegetable Organology, or the external Structure of Plants. 590. Vegetables are reducible to classes, according as they are distinguished by a structure, or organisation, more complicated or more simple ; or, according as they are found to be formed with or without certain parts or organs entering into the general idea of the plant. The former constitute what may be denominated perfect plants, and form a class compre- hending the principal mass of the vegetable kingdom. The latter constitute what may be denominated imperfect plants, and form a class comprehending all such vegetables as are not included in the foregoing class. Such is the arrangement of Keith, from whose work, as by far the best for general purposes, we have chiefly extracted this and the three following chapters. CJECT. I. Perfect Plants. 591. The parts of perfect plants may be distributed into conservative and reproductive, as corresponding to their respective functions in the economy of vegetation. SUBSECT. 1. Conservative Organs. 592. The conservative organs are such as are absolutely necessary to the growth and preservation of the plant, including the root, trunk, branch, leaf, and frond. The root is the principal organ of nutrition. The trunk constitutes the principal bulk of the individual. The branches are the divisions of the trunk, originating generally in the upper extremity, but often also along the sides. The leaf is a temporary part of the plant, issuing generally from numerous points towards the extremi- ties of the branches, but sometimes also immediately from the stem or root, and distinguishable by the sight or touch into an upper and under surface, a base and an apex, with a midrib and lateral nerves. The frond is to be regarded as a compound of several of the parts already described ; it consists of ;i union or incorporation of the leaf, leaf-stalk, and branch or stem, forming as it were but one organ, of which the constituent parts do not separate spontaneously from one another by means of the fracture of any natural joint, as in the case of plants in general, but adhere together even in their decay. SUBSECT. 2. Conservative Appendages. 593. The conservative appendages are accessory or supernumerary parts found to accom- pany the conservative organs occasionally, but not invariably. Gems, or buds, are organised substances issuing from the surface of the plant, and containing the rudi- ments of new and additional parts which they protrude ; or the rudiments of new individuals which they constitute by detachihg themselves ultimately from the parent plant, and fixing themselves in the soil. Glands are small and minute substances of various different forms, found chiefly on the surface of the leaf and petiole, but often also on the other parts of the plant, and supposed to be organs of secretion. The tendril is a thread-shaped and generally spiral process issuing from the stem, branch, or petiole, and sometimes even from the expansion of the leaf itself, being an organ by which plants of weak and climb- ing stems attach themselves to other plants, or other substances for support ; for which purpose it seems to be well fitted by nature, the tendril being much stronger than a branch of the same size. JThe stipula? are small and foliaceous appendages accompanying the real leaves, and assuming the ap- pearance of leaves in miniature. Ramenta are thin, oblong, and strap-shaped appendages of a brownish color, issuing from the surface of the plant, and somewhat resembling the stipula?, but not necessarily accompanying the leaves. The term, which literally signifies bits of chips or shavings, seems to have been employed by Linna?us to de- note the small and scattered scales that are frequently found on the stems of vegetables, originating in the bark, and giving it a rough or chopped appearance. Hence a branch or stem that is covered with thin and dry scales or flaps is said to be ramentaceous, as in the case of tamarix gallica. The armature consists of such accessory and auxiliary parts as seem to have been intended by nature to defend the plant against the attacks of animals. The pubescence is a general term, including under it all sorts of vegetable down or hairiness, with which the surface of the plant may be covered, finer or less formidable than the armature. Anomalies. There are several other appendages proper to conservative organs, which are so totally dif- ferent from all the foregoing, that they cannot be classed with any of them ; and so very circumscribed in their occurrence, that they do not yet seem to have been designated by any peculiar appellation. The BOOK J. STRUCTURE OF PERFECT PLANTS. 139 first anomaly, as affects the conservative appen- dages, occurs in dioncea muscipula, or Venus's fly- trap C/f#.43. ft). A second is that which occurs in sarra- cenia purpurea, or purple sidesaddle-flower (/). A | third, which is still more | singular, occurs in ne- penthes distillatoria (c). The last anomaly is that of a small globular and membranaceous bag, at- tached as an appendage to the roots and leaves of some of the aquatics. It is confined only to a few genera, but is to be seen in great abundance on the roots or leaves of the seve- ral -species of utricularia inhabiting the ponds and ditches of this country; and on the leaves of aldrovanda vesiculosa, an inhabitant of the marshes of Italy. In utriculorfca vulgaris this appendage is pear-shaped, compressed, with an open border at the small end furnished with several slender fibres originating in the margin, and containing a transparent and watery fluid, and a small bubble of air, by means of which it seems to acquire a buoyancy that suspends it in the water. SUBSECT. 3. Rejrroductive Organs. 594. The reproductive organs are such parts of the plant as are essential to its propaga- tion, corresponding in extent to the fructification of Linnaeus, which he has elegantly defined to be a temporary part of the vegetable, whose object is the reproduction of the species, terminating the old individual, and beginning the new. It includes the flower with its immediate accompaniments or peculiarities, the flower-stalk, receptacle, and inflorescence, together with the ovary or fruit. The flower, like the leaf, is a temporary part of the plant, issuing generally from the extremity of the branches, but sometimes also from the root, stem, and even leaf, being the apparatus destined by nature for the production of the fruit, and being also distinguishable, for the most part, by the brilliancy of its coloring or the sweetness of its smell. It has been happily styled by Pliny, the joy of plants, " flos gaudium arborum ;" of which the lily, the tulip, and the rose, are magnificent examples. The flower-stalk is a partial trunk or stem, supporting one or more flowers, if the flowers are not sessile, and issuing from the root, stem, branch, or petiole, and sometimes even from the leaf. It is considered by botanists as comprehending two different species, the scape and peduncle. The receptacle is the seat of the flower, and point of union between the different parts of the flower, or between the flower and the plant, whether immediate and sessile, or mediate and supported upon a flower-stalk. Some botanists have considered it as a part of the flower itself, thongh this view of the sub- ject is not entirely correct ; but it is at any rate a part of the fructification, and cannot possibly be wanting in the case of any flower whatever. Like the flower-stalk, it has been discriminated by botanists into two different species, which are not indeed designated by proper names, but characterised by the appellations of the proper receptacle, and the common receptacle. The inflorescence is the peculiar mode of aggregation in which flowers are arranged or distributed upon the plant, whence it is called sometimes also the mode of flowering. The fruit. In the progress of fructification, when the several organs of the flower have discharged their respective functions, the petals, the stamens, the style, and often the calyx, wither and fall. The ovary alone remains attached to the plant, and swells and expands till it reaches maturity. It is now denominated the fruit. But at the period of its complete developement it also detaches itself from the plant and drops into the bosom of the earth, containing and protecting the embryo of the future vegetable. The fruit then is the ripened ovary and the parts which it contains. In popular language the term is confined chiefly to such fruits as are esculent, as the apple, the peach, and the cherry, or perhaps to the esculent part only ; but with the botanist the matured ovary of every flower, with the parts contained, constitutes the fruit. SUBSECT. 4. Reproductive Appendages. 595. Various additional and supernumerary parts, not at all essential to their consti- tution, because not always present, are often found attending the reproductive organs. Many of them are precisely of the same character with that of the conservative appen- dages, except that they are of a finer and more delicate texture. Such are the glands, down, pubescence, hairs, thorns, or prickles, with one or other of which the parts of the fructification are occasionally furnished. But others are altogether peculiar to the repro- ductive organs, and are to be regarded as constituting, in the strict acceptation of the term, true reproductive appendages. Some of them are found to be proper to the flower, and others to the fruit. The appendages proper to the flower are the involucre, spathe, and bracte, generally designated by the appellation of floral leaves, as being leaf-like substances situated near the flower, though different in their color, form, or substance, from the reaUeaves of the plant ; together with the nectary, and several other minute organs presumed to be nectaries, though not certainly known to be so. Appendages of the fruit. When the flower with its appendages has fallen, the ovary, which is still immature, is left attached to the plant, to complete the object of the fructification in the ripening of the contained seed. If it is left without any extraneous or supernumerary appendage, which is a case that often occurs, as in the cherry, apricot, and currant, the fruit is said to be naked. The naked fruit, how- ever, is not to be confounded.with the naked seed, from which it is altogether distinct. For it is the want of a conspicuous pericarp that constitutes the naked seed ; but it is the want of an additional integument enveloping the pericarp, that constitutes the naked fruit. But all parts of the flower are not always deci- 140 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. duous, and it often happens that one or other of them still continues to accompany the pericarp or seed both in its ripening and ripened state, constituting its appendage, and covering it cither wholly or in part, or adhering to it in one shape or other. SECT. II. Imperfect Plants. 596. Plants apparently defective in one or other of the more conspicuous parts or organs, whether conservative or reproductive, are denominated imperfect. Lin- nasus characterised them by the appellation of cryptogamous plants, because their organs of fructification are not yet detected, or are so very minute as to require the aid of the microscope to render them visible ; and in the system of Jussieu they are included in the monocotyledoneae and acotyledoneae, composing the cryptogameas of the former, and the whole of the latter division. As in the perfect plants, so in the imperfect plants, the eye readily recognises traces of a similitude or dissimilitude of external habit and deportment characterising the different individuals of which they consist, and suggesting also the idea of distinct tribes or families. And upon this principle different botanists have instituted different divisions, more or less extensive, according to their own peculiar views of the subject. But one of the most generally adopted divisions of imperfect plants is that by which they are distributed into the natural orders of filices, equisitacea?, lycopodineae, musci, hepaticae, algae, lichenae, and fungi. Dillcnius, Micheli, Bulliard, Hedwig, and Acharius, have rendered themselves illustrious by the study of these tribes. SUBSECT. 1. Filices, Equisitacea; and Lycopodinece. 597. The filices, equisitacece, and lycopodineae, are for the most part herbaceous, and die down to the ground in the winter, but they- are furnished with a perennial root, from which there annually issues a frond bearing the fructification. The favorite habitations of many of them are heaths and uncultivated grounds, where they are found intermixed with furze and brambles ; but the habitations of such as are the most luxuriant in their growth, are moist and fertile spots, in shady and retired situations, as on mossy dripping rocks, or by fountains and rills of water. Some of them will thrive even on the dry and barren rock, or in the chinks and fissures of walls ; and others only in wet and marshy situations where they are half immersed in water. SUBSECT. 2. Musci. 598. The mosses are a tribe of imperfect plants of a small and diminutive size, consisting often merely of a root, surmounted with a tuft of minute leaves, from the centre of which the fructification springs, but furnished for the most part with a stem and branches, on which the leaves are closely imbricated, and the fructification terminal or lateral. They are perennials and herbaceous, approaching to shrubby ; or annuals, though rarely so, and wholly herbaceous, the perennials being also evergreens. Their most favorite habit- ations are bleak and barren soils, such as mountains, heaths, woods, where they are found, not only rooted in the earth, but attached also to the roots and trunks of trees, and even to the flinty rock ; or immersed in bogs and ditches, or floating, though fixed by the roots, in streams of running water. As they affect the most barren soils, so they thrive best also in the coldest and wettest seasons. In the drought of summer they wither and languish ; but in the more moderate temperature of autumn they begin to recruit, so that even the chilling cold of winter that deprives other plants of their verdure and foliage, and threatens destruction to the greater part of vegetables, tends but to refresh and revive the family of the mosses. (Jig. 44.) Hence their capacity of retaining moisture for a great length of time without discovering any tendency to putrefaction, and of recover- ing their verdure when moistened with water, even after having been completely dried, and kept in a dried state for many years. From the extreme minuteness of their parts, they are apt to be overlooked by the superficial observer, or disregarded by the novice in BOOK I. STRUCTURE OF IMPERFECT PLANTS. 141 botany, who is attracted perhaps only by what is specious in the plant or flower, but who, when the desire of botanical knowledge shall have inspired him with a relish for micro- scopical observation, will find the study of the mosses to be no less interesting than that of the more perfect plants, and the form and texture of their parts to be no less beautiful and elegant than that of the most gaudy flowers. (Jig. 44.) SUBSECT. 3. Hepaticee. 599. The hepatlcte are a tribe of small and herbaceous plants resembling the mosses, but chiefly constituting fronds, and producing their fruit in a capsule that splits into longi- tudinal valves. The name is derived from a Greek word signifying the liver, because perhaps some of them were formerly employed as a remedy in diseases of the liver ; or because some of them exhibit, in their general aspect, a slight resemblance to the lobes of the liver. In their habitations, they affect for the most part the same sort of situations as the mosses, being found chiefly in wet and shady spots, by the sides of springs and ditches, or on the shelving brinks of rivulets, or on the trunks of trees. Like the mosses, they thrive best also in cold and damp weather, and recover their verdure, though dried, if moistened again with water. The hepaticae and the mosses are indeed so nearly al- lied, that they have generally been regarded as constituting but one family, and classed together accordingly ; the latter under the title of musci frondosi, and the former under that of musci hepatici. Such was the division even of Hedwig ; but later botanists have found it to be more consonant to the principles of sound and scientific arrangement, to separate the hepaticae from the mosses altogether, and to convert them into a distinct tribe. SUBSECT. 4. Algce and Lichencz. GOO. The term algce, or sea-weeds, among modern botanists, includes not merely marine and many other immersed plants, but also a great variety of plants that are not even aquatics. All the algae, or, according to the Jussieuean terminology, algeae, however, agree in the common character of having their herbage frondose, or but rarely admitting of the distinction of root, stem, and leaf, and their fructification imbedded either in the substance of the frond itself, or in some peculiar and generally sessile receptacle. The algeae were formerly divided into the six following genera, lichen, tremella, fucus, ulva, conferva, byssus ; but now the genus lichen forms an order of itself. 601. The utility of the algae is obviously very considerable, whether we regard them as furnishing an article of animal food, or as applicable to medicine and the arts. The fucus edulis, and several other fuci, are eaten and much relished by many people, whether raw or dressed, and it is likely that some of them are fed upon by various species of fish. The fucus lichenoides {Turner, c. 118.) is now believed to be the chief material of the edible nests of the East India swallows, which are so much esteemed for soups, that they sell in China for their weight in gold. When disengaged from their placaof growth and thrown upon the sea-shore, the European algae are often collected by the farmer and used as manure. They are often also employed in the preparation of dyes, as well as in the lucrative manufacture of kelp, a commodity of the most indispensable utility in the im- portant arts of making soap and glass. . 602. The utility of the lichena is also worthy of. notice. The lichen rangiferinus (Jig. 45.) forms the principal nourishment of the rein-deer during the cold months of winter, when all other herbage fails. The lichen islandicus is eaten by the Icelanders instead of bread, or used in the preparation of broths, and like the lichen pulmonarius, has been lately found to be bene- ficial in consumptive affections. Many of them are also employed in the preparation of some of our finest dyes, or pigments ; and it is from the lichen parellus that the chemical analysist ob- tains his litmus. The lichens and the mosses seem instituted by nature to provide for the uni- versal diffusion of vegetable life over the whole surface of the terrestrial globe. The powdery and tuberculous lichens attach themselves even to the bare and solid rock. Having reached the maturity of their species, they die and are converted into a fine earth, which forms a soil for the leathery lichens. These again decay and moulder into dust in their turn ; and the depth of soil, which is thus augmented, is now capable of nourishing and support- ing other tribes of vegetables. The seeds of the mosses lodge in it, and spring up into 142 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. plants, augmenting also by their decay the quantity of soil, and preparing it for the sup- port of plants of a more luxuriant growth, so that in the revolution of ages even the sur face of the barren rock is covered with a soil capable of supporting the loftiest trees. SUBSECT. 5. Fungi. 603. The fungi are a tribe of plants whose herbage is a frond of ajteshy or pulpy texture, quick in its growth, and fugacious in its duration, and bearing seeds or gems in an appro- priate and exposed membrane, or containing them interspersed throughout its mass. But this rule is not without its exceptions ; for many of the fungi are converted, during the process of vegetation, or rather when their vegetation is over, into a tough, leathery, and even woody substance, which gives them a permanency beyond that of their congeners, and a trait of character that is not included in the above definition. They are also a tribe of plants that may be regarded as the lowest in the vegetable scale, exhibiting a considerable resem- blance to the tribe of zoophites, and thus forming the connecting link between the vegetable and animal kingdoms. The habitations they affect are very various, many of them vegetating only on the surface of the earth ( t fig. 46. a), and some of them even buried under it ; others on stumps and trunks of rotten trees'(6); others on decayed fruit ; others on damp and wet walls ; and others on animal ordure. Conservative organs. Many of the fungi are altogether destitute of any conspicuous root, being attached to some appropriate basis of support merely by means of a large and flattened surface. The frond is often merely a thin, flat, and leathery sort of substance, adhering to a basis of support by means of the whole of its under-surface, as in the boleti. In others it is globular and sitting, as in lycoperdon ; and in others, it is bell-shaped and sitting, as in nidularia. Reproductive organs. In fungi furnished with gills and a curtain, if the inner surface of the curtain is carefully examined with a good magnifier, before the time of its natural detachment from the stipe or pileus, there will be found adhering to it a number of fine and delicate threads supporting small globules ; and in such as have no curtain the same sort of substances may be found adhering to the edge of the pileus. These Hedwig regards as stamens. If the gills are next examined in the same manner and about the same time, there will be found sitting on their edge or surface a multitude of small, tender, and cylin- drical substances, some of which are surmounted with a small globule, and others not. These he regards as being probably the styles and summits. Similar substances may be detected on the other genera of fungi also. But from the extreme minuteness of their parts, and from their strong similitude to the down with which the finer organs of vegetables are generally covered, it is easy to perceive how very difficult it must be to decide upon their true character. 604. Uses of the fungi- The powder of the lycoperdons is said to be an excellent stvptic ; and is remarkable also for its property of strongly repelling moisture. If a basin is filled with water, and a little of the powder strewed upon the surface so as to cover it thinly, the hand may be plunged into it and thrust down to the bottom without being wetted with a single drop of water. Several of the boleti, when dried, afford a very use- ful tinder ; and several of the agarics and tubers are used as articles of food, or as ingre- dients in the preparation of seasoning. The truffle is much esteemed for the rich and delicate flavor which it imparts to soups and sauces ; and the mushroom for its esculent property, and utility in the preparation of ketchup. CHAP. VI. Vegetable Anatomy) or the internal Structure of Plants. 605. The organs of plants discoverable by external examination, are themselves reducible to component organs, which are again resolvable into constituent and primary organs. These are called the decomposite, the composite, and the elementary. SECT. I. Decomposite Organs. 606. The decomposite organs constitute the vegetable individual, and are distinguishable by external examination ; to the dissection of which we will now proceed, taking them in the retrograde order of the seed, pericarp, flower, leaf, gem, and caudex, or branch, stem, and root, with their decomposite appendages. 607. The seed. The mass of the seed consists of two principal parts, distinguishable without much difficulty; namely, the integuments and nucleus, or embryo and its envelopes. The integuments proper to the seed BOOK I. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF PLANTS. 143 are two in number, an exterior integument and an interior integument ; which are sometimes, however, enveloped by the additional integument constituting an appendage of the seed, under the title of the pellicle or seminal epidermis. The exterior Integument, or testa, is the original cuticle o'f the nucleus, not detachable in the early stages of its growth, but detachable at the period of the maturity of the fruit, when it is generally of a membranaceous or leathery texture ; though sometimes soft and fleshy, and sometimes crustaceous and bony. It may be very easily distinguished in the transverse or longitudinal section of the garden-bean or any other large seed, and may be also easily detached by the aid of a little manipulation. The interior integument, r sub-testa, lines the exterior integument, or testa,' and immedi- ately envelopes the nucleus, deriving its origin from the interior portion of the umbilical cord, which, after perforating the testa, disperses into a multiplicity of ramifications connected by a fine membrane, and forms the interior integument. Like the testa, to which indeed it adheres, it may be easily distinguished in the garden-bean (Jig. 47.), or in a ripe walnut ; in which last it is a fine transparent and net-like mem- brane. 608. The nucleus is that part of the seed which is contained within the proper integuments, consisting of the albumen with the vitellus, when present, and embryo. The albumen is an organ resembling in its consistence the white of an egg, and forming, in most cases, the exterior portion of the nucleus, but always separable from the interior or remaining portion. The vitellus is an organ of a fleshy but firm contex- ture, situated, when present, between the albumen and embryo ; to the former of which it is attached only by adhesion, but to the latter by incorporation of substance, so as to be inseparable from it, except by force. The embryo (fig. 47. a) which is the last and most essential part of the seed and final object of the fructification, as being the germ of the future plant, is a small and often very minute organ, enclosed within the albumen and occupying the centre of the seed. The cotyledon or seed-lobe (A), is that portion of the embryo, that encloses and protects the plantlet, and springs up during the process of germination into what is usually denominated the seminal leaf, if the lobe is solitary; or seminal leaves, if there are more lobes than one. In the former ease the seed is said to be monocotyledonous ; in the latter case, it is said to be dicotyledonous. Dicotyledonous seeds, which constitute by far the majority of seeds, are well exemplified in the garden-bean. As there are some seeds whose cotyledon consists of one lobe only, falling short of the general number, so there are also a few whose cotyledon is divisible into several lobes, exceeding the general number. They have been denominated polycotyledonous seeds, and are exempli- fied in the case of lepidium sativum or common garden-cress, in wnich the lobes are six in number ; as in that also of the different species of the genus pinus, in which they vary from three to twelve. But although by far the greater number of seeds are furnished with two cotyledons, or with a cotyledon divi- sible or not divisible into several lobes, there is also a considerable proportion in which the cotyledon is altogether wanting, or at least believed to be wanting by botanists in general. These, according to Gaertner, are exemplified in the fuci, ferns, and fungi, the embryo being merely a germinating cicatrice imbedded in the surface of a vitellus which forms the mass of the seed. But Hedwig, to whose opinions on this subject much deference is also due, maintains that the seeds of the plants in question are famished with cotyledons as well as those of other plants, and that no seed whatever is without them. This is a case, however, in which the general opinion of botanists is against him, as may be seen from the many systems founded upon the presence, or absence, or number of the cotyledons, and exemplified, as we have seen, in that of the great and justly celebrated Jussieu, whose primary divisions are those of acotyledonous, monocotyledonous, and dicotyledonous plants, the polycotyledonous being thought to be too few in num- ber to constitute a separate division. It should be recollected, however, that the above divisions were instituted at a time when the subject had not yet undergone any thing like a rigorous scrutiny, that already many changes have been found necessary, and that future investigations will in all probability point out the necessity of more. In watching the germination of fern-seed, Mirbel observed some sub- stances which he regards as cotyledons, and so far supports the position of Hedwig. The plantlet, or future plant in miniature, is the interior and essential portion of the embryo, and seat of vegetable life. In some seeds it is so minute as to be scarcely perceptible ; while in others it is so large as to be divisible into dis- tinct parts, as in the garden-bean. 609. The pericarp, which in different species of fruit assumes so many varieties of contexture, acquires its several aspects, not so much from a diversity of substance as of modification. The valves of the capsule, but particularly the partitions by which it is divided into cells, are composed of a thin and skinny mem- brane, or of an epidermis covering a pulp more or less indurated, and interspersed with longitudinal fibres. The capsule of the mosses is composed of a double and net-like membrane, enclosed within a fine epider- mis. The pome is composed of a fine but double epidermis, or, according to Knight, of two skins, enclosing a soft and fleshy pulp, with bundles of longitudinal fibres passing through it, contiguous to, and in the direction of, its longitudinal axis. The valves of the legume are composed of an epidermis enclosing a firm but fleshy pulp, lined for the most part with a skinny membrane, and of bundles of longitudinal fibres, forming the seam. The nutshell, whether hard or bony, or flexible and leathery, is composed of a pulp more or less highly indurated, interspersed with longitudinal fibres, and covered with an epidermis. The drupe is composed of an epidermis enclosing a fleshy pulp, which is sometimes so interwoven with a mul- tiplicity of longitudinal fibres as to seem to consist wholly of threads, as in the cocoa-nut. The berry is composed of a very fine epidermis enclosing a soft and juicy pulp. The scales of the strobile are composed of a tough and leathery epidermis, enclosing a spongy but often highly indurated pulp interspersed with longitudinal fibres that pervade also the axis. 610. The flower-stalk, or peduncle supporting the flower, which is a prolongation of the stem or branch, or rather a partial stem attached to it, if carefully dissected with the assistance of a good glass, will be found to consist of the following several parts : 1st, An epidermis, or external envelope ; 2dly, A parenchyma, or soft and pulpy mass ; 3dly, Bundles of longitudinal threads or fibres, originating in the stem or branch, and passing throughout the whole extent of the parenchyma. The several organs of the flower are merely prolongations of the component parts of the flower-stalk, though each organ does not always contain the whole of such component parts, or at least not under the same modifications. The epidermis, however, and parenchyma are common to them all ; but the longitudinal threads or fibres are seldom if ever to be found except in the calyx or corolla. 611. The leaf-stalk, or petiole supporting the leaf, which is a prolongation of the branch or stem, or rather a partial stem attached to'it, exhibits upon dissection the same sort of structure as the peduncle, namely, an epidermis, a pulp or parenchyma, and bundles of longitudinal threads or fibres. 612. Gems. There exist among the different tribes of vegetables four distinct species of gems, two peculiar to perfect plants, the bud and bulb, and two peculiar to imperfect plants, the propago and gongylus ; the latter being denominated simple gems, because furnished with a single envelope only ; and the former being denominated compound gems, because furnished with more than a single envelope. 144 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART 11. Bwb are composed externally of a number of spoon-shaped scales overlapping one another, and converging towards a jioint In the apex, and often cemented together by means of a gluti- nous or mucilaginous substance exuding from their surface. If these scales are stripped off and dissected under the microscope, they will be found to consist, like the leaves or divisions of the calyx, of an epidermis enclosing a pulp interspersed with a net- work of fibres, but unaccompanied with longitudinal threads. If the scales of a leaf-bud are taken and stripped off, and the remaining part carefully opened up, it will be found to consist of the rudiments of a young branch terminated by a bunch of incipient leaves imbedded in a white and cottony down, being minute but complete in all their parts and proportions, and folded or rolled up in the bud in a peculiar and determinate Du&t, which are either radical or caulmary, exhibit in then- external structure, or in a part of their internal structure that is easily detected, several distinct varieties, some being solid, some coated, and some scaly ; but all protruding in the process of vegetation the stem, leaf, and (lower, peculiar to their species. The propago, which is a simple gem, peculiar to some genera of imperfect plants, and exemplified bv Gaertner in the lichens, consists of a small and pulpy mass forming a granule of no regu- lar shape, sometimes naked, and sometimes covered with an envelope, which i The gongyliu, which is also a simple gem peculiar to some enera of imperfect plants, and exemplified by Giertn fuci, consists of a slightly indurated pulp moulded into ' Giertner in the all and globular granule of a'firm and solid contexture, and invested with an epidermis. 613. The term caudex, in its present application, is to be understood as including the whole mass or body both of the trunk and root, as distinct from the temporary parts of the plant, or parts already investi- gated ; and as comprehending both the caudex ascendens, and caudex descendens of Linnsus, or the trunk and its divisions, with the root and its divisions. In opening up and dissecting the caudex, whether ascending or descending, the dissector will soon discover that its internal structure, like its external aspect or habit, is materially different in different tribes of plants. 614. The first general mode of the internal structure of the caudex is that in which an epidermis encloses merely a homogeneous mass of pulp or slender fibre,which forms the principal body of the caudex, and becomes some- what indurated with age, though not woody, without discovering any further variety of component parts. This, Mirbel observes, is the simplest mode of internal structure existing among vegetables ; it is exemplified in the lower orders of frondose and imperfect plants, particularly the algse and fungi. 615. TJie second general mode of internal structure of the caudex is that in which an epidermis encloses two or more substances, or assemblages of substances, totally heterogeneous in their character. A very common va- riety of this mode is that in which an epidermis or bark encloses a soft and pulpy mass, interspersed with a number of longitudinal nerves or fibres, or bundles of fibres, extending from the base to the apex, and disposed in a peculiarity of manner characteristic of a tribe or genus. This mode pre- vails chiefly in herbaceous and annual or biennial plants, (fig. 48.) The pulp being solid, as in apsidium filix-mass, and tubular, as in the garden parsnep or common hemlock. A second variety of this mode is that in which a strong and often thick bark encloses a circular layer of longitudinal fibres, or several such circular and concentric layers, interwoven with thin transverse and divergent layers of pulp, so as to form a firm and compact cylinder, in the centre of which is lodged a pulp or pith. This mode is best exemplified in trees and shrubs (fig. 49.), though it is also applicable to many plants whose texture is chiefly or almost wholly herbaceous, forming as it were the connecting link between such plants as are purely herbaceous on the one hand, and such as are purely woody on the other. In the latter case the wood is perfect ; in the former case it is imperfect. The wood being imperfect in the root of the beet, the common bramble, and burdock ; and perfect in the oak or alder. 61& The appendages of the plant, whether conservative or reproductive, exhibit nothing in their internal structure that is at all essentially different from that of the organs that have been already described. SECT. II. Composite Organs. 617. From the preceding analysis, it appears the decomposite organs are reducible to one or other of the several following substances, namely, epidermis, pulp, pith, cortical layers, ligneous layers, and vegetable fibre. These now remain to be further analysed, under the title of composite organs, as being still compound, with a view to reach the ultimate and elementary organs of the vegetable subject. 618. Structure of the vegetable epidermis. The epidermis of the vegetable, which, from its resemblance to that of the animal, has been designated by the same name, is the external envelope or integument of the plant, extending over the whole surface, and covering the root, stem, branches, leaves, flower, and fruit, with their appendages ; the summit of the pistil only excepted. But although it is extended over the whole surface of the plant, it is not of equal consistence throughout. In the root and trunk it is a tough and leathery membrane, or it is a crust of considerable thickness, forming a notable portion of the bark, and assuming some peculiar shade of color ; while in the leaves, flowers, and tender shoots, it is a fine, colorless, and transparent film, when detached ; and when adherent, it is always tinged with some peculiar shade, which it borrows from the parts immediately beneath it. Du Hamel, Saussure, Hedwig, Comparetti, Bauer, and others, have examined the epidermis, and, according to their descriptions, it is represented as consisting of at least two if not more layers, which in the stem of many plants, are very easily distinguished, particularly in that of the paper-birch, the bark of which may, perhaps, be regarded as a succession of individual cuticles. 619. The pulp is a soft and juicy substance, constituting the principal mass of succulent plants, and a notable proportion of many parts even of woody plants. It constitutes the principal mass of many of the fungi and fuci, and of herbaceous plants in general. Of those phytologists who have described the pulp, Mirbel is con- sidered the most accurate. He compares it to clusters of small and hexagonal cells or bladders, con- taining for the most part a colored juice, and formed apparently of the foldings and doublings of a fine and delicate membrane, in which no traces of organisation are to be distinguished. In the trunk of what are called dicotyledonous plants, he regards the pulp, or cellular tissue, as consisting of two distinct portions, which he designates by the respective appellations of the herbaceous tissue, and the parenchyma. The former is the exterior portion of the cellular tissue, of which the cells always contain a resinous and colored juice, that communicates its peculiar tinge to the epidermis. The latter is the interior portion of the tissue, composed also of cells, But differing from those of the herbaceous tissue in containing only a watery juice without color, because it has not been exposed to the action of the light, though in the calyx and fruit this watery juice is said to be also often colored. But in the description of the vegetable pulp, the only distinction necessary to be made is that by which it is divided into two parts, namely, an apparatus of hexagonal cells or vesicles, and a contained juice, whether colorless or colored, the union of which substances forms a true pulp. BOOK I. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF PLANTS. 620. The pith, as has been already shown, is a soft and spongy, but often succulent substance, occupying the centre of the root, stem, and branches, and extending in the direction of their longitudinal axis, in which it is enclosed as in a tube. The structure of the pith is precisely similar to that of the pulp, being composed of an assemblage of hexagonal cells containing a watery and colorless juice, or of cellular tissue and a parenchyma. 621. The cortical layers, or interior and concentric layers, constituting the mass of the bark, are situated immediately under the cellular integument, where such integument exists, and where not, immediately under the epidermis ; or they are themselves external. They are distinguishable chiefly in the bark of woody plants, but particularly in that of the lime-tree. They are composed of two elementary parts bundles of longitudinal fibres constituting a network (fig.5(),}, and amass of pulp more or less indurated, filling up the meshes. The innermost of the layers is denominated the liber, and was used by the ancients to write on before the invention of paper. It is the finest and most delicate of them all, and often most beautifully reticulated (fig. 51. a), and varied by bundles of longitudinal fibre (6). But the liber of daphne lagetto is remarkable beyond that of all other plants for the beauty and delicacy of its network, which is not inferior to that of the finest lace, and at the same time so very soft and flexible that in countries of which the tree is a native the lace of the liber is often made to supply the place of a neckcloth. If the cortical layers are injured or destroyed by accident, the part destroyed is again regenerated, and the wound healed up without a scar. But if the wound penetrates beyond the liber, the part destroyed is no longer rege- nerated. Or if a tree is bent so as to break part of the cortical fibres, and then propped up in its former position, the fractured fibres will again unite. Or if a portion of the stem is entirely decorticated and covered with a piece of bark, even from another tree, the "two different barks will unite. Hence the practicability of ascertaining how far the liber extends. And hence also the origin of grafting, which is always effected by a union o'f the liber of the graft and stock. 622. The ligneous layers, or layers constituting the wood, occupy the intermediate portion of the stem between the bark and pith ; and are distinguishable into two different sorts concentric layers and divergent layers, (fig. 50.) 623. The concentric layers, which constitute by far the greater part of the mass of the wood, are suffi- ciently conspicuous for the purpose of exemplification on the surface of a horizontal section of most trunks or branches, as on that of the oak and elm. But though they are generally described as being con- centric, they are not always strictly so. For they are often found to extend more on the one side of the axis of the stem or branch, than on the other. Some authors say the excess is on the north side, but others say it is on the south side. The former account for it by telling us it is because the north side is sheltered from the sun ; and the latter by telling us it is because the south side is sheltered from the cold ; and thus from the operation of contrary causes alleging the same effect, which has been also thought to be sufficiently striking and uniform to serve as a sort of compass, by which the bewildered traveller might safely steer his course, even in the recesses of the most extensive forest. But Du Hamel has exposed the futility of this notion, by showing that the excess is sometimes on the one side of the axis, and sometimes on the other, according to the accidental situation of the great roots and branches ; a thick root or branch producing a proportionally thick layer of wood on the side of the stem from which it issues. The layers are indeed sometimes more in number on the one side than on the other, as well as thicker. But this is the exception, and not the rule. They are thickest, however, on the side on which they are fewest, though not of the same thickness throughout. Du Hamel, after counting twenty layers on the one side of the transverse section of the trunk of an oak, found only fourteen on the other. But the fourteen exceeded the twenty in thickness by one fourth part. But the layers thus discoverable on the horizontal section of the trunk are not all of an equal consistency throughout, there being an evident diminution in their degree of solidity from the centre, where they are hardest, to the circum- ference, where they are softest. The outermost layer, which is the softest of all, is denominated the alburnum, perhaps from its being of a brighter white than any of the other layers, either of wood or bark; from which character, as well as from its softer texture, it is also easily distinguished, though in the case of some plants, as in that of the poplar and lime-tree, this peculiarity of character is not very ap- parent. From the peculiarity of external character, however, which it possesses in general, it was at one time thought to be a substance essentially different from that of the layers which it invests. The ancients, whose phytological opinions were often very whimsical, supposed it to be something analogous to the fat of animals, and intended perhaps to serve as a sort of nutriment to the plant in winter. But it is now known to be merely wood in a less condensed state, being yet lighter and softer than the interior layers, but acquiring strength and solidity with age. It does not, however, acquire its utmost degree of solidity till after a number of years, as is plain from the regular gradation observable in the solidity of the different layers. But if a tree is barked a year before it is cut down, then the alburnum is converted into wood in the course of that year. 624. The divergent layers which intersect the concentric layers in a transverse direction, constitute also a considerable proportion of the wood, as may be seen in a horizontal section of the fir or birch, or of almost any woody plant, on the surface of which they present an appearance like that of the radii of a circle. 625. The structure of the concentric layers will be found to consist of several smaller and component layers, which are themselves composed of layers smaller still, till at last they are incapable of farther division. The concentric layers are composed of longitudinal fibres, generally forming a network ; and the divergent layers*, of parallel threads or fibres of cellular tissue, extending in a transverse direction, and filling up the interstices of the network ; the two sets of fibres being interwoven and interlaced together, so as to form a firm and compact body in the matured layers ; and thus corresponding exactly to the description given of them by Grew and Malpighi, in which the longitudinal fibres are compared to the warp, and the transverse fibres to the woof of a web. 626. The structure of the stem in plants that are purely herbaceous, and in the herbaceous parts of woody plants, is distinguished by a number of notable and often insulated fibres passing longitudinally throughout its whole extent, as in the stipe of apsidium filix-mass, or leaf-stalk of the alder. These fibres, when viewed superficially, appear to be merely individuals, but when inspected minutely, and under the microscope, they prove to be groups or bundles of fibres smaller and minuter still, firmly cemented together, and forming in the aggregate a strong and elastic thread ; but capable of being split into a number of component fibres, till at last you can divide them no longer. If the fibres of the bajrk are separated by the destruction of a part, the part is again regenerated, and the fibres are again united, without leaving behind them any traces of a wound. But if the fibres of the wood are separated by the destruction of a part, the part is never regenerated, and the fibres are never united. 146 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. SECT. III. Elementary or Vascular Organs. 627. From the previous analysis of the composite organs it appears they are all ulti- mately reducible tojibres, cellular tissue with or without parenchyma, and reticulated mem- brane, which we must consequently regard as being, under one modification or other, the ultimate and elementary organs of which the whole mass of the plant is composed. If it is asked of what the elementary organs are themselves composed, the reply is, they arc composed, as appears from the same analysis, of a fine, colorless, and transparent mem- brane, in which the eye, aided by the assistance even of the best glasses, can discover no traces whatever of organisation ; which membrane we must also regard as constituting the ultimate and fundamental fabric of the elementary organs themselves, and by conse- quence of the whole of the vegetable body. It has been asked by some phytologists whether or not plants are furnished with vessels analogous to the blood-vessels of the animal system. But if it is admitted that plants contain fluids in motion, which cannot possibly be denied, it will follow, as an unavoidable consequence, that they are furnished with vessels conducting or containing such fluids. If the stem of a plant of marigold is divided by means of a transverse section, the divided extremities of the longitudinal fibres, arranged in a circular row immediately within the bark, will be distinctly perceived, and their tubular structure demonstrated by means of the orifices which they present, particu- larly when 1 the stem has begun to wither. The same sort of structure may be observed in the stem of cucurbitaceous plants also, particularly in that of the gourd, in which there are besides discoverable several sets of longitudinal tubes situated near the centre, and of considerable diameter. Regarding it, therefore, as certain that plants are furnished with longitudinal tubes, as well as with cells or utricles for the purpose of conveying or contain- ing their alimentary juices, we proceed to the specific illustration of both, together with their peculiarities and appendages. 628. The utricles are the fine and membranous vessels constituting the cellular tissue of the pith and pulp already described, whether of the plant, flower, or fruit Individually they resemble oblong bladders in- flated in the middle, as in the case of some plants ; or circular or hexagonal cells, as in the case of others. Collectively they have been compared to an assemblage of threads of contiguous bladders or vesicles, or to the bubbles that are found on the surface of liquor in a state of fermentation. 629. The tubes are the vessels formed by the cavities of the longitudinal fibres, whether as occurring in the stem of herbaceous plants, or in the foot-stalk of the leaf and flower, or in the composition of the cortical and ligneous layers, or by longitudinal openings pervading the pulp itself, as in the case of the vine. They have generally been characterised under the denominations of proper vessels, lymphatics, and trachea?. But as this is rather a premature reference to their different uses, which is besides not altogether correct, we shall adopt, with a little alteration, the denominations introduced by Mirbel, as arising from their form or structure. The first and primary division founded upon this principle is that by which they arc distributed into large tubes and small tubes. 630. The large tubes are tubes distinguishable by the superior width of the diameter which they present on the horizontal section of the several parts of the plant Simple tubes ( fa. 52.) are the largest of all the large 'tubes, and are formed of a thin and entire membrane, without any perceptible disruption of continuity, and are found chiefly in the bark, though not confined to it, as they are to be met with also in the alburnum and matured wood, as well as in the fibres of herb- aceous plants. Pormu tubes resemble the simple tubes in then- general aspect ; but differ from them in being pierced with small holes or pores, which are often distributed in regular and parallel rows. They are found in most abundance in woody plants, and particularly in wood that is firm and compact, like that of the oak ; but they do not, like the simple tubes, seem destined to contain any oily or resinous juice. Spiral tubes are fine, transparent, and thread- like substances, occasionally interspersed with the other tubes of the plant, But distinguished from them bi being twisted from right to left, or from left to right, in the form of a corkscrew. They occur in most abundance in herbaceous plants, particularly in aquatics. Falte spiral tubes are tubes apparently spiral on a slight inspection, but which, upon minute examine ation, are found to derive their appearance merely from their being cut transversely by parallel fissures. Mixed tubes are tubes combining in one individual two or more of the foregoing varieties. Mirbel exem- plifies them in the case of the butomus umbellatus, in which the porous tubes, spiral tubes, and false spiral tubes, are often to be met with united in one. 631. The small tubes are tubes composed of a succession of elongated cells united, like those of the cellular tissue. Individually they may be compared to the stem of the grasses, which is formed of several internodia, separated by transverse diaphragms ; and collectively to a united assemblage of parallel and collateral reeds. 632. Pores are small and minute openings of various shapes and dimensions, that seem to be destined to the absorption, transmission, or exhalation of fluids. They are distinguishable into the following two sorts : perceptible pores and imperceptible pores. The perceptible pores are either external or internal, and arc the apertures described by Hedwig as discoverable in the network constituting the epidermis. The im- perceptible pores are pores that are not distinguishable by the eye, unless assisted with the best glasses ; but they are known to exist by the evidence of experiment, and have lately been ably delineated and de- scribed by A. T. Thomson, in his Lectures on Botany. (VoL i. p. 609.) 633. Gaps, according to Mirbel, are empty, but often regular and symmetrical spaces formed in the in- terior of the plant by means of a partial disruption of the membrane constituting the tubes or utricles. In the leaves of herbaceous plants the gaps are often interrupted by transverse diaphragms formed of a portion of the cellular tissue which still remains entire, as may be seen in the transparent structure of the leaves of typha and many other plants. Transverse gaps are said to be observable also in the bark of some plants, though very rarely. 634. There are various appendages connected with the elementary organs, such as internal glands, internal pubescence, &c. : the latter occurs in dissecting the leaf or flower-stalk of nymphaea lutea. BOOK I. PRIMARY PRINCIPLES OF PLANTS. 147 CHAP. VII. Vegetable Chemistry, or jnimary Principles of Plants. 635. As plants are not merely organised beings, but beings endowed with a species of life, absorbing nourishment from the soil in which they grow, and assimilating it to their own substance by means of the functions and operations of their different organs, it is plain that no progress can be made in the explication of the phenomena of vegetable life, and no distinct conception formed of the rationale of vegetation, without some specific knowledge of the primary principles of vegetables, and of their mutual action upon one another. The latter requisite presupposes a competent acquaintance with the ** elements of chemistry ; and the former points out the necessity of a strict and scrupu- lous analysis of the several compound ingredients constituting the fabric of the plant, or contained within it. 636. If the object of the experimenter is merely that of extracting such compound ingredients as may be known to exist in the plant, the necessary apparatus is simple, and the process easy. But if it is that of ascertaining the primary and radical principles of which the compound ingredients are themselves composed, the apparatus is then com- plicated, and the process extremely difficult, requiring much time and labor, and much previous practice in analytical research. But whatever may be the object of analysis, or particular view of the experimenter, the processes which he employs are either mechanical or chemical. 637. The mechanical processes are such as are effected by the agency of mechanical powers, and are often indeed the operation of natural causes ; hence the origin of gums and other spontaneous exudations. But the substances thus obtained do not always flow sufficiently fast to satisfy the wants or necessities of man. And [men have conse- quently contrived to accelerate the operations of nature by means of artificial aid in the application of the wimble or axe, widening the passages which the extravasated fluid has forced, or opening up new ones. But it more frequently happens that the process employed is wholly artificial, and altogether effected without the operation of natural causes. When the juices are enclosed in vesicles lodged in parts that are isolated, or may easily be isolated, the vesicles may be opened by means of rasps or graters, and the juices expressed by the hand, or by some other fit instrument. Thus the volatile oil may be obtained that is lodged in the rind of the lemon. When the substance to be ex- tracted lies more deeply concealed in the plant, or in parts which cannot be easily de- tached from the rest, it may then become necessary to pound or bruise the whole, or a great part of the plant, and to subject it, thus modified, to the action of the press. Thus seeds are sometimes treated to express their essential oils. And if by the action of bruis- ing or pressing heterogeneous ingredients have been mixed together, they may generally be separated with considerable accuracy by means of decantation, when the substances held in suspension have been precipitated. Thus the acid of lemons, oranges, goose- berries, and other fruits, may be obtained in considerable purity, when the mucilage that was mixed with them has subsided. 638. The chemical processes are such as are effected by the agency of chemical powers, and may be reduced to the following : distillation, combustion, the action of water, the action of acids and alkalies, the action of oils and alcohols, and lastly fermentation. They are much more intricate in their nature than the mechanical processes, as well as more difficult in their application. 639. Of the products of vegetable analysis, as obtained by the foregoing processes, some consist of several heretogeneous substances, and are consequently compound, as being capable of further decomposition ; and some consist of one individual substance only, and are consequently simple, as being incapable of further decomposition. SECT. I. Compound Products. 640. The compound products of analysis are very numerous in themselves, and much diversified in their qualities. They are gum, sugar, starch, gluten, albumen, fibrina, extract, tannin, coloring matter, bitter principle, narcotic principle, acids, oils, wax, resins, gum resins, balsams, camphor, caoutchouc, cork, woody fibre, sap, proper juice, charcoal, ashes, alkalies, earths, metallic oxides. 641. Gum is an exudation that issues spontaneously from the surface of a variety of plants, in the state of a clear, viscid, and tasteless fluid, that gradually hardens upon being exposed to the action of the atmosphere, and condenses into a solid mass. It issues copiously from many fruit-trees, but especially from such as produce stone-fruit, as the plum and cherry-tree. From plants or parts of plants containing it, but not dis- charging it by spontaneous exudation, it may be obtained by the process of maceration in water. It has been found by chemists to consist of several varieties, known by the names of gum arabic, gum tragacanth, cherry-tree gum, and mucilage. Gum arabic, which is the most plentiful of all the gums, is the produce of the mimosa nilotica, a native of the interior of Africa and of Arabia ; whence its name. When pure, it is colorless and transparent, though sometimes it is tinged with yellow, varying in its specific gravity from 1300 to 1490. (Davy's Agric, Chem., lect. iii.) It is insoluble in alcohol ; but is readily soluble in L 2 148 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. water ; and if the solution is exposed to the action of the atmosphere, the water ie gradually evaporated, and the gum again left in a solid mass. According to the analysis of Gay Lussac and Thenard, it consists of the following elements, in the following proportions, 100 parts being the integer: carbon 42'23; oxy- gen 50'84 ; hydrogen 6'93 ; saline and earthy matter a small quantity ; total 100 . Gum tragacanth is the produce of the astragalus tragacantha, a thorny shrub that grows in the islands of the Levant It is less transparent than gum arabic, and not so easily dissolved in water. Cherry-tree gum is obtained from the prunus avium, and other species of the same genus, and in general from all trees with stone- fruit, from which it exudes spontaneously and in great abundance. It differs from gum arabic and tra- gacanth in its concreting in larger masses, and being more easily melted. Mucilage is found chiefly in the roots and leaves of plants, particularly such as are bulbous and succulent ; the bulbs of the hyacinth and leaves of the marshmallow. It is found also in flax-seed, and in many of the lichens, and is to be obtained only by maceration in water, from which it is separated by means of sulphuric acid. The uses of gum are considerable. In all its varieties it is capable of being used as an article of food, and is highly nutritive, though not very palatable. It is also employed in the arts, particularly in calico- printing, in which the printer makes choice of it to give consistency to his colors, and to prevent them from spreading. The botanist often uses it to fix his specimens upon paper, for which purpose it is very well adapted. It forms likewise an ingredient in ink ; and in medicine it forms the basis of many mix- tures, in which its influence is sedative and emollient. 642. Sugar is the produce of the saccharum officinarum. (Jig. 53.) The canes or stems of the plant, when ripe, are bruised between the rollers of a mill, and the expressed juice is collected and put into large boilers, in which it is mixed with a small quantity of quicklime, or strong ley of ashes, to neutralise its aci'd, and is then made to boil. The scum which gathers on the top during the process of boiling is carefully cleared away ; and when the juice has been boiled down to the consistence of a syrup, it is drawn off and allowed to cool in vessels which are placed above a cistern, and perforated with small holes, through which the impure and liquid part, known by the name of mo- lasses, escapes ; while the remaining part is converted into a mass of small and hard granules of a brownish or whitish color, known by the designation of raw sugar, which, when imported into Europe, is further purified by an additional process, and converted by filtration or crystal- lisation into what is called loaf sugar, or refined sugar, or candied sugar. Sugar thus obtained has a sweet and luscious taste, but is without smell. According to.Dr. Thomson its specific caloric is 1-086, its specific gravity 1'4045; and its constituent elements are oxygen 647; carbon 27 '5 ; hydrogen 7-8 ; total 100'. The juice of the aoer sacchari- num, or American maple, yields sugar in such considerable abundance as to make it an object witli the North American fanner to manufac- ture it for his own use. A hole is bored in the trunk of the vegetating tree early in the spring, for the purpose of extracting the sap; of which a tree of ordinary size, that is, of from two to three feet in dia- meter, will yield from one hundred and fifty to two hundred pints and upwards, in a good season. The sap, when thus obtained and neutralised by lime, deposits, by evaporation ? crystals of sugar in the pro- portion of about a pound of sugar to forty pints of sap. It is not materially different in its properties from that of the sugar-cane. The juice of the grape, when ripe, yields also a sugar by evaporation and the action of pot-ashes, which is known by the appellation of the sugar of grapes, and has been lately employed in France as a substitute for colonial sugar, though it is not so sweet or agreeable to the taste. The root of beta vulgaris, or common beet, yields also, by boiling and evaporation, a sugar which is dis- tinguished by a peculiar and slightly bitter taste, owing perhaps to the presence of a bitter extractive matter which has been found to be one of the constituents of the beet. Sugar has been extracted from the following vegetables also, or from their productions : from the sap of the birch, sycamore, bamboo, maize, parsnep, cow-parsnep, American aloe, dulse, walnut-tree, and cocoa-nut-tree ; from the fruit of the common arbutus, and other sweet-tasted fruits ; from the roots of the turnip, carrot, and parsley ; from the flower of the euxine rhododendron ; and from the nectary of most other flowers. 643. The utility of sugar, as an aliment is well known ; and it is as much relished by many animals as by man. By bees it is sipped from the flowers of plants, under the modification of nectar, and converted into honey ; and also seems to be relished by many insects, even in its concrete state ; as it is also by many birds. By man it is now regarded as being altogether indispensable, and though used chiefly to give a relish or seasoning to food, is itself highly nutritive. It is also of much utility in medicine, and cele- brated for its anodyne and antiseptic qualities, as well as thought to be peculiarly efficacious in preventing diseases by worms. 644. Starch. If a quantity of wheaten flower is made into a paste with water, and kneaded and washed under the action of a jet, till the water runs off colorless, part of it will be found to have been taken up and to be still held in suspension by the water, which will, by-and-by, deposit a sediment that may be separated by dccantation. This sediment is starch, which may be obtained also immediately from the grain itself, by means of a process well known to the manufacturer, who renders it finally fit for the market by washing and edulcorating it with water, and afterwards drying it by a moderate heat. Starch, when thrown upon red-hot iron, burns with a kind of explosion, and leaves scarcely any residuum behind. It has been found by the analysis of Gay Lussac and Thenard, to be composed of carbon 43'55 ; oxygen 49-68 ; hydrogen 677 ; total 100'. This result is not very widely different from that of the analysis of sugar, into which, it seems, starch may be converted by diminishing the proportion of its carbon, and increasing that of its oxygen and hydrogen. This change is exemplified in the case of the malting of barley, which contains a great proportion of starch, and which absorbs during the process a quantity of oxygen, and evolves a quantity of carbonic acid ; and accordingly part of it is converted into sugar. Perhaps it is exemplified also in the case of the freezing of potatoes, which acquire in consequence a sweet and sugary taste, and are known to contain a great deal of starch, which may be obtained as follows : let the potatoes be taken and grated down to a pulp, and the pulp placed upon a fine sieve, and water made to pass through it : the water will be found to have carried off with it an infinite number of particles, which it will afterwards deposit in the form of a fine powder, separable by decantation ; which powder is starch, possessing all the essential properties of wheaten starch. It may be obtained from the pith of several species of palms growing in the Moluccas and several other East Indian islands, by the following process: the stem, being first cut into pieces of five or six feet in length, is split longitudinally so as to expose the pith, which is now taken out and pounded, and mixed with cold water, which after being well stirred up, deposits at length a sediment that is separated by decantation, and is the starch which the pith contained, or the sago of the shops. 645. Salop is also a species ttf starch that is prepared, in the countries of the East, from the root of the orchis rnorio, mascula, bifolia, and pyramidalis, and in the isle of Portland, from the arum maculatum. So also is cassava, which is prepared from the root of jatropha manihot, a native of America, the ex- pressed juice of which is a deadly poison, used by the Indians to poison their arrows ; but the sediment which it deposits is a starch that is manufactured into bread, retaining nothing of the deleterious property of the juice ; and so also is sowans, which is prepared from the husk of oats, as obtained in the process of grinding. BOOK I. COMPOUND PRODUCTS OF PLANTS. 149 646. According to Parmentier, starch may be extracted from a number of plants ; as arctium lappa, atropa belladonna, pplygonum bistorta, bryonia alba, colchicum autumnale, spiraea filipendula, ranunculus bulbosus, scrophularia nodosa, sambucus ebulus and nigra, orchis morio and mascula, impcratoria ostru- thium, hyoscyamus niger, ruraex obtusifblius, acutus, and aquaticus, arum maculatum, iris pseudacorus and fcctidissima, orobus tuberosus, bunium bulbocastanum. It is found also in the following seeds : wheat, barley, oats, rice, maize, millet-seed, chestnut, horse-chestnut, peas, beans, acorns. 647. Starch is an extremely nutritive substance, and forms one of the principal ingredients in almost all articles of vegetable food used, whether by man or the inferior animals. The latter feed upon it in the state in which nature presents it : but man prepares and purifies it so as to render it pleasing to his taste, and uses it under the various modifications of bread, pastry, or confectionary. Its utility is also consider- able in medicine and in the arts ; in the preparation of anodyne and strengthening medicaments, and in the composition of cements j in the clearing and stiffening of linen ; and in the manufacture of hair- powder. 648. Gluten is that part of the paste formed from the flour of wheat that remains unaffected by the water after all the starch contained in it has been washed off. It is a tough and elastic substance, of a dull white color, without taste, but of a very peculiar smell. It is soluble in the acids and alkalies, but insoluble in water and in alcohol. Gluten has been detected, under one modification or other, in a very considerable number of vegetables or vegetable substances, as well as in the flour of wheat. Houelle, the younger, showed that it exists in the green fecula of plants ; and Proust found it in the following grains and fruits ; peas, beans, barley, rye, acorns, chestnuts, horse-chestnuts, apples, quinces, alder-berries, grapes. He found it also in the leaves of rue, cabbage, cresses, hemlock, borage, and saffron, and in the petals of the rose. 649. Gluten is one of the most important of all vegetable substances, as being the principle that renders the flour of wheat so tit for forming bread, by its occasioning the panary fermentation, and making the bread light and porous. It is used also as a cement, and capable of being used as a varnish, and a ground for paint 650. Albumen, which is a thick, glary, and tasteless fluid, resembling the white of an unboiled egg, is a substance that has been but lately proved to exist in the vegetable kingdom. Its existence was first an- nounced by Fourcroy, and finally demonstrated by the experiments of Vauquclin on the dried juice of the papaw-tree. It is nearly related to animal gluten, and the elements of its composition are, carbon 52'883 ; oxygen 23'872 ; hydrogen 7'540 ; nitrogen 15.705 ; total 100. Albumen has not been found ,in such abundance in any other plant, as in the plant above specified. But it has been found to exist in mush- rooms, and some other of the fungi. And the juice of the fruit of hibiscus esculentus, a West Indian plant, is said to contain such a proportion of it as to render it fit to be employed as a substitute for the white of eggs, in clarifying the juice of the sugar-cane. Almonds also, and other kernels from which emulsions are made, have been found to contain a substance possessing the properties of curd, which resembles albumen very ctosely. Gal. Fibrina is a peculiar substance which chemists extract from the blood and muscles of animals. This substance constitutes the fibrous part of the muscles, and resembles gluten in its appearance and elasticity. A substance possessing the same properties has been detected by Vauquelin in the juice of the papaw-tree, which is called vegetable fibrina. 652. Extract. When vegetable substances are macerated in water, a considerable portion of them is dissolved ; and if the water is again evaporated, the substance held in solution may be obtained in a sepa- rate state. This substance is denominated extract But it is evident that extract thus obtained will not be precisely the same principle in every different plant, but will vary in its character according to the species producing it, or the soil in which the plant has grown, or some other accidental cause. Its dis- tinguishing properties are the following : it is soluble in water as it is obtained from the vegetable, but becomes afterwards insoluble in consequence of the absorption of oxygen from the atmosphere. It is solu- ble in alcohol ; and it unites with alkalies, and forms compounds which are soluble in water. When distilled it yields an acid fluid impregnated with ammonia, and seems to be composed principally of hydro-* gen, oxygen, carbon, and a little nitrogen. Extract, or the extractive principle, is found in a greater or less proportion in almost all plants whatever, and is very generally an ingredient of the sap and bark, particularly in barks of an astringent taste. But still it is not exactly the same in all individual plants, even when separated as much as possible from extraneous substances. It may, therefore, be regarded as constituting several different species, of which the following are the most remarkable : Extract qf catechu. This extract is obtained from an infu- Extract of quinquina. This extract was obtained by Four- sion of the wood or powder of catechu in cold water. Its croy, by evaporating a decoction of the bark of the quinquina color is a pale brown ; and its taste slightly astringent. It is of St. Domingo in water, and again dissolving it in alcohol, precipitated from its solution by nitrate of lead, and yields which finally deposited by evaporation the peculiar extractive, by distillation carbonic and carburetted hydrogene gas, leaving' It is insoluble in cold water, but very soluble in boiling water; a porous charcoal. its color is brown, and its taste bitter. It is precipitated from Rrtract of senna. This extract is obtained from an infu- its solution by lime-water, in the form of a red powder ; and sion of the dried leaves of cassia senna in alcohol. The color when dry it is black and brittle, breaking with a polished of the infusion is brownish, the taste slightly bitter, and the fracture. smell aromatic. It is precipitated from its solution by the Extract of saffron. This extract is obtained in great abun- muriatic and oxymuriatic adds ; and when thrown on burning dance from the summits of the pistils of crocus sativus, which coals consumes, with a thick smoke and aromatic odor, leaving are almost wholly soluble in water, behind a spongy charcoal. 653. Extracts were formerly much employed in medicines though their efficacy seems to have been overrated. But a circumstance of much more importance to society is that of their utility in the art of dyeing. By far the greater part of colors used in dyeing are obtained from vegetable extracts, which have a strong affinity to the fibres of cotton or linen, with which they enter into a combination that is rendered still stronger by the intervention of mordants. 654. Coloring matter. The beauty and variety of the coloring of vegetables, chemists have ascribed to the modifications of a peculiar substance which they denominate the coloring principle, and which they have accordingly endeavored to isolate and ex tract; first, by means of maceration or boiling in water, and then by precipitating it from its solution. The chemical properties of coloring matter seem to be as yet but imperfectly known, though they have been considerably elucidated by the investigations of Ber- tholct, Chaptal, and others. Its affinities to oxygen, alkalies, earths, metallic oxides, and cloths fabri- cated, whether of animal or vegetable substances, such as wool or flax, seem to be among its most striking characteristics. But its affinity to animal substances is stronger than its affinity to vegetable substances ; and hence wool and silk assume a deeper die, and retain it longer than cotton or linen. Coloring matter exhibits a great variety of different tints, as it occurs in different species of plants ; and as it combines with oxygen, which it absorbs from the atmosphere, it assumes a deeper shade ; but it loses at the same time a portion of its hydrogen, and becomes insoluble in water ; and thus it indicates its relation to ex- tract Fourcroy reduced colors to the four following sorts ; extractive colors, oxygenated colors, carbo- nated colors, and hydrogenated colors ; the first being soluble in water, and requiring the aid of saline or metallic mordants to fix them upon cloth ; the second being insoluble in water, as altered by the absorp- tion of oxygen, and requiring no mordant to fix them upon cloth ; the third containing in their compor sition a great proportion of carbon, but soluble in alkalies; and the fourth containing a great proportion of resin, but soluble in oils and alcohol. But the simplest mode of arrangement is that by which the dif. ferent species of coloring matter are classed according to their effect in the art of dyeing. The principal and fundamental colors in this art are the blue, the red, the yellow, and the brown. L 3 1.10 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 6S5. Tfiefincii (tfall vteetatle bhiet is that which Is known by the name ofindigo. It is the produce of the indigofeva tinctorla, Lin., a shrub which is cultivated for the sake of the dye it affords, in Mexico and the East Indies. The plant reaches maturity in about six months, when its leaves are gathered and immersed in vessels filled with water till fermentation takes place. The water then becomes opaque and screen, ex- haling an odor like that of volatile alkali, and evolving bubbles of carbonic acid gas. When the fermentation has been con- tinued long enough, the liquid is decanted and put into other vessels, where it is agitated till blue flakes begin to appear. "Water is now poured in, and the flaiei are precipitated in the form of a blue powdery sediment, wliich is obtained by de- cantation ; and which, after being made up into small lumps and dried m the shade, is the indigo of the >hops. It is insolu- ble in water, though (lightly soluble in alcohol. But its true solvent is sulphuric acid," with wliich it forms a fine blue dye, known by the name of liquid blue. It affords by distillation carbonic acid gas, water, ammonia, some oily and acid matter, and much charcoal ; whence its constituent principles are most probably carbon, hydrogtn, oxygen, and nitrogen. Indigo may be procured also from several other plants besides indigofera tinctoria, and particularly from isatis tinctaria or woad, a plant indigenous to Britain, and thought to be the plant with the juice of which the imcient Britoiis stained their naked bodies, to make them look terrible to their enemies. If this plant is digested in alcohol, and the solution evaporated, white crystalline grain?, somewhat resembling starch, will l>e left behind; which grains are indigo, becoming gradually blue by the action of the atmosphere. The blue color of in- digo therefore is owing to its combination with oxygen. 666. Tlie principal red colon are such as are found to exist in the root, stem, or flower, of the five following plants : rubia tine- torum, lichen roccclla and parellus, carthamus tinctorius, csesalpinia arista, and haematoxylon campechianum. 657. Yellow, which is a color of very frequent occurrence among vegetables, and the most permanent.amonst flowers, is ex- tracted for the purpose of dyeing, from a variety of plants. It is extracted from the reseda luteola, Lin., by the decoction of its dried stems. The coloring matter is precipitated by means of alum, and is much used in dyeing wool, silk, and cotton. It L> also obtained from the morus tinctoria, bixa orellana, or 659. Tannin. If a quantity of pounded nut-galls, or bruised seeds of the grape, is taken and dissolved in cold water, and the solution evaporated to dryness, there will be left behind a brittle and yellowish sub- stance of a highly astringent taste, which substance is tannin, or the tanning principle. It "is soluble both in water and alcohol, but insoluble in ether. With the salte of iron it strikes a black. And when a so- lution of gelatine is mixed with an aqueous solution of tannin, the tannin and gelatine fall down in com- bination, and form an insoluble precipitate. When tannin is subjected to the process of distillation, it yields charcoal, carbonic acid, and inflammable gases, with a minute quantity of volatile alkali, and seems accordingly to consist of the same elements with extract, from which, however, it is distinguished by the peculiar property of its action upon gelatine. Tannin may be obtained from a great variety of other veget- ables also, as well as those already enumerated, but chiefly from their bark ; and of barks, chiefly from those that are astringent to the taste. The following table exhibits a general view of the relative value of different species of barks, as ascertained by Sir Humphry Davy. It gives the average obtained from 4801b. of the entire bark of a middle-sized tree of the several different species, taken in the spring, when the quantity of tannin is the largest. amotta (Jie. 54.), serratula tinctoria, genista tinctoria, rhns cotinus, rhTamnus infectorius, and quercus tinctoria, or quer- citron, the bark of which last affords a rich and permanent yellow that is at present much in use. 658. The brorvn culoriTig matter qf vegetalScs is very abundant, particularly in astringent plants. It is obtained from the root of the walnut-tree, and rind of the walnut ; as also from the sumac and alder, but chiefly from nut galls, which are ex- crescences formed upon the leaves of a species of quercus, indigenous to the south of Europe, in consequence of the punc- ture of insects. The best in quality are brought from the Levant. They are sharp and bitter to the taste, and extremely astringent ; and soluble in water by decoction when ground or grated to a powder. The decoction strikes, with the solution of iron, a deep black, that forms the basis of ink, and of most dark colors used in dyeing cloths. Ib. Oak 29 Spanish chestnut - - 21 Leicester willow (large) - 33 Elm ..... 13 Common willow (large) - 11 Ash 16 Beech Horse-chestnut Sycamore Lombardy poplar Birch Hazel - - Black thorn Coppice oak Inner rind of oak -bark Oak cut in autumn Larch cut in autumn 660. Tannin is of the very first utility in its application to medicine and the arts ; being regarded by chemists as the general principle of astringency. The medical virtues of Peruvian bark, so celebrated as a febrifuge and antiseptic, are supposed to depend upon the quantity and quality of its tannin. In consequence of its peculiar property of forming an insoluble compound with gelatine, the hides of animals are converted into leather, by the important art of tanning. The bark of the oak-tree, which contains tannin in great abundance, is that which is most generally used by the tanner. The hides to be tanned are prepared for the process by steeping them in lime-water, and scraping off the hair and cuticle. They are then soaked first in weaker infusions, and afterwards in stronger infusions of the bark, till at last they are completely impregnated. This process requires a period of from ten to eighteen months, if the hides are thick; and four or five pounds of bark are necessary on an average to form one pound of leather. 661. Bitter principle. The taste of many vegetables, such as those employed in medicine, is extremely bitter. The quassia of the shops, the roots of common gentian, the bark and wood of common broom, the calyx and floral leaves of the hop, and the leaves and flowers of chamomile, may be quoted as examples. This bitter taste has been thought to be owing to the presence of a peculiar substance, different from every other vegetable substance, and has been distinguished by the name of the bitter principle. When water has been digested for some time over quassia, its color becomes yellow, and its taste intensely bitter ; and if it is evaporated to dryness, it leaves behind a substance of a brownish yellow, with a slight degree of transparency, that continues for a time ductile, but becomes afterwards brittle. This substance Dr. Thomson regards as the bitter principle in a state of purity. It is soluble in water and in alcohol ; but the solution is not much affected by re-agents. Nitrate of silver and acetate of lead are the only two that occasion a precipitate. The bitter principle is of great importance, not only in the practice of medicine, but also in the art of brewing ; its influence being that of checking fermentation, preserving the fermented liquor, and when the bitter of the hop is used, communicating a peculiar and agreeable flavor. The bitter principle appears to consist principally of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a little nitrogen. 662. Narcotic principle. There is a species of medical preparations known by the name of narcotics, which have the property of inducing sleep ; and if administered in large doses, of occasioning death. They are obtained from the milky and proper juices of some vegetables, and from the infusion of the leaves or stem of others, all which have been supposed to contain in their composition some common ingredient, which chemists have agreed to designate by the name of the narcotic principle. It exists in great abundance in opium, which is the concrete juice of papaver album, or the white poppy, from which it is obtained pure, in the" form of white crystals. It is soluble in boiling water and in alcohol, as well as in all acid menstrua ; and it appears that the action of opium on the animal subject depends on this principle. When distilled it emits white vapors, which arc condensed into a yellow oil. Some water and carbonate of ammonia pass into a receiver ; and at last carbonic acid gas, ammonia, and carburettcd hydrogen, are disengaged, .-ml a bulky charcoal left behind. Many other vegetable substances besides opium, possess narcotic qualities, though they have not yet been minutely analysed. The following are the most remarkable : the inspis- sated Juice of lettuce, which resembles opium much in its appearance, is obtained by the same- means, ;n>d possesses the same medical virtues ; the leaves of atropa belladonna, or deadly nightshade, and inucvii tne BOOK I. COMPOUND PRODUCTS OF PLANTS. 151 whole plant; the leaves of digitalis purpurea, or foxglove; and lastly, the following plants, hyoscyamus niger, conium maculatum, datura stramonium, and sedum palustre, with many others belonging to the Linnaean natural order of Luridse. 663. Acids. Acids are a class of substances that may be distinguished by their exciting on the palate the sensation of sourness. They exist, not only in the animal and mineral, but also in the vegetable kingdom ; and such of them as are peculiar to vegetables have been denominated vegetable acids. Of acids peculiar to vegetables chemists enumerate the following : the oxalic, acetic, citric, malic, gallic, tartaric, benzole, and prussic, which exist ready formed in the juices or organs of the plant, and are ac- cordingly denominated native acids ; together with the mucous, pyromucous, pyrotartarous, pyrolignous, camphoric, and suberic, which do not exist ready formed in the plant, and are hence denominated arti- ficial acids. They are consequently not within the scope of the object of the present work. 664. Oxalic add. If the expressed juice of the oxalis aceto- sclla is left to evaporate slowly, it deposits small crystals of a yellowish color and saltish taste, which are known by the name of the acidulum of sorrel, that is, a salt with excess of acid, from which the acid may be obtained pure by processes well known to* the chemist. It is not used in medicine or the arts, except in its state of acidulum, in which it is em- ployed to make a sort of lemonade, and to discharge stains of ink. It has been found also in oxalis corniculata, gera- nium acidum, in the several species of rumex, and in the pubescence of cicer arietinum. 665. Acetic acid. The acetic acid, or vinegar, which is ge- nerally manufactured from wine in a certain stage of ferment- ation, has been found also ready formed in the sap of several trees, as analysed by Vauquelin ; and also in the acid juice of the cicer arietinum, of which it forms a constituent part. It was obtained also by Scheele from the sap of the sam- bucus nigra ; and is consequently to be regarded as a native vegetabls acid. It is distinguished from other vegetable acids by its forming soluble salts with the alkalies and earths. 666. Citric add. Citric acid is the acid that exists in the juice of lemon. Its taste is very sour in a state of purity, but ex- ceedingly pleasant when diluted with water. By a red heat it yields carftmic acid gas and carbonated hydrogene gas, and is reduced to a charcoal ; nitric acid converts it into oxalic and acetic acid, and with lime it forms a salt insoluble in water. It has been found unmixed with other acids in the following vegetable substances : in the juice of oranges and lemons, and in the berries of vaccinium oxycoccus, and vitis idiea, prunus padus, solanum dulcamara, and rosa canina. Ithasbeen found also in many other fruits, mixed with other acids. 667. Malic acid. Malic acid is found chiefly in the juice of un- ripe apples, whence it derives its name. But it is found also in tle juice of barberries, alderberries, gooseberries, plums, and common house-leek. 668. Gallic acid. Gallic acid, as it is obtained in the greatest abundance, so it derives its name from the nut-gall, from which it may be extracted by exposing a quantity of the powder of nut-galls to a moderate heat in a glass retort ; and the acid will sublime and form crystals of an octahedral figure. Its taste is austere and astringent. It strongly reddens veget- able blues. It is soluble both in water and alcohol ; and is dis- tinguished by its property of communicating to solutions of iron a deep purple color. When exposed to a gentle heat it sub- limes without alteration, but a strong heat decomposes it. Nitric acid converts it into the malic and oxalic acids. It is of great utility in the art of dyeing, and forms the basis of all black colors, and of colors with a dark ground. It forms also the basis of ink ; and chemists use it as a test to detect the presence of iron. 669. Tartaric add. If wine is kept for alength of time in a cask or other close vessel, a sediment is precipitated which adheres to the sides or bottom, and forms a crust known by the name of tartar, which is a combination of potass and a peculiar acid in excess. The compound is tartarite of potass, and the acid, in its state of purity, is the tartaric acid. It is characterised by the property of its forming with potass a salt that is soluble with difficulty. It has been found in the following vegetable substances also: in the pulp of tamarinds, in the juice of the grape, and mulberries, sorrel, and sumac ; and the roots of triticum repens, and leontodon taraxacum. It is not much used except among chemists. But the tartarite from which it is usually obtained is well known for its medical virtues under the name of cream of tartar. 670. Denzoic acid. From the styrax benzoin there exudes a resinous substance, known in the shops by the name of bcnyoin, and in which the benzoic acid is contained. It is distinguished from the other acids by its aromatic odor and extreme volatility. It has been obtained also from the balsams of tolu and storax ; and is used in pharmacy, in the preparation of boluses and elec- tuaries. 671. Pruisicadd. The prussic acid is generally classed among ' obtainedin the greatest abund- the animal acids, because it is tne animal acids, because it is obtained in tne greatest abund- ance from animal substances. But it has been proved to exist in vegetable substances also, and is procured by distilling laurel leaves, or the kernels of the peach and cherry, or bitter almonds. When pure it exists in the form of a colorless fluid, with an odor resembling that of peach-tree blossoms. It does not redden vegetable blues. But it is characterised by its property of for in ing a bluish-green precipitate, when it is poured, with a Little alkali added to it, into solutions containing iron. 672. It appears that all vegetable acids contain carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, in one proportion or other ; and that the prussic acid contains also a portion of nitrogen. The gallic acid contains more of carbon The former are not suddenly affected by than any other vegetable acid, and the oxalic more of oxygen. 673. Vegetable oils are of two kinds, the fixed and the volatile the application of heat ; the latter are very inflammable. 674. Fixed oils. Fixed oils are but seldom found, except in the seeds of plants, and chiefly in such as are dicotyledonous. They are found also, though rarely, in the pulp of fleshy fruits, as in that of the olive, which yields the most abundant and valuable species of all fixed oils. But dicotyledonous seeds which contain oil, contain also at the same time a quantity of mucilage and fecula, and form, when bruised in water, a mild and milky fluid, known by the name of emulsion. And on this account they are sometimes denominated emulsive seeds. Some seeds yield their oil merely by means of pressure, though it is often necessary to reduce them first of all to a sort of pulp, by means of pounding them in a mortar. Others require to be exposed to the action of heat, which is applied to them by means of pressure between warm plates of tin, or of the vapor of boiling water, or of roasting before they are subjected to the press. Fixed oil, when pure, is generally a thick and viscous fluid, of a mild or insipid taste, and without smell. But it is never entirely without some color, which is for the most part green or yellow. Its specific gravity is to water as 9'403 to TOGO. It is insoluble in water. It is decomposed by the acids, but with the alkalies it forms soap. When exposed to the atmosphere it becomes inspissated and opaque, and assumes a white color and a resemblance to fat. This is in consequence of the absorption of oxygen; but owing to the appearance of a quantity of water in oil that is exposed to the action of the air, it has been thought that the oxygen absorbed by it is not yet perhaps assimilated to its substance. When exposed to cold it con- geals and crystallises, or assumes a solid and granular form ; but not till the thermometer has indicated a degree considerably below the freezing point. When exposed to the action of heat it is not volatilised till it begins to boil, which is at 600 of Fahrenheit. By distillation it is converted into water, carbonic acid, and carburetted hydrogene gas, and charcoal ; the product of its combustion is nearly the same ; and hence it is a compound of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Fixed oils are generally divided into two sorts, fat oils and drying oils. The former are readily inspissated by the action of the air, and converted into a sort of fat. The latter are capable of being dried by the action of the air, and converted into a firm and trans- parent substance. 675. The principal species of fat oils are the following : Olive oil, wliich is expressed from the pulpy part of the fruit of olea europea. The fruit is first broken in a mill, and reduced to a sort of paste. It is then subjected to the action of a press, and the oil which is now easily separated swims on the toy of the water in the vessel beneath. It is manufactured chiefly in France and in Italy, and is much used throughout Europe in- stead of butter, and to give a seasoning to food. Oil of almonds, which is extracted from the fruit of the amyg- dalus communjs or common almond. The almonds are first well rubbed or shook in a coarse bag or sack, to separate a bitter powder which covers their epidermis. They are then pounded to a paste in mortars of marble, which is afterwards subjected to the action of a press ; and the oil is now obtained as in the case of the olive. Rapeseed-oil, which is extracted from the brassica napus and campestris. It is less fixed and less liable to become rancid than the two former, and is manufactured chiefly in Flanders. Oil of lichen, which is extracted from the fruit of the guilandina mohringa, common in Egypt and Africa. It is apt to become rancid ; but it is without odor, and is, on this account, much used in perfumery. 676. The principal species of drying oils are linseed-oil, nut-oil, poppy-oil, and hempseed-oil. Lirueed-oil is obtained from the seeds of flax, which are ge- nerally roasted before they are subjected to any other process, for thepurpose of drying up their mucilage and separating more Nut-oil is extracted from the fruit of corylus avellana, orju- glans regia. The kernel is first slightly roasted, and the oil then expressed. It is used in paintings of a coarser sort ; and also in the seasoning of food by many of the inhabitants of the middle departments of France ; but it is apt to become rancid L 4 Pappy-oil is extracted from the seeds of papaver somniferum. which is cultivated in France and Holland for this purpose. It is clear and transparent, and dries readily ; and when pure it is without taste or odor. It is used for the same purposes as the olive-oil, for which it is often sold, and possesses nothing of the narcotic properties of the poppy. Hempseed-oil is extracted from the seed of the hemp. It has a harsh and disagreeable taste, and is used by painters in this country, and very extensively for food in Russia. SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. fi77. Volatile oils. Volatile oils, which are known also by the name of essential oils, are of very common occurrence in the vegetable kingdom, and are found in almost all the different organs of the plant. They arc found in many roots, to which they communicate a fragrant and aromatic odor, with a taste somewhat acrid. The roots of inula helenium, genista canariensis, and a variety of other plants, contain essential oils. They are found also in the bark of laurus cinnamomum, of laurus sassafras, and pinus ; in the leaves of Labiate plants, such as mint, rosemary, marjoram ; and of the odorous umbelliferae, such as chervil, fennel, angelica ; and of plants with compound flowers, such as wormwood. They are found also in the flower itself, as in the flowers of chamomile, and the rose ; and in the fruit, as in that of pepper and ginger, and in the external integuments of many seeds, but never in the cotyledon. They are extracted by means of expression or distillation, and are extremely numerous ; and perhaps every plant possessing a peculiar odor possesses also a peculiar and volatile oil. The aroma of plants, therefore, or the substance from which they derive their odor, and which is cognisable only by the sense of smell, is perhaps merely the more volatile and evaporable part of their volatile oil, disengaging itself from its combinations. Volatile oils are characterised by their strong and aromatic odor, and rather acrid taste. They are soluble in alcohol, but are not readily converted into soaps by alkalies. They are very inflammable, and are volatilised by a gentle heat. Like fixed oils, their specific gravity is generally less than that of water, on the surface of which they will float: though in some cases it is found to be greater than that of water, in which they consequently sink. They are much in request on account of their agreeable taste and odor, and are pre- pared and sold by apothecaries anil perfumers, under the name of distilled waters or essences ; as well as employed also in the manufacture of varnishes and pigments. 678. Wax. On the upper surface of the leaves of many trees there may often be observed a sort of var- nish, which, when separated by certain chemical processes, is found to possess all the properties of bees'- wax, and is consequently a vegetable wax. It exudes, however, from several other parts of the plant besides the leaf, and assumes a more waxy and concrete form, as from the catkins of the poplar, the alder, and the flr ; from the fruit of the myrica cerifera and croton sebiferum ; but particularly from the anthera; of the flowers, from which it is probable that the bees extract it unaltered. It was the opinion of Reaumur, however, that the pollen undergoes a digestive process in the stomach of the bee before it is converted into wax, though a late writer on the subject endeavours to prove that the wax is elaborated from the honey extracted by the bee, and not from the pollen. It is found also in the interior of many seeds, from which it is extracted, by means of pounding them and boiling them in water. The wax is melted and swims on the top. Wax, when pure, is of a whitish color, but without taste and without smell The smell of bees' wax is indeed somewhat aromatic, and its color yellow. But this is evidently owing to some foreign substance with which it is mixed, because it loses its smell and color by means of bleaching, and becomes perfectly white. This is done merely by drawing it out into thin stripes, and exposing it for some time to the atmosphere. Bleached wax is not affected by the air. Its specific gravity is 0'9600. It is insoluble in water, and in alcohol. It combines with the fixed oils, and forms with them a composition known by the name of cerate. It combines also with the fixed alkalies, and forms with them a compound possessing the properties of common soap. The acids have but little action on it, and for this reason it is useful as a lute to confine them, or to prevent them from injuring cork. When heat is applied to wax it becomes sofl, and melts at the temperature of 142 if unbleached, and of 155 if bleached, into a colorless and trans- parent fluid, which, as the temperature diminishes, concretes again and resumes its former appearance. At a higher temperature it boils and evaporates, and the vapor may be set on fire by the application of red heat Hence its utility in making candles. And hence an explication of the singular phenomenon ob- servable in the dictamnus fraxinella. This plant is fragrant, and the odor which it diffuses around forms a partial and temporary atmosphere, which is inflammable ; for if a lighted candle or other ignited body is brought near to the plant, especially in the time of drought, its atmosphere immediately takes fire. This phenomenon was first observed by the daughter of the celebrated Linnaeus, and is explained by sup- posing the partial and temporary atmosphere to contain a proportion of wax exuded from the plant, and afterwards reduced to vapor by the action of the sun. The result of its combustion in oxygene gas was, according to Lavoisier, carbonic acid and water, in such proportion as to lead him to conclude that 100 parts of wax are composed of 82 - 28 of carbon and 1772 of hydrogen. But owing to the little action of acids upon it, there seems reason to believe that it contains also oxygen as an ingredient. 679. Wax possesses all the essential properties of a fixed oil. But fixed oils have the property of becom- ing concrete, and of assuming a waxy appearance when long exposed to the air, in consequence as it seems, of the absorption of oxygen. Wax therefore may be considered as a fixed oil rendered concrete, perhaps by the absorption of oxygen during the progress of vegetation. But if this theory is just, the wax may be expected to occur in a considerable variety of states according to its degree of oxygenation ; and this is ac- cordingly the case. Sometimes it ha the consistency of butter, and is denominated butter of wax, as butter of coco, butter of galam. Sometimes its consistency is greater, and then it is denominated tallow, as tallow of croton ; and when it has assumed its last degree of consistency, it then takes the appellation of wax. The following are its principal species : butter of cacao, butter of coco, butter of nutmeg, tallow of croton, and wax of myrtle. 680. The butter of cacan is extracted from the seeds of the theobroma cacao or chocolate plant (.ftp. 55.), either by boiling them in water, or by subjecting them to the action of the press after having exjxed them to the vapor of boiling water. Butler <>/' coco is found in the fmit of the cocos nucifera or coco-nut-tree. It is expressed from the'pulp of thenut, and is even said to separate from it when in a fluid state, as cream sepa- rates from milk. Butter of nntnwg is obtained from the seeds of the myristica officinalis, or nutmeg-tree. Tallotv of croton is obtained from the fruit of the croton sebiferum. The max of my rile is obtained from the berry of the myrica cerifera. 681. Resins. Resins are volatile oils, rendered concrete by means of the absorption of oxygen, or rather perhaps by the abstraction of part of their hydrogen. They have a slight degree of transparency, and their color is generally yellowish. Their taste is somewhat acrid ; but they are without smell when pure. Their specific gravity varies from 1-0180 to 1'2289. They are non-conductors of electricity, and when excited by friction their electri- city is negative. The species of resins are numerous. ties. From different species 'of the pine, larch, and fir-tree, there exudes a juice which concretes in the form of tears. Its extrication is generally aided by means of incisions, and it re- ceives different appellations, according to the species from which it is obtained. If it is obtained from the pinus syl- vestris, it U denominated common turpentine ; from pinus larix, Venice turpentine ; from amyris balsamea, balsam of Canada. It consists of two ingredients, oil of turpentine and rosin. The oil is extricated by distillation, and the rosin remains l>ehind. If the distillation is continued to dryness, the residuum is common rosin or colophonium ; but if water is mixed with it while yet fluid, and incorporated by violent agitation, the resi- duum is yellow rotin. The yellow rosin is the most ductile, and the most generally used in the arts. fiS3. Pitch anil tar are manufactured from the resinous juices of Uw fir, The trunk is cut or cleft into pieces of a convenient size, which are piled to- gether in heaps, and co- vered with turf. They are then set on fire, and the resinous juice which is thus extricated, being prevented from escaping in a volatile state by means of the turf, is precipitated and collected in a vessel beneath. It is partly con verted into an empyreumatic oil, and is now tar, which, by being further inspissated, is converted into pitch. Maittch is extracted from the pistacia lentlscus. Sandarach. is obtained from the juniperis communis, by sixm, taneous exudation. Elemi is extracted from the amyris elemifera. TacainlKic is the produce of the fagara octandra and oimlu* balsamuera. LabJanum is obtained from the cistus creticus. . BOOK I. COMPOUND PRODUCTS OF PLANTS. 153 C84. Opobahamutn, or biilmofGilead, which has been so much 687. Copal is the produce of th*rhuscopalllnmn,a tree which famed for its medical virtues, is the produce of the amyris is found in North America. (Jileadensis, a shrub which grows in Jud.ea and in Arabia ; but Anime, is obtained from the hy menaoa coubaril, or locust-tree/ it is so much valued by the 1 urks that its importation is pro- a native of North America. hibited. This is the balm of dilead so much celebrated in Lac is the produce of the croton lacciferum, a native of the Scripture. Pliny says it was first brought to Rome by the East Indies. generals of Vespasian. It is obtained in a liquid state from 688. Bloom. Upon theepidermis of the leaves and fruit of cer- incisions made in the bark, and is somewhat bitter to the taste. tain species of plan ts, there is to be found a fine, soft , and glaucous 686. Copaiva, or Ixilsam'otf copaii-a, is obtained from the co- powder. It is particularly observable upon cabbage-leaves, and paifera officinalis. upon plums, to which it communicates a peculiar shade. It Dragon's Uoml is obtained from the draccena draco, pterocar- is known to gardeners by the name of bloom. It is easily rub- pus draco, and calamus rotang. bed off by the fingers ; and when viewed under the microscope, Guaiac is the produce of the guaiacum officinale. seems to be composed of small opaque and unpolished granules, Botany Cm/ ream, the produce ot the acarois resinifera, a native somewhat similar to the powder of starch; but with a high of New Holland, and found in great abundance about Botany magnifying power it appears transparent. When rubbed otF, Bay. it is again re-produced, though slowly. It resists the action 686. Green restn constitutes the coloring matter of the leaves of of dews and rains, and is consequently insoluble in water, trees, and of almost all vegetables. It is insoluble in water, but But it is soluble in spirits of wine; from which circum- soluble in alcohol. When treated with oxymuriatic acid, ft as- stance it has been suspected, with some probability, to be a sumes the color of a withered leaf, and exhibits the resinous resin, properties more distinctly . 689. The use of resins in the arts is very considerable ; but their medical virtues are" not quite so great as has been generally supposed. They are employed in the arts of painting, varnishing, embalm- ing, and perfumery ; and they furnish us with two of the most important of all materials to a naval power, pitch and tar. 690. Gum-resins. This term is employed to denote a class of vegetable substances, which have been regarded by chemists as consisting of gum and resin. They are generally contained in the proper vessels of the plant, whether in the root, stem, branches, leaves, flowers, or fruit. But there is this remarkable difference between resins and gum-resins, that the latter have never been known, like the former, to exude spontaneously from the plant. They are obtained by means of bruising the parts containing them, and expressing the juice, which is always hi the state of an emulsion, generally white, but sometimes of a different color ; or they are obtained by means of incisions from which the juice flows. This juice, which is the proper juice ot the plant, is then exposed to the action of the sun, by which, in warm cli- mates, it is condensed and inspissated, and converted into the gum-resin of commerce. Gum-resins, in their solid state, are brittle, and less transparent than resins. They have generally a strong smell, which is sometimes alliaceous, and a bitter and nauseous taste. They are partially soluble both in water and in alcohol. When heated, they do not melt like the resins, nor are they so combustible. But they swell and soften by heat, and at last burn away with a flame. By distillation they yield volatile oil, ammonia combined with an acid, and have a bulky charcoal. The principal species of gum-resins which have been hitherto applied to any useful purpose are : Galbtmum, obtained from the stem of the bubon galbanum. Arabia. Bruce says it belongs to thegemis mimosa; buthowever Ammoniac, brought from Africa in the form of small tears ; this may be, myrrh is the juice of the plant concreted in the the plant which yields it is thought to be a species of ferula. form of tears. Its color is yellow, its oclor strong but agree- Scammony, the produce of the convolvulus scammonia. able, and its taste bitter ; it is employed in medieine, and is Oyoptmaj', obtained from the pastinaca opoponax. esteemed an excellent stomachic. Euphorbium, the produce of the euphorbia officinalis; its 6U2. yl*oa/(rfiapenum is supposed to be obtained from the ferula in small agglutinated grains of different colors, white, red, persica. yellow. It is hard, but brittle. Its taste is bitter, and its Gamboge, or gumgutt, the produce of the mangostana cam- smell insufferably fetid ; the Indians use it as a seasoning for bogia. their food, and call it the food of the gods. In Europe, it is 691. Myrrh, the plant yielding which grows in Abyssinia and used in medicine as an antispasmodic, 693. Balsams. The substances known by the name of balsams are resins united to the benzoic acid. They are obtained by means of incisions made in the bark, from which a viscous juice exudes, which is afterwards inspissated by the action of the fire or air, or they are obtained by means of boiling the part that contains them. They are thick and viscid juices, but become readily concrete. Their color is brown or red ; their smell aromatic when rubbed ; their taste acrid ; their specific gravity l'()90. They are un- alterable in the air after becoming concrete. They are insoluble in water, but boiling water abstracts part of their acid ; they are soluble in the alkalies and nitric acid. When heated they melt and swell, evolving a white and odorous smoke. The principal of the balsams are the following : benzoin, storax, styrax, balsam of tolu, balsam of Peru. Benzoin is the produce of the styrax benzoin. Dalican of tolu is obtained from the toluifera balsamum. Storax is obtained from the styrax officinale. Valsam tff Peru is obtained from the myroxylcn perui- Stijrax is a semi-fluid juice, the produce of a tree said to be ferum. cultivated in Arabia. 694. Camphor. The substance known by the name of camphor is obtained from the root and stem of the laurus camphora, by distillation. When pure it is a white brittle substance, forming octagonal crystals or square plates. Its taste is hot and acrid ; its odor strong but aromatic ; its specific gravity 0'9887. When broke into small fragments and put into water, on the surface of which it swims, a singular pheno- menon ensues. The water surrounding the fragments is immediately put into commotion, advancing and retiring in little waves, and attacking the fragments with violence. The minuter fragments are driven backwards and forwards upon the surface as if impelled by contrary winds. If a drop of oil is let fall on the surface of the water it produces an immediate calm. This phenomena has been attributed to elec- tricity. Fourcroy thinks it is merely the effect of the affinities of the camphor, water, and air, entering into combination. Though camphor is obtained chiefly from the laurus camphora, yet it is known to exist in a great many other plants, particularly labiate plants, and has been extracted from the roots of zedoary, sassafras, thyme, rosemary, and lavender. 695 Caoutchouc. The substance denominated caoutchouc was first introduced into Europe about the beginning of the eighteenth century. But from a use to which it is very generally applied of rubbing out the marks made upon paper by a black-lead pencil, it is better known to most people in this country by the name of Indian rubber. It is obtained chiefly from hzevea caoutchouc and jatropha elastica, trees indi- genous to South America ; but it has been obtained also from several trees which grow in the East Indies, such as ficus indicus, artocarpus integrifolia, and urceola elastica. If an incision is made into the bark of any of these plants a milky juice exudes, which, when exposed to the air, concretes and forms caoutchouc. As the object of the natives in collecting it had been originally to form it into vessels for their own use, it it is generally made to concrete in the form of bags or bottles. This is done by applying the juice, when fluid, in thin layers to a mould of dry clay, and then leaving it to concrete in the sun or by the fire. A Mi-ond layer is added to the first, and others in succession, till the vessel acquires the thickness that is wanted. The mould is then broken and the vessel fit for use, and in this state it is generally brought into Kuroix>. It has been brought, however, eveij in its milky state, by being confined from the action of the air. If the milky juice is exposed to the air, an clastic pellicle is formed on the surface. If it is confined 154 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. in a vessel containing oxygene gas, the pellicle is formed sooner. If oxymuriatic acid is poured into the milky juice, the caoutchouc precipitates immediately. This renders it probable that the formation of the caoutchouc is owing to the absorption of oxygen. Caoutchouc, when pure, is of a white coior, without taste and without smell. The black color of the caoutchouc of commerce is owing to the method of dry- ing the different layers upon the moulds on which they are spread. They are dried by being exposed to smoke. The black color of the caoutchouc, therefore, is owing to the smoke or soot alternating with its different layers. It is soft and pliable like leather, and extremely elastic, so that it may be stretched to a very great length, and still recover its former size. Its specific gravity is 0'93o5. Gough, of Manchester, has made some curious and important experiments on the connection between the temperature of caout- chouc and its elasticity, from which it results that ductility as well as fluidity is owing to latent heat. Caoutchouc is not altered by exposure to the air. It is perfectly insoluble in water ; but if boiled in water for some time its edges become so soft that they will cement, if pressed and kept for a while closely toge- ther. It is insoluble in alcohol, but soluble in ether. It is soluble also in volatile oils and in alkalies. And from the action operated upon by acids it is thought to be composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxy- gen, and azote. It seems to exist in a great variety of plants combined with other ingredients. It may be separated from resins by alcohol. It may be separated from the berries of the misseltoe by means of water, and from other vegetable substances by other processes. It is said to be contained both in opium and in mastic. But from these substances it cannot be extracted in sufficient quantities to make it worth the labor. It is applied to a great many useful purposes both in medicine and the arts, to which, from its great pliability and elasticity, it is uncommonly well adapted. In the countries where it is produced the natives make boots and shoes of it, and often use it by way of candle. 696. Cork. The substance known by the name of cork is the outer and exfoliated bark of the quercug suber or cork-tree, a species of oak that grows in great abundance in France, Spain, and Italy. But to prevent its natural exfoliation, which is always irregular, and to disengage it in convenient portions, a longi- tudinal incision is made in the bark from the root to the top of the stem ; and a transverse and circular in- cision at each extremity. The outer layer, which is cork, is then stripped off, and to flatten and reduce it to sheets it is put into water and loaded with weights. The tree continues to thrive, though it is thus stripped of its cork once in two or three years. Cork is a light, soft, and elastic substance, distinguished by the following properties : Its color is a sort of light tan. It is very inflammable, and burns with a bright white flame, leaving a black and bulky charcoal behind. When distilled it yields a small quantity of ammonia. Nitric acid corrodes and dissolves it, changing its color to yellow, and finally decomposes it, converting it partly into an acid, and partly into a soft substance resembling wax or resin. The acid which is thus formed is denominated the suberic acid, and has been proved by the experiments of La- grange to be an acid of a peculiar nature. It seems probable that cork exists in the bark of some other trees also, as well as the quercus suber. The bark of the ulmus suberosa assumes something of the exter- nal appearance of cork, which it resembles in its thickness, softness, and elasticity, and in its loose and porous texture, as well as also in its chemical properties. Fourcroy seems, indeed, to regard the epider- mis of all trees whatever to be a sort of cork, but does not say on what grounds his opinion is founded. 697. Woody fibre. The principal body of the root, stem, and branches of trees, is designated by the appellation of wood. But the term is too general for the purpose of analytical distinction, as the part designated by it often includes the greater part of the substances that have been already enumerated. It remains, therefore, to be ascertained whether there exists in the plant any individual substance different from those already described, and constituting more immediately the fabric of the wood. If a piece of wood is well dried and digested, first in water and then in alcohol, or such other solvent as shall produce no violent effects upon the insoluble parts ; and if the digestion is continued till the liquid is no longer colored, and dissolves no more of the substance of 'the plant, there remains behind a sort of vegetable skeleton, which constitutes the basis of the wood, and which has been denominated woody fibre. It is composed of bundles of longitudinal threads, which are divisible into others still smaller. It is somewhat transparent. It is without taste and smell, and is not altered by exposure to the atmosphere. It is inso- luble in water and alcohol ; but the fixed alkalies decompose it with the assistance of heat. When heated in the open air it blackens without melting or frothing, and exhales a thick smoke and pungent odor, leaving a charcoal that retains the form of the original mass. When distilled in a retort it yields an em- pyreumatic oil, carburetted hydrogene gas, carbonic acid, and a portion of ammonia, according to Four- croy, indicating the presence of nitrogen as constituting one of its elementary principles ; and yet this ingredient does not appear in the result of the later analysis of Gay Lussac, and Thenard, which is, car- bon, 52-53; oxygen, 41 78 ; hydrogen, 5.69 ; total 100. 698. Charcoal. When wood is burnt with a smothered flame, the volatile parts are driven off by the heat, and there remains behind a substance exhibiting the exact form, and even the several layers of the original mass. This process is denominated charring, and the substance obtained, charcoal. As it is the woody fibre alone which resists the action of heat, while the other parts of the plant are dissipated, it is plain that charcoal must be the residuum of woody fibre, and that the quantity of the one must depend upon the quantity of the other, if they are not rather to be considered as the same. Charcoal may be ob- tained from almost all parts of the plant, whether solid or fluid. It often escapes, however, during com- bustion, under the form of carbonic acid, of which it constitutes one of the elements. From a variety of experiments made on different plants and on their different parts, it appears that the green parts contain a greater proportion of charcoal than the rest. But this proportion is found to diminish in autumn, when the green parts begin to be deprived of their glutinous and extractive juice. The wood contains more charcoal than the alburnum, the bark more than both. But this last result is not constant in all plants, because the bark is not a homogeneous substance, the outer parts being affected by the air and the inner parts not. The wood of the quercus robur, separated from the alburnum, yielded from 100 parts of its dried substance 1975 of charcoal ; the alburnum, 17'5 ; the bark, 26 ; leaves gathered in May, 80 ; in Septem- ber, 26. But the quantity of charcoal differs also in different plants, as well as in different parts of the same. According to the experiments of Mushet, 100 parts of the following trees afforded as follows : i vitts . . - - 26-8 i5-4 Walnut - Hollv - - 20-6 Norway fir - - 19-2 Beech nt . - - - 23-2 American maple - - - 19-9 Birch - - - 17-4 an hi - - - - 22-6 ack birch - - 21-4 Elm - . - - 19-5 Scotch pine - - - 16-4 699. The properties of charcoal are insolubility in water, of which however it absorbs a i ewly made, as also of atmospheric air. It is incapable of putrefaction. It is not altered i portion when i by the most violent heat that can be applied, if all air and moisture are excluded ; but when heated to about 800 it burns in atmospheric air or oxygene gas, and if pure, without leaving any residuum. It is regarded by chemists as being a triple compound, of which the ingredients are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Char- coal is of great utility both to the chemist and artist as a fuel for heating furnaces, as well as for a variety of other purposes. It is an excellent filter for purifying water. It is a very good tooth-powder ; and is also an indispensable ingredient in the important manufacture of gunpowder. 7(K). The sap. If the branch of a vine is cut asunder early in the spring, before the leaves have begun to expand, a clear and colorless fluid will issue from the wound, which gardeners denominate the tears of the vine. It is merely, however, the ascending sap, and may be procured from almost any other plant by the same or similar means, and at the same season ; but particularly from the maple, birch, and walnut- tree, by means of boring a hole in the trunk. It issues chiefly from the porous and mixed tubes of the BOOK I. COMPOUND PRODUCTS OF PLANTS. 155 alburnum ; though sometimes it does not flow freely till the bore is carried to the centre. A small branch of a vine has been known to yield from twelve to sixteen ounces, in the space of twenty-four hours. A maple-tree of moderate size yields about 200 pints in a season, as has been already stated ; and a birch, tree has been known to yield in the course of the bleeding-season, a quantity equal to its own weight. In the sap of fagus sylvatica, Vauquelin found the following ingredients : Water, acetate of lime, with excess of acid, acetate of potass, gallic acid, tannin, mucous and extractive matter, and acetate of alumia. In 1039 parts of the sap of the ulmus campestris, he found 1027 parts of water and volatile matter, 9'24<) of ace- tate of potass, 1.000 of vegetable matter, 0.796 of carbonate of lime, besides some slight indications of the presence of sulphuric and muriatic acids ; and at a later period of the season he found the vegetable mat- ter increased, and the carbonate of lime and acetate of potass diminished. From the above experiments, therefore, as well as from those of other chemists, it is plain that the sap consists of a great variety of ingre- dients, differing in different species of plants; though there is too little known concerning it to warrant the deduction of any general conclusions, as the number of plants whose sap has been hitherto analysed is yet but very limited. It is the grand and principal source of vegetable aliment, and may be regarded as being somewhat analogous to the blood of animals. It is not made use of by man, at least in its natural state. But there are trees, such as the birch, whose sap may be manufactured into a very pleasant wine ; and it is well known that the sap of the American maple-tree yields a considerable quantity of sugar. 701. The proper juice. When the sap has received its last degree of elaboration from the different or- gans through which it has to pass, it is converted into a peculiar fluid, called the proper juice. This fluid may be distinguished from the sap by means of its color, which is generally green, as in periwinkle} or red, as in logwood; or white, as in spurge; or yellow, as in celandine; from the two last of which it may rea- dily be obtained by breaking the stem asunder, as it will then exude from the fracture. Its principal seat is in the bark, where it occupies the simple tubes ; but sometimes it is situated between the bark and wood, as in the juniper-tree ; or in the leaf, as in the greater part of herbs ; or it is diffused throughout the whole plant, as in the fir and hemlock; in which case, either the proper juice mixes with the sap, or the vessels containing it have ramifications so fine as to be altogether imperceptible. It is not, however, the same in all plants, nor even in the different parts of the same plant. In the cherry-tree it is mucilaginous ; in the pine it is resinous ; in spurge and celandine it is caustic, though resembling in appearance an emulsion. In many plants the proper juice of the bark is different from that of the flower ; and the proper juice of the fruit different from both. Its appearance under the microscope, according to Senebier, is that of an assemblage of small globules connected by small and prism-shaped substances placed between them. If this juice could be obtained in a state of purity, its analysis would throw a. considerable degree of light upon the subject of vegetation. But it seems impracticable to extract it without a mixture of sap. Sene- bier analysed the milky juice of euphorbia cyparissias, of which he had procured a small quantity consi- derably pure, though its pungency was so great as to occasion an inflammation of the eyes to the person employed to procure it. It mixed readily with water, to which it communicated its color. When left ex- posed to the air a slight precipitation ensued ; and when allowed to evaporate a thin and opaque crust remained behind. Alcohol coagulated it into small globules. Ether dissolved it entirely, as did also oil of turpentine. Sulphuric acid changed its color to black ; nitric acid to green. The most accurate experi- ments on the subject are those of Chaptal. When oxymuriatic acid was poured into the peculiar juice of euphorbia, a very copious white precipitate fell down, which, when washed and dried, had the appear- ance of starch, and was not altered by keeping. Alcohol, aided by heat, dissolved two thirds of it, which the addition of water again precipitated. They had all the properties of resin. The remaining third part possessed the properties of woody fibre. The same experiment was tried on the juice of a variety of other plants, and the result uniformly was that oxymuriatic acid precipitated from them woody fibre. 702. The virtues of plants have generally been thought to reside in their proper juices, and the opinion seems indeed to be well founded. It is at least proved by experiment in the poppy, spurge, and fig. The juice of the first is narcotic, of the two last corrosive. The diuretic and balsamic virtues of the fir reside in its turpentine, and the purgative property of jalap in its resin. If sugar is obtained from the sap of the sugar-cane and maple, it is only because it has been mixed with a quantity of proper juice. The bark certainly contains it in greatest abundance, as may be exemplified in cinnamon and quinquina. But the peach-tree furnishes an exception to this rule : its flowers are purgative, and the whole plant aro- matic ; but its gum is without any distinguished virtues. Malpighi regarded the proper juice as the prin- ciple of nourishment, and compared it to the blood of animals ; but this analogy does not hold very closely. The sap is, perhaps, more analogous to the blood, from which the proper juice is rather a secretion. In one respect, however, the analogy holds good, that is, with regard to extravasated blood and peculiar juices. If the blood escapes from the vessels it forms neither flesh nor bones, but tumors ; and if the pro- per juices escape from the vessels containing them, they form neither wood nor bark, but a lump or depo- sit of inspissated fluid. To the sap or to the proper juice, or rather to a mixture of both, we must refer such substances as are obtained from plants under the name of expressed juices, because it is evident that they can come from no other source. In this state they are generally obtained in the first instance whe- ther with a view to their use in medicine or their application to the arts. It is the business of the chemist or artist to separate and purify them afterwards according to the peculiar object he may happen to have in view, and the use to which he purposes to apply them. They contain, like the sap, acetate of potass or of lime, and assume a deeper shade of color when exposed to the fire or air. The oxymuriatic acid precipi- tates from them a colored and flaky substance as from the sap, and they yield by evaporation a quantity of extract. But they differ from the sap in exhibiting no traces of tannin or gallic acid, and but rarely of the saccharine principle. 703. Ashes. When vegetables are burnt in the open air the greatest part of their substance is evapo- rated during the process of combustion ; but ultimately there remains behind, a portion which is altogether incombustible, and incapable of being volatilised by the action of fire. This residuum is known by the name of ashes. Herbaceous plants, after being dried, yield more ashes than woody plants ; the leaves more than the branches ; and the branches more than the trunk. The alburnum yields also more ashes than the wood ; and putrefied vegetables yield more ashes than the same vegetables in a fresh state, if the putre- faction has not taken place in a current of water. The result of Saussure's experiments on 1000 parts of different plants was as follows : Gatliered in may, dried leaves of the oak - ... 53 parts of aihti. green leaves of the oak dried leaves of the rhododendron - dried leaves of the iesculus hippocastamim 72 trunk and branches of assculus hippocastanum 35 Gathered in September, dried leaves of the cesculus hippocastanum 86 dried leaves of the oak - preen leaves of the oak - Gatliered when injlmver, leaves of pisum sativum Gatliered when in fruit, leaves of pisum sativum leaves of viciajuba - - - - 20 Gathered befare comitig iiitojlower, the leaves of the vicia faba Oak, the dried bark 60, the alburnum 4, wood 704. The analysis of the ashes of plants, with a view to the discovery of the ingredients of which'they are composed, produces alkalies, earths, and metals, which must therefore be considered as ingredients in the composition of the vegetable. But vegetable ashes contain also a variety of other principles, occurring, however, in such small proportions as generally to escape observation. Perhaps they contain all substances not capable of being volatilised by the action of fire. 156 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 705. AlkcOU't. The alkalies are a peculiar class of substances, distinguished by a caustic taste and the property of changing vegetable blues to green. They arc generally regarded as being three in number, jwtass, soda, and ammonia, of which the two former only are found in the ashes of vegetables. Ammonia is, indeed, often obtained from vegetable substances by means of distillation, but then it is always formed during the process. If the ashes of land vegetables, burnt in the open air, are repeatedly washed in water, and the water filtered and evaporated to dryness, potass is left behind The potass of commerce is manufac- tured in this manner, though it is not quite pure. But it may be purified by dissolving it in spirits of wine, and evaporating the solution to dryness in a silver vessel. When pure it is white and semi-transparent, and is extremely caustic and deliquescent It dissolves all soft animal substances, and changes vegetable blues into green. It dissolves alumina, and also a small quantity of silex, with which it fuses into glass by the aid of fire. It had been long suspected by chemists to be a compound substance ; and according to the notable discovery by Sir H. Davy, its component parts are at last ascertained to be a highly inflam- mable metal, which he denominates potassium, and oxygen one proportion of each. Soda is found chiefly in marine plants, from the ashes of which it is obtained by means of lixiviation. It exists in great abundance in salsola soda, zostera maritima, and in various species of fuci. It is generally obtained in the state of a carbonate, but is purified in the same manner as potass, to which it is similar in its properties ; but from which it is easily distinguished by its forming a hard soap with oil, while potass forms a soft soap. It consists, according to Sir H. Davy, of one proportion of a metal which he denominates sodium, and two proportions of oxygen. Such are the only vegetable alkalies, and modes of obtaining them. They are found generally in the state of carbonates, sulphates, or muriates, salts that form beyond all compa- rison the most abundant ingredient in the ashes of green herbaceous plants whose parts are in a state of vegetation. The ashes of the golden rod, growing in an uncultivated soil, and of the bean, turnsol, and wheat, were found by Saussure to contain at least three fourths of their weight of alkaline salts. This was nearly the case also with the leaves of trees just bursting from the bud. But the proportion of alkaline salts is found to diminish rather than to augment as the parts of the plant are developed. The ashes of the leaves of the oak, gathered in May, yielded 47 parts in the 100. of alkaline salts; and in September, only 17. 706. The utility of the alkalies, as obtained from vegetables, is of the utmost importance in the arts, par- ticularly in the formation of glass and of soaps. If a mixture of soda or potass, and silex or sand, in cer- tain proportions, is exposed to a violent heat, the ingredients are melted down into a fluid mass, which is glass in a state of fusion. In this state it may be moulded into almost any form at the pleasure of the ar- tist And accordingly we find that it is manufactured into a great variety of utensils and instruments, under the heads of flint-glass, crown-glass, bottle-glass. Bottle-glass is the coarsest ; it is formed of soda and common sand, and is used in the manufacture of the coarser sort of bottles. Crown-glass is composed of soda and fine sand : it is moulded into large plates for the purpose of forming window-glasses and looking-glasses. Flint-glass is the finest and most transparent of all : that which is of the best quality is composed of 120 parts of white siliceous sand, 40 parts of pearl-ash, 35 of red oxide of lead, 13 of nitrate of potass, and 25 of black oxide of manganese. It is known also by the name of crystal, and may be cut and polished so as to serve for a variety of ornamental purposes, as well as for the more important and more useful purpose of forming optical instruments, of which the discoveries of the telescope and the micro- scope are the curious or sublime results. If a quantity of oil is mixed with half its weight of a strong so- lution of soda or potass, a combination takes place which is rendered more complete by means of boiling. The new compound is soap. The union of oil with potass forms soft soap, and with soda hard soap ; sub- stances of the greatest efficacy as detergents, and of the greatest utility in the washing and bleaching'of linen. The alkalies are used also in medicine, and are found to be peculiarly efficacious in the reduction of urinary calculi. 707. Earths. The only earths which have hitherto been found in plants are the following : lime, silica, magnesia, alumina. 708. Of these earths, lime is by far the most abundant It is generally combined with a portion of phos- phoric, carbonic, or sulphuric acid, forming phosphates, or carbonates, or sulphates of lime. The phosphate of lime is, next to the alkaline salt, the most abundant ingredient in. the ashes of green herbace- ous plants, whose parts are all in a state of vegetation. The leaf of a tree, bursting from the bud, contains in its ashes a greater proportion of earthy phosphate than at any other period : 100 parts of the ashes of the leaves of the oak, gathered in May, furnished 24 parts of earthy phosphate ; in September, only 18 - 25. In annual plants the proportion of earthy phosphate diminishes from the period of their germination to that of their flowering. Plants of the bean, before flowering, gave 14 - 5 parts of earthy phosphate ; in flower, only 13-5. Carbonate of lime is, next to phosphate of Time, the most abundant of the earthy salts that are found in vegetables. But if the leaves of plants are washed in water the proportion of carbonate is aug- mented. This is owing to the subtraction of their alkaline salts and phosphates in a greater proportion than their lime. In green herbaceous plants, whose parts are in a state of increase, there is but little car- bonate of lime ; but the ashes of the bark of trees contain an enormous quantity of carbonate of lime, and much more than the alburnum, as do also the ashes of the wood. The ashes of most seeds contain no car- bonate of lime; but they abound in phosphate of potass. Hence the ashes of plants, at the period of the maturity of the fruit, yield less carbonate of lime than at any previous period. 709. Silica is not found to exist in a great proportion in the ashes of vegetables, unless they have been previously deprived of their salts and phosphates by washing ; but when the plants are washed in water, the proportion of their silica augments. The ashes of the leaves of the hazel, gathered in May, yielded 2'5 parts of silica in 100. The same leaves, washed, yielded four parts in 100. Young plants, and leaves bursting from the bud, contain but little of silica in their ashes ; but the proportion of silica augments as the parts are developed. But perhaps this is owing to the diminution of the alkaline salts. The ashes of some stalks of wheat gathered a month before the time of flowering, and having some of the radicle leaves withered, contained 12 parts of silica and 65 of alkaline salts in 100. At the period of their flowering, and when more of their leaves were withered, the ashes contained 32 parts of silica and 54 of alkaline salts. Seeds divested of their external covering, contain less silica than the stem furnished with its leaves ; and it is somewhat remarkable that there are trees of which the bark, alburnum, and wood, contain scarcely any silica, and the leaves a great deal, particularly in autumn. This is a phenomenon that seems inexplicable. The greater part of the grasses contain a very considerable proportion of silica, as do also the plants of the genus equisetum. Sir H. Davy has discovered that it forms a part of the epidermis of these plants, and in some of them the principal part From 100 parts of the epidermis of the following plants the proportions of silica were, in bonnet cane, 90; bamboo, 71 '4; common reed, 48'1; stalks of corn, 66'5. Owing to the silica contained in the epidermis, the plants in which it is found, are sometimes used to give a polish to the surface of substances where smoothness is required. The Dutch rush, equisetum hyemale, a plant of this kind, is used to polish even brass. 710 Magnesia does not exist so abundantly in the vegetable kingdom as the two preceding earths. It has been found, however, in several of the marine plants, particularly the fuci ; but salsola soda contains more of magnesia than any other plant yet examined. According to Vauquelin, 100 parts of it contain 17-929 of magnesia. Alumina has been detected in several plants, but never except in very small quantities. 711. Metallic oxides. Among the substances found in the ashes of vegetables, we must class also metals. They occur, however, only in small quantities, and are not to be detected except by the most de- licate experiments. The metals hitherto discovered in plants are iron, manganese, and perhaps gold. Of these iron is by far the most common. It occurs in the state of an oxide, and the ashes of hard and woody plants, such as the oak, are said to contain nearly one twelfth of their own weight of this oxide. The ashe* BOOK I. SIMPLE PRODUCTS OF PLANTS. 157 of salsola contain also a considerable quantity. The oxide of manganese was first detected in the ashes of vegetables by Scheele, and afterwards found by Proust in the ashos of the pine, calendula, vine, green oak, and fig-tree. Beccher, Kunckel, and Sage, together with some other chemists, contend also for the exist- ence of gold in the ashes of certain plants ; but the very minute portion which they found, seems more likely to have proceeded from the lead employed in the process than from the ashes of the plant. It has been observed by Saussure, that the proportion of the oxides of iron and of manganese augments in the ashes of plants as their vegetation advances. The leaves of trees furnish more of these principles in autumn than in spring. It is so also with annual plants. Seeds contain metals in less abundance than the stem ; and if plants are washed in water, the proportions of their metallic oxides is augmented. 712. Such are the principal ingredients that enter into the vegetable composition. They are indeed nu- merous, though some of tnem, such as the metallic oxides, occur in such small proportions as to render it doubtful whether they are in reality vegetable productions or no. The same thing may be said of some of the other ingredients that have been found in the ashes of plants, which it is probable they have absorbed ready formed by the root, and deposited unaltered, so that they can scarcely be at all regarded as being the genuine products of vegetation. 713. Other substances. Besides the substances above enumerated, there are also several others that have been supposed to constitute distinct and peculiar genera of vegetable productions, and which might have been introduced under such a character; such as the mucus, jelly, sarcocol, asparagin, inulin, and ulmin, of Ur. Thomson, as described in his well known System of Chemistry ; but as there seems to be some dif- ference of opinion among chemists with regard to them, and a belief entertained that they are but vari- eties of one or other of the foregoing ingredients, it is sufficient for the purposes of this work to have merely mentioned their names. Several other substances of a distinct and peculiar character have been suspected to exist in vegetable productions : such as the febrifuge principle of Seguin, as discovering itself in Peruvian bark'; the principle of causticity or acridity of Senebier, as discovering itself in the roots of ranunculus bulbosus, scilla maritima, bryonia alba, and arum maculatum, in the leaves of digitalis pur- purea, in the bark of daphne mezereon, and in the juice of the spurges : to which may be added the fluid secreted from the sting of the common nettle, the poisons inherent in some plants, and the medical virtues inherent in others ; together with such peculiar principles as may be presumed to exist in such regions of the vegetable kingdom as remain yet unexplored. The important discoveries which have already resulted from the chemical analysis of vegetable substances encourage the hope that further discoveries will be the result of further experiment ; and from the zeal and ability of such chemists as are now directing their attention to the subject, every thing is to be expected. SECT. II. Simple Products. 714. From the above analysis of the vegetable subject, it is evident, that the compound ingredients of vegetables are all ultimately reducible to a very few constituent and uncom- pounded elements; and that the most essential of such compounds consist of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, merely ; though others contain also a small proportion of nitrogen, said to be found only in cruciform plants. The remaining elementary principles which plants have been found to contain, although they may be necessary in the vegetable economy, yet they are by no means principles of the first importance, as occurring only in small proportions, and being dependent in a great measure on soil and situation ; whereas the elements of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, form as it were the very essence of the vegetable subject, and constitute by their modifications the peculiar character of the pro- perties of the plant. This is conspicuously exemplified in the result of the investigations of Gay Lussac, and Thenard, who have deduced from a series of the most minute and delicate experiments the three following propositions, which they have dignified by the name of Laws of Vegetable Nature (Traitede Chem. Element, torn. iii. chap, iii.) : 1st, Vegetable substances are always acid when the oxygen they contain is to the hydrogen in a greater proportion than in water ; 2dly, Vegetable substances are always resinous, or oily, or spirituous, when the oxygen they contain is to the hydrogen in a smaller propor- tion than in water ; Sdly, Vegetable substances are neither acid nor resinous, but sac- charine or mucilaginous, or analogous to woody fibre or starch, when the oxygen and hydrogen they contain are in the same proportion as in water. Such is a brief sketch of the vegetable analysis : but if the reader, not being already an adept, wishes to descend into the detail of particulars and to prepare himself for original experiment, let him search out and peruse original papers, and let him consult the vegetable department of the several elementary publications referred to, especially that of Dr. Thomson's System of Chemistry ; the most distinguished and elaborate of all our elementary works on the subject, and the guide chiefly applied to in the drawing up of the sketch that is here exhibited. CHAP. VIII. Functions of Vegetables. 715. From the analysis of the structure and principles of plants, the transition to their life, growth, and propagation is natural and easy. This subject necessarily involves the several following topics : germination ; nutriment ; digestion ; growth and developement of parts ; anomalies of vegetable developement ; sexuality of vegetables ; impregnation of the vegetable germen ; changes consequent upon impregnation ; propagation and disper- sion of the species ; causes limiting the dispersion of the species ; evidence and cha- racter of vegetable vitality. 158 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. SECT. I. Germination (/the Seed. 716. Germination is that act or operation of the vegetative principle by which the em- bryo is extricated from its envelopes, and converted into a plant. This is universally the first part of the process of vegetation. For it may be regarded as an indubitable fact, that all plants spring originally from seed. The conditions necessary to germination relate either to the internal state of the seed itself, or to the circumstances in which it is placed, with regard to surrounding substances. 717. Thejtrst condition necessary to germination is, that the seed must have reached maturity. Unripe seeds seldom germinate, because their parts are not yet prepared to form the chemical combinations on which germination depends. There are some seeds, however, whose germination is said to commence in the very seed-vessel, even before the fruit is ripe, and while it is yet attached to the parent plant. Such are those of the tan- gekolli of Adanson, and agave viviparaof East Florida, as well as of the cyamus nelumbo of Sir J. E. Smith, or sacred bean of India ; to which may be added the seeds of the common garden-radish, pea, lemon, &c. But these are examples of rare occurrence ; though it is sometimes necessary to sow or plant the seed almost as soon as it is fully ripe, as in the case of the coffee-bean ; which will not germinate unless it'is sown within five or six weeks after it has been gathered. But most seeds, if guarded from external injury, will retain their germinating faculty for a period of many years. This has been proved by the experiment of sowing seeds that have been long so kept ; as well as by the deep ploughing up of fields that have been long left without cultivation. A field that was thus ploughed up near Dunkeld, in Scotland, after a period of forty years' rest, yielded a con- siderable blade of black oats without sowing. It could have been only by the plough's bringing up to the surface seeds that had been formerly too deeply lodged for germination. 718. The second condition is, that the seed sown must be defended from the action of tlie rays of light. This has no doubt been long known to be a necessary condition of ger- mination, if we regard the practice of the harrowing or raking in of the grains or seeds sown by the farmer or gardener as being founded upon it. 719. A third condition necessary to germination is the access of heat. No seed has ever been known to germinate at or below the freezing point. Hence seeds do not germinate in winter, even though lodged in their proper soil. But the vital principle is not neces- sarily destroyed in consequence of this exposure ; for the seed will, germinate still, on the return of spring, when the ground has been again thawed, and the temperature raised to the proper degree. But this degree varies considerably in different species of seeds, as is obvious from observing the times of their germination, whether in the same or in different ' climates. For if seeds which naturally sow themselves, germinate in different climates at the same period, or in the same climate at different periods, the temperature necessary to their germination must of consequence be different. Now these cases are constantly occurring and presenting themselves to our notice ; and have also been made the subject of particular observation. Adanson found that seeds which will germinate in the space of twelve hours in an ordinary degree of heat, may be made to germinate in the space of three hours by exposing them to a greater degree of heat ; and that seeds transported from the climate of Paris to that of Senegal, have their periods of germination accelerated from one to three days. (Families des Plantes, vol. i. p. 84.) Upon the same principle, seeds transported from a warmer to a colder climate, have their period of germination protracted till the temperature of the latter is raised to that of the former. This is well exemplified in the case of green-house and hot-house plants, from which it is also obvious that the tem- perature must not be raised beyond a certain degree, otherwise the vital principle is totally destroyed. 720. A fourth condition necessary to germination is the access of moisture. Seeds will not germinate if they are kept perfectly dry. Water, therefore, or some liquid equivalent to it, is essential to germination. Hence rain is always acceptable to the farmer or gar- dener, immediately after he has sown his seeds ; and if no rain falls, recourse must be had, if possible, to artificial watering. But the quantity of water applied is not a matter of indifference. There may be too little, or there may be too much. If there is too little, the seed dies for want of moisture ; if there is too much, it then rots. The case is not the same, however, with all seeds. Some can bear but little moisture, though others will germinate even when partially immersed j as was proved by an experiment of Du Hamel's, at least in the case of peas, which he placed merely upon a piece of wet sponge, so as to immerse them by nearly the one half, and which germinated as if placed in the soil. But this was found to be the most they could bear ; for when totally immersed in the water they rotted. There are some seeds, however, that will germinate even when wholly submersed. The seeds of aquatics must of necessity germinate under water ; and peas have been also known to do so under certain conditions. 721. A fifth condition necessary to germination is the access of atmo^heric air. Seeds will not germinate if placed in a vacuum. Ray introduced some grains of lettuce-seed BOOK I. GERMINATION OF THE SEED. 159 into the receiver of an air-pump, which he then exhausted. The seeds did not germinate. But they germinated upon the re-admission of the air, which is thus proved by conse- quence to be necessary to their germination. Achard proved that no seed will germinate in nitrogene gas, or carbonic acid gas, or hydrogene gas, except when mixed with a cer- tain proportion of oxygene gas ; and hence concluded that oxygene gas is necessary to the germination of all seeds, and the only constituent part of the atmospheric air which is absolutely necessary. Humboldt found that the process of germination is accelerated by means of previously steeping the seed in water impregnated with oxymuriatic acid. Cress-seed treated in this manner germinated in the space of three hours, though its or- dinary period of germination is not less than thirty-two hours. 722. The period necessary to complete the process of germination is not the same in all seeds, even when all the necessary conditions have been furnished. Some species require a shorter, and others a longer period. The grasses are among the number of those plants whose seeds are of the most rapid germination ; then perhaps cruciform plants ; then le- guminous plants ; then labiate plants ; then umbelliferous plants ; and in the last order rosaceous plants, whose seeds germinate the slowest. The following table indicates the periods of the germination of a considerable variety of seeds, as observed by Adanson : Days. Wheat, Millet-seed - 1 Spinape, Heans, Mustard 3 Lettuce, Aniseed 4 Melon, Cucumber, Cress- ") seed -.- S Radish, Beet-root Harley Orache Purslain - - Cabbage - - Day - 7 8 Days. Hyssop .... 38 Parsley - - - 40 or 50 Almond, Chestnut. Peach - 1 year Rose, Hawthorn, Filbert - 2 years. 723. Physical phenomena. When a seed is committed to the soil under the conditions that have been just specified, the first infallible symptom of germination is to be deduced from ftie prolongation of the radicle (Jig. 56. a) , bursting through its proper integuments, and directing its extremity downwards into the soil. The next step in the process of ger- mination is the evolution of the cotyledon or cotyledons (c), unless the seed is altogether acotyledonous, or the cotyledons hypogean, as in the oak (6). The next step, in the case of seeds furnished with cotyledons, is that of the extrication of the plumelet (c), or first real leaf, from within or from between the cotyledon or cotyledons, and its expansion in the open air. The last and concluding step is the developement of the rudiments of a stem (rf), if the species is furnished with a stem, and the plant is complete. Whatever way the seed may be deposited, the invincible tendency of the radicle is to descend and fix itself in the earth ; and of the plumelet to ascend into the air. Many conjectures have been offered to account for this. Knight accounts for it on the old but revived principle of gravitation. Keith conjectures that it takes place from a power inherent in the vegetable subject, analogous to what we call instinct in the animal subject, infallibly directing it to the situation best suited to the acquisition of nutriment and consequent de-~ velopement of its parts. ' 724. The chemical phenomena of germination consist chiefly in the changes that are effected in the nutriment destined for the support and developement of the embryo till it is converted into a plant. This nutriment either passes through the cotyledons, or is contained in them ; because the embryo dies 1GO SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. when they are prematurely cut off. But the farinaceous substance of the cotyledons, at least in exal- I nun i IK uis seeds, is a proof that they themselves contain the nutriment. They are to be regarded, therefore, as repositories of the food destined for the support of the embryo in Its germinating state. And if the seed is furnished with a distinct and separate albumen, then is the albumen to be regarded as the repo- sitory of food, and the cotyledon or cotyledons as its channel of conveyance. But the food thus contained in the albumen or cotyledons is not yet fitted for the immediate nourishment of the embryo. Some previous preparation is necessary ; some change must be effected in its properties. And this change is effected by the intervention of chemical agency. The moisture imbibed by a seed placed in the earth is immediately absorbed by the cotyledons or albumen, which it readily penetrates, and on which it imme- diately begins to operate a chemical change, dissolving part of their farina, or mixing with their oily particles, and forming a sort of emulsive juice. The consequence of this change is a slight degree of fermentation, induced, perhaps, by the mixture of the starch and gluten of the cotyledons in the water which they have absorbed, and indicated by the extraction of a quantity of carbonic acid gas as well as by the smell and taste of the seed. This is the commencement of the process of germination, which takes place even though no oxygene gas is present. But if no oxygene gas is present, then the process stops ; which shows that the agency of oxygene gas is indispensable to germination. Accordingly, when oxygene gas is present it is gradually inhaled by the seed; and the farina of the cotyledons is found to have changed its savour. Sometimes it becomes acid, but generally sweet, resembling the taste of sugar ; and is consequently converted into sugar or some substance analogous to it This is a further proof that a degree of fermentation has been induced ; because the result is precisely the same in the process of the fermentation of barley when converted into malt, as known by the name of the saccharine fermentation ; in which oxygene gas is absorbed, heat and carbonic acid evolved, and a tendency to germination indi- cated by the shooting of the radicle. The effect of oxygen, therefore, in the process, is that of converting the farina of the albumen or cotyledons into a mild and saccharine food, fit for the nourishment of the infant plant by diminishing the proportion of its carbon, and in augmenting, by consequence, that of its oxygen and hydrogen. The radicle gives the first indications of life, expanding and bursting its integu- ments, and at length fixing itself in the soil : the plumelet next unfolds its parts, developing the rudi- ments of leaf, branch, and trunk : and, finally, the seminal leaves decay and drop off; and the embryo has been converted into a plant, capable of abstracting immediately from the soil or atmosphere the nourishment necessary to its future growth. SECT. II. Food of the vegetating Plant. 725. The substances which plants abstract from the soil or atmosphere, or the food of the vegetating plant, have long occupied the phytological enquirer. What then are the com- ponent principles of the soil and atmosphere ? The investigations and discoveries of modern chemists have done much to elucidate this dark and intricate subject. Soil, in general, may be regarded as consisting of earths, water, vegetable mould, decayed animal substances, salts, ores, alkalies, gases, perhaps in a proportion corresponding to the order in which they are now enumerated ; which is at any rate the fact with regard to the three first, though their relative proportions are by no means uniform. The atmosphere has been also found to consist of at least four species of elastic matter nitrogen, oxygen, carbonic acid gas, and vapor ; together with a multitude of minute particles detached from the solid bodies occupying the surface of the earth, and wafted upon the winds. The two former ingredients exist in the proportion of about four to one ; carbonic acid gas in the proportion of about one part in 100 ; and vapor in a proportion still less. Such then are the component principles of the soil and atmosphere, and sources of vege- table nourishment. But the whole of the ingredients of the soil and atmosphere are not taken up indiscriminately by the plant and converted into vegetable food, because plants do not thrive indiscriminately in all varieties of soil. Part only of the ingredients are selected, and in certain proportions ; as is evident from the analysis of the vegetable sub- stance given in the foregoing chapter, in which it was found that carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, are the principal ingredients of plants ; while the other ingredients contained in them occur but in very small proportions. It does not however follow, that these ingredients enter the plant in an uncombined and insulated state, because they do not always so exist in the soil and atmosphere ; it follows only that they are inhaled or ab- sorbed by the vegetating plant under one modification or another. The plant then does not select such principles as are the most abundant in the soil and atmosphere ; nor in . the proportions in which they exist ; nor in an uncombined and insulated state. But what are the substances actually selected ; in what state are they taken up ; and in what proportions ? In order to give arrangement and elucidation to the subject, it shall be considered under the following heads : Water, Gases, Vegetable Extracts, Salts, Earths, Manures. 726. Water. As water is necessary to the commencement of vegetation, so also is it necessary to its progress. Plants will not continue to vegetate unless their roots are supplied with water ; and if they are kept long without it, the leaves will droop and become flaccid, and assume a withered appearance. Now this is evidently owing to the loss of water ; for if the roots are again well supplied with water, the weight of the plant is increased, and its freshness restored. But many plants will grow, and thrive, and effect the developement of all their parts, if the root is merely immersed in water, though not fixed in the soil. Tulips, hyacinths, and a variety of plants with bulbous roots, may be so reared, and are often to be met with so vegetating ; and many plants will also vegetate though wholly immersed. Most of the marine plants are of this de- scription. It can scarcely be doubted, therefore, that water serves for the purpose of a vegetable aliment. But if plants cannot be made to vegetate without water ; and if they will vegetate, some when partly immersed without the assistance of soil ; and some BOOK I. FOOD OF THE VEGETATING PLANT. 161 even when totally immersed, so as that no other food seems to have access to them ; does it not follow that water is the sole food of plants, the soil being merely the basis on which they rest, and the receptacle of their food ? This opinion has had many advo- cates ; and the arguments and experiments adduced in support of it were, at one time, thought to have completely established its truth. It was indeed the prevailing opinion of the seventeenth century, and was embraced by several philosophers even of the eight- eenth century ; but its ablest and most zealous advocates were Van Helmont, Boyle, Du Hamel, and Bonnet, who contended that water, by virtue of the vital energy of the plant, was sufficient to form all the different substances contained in vegetables. Du Hamel reared in the above manner plants of the horse-chestnut and almond to some considerable size, and an oak till it was eight years old. And, though he informs us that they died at last only from neglect of watering : yet it seems extremely doubtful whether they would have continued to vegetate much longer, even if they had been watered ever so regularly ; for he admits, in the first place, that they made less and less progress every year ; and, in the second place, that their roots were found to be in a very bad state. The result of a great variety of experiments is, that water is not the sole food of plants, and is not convertible into the whole of the ingredients of the veget- able substance, even with the aid of the vital energy ; though plants vegetating merely in water, do yet augment the quantity of their carbon. 727. Gases. When it was found that water is insufficient to constitute the sole food of plants, recourse was next had to the assistance of the atmospheric air ; and it was believed that the vital energy of the plant, is at least capable of furnishing all the dif- ferent ingredients of the vegetable substance, by means of decomposing and combining, in different ways, atmospheric air and water. But as this extravagant conjecture is founded on no proof, it is consequently of no value. It must be confessed, however, that atmospheric air is indispensably necessary to the health and vigor of the plant, as may be seen by looking at the different aspects of plants exposed to a free circulation of air, and plants deprived of it : the former are vigorous and luxuriant ; the latter weak and stunted. It may be seen also by means of experiment even upon a small scale. If a plant is placed under a glass to which no new supply of air has access, it soon begins to languish, and at length withers and dies ; but particularly if it is placed under the exhausted receiver of an air-pump ; as might indeed be expected from the failure of the germination of the seed in similar circumstances. The result of experiments on this subject is, that atmospheric air and water are not the only principles constituting the food of plants. But as in germination, so also in the progress of vegetation, it is part only of the component principles of the atmospheric air that are adapted to the purposes of vegetable nutrition, and selected by the plant as a food. Let us take them in the order of their reversed proportions. 728. The Affect of the application of carbonic acid gas was found to be altogether prejudicial in the pro- cess of the germination of the seed. But m the. process of subsequent vegetation its application has been found, on the contrary, to be extremely beneficial. Plants will not indeed vegetate in an atmosphere of pure carbonic acid, as was first ascertained by Dr. Priestley, who found that sprigs of mint growing in water, and placed over wort in a state of fermentation, generally became quite dead in the space of a day, and did not even recover when put into an atmosphere of common air. Of a number of experiments the results are 1st, That carbonic acid gas is of great utility to the growth of plants vegetating in the sun, as applied to the leaves and branches ; and whatever increases the proportion of this gas in their atmo- sphere, at least within a given degree, forwards vegetation ; 2d, That, as applied to the leaves and branches of plants, it is prejudicial to their vegetation in the shade, if administered in a proportion beyond that in which it exists in atmospheric air ; 3d, That carbonic acid gas, as applied to the roots of plants, is also beneficial to their growth, at least in the more advanced stages of vegetation. 729. As oxygen is essential to the commencement and progress of germination, so also it is essential to the progress of vegetation. It is obvious, then, that the experiment proves that it is beneficial to the growth of the vegetable as applied to the root ; necessary to the developement of the leaves ; and to the developement of the flower and fruit. The flower-bud will not expand if confined in an atmosphere .de- prived of oxygen, nor will the fruit ripen. Flower-buds confined in an atmosphere of pure nitrogen faded without expanding. A bunch of unripe grapes introduced into a globe of glass which was luted by its orifice to the bough, and exposed to tire sun, ripened without effecting any material alteration in its atmosphere. But when a bunch was placed in the same circumstances, with the addition of a quantity of lime, the atmosphere was contaminated, and the grapes did not ripen. Oxygen, therefore, is essential to the developement of the vegetating plant, and is inhaled during the night. 730. Though nitrogen* gas constitutes by far the greater part of the mass of amospheric air, it does not seem capable of affording nutriment to plants ; for as seeds will not germinate, so neither will plants vegetate in it, but for a very limited time, such as the vinca minor, lythrum salicaria, inula dysenterica, epilobium hirsutum, and pblygonum persicaria, that seem to succeed equally well in an atmosphere of nitrogene gas as in an atmosphere of common air. Nitrogen is found in almost all vegetables, particularly in the wood, in extract, and in their green parts, derived, no doubt, from the extractive principle of veget- able mould. 731. Hydrogene gas. A plant of the epilobium hirsutum, which was confined by Priestley in a receiver filled with inflammable air or hydrogen, consumed one third of its atmosphere and was still green. Hence Priestley inferred, that it serves as a vegetable food, and constitutes even the true and proper pabulum of the plant. But the experiments of later phytologists do not at all countenance this opinion. Our conclusion from various experiments is, that hydrogen is unfavorable to vegetation, and does not serve as the food of plants. But hydrogen is contained in plants as is evident from their analysis ; and if they refuse it when presented to them in a gaseous state, in what state do they then acquire it ? To this question it is sufficient for the present to reply, that if plants do not acquire their hydrogen in the state of gas, they may at least acquire it in the state of water, which is indisputably a vegetable food, and of which hydrogen constitutes one of the component parts. M 162 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 732. Vegetable Extract. When it was found that atmospheric air and water are not, even conjointly, capable of furnishing the whole of the aliment necessary to the de- velopement of the plant, it was then alledged that, with the exception of water, all sub- stances constituting a vegetable food must at least be administered to the plant in a gaseous state. But this also is a conjecture unsupported by proof; for even with regard to such plants as grow upon a barren rock, or in pure sand, it cannot be said that they receive no nourishment whatever besides water, except in a gaseous state. Many of the particles of decayed animal and vegetable substances, which float in the atmosphere and attach themselves to the leaves, must be supposed to enter the plant in solution with the moisture which the leaves imbibe ; and so also similar substances contained in the soil must be supposed to enter it by the root : but these substances may certainly con- tain vegetable nourishment ; and they will perhaps be found to be taken up by the plant in proportion to their degree of solubility in water, and to the quantity in which they exist in the soil. Now one of the most important of these substances is vegetable extract. When plants have attained to the maturity of their species, the principles of decay begin gradually to operate upon them, till they at length die and are converted into dust or vegetable mould, which, as might be expected, constitutes a considerable proportion of the soil. The chance then is, that it is again converted into vegetable nourishment, and again enters the plant. But it cannot wholly enter the plant, because it is not wholly soluble in water. Part of it, however, is soluble, and consequently capable of being absorbed by the root, and that is the substance which has been denomi- nated extract. Saussure filled a large vessel with pure mould of turf, and moistened it with distilled or rain water, till it was saturated. At the end of five days, when it was subjected to the action of the press, 10,000 parts in weight of the expressed and filtered fluid yielded, by evaporation to dryness, 26 parts of extract. In a similar expsriment upon the mould of a kitchen-garden which had been manured with dung, 10,000, parts of fluid yielded 10 of extract. And in a similar experiment upon mould taken from a well cultivated corn-field, 10,000 parts of fluid yielded four parts of extract. Such was the result in these particular cases. But the quantity of extract that may be separated from common soil is not in general very considerable. After twelve decoctions, all that could be separated was about one eleventh of its weight ; and yet this seems to be more than sufficient for the purposes of vegetation : for a soil containing this quantity was found by experiment to be less fertile, at least for peas and beans, than a soil that contained only one half or two thirds the quantity. But if the quantity of extract must not be too much, neither must it be too little. Plants that were put to vegetate in soil deprived of its extract, as far as repeated decoctions could deprive it, were found to be much less vigorous and luxuriant than plants vegetating in soil not deprived of its extract ; and yet the only perceptible difference between them is, that the former can imbibe and retain a much greater quantity of water than the latter. From this last experiment, as well as from the great proportion in which it exists in the living plant, it evidently follows that extract constitutes a vegetable food. But extract contains nitrogen ; for it yields by distillation a fluid impregnated with ammonia. The difficulty, therefore, of accounting for the introduction of nitrogen into the vegetating plant, as well as for its existence in the mature vegetable substance, is done away ; for, although the plant refuses it when presented in a gaseous state, it is plain that it must admit it along with the extract. It seems also probable that a small quantity of carbonic acid gas enters the plant along with the extractive principle, as it is known to contain this gas also. 733. Salts, in a certain proportion, are found in most plants, such as nitrate, muriate, and sulphate of potass or soda, as has been already shown. These salts are known to exist in the soil, and the root is supposed to absorb them in solution with the water by which the plant is nourished. It is at least certain that plants may be made to take up by the roots a considerable proportion of salts in a state of artificial solution. But if salts are thus taken up by the root of the vegetating plant, does it appear that they are taken up as a food ? Some plants, it must be confessed, are injured by the application of salts, as is evident from the experiments of Saussure ; but others are as evidently benefited by it. Trefoil and lucerne have their growth much accelerated by the application of sul- phate of lime, though many other plants are not at all influenced by its action. The parietaria, nettle, and borage will not thrive, except in such soils as contain nitrate of lime or nitrate of potass ; and plants inhabiting the sea-coast, as was observed by Du Hamel, will not thrive in a soil that does not contain muriate of soda. It has been thought, how- ever, that the salts are not actually taken up by the root, though converted to purposes of utility by acting as astringents or corrosives in stopping up the orifices of the vessels of the plant, and preventing the admission of too much water : but it is to be recollected that the salts in question are found by analysis in the very substance of the plant, and must consequently have entered in solution. It has been also thought that salts are favorable to vegetation only in proportion as they hasten the putrefaction of vegetable substances contained in the soil, or attract the humidity of the atmosphere. But sulphate of lime is BOOK I. FOOD OF THE VEGETATING PLANT. 163 not deliquescent ; and if its action consist merely in accelerating putrefaction, why is its beneficial effect confined but to a small number of plants ? Grisenthwaite (New Theory of Agriculture, 1819, p. 111.) answers this question by stating, that as in the principal grain-crops which interest the agriculturist, there exists a particular saline substance, pe- culiar to each, so, if we turn our attention to the clovers, and turnips, we shall still find the same discrimination. Saintfoin, clover, and lucerne, have long been known to con- tain a notable quantity of gypsum (sulphate of lime) ; but such knowledge, very strange to relate, never led to the adoption of gypsum as a manure for those crops, any more than that of phosphate of lime for wheat, or nitrate of soda, or potassa for barley. * It is true that gypsum has been long, and in various places, recommended as a manure, but its uses not being understood, it was recommended without any reference to crop, or indeed to the accomplishment of any fixed object. It is very well known that some particular ingre- dient may be essential to the composition of a body, and yet constitute but a very small proportion of its mass. Atmospheric air contains only about one part in the 100 of carbonic acid ; and yet no one will venture to affirm that carbonic acid gas is merely an adventitious and accidental element existing by chance in the air of the atmosphere, and not an essential ingredient in its composition. Phosphate of lime constitutes but a very small proportion of animal bodies, perhaps not one part in 500 ; and yet no one doubts that it is essential to the composition of the bones. But the same salt is found in the ashes of all vegetables ; and who will say that is not essential to their perfection ? 734. Earths. As most plants have been found by analysis to contain a portion of alkaline or earthy salts, so most plants have been found to contain also a portion of earths : and as the two substances are so nearly related, and so foreign in their character to vegetable substances in general, the same enquiry has consequently been made with regard to their origin. Whence are the earths derived that have been found to exist in plants ? Chiefly from the soil. But in what peculiar state of combination do they enter the vessels of the plant ? The state most likely to facilitate their absorption is that of their solution in water, in which all the earths hitherto found in plants are known to be in a slight degree soluble. If it be said that the proportion in which they are soluble is so very small that it scarcely deserves to be taken into the account, it is to be recollected that the quantity of water absorbed by the plant is great, while that of the earth necessary to its health is but little, so that it may easily be acquired in the progress of vegetation. Such is the manner in which their absorption seems practicable : and Woodward's expe- riments afford a presumption that they are actually absorbed by the root The proportion of earths contained in the ashes of vegetables depends upon the nature of the soil in which they grow. The ashes of the leaves of the rhododendron ferrugineum, growing on Mount Jura, a calcareous mountain, yielded 43-25 parts of earthy carbonate, and only 0-75 of silica. But the ashes of leaves of the same plant, growing on Mount Breven, a granitic mountain, yielded two parts of silica, and only 16 '75 of earthy carbonate. It is probable, however, that plants are not indebted merely to the soil for the earthy particles which they may contain. They may acquire them partly from the atmosphere. Margray has shown that rain-water contains silica in the proportion of a grain to a pound ; which, if it should not reach the root, may possibly be absorbed along with the water that adheres to the leaves. But although the earths are thus to be regarded as constituting a small proportion of vegetable food, they are not of themselves sufficient to support the plant, even with the assistance of water. Giobert mixed together lime, alumine, silica, and magnesia, in such proportions as are generally to be met with in fertile soils, and moistened them with water. Several different grains were then sown in this artificial soil, which germinated indeed, but did not thrive ; and perished when the nourishment of the cotyle- dons was exhausted. It is plain, therefore, that the earths, though beneficial to the growth of some vegetables, and perhaps necessary to the health of others, are by no means capable of affording any considerable degree of nourishment to the plant. 735. Supply of food by manures and culture. With regard to the food of plants derived from the atmosphere, the supply is pretty regular, at least, in as far as the gases are con- cerned ; for they are not found to vary materially in their proportions on any part of the surface of the globe : but the quantity of moisture contained in the atmosphere is con- tinually varying, so that in the same season you have not always the same quantity, though in the course of the year the deficiency is perhaps made up. From the atmosphere, therefore, there is a regular supply of vegetable food kept up by nature for the support of vegetable life, independent of the aid of man : and if human aid were even wanted, it does not appear that it could be of much avail. But this is by no means the case with regard to soils ; for if soils are less regular in their composition, they are at least more within the reach of human management. The supply of food may be increased by alter- ing the mechanical or chemical constitution of soils ; and by the addition of food in the form of manures. The mechanical constitution of soils may be altered by pulverisation, consolidation, draining, and watering ; their chemical properties by aeration and torrifica- tion ; both mechanical and chemical properties, by the addition of earths or other sub- M 2 164 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. stances ; and manures, cither liquid or solid, are supplied by irrigation and distribution of dungs and other nourishing matters, with or without their interment. (See Book II. ) 736. Soils in a state of culture, though consisting originally of the due proportion of ingredients, may yet become exhausted of the principle of fertility by means of too frequent cropping ; whether by repetition or rotation of the same, or of different crops. In this case, it should be the object of the phytologist, as well as of the practical cultivator, to ascertain by what means fertility is to be restored to an exhausted soil, or commu- nicated to a new one. In the breaking up of new soils, if the ground has been wet or marshy, as is frequently the case, it is often sufficient to prepare it merely by means of draining off the superfluous and stagnant water, and of paring and burning the turf upon the surface. If the soil has been exhausted by too frequent a repetition of the same crop, it often happens that a change of crop will answer the purpose of the cultivator ; for al- though a soil may be exhausted for one sort of grain, it does not necessarily follow that it is also exhausted for another. And accordingly, the practice of the farmer is to sow his crops in rotation, having in the same field a crop, perhaps, of wheat, barley, beans, and tares in succession ; each species selecting in its turn some peculiar nutriment, or requir- ing, perhaps, a smaller supply than the crop that has preceded it. But even upon the plan of rotation, the soil becomes at length exhausted, and the cultivator obliged to have recourse to other means of restoring its fertility. In this case, an interval of repose is considerably efficacious, as may be seen from the increased fertility of fields that have not been ploughed up for many years, such as those used for pasture ; or even from that of the walks and paths in gardens when they are again broken up. Hence also the practice of fallowing, and of trenching or deep ploughing, which in some cases has nearly the same effect. 737. The fertility of a soil is restored, in the case of draining, by means of its carrying off all such superfluous moisture as may be lodged in the soil, which is well known to be prejudicial to plants not naturally aquatics, as well as by rendering the soil more firm and compact. In the case of burning, the amelioration is effected by means of the decomposition of the vegetable substances contained in the turf, and sub- jected to the action of the fire, which disperses part also of the superfluous moisture, but leaves a residue of ashes favorable to future vegetation. In the case of the rotation of crops, the fertility is not so much restored as more completely developed and brought into action ; because the soil, though exhausted for one species of grain, is yet found to be sufficiently fertile for another, the food necessary to each being different, or required in less abundance. In the case of the repose of the soil, the restored fertility may be owing to the decay of vegetable substances that are not now carried off in the annual crop, but left to augment the proportion of vegetable mould ; or to the accumulation of fertilising particles conveyed to the soil by rains ; or to the continued abstraction of oxygen from the atmo- sphere. In the case of fallows, it is owing undoubtedly to the action of the atmospheric air upon the soil, whether in rendering it more friable, or in hastening the putrefaction of noxious plants ; or it is owing to the abstraction and accumulation of oxygen. In the case of trenching, or deep ploughing, it is owing to the increased facility with which the roots can now penetrate to the proper depth, and thus their sphere of nourishment is in- creased. But it often happens that the soil can no longer be ameliorated by any of the foregoing means, or not at least with sufficient rapidity for the purposes of the cultivator ; and in this case there must be a direct and actual application made to it of such substances as are fitted to restore its fertility. Hence the indispensable necessity of manures, which consist chiefly of animal and vegetable remains that are buried and finally decomposed in the soil, from which they are afterwards absorbed by the root of the plant, in a state of solution. 738. But as carbon is the principal ingredient furnished by manures, as contributing to the nourishment of the plant, and is not itself soluble in water, nor even disengaged by fer- mentation in a state of purity ; under what state of chemical combination is its solution effected ? Is it effected in the state of charcoal ? It has been thought, indeed, that car- bon in the state of charcoal is soluble in water ; because water from a dunghill, when evaporated, constantly leaves a residuum of charcoal, as was first ascertained by the experi- ments of Hassenfratz. But there seem to be reasons for doubting the legitimacy of the conclusion that has been drawn from it ; for Senebier found that plants whose roots were immersed in water took up less of the fluid in proportion as it was mixed with water from a dungliill. Perhaps then the charcoal of water from a dunghill is held merely in sus- pension, and enters the plant under some other modification. But if carbon is not soluble in water in the state of charcoal, in what other state is it soluble ? It is soluble in the state of carbonic acid gas. But is this the state in which it actually enters the root ? On this subject phytologists have been somewhat divided in opinion. Senebier endea- vours to prove that carbonic acid gas, dissolved in water, supplies the roots of plants with almost all their carbon, and founds his arguments upon the following facts : in the BOOK I. PROCESS OF VEGETABLE NUTRITION. 165 first place, it is known that carbonic acid gas is soluble in water ; in the second place, it is known to be contained in the soil, and generated by the fermentation of the materials composing manures ; and, in the next place, it is known to be beneficial to vegetation when applied artificially to the roots, at least in a certain degree. This is evident from the following experiment of Ruckert, as well as from several experiments of Saussure's, previously related. Ruckert planted two beans in pots of equal dimensions, filled with garden-mould ; the one was moistened with distilled water, and the other with water im- pregnated with carbonic acid gas. But the latter appeared above ground nine days sooner than the former, and produced twenty-five beans ; while the former produced only fifteen. Now the result of this experiment, as well as the preceding facts, is evidently favorable to the presumption of Senebier, and shows that if carbonic acid is not the state in which car- bon enters the plant, it is at least a state preparatory to it ; and there are other circum- stances tending to corroborate the opinion, resulting from the analysis of the ascending sap of plants. The tears of the vine, when analysed by Senebier, yielded a portion of carbonic acid and earth ; and as the ascending sap could not be supposed to have yet un- dergone much alteration, the carbonic acid, like (he earth, was probably taken up from the soil. But this opinion, which seems to be so firmly established upon the basis of ex- periment, Hassenfratz strenuously controverts. According to experiments which he had instituted with an express view to the investigation of this subject, plants which were raised in water impregnated with carbonic acid differed in no respect from such as grew in pure water, and contained no carbon that did not previously exist in the seed. Now if this were the fact, it would be decisive of the point in question. But it is plain from the ex- periments of Saussure, as related in the preceding section, that Hassenfratz must have been mistaken both with regard to the utility of carbonic acid gas as furnishing a vegetable aliment, and with regard to the augmentation of carbon in the plant. The opinion of Senebier, therefore, may still be correct. It must be acknowledged, however, that the subject is not yet altogether satisfactorily cleared up ; and that carbon may certainly enter the plant in some state different from that, either of charcoal in solution, or of carbonic acid gas. Is not the carbonic acid of the soil decomposed before entering the plant ? This is a conjecture of Dr. Thomson's, founded upon the following facts : the green oxide of iron is capable of decomposing carbonic acid ; and many soils contain that oxide. Most soils, indeed, contain iron, either in the state of the brown or green oxide, and it has been found that oils convert the brown oxide into green. But dung and rich soils contain a quantity of oily substance. One effect of manures, therefore, may be that of reducing the brown oxide of iron to the green, thus rendering it capable of decomposing carbonic acid gas, so as to prepare it for some new combination, in which it may serve as an aliment for plants. All this, however, is but a conjecture ; and it is more probable that the carbonic acid of the soil enters the root in combination with some other substance, and is afterwards decomposed within the plant itself. SECT. III. Process of Vegetable Nutrition. 739. Plants are nourished in a manner in some degree analogous to the animal economy. The food of plants, whether lodged in the soil, or wafted through the atmosphere, is taken up by intro-susception in the form of gases or other fluids : it is then known as their sap ; this sap ascends to the leaves, where it is elaborated as the blood of animals is in the lungs ; it then enters into the general circulation of the plant, and promotes its growth. 740. Intro-susception. As plants have no organ analogous to the mouth of animals, they are enabled to take up the nourishment necessary to their support only by absorption, or in- halation as the chyle into the animal lacteals, or the air into the lungs. The former term is applied to the intro-susception of non-elastic fluids ; the latter to that of gaseous fluids. The absorption of non-elastic fluids by the epidermis of plants does not admit of a doubt. It is proved, indisputably, that the leaves not only contain air, but do actually inhale it. It was the opinion of Priestley that they inhale it chiefly by the upper surface. And it has been shown by Saussure, that their inhaling power depends entirely upon the organisation. It has been a question, however, among phytologists, whether it is not also effected by the epidermis of the other parts of the plant. We can scarcely suppose it to be effected by the dry and indurated epidermis of the bark of aged trunks, of which the original organisation is obliterated ; nor by that of the larger and more aged branches. But it has been thought there are even some of the soft and succulent parts of the plant by which it cannot be effected, because no pores are visible in their epidermis. Decan- dolle found no pores in the epidermis of fleshy fruits, such as pears, peaches, and goose- berries ; nor in that of roots, or scales of bulbs ; nor in any part not exposed to the in- fluence of air and light. It is known, however, that fruits will not ripen, and that roots will not thrive, if wholly deprived of air ; and hence it is probable that they inhale it by their epidermis, though the pores by which it enters should not be visible. In the root, indeed, it may possibly enter in combination with the moisture of the soil ; but in the other parts of the plant it enters no doubt in the state of gas. Herbs, therefore, and the M 3 166 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. soft parts of woody plants, absorb moisture and inhale gases from the soil or atmosphere by means of the pores of their epidermis, and thus the plant effects the intro-susception of its food. 741. Ascent of the sap. The means by which the plant effects the intro-susception of its food, is chiefly that of absorption by the root. But the fluids existing in the soil when absorbed by the root, are designated by the appellation of sap or lymph ; which, before it can be rendered subservient to the purposes of vegetable nutrition, must either be intermediately conveyed to some viscus proper to give it elaboration, or immediately distributed throughout the whole body of the plant. Our present object, therefore, is that of tracing out the progress of its distribution or ascent. The sap is in motion in one direction or other, if not all the year, at least at occasional periods, as the bleeding of plants in spring and autumn sufficiently illustrates. The plant always bleeds most freely about the time of the opening of the bud ; for in proportion as the leaves expand, the sap flows less copiously, and when they are fully expanded, it entirely ceases. But this sus- pension is only temporary, for the plant may be made to bleed again in the end of the autumn, at least under certain conditions. If an incision is now made into the body of the tree, after the occurrence of a short but sharp frost, when the heat of the sun or mildness of the air begins to produce a thaw, the sap will again flow. It will flow even where the tree has been but partially thawed, which sometimes happens on the south side of a tree, when the heat of the sun is strong and the wind northerly. At the seasons now specified, therefore, the sap is evidently in motion ; but the plant will not bleed at any other season of the year. It has been the opinion of some phytologists, that the motion of the sap is wholly suspended during the winter. But though the great cold of winter, as well as the great heat of summer, is by no means so favorable to vegetation as the milder though more Changeable temperature of spring and autumn, yet it does not wholly suspend the movement of the sap. Palms may be made to bleed at any season of the year. And although this is not the case with plants in general, yet there is proof sufficient that the colds of winter do not, even in this climate, entirely prevent the sap from flowing. Buds exhibit a gradual developement of parts through- out the whole of the winter, as may be seen by dissecting them at different periods. So also do roots. Evergreens retain their leaves ; and many of them, such as the arbutus, laurustinus, and the beautiful tribe of the mosses, protrude also their blossoms, even in spite of the rigor of the season. But all this could not possibly be accomplished, if the motion of the sap were wholly suspended. 742. Thus the sap is in perpetual motion with a more accelerated or more diminished velocity throughout the whole of the year ; but still there is no decided indication, exhi- bited in the mere circumstance of the plant's bleeding, of the direction in which the sap is moving at the time ; for the result might be the same whether it was passing from the root to the branches, or from the branches to the root. But as the great influx of the sap is effected by means of the pores of the epidermis of the root, it follows that its motion must, at least in the first place, be that of ascent ; and such is its direction at the season of the plant's bleeding, as may be proved by the following experiment : if the bore or incision that has been made in the trunk is minutely inspected while the plant yet bleeds, the sap will be found to issue almost wholly from the inferior side. If several bores are made in the same trunk, one above another, the sap will begin to flow first from the lower bore, and then from those above it, If a branch of a vine be lopped, the sap will issue copiously from the section terminating the part that remains yet attached to the plant ; but not from the section terminating the part that has been lopped off, This proves in- dubitably that the direction of the sap's motion, during the season of the plant's bleeding, is that of ascent. But if the sap flows so copiously during the season of bleeding, it follows that it must ascend with a very considerable force ; which force has accordingly been made the subject of calculation. To the stem of a vine cut off about two feet and a half from the ground, Hales fixed a mercurial gauge which he luted with mastic ; the guage was in the form of a syphon, so contrived that the mercury might be made to rise in proportion to the pressure of the ascending sap. The mercury rose accordingly, and reached, as its maximum, to a height of thirty-eight inches. But this was equivalent to a column of water of the height of forty-three feet three and one-third inches ; demonstrat- ing a force in the motion of the sap that, without the evidence of experiment, would have seemed altogether incredible. 743. Thus the sap in ascending from the lower to the upper extremity of the plant is jrrojyelled with a very considerable force, at least in the bleeding season. But is the ascending sap pro- pelled indiscriminately throughout the whole of the tubular apparatus, or is it confined in its course, to any particular channel ? Before the anatomy of plants had been studied with much accuracy, there was a considerable diversity of opinion on the subject. Some thought it ascended by the bark ; others thought that it ascended by the bark, wood, and pith indiscriminately ; and others thought it ascended between the bark and wood. The first opinion was maintained and supported by Malpighi ; and Grew considers that the BOOK I. PROCESS OF VEGETABLE NUTRITION. 167 sap ascends by the bark, wood, and pith, indiscriminately. Du Hamel stript several trees of their bark entirely, which continued, notwithstanding, to live for many years, protrud- ing new leaves and new branches as before. Knight stript the trunk of a number of young crab-trees of a ring of bark half an inch in breadth, but the leaves were protruded, and the branches elongated, as if the operation had not been performed. Du Petit Thouars removed the central wood and pith from the stems of several young sycamore trees, leaving the upper part to be supported only by four pillars of bark : in others he removed the bark, liber, and alburnum, leaving the upper part of the tree to be supported solely by the central wood. In both cases the trees lived, so that he concludes the bark and wood can alternately act as the sap's conductor. (Hist, (fun Morceau cle Hois. Hort. Tour. 481.) 744. It is evident, therefore, that the sap does not ascend exclusively by the bark. But it is equally evident that it does not ascend by the pith, at least after the first year ; for then, even upon Grew's own supposition, it becomes either juiceless or wholly extinct : and even during the first year it is not absolutely necessary, if at all subservient to the ascent of the sap, as is proved by an experiment of Knight's. Having contrived to abstract from some annual shoots a portion of their pith, so as to interrupt its continuity, but not other- wise materially to injure the fabric of the shoot, Knight found that the growth of the shoots which had been made the subject of experiment was not at all affected by it. 745. Thus the sap ascends neither by the bark nor pith, but by the wood only. But the whole mass of the wood throughout is not equally well adapted for the purpose of con- veying it. The interior and central part, or that part that has acquired its last degree of solidity, does not in general afford it a passage. This is proved by what is called the girdling of trees, which consists in making a circular gap or incision quite round the stem, and to the depth of two or three inches, so as to cut through both the bark and alburnum. An oak-tree on which Knight had performed this operation, with a view to ascertaining the channel of the sap's ascent, exhibited not the slightest mark of vegetation in the spring following. The sap then does not ascend through the channel of the ma- tured wood. But if the sap ascends neither through the channel of the bark, nor pith, nor matured wood, through what other channel does it actually ascend ? The only re- maining channel through which it can possibly ascend is that of the alburnum. In passing through the channel of the alburnum, does the sap ascend promiscuously by the whole of the tubes composing it, or is it confined in its passage to any peculiar set ? The earliest conjectures recorded on this subject are those of Grew and Malpighi, who, though they maintained that the sap ascends chiefly by the bark, did not yet deny that it ascends also partly by the alburnum or wood. It occurred to succeeding phytologists that the progress, of the sap, and the vessels through which it passes, might be traced or ascertained by means of making plants vegetate in colored infusions. Du Hamel steeped the extremities of branches of the fig, elder, honeysuckle, and filbert in common ink. In examining the two former, after being steeped for several days, the part immersed was found to be black throughout, but the upper part was tinged only in the wood, which was colored for the length of a foot, but more faintly and partially in proportion to the height. The pith, indeed, exhibited some traces of ink, but the bark and buds none. In some other examples the external layers of the wood only were tinged. In the honeysuckle the deepest shade was about the middle of the woody layers ; and in the filbert there was also observed a colored circle surrounding the pith, but none in the pith itself, nor in the bark. 746. Thus it is proved that the sap ascends through the vessels of the longitudinal fibre composing the alburnum of woody plants, and through the vessels of the several bundles of longitudinal fibre constituting the woody part of herbaceous plants. But it has been already shown that the vessels composing the woody fibre are not all of the same species. There are simple tubes, porous tubes, spiral tubes, mixed tubes, and interrupted tubes. Through which of these, therefore, does the sap pass in its ascent ? The best reply to this enquiry has been furnished by Knight and Mirbel. Knight prepared some annual shoots of the apple and horse-chestnut, by means of circular incisions, so as to leave detached rings of bark with insulated leaves remaining on the stem. He then placed them in colored in- fusions obtained by macerating the skins of very black grapes in water ; and, on exa- mining the transverse section at the end of the experiment, it was found that the infu- sion had ascended by the wood beyond his incisions, and also into the insulated leaves, but had not colored the pith nor bark, nor the sap between the bark and wood. From the above experiment, Knight concludes that the sap ascends through what are called the common tubes of the wood and alburnum, at least till it reaches the leaves. Thus the sap is conveyed to the summit of the alburnum. But Knight's next object was to trace the vessels by which it is conveyed into the leaf. The apple-tree and horse- chestnut were still his subjects of experiment. In the former the leaves are attached to the plant by three strong fibres, or rather bundles of tubes, one in the middle of the leaf-stalk, and one on each side. In the latter they are attached by means of Several M 4 1G8 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. such bundles. Now the colored fluid was found in each case to have passed through the centre of the several bundles, and through the centre only, tinging the tubes through- out almost the whole length of the leaf-stalk. In tracing their direction from the leaf- stalk upwards, they were found to extend to the extremity of the leaves ; and in tracing their direction from the leaf-stalk downwards, they were found to penetrate the bark and alburnum, the tubes of which they join, descending obliquely till they reach the pith which they surround. From their position Knight calls them central tubes, thus distinguishing them from the common tubes of the wood and alburnum, and from the spiral tubes with which they were every where accompanied as appendages, as well as from a set of other tubes which surrounded them, but were not colored, and which he designates by the appellation of external tubes. The experiment was now transferred to the flower-stalk and fruit-stalk, which was done by placing branches of the apple, pear, and vine, furnished with flowers not yet expanded, in a decoction of logwood. The central vessels were rendered apparent as in the leaf-stalk. When the fruit of the two former was fully formed, the experiment was then made upon the fruit-stalk, in which the central vessels were detected as before; but the coloring matter was found to have penetrated into the fruit also, diverging round the core, approaching again in the eye of the fruit, and terminating at last in the stamens. It was by means of a pro- longation of the central vessels, which did not however appear to be accompanied by the spiral tubes beyond the fruit-stalk. Such then are the parts of the plant through which the sap ascends, and the vessels by which it is conveyed. Entering by the pores of the epidermis, it is received into the longitudinal vessels of the root by which it is conducted to the collar. Thence it is conveyed by the longitudinal vessels of the alburnum, to the base of the leaf-stalk and peduncle ; from which it is further transmitted to the extremity of the leaves, flower, and fruit. There remains a question to be asked intimately con- nected with the sap's ascent. Do the vessels conducting the sap communicate with one another by inosculation or otherwise, so as that a portion of their contents may be con- veyed in a lateral direction, and consequently to any part of the plant; or do they form distinct channels throughout the whole of their extent, having no sort of communication with any other set of tubes, or with one another? Each of the two opinions implied in the question has had its advocates and defenders. But Du Hamel and Knight have shown that a branch will still continue to live though the tubes leading directly to it are cut in the trunk ; from which it follows that the sap, though flowing the most copiously in the direct line of ascent, is at the same time also diffused in a transverse direction. 747. Causes of the sap's ascent- By what power is the sap propelled? Grew states two hypotheses: its volatile nature and magnetic tendency, aided by the agency of fer- mentation. Malpighi was of opinion that the sap ascends by means of the contraction and dilatation of the air contained in the air-vessels. M. De la Hire attempted to ac- count for the phenomenon by combining together the theories of Grew and Malpighi ; and Borelli, who endeavoured to render their theory more perfect, by bringing to its aid the influence of the condensation and rarification of the air and juices of the plant. 748. Agency of heat. Du Hamel directed his efforts to the solution of the difficulty, by endeavouring to ac- count for the phenomenon from theagency of heat, and chiefly on the following grounds : because the sap begins to flow more copiously as the warmth of spring returns ; because the sap is sometimes found to flow on the south side of a tree before it flows on the north side, that is, on the side exposed to the in- fluence of the sun's heat sooner than on the side deprived of it ; because plants may be made to vegetate even in the winter, by means of forcing them in a hot-house ; and because plants raised in a hot-house produce their fruit earlier than such as vegetate in the open air. There can be no doubt of the great utility of heat in forwarding the progress of vegetation ; but it will not therefore follow that the motion and ascent of the sap are to be attributed to its agency. On the contrary, it is very well known that if the temperature exceeds a certain degree, it becomes then prejudicial both to the ascent of the sap and also to the growth of the plant. Hales found that the sap flows less rapidly at mid-day than in the morning ; and every body knows that vegetation is less luxuriant at midsummer than in the spring. So also, in the case of forcing, it happens but too often that the produce of the hot-house is totally destroyed by the unskilful application of heat ; and if heat is actually the cause of the sap's ascent, how comes it that the degree necessary to produce the effect is so very variable even in the same climate ? For there are many plants, such as the arbutus, laurustinus, and the mosses, that will continue not only to ve- getate, but to protrude their blossoms and mature their fruit, even in the midst of winter, when the temperature is at the lowest. And in the case of submarine plants the temperature can never be very high ; so that although heat does no doubt facilitate the ascent of the sap by its tendency to make the vessels expand, yet it cannot be regarded as the efficient cause, since the sap is proved to be in motion even throughout the whole of the winter. Du Hamel endeavours, however, to strengthen the operation of heat by means of the influence of humidity, as being also powerful in promoting the ascent of the sap, whether as relative to the season of the year or time of the day. The influence of the humidity of the atmosphere cannot be conceived to operate as a propelling cause, though it may easily be conceived to operate as affording a facility to the ascent of the sap in one way or other ; which under certain circum- stances is capable of most extraordinary acceleration, but particularly in that state of the atmosphere which forebodes or precedes a storm. In such a state a stalk of wheat was observed by Du Hamel to grow three inches in three days ; a stalk of barley six inches, and a shoot of a vine almost two feet ; but this is a state that occurs but seldom, and cannot be of much service in the general propulsion of the sap. On this intricate but important subject Linnams appears to have embraced the opinion of Du Hamel, or an opinion very nearly allied to it ; but does not seem to have strengthened it by any new accession of argument ; so that none of the hitherto alleged causes can be regarded as adequate to the production of the c-ftect. 749. Irritability. Perhaps the only cause that has ever been suggested as appearing to be at all adequate to the production of the effect, is that alleged by Saujsure. According to Saussure the cause of the sap's BOOK I. PROCESS OF VEGETABLE NUTRITION. 169 ascent is to IK? found in a peculiar species of irritability inherent in the sap-vessels themselves, and de- pendent upon vegetable life ; in consequence of which they are rendered capable of a certain degree of contraction, according as the internal surface is affected by the application of stimuli, as well as of subse- quent dilatation according as the action of the stimulus subsides ; thus admitting and propelling the sap by alternate dilatation and contraction. In order to give elucidation to the subject, let the tube be sup- posed to consist of an indefinite number of hollow cylinders united one to another, and let the sap be supposed to enter the first cylinder by suction, or by capillary attraction, or by any other adequate means ; then the first cylinder being excited by the stimulus of the sap, begins gradually to contract, and to propel the contained fluid into the cylinder immediately above it. But the cylinder immediately above it, when acted on in the same manner, is affected in the same manner ; and thus the fluid is pro- pelled from cylinder to cylinder till it reaches the summit of the plant. So also when the first cylinder has discharged its contents into the second, and is no longer acted upon by the stimulus of the sap, it begins again to be dilated to its original capacity, and prepared for the intro-susception of a new jx>rtion of fluid. Thus a supply is constantly kept up, and the sap continues to flow. The above is by far the simplest as well as most satisfactory of all theories accounting for the ascent of the sap. 750. . Contraction and dilatation. Knight has presented us with a theory which, whatever may be its real value, merits at least our particular notice, as coming from an author who stands deservedly high in the list of phytological writers. This theory rests upon the principle of the contraction and dilatation, not of the sap-vessels themselves, as in the theory of Saussure, but of what Knight denominates the silver grain, assisted perhaps by heat and humidity expanding or condensing the fluids. (Phil. Trans. 1801.) Keith considers this theory of Knight as beset with many difficulties, and the agency of the alleged cause as totally inadequate to the production of the effect to be accomplished. 751. Elaboration of the sap. The moisture of the soil is no sooner absorbed into the plant than it begins to undergo a change. This is proved by the experiment of making a bore or incision in the trunk of a tree during the season of bleeding ; the sap that issues from the wound possesses properties very different from the mere moisture of the soil, as is indicated by means of chemical analysis, and sometimes also by means of a peculiar taste or flavor, as in the case of the birch-tree. Hence the sap has already undergone a certain degree of elaboration ; either in passing through the glands of the cellular tissue, which it reaches through the medium of a lateral communication, or in mingling with the juices contained in the cells, and thus carrying off a portion of them ; in the same manner, we may suppose, that water by filtering through a mineral vein becomes im- pregnated with the mineral through which it passes. But this primary and incipient stage of the process of elaboration must always of necessity remain a mystery to the phytologist, as being wholly effected in the interior of the plant, and consequently beyond the reach of observation. All he can do, therefore, is to trace out its future progress, and to watch its succeeding changes, in which the rationale of the process of elaboration may be more evident. 752. The process of elaboration is chiefly operated in the leaf: for the sap no sooner reaches the leaf, than part of it is immediately carried off by means of perspiration, perceptible or imperceptible ; effecting a change in the proportion of its component parts, and by consequence a change in its properties. Hales reared a sun-flower in a pot of earth till it grew to the height of three feet and a half; he then covered the mouth of the pot with a plate of lead, which he cemented so as to prevent all evaporation from the earth contained in it. In this plate he fixed two tubes, the one nine inches in length and of but small diameter, left open to serve as a medium of communication with the external air; the other two inches in length and one in diameter, for the purpose of introducing a supply of water, but kept always shut ex- cept at the time of watering. The holes of the bottom of the pot were also shut, and the pot and plant weighed for fifteen successive days in the months of July and August ; hence he ascertained not only the fact of transpiration by the leaves, from a comparison of the supply and waste; but also the quantity of moisture transpired in a given time, by subtracting from the total waste the amount of evaporation from the pot. The final result proved that the absorbing power of the root is greater than the transpiring power of the leaves, in the proportion of five to two. Similar experiments were also made upon some species of cab- bage, whose mean transpiration was found to be 1 Ib. 3 oz. per day ; and on some species of evergreens, which were found, however, to transpire less than other plants. The same is the case also with succulent plants, which transpire but little in proportion to their mass, and which as they become more firm transpire less. It is known, however, that they absorb a great deal of moisture, though they give it out thus sparingly ; which seems intended by nature for the purpose of resisting the great droughts to which they are generally exposed, inhabiting, as they do for the most part, the sandy desert or the sunny rock. Along with his own experiments Hales relates also some others that were made by Miller of Chelsea ; the result of which was that, other circumstances being the same, transpiration is in proportion to the transpiring sur- face ; and is affected by the temperature of the air, sunshine, or drought, promoting it, and cold and wet diminishing or suppressing it entirely. It is also greatest from six o'clock in the morning till noon, and is least during the night. But when transpiration becomes too abundant, owing to excess of heat or drought, the plant immediately suffers and begins to languish ; and hence the leaves droop during the day, though they are again revived during the night. For the same or for a similar reason, transpiration has been found also to increase as the heat of summer advances ; being more abundant in July than'in June, and still more in August than in either of the preceding months, from which last period it begins again to decrease. 753. A fluid little different from common water is exhaled according to the experi- ments of Hales and Guettard ; in some cases it had the odor of the plant ; but Du Hamel found that it became sooner putrid than water. Such then are the facts that have been ascertained with regard to the imperceptible perspiration of plants, from which it unavoidably follows that the sap undergoes a very considerable modification in its passage through the leaf. 754. Perceptible perspiration, which is an exudation of sap too gross or too abundant to be dissipated immediately, and which hence accumulates on the surface of the leaf, is the cause of its further modification. It is very generally to be met with in the course of 170 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. the summer on the leaves of the maple, poplar, and lime-tree ; but particularly on the surface exposed to the sun, which it sometimes wholly covers. Its physical as well as chemical qualities are very different in different species of plants ; so that it is not always merely an exudation of sap, but of sap in a high state of elaboration, or mingled with the peculiar juices or secretions of the plant. Sometimes it is a clear and watery fluid conglomerating into large drops, such as are said to have been observed by Miller, exuding from the leaves of the musa arbor, or plantain- tree ; and such as are sometimes to be seen in hot and calm weather exuding from the leaves of the poplar or willow, and trickling down in such abundance as to resemble a slight shower. This phenomenon was observed by Sir J. E. Smith, under a grove of willows in Italy, and is said to occur sometimes even in Eng- land. Sometimes it is glutinous, as on the leaf of the lime-tree ; sometimes it is waxy, as on the leaves of rosemary ; sometimes it is saccharine as on the orange-leaf ; or resinous, as on the leaves of the cistus creticus. The cause of this excess of perspiration has not yet been altogether satisfactorily ascertained ; though it seems to be merely an effort and institution of nature to throw off all such redundant juices as may have been absorbed, or secretions as may have been formed beyond what are necessaryto the due nourishment or composition of the plant, or beyond what the plant is capable of assimilating at the time. Hence the watery exudation is perhaps nothing more than a redundancy of the fluid thrown off by imper- ceptible perspiration, and the waxy and resinous exudations nothing more than a redundancy of secreted juices ; all which may be still perfectly consistent with a healthy state of the plant. But there are cases in which the exudation is to be regarded as an indication of disease, particularly in that of the exudation known by the name of honey-dew, a sweet and viscid substance covering the leaves like a varnish, and sometimes occasioning their decay. Such at least seems to be the fact with regard to the honey-dew of the hop, which, according to the observations of Linnaeus, is the conscience of the attacks of the cater- pillar of the ghost-moth injuring the root And such seems also to be the fact with regard to the honey- dew of the beech-tree, and perhaps also the honey-dew of the oak. The sap then in the progress of its ascent from the extremity of the root to the extremity of the leaf undergoes a considerable change, first in its mixing with the juices already contained in the plant, and then in its throwing off a portion at the leaf. 755. The sap is further affected by means of the gases entering into the root along with the moisture of the soil, but certainly, by means of the gases inhaled into the leaf; the action and elaboration of which shall now be elucidated. 756. Elaboration of carbonic acid. The utility of carbonic acid gas as a vegetable food has been al- ready shown ; plants being found not only to absorb it by the root along with the moisture of the soil, but also to inhale it by the leaves, at least when vegetating in the sun or during the day. But how is the ela- boration of this gas effected ? Is it assimilated to the vegetable substance immediately upon entering the plant, or is its assimilation effected by means of intermediate steps ? The gas thus inhaled or absorbed is not assimilated immediately, or at least not wholly : for it is known that plants do also evolve carbonic acid gas when vegetating in the shade, or during the night. Priestley ascertained that plants vegetating in confined atmospheres evolve carbonic acid gas in the shade, or during the night, and that the vitiated state of their atmospheres after experiment is owing to that evolution ; and Saussure that the elaboration of carbonic acid gas is essential to vegetation in the sun ; and, finally, Senebier and Saussure proved that the carbonic acid gas contained in water is abstracted and inhaled by the leaf, and immediately decom- posed ; the carbon being assimilated to the substance of the plant, and the oxygen in part evolved, and in part ajso assimilated. The decomposition of carbonic acid gas takes place only during the light of day, though Saussure has made it also probable that plants decompose a part of the carbonic acid gas which they form with the surrounding oxygen even in the dark. But the effect is operated chiefly by means of the leaves and other green parts of vegetables, that is, chiefly by the parenchyma ; the wood, roots, petals, and leaves that have lost their green color not being found to exhale oxygene gas. It may be observed, however, that the green color is not an absolutely essential character of the parts decomposing carbonic acid ; because the leaves of a peculiar variety of the atriplex hortensis, in which all the green parts change to red, do still exhale oxygene gas. 757. Elaboration qf oxygen. It has been already shown that the leaves of plants abstract oxygen from confined atmospheres, at least when placed in the shade, though they do not inhale all the oxygen that disappears ; and it has been further proved, from experiment, that the leaves of plants do also evolve a gas in the sun. From a great variety of experiments relative to the action and influence of oxygen on the plant, and the contrary, the following is the sum of the results. The green parts of plants, but especially the leaves, when exposed in atmospheric air to the successive influence of the light and shade, inhale and evolve alternately a portion of oxygene gas mixed with carbonic acid. But the oxygen is not immediately assimilated to the vegetable substance ; it is first converted into carbonic acid by means of combining with the carbon of the plant, which withers if this process is prevented by the application of lime or potass. The leaves of aquatics, succulent plants, and evergreens consume, in equal circumstances, less oxygen than the leaves of other plants. The roots, wood, and petals, and in short all parts not green, with the exception of some colored leaves, do not effect the successive and alternate inhalation and extrication of oxygen ; they inhale it indeed, though they do not again give it out, or assimilate it immediately, but con- vey it under the form of carbonic acid to the leaves, where it is decomposed. Oxgen is indeed assimilated to the plant, but not directly, and only by means of the decomposition of carbonic acid ; when part of it, though in a very small proportion, is retained also and assimilated along with the carbon. Hence the most obvious influence of oxygen, as applied to the leaves, is that of forming carbonic acid gas, and thus pre- senting to the plants elements which it may assimilate ; and perhaps the carbon of the extractive juices absorbed even by the root, is not assimilated to the plant till it is converted by means of oxygen into car- bonic acid. But as an atmosphere composed of nitrogen and carbonic acid gas only is not favorable to vegetation, it is probable that oxygen performs also some other function beyond that of merely presenting to the plant, under the modification of carbonic acid, elements which it may assimilate. It may effect also the disengagement of caloric by its union with the carbon of the vegetable, which is the necessary result of such union. But oxygen is also beneficial to the plant from its action on the soil ; for when the ex- tractive juices contained in the soil have become exhausted, the oxygen of the atmosphere, by penetrating into the earth and abstracting from it a portion of its carbon, forms a new extract to replace the first. Hence we may account for a number of facts observed by the earlier phytologists, but not well explained. Du Hamel remarked that the lateral roots of plants are always the more vigorous the nearer they are to the surface ; but it now appears that they are the most vigorous at the surface because they have there the easiest access to the oxygen of the atmosphere, or to the extract which it may form. It was observed also by the same phytologist that perpendicular roots do not thrive so well, other circumstances being-the same, in a stiff and wet soil as in a friable and dry soil ; while plants with slender and divided roots thrive equally well in both : but this is no doubt owing to the obstacles that present themselves to the passage of the oxygen in the former case, on account of the greater depth and smaller surface of the root. It was further observed, that roots which penetrate into dung or into pipes conducting water, divide into immense numbers of fibres, and form what is called the fox-tail root ; but it is because they cannot continue to ve- getate, except by increasing their points of contact, with the small quantity of oxygen found in such mediums. Lastly, it was observed that plants, whose roots are suddenly overflowed with water remaining afterwards stagnant, suffer sooner than if the accident had happened by means of a continued current It is because in the former case the oxygen contained in the water is soon exhausted, while in the latter it is BOOK I. PROCESS OF VEGETABLE NUTRITION. 171 not exhausted at all And hence also we may account for the phenomenon exhibited by plants vegetating in distilled water under a receiver filled with atmospheric air, which having no proper soil to supply the root with nourishment, effect the developement of their parts only at the expense of their own proper substance ; the interior of the stem, or a portion of the root, or the lower leaves decaying and giving up their extractive juices to the other parts. Thus it appears that oxygene gas, or that constituent part of the atmospheric air which has been found to be indispensable to the life of animals is also indispensable to the life of vegetables. But although the presence and action of oxygen is absolutely necessary to the process of vegetation, plants do not thrive so well in an atmosphere of pure oxygen, as in an atmosphere of pure or common air. This was proved by an experiment of Saussure's, who having introduced some plants of pisum sativum, that were but just issuing from the seed, into a receiver containing pure oxygene gas, found that in the space of six days they had acquired only half the weight of such as were introduced at the same time into a receiver containing common air. From whence it follows that oxygen, though the principal agent in the process of vegetation is not yet the only agent necessary to the health and growth of the plant, and that the proportion of the constituent parts of the atmospheric air is well adapted for the purposes both of vegetable and animal life. 758. Decomposition of water. Although the opinion was proved to be groundless, by which water had been supposed to be convertible into all the different ingredients en- tering into the composition of the vegetable substance by means of the action of the vital energy of the plant ; yet when water was ultimately proved to be a chemical compound, it was by no means absurd to suppose that plants may possess the power of decomposing part, at least, of what they absorb by the root, and thus acquire the hydrogen as well as a portion of the oxygen which, by analysis, they are found to contain. This opinion was accordingly pretty generally adopted, but was not yet proved by any direct experiment. Senebier pointed out several phenomena from which he thought it was to be inferred, but particularly that of the germination of some seeds moistened merely with water, and so situated as to have no apparent contact with oxygen. The decomposition of water was inferred also by Ingenhouz, from the amelioration of an atmosphere of common air into which he had introduced some succulent plants vegetating in pure water. Saussure having gathered a number of plants of the same species, as nearly alike as possible in all circum- stances likely to be affected by the experiment, dried part of them to the temperature of the atmosphere, and ascertained their weight ; the rest he made to vegetate in pure water, and in an atmosphere of pure oxygen for a given period of time, at the end of which he dried them as before, and ascertained their weight also, which it was thus only necessary to compare with the weight of the former, in order to know whether the plants had in- creased in solid vegetable substance or not. But after many experiments on a variety of plants, the result always was, that plants when made to vegetate in pure water only, and in an atmosphere of pure oxygen, or of common air deprived of its carbonic acid, scarcely added any thing at all to their weight in a dried state ; or if they did, the quantity was too small to be appreciated. But from a subsequent experiment, in which carbonic acid gas was mixed with common air by the same experiment, the decomposition and fixation of water by the vegetating plant is legitimately inferred. It does not appear, however, that plants do in any case decompose water directly ; that is, by appropriating its hydrogen and at the same time disengaging its oxygen in the form of gas, which is extricated only by the decomposition of carbonic acid. 759. Descent of the proper juice. When the sap has been duly elaborated in the leaf by means of the several processes that have just been described, it assumes the appel- lation of the cambium, or proper juice of the plant. In this ultimate state of elaboration it is found chiefly in the bark, or rather between the bark and wood, and may very often be distinguished by a peculiar color, being sometimes white, as in the several species of spurge, and sometimes yellow, as in celandine. It is said to be the principal seat of the medical virtues of plants ; and was regarded by Malpighi as being to the plant what the blood is to the animal body the immediate principle of nourishment, and grand support of life ; which opinions he endeavours to establish by the following analogies : if the blood escapes from the vessels of the animal body, it forms neither flesh nor bone, but tumors ; if the proper juices of the plant are extravasated, they form neither bark nor wood, but a lump of gum, resin, or inspissated juice. The disruption of the blood-vessels and conse- quent loss of blood, injures and often proves fatal to the animal. The extravasation of the proper juice injures and often proves fatal to vegetables, unless the evil is prevented by the skill and management of the gardener. Whatever may be the value of these re- marks as tending to establish the analogy in question, it cannot be doubted that the cam- bium or proper juice constitutes at least the grand principle of vegetable organisation ; generating and developing in succession the several organs of the plant, or furnishing the vital principle with the immediate materials of assimilation. 760. The proper juice is conveyed to the several parts of the plant by an appropriate set of vessels. One of the earliest and most satisfactory experiments on this subject, at least as far as regards the return of the proper juice through the leaf and leaf-stalk, is that of Dr. Darwin, which was conducted as follows: a stalk of the euphorbia heliscopia, furnished with its leaves and seed-vessels, was placed in a decoction of madder-root, so as that the lower portion of the stem and two of the inferior leaves were immersed in it. After remaining so for several days the color of the decoction was distinctly discerned passing along the midrib of each leaf. On the upper side of the leaf many of the ramifications, going from the midrib towards the circumference, were observed to be tinged with red ; but on the under side there was ob served a system ,of branching vessels, originated in the extremities of the leaf and carrying not a red but a pale milky fluid, which, after uniting in two sets, one on each side the midrib, descended along with it 172 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. into the leaf-stalk. These were the vessels returning the elaborated sap. The vessels observable on the upper surface Darwin calls arteries, and those on the under surface he calls veins. To this may be added the more recent discoveries of Knight, who in his experiments, instituted with a view to ascertain the course of the sap, detected in the leaf-stalk, not only the vessels which he calls central tubes, through which the colored infusion ascended, together with their appendages, the spiral tubes ; but also another set of vessels surrounding the central tubes, which he distinguishes by the appellation of external tubes, and which appeared to be conveying in one direction or other a fluid that was not colored, but that proved, upon further investigation, to be the descending proper juice. In tracing them upwards they were found to extend to the summit of the leaf, and in tracing them downwards they were found to extend to the base of the leaf-stalk, and to penetrate even into the inner bark. According to Knight, then, there are three sets of vessels in leaves, the central tubes, the spiral tubes, and the external tubes. But by what means is the proper juice conducted from the base of the leaf-stalk to the extremity of the root ? This was the chief object of the enquiry of the earlier phytologists who had not yet begun to trace its progress in the leaf and leaf-stalk ; but who were acquainted with facts indicating at least the descent of a fluid in the trunk. Du Hamel stript sixty trees of their bark in the course of the spring, laying them bare from the upper extremity of the sap and branches to the root ; the experiment proved indeed fatal to them, as they all died in the course of three or four years. But many of them had made new productions both of wood and bark from the buds downwards, extending in some cases to the length of a foot ; though very few of them had made any new productions from the root upwards. Hence it is that the proper juice not only descends from the extremity of the leaf to the extremity of the root, but generates also in its descent new and additional parts. The experiments of Knight on this sub- ject are, if possible, more convincing than even those of Du Hamel. From the trunks of a number of young crab-trees he detached a ring of bark of half an inch in breadth. The sap rose in them, and the portion of the trunk above the ring augmented as in other subjects that were not so treated, while the portion below the ring scarcely augmented at all. The upper lips of the wounds made considerable ad- vances downwards, while the lower lips made scarcely any advances upwards ; but if a bud was protruded under the ring, and the shoot arising from it allowed to remain, then the portion of the trunk below that bud began immediately to augment in size, while the portion between the bud and incision remained nearly as before. When two circular incisions were made in the trunk so as to leave a ring of bark be- tween them with a leaf growing from it, the portion above the leaf died, while the portion below the leaf lived ; and when the upper part of a branch was stripped of its leaves the bark withered as far as it was stript Whence it is evident that the sap which has been elaborated in the leaves and converted into proper juice, descends through the channel of the bark, or rather between the bark and alburnum to the extremity of the root, effecting the developement of new and additional parts. But not only is the bark thus ascertained to be the channel of the descent of the proper juice, after entering the trunk ; the peculiar vessels through which it immediately passes, have been ascertained also. In the language of Knight they are merely a continuation of the external tubes already noticed, which after quitting the base of the foot-stalk he describes as not only penetrating the inner bark, but descending along with it and conducting the proper juice to the very extremity of the root In the language of Mirbel they are the large or rather simple tubes so abundant in the bark of woody plants, though not altogether confined to it ; and so well adapted by the width of their diameter to afford a passage to the proper juice. 761. Causes of descent. The proper juice then, or sap elaborated in the leaf, descends by the returning vessels of the leaf-stalk, and by the longitudinal vessels of the inner bark, the large tubes of Mirbel and external tubes of Knight, down to the extremity of the root. The descent of the proper juice was regarded by the earlier phytologists as resulting from the agency of gravitation, owing perhaps more to the readiness with which the conjecture suggests itself than to the satisfaction which it gives. But the insufficiency of this cause was clearly pointed out by Du Hamel, who observed in his experiments with ligatures that the tumor was always formed on the side next to the leaves, even when the branch was bent down, whether by nature or art, so as to point to the earth, in which case the power propelling the proper juice is acting not only in opposition to that of gravitation, but with such force as to overcome it This is an unanswer- able argument ; and yet it seems to have been altogether overlooked, or at least undervalued in its importance by Knight, who endeavours to account for the effect by ascribing it to the joint operation of gravitation, capillary attraction, the waving motion of the tree, and the structure of the conducting vessels ; but the greatest of these causes is gravitation. Certain it is that gravitation has considerable influence in preventing the descent of the sap in young sjioots of trees which have grown upright, wnich, when bent down after being fully grown, form larger buds, and often blossom instead of leaf buds. This practice, with a view to the production of blossom-buds is frequently adopted by gardeners (Hort. Trans. i. 237.) in training fruit-trees. These causes are each perhaps of some efficacy ; and yet even when taken altogether they are not adequate to the production of the effect The greatest stress is laid upon gravitation ; but its agency is obviously over-rated, as is evident from the case of the pendent shoots of the weeping willow ; and if gravitation is so very efficacious in facilitating the descent of the proper juice, how comes its influence to be suspended in the case of the ascending sap ? The action of the silver grain will scarcely be sufficient to overcome it ; and if it should be said that the sap ascends through the tubes of the alburnum by means of the agency of the vital principle, why may not the same vital prin- ciple conduct also the proper juice through the returning vessels or the bark. In short if, with Saussure, we admit the existence of a contracting power in the former case sufficient to propel the sap from ring to ring, it will be absolutely necessary to admit it also in the latter. Thus we assign a cause adequate to the production of the effect, and avoid at the same time the transgression of that most fundamental prin- ciple of all sound philosophy which forbids us to multiply causes without necessity. SECT. IV. Process of Vegetable Developement. 762. The production of the different parts and organs of plants is effected by the assimi- lation of the proper juice. The next object of our enquiry, therefore, will be that of tracing out the order of the developement of the several parts, together with the peculiar mode of operation adopted by the vital principle. But this mode of operation is not exactly the same in herbaceous and annual plants, as in woody and perennial plants. In the former, the process of developement comprises as it were but one act of the vital prin- ciple, the parts being all unfolded in immediate succession and without any perceptible interruption till the plant is complete. In the latter, the process is carried on by gradual and definite stages easily cognisable to the senses, commencing with the approach of spring, and terminating with the approach of winter ; during which, the functions of the vital principle seem to be altogether suspended, till it is aroused again into action by the warmth of the succeeding spring. The illustration of the latter, however, involves also that of tiie former ; because the growth of the first year exemplifies at the same time the BOOK I. PROCESS OF VEGETABLE DEVELOPEMENT. 173 growth of annuals, while the growth of succeeding years exemplifies whatever is peculiar to perennials. 763. Elementary organs. If the Embryo, on its escape from the seed and conversion into a plant, is taken and minutely inspected, it will be found to consist of a root, plumelet, and incipient stem, which have been developed in consecutive order; and if the plant is taken and dissected at this period of its growth it will be found to be com- posed merely of an epidermis enveloping a soft and pulpy substance, that forms the mass of the individual ; or it may be furnished also with a central and longitudinal fibre ; or with bundles of longitudinal fibres giving tenacity to the whole. These parts have been developed no doubt by means of the agency of the vital principle operatin<* on the proper juice ; but what have been the several steps of operation ? Perhaps no satisfactory explication of this plienomenon has yet been offered. It is likely, however, that the rudiments of all the different parts of the plant do already exist in the embryo in such specific order of arrangement as shall best fit them for future developement, by the intro-susception of new and additional particles. The pellicle constituting the vegetable epidermis has generally been regarded as a membrane essentially distinct from the parts which it covers, and as generated with a view to the dis- charge of some particular function. Some phytologists, however, have viewed it in a light altogether different, and have regarded it as being merely the effect of .accident, and nothing more than a scurf formed on the exterior and pulpy surface of the parenchyma indurated by the action of the air. It is more probably, however, formed by the agency of the vital principle, even while the plant is yet in em- bryo, for the very purpose of protecting it from injury when it shall have been exposed to the air in the process of vegetation. There are several respects in which an analogy between the animal and vegetable epidermis, is sufficiently striking : they are both capable of great expansion in the growth of the sub- ject ; they are both easily regenerated when injured (excepting in the case of induration), and seemingly in the same manner ; they are both subject, in certain cases, to a constant decay and repair j and they both protect from injury the parts enclosed. 764. Composite organs. The elucidation of the developement of the composite organs involves the discussion of the two following topics : the formation of the annual plant, and of the original shoot of the perennial ; and the formation of the subsequent layers that are annually added to the perennial. 765. Annuals and annual shoots. If a perennial of a year's growth is taken up in the beginning of winter when the leaves, which are only temporary organs, have fallen, it will be found to consist of a root and trunk, surmounted by one or more buds. The root is the radicle expanded into the form peculiar to the species, but the trunk and buds have been generated in the process of vegetation. The root or trunk, if taken and cut into two by means of a transverse section, will be found to con- sist already of bark, wood, and pith. Here then is the termination of the growth of the annual, and of the first stage of the growth of the perennial : how have their several parts or organs been formed. 766. The pith seems only a modification of the original pulp, and the same hypothesis that accounts for the formation of the one will account also for the formation of the other ; but the pith and pulp, or parenchyma, are ultimately converted into organs essentially distinct from one another ; though phyto- logists have been much puzzled to assign to each its respective functions. In the ages in which phytolo- gical opinions were formed without enquiry, one of the vulgar errors of the time seems to have been an opinion by which the function of the pith was supposed to be that of generating the stone of fruit, and by which it was thought that a tree deprived of its pith would produce fruit without a stone. (Phys. des Arb. liv. i. chap. 3.) But this opinion is by much too absurd to merit a serious refutation. Another early opinion, exhibiting however indications of legitimate enquiry, is that by which the pith was re- garded as being analogous to the heart and brain of animals, as related by Malpighi ; who did not him- self adopt it, but believed the pith to be like the cellular tissue, the viscera in which the sap is elaborated for the nourishment of the plant, and for the protrusion of future buds. Magnol thought that it pro- duces the flower and fruit, but not the wood. Du Hamel regarded it as being merely an extension of the pulp or cellular tissue, without being destined to perform any important function in the process of vegetation. But Linnaeus was of opinion that it produces even the wood ; regarding ft not only as the source of vegetable nourishment, but as being also to the vegetable what the brain and spinal marrow are to animals, the source and seat of life. In these opinions there may be something of truth, but they have all the common fault of ascribing to the pith either too little or too much. M. Lindsay of Jamaica suggested a new opinion on the subject, regarding it as being the seat of the irritability of the leaves of the mimosa, and Sir J. E. Smith says he can see nothing to invalidate the arguments on which this opinion is founded. Plenk and Knight regard it as destined by nature to be a reservoir of moisture to supply the leaves when exhausted by excess of perspiration. Hence it appears that the peculiar function of the pith has not yet been altogether satisfactorily ascertained ; and the difficulty of ascertaining it has been thought to be increased from the circumstance of its seeming to be only of a temporary use in the process of vegetation, by its disappearing altogether in the aged trunk. But although it is thus only temporary as relative to the body of the trunk, yet it is by no means temporary as relative to the process of vegetation ; the central part of the aged trunk being now no longer in a vegetating state, and the pith being always present in one shape or other in the annual plant, or in the new additions that are an- nually made to perennials. The pith then is essential to vegetation in all its stages : and from the analogy of its structure to that of the pulp or parenchyma which is known to be an organ of elabor- ation, as in the leaf, the function of the pith is most probably that of giving some peculiar elaboration to the sap. 767. The generation of the layer of wood in woody plants, or of the parts analogous to wood in the case of herbaceous plants, has been hitherto but little attended to. If we suppose the rudiments of all the different parts to exist already in the embryo, then we have only to account for their developement by means of the intro-susception and assimilation of sap and proper juice ; but if we suppose them to be generated in the course of vegetation, then the difficulty of the case is augmented : and at the best we can only state the result of operations that have been so long continued as to present an effect cognizable to the sense of sight, though the detail of the process is often so very minute as to escape even the nicest observation. All, then, that can be said on the subject, is merely that the tubes, however formed, do, by virtue of the agency of the vital principle operating on the proper juice, always make their appearance at last in a uniform and determinate manner, according to the tribe or species to which the plant belongs, uniting and coalescing so as to form either a circular layer investing the pith, as in woody plants; or a number of divergent layers intersecting the pith, as in some herbaceous plants ; or bundles of longitudinal 174 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. and woody fibre interspersed throughout the pith, as in others. In the same manner we may account for the formation of the layer of bark. 768. Perennials and their annual layers. If a perennial is taken at the end of the second year and dissected as in the example of the first year, it will be found to have in- creased in height by the addition of a perpendicular shoot consisting of bark, wood, and pith, as in the shoot of the former year ; and in diameter by the addition of a new layer of wood and of bark, generated between the wood and bark of the former year, and cover- ing the original cone of wood, like the paper that covers a sugar-loaf: this is the fact of the mode of augmentation about wliich phytologists have not differed, though they have differed widely with regard to the origin of the additional layer by wliich the trunk is in- creased in diameter. Malpighi was of opinion that the new layer of wood is formed from the liber of the former year. 769. The new layer of wood Linnams considered as formed from the pith, which is absurd, because the opinion goes to the inversion of the very order in which the layer is formed, the new layer being always exterior to the old one. But according to the most general opinion, the layer was thought to be formed from a substance oozing out of the wood or bark first, a limpid fluid, then a viscid pulp, and then a thin layer attaching itself to the former ; the substance thus exuding from the wood or bark was generally regarded as being merely*an extravasated mucilage, which was somehow or other converted into wood and bark : but Du Hamel regarded it as being already an organised substance, consisting of both cellular and tubular tissue, which he designated by the appellation of the cambium, or proper juice. 770. Knight has thrown the highest degree of elucidation on this, one of the most obscure and intricate processes of the vegetable economy, in having shown that the sap is elaborated, so to render it fit for the formation of new parts in the leaf only. If a leaf or branch of the vine is grafted even on the fruit-stalk or tendril, the graft will still succeed ; but if the upper part of a branch is stripped of its leaves the bark will wither as far as it is stripped ; and if a portion of bark furnished with a leaf is insulated by means of detaching a ring of bark above and below it, the wood of the insulated portion that is above the leaf is not augmented : this shows evidently that the leaf gives the elaboration necessary to the formation of new parts, and that without the agency of the leaf no new part is generated: Such then is the mode of the augmentation of the plant in the second year of its growth. It extends in width by a new layer of wood and of bark insinuated between the wood and bark of the former year ; and in height by the addition of a perpendicular shoot, or of branches, generated as in the shoot of the first year. But if the plant is taken and dissected at the end of the third year, it will be found to have aug- mented in the same manner ; and so also at the end of the succeeding year as long as it shall continue to live ; so that the outermost layer of bark, and innermost layer of wood, must have been originally tangent in the first year of the plant's growth ; the second layer of bark, and second layer of wood, in the second year ; and so on in the order of succession till you come to the layer of the present year, which will in like manner divide into two portions, the outer forming one or more layers of bark, and the inner forming one or more layers of wood. And hence the origin of the concentric layers of wood and of bark of the trunk. But how are we to account for the formation of the divergent layers, which Du Hamel erroneously supposed to proceed from the pith ? The true solution of the difficulty has been furnished by Knight, who, in tracing the result of the operation of budding, observed that the wood formed under the bark of the inserted bud unites indeed confusedly with the stock, though still possessing the character and properties of the wood from which it was taken, and exhibiting divergent layers of new formation which originate evidently in the bark, and terminate at the line of union between the graft and stock. 771. But how is the formation of the wood that now occupies the place of the pith to be accounted for? It appears that the tubes of which the medullary is composed do, in the process of vegetation, deposit a canibium, which forms an interior layer that is afterwards converted into wood for the purpose of filling up the medullary canal 772. Conversion of the. alburnum into perfect wood. In consequence of the increase of the trunk by means of the regular and gradual addition of an annual layer, the layers whether of wood or of bark are ne- cessarily of different degrees of solidity in proportion to their age ; the inner layer of bark, and the outer layer of wood, being the softest ; and the other layers increasing in their degree of solidity till you reach the centre on the one hand, and the circumference on the other, where they are respectively the hardest, forming perfect wood or highly indurated bark, which sloughs or splits into chinks, and falls off in thick crusts, as in the plane-tree, fir, and birch. What length of time then is requisite to convert the alburnum into perfect wood, or the liber into indurated bark ; and by what means are they so converted ? There is no fixed and definite period of time that can be positively assigned as necessary to the complete induration of the wood or bark, though it seems to require a period of a good many years before any particular layer is converted from the state of alburnum to that of perfect wood ; and perhaps no layer has received its final degree of induration till such time as the tree has arrived at its full growth. The induration of the alburnum, and its consequent durability, are attributed by many to the loss of sap which the layer sustains after the period of its complete developement ; when the supply from the root diminishes, and the waste by evaporation or otherwise is still kept up, inducing a contraction or condensation of its elementary principles that augments the solrdity of the layer, in the first degree, and begins the process that future years finish. But Knight believes the induration of the alburnum as distinguishable in the winter to be owing rather to some substance deposited in it in the course of the preceding summer, which he regards as being the proper juice in a concrete or inspissated state, but which is carried off again by the sap as it ascends in the spring. 773. Circulation of vegetable juices. After the discovery of the circulation of the blood of animals, phytologists, who were fond of tracing analogies between the animal and vegetable kingdoms, began to think that there perhaps existed in plants also a circu- lation of fluids. The sap was supposed to be elaborated in the root. The vessels in which it was propelled to the summit of the plant were denominated arteries ; and the vessels in which it is again returned to the root were denominated veins. Du Hamel, while he admits the ascent of the sap, and descent of the proper juice, each in peculiar and appropriate vessels, does not however admit the doctrine of a circulation ; which seems, about the middle of the last century, to have fallen into disrepute. For Hales, who contended for an alternate ascent and descent of fluids in the day and night, and in the same vessels, or for a sort of vibratory motion as he also describes it, gave no countenance whatever to the doctrine of a circulation of juices. But the doctrine, as it appears, has been again revived, and has met with the support of some of the most distinguished of BOOK I. PROCESS OF VEGETABLE DEVELOPEMENT. 175 modern phytologists. Hedwig is said to have declared himself to be of opinion, that plants have a circulation of fluids similar to that of animals. Corti is said to have discovered a species of circulation in the stem of the chara, but confined, it is believed, within the limits of the internodia. Willdenow has also introduced the subject, and defended the doctrine (Principles of Botany, p. 8.5.); but only by saying he believes a circulation to exist, and that it is impossible for the leafless tree to resist the cold if there be not a cir- culation of fluids. Knight has given his reasons somewhat in detail ; and though his doctrine of a circulation should be false, yet the account which he gives of the progress and agency of the sap and proper juice, short of circulation, may be true. The sum of the account is as follows : When the seed is deposited in the ground under proper condi- tions, moisture is absorbed and modified by the cotyledons, and conducted directly to the radicle, which is by consequence first developed. But the fluid which has been thus con- ducted to the radicle, mingling no doubt with the fluid which is now also absorbed from the soil, ascends afterwards to the plumelet through the medium of the tubes of the albur- num. The plumelet now expands and gives the due preparation to the ascending sap, re- turning it also in its elaborated state to the tubes of the bark, through which it again descends to the extremity of the root, forming in its progress new bark and new albur- num ; but mixing also, as he thinks, with the alburnum of the former year, where such alburnum exists, and so completing the circulation. 774. Decomposite organs. To the above brief sketch of the agency of the vital prin- ciple in the generation or growth of the elementary and composite organs, there now re- mains to be added that of the progress and mode of the growth of the decomposite organs, or organs immediately constituting the plant, as finishing the process of the vegetable de- velopement. This will include the phenomena of the ultimate developement of the root, stem, branch, bud, leaf, flower, and fruit. 775. Tfie root. From the foregoing observations and experiments, it appears that the roots of plants, or at least of woody plants, are augmented in their width by the addition of an annual layer, and in their length by the addition of an annual shoot, bursting from the terminating fibre. But how is the develope- ment of the shoot effected ? Is it by the intro-susception of additional particles throughout the whole of its extent ; or only by additions deposited at the extremity? In order to ascertain the fact, with regard to the elongation of the root, Du Hamel instituted the following experiment : Having passed several threads of silver transversely through the root of a plant, and noted the distances, he then immersed the root in water. The upper threads retained always their relative and original situation, and the lowest thread which was placed within a few lines of the end was the only one that was carried down. Hence he concluded that the root is elongated merely by the extremity. Knight, who from a similar experiment obtained the same result, deduced from it also the same conclusion. We may regard it then as certain, that the mode of the elongation of the root fs such as is here represented, though in the progress of its developement, it may affect a variety of directions. The original direction of the root is generally perpen- dicular, in which it descends to a considerable depth if not interrupted by some obstacle. In taking up some young oak-trees that had been planted in a poor soil, Du Hamel found that the root had descended almost four feet, while the height of the trunk was not more than six inches. If the root meets with an obstacle it then takes a horizontal direction, not by the bending of the original shoot, but by the sending out of lateral shoots. The same effect also follows if the extremity of the root is cut oft', but not always so, for it is a common thing in nursery-gardens, to cut off the tap-roots of drills of seedling oaks without removing them, by a sharp spade, and these generally push out new tap-roots, though not so strong as the former. When a root ceases of its own accord to elongate, it sends out also lateral fibres which become branches, and are always the more vigorous the nearer they are to the trunk, but the lateral branches of horizontal roots are the less vigorous the nearer they are to the end next the trunk. In the former case, the increased luxuriance is perhaps owing to the easy access of oxygen in the upper divisions ; but in the latter case, the increased luxuriance of the more distant divisions is not so easily accounted for, if it is not to be attributed to the more ample supply of nutriment which the fibres meet with as they recede from the trunk, particularly if you suppose a number of them lying horizontally and diverging like the radii of a circle. But the direction of roots is so liable to be affected by accidental causes, that there is often but little uniformity even in roots of the same species. If plants were to be sown in a soil of the same density throughout, perhaps there might be at least as much uniformity in the figure and direction of their roots, as of their branches ; but this will seldom happen. For if the root is injured by the attacks of insects, or interrupted by stones, or earth of too dense a quality, it then sends out lateral branches, as in the above cases ; sometimes extending also in length by following the direction of the obstacle, and sometimes ceas- ing to elongate, and forming a knot at the extremity. But where the soil has been loosened by digging or otherwise, the root generally extends itself to an unusual length, and where it is both loosened and en- riched, it divides into a multiplicity of fibres. This is also the case with the roots of plants vegetating in pots, near a river, but especially in water. Where roots have some considerable obstacle to overcome they will often acquire a strength proportioned to the difficulty : sometimes they will penetrate through the hardest soil to get at a soil more nutritive, and sometimes they will insinuate their fibres into the crevices even of walls and rocks which they will burst or overturn. This of course requires much time, and does much injury to the plant. Roots consequently thrive best in a soil that is neither too loose nor too dense ; but as the nourishment which the root absorbs is chiefly taken up by the extremity, so the soil is often more exhausted at some distance from the trunk than immediately around it. Du Hamel regards the small fibres of the root which absorb the moisture of the soil as being analogous to the lacteals of the animal system, which absorb the food digested by the stomach. But the root is rather to be regarded as the mouth of the plant, selecting what is useful to nourishment and rejecting what is yet in a crude and indigestible state ; the larger portions of it serving also to fix the plant in the soil and to convey to the trunk the nourishment absorbed by the smaller fibres, which ascending by the tubes of the alburnum, is thus conveyed to the leaves, the digestive organs of plants. Du Hamel thinks that the roots of plants are furnished with pre-organised germs by which they are enabled to send out lateral branches when cut, though the existence of such germs is not proved ; and affirms that the extremities of the fibres of the root die annually like the leaves of the trunk and branches, and are again annually renewed; which last peculiarity Professor Willdenow affirms also to be the fact, but without adducing any evidence by which it appears" to be satisfactorily substantiated. On the contrary, Knight, who has also made some observ- ations on this subject, says, it does not appear that the terminating fibres of the roots of woody plants die annually, though those of bulbous roots are found to do so. But the fibres of creeping plants, as the com- mon crowfoot and strawberry, certainly die annually, as do those of the vine. 176 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 776. The stem. The stem, like the root, or at least the stem of woody plants, is also augmented in width by the addition of an annual layer, and in length by the addition of an annual shoot bursting from the terminating bud. Is the developement of the shoot issuing from the stem eH'ected in the same man- ner also ? The developement of the shoot from the stem is not effected in the same manner as that of the root by additions to the extremity only, but by the intro-susception of additional particles throughout its whole extent, at least in its soft and succulent state : the longitudinal extension diminishing in pro- portion as the shoot acquires solidity, and ceasing entirely when the wood is perfectly formed ; though often continuing at the summit after it has ceased at the base. The extension of the shoot is inversely as its induration, rapid while it remains herbaceous, but slow in proportion as it is converted into wood. Hence moisture and shade are the most favorable to its elongation, because they prevent or retard its in- duration; and hence the small cone of wood which is formed during the first year of the plant's growth increases no more after the approach of winter, neither in height nor thickness. Such is the mode of the growth and developement of the trunk of perennial and woody plants, to which there exists a striking exception in the growth of the trunk of palms. Their internal structure has been already taken notice of as presenting no concentric or divergent layers, and no medullary canal, but merely an assemblage of large juid woody fibres, interspersed without order in a pulp or parenchyma, softer at the centre and gradually becoming harder as it approaches the circumference. When the seed of the palm-tree germinates, it pro- trudes a circular row of leaves, or of fronds, which crowns the radicle, and is succeeded in the following year by a similar row issuing from the centre or bosom of the former leaves, which ultimately die down to the base. This process is continued for four or five years successively without exhibiting as yet any appearance of a stem, the remaining bases of the leaves or frond forming by their union merely a sort of knob or bulb. At last, however, they constitute by their union an incipient stem, as thick the first year as it ever is after ; which in the following year is augmented in height as before, and so on in succession as long as the plant lives, the leaves always issuing from the summit and crowning the stem, which is a regular column, but decaying at the end of the year, and leaving circular marks at the points of insertion, which furrow the surface" of the plant, and indicate the years of its growth. 777. The branches, in their mode of growth and developement, exhibit nearly the same appearances as the trunk from which they issue. They originate in a bud, and form a-lso a cone that consists of pith, wood, and bark ; or rather they form a double cone. For the insertion of the branch into the trunk resembles also a cone whose base is at the circumference, and whose apex is at the centre, at least if it is formed in the first year of the plant's growth, or on the shoot of the present year ; but falling short of the centre in proportion to the lateness of its formation, and number of intervening layers. Branches in their developement assume almost all varieties of position from the reflected to the horizontal and upright ; but the lower branches of trees are said to be generally parallel to the surface of the soil on which they grow, even though that surface should be the sloping side of a hill owing, as it has been thought, to the evo- lution of a greater number of buds on the side that forms the obtuse angle with the soil, in consequence of its being exposed to the action of a greater mass of air. 778. The bud, which in the beginning of spring is so very conspicuous on the trees of this country as to be obvious to the most careless observer, is by no means common to all plants, nor to plants of all climates ; shrubs in general, and annuals universally, are destitute of buds as well as all plants whatever growing within the tropics, the leaf being in them immediately protruded from the bark. It is only in the woody plants of cold climates, therefore, that we are to look for buds ; and in them no new part is added, whether proper to the leaf or flower, without the intervention of a bud. For when the young shoot is produced, it is at the same time furnished with new buds, which are again extended into new shoots in the following spring ; and thus the bud is to be regarded as forming, not only the cradle but also the winter quarters of the shoot, for which its coat of tiled and glutinous scales seems admirably well adapted. It is found chiefly in the extremity, or on the surface of the young shoot or branch, and but rarely on the stem, except it be at the collar where it produces suckers. It is also generated' for the most part in the axil of the leaves, as may be seen by inspecting the annual shoot of almost any tree at random, though not universally so ; for to this rule there exists a curious and singular exception in the bud of the platanus, which is gene- rated in the very centre of the base of the foot-stalk, and is not discoverable till after the fall of the leaf. But how are the buds formed which are thus developed ? Malpighi thought they were formed from the pith or cellular tissue, which the latter regarded as viscera destined for the elaboration of the sap and pro- trusion of future buds. Du Hamel thinks the exterior scales of the bud originate in the interior part of the bark, and Knight relates an experiment from which he thinks it follows that the buds are formed from the descending proper juice. But whatever may be the actual origin of the bud, it is evident that its developement does not take place except through the medium of the proper juice, which has been ela- borated in the leaves of preceding buds, and originally in those of the plumelet ; as the young bud does not make its appearance till the leaves of the preceding buds have expanded, and will not ultimately succeed if deprived of them too soon. Bulbs are so very similar to buds both in their origin and developement as to require no specific inves- tigation. 779. Tfte leaf. When the leaves burst from the expanding bud, and even long before that period, as may be seen by the dissection of the bud in the winter, they are complete in all their parts. Hence it is obvious that the leaf, like the young shoot, effects its final developement by means of the intro-susception of new particles throughout the whole of its dimensions : and yet this law of developement is not common to all leaves whatever, for the leaves of liliaceous plants extend chiefly at the point of their junction with the bulb. The effect perhaps of their peculiarity of structure, in being formed of parallel tubes which ex- tend throughout their whole length, without those transverse and branching fibres that constitute what are called the nerves of the leaves of woody plants. 780. The flower and fruit. When the flower bursts from the expanding bud, and even long before that period, it is already complete in all its parts, as may be seen also by the dissection of the bud in winter. Linnaeus represents the pistil as originating in the pith, the stamens in the wood, and the corolla and calyx in the inner and outer bark respectively : but this account of their origin, though extremely plausible at first sight, will not bear the test of minute examination, being contradicted by the anatomy of the parts themselves; particularly in the case of compound flowers. Knight in investigating the organisation of the apple and pear, endeavoured to ascertain the origin of the several parts by tracing the organs of the fruit-stalk to their termination. In the fruit-stalk he thought he could discover the pith, the central tubes, spiral tubes, and tubes of the bark, together with its epidermis : and in tracing them to their ter- mination, he thought the pith seemed to end in the pistils j the central vessels in the stamens, after diverging round the core and approaching again in the eye of the fruit ; and the bark and epidermis in the two external skins. Hence he infers that the flower is a prolongation of the pith, wood, and bark. A question of some considerable importance has arisen out of this subject : does the flower or fruit elabo- rate sap for its own developement, or is it supplied with nourishment from the leaf? By placing small branches of the apple, pear, and vine, with blossoms not expanded in a decoction of logwood, Knight found that the central vessels were colored by the decoction. By means of a similar experiment on the same subjects after the fruit was formed, the coloring matter was traced through the mass of the fruit to the base of the stamina. And hence it appears that the flower and fruit do possess the power of elaborat- ing sap for their own developement. Knight infers from the foregoing data, that the blossom is nourished from the alburnum, by means of the mingling of the proper juice, which the alburnum may be supposed to contain with the sap in its ascent. Boor I. ANOMALIES OF VEGETABLE DEVELOPEMENT. 177 SECT. V. Anomalies of Vegetable Developement. 781. A deviation from the general laws of developement is occasioned by the intervention of some accidental cause ; or of some cause operating permanently in certain subjects. Hence the anomaly may regard the developement either of an individual or a species, and may occur either in the root, stem, branch, leaf, bud, flower, or fruit, according to the circumstances in which it is placed ; or it may affect the habit, duration, or physical virtues of the plant. 782. The root. According to the general laws of vegetable developement, plants of the same species are furnished with the same species of root not producing at one time a woody or fibrous root, and at another time a bulbous root. And yet it is found that there are cases in which changes of this kind do occur. If part of the root of a tree planted by a pond or river, protrudes beyond the bank so as to be partially immersed, it divides at the extremity into innumerable ramifications, or sends out innumer- able fibres from the surface, which become again subdivided into fibres still more minute, and give to the whole an appearance something resembling that of the tail of a fox ; which has ac- cordingly been denominated by Du Hamel the fox-tail-root. Ufe- 57.) 783. The root of the Phleum pratense, when growing in a moist soil, which it naturally affects, is uniformly fibrous ; but when growing 1 in a dry soil, where it is also often to be found, it is furnished with a bulbous root. The same is the case with the alopecurus geniculatus ; which, when growing in its native marshes protrudes a fibrous root, though, when growing in a very dry situation, as on the top of a dry wall, it is found to be furnished with an ovate and juicy bulb. This anomaly also seems to be merely the result of a provision of nature by which the plant is endowed with the capacity of collecting a supply of moisture suited to existing circumstances, and hence of adapt- ing itself to the soil in which it grows. 784. The roots of Utricularia minor, which consist of a number of slender and hair-like filaments, exhibit the singular anomaly of being furnished with a multitude of small and membraneous bladders, each con- taining a transparent and watery fluid, and a small bubble of air, by means of which the plant is kept floating in the water. 785. The descending root, an anomaly which attends some perennials, is at first spindle-shaped and per- pendicular, sending out some lateral fibres ; but dying at the lower extremity in the course of the succeed- ing winter, and protruding new fibres from the remaining portion, and even from the lower portion of the stem, in the course of the following spring, which by descending into the soil, draw down the plant with them, so that part of what was formerly stem is now converted into root. This process is repeated every year, and by consequence a portion of the stem is made to descend every year into the earth. The ,anomaly may be exemplified in the roots of valeriana dioica, tanacetum vulgare, and oxalis acetosella; and will also account for the bitten and truncated appearance of scabiosa succisa, or devil's-bit. 786. The beet-root, if dissected when about a year old, presents the singular anomaly of being already furnished with from five to eight distinct and concentric circles of longitudinal tubes or sap-vessels, im- bedded at regular intervals in its pulp ; whereas other biennial roots form only an individual circle each year, and are, consequently, at no time furnished with more than two. 787. Migratory roots depend on a principle similar to the foregoing. If the stem of a descending root hap. pens to be creeping or procumbent instead of being erect, then the lateral shoots from above are carried for- ward in the direction of that procumbency, so that in the course of a few years the plant has actually changed its place by so much as the stem has been converted into a root. This is well exemplified in the genus Iris, which as it enlarges in circumference, dies in the centre and presents a ring of plants instead of a solitary one. In the case of some aquatics, which float about on the surface of the water as they happen to be driven by the winds, the whole plant may be said to be migratory, as in the case of the genus Lemna, and some marine plants. 788. Roots changed to branches and branches to roots. If the stem of a young plum or cherry tree, but particularly of a willow, is taken in the autumn and bent so as that one'half of the top may be laid in the earth, one half of the root being at the same time taken carefully out, but sheltered at first from the cold and then gradually exposed to it, and the remaining part of the top and root subjected to the same process in the following year, the branches of the top will become roots, and the ramifications of the root will become branches, protruding leaves, flowers, and fruit in due season. 789. If the stem of a tree planted by a pond or river is so bent in its growth as to come near to the surface of the water and to be occasionally immersed in it, it will sometimes send out from the under surface a multitude of shoots that will descend into the water, and develope themselves in the manner of the fox-tail-root. Sometimes it happens that a stem, instead of assuming the cylindrical form common to the species, assumes a com- pressed and flattened form similar to the herbage of the cactus as in the fir-tribe, ash, &c. 790. The anomaly of the flattened stem (fig. 58. a) is accounted for by Du Hamel by supposing that an unnatural graft must have taken place in the leaf-bud ; and so united shoots that would otherwise have been distinct. Sometimes the stem is disfigured by accidental tumors or bunches projecting from the surface, and forming ultimately what are called knots in the wood. They are very common in the oak and elm, and are produced perhaps by means of some obstruction in the channel of the sap's motion, by which the vessels become convoluted and swell up into a bunch. 791. But bunches are also to be met with on the stem of herbaceous plants, as on that of the carduus pratensis ; of which you will often find a portion near the top swollen out into an egg-shaped or egg-oblong bunch, extending from an inch to two inches in length, and about an inch across. If this bunch is cut open in the month of August, it will be found to contain several large and white maggots. It has conse- quently been occasioned by the puncture of the parent insect depositing its eggs. It does not seem to affect the general health of a vigorous plant, though it might prove seriously injurious to a weak one. 792. Bundled stem. Sometimes two or more contiguous stems, extending in the process of their growth till they meet and press against one another, become incorporated at length into one, and form a sort of bundle. This is what may be termed a natural graft, in opposition to an artificial graft, of which 178 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II, it is the model and proto- type. The natural graft is always affected by means of the union of the liber of the respective stems com- posing it; so that the per- fection of the art of grafting consists in applying the liber of the graft and stock toge- ther in such a manner as shall most facilitate their incorporation. 793. If the branch of a tree is situated as in the foregoing case of the stem, so as to be partially or periodically immersed in water, it will send out also the same sort of brush-like shoots. 794. Bunches or knots, exhibiting a plexus of young shoots (fig. 59 . a) issuing from nearly the same point, crossing in all directions, and finally incorporating together by means of a sort of natural graft, frequently disfigure it. These bunches are frequently to be met with on the branches of the birch-tree, and are known among the peasantry of Scot- land by the name of witches' knots. They are occasioned, like the bunches of the stem, by some obstruc- tion in the channel of the sap orproper juice. A peculiar sort of knot or bunch is also often formed on the branches of the dog-rose. The nucleus, which is generally from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter is covered with a long and winged shag, first of a green and then of a purple color, presenting the appearance of a small bunch of moss. (fig. 58. 6) It has been occasioned like that of the stem of the thistle, by the puncture of an insect depositing its eggs in the tender shoot ; for if it is cut open about the month of August, its contains maggots. These anomalies remind us always of that singular disease in the human species, the Plica polonica. 795. The bud. The regular developement of the bud is also often prevented by means of the puncture of insects, and converted into a large globular tumor. 796. The gall tumor is very often effected by a species of Cynips that lances its piercer into the heart of the bud while yet tender, and penetrates with its saw into the very pith ; injecting at the same time a drop of the corroding liquor contained in its bag, and then laying its egg. The bud being thus wounded, and the juices corrupted by the injected poison, the circulation is not only impeded, but a fermentation is induced which burns the contiguous parts and changes their color. The extravasated juice flows round the egg, and is there accumulated and converted into a sort of spongy lump which vegetates and augments till it forms what is called a gall. The gall thus formed affords both shelter and nourishment to the young maggot, which, after being converted into a fly, pierces its enclosure and launches into the open air. The most re- markable of such galls are those produced on the oak-tree, and known in this country by the vulgar name of oak-apples, (fig. 59. 6) The bud of the willow, particularly salix helix, is apt always to be punctured by insects and converted into a gall. But the conversion is not always complete ; and in this case the shoot remains dwarfish, and the leaves, which are now protruded from nearly the same point, assume something of the figure of a rose. Hence it has obtained the common name of the rose-willow. The galls of the salvia pomifera formed in the above manner arc said to be of a very pleasant flavor, and are esteemed a great delicacy in eastern countries. 797. The leaves, like the buds, are also frequently chosen for the nidus of in- sects, and disfigured with galls or excrescences. But the most remarkable gall produced on the leaf, and indeed the most remarkable and important of all galls, is that which is so extremely useful in the arts of dyeing and making ink, the nut-gall of the shops. BOOK I. ANOMALIES OF VEGETABLE DEVELOPEMENT. 179 798. The nut-gall is generated on the leaf of a species of oak that grows plentifully in the Levant, and is so well known in commerce as to require no particular description. It is occasioned by the puncture of the Cynips quercifolii, which deposits its egg in the substance of the leaf, by making a small perforation on the under surface. Galls and tumors are to be found on the leaves of many plants ; and indeed almost all leaves are liable to deformities, giving them a blistered, wrinkled, or curled appearance ; and often pro- ducing disease. 799. The excess or deficiency qf leaves protruded in a group sometimes constitutes the anomaly, as in the case of the trefoils. 800. Sometimes in the not ural figure of the leaf itself, as in asparagus officinalis, where they are bristle- shaped ; salsola kali, awl-shaped ; and allium cepa, in which they are tubular, tapering to a point. But one of the most remarkable anomalies of figure is that which occurs in the leaves of the genus Sarra- cenia (fig. 43. b), of which the lower portion is tubular, ascending, and approaching to funnel-shaped, or rather pitcher-shaped reversed, with a flattened and concave limb attached by the one side to the orifice of the tube, and constituting the upper portion of the leaf. Linnams, who was acquainted with this singularity of structure, accounted for it by supposing that it was an institution of nature, meant for the pyrpose of furnishing the plant with a supply of water, which it could thus catch and retain in the leaf. But as some species of the genus do not readily admit water notwithstanding their capacity to retain it, this hypothesis is regarded by Sir J. E. Smith as being extremely doubtful, who accordingly offers a different solution, founded upon the following facts. An insect of the Sphex or Ichneumon kind, had been observed by one of the gardeners of the botanic garden at Liverpool, to drag several large flies to a leaf of sarracenia, adunca, and to force them into the tubular part of it. On examination, the leaf was found to be about half filled with water, in which the flies were now struggling ; the other leaves were also examined, and were found crammed with dead or drowning flies. The leaves of sarracenia purpurea are said to exhibit also the same phenomena, and seem peculiarly well adapted to entrap and confine flies, by having the margin beset with inverted hairs rendering the escape of such insects as may have accidentally fallen into the watery tube, or are intentionally forced into it, impracticable ; so that the putrid exhalation from the dead insects contained in the leaf often offends the nostrils, even in passing near the plant. Hence Sir J. E. Smith infers, that the growth of the plant is perhaps benefited by means of the air evolved by the dead flies, which the water has been intended to tempt, and the leaves to entrap and retain. ~ This ingenious conjecture is no doubt sufficiently plausible as far as the plant may be affected ; but cannot be regarded as quite satisfactory till such time as it shall have been shown that the health of the plant is injured when insects are prevented from approaching it. 801. The celebrated nepenthes distillatoria (fig. 43. c) exhibits also an anomaly similar to that of sarracenia, holding an ounce or two of a fluid which appears to be secreted from the leaf, and to be intended as a lure to insects, which gain admission either by the spontaneous opening of the lid, or by forcibly raising it themselves. The consequence is that they fall into the fluid and are drowned, no insect being capable of living in it except a certain small squilla or shrimp,, with a protuberant back, which, according to Rum- phius, sometimes crawls into it and can live there. To this phenomenon Sir J. E. Smith applies the same explication as above, which is of course liable to the same objection. 802. The figure qf the leaf, however singular, is generally the same throughout the same individual, ex- cept in the case of accidental deformity, and yet there are exceptions even to this rule. For sometimes the lower leaves of a plant are entire while the upper leaves are divided, as occurs in a variety of mountain- ous plants, such as burnet, saxifrage, anise, coriander ; and sometimes the lower leaves are divided while the upper leaves are entire, as in the case of a variety of aquatics, particularly ranunculus aquaticus, in which the lower leaves are capillary and immersed, and the upper leaves flat and circular, floating on the surface of the water. But sometimes the dissimilitude of the leaves is still more remarkable. The Chi- nese mulberry, a Botany Bay tree, has not two leaves alike in form on the whole plant. And lastly, there are some plants, as in the case of the fungi, that are wholly destitute of leaves, and hence called aphyllous ; while there are others, as in the case of the fuci, that seem to be wholly leaf. 803. The principal anomaly of the flower, is that by which one of its parts is unduly augmented, to the exclusion or diminution of some of the rest. The flower is then said to be luxuriant, and comprises the three following varieties : the multiplicate, the full, and the proliferous flower. 804. The multiplicate fiower is sometimes, though rarely, occasioned by an unusual multiplication of the divisions of the calyx, as in dianthus caryophyllus, and some of the Alpine grasses. But the anomaly most generally consists in the undue multiplication ot the divisions of the corolla, by the conversion of part of the stamens into petals which is occasionally to be met with both in monopetalous and polypetalous flowers. It occurs but seldom, however, in flowers growing in their natural state and habit, though now and then a double flower is met with even in such circumstances. 805. The full flower is generally described to be that in which the divisions of the corolla are so multi- plied as to exclude the stamens and pistils wholly by means of their conversion into petals ; which conver- sion is most readily effected in polypetalous flowers, such as the tulip, poppy, pink, and ranunculus ; mo- nopetalous flowers seldom being found full. This complete metamorphose is always either the effect of cultivation, or of some concurrence of natural circumstances analogous to it ; and is indeed one of the principal objects of the art of the florist; the beauty of the flower, according to general estimation, being thus much augmented. In the full flower the stamens are almost always converted into petals, whence we should perhaps infer their identity of origin. But the pistil is often converted into a leaf, as may be seen by inspecting the flower of the double-blossomed cherry, which generally protrudes from the centre a leat in miniature. But a flower may become full also by the multi- Kication of the parts of the nectary, as is sometimes the case i the genus Aquilegia, which produces full flowers in three different ways by the multiplication of the petals to the exclu- 60 sion of the nectaries, by the multiplication of the nectaries to the exclusion of the petals, and by the multiplication of the nec- taries while the proper petals remain. There are also some pe- culiarities in the manner in which compound flowers become full. Radiated flowers become full sometimes by the multipli- cation of the floscules of the ray to the exclusion of the floscules of the disk, as in helianthus, anthemis, and centaurea ; and sometimes by the multiplication of the floscules of the disk to the exclusion of those of the ray, as in matricaria and bellis. 806. The proliferous flower (fig. 60.) is that out of which another flower or another shoot is produced. It is seldom found but in flowers already full; from the centre of which, that is, from the ovary or pistil, it sometimes happens that a new flower and foot-stalk is produced, if the flower is simple, as in the ranunculus, anemone, and pink ; or several flowers and foot-stalks, issuing from the common calyx, if the flower is com- pound, as in the daisy, hawkweed, and marigold ; or a new umbel issuing from the centre of the original umbel, if the N 2 180 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 61 flower is umbellate, as in cornus. Sometimes the proliferous issue of the full flower is not itself a flower, but a shoot furnished with leaves, as has been sometimes, though rarely, observed in the case of the anemone and rose. Such are the several varieties of luxuriant flowers, constituting anomalies of excess ; but it sometimes happens that there is also in thfc flower an anomaly of defect in the absence of one of its parts. Examples of this sort are occasionally to be met with in the flowers of cherianthus cheri, cam- panula pentagonia, . and tussilago anandria, in which the corolla is altogether wanting, though proper to the species ; and in this case the flower is said to be mutilated. Sometimes the anomaly con- sists in the situation of the flower, which is generally protruded from the extremity or sides of the branches. But the flower of the ruscus is protruded from the surface of the leaf; or it may consist in the relative situation of the several parts of the flower. In simple flowers the pistil is invariably central with regard to the stamens ; but in compound flowers the pistils are often situated in the circumference and the stamens in the centre. This seems to be the case also with some monoecious plants having their flowers on the same peduncle, as in the examples of the carex and arum, in which the stamens are more central than the pistils. Sometimes the anomaly consists in the color of the corolla, which will often deviate even in the same species. The general color of the common cowslip (Primula veris) is a bright yellow ; but an individual is occasionally to be met with, though very rarely, in which the limb or expansion of the corolla is purple with a line of yellow around the border. Sometimes the anomaly consists in the time of flowering. The season proper for the flowering of the apple and pear tree is the month of May ; but trees of that sort have been known to protrude both buds and blossoms even in the month of November. Some plants, however, blow only in the winter, as in the case of the laurustinus and arbutus unedo; while others blow only in the night, and refuse to expand their petals to the light of the -sun. Such is the case of the cactus grandiflorus, that produces one of the most magnificent of flowers j but blows only in the night ; and is hence-known also by the appellation of the night-blowing cereus Some plants, such as the ferns, alga?, and fungi, are altogether destitute of conspicuous flowers ; and are hence called Cryptogimous , but in this respect the fig is perhaps the most singular. The flowers which in other cases uniformly precede the fruit, are in this case concealed within what is generally denominated the fruit ; as may be proved by cutting open a green fig (fig.61. a} by means of a longitudi- nal section passing through its axis. Great numbers of flowers (b) are then disco- vered lining a sort of cavity in the axis of the fruit; and hence what is called the fruit or fig, in common language, is rather the receptacle of the flower than any thing else. Most plants have their flowers fur- nished both with stamens and pistils, and are hence hermaphrodites : but there are also many genera that have the stamens in one flower and the pistils in another, both on the same individual ; these are denominated Monoecious plants, and are exemplified in the oak and hazel. Other genera have the flowers with stamens on one plant, and the flowers with pistils on another; these are denominated Dioeci- ous, and are exemplified in the hop and willow. Others have flowers of all the previous kinds on one and the same plant; these are denominated Polygamous, and are exemplified in the genus Atriplex. 807. The fruit. The anomalies of the fruit may affect either its number, figure, color, or appendages. The common hazel-nut produces in general but one kernel in one shell ; but in the course of opening up a considerable number, you will now and then meet with one containing two or three kernels in a shell. This is perhaps best accounted for by supposing, with Du Hamel, th-at it is the result of an unnatural graft effected in the bud ; though some think that the shell does always contain the rudiments of two or more kernels, although it rarely happens that more than one is developed. But if two apples or pears are developed in an incorporated state, which is a case that now and then occurs, it is no doubt best accounted for by the graft of Du Hamel. Sometimes the anomaly consists in the figure of the fruit, which is deformed by tumors or excrescences, in conse- quence of the bite of insects, or injuries of weather producing warts, moles, or specks. Sometimes it consists in the color, producing green melons and white cucumbers. Sometimes it consists in an appendage of leaves, (fig. 62.) 808. Habit. Some plants, which, when placed in a rich soil, grow to a great height and affect the habit of a tree, are, when placed in a poor soil, converted into dwarfish shrubs. This may be exemplified in the case of the box-tree ; and so also in the case of herbaceous plants ; as in that of myosotis, which in dry situations is but short and dwarfish, while in moist situations it grows to such a size as to seem to be altogether a different plant. The habit of the plant is sometimes totally altered by means of cultivation ; the pyrus sativa, when growing in a wild and uncultivated state, is furnished with strong thorns ; but when transferred to a rich and cultivated soil the thorns disappear. This phenomenon, which was observed by Linnaeus, was regarded as being equivalent to the taming of animals. But this explication is, like some others of the same great botanist, much more plausible than profound, in place of which Professor Willdenow substitutes the following: The thorns protruded in the uncul- tivated state of the plant, are buds rendered abortive from want of nourishment, which when supplied with a sufficiency of nourishment, are converted into leaves and branches. 809. Physical virtues. When plants are removed from their native soil and taken into a state of culture, it alters not only their habit but their physical virtues. Thus the sour grape is rendered sweet, the bitter pear pleasant, the dry apricot pulpy, the prickly BOOK I. SEXUALITY OF VEGETABLES. 181 lettuce smooth, and the acrid celery wholesome. Pot-herbs are also rendered more tender by means of cultivation, and better fitted for the use of man ; and so also are all our fine varieties of fruit. 810. Duration. Plants are either annuals, biennials, or perennials, and the species is uniformly of the same class. But it has been found that some plants which are annuals in a cold climate, such as that of Sweden, will become perennials in a hot climate, such as that of the West Indies ; this anomaly has been exemplified in tropaaolum, beet-root, and malva arborica : and, on the contrary, some plants, which are perennials in hot climates, are reduced to annuals when transplanted into a cold climate ; this has been exemplified in mirabilis and ricinus SECT. VI. Of the Sexuality of Vegetables. 811. The doctrine that plants are of different ^exes, and which constitutes the found- ation of the Linna?an system, though but lately established upon the basis of logical in- duction, is by no means a novel doctrine. It appears to have been entertained even among the original Greeks, from the antiquity of their mode of cultivating figs and palms. Aristotle and Theophrastus maintain the doctrine of the sexuality of vegetables ; and Pliny, Dioscorides, and Galen, adopted the division by which plants were then distributed into male and female ; but chiefly upon the erroneous principle of habit or aspect, and without any reference to a distinction absolutely sexual. Pliny seems to admit the dis- tinction of sex in all plants whatever, and quotes the case of the palm-tree as exhibiting the most striking example. 812. Discoveries of the moderns. Cassalpinus, in the sixteenth century, denominates trees which pro- duce ft uit only, females ; and trees of the same kind which are barren, males ; adding, that the fruit is found to be ftiore abundant and of a better quality where the males grow in the neighbourhood of the females, which is, he says, occasioned by certain exhalations from the males dispersing themselves "all over the females, and by an operation not to be explained, disposing them to produce more perfect seed. About the middle of the seventeenth century, the doctrine of the sexes of the plants began to assume a more tixed and determinate character. Malpighi describes the stamens, anthers, and pollen : the merit of suggesting the use of the latter seems to be between Sir T. Millington, Savilian Professor at Oxford, and the celebrated Dr. Grew. The opinion of Grew was adopted also by Ray. The first example of experi- ment recorded on this subject is that of Camerarius, professor of botany at Tubingen, who having adopted the opinions of Grew and Ray, though without perhaps regarding their arguments as the best that could be adduced, conceived that the subject might be still further illustrated by means of depriving the plant of its male flowers altogether, or of removing the individuals of a different sex to a distance from one another. Accordingly having selected some plants of mercurialis, morus, zea mays, and ricinus, and stripped them of their staminiferous flowers, or removed the male plant to a great distance from the female, he found that the fruit did not now ripen ; the inference from which was, that the generation of plants is analogous to that of animals, and that the stamens of the flowers of the former correspond to the sexual organs of the males of the latter. The great and illustrious Linnjeus, reviewing with his usual sagacity the evidence on which the doctrine rested, and perceiving that it was supported by a multiplicity of the most incontrovertible facts, resolved to devote his labors peculiarly to the investigation of the subject, and to prosecute his enquiries throughout the whole extent of the vegetable kingdom ; which great and arduous enterprise he not only undertook but accomplished with a success equal to the unexampled industry with which he pursued it. So that by collecting into one body all the evidence of former dis- covery or experiment, and by adding much that was original of his own, he found himself at length authorised to draw the important conclusion that no seed is perfected without the previous agency of the pollen ; that the doctrine of the sexes of plants is consequently founded in fact. 813. Proofs from the economy of the aquatics. Many plants of this class that vegetate for the most part wholly immersed in water, and often at a considerable depth, gradually begin to elevate their stems as the season of flowering advances, when they at last rear their heads above the surface of the water, and present their opening blossoms to the sun, till the petals have begun to fade, when they again gradually sink down to the bottom to ripen and to sow their seeds. This very peculiar economy may be exemplified in the case of ruppia maritima, and several species of potamogeton, common in our ponds and ditches ; from which we may fairly infer, that the flowers rise thus to the surface merely to give the pollen an opportunity of reaching the stigma uninjured. But the most remarkable example of this kind is that of the valisneria spiralis (fig. 63.), a plant that grows in the ditches of Italy. The plant is of the class Dicecia, pro- ducing its fertile flowers on the extremity of a long and slender stalk twisted spirally like a corkscrew, which uncoiling of its own accord, about the time of the open- ing of the blossom, elevates the flowers to the surface of the water, and leaves them to expand in the open air. The barren flowers are produced in great numbers upon short upright stalks issuing from a different root, from which they detach themselves about the time of the expansion of the female blossom, mounting up like little air bubbles, and suddenly expanding when they reach the surface, where they float about in great numt>ers among the female blossoms, and often cling to them in clusters so as to cover them entirely ; thus bringing the stamens and pistils into immediate contact, and giving the anthers an opportunity of discharging their pollen immediately over the stigma. When this operation has been performed, the now uncoiled stalk of the female plant begins again to resume its original and spiral form, and gradually sinks down, as it gradually rose, to ripen its fruit at the bottom of the water. We have gathered (in 1819) these stalks, in the canals near Padua, upwards of ten feet long. N 3 182 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. SECT. VII. Impregnation of the Seed. 814. T/ie stamens and pistils are the male and female organs of vegetable generation, and the pollen is the substance by which tlie impregnation of the seed is effected ; but how is the pollen conveyed to the ovary ? And what is the amount of its action ? 815. Access of the pollen. When the stamens and pistils are situated near each other, the elastic spring with which the anther flies open will generally be sufficient to disperse the pollen, so as that part of it must infallibly reach the stigma in such flowers as do not perfect their stamens and pistils at the same time. The pollen is very generally conveyed from the anther to the stigma through the instrumentality of bees, and other insects peculiar to a species. The object of the insect is the discovery of honey, in quest of which, whilst it roves from flower to flower, and rummages the recesses of the corolla, it unintentionally covers its body with pollen, which it conveys to the next flower it visits, and brushes off as it acquired it by rummaging for honey j so that part of it is almost unavoidably deposited on the stigma, and impregnation thus effected. Nor is this altogether so much a work of random as it at first appears. For it has been observed that even insects, which do not upon fhe whole confine themselves to one species of flower, will yet very often remain during the whole day upon the species they happen first to alight on in the morning ; hence the impregnation of the females of Dioecious plants where no male is near. Hence also a sort of natural crossing of the breed of plants which might probably otherwise degenerate. 816. Fecundation oftlie ovary. Admitting that the pollen is conducted to the ovary through the channel of the tubes of the style, how after all is the ovary fecundated ; or the seed rendered fertile ? On this subject naturalists have been much divided ; and ac- cording to their several opinions have been classed under the respective appellations of ovarists, animalculists, and epigenesists. 817. Ovarist. According to the opinion of the Ovarist, the embryo pre-exists in the ovary, and is fecundated by the agency of the pollen as transmitted to it through the style. 818. Animalculist. But the theory of the ovarists is not without its difficulties ; for as the embryo is never found to make its appearance till after fecundation, it has been thought that it must necessarily pre- exist in the pollen of the anther ; from which it is conveyed to the ovary through the medium of the style, and afterwards [matured. This theory was founded upon that of Leuwenhoeck, with regard to animal generation ; which supposes the pre-existence of animalcula in the seminal principle of the male ; the animalcula being conveyed in coitu to the ovary of the female, where alone they are capable of developement. 819. Episenesist. The difficulties inseparable from both theories, together with the phenomenon of hybrid productions, have given rise also to a third ; this is the Theory of the Epigenesists, who maintain that the embryo pre-exists neither in the ovary nor pollen, but is generated by the union of the fecundating principles of the male and female organs ; the former being the fluid issuing from the pollen when it explodes ; and the latter, the fluid that exudes from the surface of the stigma when mature. But if the seed is generated from the union of two fecundating principles which form an intermediate offspring, then female plants of the class Dicecia ought occasionally to produce seeds whose offspring shall be Her- maphrodite, or at least Monoecious, which was never yet known to happen. 820. Hybrids. Although the arguments of the epigenesists are by no means satis- factory, yet it cannot be denied, that hybrid productions partake of the properties both of the male and female from which they spring. This was long ago proved to be the fact by Bradley, and more recently confirmed by the experiments of Knight ; as well as hap- pily converted to the advantage of the cultivator. 821, Vegetable crossing. Observing that farmers who rear cattle improve the progeny by means of crossing the breed, Knight argued from analogy, that the same improvement might be introduced into vegetables. His principal object was that of procuring new and improved varieties of the apple and pear to supply the place of such as had become diseased and unproductive. But as the necessary slowness of all experiments of the kind, with regard to the fruit in question, did not keep pace with the ardor of his desire to obtain in- formation on the subject, he was induced to institute some tentative experiments upon the common pea, a plant well suited to his purpose, both from its quickness of growth, and from the many varieties in form, size, and color, which it afforded. In 1787, a degenerate sort of pea was growing in his garden, which had not recovered its former vigor even when removed to a better soil. Being thus a good subject of experiment, the male organs of a dozen of its immature blossoms were destroyed, and the female organs left entire. When the blossoms had attained their mature state, the pollen of a very large and luxuriant grey pea was introduced into the one half of them, but not into the other. The pods of both grew equally ; but the seeds of the half that were unimpregnated withered away, without having augmented beyond the size to which they had attained before the blossoms expanded. The seeds of the other half were augmented and matured as in the ordinary process of impregnation ; and exhibited no perceptible difference from those of other plants of the same variety ; perhaps because the external covering of the seed was furnished entirely by the female. But when they were made to vegetate in the succeeding spring, the effect of the experiment was obvious. The plants rose with great luxuriance, indicating in their stem, leaves, and fruit, the influence of this artificial impregnation ; the seeds produced were of a dark grey. By im- pregnating the flowers of this variety with the pollen of others, the color was again changed, and new varieties obtained, superior in every respect to the original on which the experiment was first made, and attaining in some cases, to a height of more than twelve feet. (Phil. Trans. 1789.) Knight thinks his experiments on this subject afford examples of superfoetation, a phenomenon, the existence of which has been admitted amongst animals, but of which the proof amongst vegetables is not yet quite satisfactory. Of one species of superfoetation he has certainly produced examples ; that is, when, by impregnating a white pea-blossom with the pollen both of a white and grey pea, white and grey seeds were obtained. But of the other species of superfoetation, in which one seed is supposed to be the joint issue of two males, the example is not quite satisfactory. Such a production is perhaps possible, and further experiments may probably ascertain the fact ; but it seems to be a matter of mere curiosity, and not apparently con. nectedwith any views of utility. 822. The practicability of improving the specks, is rendered strikingly obvious by these experiments ; and the ameliorating effect is the same whether by the male or female ; as was ascertained by impreg- nating the largest and most luxuriant plants with the pollen of the most diminutive and dwarfish, or the contrary. By such means any number of varieties may be obtained, according to the will of the experimenter, amongst which some will no doubt be suited to all soils and situations. Knight's ex. periments of this kind were extended also to wheat ; but not with equal success. For though some very good varieties were obtained, yet they were found not to be permanent. But the success of his experiments on the apple-tree were equal to his hops. This was indeed his principal object, and no means of obtaining a successful issue were left untried. The plants which were obtained in this case BOOK I. IMPREGNATION OF VEGETABLES. 183 were found to possess the good qualities of both of the varieties employed, uniting the greatest health and luxuriance with the finest and best-flavoured fruit. 823. Improved varieties of every fruit and esculent plant may be obtained by means of artificial impreg- nation, or crossing, as they were obtained in the cases already stated. Whence Knight thinks, that this promiscuous impregnation of species has been intended by nature to take place, and that it does in fact often take place, for the purpose of correcting such accidental varieties as arise from seed, and of con- fining them within narrower limits. All which is thought to be countenanced from the consideration of the variety of methods which nature employs to disperse the pollen, either by the elastic spring of the anthers, the aid of the winds, or the instrumentality of insects. But, although he admits the existence of vegetable hybrids, that is, of varieties obtained from the intermixture of different species of the same genus, yet he does not admit the existence of vegetable mules, that is, of varieties obtained from the intermixture of the species of different genera ; in attempting to obtain which he could never succeed, in spite of all his efforts. Hence he suspects that where such varieties have been supposed to take place, the former must have been mistaken for the latter. It may be said, indeed, that if the case exists in the animal kingdom, why not in the vegetable kingdom ? to which it is, perhaps, difficult to give a satisfactory reply. But from the narrow limits within which this intercourse is in all cases circumscribed, it scarcely seems to have been the intention of nature that it should succeed even among animals. Salisbury is of a different opinion, and considers (Hort. Trans, i. 364.) that new species may be created both by bees and the agency of man ; and the recent experiments of Herbert, Sweet, and others seem to confirm this opinion. Sweet's experience leads him to conclude that the plants of all orders strictly natural may be reciprocally impregnated with success, and he has already, in the nursery-gardens of Messrs. Colville, produced many new geraniaa and rhoderacea?. 824. A singular or anomalous effect of crossing, or extraneous impregnation, is the change sometimes un . dergone by the seed or fruit which is produced by the blossom impregnated. These effects are not uniform results, but they are of frequent occurrence, and have attracted notice from a very early period. John Tur- ner observes (Hort. Trans, v. 63.) that Theophrastus and Pliny (Theophrast. Hist. Plant. 1. ii. c. 4. ; PliniiHist. Nat. 1. xvii. c. 25.) seem to allude to it, and that the notion was entertained by Bradley, who, in his New Improvements in Planting and Gardening, after giving directions for fertilising the female flowers of the hazel with the pollen of the male, says, " By this knowledge we may alter the property and taste of any fruit, by impregnating the one with the farina of another of the same class, as, for example, a codlin with a pearmain, which will occasion the codlin so impregnated to last a longer time than usual, and be of a sharper taste ; or if the winter fruit should be fecundated with the dust of the summer kinds, they" will decay before their usual time ; and it is from this accidental coupling of the farina of one kind with the other, that in an orchard, where there is variety of apples, even the fruit gathered from the same tree differs in its flavor and times of ripening ; and, moreover, the seeds of those apples so generated, being changed by that means from their natural qualities, will produce different kinds of fruit, if they are sown." Turner, after quoting several instances, and, among others, one from the Philosophical Transactions " concerning the effect which the farina of the blossoms of different sorts of apples had on the fruit of a neighbouring tree," states upwards of six cases of hybridised apples, that had come within his own observation, and concludes with the remark, that if there does exist in fruits such a liability to change, it will at once be evident to the intelligent cultivator how much care is requisite in growing melpns, cucumbers, &c. to secure their true characters, even without reference to saving seed for a future crop. In the same volume of the Horticultural Transactions (p. 234.), an account is given of different-colored peas being produced in the same pod by crossing the parent blossom. All these facts seem to contradict the generally received opinion, that crossing only affects the next generation ; here it appears to affect the embryo offspring ; and a gardener who had no keeping apples in his orchard, might communicate that quality in part to his summer fruit by borrowing the use of a neighbour's blossoms from a late variety. It is probable, however, that such counter-impregnations do not take place readily ; otherwise the produce of a common orchard would be an ever- varying round of monstrosities. SECT. VIII. Changes consequent upon Impregnation* 825. The peculiar changes consequent upon impregnation, whether in the flowers or fruit, may be considered as external and internal. 826. External changes. At the period of the impregnation of the ovary the flower has attained to its ultimate state of perfection, and displayed its utmost beauty of coloring and richness of perfume. But as it is now no longer wanted, so it is no longer provided for in the economy of vegetation. Its period of decline has commenced ; at is indicated, first by the decay of the stamens, then of the petals, and then of the calyx, which wither and shrink up, and finally detach themselves from the fruit altogether, except in some particular cases in which one or other of them becomes permanent and falls only with the fruit. The stigma exhibits also similar symptoms of decay, and the style itself often perishes. The parts contiguous to the flower, such as the bractes and floral leaves, are sometimes also affected ; and finally the whole plant, at least in the case of annuals, begins to exhibit indications of decay. But while the flower withers and falls, the ovary is advancing to perfection, swelling and augmenting in size, and receiving now all the nutriment by which the decayed parts were formerly supported. Its color begins to assume a deeper and richer tinge ; its figure is also often altered, and new parts are even occasionally added wings, crests, prickles, hooks, bloom, down. The common receptacle of the fruit undergoes also similar changes, becom- ing sometimes large and succulent, as in the fig and strawberry ; and sometimes juiceless and indurated, as in compound flowers. 827. Internal changes. If the ovary is cut open as soon as it is first discoverable in the flower, it pre- sents to the eye merely a pulpy and homogeneous mass. But if it is allowed to remain till immediately before the period of its impregnation, it will now be found to be divisible into several distinct parts, exhi- biting an apparatus of cells, valves, and membranes, constituting the pericarp, and sometimes the external coats of the seed. In this case the umbilical cord is also to be distinguished; but the embryo is not yet visible. These changes, therefore, are to be attributed merely to the operation of the ordinary laws of vegetable developement, and are not at all dependent upon impregnation. But impregnation has no sooner taken place than its influence begins to be visible ; the umbilical cord, which was formerly short and distended, is now generally converted into a long and slender thread. Sometimes the position of the seed is altered. Before impregnation the seeds of caryophyllus aromaticus, and netrosideros gummifera, are horizontal ; after impregnation they become vertical. Before impregnation the magnolia seeds are erect ; after impregnation they become inverted and pendulous. The figure of the seed is often also altered in passing from its young to its mature state ; changing from smooth to angular, from tapering to oval, from oval to round, and from round to kidney-shaped. But all seeds are not brought to maturity, of which the rudiments may exist in the ovary. Lagoecia and hasselquistia, produce uniformly the rudi- ments of two seeds, of which they mature but one. But the principal changes resulting from impregnation are operated in the seed itself, which, though previously a homogeneous and gelatinous mass, is now conv verted into an organised body, or embryo. Such are the phenomena, according to the description of Gaertner, accompanying or following the impregnation of all flowers producing seeds ; exceptions occur where the fecundation is spurious or incomplete ; where the ovary swells, but exhibits no traces of perfect seed within, as often happens in the vine and tamus ; or when barren and fertile seeds are intermingled together in the same ovary. This proceeds from some defect either in the quantity or quality of the pollen ; N 4 184 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. II. but rather in the quality, as it is not always plants having the most pollen that produce the most seeds. The two stamens of the orchidae fecundate 8000 seeds, and the five stamens of tobacco fecundate 900 : while the 50 stamens of barringtonia, the 230 of thea, and the 80 of the caryophilli, fecundate only two or three ovaries. SECT. IX. The Propagation of the Species. 828. As the life of the vegetable, like that of the animal, is limited to a definite period, and as a continued supply of vegetables is always wanted for the support of animals, what we call art, or nature operating by means of the animal man, has taken care to institute such means as shall secure the multiplying and perpetuating of the species in all possible cases. 829. Equivocal Generation. It was long a vulgar error, countenanced even by the philosophy of the times that vegetables do often spring up from the accidental mixture of putrid water and earth, or other putrid substances, in the manner of what was called the equivocal generation of animals ; or at the very least, that the earth contains the principle of vegetable life in itself, which in order to deveiope, it is only neces- sary to expose to the action of the air. The former alternative of the error has been long ago refuted ; the latter has lost its hold, having been also refuted by Malpighi, who proved that the earth produces no plant without the intervention of a seed, or of some other species of vegetable germ deposited in it by nature or by art. 830. Propagation by seeds. When the seed has reached maturity in the due and regular course of the developement of its several parts, it detaches itself sooner or later from the parent plant, either singly or along with its pericarp, and drops into the soil, where it again germinates and takes root, and springs up into a new individual. Such is the grand means instituted by nature for the replenishing and perpetuating of the vegetable kingdom. 831. Dispersion of seed. If seeds were to fall into the soil merely by dropping down from the plant, then the great mass of them, instead of germinating and springing up into distinct plants, would grow up only to putrefy and decay ; to prevent which consequence nature has adopted a variety of the most efficacious contri- yances, all tending to the dispersion of the seed. The first means to be mentioned, is that of the elasticity of the peri- carp of many fruits, by which it opens when ripe, with a sort of sudden spring, ejecting the seed with violence, and throw- ing it some considerable distance from the plant This may be exemplified in a variety of cases ; the seeds of oats when ripe are projected from the calyx with such violence, that in a fine and dry day you may even hear them thrown out with a slight and sudden snap in passing through a field that is ripe. The pericarp of the Dorsiferous Ferns (jig. 64 a) is furnished with a sort of peculiar elastic ring (6), intended, as it would appear, for the very purpose of projecting the seeds. The capsules of the cucumber, geranium geum, and fraxinella, discharge their seeds also when ripe with an elastic jerk. But the pericarp of impatiens, which consists of one cell with five valves, exhibits perhaps one of the best examples of this mode of dispersion. If it is accidentally touched when ripe it will immediately burst open, while the valves, coiling themselves up in a spiral form, and springing from the stem, discharge the contained seeds and scatter them all around. The bursting of the pericarp of some species of pines is also worthy of notice. The pericarp, which is a cone, remains on the tree till the summer succeeding that on which it was produced, the scales being still closed. But when the hot weather has commenced and continued for some time, so as to dry the cone thoroughly, the scales open of their own accord with a sudden jerk, ejecting the contained seeds : and if a number of them happen to burst together, which is often the case, the noise is such as to be heard at some considerable distance. The twisted awn of avena fatua (fig.65.\ or wild oat, as well as that of geranium cicutarium, and some others, seems to have been intended particularly for the purpose of aiding the further dispersion of the seed, after being discharged from the plant, or pericarp. This spiral awn or spring, which is beset with a multitude of fine and minute nairs, possesses the property of contracting by means of drought, and of expanding by means of moisture. Hence it remains of necessity in a perpetual state of contraction or dilatation, dependent upon change of weather ; from which, as well as from the additional aid of the fine hairs,which act as so many fulcra, and cling to whatever object they meet, the seed to which it is attached is kept in continual motion till it either germinates or is destroyed. The awn of barley, which is beset with a multitude of little teeth all pointing to its upper extremity, presents also similar phenomena. For when the seed with its awn falls from the ear and iies flat upon the ground, it is necessarily extended in its dimensions by the moisture of the night, and contracted by the drought of the day. But as the teeth prevent it from receding in the direction of the point, it is consequently made to ad- vance in the direction of the base of the seed, which is thus often carried to the distance of many feet from the stalk on which it grew. If any one is yet sceptical with regard to the travelling capacity of the awn, let him only introduce an awn of barley with the seed uppermost between his coat and shirtsleeve at the wrist, when he walks out in the morn- ing, and by the time he returns to breakfast, if he has walked to any great distance, he will find it up at his arm- pit. This journey has been effected by means of the con- tinued motion of the arm, and consequently of the teeth of ihe awn acting as feet to carry it forward. 832. Where distance of dispersion is required, nature is BOOK I. PROPAGATION OF VEGETABLES. 185 also furnished with a resource. One of the most common modes by which seeds are conveyed to a dis- tance from their place of growth is that of the instrumentality of animals. Many seeds are thus carried to a distance from their place of growth merely by their attaching themselves to the bodies of such animals as may happen accidentally to come in contact with the plant in their search after food ; the hooks or hairs with which one part or other of the fructification is often furnished serving as the medium of attachment, -aid the seed being thus carried about with the animal till it is again detached by some accidental cause, and &t last committed to the soil. This may be exemplified in the case of the bidens and myosotis, in which the hooks or prickles are attached to the seed itself; or in the case of galium aparine and others, in which they are attached to the pericarp ; or in the case of the thistle and the burdock, in which they are attached to the general calyx. Many seeds are dispersed by animals in consequence of their .pericarps being used as food. This is often the case with the seeds of the drupe, as cherries, sloes, and haws, which birds often carry away till they meet with some convenient place for devouring the pulpy pericarp, and then drop the stone into the soil. And so also fruit is dispersed that has been hoarded for the winter, though even with the view of feeding on the seed itself, as in the case of nuts hoarded up by squirrels, which are often dispossessed by some other animal, that not caring for the hoard scatters and disperses it. Sometimes the hoard is deposited in the ground itself, in which case part of it is generally found to take root and spring up into plants. Though it has been observed that the ground-squirrel often deprives the kernel of its germ before it deposits the fruit it collects. Crows have been also observed to lay up acorns and other seeds in the holes offence-posts, which being either, forgot or accidentally thrust out, fall ulti- mately into the earth and germinate. But sometimes the seed is even taken into the stomach of the animal, and afterwards deposited in the soil, haying passed through it unhurt. This is often the case with the seed of many species of berry, such as the mistletoe, which the thrush swallows and afterwards deposits upon the boughs of such trees as it may happen to alight upon. The seeds of the loranthus americanus, another parasitical plant, are said to be deposited in like manner on the branches of the coccoloba grandi- flora, and other lofty trees ; as also the seeds of phytolacca decandra, the berries of which are eaten by the robin, thrush, and 1 wild pigeon. And so also the seeds of currants or roans are sometimes deposited, after having been swallowed by blackbirds or other birds, as may be seen by observing a currant-bush or young roan-tree growing out of the cleft of another tree, where the seed has been left, and where there may happen to have been a little dust collected by way of soil ; or where a natural graft may have been effected by the insinuation of the radicle into some chink or cleft. It seems indeed surprising that any seeds should be able to resist the heat and digestive action of the stomach of animals ; but it is undoubtedly the fact. Some seeds seem even to require it. The seeds of magnolia glauca, which have been brought to this country, are said to have generally refused to vegetate till after undergoing this process, and it is known that some seeds will bear a still greater degree of heat without any injury. Spallanzani mentions some seeds that germinated after having been boiled in water : and Du Hamel gives an account of some others that germinated even after having been exposed to a degree of heat measuring 235 a of Fahrenheit. In addition to the instrumentality of brute animals in the dispersion of the seed might be added also that of man, who, for purposes of utility or of ornament, not only transfers to his native soil seeds indigenous to the most distant regions, but sows and cultivates them with care. 833. The agency of winds is one of the most effective modes of dispersion instituted by nature. Some seeds are fitted for this mode of dispersion from their extreme minuteness, such as those of the mosses, lichens, and fungi, which float invisibly on the air, and vegetate wherever they happen to meet with a suitable soil. Others are fitted for it by means of an attached wing, as in the case of the fir-tree and liriodendron tulipifera, so that the seed, in falling from the cone or capsule, is immediately caught by the wind, and carried to a distance. Others are peculiarly fitted for it by means of their being furnished with an aigrette or down, as in the case of the dandelion, goafs-beard, and thistle, as well as most plants of the class Syngenesia ; the down of which is so large and light in proportion to the seed it supports, that it is watted on the most gentle breeze, and often seen floating through the atmosphere in great abundance at the time the seed is ripe. Some have a tail, as in clematis vita alba. Others are fitted for this mode of dispersion by means of the structure of the pericarp, which is also wafted along with them, as in the case of staphylea trifolia, the inflated capsule of which seems as if obviously intended thus to aid the dispersion of the contained seed by its exposing to the wind a large and distended surface with but little weight. And so also in the case of the maple, elm, and ash, the capsules of which are furnished, like some seeds, with a membranous wing, which when they separate from the plant the wind immediately lays hold of and drives before it. 834. The instrumentality of streams, rivers, and currents of the ocean, is a further means adopted by nature for the dispersion of the seeds of vegetables. The mountain-stream or torrent washes down to the valley the seeds which may accidentally fall into it, or which it may happen to sweep, from its banks when it suddenly overflows them. The broad and majestic river, winding along the extensive plain, and tra- versing the continents of the world, conveys to the distance of many hundreds of miles the seeds that may have vegetated at its source. Thus the southern shores of the Baltic are visited by seeds which grew in the interior of Germany, and the western shores of the Atlantic by seeds that have been generated in the interior of America. But fruits indigenous to America and the West Indies have sometimes been found to be swept along by the currents of the ocean to the western shores of Europe. The fruit of mimosa scan- dens, dolichos pruriens, guilandina bonduc, and anacardium occidentale, or cashew-nut, have been thus known to be driven across the Atlantic to a distance of upwards of 2000 miles ; and although the fruits now adduced as examples are not such as could vegetate on the coast on which they were thrown, owing to soil or climate, yet it is to be believed that fruits may have been often thus transported to climates or coun- tries favorable to their vegetation. 835. Propagation by gems. Though plants are for the most part propagated by means of seeds, yet many of them are propagated also by means of gems ; that is, bulbs and buds. The caulinary bulb is often the means of the propagation of the species : it generally appears in the axil of the leaves, as in dentaria bulbifera and lilium bulbiferum ; or between the spokes of their um- bels, as in allium canadense ; in the midst of the spike of flowers, as in polygonum viviparum and poa alpina. As plants of this last kind are mostly alpine, it has been thought to be an institution or re- source of nature to secure the propagation of the species in situations where the seed may fail to ripen. 836. The bud, though it does not spontaneously detach itself from the plant and form a new individual, will yet sometimes strike root and develope its parts if carefully separated by art and planted in the earth : but this is to be understood of the leaf-bud only, for the flower-bud, according to Mirbel, if so treated, always perishes. 837. Propagation by the leaves. The species may sometimes be propagated even by means of th ? leaves ; as in the aloe, sea-onion, and some species of arum, which if carefully deposited in the soil will grow up into new plants, by virtue, no doubt, of some latent gem contained in them. The fungi and lichens, according to Gaertner, are all gemmiferous, having no sexual organs, and no pollen impregnat- ing a germ. In the genus Lycoperdon, the gelatinous substance that pervades the cellular tissue is con- verted into a proliferous powder ; in clavaria, the fluid contained in the cavities of the plant is converted into a proliferous powder also ; and in the agarics, hypnum, and boletus, vesicles containing sobolifer- ous granules are found within the lamina, pores, or tubes. Hedwig, on the contrary, ascribes to the fungi a sexual apparatus, and maintains that the pollen is lodged in the volva. But here it is to be recollected, as in the cases of the scutcllse of the lichens, that all fungi are not furnished with a volva, 186 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. and consequently not furnished with pollen. The conferva; and ulvse, together with the genera Blania and Riccia, are also, according to Gartner, propagated only by gems ; while marchantia, anthoceros, jungermannia, and lycoperdon, are said to be propagated both by gems and seeds. 838. Runners are young shoots issuing from the collar or summit of the root, and creeping along the surface of the soil ; but producing a new root and leaves at the extremity, and forming a new individual, by the decay of the connecting link, as in the strawberry. 839. Slips. The process of raising perennials by slips is well known to gardeners, and should perhaps be regarded as an extension of the old plant, rather than as the generation of a new one ; though it serves the purpose of the cultivator equally well as a plant raised from seed, with the additional advantage of bearing fruit much sooner. But how is the root generated which the slip thus produces ? If the trunk of a tree is lopped, and all its existing buds destroyed, then there will be protruded from between the wood and bark a sort of protuberant lip or ring formed from the proper juice, and from which there will spring a number of young shoots. The formation of the root in the case of the slip is effected in the same manner, the moisture of the soil encouraging the protrusion of buds at and near the section ; and the bud that would have been converted into a branch above ground is converted into a root below. 840. Layers. The mode of propagation by layers is practised upon trees that are deli- cate, and which cannot readily be propagated by means of slips ; in which case the root is generated nearly as in the former case, the soil stimulating the protrusion of buds which are converted into roots. In many plants, such as the currant and laurel, this is altogether a natural process, effected by the spontaneous bending down of a branch to the surface of the soil. 841. Suckers or off-sets. Many plants protrude annually from the collar a number of young shoots, encircling the principal stem and depriving it of a portion of its nourish- ment, as in the case of most fruit-trees. Others send out a horizontal root, from which there at last issues a bud that ascends above the soil and is converted into a little stem, as in the case of the elm-tree and syringa. Others send out a horizontal shoot from the collar or its neighbourhood ; or a shoot that ultimately bends down by its own weight till it reaches the ground, in which it strikes root and again sends up a stem as in the currant- bush and laurel. The two former are called suckers or off-sets, though the term off-set 'should perhaps be restricted to the young bulbs that issue and detach themselves annually from bulbous roots. The latter is not designated by any particular name, but may be re- garded as a sort of natural layer, resembling also, in some respects, the runner ; from which, however, it is distinguished in that it never detaches itself spontaneously from the parent plant, as is the case also with the two former. But if either of them is artificially detached, together with a portion of root or a slice of the collar adhering to it, it will now bear transplanting, and will constitute a distinct plant. , 842. Grafting and budding. The species is also often propagated, or at least the variety is multiplied, by means of grafting, which is an artificial application of a portion of the shoot or root of one tree or plant to the stem, shoot, branch, or root of another, so that the two shall coalesce together and form but one plant. The shoot which is to form the summit of the new individual is called the scion ; the stem to which it is affixed is called the stock ; and the operation, when effected, the graft. As the graft is merely an extension of the parent plant from which the scion came, and not properly speaking a new individual, so it is found to be the best method of propagating approved varieties of fruit-trees without any danger of altering the quality of the fruit, which is always apt to be incurred in propagating from seed, but never in propagating from the scion. The scion will also bear fruit much sooner than the tree that is raised from seed ; and, if effected on a proper stock, will be much more hardy and vigorous than if left on the parent plant. And hence the great utility of grafting in the practice of gardening. Till lately, grafting was confined to the ligneous plants, but it is now successfully prac- tised on the roots and shoots of herbaceous vegetables ; and the dahlia is grafted by the root ; the melon on the gourd ; the love-apple on the potatoe ; the cauliflower on the cab- bage, &c. by the shoot. A very ingenious tract has been published on this subject, entitled, Essai sur la Greffe de Vherbe des plantes et des arbres, par Monsr. Le Baron de Tschoudy, Bourgeois de Claris. Paris, 1819. SECT. X. Causes limiting the Propagation of tfie Species. 843. Though plants are controlled chiefly by animals, yet they also control one another. From the various sources of vegetable reproduction, but particularly from the fer- tility and dispersion of the seed, the earth would soon be overrun with plants of the most prolific species, and converted again into a desert, if it were not that nature has set bounds to their propagation by subjecting them to the control of man, and to the depredations of the great mass of animals ; as well as in confining the germination of their seeds to cer- tain and peculiar habitations arising from soil, climate, altitude, and other circumstances. BOOK I. EVIDENCE OF VEGETABLE VITALITY. 187 In order to form an idea of the manner in which these act upon vegetation ; imagine that every year an enormous quantity of seeds, produced by the existing vegetables, are spread over the surface of the globe, by the winds and other causes already mentioned, all of these seeds which fall in places suitable for their vegetation, and are not destroyed by ani- mals, germinate and produce plants ; then among these plants, the strongest, and largest, and those to which the soil is best suited, develope themselves in number and magnitude so as to choke the others. Such is the general progress of nature, and among plants, as among animals, the strong flourish at the expense of the weak. These causes have oper- ated for such a length of time, that the greater number of species are now fixed and con- sidered as belonging to certain soils, situations, arid climates, beyond which they seldom propagate themselves otherwise than by the hands of man. SECT. XI. Evidence and Character of Vegetable Vitality. 844. The power of counteracting the laws of chemical affinity is reckoned the best and most satisfactory evidence of the presence and agency of a vital principle as inherent in any subject. This principle, which seems first to have been instituted by Humboldt, is obviously applicable to the case of animals, as is proved by the process of the digestion of the food, and its conversion into chyle and blood ; as well as from the various secretions and excretions effected by the several organs, and effecting the growth and developement of the individual, in direct opposition to the acknowledged laws of chemical affinity, which, as soon as the vital principle is extinct, begin immediately to give indication of their action in the incipient symptoms of the putrefaction of the dead body. But the rule is also applicable to the case of vegetables, as is proved by the intro-susception, digestion, and assiinilation of the food necessary to their developement ; all indicating the agency of a principle capable of counteracting the laws of chemical affinity ; which, at the period of what is usually called the death of the plant, begin also immediately to act, and to give evidence of their action in the incipient symptoms of the putrefaction of the vegetable. Vegetables are therefore obviously endowed with a species of vitality. But admitting the presence and agency of a vital principle inherent in the vegetable subject, what are the peculiar properties by which this principle is characterised ? 845. Excitability. One of the most distinguishable properties of the vital principle of vegetables is that of its excitability, or capacity of being acted upon by the application of natural stimuli, impelling it to the exertion of its vegetative powers ; the natural stimuli thus impelling it being light and heat. 846. The stimulating influence of light upon the vital principle of the plant is discoverable, whether in the stem, leaf, or flower The direction of the stem is influenced by the action of light, as well as the color of its leaves. Distance from direct rays of light or weak light produces etiolation, and its absence blanching. The luxuriance of branches depends on the presence and action of light, as is par- ticularly observable in the case of hot-house plants, the branches of which are not so conspicuously di- rected, either to the flue in quest of heat, or to the door or open sash in quest of air, as to the sun in quest of right. Hence also the branches of plants are often more luxuriant on the south than on the north side ; or at least on the side that is best exposed to light. The position of the leaf is also strongly affected by the action of light to which it uniformly turns its upper surface. This may be readily perceived in the case of trees trained to a wall, from which the upper surface of the leaf is by con- sequence always turned; being on a south wall turned to the south, and on a north wall turned to the north. And if the upper surface of the leaf is forcibly turned towards the wall and confined in that position for a length of time, it will soon resume its primitive position upon regaining its liberty, but particularly if the atmosphere is clear. The leaves of the mallow are said to exhibit but slight indi- cations of this susceptibility, as also sword-shaped leaves ; and also those of the mistletoe, are equally susceptible on both sides. It had been conjectured that these effects are partly attributable to the agency of heat ; and to try the value of the conjecture, Bonnet placed some plants of the atriplex in a stove heated to 25 of Reaumur. Yet the stems were not inclined to the side from which the greatest degree of heat came ; but to a small opening in the stoves. Heat then does not seem to exert any perceptible influence in the production of the above effects. Does moisture ? Bonnet found that the leaves of the vine exhibited the same phenomenon when immersed in water, as when left in the open air. Whence it seems probable that light is the sole agent in the production of the effects in question. But as light produces such effects upon the leaves, so darkness or the absence of light produces an effect quite the contrary ; for it is known that the leaves of many plants assume a very different position in the night from what they have in the day. This is particularly the case with winged leaves, which, though fully expanded during the day, begin to droop and bend down about sunset and during the fall of the evening dew, till they meet together on the inferior side of the leaf-stalk, the terminal lobe, if the leaf is furnished with one, folding itself back till it reaches the first pair; or the two side lobes, if the leaf is trifoliate, as in the case of common clover. So also the leaflets of the false acacia and liquorice hang down during the night, and those of mimosa pudica fold themselves up along the common foot-stalk so as to overlap one another. Linnasus has designated the above phenomenon by the appellation of The Sleep of Plants. The expansion of the flower is also effected by the action of light. Many plants do not fully expand their petals except when the sun shines ; and hence alternately open them during the day and shut them up during the night. This may be exemplified in the case of papilionaceous flowers'in general, which spread out their wings in fine weather to admit the rays of the sun, and again fold them up as the night approaches. It may be exemplified also in the case of compound flowers, as in that of the dandelion and hawkweed. But the most singular case of this kind is perhaps that of the lotus of the Euphrates, as described by Theophrastus, which he represents as rearing and expanding its blossoms by day, closing and sinking down beneath the surface of the water by night so as to be beyond the grasp of the hand, and again rising up in the morning to present its expanded blossom to the sun. The same phenomenon is related also by Pliny. But although many plants open their flowers in the morning and shut them again in the evening, yet all flowers do not open and shut at the same time. Plants of the same species are tolerably regular as to time, other circumstances being the same ; and hence the daily opening and shutting of the flower has been denominated by botanists The Horotogium Flora. Flowers requiring but a slight application of stimulus open early in the morning, while others requiring more open somewhat later. Some do not open till noon, and some, whose extreme delicacy rannot bear the action of light at all, open only at night, such as the cactus grandiflora, or night-blowing 188 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. ccrcus. But it seems somewhat doubtful whether or not light is the sole agent in the present" case ; for it has been observed that equatorial flowers open always at the same hour, and that tropical flowers change their hour of opening according to the length o'f the day. It has been observed also, that the flowers of plants that are removed from a warmer to a colder climate expand at a later hour in the latter. A flower that opens at six o'clock in the morning at Senegal, will not open in France or England till eight or nine, nor in Sweden till ten. A flower that opens at ten o'clock at Senegal, will not open in France or England till noon or later, and in Sweden it will nofc open at all. And a flower that does not open till noon or later at Senegal, will not open at all in France or England. This seems as if heat or its absence were also an agent in the opening and shutting of flowers ; though the opening of such as blow only in the night cannot be attributed either to light or heat. But the opening or shutting of some flowers depends not so much on the action of the stimulus of light as on the existing state of the atmosphere, and hence their opening or shutting betokens change. If the Siberian sow-thistle shuts at night, the ensuing day will be fine; and if it opens, it will be cloudy and rainy. If the African mari- gold continues shut after seven o'clock in the morning, rain is near at hand. And if the convolvulus ar- vensis, calendula fluvialis, or anagallis arvensis, are even already open they will shut upon the approach of rain, the last o/ which, from its peculiar susceptibility, has obtained the name of the poor man's weatherglass. But some flowers not only expand during the light of day ; they incline also towards the sun, and follow his course, looking towards the east in the morning, towards the south at noon, and towards the west in the evening ; and again returning in the night to their former position in the morn- ing. Such flowers are designated by the appellation of Heliotropes, on account of their following the course of the sun ; and the movement they thus exhibit is denominated their nutation. This phenomenon had been observed by the ancients long before they had made any considerable progress in botany, and had even been interwoven into their mythology, having originated, according to the records of fabulous history, in one of the metamorphoses of early times. Clytie, inconsolable for the loss of the affections of Sol, by whom she had been formerly beloved, and of whom she was still enamoured, is represented as brooding over her griefs in silence and solitude ; where, refusing all sustenance, and seated upon the cold ground, with her eyes invariably fixed on the sun during the day, and watching for his return dur- ing the night, she is at length transformed into a flower, retaining, as much as a flower can retain it, the same unaltered attachment to the sun. This is the flower which is denominated heliotropium by the ancients, and described by Ovid as Flos qui ad solem vertitur. But it is to be observed, that the flower alluded to by Ovid cannot be the heliotropium of the moderns, because Ovid describes it as resembling the violet : much less can it be the sun-flower of the moderns, which is a native of America, and could not consequently have been known to Ovid ; so that the true heliotropium of the ancients is perhaps not yet ascertained. Bonnet has further remarked that the ripe ears of corn, which bend down with weight of grain, scarcely ever incline to the north, but always less or more to the south ; of the accuracy of which remark any one may easily satisfy himself by looking at a field of wheat ready for the sickle j he will find the whole mass of ears nodding, as if with one consent to the south. The cause of the pheno- menon has been supposed to be a contraction of the fibres of the stem or flower-stalk on the side exposed to the sun ; and this contraction has been thought by De la Hire and Dr. Hales to be occasioned by an excess of transpiration on the sunny side; which is probably the fact, though there seems upon this principle to be some difficulty in accounting for its returning at night ; because if you say that the con- tracted side expands and relaxes by moisture, what is it that contracts the side that was relaxed in the day? The moisture, of which it is no doubt still full, would counteract the contraction of its fibres, and prevent it from resuming its former position in the morning. 847. Heat as well as light acts also as a powerful stimulus to the exertion of the vital principle. This has been already shown in treating of the process of germination ; but the same thing is observable with regard to the developement and maturation of the leaves, flower, and fruit ; for although all plants produce their leaves, flower, and fruit, annually, yet they do not all produce them at the same period or season. This forms the foundation of what Linnaeus has called the Calendarium Florae, including a view of the several periods of the frondescence and efflorescence of plants, together with that of the maturation of the fruit. 848. Frondescence. It must be plain to every observer, that all plants do not protrude their leaves at the same season, and that even of such as do protrude them in the same season, some are earlier and some later. The honeysuckle protrudes them in the month of January ; the gooseberry, currant, and elder, in the end of February, or beginning of March ; the willow, elm, and lime-tree, in April ; and the oak and ash, which are always the latest among trees, in the beginning or towards the middle of May. Many annuals do not come up till after the summer solstice ; and many mosses not till after the com- mencement of winter. This gradual and successive unfolding of the leaves of different plants seems to arise from the peculiar susceptibility of the species to the action of heat, as requiring a greater or less degree of it to give the proper stimulus to the vital principle. But a great many circumstances will al- ways concur to render the time of the unfolding of the leaves somewhat irrogular ; because the mildness of the season is by no means uniform at the same period of advancement ; and because the leafing of the plant depends upon the peculiar degree of temperature, and not upon the return of a particular day of the year. Hence it has been thought, that no rule could be so good for directing the husbandman in the sowing of his several sorts of grain as the leafing of such species of trees as might be found by observation to correspond best to each sort of grain respectively, in the degree of temperature required. Linnaeus (Stillingfleet informs us) instituted some observations on the subject about the year 1750, with a view chiefly to ascertain the time proper for the sowing of barley in Sweden ; he regarded the leafing of the birch- tree as being the best indication for that grain, and recommended the institution of similar observations with regard to other sorts of grain, upon the ground of its great importance to the husbandman, who may be said to attend to it in a manner instinctively ; but as all the trees of the same species do not come into leaf precisely at the same time, and as the weather may alter even after the most promising indi- cations, no guide natural or artificial can be absolutely depended on with a view to future results. 849. Efflorescence. The flowering of the plant, like the leafing, seems to depend upon the degree of tern- perature induced by the returning spring, as the flowers are also protruded pretty regularly at the same successive periods of the season. The mezereon and snowdrop protrude their flowers in February ; the primrose in the month of March ; the cowslip in April ; the great mass of plants in May and June ; many in July, August, and September ; some not till the month of October, as the meadow saffron ; and some not till the approach or middle of winter, as the laurustinus and arbutus. Such at least is the period of their flowering in this country ; but in warmer climates they are earlier, and in colder climates they are later. Between the tropics, where the degree of heat is always high, it often happens that plants will flower more than once in the year ; because they do not there require to wait till the temperature is raised to a certain height, but merely till the developement of their parts can be effected in the regular operation of nature, under a temperature already sufficient. For the greater part, however, they flower during our summer, though plants in opposite hemispheres flower in opposite seasons. But in all climates the time of flowering depends also much on the altitude of the place as well as on other causes affecting the degree of heat. Hence plants occupying the polar regions, and plants occupying the tops of the high mountains of southern latitudes arc in flower at the same season ; and hence the same flowers arc later BOOK I. EVIDENCE OF VEGETABLE VITALITY. 189 in opening in North America than in the same latitudes in Europe, because the surface of the earth is higher, or the winters more severe. 850. Maturation of the fruit. Plants exhibit as much diversity in the warmth and length of time neces- sary to mature their fruit as in their frondescence and flowering ; but the plant that flowers the soonest, does not always ripen its fruit the soonest. The hazel-tree, which blows in February, does not ripen its fruit till autumn ; while the cherry, that does not blow till May, ripens its fruit in June. It may be re- garded, however, as the general rule, that if a plant blows in spring it ripens its fruit in summer, as in the case of the currant and gooseberry ; if it blows in summer it ripens its fruit in autumn, as in the case of the vine; and if it blows in autumn it ripens its fruit in the winter. But the meadow-saffron, which blows in the autumn, does not ripen its fruit till the succeeding spring. 851. Such are the primary facts on which a Calendarium Flora;, should be founded. They have not hitherto been very minutely attended to by botanists ; and perhaps their importance is not quite so much as has been generally supposed ; but they are at any rate sufficiently striking to have attracted the notice even of savages. Some tribes of American Indians act upon the very principle suggested by Linnaeus, and plant their corn when the wild plum blooms, or when the leaves of the oak are about as large as a squirrel's cars. The names of some of their months are also designated from the state of vegetation. One is called the budding month, and another the flowering month ; one the strawberry month, and another the mulberry month ; and the autumn is desig- nated by a term signifying the fall of the leaf. Thus the proposed nomenclature of the French for the months and seasons is founded in nature as well as in reason. 852. Cold. As the elevation of temperature induced by the heat of summer is es- sential to the full exertion of the energies of the vital principle, so the depression of temperature consequent upon the colds of winter has been thought to suspend the ex- ertion of the vital energies altogether. > But this opinion is evidently founded on a mistake, as is proved by the example of such plants as protrude their leaves and flowers in the winter season only, such as many of the mosses ; as well as by the dissection of the yet unfolded buds at different periods of the winter, even in the case of such plants as pro- trude their leaves and blossoms in the spring and summer, and in which, it has been already shown, there is a regular, gradual, and incipient developement of parts, from the time of the bud's first appearance till its ultimate opening in the spring. The sap, it is true, flows much less freely, but is not wholly stopped. Du Hamel planted some young trees in the autumn, cutting off all the smaller fibres of the root, with a view to watch the progress of the formation of new ones. At the end of every fortnight he had the plants taken up and examined with all possible care to prevent injuring them, and found that, when it did not actually freeze, new roots were always uniformly developed. 853. Energies of life in plants like the process of respiration in animals. Hence it fol- lows, that even during the period of winter, when vegetation seems totally at a stand, the tree being stripped of its foliage, and the herb apparently withering in the frozen blast, still the energies of vital life are exerted ; and still the vital principle is at work, carrying on in the interior of the plant, concealed from human view, and sheltered from the piercing frosts, operations necessary to the preservation of vegetable life, or protru- sion of future parts ; though it requires the returning warmth of spring to give that degree of velocity to the juices which shall render their motion cognizable to man, as well as that expression to the whole plant which is the most evident token of life : in the same manner as the processes of respiration, digestion, and the circulation of the blood are carried on in the animal subject even while asleep ; though the most obvious indications of animal life are the motions of the animal when awake. Heat then acts as a powerful stimulus to the operations of the vital principle, accelerating the mo- tion of the sap, and consequent developement of parts ; as is evident from the sap's beginning to flow much more copiously as the warmth of spring advances, as well as from the possibility of anticipating the natural period of their developement by forcing them in a hot-house. But it is known that excessive heat impedes the progress of veget- ation as well as excessive cold ; both extremes being equally prejudicial. And hence the sap flows more copiously in the spring and autumn, than in either the summer or winter ; as may readily be seen by watching the progress of the growth of the annual shoot, which, after having been rapidly protruded in the spring, remains for a while stationary during the great heat of the summer, but is again elongated during the more moderate temperature of autumn. ^ 854. Stimularity. There are also several substances which have been found to operate as stimulants to the agency of the vital principle when artificially dissolved in water, and applied to the root or branch. Oxygenated muriatic acid has been already mentioned : and the vegetation of the bulbs of the hyacinth and narcissus is accelerated by means of the application of a solution of nitre. Dr. Barton, of Philadelphia, found that a de- caying branch of liriodendron tulipifera, and a faded flower of the yellow iris, recovered and continued long fresh when put into water impregnated with camphor ; though flowers and branches, in all respects similar, did not recover when put into common water. 190 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 855. Irritability. Plants are not only susceptible of the action of the natural stimuli of light and heat, exciting them gradually to the exercise of the functions of their dif- ferent organs in the regular progress of vegetation ; they are susceptible also of the action of a variety of accidental or artificial stimuli, from the application of which they are found to give indications of being endowed also with a property similar to what we call irritability in the animal system. This property is well exempb'fied in the genus Mimosa ; but particularly in that species known by the name of the Sensitive Plant ; and the dionsea muscipula and drosera. But sometimes the irritability resides in the flower, and has its seat either in the stamens or style. The former case is ex- emplified in the flower of the berberry and cactus tuna, and the latter in stylidium glandulosum. 856. Sensation. From the facts adduced in the preceding sections, it is evident that plants are endowed with a capacity of being acted upon by the application of stimuli, whether natural or artificial, indicating the existence of a vital principle, and forming one of the most prominent features of its character. But besides this obvious and ac- knowledged property, it has been thought by some phytologists that plants are endowed also with a species of sensation. Sir J. E. Smith seems rather to hope that the doctrine may be true, than to think it so. 857. Instinct. There is also a variety of phenomena exhibited throughout the extent of the vegetable kingdom, some of which are common to plants in general, and some peculiar to certain species, that have been thought by several botanical writers to exhibit indications, not merely of sensation, but of instinct. The tendency of plants to incline their stem and to turn the upper surface of the leaves to the light, the direction which-, the extreme fibres of the root will often take to reach the best nourishment, the folding up of the flower on the approach of rain, the rising and falling of the water-lily, and the peculiar and invariable direction assumed by the twining stem in ascending its prop, are among the phenomena that have been attributed to instinct. Keith has endeavoured (Lin. Trans, xi. p. 11.) to establish the doctrine of the existence and agency of an in- stinctive principle in the plant, upon the ground of the direction invariably assumed by the radicle and plumelet respectively, in the germination of the seed. 858. Definition of the plant. But if vegetables are living beings endowed with sensation and instinct, or any thing approaching to it, so as to give them a resemblance to animals, how are we certainly to distinguish the plant from the animal ? At the ex- tremes of the two kingdoms the distinction is easy ; the more perfect animals can never be mistaken for plants, nor the more perfect plants for animals, but at the mean, where the two kingdoms may be supposed to unite, the shades of discrimination are so very faint or evanescent that of some individual productions it is almost impossible to say to which of the kingdoms they belong. Hence it is that substances which have at one time been classed among plants, have at another time been classed among animals ; and there are substances to be met with whose place has not yet been satisfactorily determined. Of these I may exemplify the genus Corallina (Jig. 66.), which Linnaeus placed among 66 animals, but which Gaertner places among plants. Linnaeus, Bonnet, Hedwig, and Mirbel, have each given particular definitions. According to Keith, a vegetable is an organised and living substance springing from a seed or gem, which it again produces ; and effecting the developement of its parts by means of the intro-susception and assimila- tion of unorganised substances, which it derives from the atmosphere or the soil in which it grows. The definition of the animal is the counterpart : an animal is an organised and living being proceeding from an egg or embryo, which it again produces ; and ef- fecting the developement of its parts by means of the intro-susception of organised sub- stances or their products. For all practical purposes, perhaps plants may be distinguished BOOK I. VEGETABLE PATHOLOGY. 191 from animals with sufficient accuracy by means of the trial of burning ; as animal sub- stances in a state of ignition exhale a strong and phosphoric odor, which vegetable sub- stances do not. CHAP. IX. Vegetable Pathology, or the Diseases and Casualties of Vegetable Life. 859. As plants are, like animals, organised and living beings, they are, like animals also, liable to such accidental injuries and disorders as may aftect the health and vigor, or occasion the death of the individual. These are wounds, accidents, diseases, and natural decay. SECT. I. Wounds and Occidents. 860. A wound is a forcible separation of the solid parts of the plant effected by means of some external cause, intentional or accidental. 861. Incisions are sometimes necessary to the health of the tree, in the same manner perhaps as bleeding is necessary to the health of the animal. The trunk of the plum and cherry-tree seldom expand freely till a longitudinal incision has been made in the bark ; and hence this operation is often practised by gardeners. If the incision affects the epidermis only it heals up without leaving any scar ; if it pene- trates into the interior of the bark, it heals up only by means of leaving a scar ; if it penetrates into the wood, the wound in the wood itself never heals up completely, but new wood and bark are formed above it as before. this the sap flows copiously ; and though a number of holes is often bored in the same trunk, the health of the tree is not very materially affected. For trees will continue to thrive though subjected to this oper- ation for many successive years ; and the hole, if not very large, will close up again like the deep incision, not by the union of the broken fibres of the wood, but by the formation of new bark and wood projecting beyond the edge of the orifice, and finally shutting it up altogether. 863. Girdling is an operation to which trees in North America are often subjected when the fanner wishes to clear his land of timber. It consists in making parallel and horizontal incisions with an axe into the trunk of a tree, and carrying them quite round the stem so as to penetrate through the alburnum, and then to scoop out the intervening portion. If this operation is performed early in the spring, and be- fore the commencement of the bleeding season, the tree rarely survives it ; though some trees that are pe- culiarly tenacious of life, such as acer saccharinum and nyssa integrifolia, have been known to survive it a considerable length of time. 864. Fracture. If a tree is bent so as to fracture part only of the cortical and woody fibres, and the stem or brancli but small, the parts will again unite by being put back into their natural position, and well propped up. Especially cure may be expected to succeed if the fracture happens in the spring ; but it will not succeed if the fracture is accompanied with contusion, or if the stem or branch is large j and even where it succeeds the woody fibres do not contribute to the union, but the granular and herbaceous substance only which exudes from between the wood and liber, insinuating itself into all interstices and finally be- coming indurated into wood. 865. Pruning. Wounds are necessarily inflicted by the gardener or forester in the pruning or lopping off the superfluous branches, but this is seldom attended with any bad effects to the health of the tree, if done by a skilful practitioner: indeed no further art is required merely for the protection of the tree be- yond that of cutting the branch through in a sloping direction so as to prevent the rain from lodging. In this case the wound soon closes up by the induration of the exposed surface of the section, and by the pro- trusion of a granular substance, forming a sort of circular lip between the wood and bark ; and hence the branch is never elongated by the growth of the same vessels that have been cut, but by the protrusion of new buds near the point of section. 866. Grafting. In the operation of grafting there is a wound both of the stock and graft; which are united, not by the immediate adhesion of the surfaces of the two sections, but by means of a granular and herbaceous substance exuding from between the wood and bark, and insinuating itself as a sort of cement into all open spaces : new wood is finally formed within it, and the union is complete. 867. Felling is the operation of cutting down trees close to the ground, which certain species will survive, if the stump is protected from the injuries of animals, and the root fresh and vigorous. In this case the fibres of the wood are never again regenerated, but a lip is formed as in the case of pruning ; and buds, that spring up into new shoots, are protruded near the section ; so that from the old shoot, ten, twelve, or even twenty new stems may issue according to its size and vigor. The stools of the oak and ash-tree will furnish good examples ; but there are some trees, such as the fir, that never send out any shoots after the operation of felling. 868. If buds are destroyed in the course of the winter, or in the early part of the spring, -many plants will again generate new buds that will develope their parts as the others would have done, except that they never contain blossom or fruit. Du Hamel thought these buds sprang from pre-organised germs which he conceived to be dispersed throughout the whole of the plant ; but Knight thinks he has discovered the true source of the regeneration of buds, in the proper juice that is lodged in the alburnum. Buds thus re- generated never contain or produce either flower or fruit. Perhaps because the fruit-bud requires more time to develope its parts, or a peculiar and higher degree of elaboration ; and that this hasty production is only the effect of a great effort of the vital principle for the preservation of the individual, and one of those wonderful resources to which nature always knows how to resort when the vital principle is in dan- ger. But though such buds do not produce flowers directly, as in the case of plants that bear their blos- soms on last year's wood ; yet they often produce young shoots which produce blossoms and fruit the same season, as in the case of cutting down an old vine, or pruning the rose. 869. Sometimes the leaves of a tree are destroyed partially or totally as soon as they are protruded from the bud, whether by the depredations of caterpillars or other insects, or by the browsing of cattle. But if the injury is done early in the spring, new leaves will be again protruded without subsequent shoots. Some trees will bear to be stripped even more than once in a season, as is the case with the mulberry-tree, which they cultivate in the south of France and Italy for the purpose of feeding the silk-worm. But if it is stripped more than once in the season it requires now and then a year's rest. 870. The decortication of a tree, or the stripping it of its bark, may be either intentional or accidental, partial or total. If it is partial, and affects the epidermis only, then it is again regenerated, as in the case of slight incision, without leaving any scar But if the epidermis of the petal, leaf, or fruit, is destroyed, it is not again regenerated, nor is the wound healed up, except by means of a scar. Such is the case also 192 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. with all decortications that penetrate deeper than the epidermis, particularly if the wound is not protected from the action of the air : if the decortication reaches to the wood, then new bark issues from between the bark and wood, and spreads till it covers the wound. But the result is not the same when the wound is covered from the air. In the season of the flowing of the sap Du Hamel detached a ring of bark, of three or four inches in breadth, from the trunks of several young elm-trees, taking care to defend the decorti- cated part from the action of the air, by surrounding it with a tube of glass cemented above and below to the trunk. After a few days the tubes became cloudy within, particularly when it was hot ; but when the air became cool, the cloud condensed and fell in drops to the bottom. At last there began to appear, as if exuding from between the bark and wood of the upper part of the wound, a sort of rough scurfy substance ; and on the surface of the wood, as if exuding from between the longitudinal fibres of the alburnum, a number of gelatinous drops. They were not connected with the scurfy substance at the top, but seemed to arise from small slips of the liber that had not been completely detached. Their first appearance was that of small reddish spots changing by degrees into white, and finally into a sort of grey, and extending in size till they at last united and formed a cicatrice, which was a new bark. 871. Abortion or failure in the produce of flowers, fruits, or of perfect seeds, is generally the effect of acci- dental injuries, either directly to the flower or fruit, by which they are rubbed off or devoured by insects ; or to the leaves by insects ; or to the roots by exposure to the air or cutting off so much of them as essentially to lessen their power of drawing up nourishment. Other causes will readily suggest themselves ; and one of the commonest, as to seeds and fruits, is want of sufficient impregnation. 872. Premature inflorescence or fruiting is sometimes brought on by insects, but more generally by checks produced by cold or injuries from excessive heat, or long continued drought. Fruit is often ripened pre- maturely by the puncture of insects ; and a pine-apple plant of almost any age may be thrown into fruit by an hour or two's exposure to a frosty atmosphere in winter, or by scorching the. roots in an overhot tan- bed at any season. SECT. II. Diseases. 873. Diseases are corrupt affections of the vegetable body, arising from a vitiated state of its juices, and tending to injure the habitual health either of the whole or part of the plant. The diseases that occur the most frequently among vegetables are the following : Blight, smut, mildew, honey-dew, dropsy, flux of juices, gangrene, etiolation, suffoca- tion, contortion, consumption. 874. Blight. Much has been written on the nature of blight ; and in proportion as words have been multiplied on the subject, the difficulties attending its elucidation have increased. 875. The blight, or blast, was well known to the ancient Greeks, who were however totally ignorant of its cause, regarding it merely as a blast from heaven, indicating the wrath of their offended deities, and utterly incapable of prevention or cure. It was known also to the Romans under the denomination of rubigo, who regarded it in the same light as the Greeks, and even believed it to be under the direction of a particular deity, Rubigus, whom they solemnly invoked that blight might be kept from corn and trees. It is still well known from its effects to every one having the least knowledge of husbandry or gardening ; but it has been very differently accounted for. And, perhaps, there is no one cause that will account for all the different cases of blight, or disease going by the name of blight ; though they have been supposed to have all the same origin. If we take the term in its most general acceptation I think it will include at least three distinct spring, which nip and destroy the tender shoots of the plant, by stopping the current of the juices. The leaves which are thos deprived of their due nourishment wither and fall, and the juices that are now stopped in their passage swell and burst the vessels, and become the food of innumerable little insects that soon after make their appearance. Hence they are often mistaken for the cause of the disease itself; the farmer supposing they are wafted to him on the east wind, while they are only generated in the extra- vasated juices, as forming a proper nidus for their eggs. Their multiplication will no doubt contribute to the spreading of the disorder, as they always breed fast where they find plenty of food. But a similar disease is often occasioned by the early frost of spring. If the weather is prematurely mild, the blossom is prematurely protruded, which, though it is viewed by the unexperienced with delight, yet it is viewed by the judicious with fear. For it very often happens that this premature blossom is totally destroyed by sub- sequent frosts, as well as both the leaves and shoots, which consequently wither and fall, and injure if they do not actually kill the plant. This evil is also often augmented by the unskilful gardener, even in at- tempting to prevent it; that is, by matting up his trees too closely, or by keeping them covered in the course of the day, and thus rendering the shoots so tender that they can scarcely fail to be destroyed by the next frost 877. Blight, originating in sultry and pestilential vapor, generally happens in the summer when the grain has attained to its full growth, and when there are no cold winds or frosts to occasion it Such was the blight that used to damage the vineyards of ancient Italy, and which is yet found to damage our hop-plantations and wheat-crops. The Romans had observed that it generally happened after short but heavy showers occurring about noon, and followed by clear sunshine, about the season of the ripening of the grapes, and that the middle of the vineyard suffered the most. This corresponds pretty nearly to what is in this country called the fire-blast among hops, which has been observed to take place, most commonly about the end of July, when there has been rain with a hot gleam of sunshine immediately after; the middle of the hop-ground is also the most affected whether the blight is general or partial, and is almost always the point in which it originates. In a particular case that was minutely observed, the damage happened a little before noon, and the blight ran in a line forming a right angle with the sun- beams at that time of the day. There was but little wind, which was however in the line of the blight. (Hole's Body of Husbandry.} Wheat is also affected with a similar sort of blight, and about the same season of the year, which totally destroys the crop. In the summer of 1809, a field of wheat, on rather a light and sandy soil, came up with every appearance of health, and also into ear with a fair prospect of ripening well About the beginning of July it was considered as exceeding any thing expected from such a soil. A week afterwards a portion of the crop, on the east side of the field, to the extent of several acres, was totally destroyed ; being shrunk and shrivelled up to less than one half the size of what it had for- merly been, and so withered and blasted as not to appear to belong to the same field. The rest of the field produced a fair crop. 878. Blight, originating in fungi, attacks the leaves or stem both of herbaceous and woody plants, such as euphorbia cyparissias, berberis vulgaris, and rhamnus catharticus, but more generally grasses ; and particularly our most useful grains, wheat, barley, and oats. It generally assumes the appearance cf a rusty-looking powder that soils the finger when touched. In March 1807,. some blades of wheat were examined by Keith that were attacked with this species of blight ; the appearance was that of a number of rusty-looking spots or patches dispersed over the surface of the leaf, exactly like that of the seeds of dorsiferous ferns bursting their indusium. Upon more minute inspection these patches were found to BOOK I. DISEASES OF VEGETABLES. 19S consist of thousands of small globules collected Into groups beneath the epidermis, which they raked up in a sort of blister and at last burst. Some of the globules seemed as if imbedded even in the longitudinal vessels of the blade. They were of a yellowish or rusty brown, and somewhat transparent. But these groups of globules have been ascertained by Sir J. Banks to be patches of a minute fungus, the seeds of which, as they float in the air, enter the pores of the epidermis of the leaf, particularly if the plant is f ickly ; or they exist in the manure or soil, and enter by the pores of the root. (Sir J. Banks on Blight, 1805.) This fungus has been figured by Sowerby, and by F. Bauer, and Grew. It is known among farmers by the name of red rust, and as it affects the stalks and leaves only it does not materially injure the crop But there is another species of fungus known to the farmer by the name of red gum, which attacks the ear only, and is extremely prejudicial. In the aggregate it consists of groups of minute globules inter- spersed with transparent fibres. The globules are filled with a fine powder, which explodes when they are put into water. It is very generally accompanied with a maggot of a yellow colour, that preys also upon the grain, and increases the amount of injury. The only means of preventing or lessening the effect of any of the different varieties of blight mentioned is proper culture. Palliatives are to be found in topical applications, such as flower of sulphur, and where the disease proceeds from, or consists of, innumerable minute insects, it may occasionally be removed. Grisenthwaite conjectures that in many cases in which the blight and mildew attack corn-crops, it may be for want of the peculiar food requisite for per- fecting the grain ; it being known that the fruit or seeds of many plants contain primitive principles not found in the rest of the plant. Thus the grain of wheat contains gluten and phosphate of lime, and where these are wanting in the soil, that is, in the manured earths in which the plant grows, it will be unable to perfect its fruit, which of consequence becomes more liable to disease. (New Theory of Agr. &c.) 879. Smut is a disease incidental to cultivated corn, by which the farina of the grain, together with its proper integuments and even part of the husk, is converted into a black soot-like powder. If th^ injured ear is struck with the finger, the powder will be dis- persed like a cloud of black smoke ; and if a portion of the powder is wetted by a drop of water and put under the microscope, it will be found to consist of millions of minute and transparent globules, which seem to be composed of a clear and glary fluid encompassed by a thin and skinny membrane. This disease does not affect the whole body of the crop, but the smutted ears are sometimes very numerously dispersed throughout it. Some have attributed it to the soil in which the grain is sown, and others" have attributed it to the seed itself, alleging that smutted seed will produce a smutted crop. But in all this there seems to be a great deal of doubt. Willdenow regards it as originating in a small fungus, which multiplies and extends till it occupies the whole ear. (Princip. of Sot. p. 356.) But F. Bauer of Kew, seems to have ascertained it to be merely a morbid swelling of the ear, and not at all connected with the growth of a fungus. (Smith's Introd. p. 348.) It is said to be prevented by steeping the grain before sowing in a weak solution of arsenic. But besides the disease called smut there is also a disease analogous to it, or a different stage of the same disease, known to the farmer by the name of bags or smut-balls, in which the nucleus of the seed only is converted into a black powder, whilst the ovary, as well as the husk, remains sound. The ear is not much altered in its external appearance, and the diseased grain contained in it will even bear the operation of threshing, and con- sequently mingle with the bulk. But it is always readily detected by the experienced buyer, and fatal to the character of the sample. It is said to be prevented as in the case of smut. 880. Mildew is a thin and whitish coating with which the leaves of vegetables are some- times covered, occasioning their decay and death, and injuring the health of the plant. It is frequently found on the leaves of tussilago farfara, humulus lupulus, corylus avellana, and the white and yellow dead-nettle. It is found also on wheat in the shape of a glu- tinous exudation, particularly when the days are hot and the nights without dew. Will- denow says it is occasioned by the growth of a fungus of great minuteness, the mucor erisyphe of Linnaeus ; or by a sort of whitish slime which some species of aphides deposit upon the leaves. J. Robertson (Hort. Trans, v. 178.) considers it as a minute fungus of which different species attack different plants. Sulphur he has found the only specific cure. In cultivated crops mildew is said to be prevented by manuring with soot. 881. Honey-dew is a sweet and clammy substance which coagulates on the surface of the leaves during hot weather, particularly on the leaves of the oak-tree and beech, and is regarded by Curtis as being merely the dung of some species of aphides. This seems to be the opinion of Willdenow also, and it is no doubt possible that it may be the case in some instances or species of the disease. But Sir J. E. Smith contends that it is not al- ways so, or that there are more species of honey-dew than one, regarding it particularly as being an exudation, at least in the case of the beech, whose leaves are, in consequence of an unfavorable wind, apt to become covered with a sweet sort of glutinous coating, similar in flavor to the fluid obtained from the trunk. 882. It is certain, however, that saccharine exudations are found on the leaves of many plants, though not always distinguished by the name of honey-dew ; which should not perhaps be applied except when the exudation occasions disease. But if it is to be applied to all saccharine exudations whatever, then we must include under the appellation of honey-dew, the saccharine exudations observed on the orange-tree by De la Hire, together with that of the lime-tree which is more glutinous, and of the poplar which is more resinous ; as also that of the cistus creticus, and of the manna which exudes from the ash-tree of Italy and larch of France It is also possible that the exudation of excrement constituting honey-dew may occasionally occur without producing disease ; for if it should happen to be washed off soon after by rains or heavy dews, then the leaves will not suffer. Washing is therefore the palliative : judicious culture the preventive. 883. Plants are also liable to a disease which affects them in a manner similar to that of the dropsy in animals, arising from long continued rain or too abundant watering. O 194 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. Willdenow describes it as occasioning a preternatural swelling of particular parts, and in- ducing putrefaction. It is said to take place chiefly in bulbous and tuberous roots, which are often found much swelled after rain. It affects fruits also, which it renders watery and insipid. It prevents the ripening of seeds, and occasions an immoderate production of roots from the stem. 884. Succulent plants. This disease generally appears in consequence of excessive waterings, and is gene- rally incurable. The leaves drop, even though plump and green ; and the fruit rots before reaching maturity. In this case the absorption seems to be too great in proportion to the transpiration ; but the soil when too much manured produces similar effects. Du Hamel planted some elms in a soil that was particularly well manured, and accordingly they pushed with great vigor for some time ; but at the end of five or six years they all died suddenly. The bark was found to be detached from the wood, and the cavity filled up with a reddish-colored water. The symptoms of this disease suggest the palliatives ; and the preventive is ever the same judicious culture. 885. Flux of juices. Some trees, but particularly the oak and birch, are liable to a great loss of sap either bursting out spontaneously, owing to a superabundance of sap, or issuing from accidental wounds ; sometimes it is injurious to the health of the plant, and sometimes not. 886. There is a spontaneous extravasation of the sap of the vine, known by the name of the tears of the vine, which is not always injurious. As it often happens that the root imbibes sap, which the leaves are not yet prepared to throw off, because not yet sufficiently expanded, owing to an inclement season, the sap which is first carried up, being propelled by that which follows, ultimately forces its way through all obstructions, and exudes from the bud. But this is observed only in cold climates ; for in hot climates where the developement of the leaves is not obstructed by cold, they are ready to elaborate the sap as soon as it reaches them. There is also a spontaneous extravasation of proper juice in some trees, which does not seem in general to be injurious to the individual. Thus the gum which exudes from cherry, plum, peach, and almond trees, is seldom detrimental to their health, except when it insinuates itself into the other vessels of the plant and occasions obstructions. 887. But the exudation of gum is sometimes a disease, and one for which there is seldom any remedy. It is generally the consequence of an unsuitable soil, situation, or climate. Cold raw summers will produce it in the peach, apricot, and more under-sorts of plum and cherry ; or grafting these fruits on diseased stocks. Cutting out the part and applying a covering of loam or tar and charcoal to exclude the air are palliatives ; but the only effectual method, where it can be practised, is to take up the tree and place it in a suitable soil and situation. 888. The extravasation and corruption of the ascending or descending juices, has been known to occasion a fissure of the solid parts. Sometimes the fissure is occasioned by means of frost, forming what is called a double alburnum ; that is, first a layer that has been injured by the frost, and then a layer that passes into wood. Sometimes a layer is partially affected, and that is generally owing to a sudden and partial thaw on the south side of the trunk, which may be followed again by a sudden frost. In this case the alburnum is split into clefts or chinks, by means of the expansion of the frozen sap. 889. Chilblains. But clefts thus occasioned often degenerate into chilblains that discharge a blackish and acrid fluid to the great detriment of the plant, particularly if the sores are so situated that rain or snow will readily lodge in them, and become putrid. The same injury may be occasioned by the bite or puncture of insects while the shoot is yet tender ; and as no vegetable ulcer heals up of its own accord, the sooner a cure is attempted the better, as it will, if left to itself, ultimately corrode and destroy the whole plant, bark, wood, and pith. The only palliative is the excision of the part affected, and the application of a coat of grafting wax. ( WiUdenow, p. 354.) 890. Gangrene. Of this disorder there are two varieties, the dry and the wet. The former is occasioned by means of excessive heat or excessive cold. If by means of cold, it attacks the leaves of young shoots and causes them to shrink up, converting them from green to black ; as also the inner bark, which it blackens in the same manner, so that it is impossible to save the plant except by cutting it to the ground. If by means of heat, the effects are nearly similar, as may oftentimes be seen in gardens, or even in forests, where the foresters are allowed to clear away the moss and withered leaves from the roots. Sometimes the disease is occasioned by the too rapid growth of a particular branch, de- priving the one that is next it of its due nourishment, and hence inducing its decay. Sometimes it is occasioned by means of parasitical plants, as in the case of the bulbs of the saffron, which a species of lycoperdon often attaches itself to and totally corrupts. 891. Dry gangrene. The harmattan winds of the coast of Africa kill many plants, by means of in- ducing a sort of gangrene that withers and blackens the leaves, and finally destroys the whole plant. The nopal of Mexico is also subject to a sort of gangrene that begins with a black spot, and extends till the whole leaf or branch rots off, or the plant dies. But plants are sometimes affected with a gangrene by which a part becomes first soft and moist, and then dissolves into foul ichor. This is confined chiefly to the leaves, flowers, and fruit. Sometimes it attacks the roots also, but rarely the stem. It seems to be owing, in many cases, to too wet or too rich a soil ; but it may originate in contusion, and may be caught by in- fection. But the nopal is subject also to a disease called by Thiery la dissolution, considered by Sir J. E. Smith as distinct from gangrene, and which appears to be Wittdenow's dry gangrene. A joint of the nopal, or a whole branch, and sometimes an entire plant, changes in the space of a single hour, from a state of apparent health to a state of putrefaction or dissolution. Now its surface is verdant and shining, and in an instant it changes to a yellow, and its brilliancy is gone. If the substance is cut into, the parts are found to have lost all cohesion, and are quite rotten ; the attempt at a cure is by speedy amputation below the diseased part Sometimes the vital principle collecting and exerting all its energies, makes a stand as it were against the encroaching disease, and throws off the infected part. (Smith's Introduction, p. 340.) 892. Etiolation. Plants are sometimes affected by a disease which entirely destroys their verdure, and renders them pale and sickly. This is called etiolation, and may arise merely from want of the agency of light, by which the extrication of oxygen is effected, and the leaf rendered green. And hence it is that plants placed in dark rooms, or be- tween great masses of stone, or in the clefts of rocks, or under the shade of other trees, look always peculiarly pale. But if they are removed from such situations, and exposed BOOK I. NATURAL DECAY OF VEGETABLES. 195 to the action of light, they will again recover their green color. Etiolation may also en- sue from the depredation of insects nestling in the radicle, and consuming the food of the plant, and thus debilitating the vessels of the leaf so as to render them insusceptible of the action of light. This is said to be often the case with the radicles of secale cereale ; and the same result may also arise from poverty of soil. 893. Suffocation. Sometimes it happens that the pores of the epidermis are closed up, and transpiration consequently obstructed, by means of some extraneous substance that attaches itself to and covers the bark. This obstruction induces disease, and the disease is called suffocation. 894. Sometimes it is occasioned by the immoderate growth of lichens upon the bark covering the whole of the plant, as may be often seen in fruit-trees, which it is necessary to keep clean by means of scraping off the lichens, at least from the smaller branches. For if the young branches are thus coated, so as that the bark cannot perform its proper functions, the tree will soon begin to languish, and will finally become covered with fungi, inducing or resulting from decay, till it is at last wholly choaked up. 895. But a similar effect is also occasionally produced by insects, in feeding upon the sap or shoot. This may be exemplified in the case of the aphides, which sometimes breed or settle upon the tender shoot in such multitudes as to cover it from the action of the external air altogether. It may be exemplified also in the case of Coccus Hesperidum and Acarus tellarius, insects that infest hot-house plants, the latter by spinning a fine and delicate web over the leaf, and thus preventing the access of atmospheric air. Insects are to be removed either by the hand or other mechanical means, or destroyed by excess of some of the elements of their nutrition, as heat, or cold, or moisture, where such excess does not prove injurious to the plant ; or by a composition either fluid or otherwise, which shall have the same effects. Prevention is to be attempted by general culture, and particular attention to prevent the propagation of the insects or vermin, by destroying their embryo progeny, whether oviparous or otherwise. 896. Sometimes the disease is occasioned by an extravasation of juices which coagulate on the surface of the stalk so as to form a sort of crust, investing it as a sheath, and preventing its further expansion. 897. Sometimes the disease is occasioned from want of an adequate supply of nourishment as derived from the soil, in which the lower part of the plant is the best supplied, while the upper part of it is starved. Hence the top shoots decrease in size every succeeding year, because sufficient supply of sap cannot be obtained to give them their proper developement. This is analogous to the phenomena of animal life, when the action of the heart is too feeble to propel the blood through the whole of the system : for then the extremities are always the first to suffer. And perhaps it may account also for the fact, that in bad soils and unfavorable seasons, when the ear of barley is not wholly perfected, yet a few of the lower grains are always completely developed. (Smith's Introduction, p. 344.) 898. Contortion. The leaves of plants are often injured by means of the puncture of insects, so as to induce a sort of disease that discovers itself in the contortion or convolu- tion of the margin, or wrinkled appearance of the surface. The leaves of the apricot, peach, and nectarine, are extremely liable to be thus affected in the months of June and July. 899. The leaf that has been punctured soon begins to assume a rough and wrinkled figure, and a reddish and scrofulous appearance, particularly on the upper surface. The margins roll inwards on the under side, and enclose the eggs which are scattered irregularly on the surface, giving it a blackish and granular appearance, but without materially injuring its health. In the vine, the substance deposited on the leaf is whitish, giving the under surface a sort of a frosted appearance, but not occasioning the red and scrofulous aspect of the upper surface of the leaf of the nectarine. In the poplar, the eggs when first deposited re- semble a number of small and hoary vesicles containing a sort of clear and colorless fluid. The leaf then becomes reflected and conduplicated, enclosing the eggs, with a few reddish protuberances on the upper surface. The embryo is nourished by this fluid : and the hoariness is converted into a fine cottony down, which for some time envelopes the young fly. The leaf of the lime-tree in particular is liable to attacks from insects when fully expanded ; and hence the gnawed appearance it so often exhibits. The injury seems to be occasioned by some species of puceron depositing its eggs in the parenchyma, generally about the angles that branch off from trie midrib. A sort of down is produced, at first green, and afterwards hoary ; sometimes in patches, and sometimes pervading the whole leaf; as in the case of the vine. Under this covering the egg is hatched ; and then the young insect gnaws and injures the leaf, leaving a hole, or scar of a burnt or singed appearance. Sometimes the upper surface of the leaf is covered with clusters of wart-like substances somewhat subulate and acute. They seem to be occasioned by means of a puncture made on the under surface, on which a number of openings are discoverable, penetrating into the warts, which are hollow and villous within. The disease admits of palliation by watering frequently over the leaves ; and by removing such as are the most contorted and covered by larva?. 900. Consumption. From barren or improper soil, unfavorable climate, careless planting, or too frequent flowering exhausting the strength of the plant, it often happens that disease is induced which terminates in a gradual decline and wasting away of the plant, till at length it is wholly dried up. Sometimes it is also occasioned by excessive drought, or by dust lodging on the leaves, or by fumes issuing from manufactories which may happen to be situated in the neighbourhood, or by the attacks of insects. 901. There is a consumptive affection that frequently attacks the pine-tree, called Teredo Pinorum (Willdenow, Princ. Bot. p. 351.), which affects the alburnum and inner bark chiefly, and seems to proceed from long continued drought, or from frost suddenly succeeding mild or warm weather, or heavy winds. The leaves assume a tinge of yellow, bordering upon red. A great number of small drops of resin exude from the middle of the boughs, of a putrid odor. The bark exfoliates, and the alburnum presents a livid ap- pearance. The tree swarms with insects, and the disease is incurable, inducing inevitably the total decay and -death of the individual. The preventive is obviously good culture, so as to maintain vigorous health : palliatives may be employed according to the apparent cause of the disease. SECT. III. Natural Decay. 902. Although a plant should not suffer from the influence of accidental injury, or from disease, still there will come a time when its several organs will begin to experience the approaches of a natural decline insensibly stealing upon it, and at last inducing death. The duration of vegetable existence is very different in different species. Yet in the ve- getable, as well as in the animal kingdom, there is a terra or limit set, beyond which the O 2 196 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. individual cannot pass. Some plants are annuals and last for one season only, springing up suddenly from seed, attaining rapidly to maturity, producing and again sowing their seeds, and afterwards immediately perishing. Such is the character of the various species of corn, as exemplified in oats, wheat, and barley. Some plants continue to live for a period of two years, and are therefore called biennials, springing up the first year from seed, and producing roots and leaves, but no fruit ; and in the second year producing both flower and fruit, as exemplified in the carrot, parsnep, and caraway. Other plants are perennials, that is, lasting for many years ; of which some are called under-shrubs, and die down to the root every year ; others are called shrubs, and are permanent both by the root and stem, but do not attain to a great height or great age ; others are called trees, and are not only permanent by both root and stem, but attain to a great size, and live to a great age. But even of plants that are woody and perennial, there are parts which perish annually, or which are at least annually separated from the individual ; namely, the leaves, flowers, and fruit, leaving nothing behind but the bare caudex, which submits in its turn to the ravages of time, and ultimately to death. 903. The decay of the temporary organs, which takes place annually, is a phenomenon familiar to every body, and comprehends the fall of the leaf, the fall of the flower, and the fall of the fruit 904. The fall of the leaj , or annual defoliation of the plant, commences for the most part with the colds of autumn, and is accelerated by the frosts of winter, that strip the forest of its foliage, and the landscape of its verdure. But there are some trees that retain their leaves throughout the whole of the winter, though changed to a dull and dusky brown, and may be called ever-clothed trees, as the beech : and there are others that retain their verdure throughout the year, and are denominated evergreens, as the holly. The leaves of both sorts ultimately fall in the spring. Sir J. E. Smith considers that leaves are thrown off by a process similar to that of the sloughing of diseased parts in the animal economy ; and Keith observes, that if it is necessary to illustrate the fall of the leaf by any analogous process in the animal economy, it may be compared to that of the shedding of the antlers of the stag, or of the hair or feathers of other beasts or birds, which being, like the leaves of plants, distinct and peculiar organs, fall off, and are rege- nerated annually, but do not slough. 905. The flowers, which, like the leaves, are only temporary organs, are for the most part very short- lived ; for as the object of their production is merely that of effecting the impregnation of the germs, that object is no sooner obtained than they begin again to give indications of decay, and speedily fall from the plant ; so that the most beautiful part of the vegetable is also the most transient. 906. The fruit, which begins to appear conspicuous when the flower falls, expands and increases in volume, and, assuming a peculiar hue as it ripens, ultimately detaches itself from the parent plant, and drops into the soil. But it does not in all cases detach itself in the same manner : thus, in the bean and pea the seed-vessel opens and lets the seeds fall out, while in the apple, pear, and cherry, the fruit falls entire, enclosing the seed, which escapes when the pericarp decays. Most fruits fall soon after ripening, as the cherry and apricot, if not gathered ; but some remain long attached to the parent plant after being fully ripe, as in the case of the fruit of euonymus, and mespilus. But these, though tenacious of their hold, detach themselves at last, as well as all others, and bury themselves in the soil, about to give birth to a new individual in the germination of the seed. The fall of the flower and fruit is accounted for in the same manner as that of the leaf. 907. Decay of the permanent organs. Such then is the process and presumptive ra- tionale of the decay and detachment of the temporary organs of the plant. But there is also a period beyond which even the permanent organs themselves can no longer carry on the process of vegetation. Plants are affected by the infirmities of old age as well as animals, and are found to exhibit also similar symptoms of approaching dissolution. The root refuses to imbibe the nourishment afforded by the soil, or if it does imbibe a portion, it is but feebly propelled, and partially distributed, through-the tubes of the alburnum ; the elaboration of the sap is now effected with difficulty as well as the assimilation of the proper juice, the descent of which is almost totally obstructed ; the bark becomes thick and woody, and covered with moss or lichens ; the shoot becomes stunted and diminutive ; and the fruits palpably degenerate, both in quantity and quality. The smaller or ter- minal branches fade and decay the first, and then the larger branches also, together with the trunk and root ; the vital principle gradually declines without any chance of recovery, and is at last totally extinguished. " When life is extinguished, nature hastens the de- composition ; the surface of the tree is overrun with lichens and mosses, which attract and retain the moisture ; the empty pores imbibe it, and putrefaction speedily follows. Then come the tribes of fungi, which flourish on decaying wood, and accelerate its corruption ; beetles and caterpillars take up their abode under the bark, and bore innumerable holes in the timber ; and woodpeckers in search of insects pierce it more deeply, and excavate large hollows, in which they place their nests. Frost, rain, and heat assist, and the whole mass crumbles away, and dissolves into a rich mould." (Dial, on Bot. p. 365.) CHAP. X. Vegetable Geography and History, or the Distribution of Vegetables relatively to the Earth and to Man. 90S. The science of the distribution of plants, Humboldt observes (Essai svr la Geo- graphic des Plantes, &c. 1807), considers vegetables in relation to their local association-* in BOOK I. DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETABLES. 197 different climates. It points out the grand features of the immense extent which plants occupy, from the regions of perpetual snow to the bottom of the ocean, and to the interior of the globe, where, in obscure grottoes, cryptogamous plants vegetate, as unknown as the insects which they nourish. The superior limits of vegetation are known, but not the inferior ; for every where in the bowels of the earth are germs which develope themselves when they find a space and nourishment suitable for vegetation. On taking a general view of the disposition of vegetables on the surface of the globe, independently of the influence of man, that disposition appears to be determined by two sorts of causes, geogra- phical and physical. The influence of man, or of cultivation, has introduced a third cause, which may be called civil. The different aspects of plants, in different regions, has given rise to what may be called their characteristic) or picturesque distribution ; and the subject of distribution may be also considered relatively to the systematic divisions of vegetables, their arithmetical proportions, and economical applications. SECT. I. Geographical Distribution of Vegetables. 909. The territorial limits to vegetation are determined in general by three different causes: 1. By sandy deserts, which seeds cannot pass over either by means of winds or birds, as that of Sahara, in Africa ; 2. By seas too vast for the seeds of plants to be drifted from one shore to the other, as in the ocean ; while the Mediterranean sea, on the contrary, exhibits the same vegetation on both shores ; and, 3. By long and lofty chains of mountains. To these causes are to be attributed the fact, that similar climates and soils do not always produce similar plants. Thus in certain parts of North America, which altogether resemble Europe in respect to soil, climate, and elevation, not a single European plant is to be found. The same remark will apply to New Holland, the Cape of Good Hope, Senegal, and other countries, as compared with countries in similar phy- sical circumstances, but geographically different. The separation of Africa and South America, Humboldt considers, must have taken place before the developement of organised beings, since scarcely a single plant of the one country is to be found in a wild state in the other. SECT. II. Physical Distribution of Vegetables. 910. The natural circumstances affecting the distribution of plants, may be considered in respect to temperature, elevation, moisture, soil, and light. 911. Temperature has the most obvious influence on vegetation. Everyone knows that the plants of hot countries cannot in general live in such as are cold, and the con- trary. The wheat and barley of Europe will not grow within the tropics ; the same re- mark applies to plants of still higher latitudes, such as those within the polar circles, which cannot be made to vegetate in more southern latitudes ; nor can the plants of more southern latitudes be made to vegetate there. In this respect, not only the medium temperature of a country ought to be studied, but the temperature of different seasons, and especially of winter. Countries where it never freezes ; those where it never freezes so strong as to stagnate the sap in the stems of plants ; and those where it freezes sufficiently strong to penetrate into the cellular tissue ; form three classes of regions in which vegetation ought to differ. But this difference is somewhat modified by the effect of vegetable structure, which resists, in different degrees, the action of frost ; thus, in general, trees which lose their leaves during winter resist the cold better than such as retain them ; resinous trees more easily than such as are not so ; herbs of which the shoots are annual and the root perennial, better than those where the stems and leaves are persisting ; annuals which flower early, and whose seeds drop and germinate before winter, resist cold less easily than such as flower late, and whose seeds lie dormant in the soil till spring. Monocotyledonous trees, which have generally persisting leaves and a trunk without bark, as in palms, are less adapted to resist cold than dicotyledonous trees, which are more favorably organised for this purpose, not only by the nature of their proper juice, but by the disposition of the cortical and alburnous layers, and the habitual carbonisation of the outer bark. Plants of a d^y nature resist cold better than such as are watery ; all plants resist cold better in dry winters than in moist winters ; and an attack of frost always does most injury in a moist country, in a humid season, or when the plant is too copiously supplied with water. 912. Some plants of firm texture, but natives of warm climates, will endure a frost of a few hours' continuance, as the orange at Genoa. (Humboldt, De Distributione Plantarum) ; and the same thing is said of the palm and pine-apple, facts most important for the gar- dener. Plants of delicate texture, and natives of warm climates, are destroyed by the slightest attack of frost, as the phaseolus, nasturtium, &c. 913. The temperature of spring has a material influence on the life, of vegetables ; the injurious effects of late frosts are known to every cultivator. In general, vegetation is favored in cold countries by exposing plants to the direct influence of the sun ; but this excitement is injurious in a country subject to frosts late in the season : in such cases, it is better to retard than to accelerate vegetation. O 3 198 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 914. The temjjeiltture of rummer, as it varies only by the intensity of heat, is not pro- ductive of so many injurious accidents as that of spring. Very hot dry summers, however, destroy many delicate plants, and especially those of cold climates. A very early summer is injurious to the germination and progress of seeds ; a short summer to their ripening, and the contrary. 915. stutumn is an important season for vegetation, as it respects the ripening of seeds ; hence where that season is cold and humid, annual plants, which naturally flower late, are never abundant, as in the polar regions ; the effect is less injurious to perennial plants, which generally flower earlier. Frosts early in autumn are as injurious as those which hap- pen late in spring. The conclusion, from these considerations, obviously is, that temperate climates are more favorable to vegetation than such as are either extremely cold or ex- tremely hot. But the warmer climates, as Keith observes, are more favorable upon the whole to vegetation than the colder, and that nearly in proportion to their distance from the equator. The same plants, however, will grow in the same degree of latitude, throughout all degrees of longitude, and also in correspondent latitudes on different sides of the equator ; the same species of plants, as some of the pahns and others, being found in Japan, India, Arabia, the West Indies, and part of South America, which are all in nearly the same latitudes ; and the same species being also found in Kamschatka, Ger- many, Great Britain, and the coast of Labrador, which are all also in nearly the same lati- tudes. ( JVilldenow, p. 374.) 916. The most remarkable circumstances respecting the temperature in the three zones, is exhibited in the following Table by Humboldt The temperature is taken according to the centigrade thermometer. The fathom is 6 French feet, or 6.39453 English feet. Torrid zone. Temperate zone. Frigid zone. Andes of Quito, Lat.0. Mountains of Mexico, Lat. 20. Caucasus, Lat.42iV. Pyrenees, Lat. 42f. Alps, Lat. 45* to 46* Lapland, Lat. 67 to 70 Inferior limit of per- 1 petual snow - - $ 2460 fa. 2350 fa. 1650 fa. 14OOfa. 1370 fa. 550 fa. Mean annual heat at ) that height - - 3 H ir- 4. 6. Mean heat of winter, do. If 10. 20. Mean heat of Aug. do. 1| 6. s> Distance between trees ) and snow - - - $ 600 fa. 350 fa. 650 fa. 230 fa. 450 fa. 300 fa. Upper limit of trees - 1800 fa. 2000 fa. lOOOfa. 1170 fa. 920 fa. 250 fa. Last species of trees to- ? wards the snow - ) Escalonia alstonia. Pinus Occident. Betula alba. Pin.rubra P. uncin. Pinus abies. Betula alba. Upper limit of the 1 Ericineffl - - - 3 Befariae, 1600 fa. Rhodod. Caucas, 1380 fa. Rhodod. ferrug. 1170 fa. Rhodod. laponic. 480 fa. Distance between the ) snow and corn - - ) 800 fa. - 630 fa. 700 fa. 450 fa. 1 . i 917. Elevation, or the height of the soil above the level of the sea, determines, in a very marked manner, the habitation of plants. The temperature lessens in regular gradation, in the same manner as it does in receding from the equator, and six hundred feet of ele- vation, De Candolle states, are deemed equal to one degree of latitude, and occasion a diminution of temperature equal to 23 of Fahrenheit ; 300 feet being nearly equal to half a degree. Mountains 1000 fathoms in height, at 46 of latitude, have the mean temper- ature of Lapland ; mountains of the same height between the tropics enjoy the tem- perature of Sicily ; and the summits of the lofty mountains of the Andes, even where situated almost directly under the equator, are covered with snow as eternal as that of the north pole. BOOK I. DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETABLES. 199 918. Hence it is that plants of high latitudes live on the mountains of such as are much lower, and thus the plants of Greenland and Lapland are found on the Alps and Pyrenees. At the foot of Mount Ararat (jig. 67.), Tournefort met with plants peculiar to Armenia; above these he met with plants which are found also in France ; at a still greater height he found himself surrounded with such as grow in Sweden ; and at the summit with such as vegetate in the polar regions. This accounts for the great variety of plants which are often found in a Flora of no great extent ; and it may be laid down as a botanical axiom, that the more diversified the surface of the country, the richer will its Flora be, at least in the same latitudes. It accounts also, in some cases, for the want of correspondence be- tween plants of different countries though placed in the same latitudes ; because the mountains or ridges of mountains, which may be found in the one and not in the other, will produce the greatest possible difference in the character of their Floras. And to this cause may generally be ascribed the diversity that often actually exists between plants grow- ing in the same latitudes, as between those of the north-west and north-east coasts of North America, as also of the south-west and south-east coasts ; the former being more moun- tainous, the latter more flat. Sometimes the same sort of difference takes place between the plants of an island and those of the neighbouring continent ; that is, if the one is mountainous and the other flat ; but if they are alike in their geographical delineation, then they are generally alike in their vegetable productions. 919. Cold and lofty situations are the favorite habitations of most cryptogamic plants of the terrestrial class, especially the fungi, algae, and mosses ; as also of plants of the class Tetradynamia, and of the Umbellatce and Syngenesian tribes ; whereas trees and shrubs, ferns, parasitic plants, lilies, and aromatic plants, are most abundant in warm climates ; only this is not to be understood merely of geographical* climates, because, as we have seen, the physical climate depends upon altitude. In consequence of which, combined with the ridges and directions of the mountains, America and Asia are much colder in the same degrees of northern latitude than Europe. American plants, vegetating at forty- two degrees of northern latitude, will vegetate very well at fifty-two degrees in Europe ; the same, or nearly so, may be said of Asia ; which, in the former case, is perhaps owing to the immense tracts of woods and marshes covering the surface, and in the latter, to the more elevated and mountainous situation of the country affecting the degree of temper- ature. So also Africa is much hotter under the tropics than America ; because in the latter the temperature is lowered by immense chains of mountains traversing the equa- torial regions, while in the former it is increased by means of the hot and burning sands that cover the greater part of its surface. 920. Elevation influences the habits of plants in various ways; by exposing them to the wind ; to be watered by a very fresh and pure water from the melting of adjoining snow ; and to be covered in winter by a thick layer of snow, which protects them from severe frosts. Hence many alpine plants become frozen during winter in the plains, and in gardens which are naturally warmer than their natural stations. In great elevations, the diminution of the density of the air may also have some influence on vegetation. The rarity of the atmosphere admits a more free passage for the rays of light, which, being in consequence more active, ought to produce a more active vegetation. Experience seems to prove this in high mountains ; and the same effect is produced in high latitudes by the length of the day. On the other hand, vegetables require to absorb a certain quantity of oxygene gas from the air during the night ; and as they find less of that in the rarefied air of the mountains, they ought to be proportionably feeble and languishing. According to experiments made by Theodore de Saussure, plants which grow best in the high Alps are those which require to absorb least oxygen during the night ; and, in this, point of view, the shortness of the nights near the poles correspond. These causes, hdwever, are obviously very weak, compared to the powerful action of temperature. O 4 200 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PAOT II. 921. Great anomalies are found in the comparative height in which the same plant will grow in different circumstances. In countries situated under the equator, the two sides of the mountain are of the same temperature, which is solely determined by elevation ; but in countries distant from it, the warmest side is that towards the south, and the zones of plants, instead of forming lines parallel to the horizon, incline towards the north. The reason, in both cases, is sufficiently obvious. In the temperate zone we find the same plants frequently on low and elevated situations, but this is never the case between the tropics. 922. Altitude influences the habits of aquatics; thus some aquatics float always on the surface of the water, as lemna, while others are either partially or wholly immersed. Such aquatics as grow in the depths of the sea are not influenced by climate ; but such as are near the surface are influenced by climate, and have their habitations affected by it. 923. The moisture, or mode of watering natural to vegetables, is a circumstance which has a powerful influence on the facility with which plants grow in any given soil. The quantity of water absolutely necessary for the nourishment of plants, varies according to their tissue ; some are immersed, others float on its surface ; some grow on the margin of waters, with their roots always moistened or soaked in it, others again live in soil slightly humid or almost dry. Vegetables which resist extreme drought most easily are, 1. Trees and herbs with deep roots, because they penetrate to, and derive sufficient moisture from, some distance below the surface ; 2. Plants which, being furnished with few pores on the epidermis, evaporate but little moisture from their surface, as the suc- culent tribe. 924. The qualities of water, or the nature of the substances dissolved in it, must neces- sarily influence powerfully the possibility of certain plants growing in certain places. But the difference in this respect is much less than would be imagined, because the food of one species of plant differs very little from that of another. The most remarkable . case is that of salt-marshes, in which a great many vegetables will not live, whilst a number of others thrive there better than any where else. Plants which grow in marine marshes and those which grow in similar grounds situated in the interior of a country are the same. Other substances naturally dissolved in water appear to have much less influence on vegetation, though the causes of the habitations of some plants, such as those which grow best on walls, as peltaria, and in lime-rubbish, as thlaspi, and other cruciferea, may doubtless be traced to some salt (nitrate of lime, &c.) or other substance peculiar to such situations. 925. The nature of the earth's surface affects the habitations of vegetables in different points of view : 1. As consisting of primitive earths, or the debris of rocks or mineral bodies ; and, 2. As consisting of a mixture of mineral, animal, and vegetable matter. 926. Primitive surfaces affect vegetables mechanically according to their different de- grees of moveability or tenacity. In coarse sandy surfaces plants spring up easily, but many of them, which have large leaves or tall stems, are as easily blown about and destroyed. In fine, dry, sandy surfaces, plants with very delicate roots, as protea and erica, prosper ; a similar earth, but moist in the growing season, is suited to bulbs. On clayey surfaces plants are more difficult to establish, but when established are more per- manent : they are generally coarse, vigorous, and perennial in their duration. 92"^. With respect to the relative jrroportions of the jrrimitive earths in these surfaces, it does not appear that their influence on the distribution of plants, is so great as might at first sight be imagined. Doubtless different earths are endowed with different degrees of absorbing, retaining, and parting with moisture and heat ; and these circumstances have a material effect in a state of culture, where they are comminuted and exposed to the air ; but not much in a wild or nafcwal state, where they remain hard, firm, and covered with vegetation. The difference, with a few exceptions, is never so great but that the seeds of a plant which has been found to prosper well in one description of earth, will germinate and thrive as well in another composed of totally different earths, provided they are in a nearly similar state of mechanical division and moisture. Thus De Can- /folle observes, though the box is very common on calcareous surfaces, it is found in as /rreat quantities in such as are schistous or granitic. The chestnut grows equally well in calcareous and clayey earths, in volcanic ashes, and in sand. The plants of Aira, a mountain entirely calcareous, grow equally well on the Vosges or the granitic Alps. But though the kind or mixture of earths seems of no great consequence, yet the presence of metallic oxides and salts, as sulphates of iron or copper, or sulphur alone, or alum, or other similar substances in a state to be soluble in water, are found to be injurious to all vegetation, of which some parts of Derbyshire and the maremmes of Tuscany {Chateau- vieux, let. 8.) are striking proofs. But excepting in these rare cases, plants grow nearly indifferently on all primitive surfaces, in the sense in which we here take these terms ; the result of which is, that earths strictly or chemically so termed, have much less in- fluence on the distribution of plants, than temperature, elevation, and moisture. Another BOOK I. DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETABLES. 201 result is, as De Candolle has well remarked, that it is often a very bad method of cul- ture to imitate too exactly the nature of the earth in which a plant grows in its wild state. 928. Mixed or secondary soils include not only primitive earths, or the debris of rocks, but vegetable matters not only the medium through which perfect plants obtain their food, but that food itself. In this view of the subject the term soil is used in a very ex- tensive acceptation, as signifying, not only the various sorts of earths which constitute the surface of the globe, but every substance whatever on which plants are found to vegetate, or from which they derive their nourishment. The obvious division of soils in this ac- ceptation of the term is that of aquatic, terrestrial, and vegetable soils ; corresponding to the division of aquatic, terrestial, and parasitical plants. 929. Aquatic soils are such as are either wholly or partially inundated with water, and are fitted to produce such plants only as are denominated aquatics. Of aquatics there are several subdivisions according to the particular situations they affect, or the degree of immersion they require. One of the principal subdivisions of aquatics is that of marine plants, such as the fuci and many of the algae, which are very plentiful in the seas that wash the coasts of Great Britain, and are generally at- tached to stones and rocks near the shore. Some of them are always immersed ; and others, which are situated above low water mark, are immersed and exposed to the action of the atmosphere alternately. But none of them can be made to vegetate except in the waters of the sea. Another subdivision of aqua- tics is that of river plants, such as chara, potamogeton, and nymphffia, which occupy the bed of fresh water rivers, and vegetate in the midst of the running stream ; being for the most part wholly immersed, as well as found only in such situations. A third subdivision of aquatics is that of paludal or fen plants, being such as are peculiar to lakes, marshes, and stagnant or nearly stagnant waters, but of which the bottom is often tolerably clear. In such situations you find the isoetis lacustris, flowering rush, water ranunculus, water violet, and a variety of others which uniformly affect such situations j some of them being wholly immersed, and others im- mersed only in part. 930. Earthy soils are such as emerge above the water and constitute the surface of the habitable globe, that is every where covered with vegetable productions. Plants affecting such soils, which comprise by far the greater part of the vegetable kingdom, are de- nominated terrestrial, being such as vegetate upon the surface of the earth, without having any portion immersed in water, or requiring any further moisture for their support beyond that which they derive from the earth and atmosphere. This division is, like the aquatics, distributed into several subdivisions according to the peculiar situations which different tribes affect. 931. Some of them are maritime, that is, growing only on the sea-coast, or at no great distance from it, such as statice, glaux, samolus, samphire, sea-pea. 932 Some arefluviatic, that is, affecting the banks of rivers, such as lythrum, lycopus, eupatrorium. 933. Some are champaign, that is, affecting chiefly the plains, meadows, and cultivated fields, such as cardamine, tragopogon, agrostemma. 934. Some are dumose, that is, growing in hedges and thickets, such as the bramble. 935. Some are ruder ate, that is, growing on rubbish, such as senecio viscosus. 936. Some are sylvatic, that is, growing in woods or forests, such as stachys sylvatioa, angelica sylvestrig. 937. And, finally, some are alpine, that is, growing on the summits of mountains, such as poa alpina, epilobium alpinum, and many of the mosses and lichens. 938. Vegetable soils are such as are formed of vegetating or decayed plants themselves, to some of which the seeds of certain other plants are found to adhere, as being the only soil fitted to their germination and developement. The plants springing from them are denominated Parasitical, as being plants that will vegetate neither in the water nor earth, but on certain other plants, to which they attach themselves by means of roots that penetrate the bark, and from the juices of which they do often, though not always, derive their support. This last circumstance constitutes the ground of a subdivision of parasiti- cal plants, into such as adhere to the dead or inert parts of other plants, and such as ad- here to living plants, and feed on their juices. 939. In the first subdivision we may place parasitical mosses, lichens, and fungi, which are found as often, and in as great perfection on the stumps of rotten trees, and on rotten pales and stakes, as on trees that are yet vegetating ; whence it is also plain that they do not derive their nourishment from the juices of the plants on which they grow, but from their decayed parts, and the atmosphere by which they are surrounded ; the plant to which they cling serving as a basis of support. 940. In the second subdivision we may place all plants strictly parasitical, that is, all such as do actually abstract from the juices of the plant to which they cling the nourishment necessary to the developement of their parts ; and of which the most common, at least as being indigenous to Britain, are the Mistletoe, Dodder, Broom-rape, and a sort of tuber that grows on the root of Saffron, and destroys it if allowed to spread. 941. The Mistletoe ( Viscum album) is found for the most part on the apple-tree ; but sometimes also on the oak. If its berry is made to adhere to the trunk or branch of either of the foregoing trees, which from its glutinous nature it may readily be made to do, it germinates by sending out a small globular body attached to a pedicle, which after it acquires a certain length bends towards the bark, whether above it or below it, into which it insinuates itself by means of a number of small fibres which it now protrudes, and by which it abstracts from the plant the nourishment necessary to its future developement. When the root has thus fixed itself in the bark of the supporting tree, the stem of the parasite begins to ascend, at first smooth and tapering, and of a pale green colour, but finally protruding a multiplicity of branches and leaves. It seems to have been thought by some botanists that the roots of the Mistletoe penetrate even into the wood, as well as through the bark. But the observations of Du Hamel show that this opinion is act well founded. The roots are indeed often found within the wood, which they thus seem to have SCIENCE OF GARDENING, PART II. penetrated by their own vegetating power. But the fact Is, that they are merely covered by the addi- tional layers of wood that have been formed since the fibres first insinuated themselves into the bark. 942. The Cuscuta europcca, or Dodder (fig. 68.), though it Is to be accounted a truly parasitical plant in the issue, is 68 yet not originally so. For the seed of this plant when it has fallen to the ground takes root originally by sending down its radicle into the soil and elevating its stem into the air. It is not yet, therefore, a parasitical plant. But the stem which is now elevated above the surface lays hold of the first plant it meets with, though it is par- ticularly partial to hops and nettles, and twines itself around it, attaching itself by means of li ttle parasitical roots at the points of contact, and finally detaching itself from the soil altogether by the decay of the original root, and becoming a truly parasitical plant. Withering de- scribes the plant in his arrangement as being oiiginally parasitical ; but this is certainly not the fact. 943. The Orobanche, or Broom-rape, which attaches itself by the root to the roots of other plants, is also to be regarded as being truly parasitical, though it sometimes sends out fibres which seem to draw nourishment from the earth. It is found most frequently on the roots of common Broom. 944. The Epidendron flos aeris is regarded also by botanists as a parasitical plant, because it is generally found growing on other trees. But as it is found to grow in old tan, it probably derives only support from the bark of trees, and not nourishment 945. Light is a body which has very considerable influence on the structure of vege- tables, and some also on their habitation. The fungi do not require the usual interludes of day, in order to decompose carbonic acid gas, and can live and thrive with little or no light. In green plants, which require the action of light, the intensity required is very different in different species ; some require shady places, and hence the vegetable in- habitants of caves, and the plants which grow in the shade of forests ; others, and the greater number, require the direct action of the sun, and grow in exposed elevated sites. De Candolle considers that the great difficulty of cultivating Alpine plants in the gar- dens of plains, arises from the impossibility of giving them at once the fresh temperature and intense light which they find on high mountains. SECT. III. Civil Causes affecting the Distribution of Plants. 946. By the art of man plants may be inured to circumstances foreign to their usual habits. Though plants in general are limited to certain habitations destined for them by nature, yet some are, and probably the greater number may be, inured to climates, soils, and situations, of which they are not indigenous. The means used are acclimating and culture. 947. Acclimating seems to be most easily effected in going from a hot to a cold climate, particularly with herbaceous plants. Because it often happens that the frosts of winter are accompanied with snow, which shelters the plant from the inclemency of the atmosphere till the return of spring. Trees and shrubs, on the contrary, are acclimated with more difficulty, because they cannot be so easily sheltered from the colds, owing to the greater length of their stems and branches. The acclimating or naturalisation of vegetables is to be attempted by two modes : by sowing the seeds of successive generations, and by the difference of temperature produced by different aspects. The former is well exemplified in the case of the rice-plant which is grown in Germany, from seeds raised there, while if seeds from its native country, India, are used they will not vegetate (Sir J. Banks, in Hort. Trans, vol. i.) ; and the latter in the sloping banks of Professor Thouin of Paris, as described by Girardin. (Physiologie Vegetate, vol. i.) Some plants seem to have the capacity of vegetating in almost all climates, or of naturalising themselves in almost any. This is particularly the case with esculents, such as the domestic cabbages, potatoes, and carrots. (Dialogues on Botany, p. 411.) 948. Domesticated plants. " Some plants," Humboldt observes, " which constitute the object of gardening and of agriculture, have time out of mind accompanied man from one end of the globe to the other. In Europe, the vine followed the Greeks ; the wheat, the Romans ; and the cotton, the Arabs. In America the Tultiques carried with them the maize ; the potatoe and the quinoa ( Chenopodium quinoa, of which the seeds are used,) are found wherever have migrated the ancient Condinamarea. The migration of these plants is evident ; but their first country is as little known as that of the different races of men, which have been found in all parts of the globe from the ear- liest traditions." (Geographic des Plantes, p. 25.) 949. The general effect of culture on plants is that of enlarging all their parts ; but it often also alters their qualities, forms, and colors : it never, however, alters their pri- mitive structure. " The potatoe," as Humboldt observes, " cultivated in Chili, at nearly twelve thousand feet above the level of the sea, carries the same flower as in Siberia." BOOK I. DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETABLES. 203 950. The culinary vegetables of our gardens, compared with the same species In their wild state, afford striking proof's of the influence of culture on both the magnitude and qualities of plants. Nothing in regard to magnitude is more remarkable than in the case of the Brassica tribe ; and nothing, in respect to quality, exceeds the change effected on the celery and carrot. 951. The influence of culture on fruits is not less remarkable. The peach, in its wild state in Media, is poisonous, but cultivated in the plains of Ispahan and Egypt, it be- comes one of the most delicious of fruits. The effect of culture on the apple, pear, cherry, plum, and other fruits, is nearly as remarkable ; for not only the fruit and leaves, but the general habits of the tree are altered in these and other species. The history of the migration of fruit-trees has been commenced by Sickler, in a work (Geschicte, &c.) which Humboldt has praised as equally curious and philosophical. 952. The influence of culture on plants of ornament is great in most species. The parts of all plants are enlarged, some are numerically increased, as in the case of double flowers ; and what is most remarkable, even the colors are frequently changed, both in the leaf, flower, and fruit. 953. The influence of civilisation and culture, in increasing the number of plants in a country, is very considerable, and operates directly, by introducing new species for cul- ture in gardens, fields, or timber-plantations ; and indirectly by the acclimating and final naturalisation of many species, by the influence of winds and birds in scattering their seeds. The vine and the fig are not indigenous to France, but are now naturalised there by birds. In like manner the orange is naturalised in the south of Italy. Many her- baceous plants of the Levant are naturalised both in France and Britain ; some, as the cabbage, cherry, and apple, were probably naturalised during the subjection of England to the Romans. The narrow-leaved elm was brought from the Holy Land during the crusades. Phaseolus vulgaris, and impatiens balsamina were brought originally from India ; and datura stramonium, which is now naturalised in Europe, was brought originally from India or Abyssinia. Buckwheat and most' species of corn and peas came also from the East, and along with them several plants found among corn only, such as centaurea cyanus, agrostemma githago, raphanus raphanistrum, and myagrum sativum. The country from whence the most valuable grasses migrated is not known. Bruce says he found the oat wild in Abyssinia, and wheat and millet have been found in a wild state in hilly situations in the East Indies. Rye and thp potatoe were not known to the Romans. The country of the former Humboldt declares to be totally unknown. 954. The greatest refinement in culture consists in the successful formation of artificial climates for the culture of tropical plants in cold regions. Many vegetables, natives of the torrid zone, as the pine-apple, the palm, &c. cannot be acclimated in temperate countries. But by means of hot-houses of different kinds they are grown even on the borders of the frozen zone to the highest degree of perfection ; and in Britain some of the tropical fruits, as the pine atod melon, are brought to a greater size and better flavor than in their native habitations. Casting our eyes on man, and the effects of his indus- try, we see him spread on the plains and sides of mountains, from the frozen ocean to the equator, and every where he wishes to assemble around him whatever is useful and agreeable of his own or of other countries. The more difficulties to surmount, the more rapidly are developed the moral faculties ; and thus the civilisation of a people is almost always in an inverse ratio with the fertility of the soil which they inhabit. What is the reason of this ? Humboldt asks. Habit and the love of the site natal. SECT. IV. Characteristic or Picturesque Distribution of Vegetables. 955. The social and antisocial habits of plants is one of their most remarkable charac- teristics. Like animals they live in two classes : the one class grows alone and scattered, as solanum dulcamara, lychnis dioica, polygonum bistorta, anthericum liliago, &c. The other class unites in society, like ants or bees, covers immense surfaces, and excludes other species, such as fragaria vesca, vaccinium myrtillus, polygonum aviculare, aira canescens, pinus sylvestris, &c. Burton states that the mitchella repens is the plant most extensively spread in North America, occupying all the ground between the 28 and 69 of north latitude. The arbutus uva ursi, extends from New Jersey to the 72 of latitude. On the contrary, gordonia, franklinia, and dionaea muscipula are found isolated in small spots. Associated plants are more common in the temperate zones than in the tropics, where vegetation is less uniform and more picturesque. In the temperate zones, the frequency of social plants, and the culture of man, has rendered the aspect of the country comparatively monotonous. Under the tropics, on the contrary, all sorts of forms are united ; thus cypresses and pines are found in the forests of the Andes of Quindiu, and of Mexico ; and bananas, palms, and bamboos in the valleys, (jig. 69. ) But green meadows and the season of spring are wanting in the south, for nature has reserved gifts for every region. " The valleys of the Andes," Humboldt observes, " are ornamented with bananas and palms ; on the mountains are found oaks, firs, barberries, alders, brambles, and a 204 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. crowd of genera believed to belong only to countries of the north. Tims the Inhabitant of the equinoctial regions views all the vegetable forms which nature has bestowed around him on the globe. Earth developes to his eyes a spectacle as varied as the azure vault of heaven, which conceals none of her constellations." The people of Europe do not enjoy the same advantage. The languishing plants, which the love of science or luxury cultivates in our hot-houses, present only the shadow of the majesty of equinoctial vege- tation ; but by the richness of our language, we paint these countries to the imagination, and individual man feels a happiness peculiar to civilisation. 956. The features of many plants are so obvious and characteristic, as to strike every general observer. The scitamineac, tree-heaths, firs, and pines, mimosae, climbers, cacti, grasses, lichens, mosses, palms, equisitaceae, arums, pothos, dracontium, &c. the chaffy- leaved plants, malvaceae, orchideae, liliaceic, &c. form remarkable groups distinguishable at first sight. Of these groups, the most beautiful are the palms, scitamineae, and liliacea;, which include the bamboos and plantains, the most splendid of umbrageous plants. 957. The native counti-ies of plants may often be discovered by their features in the same manner as the national distinctions which are observable in the looks and color of man- kind, and which are effected chiefly by climate. Asiatic plants are remarkable for their superior beauty ; African plants for their thick and succulent leaves, as in the case of the cacti ; and American plants for the length and smoothness of their leaves, and for a sort of singularity in the shape of the flower and fruit. The flowers of European plants are but rarely beautiful, a great proportion of them being amentaceous. Plants indigenous to polar and mountainous regions are generally low, with small compressed leaves ; but with flowers large in proportion. Plants indigenous to New Holland are distinguishable for small and dry leaves, that have often a shrivelled appearance. In Arabia they are low and dwarfish ; in the Archipelago they are generally shrubby and furnished with prickles ; while in the Canary Islands many plants, which in other countries are merely herbs, assume the port of shrubs and trees. The shrubby plants of the Cape of Good Hope and New Holland exhibit a striking similarity, as also the shrubs and trees of the northern parts of Asia and America, which may be exemplified in the platanus orientalis of the former, and in platanus occidentalis of the latter, as well as in fagus sylvatica and fagus 1 all folia, or acer cappadocium and acer saccharinum; and yet the herbs and under- shrubs of the two countries do not in the least correspond. " A tissue of fibres," Hum- boldt observes, " more or less loose vegetable colors more or less vivid, according to the chemical mixture of their elements, arid the force of the solar rays, are some of the causes which impress on the vegetables of each zone their characteristic features." 958. The influence of the general asjxct of vegetation on the taste and imagination of a people the difference in this respect between the monotonous oak and pine forests of the temperate zones, and the picturesque assemblages of palms, mimosas, plantains, and bamboos of the tropics the influence of the nourishment, more or less stimulant, peculiar to different zones, on the character and energy of the passions : these, Humboldt observes, unite the history of plants with the moral and political history of man. BOOK I. DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETABLES. 205 SECT. V. Systematic Distribution of Vegetables. 959. The distribution of plants, considered in respect to tfieir systematic classifications, is worthy of notice. The three grand systematic divisions of plants are acotyledoneae, dico- tyledoneae, and monocotyledoneae. A simplification of this division considers plants as agajnous, or phanerogamous, that is, without or with visible sexes. 960. Plants of 'visible sexes. Taking the globe in zones, the temperate contain \ part of all the phanerogamous or visible sexual species of plants. The equinoctial countries contain nearly ^ and Lapland only ^5 part. 961. Plants with the sexual parts invisible or indistinct. Taking the whole surface of the globe, the agamous plants, that is, mosses, fungi, fuci, &c. are to the phanerogamae or perfect plants, nearly as 1 to 7 ; in the equinoctial countries as 1 to 5 ; in the tem- perate zones as 2 to 5 ; in New Holland as 2 to 1 1 ; in France as 1 to 2 ; in Lapland, Greenland, Iceland, and Scotland, they are as 1 to 1, or even more numerous than the phanerogamous plants. Within the tropics, agamous plants grow only on the summits of the highest mountains. In several of the islands of the Gulf of Carpentaria, having a Flora of phanerogamous plants exceeding 200 species, R. Brown did not observe a single moss. 962. In the whole globe, the monocotyledonete, including the grasses, liliaceae, scita- meneae, &c. are to the whole of the perfect plants as 1 to 6 ; in the temperate zones (between 36 and 52,) as 1 to 4; and in the polar regions as 1 to 20. In Germany, the monocotyledoneae are to the total number of species as 1 to 4^ ; in France as 1 to 4| ; in New Holland the three grand divisions of plants, beginning with the acotyledoneae, are nearly as 1, 2^, and 1\. 963. Dicotyledonece. In the whole globe, the monocotyledoneae are estimated, by R. Brown, from Persoon's Synopsis, (Gen. Rem. on the Sot. of Terr. Aust. 1814,) to be to the dicotyledoneae as 2 to 1 1 ; or with the addition of undescribed plants, as 2 to 9. From the equator to 30 of north latitude, they are as 1 to 5. In the higher latitudes a gradual diminution of dicotyledoneae takes place, until in about 60 north latitude and 50 south latitude they scarcely equal half their intertropical proportions. The ferns in the temperate regions are to the whole number of species as 1, 2, and 5 ; that is, in the polar regions as 1, in the temperate countries as 2, and in the intertropical regions as 5. In France, ferns form ^ part of the phanerogamous plants ; in Germany -fa ; in Lap- land ,. 964. The natural orders of perfect or phanerogamous plants are variously distributed in different countries. The following Table gives a general view of the relative proportions of several natural orders of perfect plants in France, Germany, and Lapland. Ratio of each Family to the whole of the Phanero- Names of Natural Orders. Number of Species in different Countries. gamous plants in these Countries. Fran. Germ. -Lapl. Fran. Germ. Lapl. Cyperoideae 134 102 55 i TS J Gramineae - 284 143 49 * Vs X Junceae - - 42 20 20 A 9? * These three Families together Orchidese - 460 54 265 44 124 11 1 i I Labiatae - ... 149 72 7 2 Rhinantheae et Scrophulesc - Boragineae . - 147 49 76 26 17 6 t 1 i Ericeae et Rhododendreae Compositas .... Umbelliferae 29 490 170 21 238 86 20 38 9 i 1 i ! Cruciferae 190 106 22 i 53 Malvaceae 25 8 i Caryophylleae Leguminoseae Euphorbeae - - J65 230 51 71 96 18 29 14 I I i I ^ Amentaceae Conifereae - - 69 19 48 7 23 3 i i 3645 1884 497 20G SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 965. Tlie most universal plants are the agamous families. Their germs are the only ones which nature developes spontaneously in all climates. The poly- trychum commune (Jig- 70. ) grows in all latitudes ; in Europe and under the equator ; on high mountains and on a level with the sea ; in short, wherever there is shade and humidity. No phanerogamous plants have organs sufficiently flexible to accommodate themselves in this manner to every zone. The alsine media, fragaria vesca, and solanum nigrum, have been supposed to enjoy this advantage ; but all that can be said is, that these plants are very much spread, like the people of the race of Caucasus, in the northern part of the ancient con- tinent. (Humboldt.) SECT. VI. " Economical Distribution of Vegetables. 966. The plants chiefly employed in human economy differ in different climates and countries i but some, as the cereal grasses, are in universal use ; and others, as the banana and plamain (Jig. 71.), only in the countries which produce ttiem. 967. The bread-corn of the temperate climates is chiefly wheat and maize ; of the hot climates rice, and of the coldest climates barley. 968. The edible roots of the old world are chiefly the yam, sweet potatoe, onion, carrot, and turnip ; of the new the potatoe. 969. The oleraceous herbs of temperate climates are chiefly the brassica family, and other cruciferae. In hot climates pot-herbs are little used. Legumes, as the pea, bean, and kidney-bean, are in general use in most parts of the old world. 970. The fruits of the northern hemisphere belong chiefly to the orders of Pomaceae, Amygdalineae, Grossulareae, Rosaceae, Viticeae, and Amentaceae. The fruits of the East Indies belong chiefly to Myrtaceae, Guttifereae, Auranteao, Musaceae, Palmae, Cu curbitaceae, Myristiceae, &c. The fruits of China are chiefly of the orders of Auranteae, Myrtaceae, Rhamnea?, Pomaceae, Amygda lineae, Palmae, &c. The fruits of Africa belong to Sapoteae, Palmae, Chrysobalaneae, Guttifereae, Apocineae, Papilionaceae, Musaceae, and Cucurbitaceae. The fruits of South America belong to Annonaceae, Myrtaceae, Terebintaceae, Myristiceae, Palmae, Bro- meliaceae, Sapoteae, Laurinae, Chrysobalaneae, Musaceae, Papilionaceae, and Passifloreae. 971. The most showy herbaceous flowers of the temperate zone belong to Rosaceae, Li- liaceae, Irideae, Ericinae, Ranunculaceae, Primulaceae, Caryophylleae, Gentianeae, &c. Those of the torrid zone belong to the Scitamineae, Amaryllideae, Bignoniaceae, Mela- stomaceae, Magnoliaceas, Papilionacea?, Apocineas, &c. The most useful timber-trees of temperate climates are of the pine or fir kind ; of warm climates the palm and bamboo. The universal agricultural order is the Graminece. SECT. VII. Arithmetical Distribution of Vegetables. 972. The total number ofsjyecies of plants known, or believed to exist, amounts to about 44,000, of which 38,000 have been described. According to Humboldt and R. Brown, they are thus distributed : in Europe 7000 ; in temperate Asia 1500; in equinoctial Asia and the adjacent islands 4500 ; in Africa 3000 ; in temperate America, in both hemi- spheres, 4000 ; in equinoctial America 13,000 ; in New Holland and the islands of the Pacific Ocean 5000 ; in all 38,000. In Spitzbergen there are 30 species of perfect plants ; in Lapland 534 ; in Iceland 533 ; in Sweden 1299; in Scotland 900 ; in Britain 1400 ; in Brandenburg 2000 ; in Piedmont 2800 ; in Jamaica, Madagascar, and the coast of Coromandel, from 4000 to 5000. SECT. VIII. Distribution of the British Flora, indigenous and exotic. 973. About thirteen thousand plants compose the Hortus Britannicus, or such species as admit of cultivation. Mosses, Fungi, Fuci, Algae, and Lichens are, with a few ex- ceptions, excluded. BOOK I. DISTRIBUTION OF THE BRITISH FLORA. 207 974. The natives of Britain which enter into this Hortus are upwards of 1400 species ; but the native British Flora contains in all above 3300 species. Of these there are about 1437 cotyledonous plants, and nearly 1893 of imperfect, or of what are termed, in the Jussieuean system, acotyledoneae. 975. Of the cotyledonous or perfect plants, 182 are trees or shrubs; 855 are peren- nials ; 60 are biennials, and 340 annuals. Of the trees and shrubs, 47 are trees ; 25 above thirty feet high, and the remainder under thirty, but above 10 feet high. Of the perennials 83 are grasses ; the next greatest number belong to the two first orders of the class Pentandria ; the next to the Syngenesia ; and the third to Moncecia Triandria, or the Cyperacese of Jussieu, comprehending chiefly the genus Carex. Most of the bien- nials belong to the first order of the 19th class, and the two first orders of Pentandria. There are 41 annual grasses ; 52 annuals belong to the two first orders of Pentandria ; and the next greatest number of annuals to Diadelphia Decandria, which includes the tre- foils and vetches. 976. Of the Cryjitogamece, or imperfect plants, 800 are fungi; 18 algae ; 373 lichens; 85 hepaticse ; 460 musci ; and 130 ferns ; according to an estimate (in Rees"s Cyclop, art. Plant,) understood to be made by Sir J. E. Smith. 977. In regard to the distribution of the perfect plants as to elevation, little or nothing has been yet generalised on the subject. In regard to soils, 276 are found in bogs, and marshy or moist places ; 140 on the sea-shores ; 128 in cultivated grounds ; 121 in mea- dows and pastures ; 78 in sandy grounds ; 76 in hedges and on hedge-banks ; 70 on chalky and other calcareous soils ; 64 on heaths ; 60 in woods ; 30 on walls ; 29 on rocks ; and 1 9 on salt-marshes ; reckoning from Galpine's Compend. Fl. Brit. 978. In the distribution of the Cryptogamece, the ferns prevail in rocky places and wastes ; most of the musci, hepatici, and lichens, on rocks and trees ; most of the fuci and algae in the sea ; and of the fungi, on decaying vegetable bodies, especially trunks of trees, manures, &c. 979. In respect to geographical distribution, the mountainous and hilly districts of Eng- land and South Wales are most prolific ; the greatest number, according to extent of sur- face, are found in England and Wales, and the smallest number in Ireland. 980. The genera of the native British Flora have been already arranged according to the Linnaean and Jussieuean systems (where they are distinguished by marks *) ; they enter into 23 classes and 71 orders of the former, and 8 classes and 121 orders of the latter system. 981. With respect to the uses or application of the native Flora, there are about 18 sorts of wild fruits which may be eaten, exclusive of the wild apple and pear ; but only the pear, apple, plum, currant, raspberry, strawberry, and cranberry, are gathered wild, or cultivated in gardens. There are about 20 boiling culinary plants natives, including the cabbage, sea-kale, asparagus, turnip, carrot, and parsnep. There are about the same number of spinaceous plants, salading, and pot and sweet herbs, which may be used, but of which but a few only enter into the dietetics of modern cooks. There are three fungi, in general use, the mushroom, truffle, and morel ; and various others, as well as about eight species of sea-weeds, are occasionally eaten. There are about six native plants cultivated as florists' flowers, including the primula elatior, crocus, narcissus, dianthus, &c. Nearly 100 grasses, clovers, and leguminous plants are used in agriculture, or serve in their native places of growth as pasturage for cattle. Two native plants, the oat and the big, or wild barley, are cultivated as farinaceous grains. Most of the trees are used in the mechanical arts, for fuel, or for tanning : one plant, the flax, not an aboriginal native, but now naturalised, affords fibre for the manufacture of linen cloth. Various plants yield colored juices, which may be, and in part are, used in dyeing ; and some hundred species have been, and a few are still used in medicine. About 20 cotyledonous plants, and above 50 cryptogameae, chiefly fungi, are, or are reputed to be, poisonous, both to men and cattle. 982. By the artificial Flora of Britain, we understand such of the native plants as admit of preservation or culture in gardens ; and such exotics as are grown there, whether in the open ground, or in different descriptions of plant habitations. The total number of species which compose this Flora, or Hortus Britannicus, as taken from Sweet's catalogue, is, as already observed (973.), about 13,000, including botanists' varieties, and excluding agamous plants. This is nearly a fourth part of the estimated Flora of our globe, and may be considered in regard to the countries from whence the plants were introduced ; the periods of their introduction ; their obvious divisions ; their systematic classification ; their garden habitations ; their application ; and their native habitations. 983. With respect to the native countries of the artificial Flora or Hortus Britannicus, of 970 species the native countries are unknown ; the remaining 12,000 species were first introduced from the following countries : 208 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. EUROPE. ASIA. AFRICA. AMERICA. Continent. Continent. Continent. S. Continent. N. Continent. S. of Europe - 659 East Indies - 826 Cape of Good") goon Mexico - 102 United States 1222 Spain - - 266 Siberia - - 364 Hope - S Peru - - 77 Carolina - - 129 Italy ... 202 Hungary - - 173 Austria - - 171 Levant - - 213 China - - 205 Caucasus 67 Barbary 77 Egypt - 69 Morocco - 13 Brazil - 74 Guinea - 33 Vera Cruz 22 Virginia - . 49 Canada - - 28 Missouri . 24 Germany - - 134 Persia - - 37 Sierra Leone 12 Caraccas - 21 Louisiana - IS Switzerland - 117 Japan - 36 Guinea - 11 Chili . 29 Georgia - - 16 France - - 103 Syria - - - 19 Abyssinia - 8 Buenos Ayres 8 Florida 9 Various other") ^ Parts - J * Islands. Madeira - - 75 Various other 7 O o Parts - j 82 Islands. New So. Wales 239 Algiers - 8 Various other! Parts - j 51 Islands. Various other") cna Places - j m S. Islands. Cayenne 9 Other Parts ~[ of British America and ^111 the United I States - - J Candia - - 66 New Holland 152 Canaries - - 82 Falkland 1 Other Islands - 352 Ceylon - - 31 Teneriffe - ' - 21 Islands - J J N. Islands. Britain - - 1400 VanDiemanV) o . St. Helena - 6 Terra del 7 , West Indies - 435 Land . j 21 Cape Verde 7 , Fuego - 3 Jamaica - - 248 Other Islands 73 Islands - J Bahamas - - 9 Other Islands 55 European plants in the artificial Flora of Britain .... 4169 Asiatic - - - - - >, - 2365 African * '. . . . 2639 South America - . - . . .. 644 Native countries unknown - - - . 970 . 13,140 984. With respect to the dates of the introduction of the exotics from those different countries, the dates of the introduction of none are known before the time of Gerard, in Henry VIII. 's reign. From this author and Trew, it appears that 47 species were intro- duced on or before 1548, including the apricot, fig, pomegranate, &c. Those previously introduced, of which the dates are unknown, may be considered as left here by the Ro- mans, or afterwards brought over from France, Italy, and Spain, by the ecclesiastics, and preserved in the gardens of the religious houses. Henry died in 1547 ; but the plants in- troduced in the year after his death, may be considered as properly belonging to his reign. George I. 1714 to 1727. 182 plants, chiefly through the Chelsea garden. George II. 1727 to 1760. 1770 plants, almost entirely through the Chelsea garden, now in its zenith of fame under Miller. 375 of these plants are stated as introduced in 1730 and 1731, the latter being. the year in which the first folio edition of the Gardeners' and Botanists' Dictionary appeared. Edn. VI. 1547 to 1553. During this troublous reign, only seven exotic species were added to the British garden, chiefly by Dr. Turner, director of the Duke of Somerset's (then Lord Protector) garden at Zion House. Mary. 1353 to 1558. No plant? introduced. Elizabeth. 1558 to 1603. 533 species were introduced during this reign. Of these, 288 are enumerated in the first edition of Gerard's Herbal, published 1557. Drake's voyage round the 239 in 1739, in which year the 4th edition of the same work world, Raleigh's discoveries in North America, and the con- sequent introduction of the tobacco and potatoe, took place during this reign. James I. 1603 to 1625. Only 20 plants introduced during this period. Charles I. 1625 to 1649. 331 plants introduced, which are chiefly mentioned by Parkinson, the first edition of whose work was published in 1 629. Parkinson was the king's hsrbaHst, and Tradescant his kitchen-gardener. A taste for plants began to appear among the higher classes during this reign ; various private gentlemen had botanic gardens; and several London merchants procured seeds and plants for Lobel, Johnston, and Parkinson, through their foreign correspondents. O. and R. Cromwell. 1649 to 1658. 95 plants introduced by the same means as before. Cromwell encouraged agriculture ; but the part he acted left no leisure for any description of elegant or refined enjoyment. Charles II. 1660 to 1685. 152 plants introduced, chiefly mentioned by Ray, Morrison, and different writers in the Transactions of the Royal Society, founded hi 1663. The Oxford and Chelsea gardens were founded, or enlarged, during this reign. Sir Hans Sloane and Evelyn flourished. Many native plants were now brought into notice by Ray and 239 in 1739, in which year the 4th edition of the same work appealed. 196 in 1752, and above 400 in 1758 and 1759, when subsequent editions were published. In the last, in 1763, the number of plants cultivated in England is stated to be more than double the number contained in the edition of fc Ge'orselll. 1760 to 1817. 6756 plants introduced, or con- siderably above half the whole number of exotics now in the gardens of this country. This is to be accounted for from the power and influence in every quarter of the world ; general progress of civilisation, and the great extension of British power and influence in every quarter of the world ; especially in the East .Indies, at . 65 276 28 346 314 12 420 5 35 1080 487 85 isl 730 4 175 21 1 1 163 50 10 20 443 160 158 6 164 54 8 139 1 1 17 173 309 340 161 21 36 18 135 "279 346 120 164 11 92 175 1 41 13 210 5 19 29 800 o 3 32 65 274 - - - 3 DlANORIA. Monogynia ... 34 111 - 24 - . - . 42 ? |, . . . . (i . 33 5 14 4 1 1 2 2 TRIANDRIA. Monogynia ... . 121 , 20 _ . , 1 1ft 27 Digynia liw <> 1 TETRANDRIA. Monogynia ... Digynia Tetragynia ... PENTANDRIA. Monogynia ... Digynia Trigynia 18 88 8 49 3 Q 32 3 _ , 2 3 '200 17 7 1 36 5 4 117 IS 42 211 '227 <2 31 2( 117 90 3 3 - . . 202 26 23 gg] T? 1 12 25 74 2 - a Pentagynia ... Polygynia HEXANDRIA. Monogynia ..* 1 14 41 a 4 2 - 7 - - 43 1( ( 6 1 1 277 3 3 3 j) - . 34 238 Q 1 . 13 6 . - - 84 47 1 1 Trigynia . HEPTANDRIA. Monogynia ... n 45 o 8 - - - - 2 17 Q ( 1 5 1 1 g OCTANDRIA. * Monogynia ... 21 22 1 8 7 r 1 2 1 36 1 2 r 31 - . . - 1 - 25 - Trigynia ... 11 17 Q 1 1 11 2 s 1 4 ENNEANDRIA. Monogynia ... Trigynia. Hexagynia ... DECANDRIA. Monogynia ... i Digynia Trigynia Pentagynia ... Decagynia ... DODECANDRIA. Monogynia ... 5 96 4 6 2 i 20 111 87 83 1 11 j * 7 h * ^ 8 a 3 9 49 20 91 " 1 8 3 169 6 2 o 1 JO 1 1 : 1 2f 10 62 1 ', - 2 1 - - - 1 2 1 1 - - . - 4 - 11 4 Trigynia Tetragynia ... 2 1 30 3 24 6 3 - - 26 i 2 - 23 - - 1 S y G fi 1 g O ICOSANDRIA. Monogynia ... Di-Pentag. ... Polygynia POLYANDRIA. Monogynia ... 33 67 fi'2 28 o W - 34 2 5 7 67 19 15 49 < 315 1 17 33 1 37 5 g 6 Trigynia Pentagynia ... Polygynia DlDYNAMIA. Gymnos. Angios TETRADYN. Siliculosa Siliquosa MONADELPHIA. 30 22 6 27 11 107 198 87 35 48 2 1 4 8 11 22 tj 6 10 38 42 56 66 1 24 4 2 7 25 1 2 4 1 - 8 48 38 6 15 2 5 2 rj 18 e 15 511 6 3 10 Ti i) 2 2 - - - - 2 - 1 1 38 5 6 "l ttentandria ... 1 3 - 8 - 2 - - 34 107 3 59 2 2 - - - - 1 2 Decandria ... Dodecand - 23 - 12 - 1 - - 2 1 53 2 3 3 1 7 55 22 1 1 2 ~3 -" - : 1 23 3 Polyandria ... DlADELPHIA. 3 14 4 24 1 - - - Hexandria ... Octandria Decandria ... POLYADELPHIA, ; Decandria . "2 70 9 5 138 3 9 7 6 89 1 7 2 3 1 76 8 6 - - 159 12 4 - - - - - 18 8 Polyandria ... SYNGENESIA. Polyg. sequ. ... 10 17 253 48 11 5 52 8 3 6 - 322 2 12 1 4 . . . _ _ 7 3 3 10 310 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. Glass and order. Hardy. Frame. Green-house. Dry-stove. Stove. Total SYNGEN. cont. Pol. superflua frustanasa . necessaria. segregata . GYNANDRIA. Monandria .. Diandria ... Hexandria... MON(ECIA. Monandria.. Diandria ... Triandria ... Tetramlria.. Pentandria.. Hexandria... Polyandria... Monadelp. ... Gynandria... DICECIA. Monandria.. Diandria .. Triandria .. Tetrandria.. Pentandria . Hexandria.. Octandria .. Enneandria Decandria.. Dodecand. .. Icosandria... Polyandria... Monadelp. ... Gynandria... POLYGAMIA. Monoecla ... Dicecia CRYPTOGAMIA. Gonopter. ... Stachyopter. Poropterid. . Schismatopt. Filices Hydropter. . . % V *|0 * If J2 1? V * ts 3 b Wj*|Q %[5 10 Ge. Sp. 8 1 *2 "l 14 82 36 8*4 1 9 5 11 14 2 i 3 2 21 24 25 1 389 92 14 6 46 6 6 85 7 6 98 36 14 2 4 '2 1 7 1 4 101 20 39 22 6 13 , : ; 2 - - - - 5 "l 1 2 5 8 ~2 SO 1 1 2 13 1 6 60 19 20 10 48 3 1 5 2 11 12 7 7 22 26 1 1 3 7 13 8 8 2 2 5 6 3 5 12 .1 31 14 . i 4 1 3 26 673 177 100 17 132 10 19 16 5 101 41 48 11 189 158 1 4 87 12 46 18 36 15 6 9 12 6 26 40 8 204 76 7 18 9 130 - 1 . - 1 23 - - - . _ _ - 9 4 5 4 42 5 1 1 2 10 1 4 i 9 "l !) 2 1 - 1 " 1 17 3 ~!l -" 1 14 1 1(5 14 4ti 1 Ifi 5 "s 4 ~2 - g - - 17 13 g 4 4 4 s "l 7 1 2 : 3 2 2 1 1 3 ' > 6 5 6 V - - - - - 1 3 g 7 3 j 21 2 6 16 - 29 1 - - : 36 20 5 1 .'. . - - . . 70 9 2 . i :- o - 5 5 2 . _ - - - - 1 9 44 - - 21 90 Total 1132 3130123411233 177 L5 23 2014 1535 :s.' 189 el o| o 553 438 K55 7ti4 1850 12700 987. The following Talkie exhibits the systematic and horticultural distribution of the artificial Flora of Britain, according to the Jussieuean classification, with the garden- habitations. Class and order. Hardy. Frame. Green-house. Dry-stove. Stove. Total. THALAMIF. 1. Ranuncula. .. Magnoliaces Annoneaa ... Menisperm. . Berberideae .. THALAMIF. 2. Papaveraces Crucifereaa... Capparideae . ' Passifloreffi... 'Violeae Pediculareae Cistineaa THALAMIF. $3. Caryophyll. .' Malvaceae ... Sterculiacese Tiliaceae Sapindeae ... Acereaa . Malpighiaceae 1? If- * 4 ^ 2 * 1? If. i 1? If S *|V| Ge. S;.. 13 3 3 7 1 4 2 11 5 5 43 - -5 T - 1 ;j 1 ' 2 1 - - - 23 1 4 5 7 13 53 7 1 3 2 2 30 35 2 20 10 17 3 3 2 8 1 7 14 8 10 7 69 24 16 12 13 51 330 53 55 53 fi 281 216 6 88 20 51 27 10 54 15 8 309 21 38 27 34 is! - - 3 1 "l - 4 18 83 ' 11 " 3 36 " 16 8 33 1 12 4 20 124 9 7 2 6 6 85 24 "5 29 1 4 1 2 . . : 30 4 5 15 8 S4 3 1 1 3 3 1 1 2 . _ _ _ it 1 "l ~2 i 5 6 5 1 1 3 ^ - : : i 71 65 ~2 24 22 5 21 1 22 _~ - 1 . 20 1 - 3 1 8 30 . . , - : 9 10 2 ] , Hypericineae Guttifereae .. 10 17 - - s 8 1 . - - - - - - - l.S - Vitaceae Geraniaceae . Meliacea; ... Auranteae ... Rutaceae Diosmaceae 7 30 1 26 . 3 - - 17.'- 5 L'S 11 34 ? "l 6 - is 10 1 1 "l -" 1 - 1 - ' - 21 6 - 1 - - - - BOOK I. DISTRIBUTION OF THE BRITISH FLORA. 211 Class and order. Hardy. Frame. Grcen.house, Dry -stove. Stove. 1 Total. THALAMIFLOR. 4 CALYClFLOREjE Terebintaceaa . Leguminosa? .. Rosacea? Salicareaa 1? If $ ^ 1 $\b * i. i ( 21 If $ ^ 1 $ O ^ if $ |W E c 17 144 2 1 Si 1( 1 13 !; 1 53 133 5 23 lj 10 10 2 19 1( 25 20 41 5i 1( U c 6] 24 8 2 2 23 11 10 2 2 30 15 18 5 2 17 6 49 4 25 4 13 13 2 11 6 7 5 5 5 ty. 105' 391 27 24 123 4 12 72 232 97 37 82 9.' 32 65 285 945 153 227 68 48 73 12! 42] 20 11 23 23 49 56 47 ~2 92 152 174 222 590 11 61 & 44 39 17 23 136 79 It 200 48 20 6 41 196 102 206 26 13 58 30 128 15 00 4 102 102 9 59 47 35 32 7 22 I 9 55 157 . ( 184 195 6 9292 1 - - 5 y 6 - - - 18 27 It 3 ;. - - 89 20 f 10 1 62 | 8 - - L 3 - Myrteaceae Combretaceaa . L 79 y 1 8 . 13 t 11 1 - 1 152 42 i R 11 is 4 Onograreaa .. Ficoideae Semperviveae . Portulacea; ... Cactea? Saxifragea? .. 1 ~3 n 4 24 8 7 1 41 6 - 6 - 9 - - 55 . 69 - 2 218 jj Araleae Caprifoleas .. UmbelliferezE . Corymbifera? . Rubiacea? Cynarocephal. Dipsaceae Gentianeaa ... Cichoracea? ... Campanulaceae 4 53 1 21 4: 4 6 172 t 494 36 1272 33 24 1182 841 2 14 62 i a I 3 51 8148 - 11 8 43 4 26 6 9 5 59 4 9 6 12 *! 10 169 19 12 54 ] 1 6 - - - - 1 - - - - - - - 5 1 - - - - - 13 2 - i - 3 - - 8 2o 9 c . Ericeaj Epacridea* COROLLIFLORE.E b i 10 - Sapoteaj 16 Ebenaceaa Oleineaa 9 34 12 Apocynea? Bignoniaceae . 2 8 . 11 . . 5 34 19 2 - c l - 1 - - - 4 - - 2 - - - - Polemoniacea? Convolvulaceaa Boragineaa ... Solanea? Scrophularinea? 6 1 9 27 - 5 . 441 121 102 -. 18 7 33 5 49 6 38 "225 . i 12 28 28 17 9 (r 8 4 21 42 11 ; " g 22 2 2 Q u ' 5 - - - - Labiatea? 32 227 1 1 55 23 7 2 61 13 7 3 5 15 ( fj 35 5 1 5 7 "57 2 7 4 Globularea; ... MONOCHLAMYDEJE Plumbaginea? . Plantaginea*... Nyctagineaa ... 2 1 3 1 3 4 4 j 19 2 . 2 14 1 9 2 2 1 3 4 1 3 1 2 ] "l 1 "l 6 Amaranthacea; Chenopodeas... Polygoneae ... Laurineas 5 2 5 5 36 . 3 60 26 _ . _ 10 S 2 g Proteaceaa 61 Thymeleaa Santalacea? .. 14 4 32 5 1 1 Aristolocheaa Euphorbiaceae Urticea? Amentacea? ... Conifereaa PHAMEROGAMEJE 2 4 8 90 16 8 - ~6 . 1 20 10 I "l 6 25 3 5 1 2 4 50 46 1 . 2 4 ? 2 *9 2 - _ . . - - '. 2 8 7 2 6 7 "2 1 1 1 1 1 I ~2 . ) . . . . "l 2 Hydrocharideas - 13 - 23 1 ,. . - - 11 5 - - - - - Orchideae - 27 - - . 1 - - 23 - - - - - Iridea; 73 " 3 - - 166 2 29 2 o 61 39 | - ~7 4 Haemodoraceae Atnaryllideaa . Hemerocallid. Dioscorea2 ; i: 2 : Smilaceae ... Lilece Melanthacese . Juncea Restiaceaj Commclineas . 16 4 29 . oj- < 1 1 1 . 7 1 1 - . 29 - 1 . 7 - 1 - - 4 - - P 2 212 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. !- ~ i Class and order. Hardy. Frame. Green-house. Dry-stove 1 Stove. . Total. PHAN. cont. Palmeae 1? V * ? If $ 1? V $ 1? V 2 1? V *|0 Ge.\ Sp. 7 - 7 22 4 1 - - 19 1 1 12 75 9 2 2 31 37 4 2 136 933 21 6 2 12 144 Scitamineae Cyperacea? .. Gramineae... CRYPTOGAME^E. Naiades ... Equisetaceas Marciliacese Lycopodineae Filiceae 1 33 174 5 5 2 11 76 78 5 5 155 13 - 4 38 - - - 3 -i 1 8 5 9 - 5 - - - - - 1 2014 9 1535 1 49 -' - 90 Total 1132 3130 234 1232 177 21 15 23 3S2 u 6 353 438855 7(54 1850J 12700 988. The uses of these arrangements, and of the other tables in this chapter to the botanist and cultivator, are very considerable. They afford a full view of the riches of the British garden ; a condensed view of the affinities of plants, by which their properties, culture, and alliances by grafting, crossing, &c. may be estimated ; and the means of selecting plants for every department of the garden. Thus, a person wishing to possess a collection of hardy plants, may, from the two last tables, order a certain number of annuals, biennials, perennials, and trees from each of the Linnaean or Jussieuean classes. Or if he wishes merely a few species of dried plants to illustrate each of the classes or orders of these systems, he may give instructions for forming a herbarium from the tables of the genera before given. (588, 589.) He may there also make a choice for any purpose confined to British plants. To the gardener these tables will be particularly useful, by enabling him to form arrangements in any of the departments of culture with ease and effect. Thus, supposing he is desirous of arranging his green-house plants according to the method of Jussieu ; then, beginning, say with Ranunculaceae, he finds that order contains only one tree and two perennials which are green-house plants ; on turning to the Jussieuean classification of the genera (589. ), he finds Atragene and Knowltonia furnish these. If these genera are in his collection, he begins by placing them together. Next, he proceeds to Magnoliaceo?, in which there are three green-house trees, and so on ; proceeding thus, whether in ar- ranging hardy, green-house, or hot-house plants in the natural method, and similarly, if arranging them according to that of Linnaeus. It is proper to observe, that though great care has been taken to attain arithmetical correctness in these tables, yet, in some cases, we have failed of perfect success ; but as the number of plants in the artificial Flora is every day increasing, and their arrangement and even names very frequently varying, there is no occasion for absolute perfection in arithmetical enumerations for subjects such ,as ours, and even a much less degree than what has been attained would have answered the purpose equally well. 989. Purchasable British Flora. The whole of the plants enumerated as forming the British Flora, are probably not at any one time all in existence in Britain. Many of them, especially the exotic species, which were introduced at Kew, have been lost there through accidents or diseases, and are wanting for a time till new seeds or plants are obtained from abroad. Had they been distributed among the nurserymen they would have been abundantly multiplied and spread over the country. Casualties happen even to hardy plants, and a species which at one time is to be found in moderate quantities in the nur- series is at another period comparatively scarce. Thus, if we reduce the actual number of species to be found in cultivation at one time to from 9000 to 10,000, it will be found nearer the truth. In the public nurseries, varieties are very much cultivated, in order, as it were, to place the beauties of esteemed species in different points of view ; or to produce in vegetables something analogous to what are called variations in musical compositions. The following may be considered as a popular or horticultural distribution of the species and varieties obtainable from British nurseries. It is taken from a catalogue entitled Prodromus, &c. ; or Forerunner of the collection in Page's Southampton nursery-garden, drawn up by L. Kennedy, (late of the Hammersmith nursery,) and published in 1818. It is a work of great practical utility, and with. Sweet's Hortus, should be in the hands of every gardener' who has a collection of plants under his care. 990. Hardy Plants. Trees above 30 feet high - Trees under 30 and above 10 feethiRh - - - Deciduous shrubs Roses, double and'single Evergreen shrubs Sp.&Var. - 100 500 .V50 400 Hardy climbing shrubs Herbaceous plants - - - Grasses introduced In botanic! collections - - - J Bulbous-rooted plants Aquatics ... Sp.&Var. 130 Marsh plants Biennials 250 50 BOOK I. DISTRIBUTION OF THE BRITISH FLORA. 991. Green-house and Dry-stove Plants. Trees and shrubs Heaths Geraniums I'roteas - - Sp.&Var. - 1450 400' 150 120 Mesymbryanthemums - Bulbous-rooted plants - Sp.&Var. . 90 - 170 160 300 Herbaceous and stemless plants 340 992. Hot-house Plants. Trees and shrubs Climbers Succulent plants Bulbous-rooted plants Herbaceous Aquatics Reedy or scitaminous Sp.&Var. 993. Annuals, native and exotic* Hardy Half hardy Tender Esculent gp.&Var. . 300 140 100 Used in agriculture exclusive of grasses Sp.&Var. - 80 Total. Hardy, 4580; green-house and dry-stove, 3180; hot-house, 1463 ; annuals, 820; total, 10,043 ; of these, above 3000 may be considered as varieties, so that the actual hortus procurable in British nurseries, may be estimated, as to the British hortus of books, as 7 to 12, or including the cryptogamous plants, as 8 to 12. 994. With respect to the application of the purchasable Flora of Britain, including species and varieties, we submit the following as only a rude outline, the subject not admitting of perfect accuracy from the ever-varying number of varieties. 995. Varieties of Fruit-trees, and Fruit-bearing Plants, for Sale in British Nurseries. Sp. &Var. 300 300 2 2 3 60 100 50 i 6 Pe*aVs Quinces ... Oranges and Lemons - Nectarines .... Almonds ; - Apricots - - - - Plums' - Cherries - S P .&Var. 150 100 Cranberry Mulberries Filberts Gooseberries Currants Raspberries - Strawberries ... 50 30 200 i 4 o 20 Walnuts Chestnuts Melons Pine-apples Sp.&Var. 2 6 3 3 996. Esculent Herbaceous Plants, annuals and perennials, used in Horticulture. Sp. &Var. Sp. &Var. Sp. &Var. ' 35 Pot-herbsandgamishings II 16 Edible wild plants which 1 ,, ., 59 Sweet herbs ... 12 20 ' may be used - - - j 31 31 Cabbage tribe - - Leguminous plants Esculent roots - Spinaceous plants - Alliaceous plants Asparaginous plants Acetaceous plants 3 10 45 6 10 7 18 11 13 25 40 may be use Edible fungi Plants used as preserves and! Total 154 337 997. Florists' Flowers, used in Floriculture. Sp.&Vi Bultotu-rootedPUnti. Hyacinths - . Tulips .... Crocuses - Narcissi - . FritUIaries" - " . " Crown-imperials Dens canis - 200 300 100 200 Colchicums - Other sorts - Fibrout-rooteJ Plants. Auriculas Polyanthi Primroses Cowslips '- Pinks ' - - - Carnations Sp.&Var. 10 100 Tuberous-rooted Planti. Dahlias Pseonies Ranunculuses Anemonies ... Sp.&Var. 400 20 300 200 998. Hardy Timber-trees and Shrubs, used in Arboriculture, Floriculture, and Land- scape-gardening. Sp.&Var. Sp.&Var. Trees planted for timber ..... - 100 Shrubs planted for various uses, as fuel, charcoal,") an other useful purposes ... 20 bark, firewood, &c. - - - - - J * Trees planted for ornament 180 Hedge-plants 10 Total 330 999. Agricultural Herbaceous Plants, grown for Food for Men and Cattle, and for use in various Arts. Sp. &Var. Grains for human food 4 20 Leguminous seeds - - - 4 10 Rorts 6 20 Herbage plants, not grasses ..... 9 15 i grasses, and grasses for grains for the infe- 1 20 25 rior animals ...... j Plants used for furnishing oils and essences - - 5 5 Plants used for dyeing Plants used for the clothing arts Sea.plants used Mosses used in dyeing - - for various purposes in the arts Total 65 112 1000. Miscellaneous applications of Hardy Perennials, native and exotic. Sp.&Var. Border-flowers, or such as 'are used hi flower -gar-1 dens and shrubberies, in ordinary cases about J Used in the modem pharmacopoeias ... 50 Sold by herbalists, and used by quacks and irregu-1 an lar practitioners ...... J Used for distillation and perfumery Sp.&Var. 20 1001. Application of curious Hot-house Exotics, or such plants of ornament as require the protection of glass. Of these there are in ordinary green-houses seldom more than 100 species and varieties, and not more than half that number in most of our plant-stoves. The remainder of this class are confined to the public and private botanic gardens, and to eminent P 3 214 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. public nurseries. Many of this division are of great importance in their native countries, as the indigo, sugar-cane, tea-tree, cinnamon, &c. \ the mango, durion, and other excellent fruits, the palms, bamboos, &c. Even some here treated as entirely ornamental, afford useful products in their own countries, as the camellia, sun-flower, &c. from the seeds of which oils are expressed in China and America. The cultivation or preservation of living specimens of these plants, therefore, in our green-houses and stoves, is^a rational entertain- ment, and also useful, as many species become in time acclimated, and some even natu- ralised ; and uses may in time also be discovered for such as are now merely looked on as objects of curiosity. But it is quite enough to justify much more than all the care that is taken to obtain and preserve them, that they contribute to elegant enjoyment ; for what is life when it does not exceed mere obedience to the animal instincts ? 1002. With respect to the native habitations of the exotic part of the Horius Britannicus, little can be advanced with certainty. In general it seems to appear that moist and mo- derately warm climates, and irregular surfaces, are most prolific in species ; and judging of the whole world from Europe, we should venture to consider half the species of plants in existence as growing in soft and rather moist grounds, whether low or elevated. The soil of surfaces constantly moist, or inclining to be moist, whether watered from the at- mosphere or from subterraneous sources, is almost always found to be minutely divided, and generally of a black vegetable or peaty nature. Immense tracts in Russia and Ame- rica are of this description, and even when dry, resist evaporation better than any other. In such soils, the roots of plants are generally small and finely divided, as in the heaths, most bog plants, and nearly all the American shrubs. The next sort of habitation most prolific in species, appears to us to be arenarious soils in temperate climates, and in pro- portion to their moisture. Here the roots of plants are also small, but less so than in soils of the former description. On rocky and calcareous soils the roots of plants are ge- nerally strong and woody, or at least long and penetrating. In clayey habitations, ex- clusive of the alluvial depositions of rivers, few plants are found, and these generally grasses, or strong fibrous-rooted herbaceous plants, or tap-rooted trees. Such at least is the amount of our generalisations ; but as our observation has been limited to Etirope, and does not even extend to the whole of it, those who have visited Africa and Asia are much more capable of illustrating the subject. One conclusion we think the cultivator is fully entitled to draw, that the greater number of plants, native or foreign, will thrive best in light soil, such as a mixture of soft black vegetable mould or peat and fine sand kept moderately moist ; and that on receiving unknown plants or seeds, of the native sites of which he is ignorant, he will err on the safe side by placing them in such soils rather than in any other ; avoiding, most of all, clayey and highly manured soils, as only fit for certain kinds of plants constitutionally robust, or suited to become monstrous by culture. CHAP. XI. Origin of Culture, as derived from the Study of Vegetables. 1003. Agriculture and gardening are the two arts which embrace the whole business of cultivating vegetables, for whatever purpose they are applied by civilised man, and in this respect their fundamental principles are the same ; they are all indicated by nature, and explained by vegetable chemistry and physiology. 1004. The object of vegetable culture is either to increase the number of plants ; to in- crease their number and retain their native qualities ; to increase their number and im- prove their qualities ; to increase their magnitude ; to increase their number, improve the quality, and increase the magnitude of particular parts of the vegetable ; to form new varieties for the furtherance of all or any of the above purposes ; to propagate and preserve from degenerating approved varieties of vegetables ; and to preserve vegetables for future use. The first step, for all these objects in common, is to procure the desired plant, either by removing it in an entire state from its native site, and planting it in an appropriate situation ; or by gathering and sow- ing its seeds ; or by propagating from a part of the plant. Hence the general origin both of agriculture and gardening, and of all the different modes of propagation, transplanting, and collecting seeds. The next step is to secure the plants to be cultivated from the depredations of animals, or unsuitable weather, either by surrounding them with an adequate barrier where they are growing fortuitously, or by removing them to a spot already protected. Hence the origin of fences and enclosures, and plant habita- tions. A third step common to all the above objects of culture is to remove from the vicinity of the plant to be cultivated, or from the plant itself, all other plants, or animals, or objects likely to impede its progress. Hence the origin of weeding, thinning, destroying insects, and curing diseases. 1005. To increase the number and retain the native qualities of vegetables, it is necessary to imitate, as exactly as circumstances will admit, their native habitation, in respect to soil, climate, mode of watering, light, c. If the habitation is in any way ameliorated, the qualities of the plant will be altered, and its parts enlarged, which is not desired. BOOK I. ORIGIN OF VEGETABLE CULTURE. 215 All that is necessary, therefore, for effecting this branch of culture, is to imitate the habit- ation, and to propagate. This is, or ought to be the case, wherever plants are grown for medical or botanical purposes, as in herb and botanic gardens. Nature is here imitated as exactly as possible, and the result is productions resembling, as near as possible, those of nature. 1 006. To increase the number and improve the qualities of plants, it is necessary to faci- litate their mode of nutrition by removing all obstacles to the progress of the plant. These obstacles may either exist under or above the surface ; and hence the origin of drain- ing, clearing from surface-incumbrances, and the various operations, as digging, plough- ing, &c. for pulverising the soil. Nature suggests this in accidental ruptures of the surface, broken banks, the alluvial depositions from overflowing rivers, and the earth thrown up by underground animals. Many of the vegetables within the influence of such accidents are destroyed, but such as remain are ameliorated in quality, and the reason is, their food is increased, because their roots, being enabled to take a more extensive range, more is brought within their reach. 1007. It is necessary, or at least advantageous, to supply food artificially ; and hence the origin of manuring. All organised matters are capable of being converted into the food of plants ; but the best manure for ameliorating the quality, and yet retaining the peculiar chemical properties of plants, must necessarily be decayed plants of their own species. It is true that plants do not differ greatly in their primary principles, and that a supply of any description of putrescent manure will cause all plants to thrive ; but some plants, as wheat, contain peculiar substances, (as gluten and phosphate of lime,) and some ma- nures, as those of animals, or decayed wheat, containing the same substances, must neces- sarily be a better food or manure for such plants. Manuring is an obvious imitation of nature, every where observable by the decaying herbage of herbaceous plants, or the fal- len leaves of trees, rotting into dust or vegetable mould about their roots ; "and by the effect of the dung left by pasturing or other animals. 1 008. Amelioration of climate is farther advantageous, in improving the qualities of vege- tables, by increasing or diminishing its temperature according to the nature of the plant ; unless, indeed, it be situated in a climate which experience and observation show to be exactly suited to its nature. Hence the origin of shelter and shade, by means of walls, hedges, or strips of plantation ; of sloping surfaces or banks, to receive more directly or indirectly the rays of the sun ; of soils better calculated to absorb and retain heat ; walls fully exposed to the south, or to the north ; of training or spreading out the branches of trees on these walls ; of hot- walls ; of hot-beds ; and finally of all the variety of hot-houses. Nature suggests this part of culture, by presenting, in every country, different degrees of shelter, shade, and surface, and in every zone different climates. 1009. The regulation of moisture is the next point demanding attention; for when the soil is pulverised, it is more easily dried by the penetration of the air ; when an increase of food is supplied, the medium through which that food is taken up by the plant should be increased; and when the temperature is increased, evaporation becomes greater. Hence the origin of watering by surface or subterraneous irrigation, manual supplies to the root, showering over the leaves, steaming the surrounding atmosphere, &c. This is only to imitate the dews and showers, streams and floods of nature ; and it is to be re- gretted that the imitation is in most countries attended with so much labor, and requires so much nicety in the arrangement of the means, and judgment in the application of the water, that it is but very partially applied by man in every part of the world, excepting perhaps a small district of Italy. But moisture may be excessive ; and on certain soils at certain seasons, and on certain productions at particular periods of their progress, it may be necessary to carry off a great part of the natural moisture, rather than let it sink into the earth, or draw it off where it has sunk in and injuriously accumulated, or prevent its falling on the crop at all ; and hence the origin of surface-drainage by ridges, and of un- der-draining by covered conduits, or gutters ; and of awnings and other covers to keep off the rain or dews from ripe fruits, seeds, or rare flowers. 1010. The regulation of light is the remaining point. Light sometimes requires to be ex- cluded and sometimes to be increased, in order to improve the qualities of vegetables ; and hence the origin of thinning the leaves which overshadow fruits and flowers, the practice of shading cuttings, seeds, &c., and the practice of blanching. The latter practice is derived from accidents observable among vegetables in a wild state, and its in- fluence on their quality is physiologically accounted for by the obstruction of perspiration, and the prevention of the chemical changes effected by light on the epidermis. 1011. Increasing the magnitude of vegetables, without reference to their quality, is to be obtained by an increased supply of all the ingredients of food, distributed in such a body of well pulverised soil as the roots can reach to ; of heat and moisture ; of a partial ex- clusion of the direct rays of the sun, so as to moderate perspiration ; and of wind, so as to prevent sudden desiccation. But experience alone can determine what plants are best suited for this, and to what extent the practice can be earned. Nature gives the hint in P 4 216 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. the occasional luxuriance of plants accidentally placed In favorable circumstances, and man adopts it, and improving on it, produces cabbages and turnips of half a cwt. ; apples of one pound and a half ; and cabbage-roses of four inches in diameter ; productions which may in some respects be considered as diseased. 1012. To increase the number, improve the quality, and increase the magnitude of parti- cular parts of vegetables. It is necessary, in this case, to remove such parts of the vegeta- ble as are not wanted, as the blooms of bulbous or tuberous rooted plants, when the bulbs are to be increased, and the contrary ; the water-shoots and leaf-buds of fruit-trees ; the flower-stems of tobacco ; the male flowers and barren runners of the cucumis tribe, &c. Hence the important operations of pruning, ringing, cutting off large roots, and other practices for improving fruits and throwing trees into a bearing state. At first sight these practices do not appear to be copied from nature ; but, independently of accidents by fire, already mentioned, which both prune and manure, and of fruit-bearing trees, say thorns or oaks, partially blown out by the roots, or washed out of the soil by torrents, which always bear better afterwards, why may not the necessity that man was under, in a pri- mitive state of society, of cutting or breaking off branches of trees, to form huts, fences, or fires, and the consequent vigorous shoots produced from the parts where the amputa- tion took place, or the larger fruit on that part of the tree which remained, have given the first idea of pruning, cutting off roots, &c. It may be said that this is not nature but art ; but man, though an improving animal, is still in a state of nature, and all his practices, in every stage of civilisation, are as natural to him as those of the other animals are to them. Cottages and palaces are as much natural objects as the nests of birds, or the burrows of quadrupeds ; and all the laws and institutions by which social man is guided in his morals and politics, are no more artificial than the instinct which congregates sheep and cattle in flocks and herds, and guides them in their choice of pasturage and shelter. 1013. To form new varieties of vegetables, as well as of flowers and useful plants of every description, it is necessary to take advantage of their sexual differences, and to operate in a manner analogous to crossing the breed in animals. Hence the origin of new sorts of fruits. Even this practice is but an imitation of what takes place in nature by the agency of bees and other insects, and the wind ; all the difference is, that man ope- rates with a particular end in view, and selects individuals possessing the particular properties which he wishes to perpetuate or improve. New varieties, or rather subvarieties, are formed by altering the habits of plants ; by dwarfing through want of nourishment ; variegating by arenarious soils ; giving or rather continuing peculiar habits when formed by nature, as in propagating from monstrosities fasciculi of shoots, weeping shoots, shoots with peculiar leaves, flowers, fruit, &c. 1014. To propagate and preserve from degeneracy approved varieties of vegetables, it is in general necessary to have recourse to the different modes of propagating by extension. Thus choice apples and tree fruits are preserved and multiplied by grafting ; others, as the pine-apple by cuttings or suckers ; choice carnations by layers, potatoes by cuttings of the tubers, &c. But approved varieties of annuals are in general multiplied and preserved by selecting seed from the finest specimens and paying particular attention to supply suitable culture. This part of culture is the farthest removed from nature ; yet there are not- withstanding examples of the fortuitous graft ; of accidental layers ; of leaves, or de- tached portions, forming natural cuttings, (as of the' cardamine hirsuta,) dropping and taking root. 1015. The preservation of vegetables for future use is effected by destroying or render- ing dormant the principle of life, and by warding off, as far as practicable, the progress of chemical decomposition. Hence some vegetables are dried, and either their herbs, or roots, or fruits ; others are placed beyond the reach of the active principles of vegetation, heat, and moisture, as seed*, cuttings, scions, roots, and fruits ; and some are, in addi- tion, even excluded from air, or placed in very low temperatures. The origin of these practices are all obvious imitations of what accidentally takes place in nature, from the withered grassy tressock to the hedgehog's winter store ; and hence the origin of herb, seed, fruit, and root rooms and cellars, and packing plants and seeds for sending to a distance. 1016. The whole of gardening, as an art of cidture, is but a varied developement of the above fundamental practices, all founded in nature, and for the most part rationally and sa- tisfactorily explained on chemical and physiological principles. Hence the great necessity of the study of botany to the cultivator, not in the limited sense in which the term is often taken as including mere nomenclature and classification, but in that extended signification in which we have here endeavored, proportionately to our limited space, to present the study of the vegetable kingdom. Those who would enter more minutely into the subject will have recourse to the excellent work of Keith, from whom we have quoted at such length ; to Sir J. E. Smith's Introduction ; and to the elementary works of Willdenow and De Candolle. BOOK II. NATURAL AGENTS OF VEGETABLE CULTURE. 217 BOOK II. OF THE NATURAL AGENTS OF VEGETABLE GROWTH AND CULTURE. 1017. The phenomena of vegetation being examined, and the fact ascertained that plants derive their nourishment from the external elements of matter : the next step in the study of the science of gardening is to enquire into the composition and nature of material bodies, and the laws of their changes. The earthy matters which compose the surface of the earth, the air and light of the atmosphere, the water precipitated from it, the heat or cold pro- duced by the alternation of day and night, and by chemical composition and resolution, must include all the elements concerned in vegetation. These elements have all been necessarily brought into notice in the study of the vegetable kingdom ; but we shall now examine more minutely their properties, in so far as they are connected with cultivation. To study them completely, reference must be had to systems of chemistry and mechanical philosophy, of which those of Dr. Thomson (System of Chemistry,) and Dr. Young (Lectures on Mechanical Philosophy,) may be especially recommended. CHAP. I. Of Earths and Soils. 1018. Earths are the productions of the rocks which are exposed on the surface of the globe, and soils are earths mixed with more or less of the decomposed organised matter afforded by dead plants and animals. Earths and soils, therefore, must be as various as the rocks which produce them, and hence to understand their nature and formation it is necessary to begin by considering the geological structure of the territorial surface, and the manner in which earths and soils are produced ; and we shall next consider in suc- cession the nomenclature, quality, use, and improvement of soils. SECT. I. Of the Geological Structure of the Globe and the Formation of Earths and Soils. 1019. The crust, or tinder surface of (he earth, is considered by geologists as presenting four distinct series of rocky substances ; the first, supposed to be coeval with the world, are called primitive, and consist chiefly of granite and marble, below which man has not yet penetrated. The second series, called by the Wernerians transition-rocks, are of more recent formation, and seem to have resulted from some great catastrophe, (probably that to which history gives the name of deluge,) tearing up and modifying the former order of things. Clay-slate is one of the principal rocks of this class, and next limestone, sandstone, and trap or whinstone. The third series are called secondary rocks, and seem to owe their formation to partial or local revolutions, as indicated by their compa- ratively soft and fragile structure, superincumbent situation, and nearly horizontal position. They are chiefly limestones, sandstones, and conglomerations of fragments of other rocks, as plum-pudding-stone, &c. and appear rather as mechanical deposits from water than as chemical compounds from fusion or solution. A fourth stratum consists of alluvial or earthy depositions from water, in the form chiefly of immense beds of clays, marls, or sands. These strata are far from being regular in any one circumstance ; sometimes one or more of the strata are wanting, at other times the order of their disposition seems par- tially inverted ; their continuity of surface is continually interrupted, so that a section of the earth almost every where exhibits only confusion and disorder to persons who have not made geology more or less their study. 1020. The succession of alluvial, secondary, transition, and primary strata, in England, has been illustrated by Professor Brande (Outlines of Geology), by wo sections, supposed to be taken through them. 1021. The first section (Jig. 72.) commences with the blue clay of London (1), and pro- ceeding westward through the counties of Berkshire, Hampshire, Wiltshire, Dorsetshire, and Devonshire, terminates at the Land's End, in Cornwall. The rocks and earths pre- sented in this line are, the Windsor alluvion (2), Hampshire and Salisbury chalk (3), alluvion (4), sandstone (5), alluvion (6), Sherborne freestone (7), sandstone (8), blue lias limestone (9), Blackdown sandstone (10), Devonshire red sandstone (11), mountain limestone (12), Dartmoor slate (13), granite (14), slate again (15), greenstone (16), Cornwall serpentine (17), slate killas (18), Cornwall granite (19), slate killas (20), and finally, Cornwall granite. 72 218 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 1022. The second section (Jig. 73.) commences with the coal strata, and limestone resting upon slate and granite in Cumberland, and thence proceeds towards the metropolis by Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Bedfordshire, and Hert- fordshire. The passage is here exhibited from the primary rocks of Cumberland to the secondary hills of the southern counties. It shows the Cumberland coal (a), limestone and slate (6), the Mossdale granite (c), slate (rf), grauwacke (e), Ilibblesdale limestone (/)' gritstone (g), Ashton coal (h), Derby limestone (i), Derby toadstone (&), gritstone (0 gypsum (m), sandstone (n), limestone (o), Charnwood slate (p), Mountsorrel granite ( accprding as heat or cold is to be increased BOOK II. ROTATION OF CROPS. 233 or diminished. The influence of the sun's rays upon any plane are demonstrated to be as their number and perpendicularity to that plane, neglecting the effects of the atmo- sphere. Hence one advantage of ridging lands, provided the ridges run north and south ; for on such surfaces the rays of the morning sun will take effect sooner on the east side, and those of the afternoon will remain longer in operation on the west side ; whilst at mid-day his elevation will compensate, in some degree, for the obliquity of his rays to both sides of the ridge. In culture, on a small scale, ridges or sloping beds for winter- crops may be made south-east and north-west, with their slope to the south, at an angle of forty degrees, and as steep on the north side as the mass can be got to stand ; and on the south slope of such ridge, cfBteris paribus, it is evident much earlier crops may be produced than on level ground. The north side, however, will be lost during this early cropping ; but as early crops are soon gathered, the whole can be laid level in time for a main crop. Hence all the advantage of grounds sloping to the south south-east, -or south-west, in point of precocity, and of those sloping to the north for lateness and di- minished evaporation. Another advantage of such surfaces is, that they dry sooner after rains, whether by the operation of natural or artificial drainage ; or in the case of sloping to the south, by evaporation. 1105. S/ielter, whether by walls, hedges, strips of plantation, or trees scattered over the surface, may be considered generally, as increasing or preserving heat, and lessening evaporation from the soil. But if the current of air should be of a higher temperature than that of the earth, screens against wind will prevent the earth from being so soon heated ; and from the increased evaporation arising from so great a multiplication of vegetable surface by the trees, more cold will be produced after rains, and the atmosphere kept in a more moist state, than in grounds perfectly naked. When the temperature of a cur- rent of air is lower than that of the earth, screens will prevent its carrying off' so much heat ; but more especially scattered trees, the tops of which will be chiefly cooled whilst the under surfaces of their lower branches reflect back the rays of heat as they radiate from the surface of the soil. Heat in its transmission from one body to another, follows the same laws as light j and, therefore, the temperature of the surface in a forest will, in winter, be considerably higher than that of a similarly constituted soil exposed to the full influence of the weather. The early flowering of plants, in woods and hedges, is a proof of this : but as such soils cannot be so easily heated in summer, and are cooled like others after the sinking in of rains, or the melting of snows, the effect of the reflection as to the whole year is nearly neutralised, and the average temperature of the year of such soils and situations will probably be found not greater than that of open lands. 1106. Shading the ground, whether by umbrageous trees, spreading plants, or covering it with tiles, slates, moss, litter, &c. has a tendency to exclude atmospherical heat and retain moisture. Shading dry loose soils, by covering them with litter, or slates, or tiles, laid round the roots of plants, is found very beneficial. SUBSECT. 7. Hotation of Crops. 1 107. Growing different crops in succession is a practice which every cultivator knows to be highly advantageous, though its beneficial influence has not yet been fully accounted for by chemists. The most general theory is, that though all plants will live on the same food, as the chemical constituents of their roots and leaves are nearly the same, yet that many species require particular substances to bring their seeds or fruits to perfection, as the analysis of these seeds or fruits often affords substances different from those which constitute the body of the plant. (736.) A sort of rotation may be said to take place in nature, for perennial herbaceous plants have a tendency to extend their circumference, and rot and decay at their centre, where others of a different kind spring up and succeed them. This is more especially the case with travelling roots, as in mint, 'strawberry, creeping crowfoot, &c. 1 108. The rationale of rotation, is thus given by Sir H. Davy. " It is a great advantage in the convertible system of cultivation, that the whole of the manure is employed ; and that those parts of it which are not fitted for one crop, remain as nourishment for another. Thus, if the turnip is the first in the order of succession, this crop, manured with recent dung, immediately finds sufficient soluble matter for its nourishment ; and the heat pro- duced in fermentation assists the germination of the seed and the growth of the plant. If, after turnips, barley with grass-seeds is sown, then the land, having been little exhausted by the turnip crop, affords the soluble parts of the decomposing manure to the grain. The grasses, rye-grass, and clover remain, which derive a small part only of their organised matter from the soil, and probably consume the gypsum in the manure which would be useless to other crops : these plants, likewise, by their large systems of leaves, absorb a considerable quantity of nourishment from the atmosphere ; and when ploughed in at -the end of two years, the decay of their roots and leaves affords manure for the wheat crop; and at this period of the course, the woody fibre of the farm-yard manure, which contains the phosphate of lime and the other difficultly soluble parts, is 234 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. broken down : and as soon as the most exhausting crop is taken, recent manure is again applied. Peas and beans, in all instances, seem well adapted to prepare ground for wheat ; and in some rich lands they are raised in alternate crops for years together. Peas and beans contain a small quantity of a matter analogous to albumen ; but it seems that the azote, which forms a constituent part of this matter, is derived from the atmo- sphere. The dry bean-leaf, when burnt, yields a smell approaching to that of decomposing animal matter ; and in its decay in the soil, may furnish principles capable of becoming a part of the gluten in wheat. Though the general composition of plants is very analo- gous, yet the specific difference in the products of many of them, prove that they must derive different materials from the soil ; and though the vegetables having the smallest system of leaves will proportionably most exhaust the soil of common nutritive matter, yet particular vegetables, when their produce is carried off, will require peculiar princi- ples to be supplied to the land in which they grow. Strawberries and potatoes at first produce luxuriantly in virgin mould, recently turned up from pasture ; but in a few years they degenerate, and require a fresh soil. Lands, in a course of years, often cease to afford good cultivated grasses ; they become (as it is popularly said) tired of them ; and one of the probable reasons for this is, the exhaustion of the gypsum contained in the soil." 1109. T/ie powers of vegetables to exhaust the soil of the principles necessary to their growth, is remarkably exemplified in certain funguses. Mushrooms are said never to rise in two successive seasons on the same spot ; and the production of the phenomena called fairy rings has been ascribed by Dr. Wollaston to the power of the peculiar fungus which forms it, to exhaust the soil of the nutriment necessary for the growth of the species. The consequence is, that the ring annually extends ; for no seeds will grow where their parents grew before them ; and the interior part of the circle has been ex- hausted by preceding crops ; but where the fungus has died, nourishment is supplied for grass, which usually rises within the circle, coarse, and of a dark green color. 1110. A rotation is unnecessary, according to Grisenthwaite ; and, in a strict chemical sense, what he asserts cannot be denied. His theory is a refinement on the common idea of the uses of a rotation stated above ; but by giving some details of the constituent parts of certain grains and certain manures, he has presented it in a more clear and striking point of view than has hitherto been done. To apply the theory in every case, the constituent parts of all manures and of all plants (1st, their roots and leaves, and, 2dly, their seeds, fruits, or grains,) must be known. In respect to manures this is the case, and it may be said to be in a great degree the case as to the most useful agri- cultural plants ; but, unfortunately for our purpose, the same cannot be said of garden productions in general, though no branch of culture can show the advantage of a rota- tion of crops more than horticulture, in the practice of which it is found that grounds become tired of particular crops, notwithstanding that manures are applied at pleasure. If the precise effects of a rotation were ascertained, and the ingredients peculiarly neces- sary to every species pointed out, nothing could be more interesting than the results of experimental trials ; and whoever shall point out a simple and economical mode by which the potatoe may be grown successively in the same soil, and produce annually, neglecting the effects of climate, as (iry and well-flavored tubers, or nearly so, as they generally pro- duce the first and second years on a new soil, will confer a real benefit on society. That wheat may be grown many years on the same soil by the use of animal manures, or such as contain gluten, Grisenthwaite's theory would justify us in believing chemically ; and it ought to be fairly tried by such cultivators as Coke and Curwen. Till this is done in the face of the whole agricultural world, and the produce of every crop, and all the par- ticulars of its culture, accurately reported on annually, the possibility of the thing may be assented to from the premises, but will not be acted on ; and, in fact, even the best agricultural chemists do not consider that we are sufficiently advanced in that branch of the science to draw any conclusion, a priori, very much at variance with general opinion and experience. CHAP. II. Of Manures. 1111. Every species of matter capable of promoting the growth of vegetables may be con- sidered as manure. On examining the constituents of vegetables, we shall find that they are composed of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen, or azote, with a small proportion of saline bodies. It is evident, therefore, that the substances employed as manure should also be composed of these elements, for unless they are, there will be a deficiency in some of the elements in the vegetable itself; and it is probable that such deficiency may prevent the formation of those substances within it, for which its BOOK II. MANURES. 235 peculiar organisation is contrived, and upon which its healthy existence depends. The elementary bodies above enumerated are all contained in animal, and the three first in vegetable matters. Sometimes vegetables, though very seldom, contain a small quantity of nitrogen. As certain salts are also constantly found to be present in healthy living vegetables, manures or vegetable food may , consequently, be distinguished into animal, vegetable, and saline. The authors whom we have already mentioned (1029.) as produc- ing the first chemical treatises on soils, were also the first to treat chemically of manures. Of these, the latest in the order of time is Sir H. Davy, from whose highly satisfactory work we shall extract the greater part of this chapter. SECT. I. Of Manures of Animal and Vegetable Origin. 1112. Decaying animal and vegetable substances constitute by far the most important class of manures, or vegetable food, and may be considered as to the theory of their oper- ation, their specific kinds, and their preservation and application in practice. SUBSECT. 1. The Theory of the Operation of Manures of Animal and Vegetable Origin. 1113. The rationale of organic manures is very satisfactorily given by Sir H. Davy, who, after having proved that no solid substances can enter in that state into the plant, explains the manner in which nourishment is derived from vegetable and animal sub- stances. 1114. Vegetable and animal substances deposited in the soil, as is shown by universal ex- perience, are consumed during the process of vegetation ; and they can only nourish the plant by affording solid matters capable of being dissolved by water, or gaseous substances capable of being absorbed by the fluids in the leaves oi" vegetables ; but such parts of them as are rendered gaseous, and pass into the atmosphere, must produce a comparatively small effect, for gases soon become diffused through the mass of the surrounding air. The great object, therefore, in the application of manure should be to make it afford as much soluble matter as possible to the roots of the plant ; and that in a slow and gra- dual manner, so that it may be entirely consumed in forming its sap and organised parts. 1115. Mucilaginous, gelatinous, saccharine, oily, and extractive Jluids, carbonic acid, and ivater, are substances that in their unchanged states contain almost all the principles necessary for the life of plants ; but there are few cases in which they can be applied as manures in their pure forms ; and vegetable manures, in general, contain a great ex- cess of fibrous and insoluble matter, which must Undergo chemical changes before they can become the food of plants. 1116. The nature of the changes on these substances ; of the causes which occasion them, and which accelerate or retard them ; and of the products they afford, have been scientifi- cally stated and explained by our great agricultural chemist. If any fresh vegetable matter which contains sugar, mucilage, starch, or other of the vegetable compounds soluble in water, be moistened, and exposed to air, at a temperature from 55 to 80, oxygen will soon be- ab- sorbed, and carbonic acid formed ; heat will be produced, and elastic fluids, principally car- bonic acid, gaseous oxide of carbon, and hydro-carbonate will be evolved ; a dark-colored liquid, of a slightly sour or bitter taste, will likewise be formed ; and if the process be suffered to continue for a time sufficiently long, nothing solid will remain, except earthy and saline matter, colored black by charcoal. The dark-colored fluid formed in the fer- mentation always contains acetic acid ; and when albumen or gluten exists in the vege- table substance, it likewise contains volatile alkali. In proportion as there is more gluten, albumen, or matters soluble in water, in the vegetable substances exposed to fer- mentation, so in proportion, all other circumstances being equal, will the process be more rapid. Pure woody fibre alone undergoes a change very slowly; but its texture is broken down, and it is easily resolved into new aliments, when mixed with substances more liable to change, containing more oxygen and hydrogen. Volatile and fixed oils, resins, and wax, are more susceptible of change than woody fibre, when exposed to air and water ; but much less liable than the other vegetable compounds ; and even the most inflammable substances, by the absorption of oxygen, become gradually soluble in water. Animal matters in general are more liable to decompose than vegetable substances ; oxygen is absorbed and carbonic acid and ammonia formed in the process of their putre- faction. They produce fetid, compound, elastic fluids and likewise azote : they afford dark-colored acid and oily fluids, and leave a residuum of salts and earths mixed with carbonaceous matter. 1117. The principal animal substances which constitute their different parts, or which are found in their blood, their secretions, or their excrements, are gelatine, fibrine, mucus, fatty, or oily matter, albumen, urea, uric acid, and different other acid, saline, and earthy , matters. 1118. General treatment of organic manures. Whenever manures consist principally of 236 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. matter soluble in water, it is evident that their fermentation or putrefaction should be pre- vented as much as possible ; and the only cases in which these processes can be useful, are when the manure consists principally of vegetable or animal fibre. The circumstances necessary for the putrefaction of animal substances are similar to those required for the fermentation of vegetable substances ; a temperature above the freezing point, the presence of water, and the presence of oxygen, at least in the first stage of the process. To prevent mas-ures from decomposing, they should be preserved dry, defended from the contact of air, and kept as cool as possible. Salt and alcohol appear to owe their powers of pre- serving animal and vegetable substances to their attraction for water, by which they pre- vent its decomposing action, and likewise to their excluding air. SUBSECT. 2. Of the different Species of Manures of Animal and Vegetable Origin, 1119. The properties and nature of the manures in common use should be known to every cultivator : for as different manures contain different proportions of the elements neces- sary to vegetation, so they require a different treatment to enable them to produce their full effects in culture. 1 120. AU green succulent plants contain saccharine or mucilaginous matter, with woody fibre, and readily ferment. They cannot, therefore, if intended for manure, be used too soon after their death. Hence the advantage of digging or ploughing in green crops, whether natural, of weeds, or sown on purpose ; they must not, however, be turned in too deep, otherwise, as Mrs. Ibbetson has shown (Philos. Mag. 1816), fermentation will be prevented by compression and exclusion of air. Green crops should be ploughed in, if it be possible, when in flower, or at the time the flower is beginning to appear, for it is at this period that they contain the largest quantity of easily soluble matter, and that their leaves are most active in forming nutritive matter. Green crops, pond-weeds, the paring of hedges or ditches, or any kind of fresh vegetable matter, require no preparation to fit them for manure. The decomposition slowly proceeds beneath the soil ; the soluble mat- ters are gradually dissolved, and the slight fermentation that goes on, checked by the want of a free communication of air, tends to render the woody fibre soluble without occasion- ing the rapid dissipation of elastic matter. When old pastures are broken up and made arable, not only has the soil been enriched by the death and slow decay of the plants which have left soluble matters in the soil, but the leaves and roots of the grasses, living at the time, and occupying so large a part of the surface, afford saccharine, mucilaginous, and extractive matters, which become immediately the food of the crop, and the gradual de- composition affords a supply for successive years. 1121. Rape-cake, which is used with great success as manure, contains a large quantity of mucilage, some albuminous matter, and a small quantity of oil. This manure should be used recent, and kept as dry as possible before it is applied. It forms an excellent dressing for turnip crops ; and is most economically applied by being thrown into the soil at the same time with the seed. 1122. Malt-dust consists chiefly of the infant radicle separated from the grain. Sir H. Davy never made any experiment upon this manure ; but has great reason to suppose it must contain saccharine matter, and this will account for its powerful effects. Like rape- cake, it should be used as dry as possible, and its fermentation prevented. 1 123. Linseed-cake is too valuable as a food for cattle to be much employed as a manure. The water in which flax and hemp are steeped, for the purpose of obtaining the pure vegetable fibre, has considerable fertilising powers. It appears to contain a substance ana- logous to albumen, and likewise much vegetable extractive matter. It putrefies very readily. By the watering process, a certain degree of fermentation is absolutely neces- sary to obtain the flax and hemp in a proper state ; the water to which they have been ex- posed should therefore be used as a manure as soon as the vegetable fibre is removed from it. Washing with soap has been successfully substituted for watering by lie. 1124. Sea-weeds, consisting of different species of fuci, algae, and confervae, are much used as a manure on the sea-coasts of Britain and Ireland. By digesting the common fucus, which is the sea-weed usually most abundant on the coast, in boiling water, one- eighth of a gelatinous substance will be obtained, with characters similar to mucilage. A quantity distilled gave nearly four fifths of its weight of water, but no ammonia ; the water had an empyreumatic and slightly sour taste ; the ashes contained sea-salt, car- bonate of soda, and carbonaceous matter. The gaseous matter afforded was small in quantity, principally carbonic acid, and gaseous oxide of carbon, with a little hydro-car- bonate. This manure is transient in its effects, and does not last for more than a single crop ; which is easily accounted for from the large quantity of water, or the elements of water, it contains. It decays without producing heat when exposed to the atmosphere, and seems, as it were, to melt down and dissolve away. A large heap has been entirely destroyed in less than two years, nothing remaining but a little black fibrous matter. Some of the firmest part of a fucus were suffered to remain in a close jar, containing at- mospheric ail 1 , for a fortnight : in this time it had become very much shrivelled ; the sides BOOK II. SPECIES OF MANURES. 237 of the jar were lined with dew. The air examined was found to have lost oxygen, and contained carbonic acid gas. Sea-weed is sometimes suffered to ferment before it is used ; but this process seems wholly unnecessary, for there is no fibrous matter rendered soluble in the process, and a part of the manure is lost. The best cultivators use it as fresh as it can be procured ; and the practical results of this mode of applying it are exactly conformable to the theory of its operation. The carbonic acid formed by its in- cipient fermentation must be partly dissolved by the water set free in the same process ; and thus become capable of absorption by the roots of plants. The effects of the sea- weed, as manure, must principally depend upon this carbonic acid, and upon the soluble mucilage the weed contains ; some fucus which had fermented so as to have lost about half its weight, afforded less than one twelfth of mucilaginous matter ; from which it may be fairly concluded that some of this substance is destroyed in fermentation. 1125. Dry straiv of wheat, oats, barley, beans, and peas, and spoiled hay, or any other similar kind of dry vegetable matter, is, in all cases, useful manure. In general, such substances are made to ferment before they are employed, though it may be doubted whether the practice should be indiscriminately adopted. From 400 grains of dry barley- straw eight grains of matter soluble in water were obtained, which had a brown color, and tasted like mucilage. From 400 grains of wheaten straw, were obtained five grains of a similar substance. There can be no doubt that the straw of different crops, immediately ploughed into the ground, affords nourishment to plants ; but there is an objection to this method of using straw, from the difficulty of burying long straw, and from its rendering the husbandry foul. When straw is made to ferment, it becomes a more manageable manure ; but there is likewise, on the whole, a great loss of nutritive matter. More manure is perhaps supplied for a single crop ; but the land is less improved than it would be, supposing the whole of the vegetable matter could be finely divided and mixed with the soil. It is usual to carry straw that can be employed for no other purpose to the dunghill, to ferment, and decompose ; but -it is worth experiment, whether it may not be more economically applied when chopped small by a proper machine, and kept dry till it is ploughed in for the use of a crop. In this case, though it would decompose much more slowly, and produce less effect at first, yet its influence would be much more lasting. 1126. Mere woody fibre seems to be the only vegetable matter that requires fermentation to render it nutritive to plants. Tanners' spent bark is a substance of this kind. A. Young, in his excellent Essay on Manure, states, " that spent bark seemed rather to injure than assist vegetation ;" which he attributes to the astringent matter that it contains. But, in fact, it is freed from all soluble substances, by the operation of water in the tan- pit ; and if injurious to vegetation, the effect is probably owing to its agency upon water, or to its mechanical effects. It is a substance very absorbent and retentive of moisture, and yet not penetrable by the roots of plants. 1 127. Inert peaty matter is a substance of the same kind. It remains for years exposed to water and air without undergoing change, and in this state yields little or no nourish- ment to plants. Woody fibre will not ferment, unless some substances are mixed with it, which act the same part as the mucilage, sugar, and extractive or albuminous matters, with which it is usually associated in herbs and succulent vegetables. Lord Meadowbank has judiciously recommended a mixture of common farm-yard dung for the purpose of bringing peat into fermentation : any putrescible or fermentable substance will answer the end ; and the more a substance heats, and the more readily it ferments, the better will it be fitted for the purpose. Lord Meadowbank states, that one part of dung is suffi- cient to bring three or four parts of peat into a state in which it is fitted to be applied to land ; but of course the quantity must vary according to the nature of the dung and of the peat. In cases in which some living vegetables are mixed with the peat, the ferment- ation will be more readily effected. 1128. Tanners' spent bark, shavings of wood, and saw-dust, will probably require as much dung to bring them into fermentation as the worst kind of peat. Woody fibre may be likewise prepared, so as to become a manure, by the action of lime. It is evident, from the analysis of woody fibre by Gay Lussac and Thenard, (which shows that it con- sists principally of the elements of water and carbon, the carbon being in larger quantities than in the other vegetable compounds,) that any process which tends to abstract carbo- naceous matter from it, must bring it nearer in composition to the soluble principles ; and this is done in fermentation by the absorption of oxygen and production of carbonic acid ; and a similar effect, it will be shown, is produced by lime. 1 129. Wood-ashes, imperfectly formed, that is, wood-ashes containing much charcoal, are said to have been used with success as a manure. A part of their effects may be owing to the slow and gradual consumption of the charcoal, which seems capable, under other circumstances than those of actual combustion, of absorbing oxygen so as to become car- bonic acid. In April 1803, some well-burnt charcoal was enclosed by Sir H. Davy, in a tube, half filled with pure water, and half with common air ; the tube was hermetically sealed. The tube was opened under pure water, in the spring of 1804, at a time when 238 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. the atmospheric temperature and pressure were nearly the same as at the commencement of the experiment. Some water rushed in ; and on expelling a little air by heat from the tube, and analysing it, it was found to contain only seven per cent, of oxygen. The water in the tube, when mixed with lime-water, produced a copious precipitate ; so that carbonic acid had evidently been formed and dissolved by the water. 1130. Manures from animal substances, in general, require no chemical preparation to fat them for the soil. The great object of the farmer is to blend them with the earthy constituents in a proper state of division, and to prevent their too rapid decomposition. 1131. The entire parts of the muscles of land animals are not commonly used as manure, though there are many cases in which such an application might be easily made. Horses, dogs, sheep, deer, and other quadrupeds that have died accidentally, or of disease, after their skins are separated, are often suffered to remain exposed to the air, or immersed in water, till they are destroyed by birds or beasts of prey, or entirely decomposed ; and in this case, most of their organised matter is lost for the land in which they lie, and a con- siderable portion of it employed in giving off* noxious gases to the atmosphere. By covering dead animals with five or six times their bulk of soil, mixed with one part of lime, and suffering them to remain for a few months ; their decomposition would impreg- nate the soil with soluble matters, so as to render it an excellent manure ; and by mixing a little fresh quick lime with it at the time of its removal, the disagreeable effluvia would be in a great measure destroyed ; and it might be applied in the same way as any other manure to crops. 1 132. Fish forms a powerful manure, in whatever state it is applied ; but it cannot be ploughed in too fresh, though the quantity should be limited. A. Young records an ex- periment, in which herrings spread over a field, and ploughed in for wheat, produced so rank a crop, that it was entirely laid before harvest. The refuse pilchards in Cornwall are used throughout the county as a manure, with excellent effects. They are usually mixed with sand or soil, and sometimes with sea-weed, to prevent them from raising too luxuriant a crop. The effects are perceived for several years. In the fens of Lincoln- shire, Cambridgeshire, and Norfolk, the little fishes called sticklebacks, are caught in the shallow waters in such quantities, that they form a great article of manure in the land bordering on the fens. It is easy to explain the operation of fish as a manure. The skin is principally gelatine ; which from its slight state of cohesion, is readily soluble in water : fat or oil is always found in fishes, either under the skin or in some of the viscera ; and their fibrous matter contains all the essential elements of vegetable substances. 1 1 33. Amongst oily substances, blubber has been employed as a manure. It is most useful when mixed with clay, sand, or any common soil, so as to expose a large surface to the air, the oxygen of which produces soluble matter from it. Lord Somerville used blubber with great success at his farm in Surrey. It was made into a heap with soil, and retained its powers of fertilising for several successive years. The carbon and hydrogen abounding in oily substances, fully account for their effects ; and their durability is easily explained from the gradual manner in which they change by the action of air and water. 1 134. Hones are much used as a manure in the neighbourhood of London. After being broken, and boiled for grease, they are sold to the farmer. The more divided they are, the more powerful are their effects. The expense of grinding them in a mill would pro- bably be repaid by the increase of their fertilising powers ; and in the state of powder they might be used in the drill husbandry, and delivered with the seed, in the same manner as rape-cake. Bone-dust and bone-shavings, the refuse of the turning manufacture, may be advantageously employed in the same way. The basis of bone is constituted by earthy salts, principally phosphate of lime, with some carbonate of lime and phosphate of mag- nesia ; the easily decomposable substances in bone, are fat, gelatine, and cartilage, which seems of the same nature as coagulated albumen. According to the analysis of Fourcroy and Vauquelin, ox-bones are composed of decomposable animal matter 51 ; phosphate of lime 37-7, carbonate of lime 10, phosphate of magnesia 1-3 ; total 100. 1135. Horn is a still more powerful manure than bone, as it contains a larger quantity of decomposable animal matter. From 500 grains of ox-horn, Hatchett obtained only 1 *5 grains of earthy residuum, and not quite half of this was phosphate of lime. The shavings or turnings of horn form an excellent manure, though they are not sufficiently abundant to be in common use. The animal matter in them seems to be of the nature of coagulated albumen, and it is slowly rendered soluble by the action of water. The earthy matter in horn, and still more that in bones, prevents the too rapid decomposition of the animal matter, and renders it very durable in its effects. 1136. Hair, woollen rags, and feathers, are all analogous in composition, and princi- pally consist of a substance similar to albumen united to gelatine. This is shown by the ingenious researches of Hatchett. The theory of their operation is similar to that of bone and horn shavings. 1 1 37. The refuse of the different manufactures of skin and leather form very useful manures ; such as the shavings of the currier, furriers' clippings, and the offals of the BOOK II. SPECIES OF MANURES. 289 tan-yard and of the glue-maker. The gelatine contained in every kind of skin is in a state fitted for its gradual solution or decomposition ; and when buried in the soil, it lasts for a considerable time, and constantly affords a supply of nutritive matter to the plants in its neighbourhood. 1138. Blood contains certain quantities of all the principles found in other animal sub- stances, and is consequently a very good manure. It has been already stated that it contains fibrine ; it likewise contains albumen ; the red particles in it, which have been supposed by many foreign chemists to be colored by iron in a particular state of combin- ation with oxygen and acid matter, Brande considers as formed of a peculiar animal substance, containing very little iron. The scum taken from the boilers of the sugar- bakers, and which is used as manure, principally consists of bullocks' blood, which has been employed for the purpose of separating the impurities of common brown sugar, by means of the coagulation of its albuminous matter by 'the heat of the boiler. 1 139. The different species of corals, corallines, and sponges, must be considered as sub- stances of animal origin. From the analysis of Hatchett, it appears that all these substances contain considerable quantities of a matter analogous to coagulated albumen ; the sponges afford likewise gelatine. According to Merat Guillot, white coral contains equal parts of animal matter and carbonate of lime ; red coral 46-5 of animal matter, and 53-5 of carbonate of lime ; articulated coralline 51 of animal matter, and 49 of carbonate of lime. These substances are never used as manure in this country, except in cases when they are accidentally mixed with sea-weed ; but it is probable that the corallines might be advantageously employed, as they are found in considerable quantity on the rocks, and bottoms of the rocky pools on many parts of our coast, where the land gradually declines towards the sea ; and they might be detached by hoes, and collected without much trouble. 1140. Amongst excrementations, animal substances used as manures, urine is the one upon which the greatest number of chemical experiments have been made, and the nature of which is best understood. The urine of the cow contains, according to the experiments of Brande : water 65 ; phosphate of lime 3 ; muriates of potassa and ammonia 1 5 ; sulphate of potassa 6 ; carbonates, potassa, and ammonia 4 ; urea 4. 1141. The urine of the horse, according to Fourcroy and Vauquelin, contains, of car- bonate of lime 11, carbonate of soda 9, benzoate of soda 24, muriate of potassa 9, urea 7, water and mucilage 940. In addition to these substances, Brande found in it phosphate of lime. The urine of the ass, the camel, the rabbit, and domestic fowls, have been submitted to different experiments, and their constitution have been found similar. In the urine of the rabbit, in addition to most of the ingredients above mentioned, Vau- quelin detected gelatine ; and the same chemist discovered uric acid in the urine of do- mestic fowls. Human urine contains a greater variety of constituents than any other species examined. Urea, uric acid, and another acid similar to it in nature, called rosacic acid, acetic acid, albumen, gelatine, a resinous matter, and various salts are found in it. The human urine differs in composition, according to the state of the body, and the nature of the food and drink made use of. In many cases of disease there is a much larger quantity of gelatine and albumen than usual in the urine ; and in diabetes it con- tains sugar. It is probable that the urine of the same animal must likewise differ according to the different nature of the food and drink used ; and this will account for discordances in some of the analyses that have been published on the subject. Urine is very liable to change, and to undergo the putrefactive process ; and that of carnivorous animals more rapidly than that of graminivorous animals. In proportion as there is more gelatine and albumen in urine, so in proportion does it putrefy more quickly. The species of urine that contain most albumen, gelatine, and urea, are the best as manures ; and all urine contains the essential elements of vegetables in a state of solution. During the putrefaction of urine the greatest part of the soluble animal matter that it contains is destroyed : it should consequently be used as fresh as possible ; but if not mixed with solid matter, it should be diluted with water, as, when pure, it contains too large a quan- tity of animal matter to form a proper fluid nourishment for absorption by the roots of plants. 1 1 42. Putrid urine abounds in ammoniacal salts ; and though less active than fresh urine, is a very powerful manure. According to a recent analysis published by Berze- lius, 1000 parts of urine are composed of, water 933; urea 30-1 ; uric acid 1 ; muriate of ammonia, free lactic acid, lactate of ammonia, and animal matter 17 '14. The remainder different salts, phosphates, sulphates, and muriates. 1 143. Dung of birds. Amongst excrementitious solid substances used as manures, one of the most powerful is the dung of birds that feed on animal food, particularly the dung of sea-birds. The guano, which is used to a great extent in South America, and which is the manure that fertilises the sterile plains of Peru, is a production of this kind. It exists abundantly, as we are informed by Humboldt, on the small islands in the South Sea, at Chinche, Ilo, Iza, and Arica. Fifty vessels are laden with it annually at Chinche, each of 240 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PAST II. which carries from 1500 to 2000 cubical feet. It is used as a manure only in very small quantities ; and particularly for crops of maize. Some experiments were made on specimens of guano in 1805. It appeared as a fine brown powder ; it blackened by heat, and gave off strong ammoniacal fumes ; treated with nitric acid, it afforded uric acid. In 1806, Fourcroy and Vauquelin published an elaborate analysis of guano. They state that it contains a fourth part of its weight of uric acid, partly saturated with am- monia, and partly with potassa ; some phosphoric acid combined with the bases, and likewise with lime. Small quantities of sulphate and muriate of potassa, a little fatty matter, and some quartzose sand. ' ' It is easy to explain its fertilising properties : from its composition it might be supposed to be a very powerful manure. It requires water for the solution of its soluble matter to enable it to produce its full beneficial effect on crops. 1144. The dung of sea-birds has never been much used as a manure in this country ; but it is probable that even the soil of the small islands on our coast much frequented by them would fertilise. Some dung of sea-birds, brought from a rock on the coast of Merionethshire, produced a powerful, but transient effect on grass. The rains in our climate must tend very much to injure this species of manure, where it is exposed to them, soon after its deposition ; but it may probably be found in great perfection in caverns or clefts in rocks haunted by cormorants and gulls. Some recent cormorants' dung, when examined, had not at all the appearance of the guano ; it was of a greyish- white color ; had a very fetid smell, like that of putrid animal matter ; when acted on by quick-lime, it gave abundance of ammonia ; treated with nitric acid, it yielded uric acid. 1145. Night-soil, it is well known, is a very powerful manure, and very liable to de- compose. It differs in composition ; but always abounds in substances composed of carbon, hydrogen, azote, and oxygen. From the analysis of Berzelius, it appears that a part of it is always soluble in water ; and in whatever state it is used, whether recent or fermented, it supplies abundance of food to plants. The disagreeable smell of night- soil may be destroyed by mixing it with quick-lime ; and if exposed to the atmosphere in thin layers, strewed over with quick-lime in fine weather, it speedily dries, is easily pulverised, and in this state, may be used in the same manner as rape-cake, and delivered into the furrow with the seed. The Chinese, who have more practical know- ledge of the use and application of manures than any other people existing, mix their night-soil with one third of its weight of a fat marl, make it into cakes, and dry it by exposure to the sun. These cakes, we are informed by the French missionaries, have no disagreeable smell, and form a common article of commerce of the empire. The earth, by its absorbent powers, probably prevents, to a certain extent, the action of moisture upon the dung, and likewise defends it from the effects of air. Desiccated night-soil, in a state of powder, forms an article of internal commerce in France, and is known under the name of poudrette. In London it is mixed with quick-lime, and sold in cakes under the name of " Clarke's desiccated compost." 1146. Pigeons' dung comes next in order, as to fertilising power. 100 grains di- gested in hot water for some hours, produced 23 grains of soluble matter, which afforded abundance of carbonate of ammonia by distillation ; and left carbonaceous matter, saline matter, principally common salt, and carbonate of lime as a residuum. Pigeons' dung, when moist, readily ferments, and after fermentation, contains less soluble matter than before ; from 100 parts of fermented pigeons' dung, only eight parts of soluble matter were obtained, which gave proportionally less carbonate of ammonia in distillation than recent pigeons' dung. It is evident that this manure should be applied as new as possible ; and when dry, it may be employed in the same manner as the other manures capable of being pulverised. The soil in woods, where great flocks of wood- pigeons roost, is often highly impregnated with their dung, and it cannot be doubted, would form a valuable manure. Such soil will often yield ammonia when distilled with lime. In the winter, likewise, it usually contains abundance of vegetable matter, the remains of decayed leaves, and the dung tends to bring the vegetable matter into a state of solution. Manuring was, and still is, in great esteem in Persia. 1147. The dung of domestic fowls approaches very nearly in its nature to pigeons' dung. Uric acid has been found in it. It gives carbonate of ammonia by distillation, and im- mediately yields soluble matter to water. It is very liable to ferment. The dung of fowls is employed, in common with that of pigeons, by tanners, to bring on a slight degree of putrefaction in skins that are to be used for making soft leather ; for this purpose the dung is diffused through water. In this state it rapidly undergoes putrefaction, and brings on a similar change in the skin. The excrements of dogs are employed by the tanner with similar effects. In all cases, the contents of the grainer, as the pit is called in which soft skins are prepared by dung, must form a very useful manure. 1 148. Rabbits' dung has never been analysed. It is used with great success as a manure by some farmers, who find it profitable to keep rabbits in Such a manner as to preserve BOOK II. APPLICATION OF MANURES. 241 their dung. It is laid on as fresh as possible, and is found better the less it lias fermented. 1 149. The dung of cattle, oxen, and cows, has been chemically examined by Einhof and Thaer. They found that it contained matter soluble in water ; and that it gave in fermentation nearly the same products as vegetable substances, absorbing oxygen, and producing carbonic acid gas. 1150. The recent 'dung of sheep and of deer affords, when long boiled in water, soluble matters which equal from two to three* per cent, of their weight. These soluble sub- stances, procured by solution and evaporation, when examined, contain a very small quan- tity of matter analogous to animal mucus ; and are principally composed of a bitter extract, soluble both in water and in alcohol. They give ammoniacal fumes by dis- tillation, and appear to differ very little in composition. Some blades of grass were watered for several successive days with a solution of these extracts ; they evidently be- came greener in consequence, and grew more vigorously than grass in other respects under the same circumstances. The part of the dung of cattle, sheep, and deer, not soluble in water, appears to be mere woody fibre, and precisely analogous to the residuum of those vegetables that form their food after they have been deprived of all their soluble materials. 1151. The dung of horses gives a brown fluid, which, when evaporated, yields a bitter extract, which affords ammoniacal fumes more copiously than that from the dung of oxen. 1152. In the treatment of the pure dung of cattle, sheep, and horses, there seems no reason why it should be made to ferment except in the soil, like the other pure dungs ; or, if suffered to ferment, it should be only in a very slight degree. The grass, in the neighbourhood of recently voided dung, is always coarse and dark green ; some persons have attributed this to a noxious quality in unfermenting dung; but it seems to be rather the result of an excess of food furnished to the plants. 1 153. Street and road dung and the sweepings of houses may be all regarded as composite manures ; the constitution of them is necessarily various, as they are derived from a num- ber of different substances. These manures are usually applied in a proper manner, without being fermented. 1154. Soot, which is principally formed from the combustion of pit-coal or coal, generally contains likewise substances derived from animal matters. This is a very powerful manure. It affords ammoniacal salts by distillation, and yields a brown extract to hot water, of a bitter taste. It likewise contains an empyreumatic oil. Its great basis is charcoal, in a state in which it is capable of being rendered soluble by the action of oxygen and water. This manure is well fitted to be used in the dry state, thrown into the ground with the seed, and requires no preparation. SUBSECT. J. Of the fermenting, preserving, and applying of Manures of Animal and Vegetable Origin. 1155. On the management of organic manures depends much of their value as food to plants. The great mass of manures procured by the cultivator are a mixture of animal and vegetable matters, and the great source of supply is the farm or stable yard. Here the excrementitious matter of horses, cattle, swine, and poultry, is mixed with straw, haulm, chaff", and various kinds of litter. To what degree should this be fermented before it is applied to the soil ? And how can it best be preserved when not immediately wanted ? 1156. A slight incipient fermentation is undoubtedly of use in the dunghill; for, by means of it a disposition is brought on in the woody fibre to decay and dissolve, when it is carried to the land, or ploughed into the soil ; and woody fibre is always in great ex- cess in the refuse of the farm. Too great a degree of fermentation is, however, very prejudicial to the composite manure in the dunghill ; it is better that there should be no fermentation at all before the manure is used, than that it should be carried too far. The excess of fermentation tends to the destruction and dissipation of the most useful part of the manure ; and the ultimate results of this process are like those of com- bustion. It is a common practice amongst farmers to suffer the farm-yard dung to ferment till the fibrous texture of the vegetable matter is entirely broken down ; and till the manure becomes perfectly cold, and so soft as to be easily cut by the spade. Inde- pendent of the general theoretical views unfavorable to this practice, founded upon the nature and composition of vegetable substances, there are many arguments and facts which show that it is prejudicial to the interests of the farmer. 1157. During the violent fermentation which is necessary for reducing farm-yard manure to the state in which it is called short muck, not only a large quantity of fluid, but likewise of gaseous matter is lost ; so much so, that the dung is reduced one half, or two thirds in weight ; and the principal elastic matter disengaged, is carbonic acid with some ammonia ; and both these, if retained by the moisture in the soil, as has been stated R 242 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. before, are capable of becoming a useful nourishment of plants. In October, 1808, Sir H. Davy filled a large retort capable of containing three pints of water, with some hot fermenting manure, consisting principally of the litter and dung of cattle ; he adapted a small receiver to the retort, and connected the whole with a mercurial pneumatic apparatus, so as to collect the condensible and elastic fluids which might rise from the dung. The receiver soon became lined with dew, and drops began in a few hours to trickle down the sides of it. Elastic fluid likewise was generated ; in three days thirty-five cubical inches had been formed, which^ when analysed, were found to contain twenty-one cubical inches of carbonic acid, the remainder was hydrocarbonate mixed with some azote, probably no more than existed in the common air in the receiver. The fluid matter collected in the receiver at the same time amounted to nearly half an ounce. It had a saline taste, and a disagreeable smell, and contained some acetate and carbonate of ammonia. Finding such products given off from fermenting litter, he introduced the beak of another retort, filled with similar dung, very hot at the time, in the soil amongst the roots of some grass in the border of a garden ; in less than a week a very distinct effect was produced on the grass ; upon the spot exposed to the influence of the matter disengaged in fermentation, it grew with much more luxuriance than the grass in any other part of the garden. Besides the dissipation of gaseous matter, when fermentation is pushed to the extreme, there is another disadvantage in the loss of heat, which, if excited in the soil, is useful in promoting the germination of the seed, and in assisting the plant in the first stage of its growth, when it is most feeble and most liable to disease : and the fermentation of manure in the soil must be particularly favorable to the wheat crop, in preserving a genial temperature beneath the surface late in autumn and during winter. Again, it is a general principle in chemistry, that in all cases of decomposition, substances combine much more readily at the moment of their disengagement, than after they have been perfectly formed. And in fermentation beneath the soil the fluid matter produced is applied instantly, even whilst it is warm, to the organs of the plant, and consequently is more likely to be efficient, than in manure that has gone through the process ; and of which all the principles have entered into new combinations. 1158. Checking fermentation by covering. "There are reasons sufficiently strong," Grisenthwaite observes, " to discourage the practice of allowing dung-heaps to ferment and rot without interruption. It appears that public opinion has slowly adopted the decisions of chemical reasoning, and dung-pies, as they are called, have been formed with a view to save what was before lost ; a stratum of mould, sustaining the heap, being placed to receive the fluid parts, and a covering of mould being applied to prevent the dissipation of the aerial, or gaseous products. These purposes and contrivances, unfortunately, like many of the other operations of husbandry, were not directed by scientific knowledge. To cover is so commonly believed to confine, that there is no wonder that the practical cultivator adopted it in this instance from such a consideration. But it is in vain ; the elasticity of the gases generated is such as no covering whatever could possibly confine. If it were perfectly compact, it could only preserve as much carbonic acid as is equal to the volume or bulk of air within it ; a quantity too incon- siderable to be regarded, could it even be saved; but every particle of it must be disengaged, and lost, when the covering is removed." 1159. Checking fermentation by watering is sometimes recommended ; but this practice is inconsistent with just chemical views. It may cool the dung for a short time ; but moisture, as before stated, is a principal agent in all processes of decomposition. Dry fibrous matter will never ferment. Water is as necessary as air to the process ; and to supply it to fermenting dung, is to supply an agent which will hasten its decay. In all cases when dung is fermenting, there are simple tests by which the rapidity of the process, and consequently the injury done, may be discovered. If a thermometer, plunged into the dung, does not rise to above one hundred degrees of Fahrenheit, there is little danger of much aeriform matter flying off. If the temperature is higher, the dung should be immediately spread abroad. When a piece of paper, moistened in muriatic acid, held over the steams arising from a dunghill, gives dense fumes, it is a certain test that the decomposition is going too far, for this indicates that volatile alkali is disengaged. 1160. In favor of the application of farm-yard dung in a recent state, a great mass of facts may be found in the writings of scientific agriculturists. A. Young, in the Essay on Manures, already quoted, adduces a number of excellent authorities in support of the plan. Many, who doubted, have been lately convinced ; and perhaps there is no subject of investigation in which there is such a union of theoretical and practical evidence. Within the last seven years Coke has entirely given up the system formerly adopted on his farm, of applying fermented dung; and his crops have been since as good as they ever were, and his manure goes nearly twice as far. A great objection against slightly fermented dung is, that weeds spring up more luxuriantly where it is applied. BOOK II. OPERATION OF MINERAL MANURES. 243 If there are seeds carried out in the dung, they certainly will germinate ; but it is seldom that this can be the case to any extent ; and if the land is not cleansed of weeds, any kind of manure, fermented or unfermented, will occasion their rapid growth. If slightly fermented farm-yard dung is used as a top-dressing for pastures, the long straws and unfermented vegetable matter remaining on the surface should be re- moved as soon as the grass begins to rise vigorously, by raking, and carried back to the dunghill : in this case no manure will be lost, and the husbandry will be at once clean and economical. In cases when farm-yard dung cannot be immediately applied to crops, the destructive fermentation of it should be prevented as much as possible : the principles on which this may be effected have been already alluded to. The surface should be defended as much as possible from the oxygen of the atmosphere ; a compact marl, or a tenacious clay, offers the best protection against the air ; and before the dung is covered over, or, as it were, sealed up, it should be dried as much as possible. If the dung is found at any time to heat strongly, it should be turned over, and cooled by exposure to the air. 1161. The doctrine of the proper application of manures from organised substances, offers an illustration of an important part of the economy of nature, and of the happy order in which it is arranged. The death and decay of animal substances tend to resolve organised forms into chemical constituents ; and the pernicious effluvia disengaged in the process seem to point out the propriety of burying them in the soil, where they are fitted to become the food of vegetables. The fermentation and putrefaction of or- ganised substances in the free atmosphere are noxious processes ; beneath the surface of the ground they are salutary operations. In this case the food of plants is prepared where it can be used ; and that which would offend the senses and injure the health, if exposed, is converted by gradual processes into forms of beauty and of usefulness ; the foetid gas is rendered a constituent of the aroma of the flower, and what might be poison becomes nourishment to animals and to man. 1 162. To preserve dung for any time, the situation in which it is kept is of importance. It should, if possible, be defended from the sun. To preserve it under sheds would be of great use ; or to make the site of a dunghill on the north side of a wall. The floor on which the dung is heaped, should, if possible, be paved with flat stones ; and there should be a little inclination from each side towards the centre, in which there should be drains connected with a small well, furnished with a pump, by which any fluid matter may be collected for the use of the land. It too often happens that a dense mucilaginous and extractive fluid is suffered to drain away from the dunghill, so as to be entirely lost to the farm. SECT. II. Of Manures of Mineral Origin. 1 163. Earthy and saline manures are probably of more recent invention, and doubtless of more uncertain use than those of animal and vegetable origin. The conversion of matter that has belonged to living structures into organised forms, is a process that can be easily understood ; but it is more difficult to follow those operations by which earthy and saline matters are consolidated in the fibre of plants, and by which they are made subservient to their functions. These are capable of being materially elucidated by modern chemistry, and shall here be considered as to the theory of their operation, and specific kinds. SUBSECT. 1. Theory of the Operation of Mineral Manures. 1164. Saline and calcareous substances form the principal fossil manures. Much has been written on lime and common salt, both in the way of speculation and reasoning from facts, which, from want of chemical knowledge, has turned to no useful account, and cultivators till very lately contented themselves with stating that these substances acted as stimuli to the soil, something like condiments to the digestive organs of animals. Even chemists themselves are not yet unanimous in all their opinions; but still the result of their enquiries will be found of great benefit to the scientific cultivator. 1165. Various opinions exist as to the rationale of the operation of mineral manures. " Some enquirers," Sir H. Davy observes, " adopting that sublime generalisation of the ancient philosophers, that matter is the same in essence, and that the different sub- stances, considered as elements by chemists, are merely different arrangements of the same indestructible particles, have endeavoured to prove, that all the varieties of the prin- ciples found in plants, may be formed from the substances in the atmosphere ; and that vegetable life is a process in which bodies that the analytical philosopher is unable to change or to form, are constantly composed and decomposed. But the general results of experiments are very much opposed to the idea of the composition of the earths, by plants, from any of the elements found in the atmosphere, or in water ; and there are various facts contradictory to the idea. Jacquin states, that the ashes of glass-wort (Sal-, R 2 244 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. sola soda}, when it grows in inland situations, afford the vegetable alkali ; when it grows on the sea-shore, where compounds which afford the fossil or marine alkali are more abundant, it yields that substance. Du Hamel found that plants which usually grow on the sea-shore, made small progress when planted in soils containing little common salt. The sun-flower, when growing in lands containing no nitre, does not afford that substance ; though when watered by a solution of nitre, it yields nitre abundantly. The tables of De Saussure show that the ashes of plants are similar in constitution to the soils in which they have vegetated. De Saussure made plants grow in solutions of different salts ; and he ascertained that, in all cases, certain portions of the salts were absorbed by the plants, and found unaltered in their organs. Even animals do not appear to possess the power of forming the alkaline and earthy substances. Dr. Fordyce found, that when canary-birds, at the time they were laying eggs, were deprived of access to carbonate of lime, their eggs had soft shells ; and if there is any process for which nature may be con- ceived most likely to supply resources of this kind, it is that connected with the repro- duction of the species. 1 166. It seems a fair conclusion, as the evidence on the subject now stands, that the dif- ferent earths and saline substances found in the organs of plants, are supplied by the soils in which they grow ; and in no cases composed by new arrangements of the elements in air or water. What may be our ultimate view of the laws of chemistry, or how far our ideas of elementary principles may be simplified, it is impossible to say. We can only reason from facts. We cannot imitate the powers of composition belonging to vegetable structures ; but at least we can understand them : and as far as our researches have gone, it appears'that in vegetation compound forms are uniformly produced from simple ones ; and the elements in the soil, the atmosphere and the earth absorbed and made parts of beautiful and diversified structures. The views which have been just developed lead to correct ideas of the operation of those manures which are not necessarily the result of de- cayed organised bodies, and which are not composed of different proportions of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and azote. They must produce their effect, either by becoming a constituent part of the plant, or by acting upon its more essential food, so as to render it more fitted for the purposes of vegetable life. SUBSECT. 2. Oftfie different Species of Mineral Manures. 1167. Alkaline earths, or alkalies and their combinations, which are found unmixed with the remains of any organised beings, are the only substances which can with propriety be called fossil manures. The only alkaline earths which have been hitherto applied in this way are lime and magnesia ; though potassa and soda, the two fixed alkalies, are both used to a limited extent in certain of their chemical compounds. 1 168. The most common form in which lime is found on the surface of the earth, is in a state of combination with carbonic acid or fixed air. If a piece of limestone or chalk be thrown into a fluid acid, there will be an effervescence. This is owing to the escape of the carbonic acid gas. The lime becomes dissolved in the liquor. When limestone is strongly heated, the carbonic acid gas is expelled, and then nothing remains but the pure alkaline earth ; in this case there is a loss of weight ; and if the fire has been very high, it approaches to one half the weight of the stone ; but in common cases, limestones, if well dried before burning, do not lose much more than 35 to 40 per cent., or from seven to eight parts out of twenty. 1 1 69. When burnt lime is exposed to the atmosphere, in a certain time it becomes mild, and is the same substance as that precipitated from lime-water ; it is combined with car- bonic acid gas. Quick-lime, when first made, is caustic and burning to the tongue, renders vegetable blues green, and is soluble in water ; but when combined with carbonic acid, it loses all these properties, its solubility, and its taste : it regains its power of effer- vescing, and becomes the same chemical substance as chalk or limestone. Very few limestones or chalks consist entirely of lime and carbonic acid. The statuary marbles, or certain of the rhomboidal spars, are almost the only pure species ; and the different properties of limestones, both as manures and cements, depend upon the nature of the in- gredient mixed in the limestone ; for the true calcareous element, the carbonate of lime, is uniformly the same in nature, properties, and effects, and consists of one proportion of carbonic acid 41 -4, and one of lime 55. When a limestone does not copiously effer- vesce in acids, and is sufficiently hard to scratch glass, it contains siliceous, and probably aluminous earth. When it is deep brown or red, or strongly colored, of any of the shades of brown or yellow, it contains oxide of iron. When it is not sufficiently hard to scratch glass, but effervesces slowly, and makes the acid in which it effervesces milky, it contains magnesia. And when it is black, and emits a fetid smell if rubbed, it contains coaly or bituminous matter. Before any opinion can be formed of the manner in which the different ingredients in limestones modify their properties, it will be necessary to con- sider the operation of pure lime as a manure. BOOK II. SPECIES OF MINERAL MANURES. 245 1 1 70. Quick-lime, in its pure state, whether in powder, or dissolved in water, is injurious to plants. In several instances grass has been killed by watering it with lime-water. But lime, in its state of combination with carbonic acid, is a useful ingredient in soils. Calcareous earth is found in the ashes of the greater number of plants ; and exposed to the air, lime cannot long continue caustic, for the reasons that were just now assigned, but soon becomes united to carbonic acid. When newly-burnt lime is exposed to air, it soon falls into powder ; in this case it is called slacked lime ; and the same effect is immediately produced by throwing water upon it, when it heats violently, and the water disappears. Slacked lime is merely a combination of lime, with about one third of its weight of water ; i. e. fifty-five parts of lime absorb seventeen parts of water ; and in this case it is composed of a definite proportion of water, and is called by chemists hydrate of lime ; and when hydrate of lime becomes carbonate of lime by long exposure to air, the water is expelled, and the carbonic acid gas takes its place. When lime, whether freshly burnt or slacked, is mixed with any moist fibrous vegetable matter, there is a strong action between the lime and the vegetable matter, and they form a kind of compost together, of which a part is usually soluble in water. By this kind of operation, lime renders matter which was before comparatively inert, nutritive ; and as charcoal and oxygen abound in all vegetable matters, it becomes at the same time converted into carbonate of lime. 1171. Mild lime, powdered limestone, marls, or chalks have no action of this kind upon vegetable matter; they prevent the too rapid decomposition of substances already dissolved ; but they have no tendency to form soluble matters. It is obvious from these circumstances, that the operation of quick-lime, and marl, or chalk, depends upon principles altogether different. Quick-lime, in being applied to land, tends to bring any hard vegetable matter that it contains into a state of more rapid decomposition and solution, so as to render it a proper food for plants. Chalk and marl, or carbonate of lime, will only improve the texture of the soil, or its relation to absorption ; it acts merely as one of its earthy ingredients. Chalk has been recommended as a substance calculated to correct the sourness of land. It would surely have been a wise practice to have previously ascertained the certainty of this existence of acid, and to have determined its nature, in order that it might be effectually removed. The fact really is, that no soil was ever yet found to contain any notable quantity of uncombined acid. The acetic and carbonic acids are the only two that are likely to be generated by any spontaneous de- composition of animal or vegetable bodies, and neither of these has any fixity when ex- posed to the air. Chalk having no power of acting on animal and vegetable substances, can be no otherwise serviceable to land than as it alters its texture. Quick-lime, when it becomes mild, operates in the same manner as chalk ; but in the act of becoming mild, it prepares soluble out of insoluble matter. Boullion la Grange says, that gelatine oxygenised becomes insoluble, and vegetable extract we know becomes so from the same cause ; now lime has the property of attracting oxygen, and, consequently, of restoring the property of solubility to those substances which have been deprived of it, from a combination with oxygen. Hence the uses of lime on peat lands, and on all soils con- taining an excess of vegetable insoluble matter. ( Grisenthwaite. ) 1 172. Effect of lime on wheat crops. When lime is employed upon land where there is present any quantity of animal matter, it occasions the evolution of a quantity of ammonia, which may, perhaps, be imbibed by the leaves of plants, and afterwards undergo some change so as to form gluten. It is upon this circumstance that the operation of lime in the preparation for wheat crops depends ; and its efficacy in fertilising peat, and in bring- ing into a state of cultivation all soils abounding in hard roots, or dry fibres, or inert vegetable matter. 1173. General principles for applying lime. The solution of the question whether quick- lime ought to be applied to a soil, depends upon the quantity of inert vegetable matter that it contains. The solution of the question, whether marl, mild lime, or powdered limestone ought to be applied, depends upon the quantity of calcareous matter already in the soil. All soils are improved by mild lime, and ultimately by quick-lime, which do not effervesce v/ith acids ; and sands more than clays. When a soil, deficient in calcareous matter, contains much soluble vegetable manure, the application of quick-lime should always be avoided, as it either tends to decompose the soluble matters by uniting to their carbon and oxygen so as to become mild lime, or it combines with the soluble matters, and forms compounds having less attraction for water than the pure vegetable substance. The case is the same with respect to most animal manures ; but the operation of the lime is different in different cases, and depends upon the nature of the animal matter. Lime forms a kind of insoluble soap with oily matters, and then gradually decomposes them by separating from them oxygen and carbon. It combines likewise with the animal acids, and probably assists their decomposition by abstracting carbonaceous matter from them combined with oxygen ; and consequently it must render them less nutritive. It tends to diminish likewise the nutritive powers of albumen from the same causes ; and always R 3 246 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. destroys, to a certain extent, the efficacy of animal manures ; either by combining with certain of their elements, or by giving to them new arrangements. Lime should never be applied with animal manures, unless they are too rich, or for the purpose of preventing noxious effluvia. It is injurious when mixed with any common dung, and tends to render the extractive matter insoluble. 1174. Lime promotes fermentation. In those cases in which fermentation is useful to produce nutriment from vegetable substances, lime is always efficacious. Some moist tanners' spent bark was mixed with one fifth of its weight of quick-lime, and suffered to remain together in a close vessel for three months ; the lime had become colored, and was effervescent : when water was boiled upon the mixture, it gained a tint of fawn-color, and by evaporation furnished a fawn-colored powder, which must have consisted of lime united to vegetable matter, for it burnt when strongly heated, and left a residuum of mild lime. 1175. Different kinds of limestones have different effects. The limestones containing alumina and silica are less fitted for the purposes of manure than pure limestones ; but the lime formed from them has no noxious quality. Such stones are less efficacious, merely because they furnish a smaller quantity of quick-lime. There is very seldom any considerable portion of coaly matter in bituminous limestones ; never as much as five parts in 100 ; but such limestones make very good lime. The carbonaceous matter can do no injury to the land, and may, under certain circumstances, become a food of the plant. 1176. The subject of the application of the magnesian limestone is one of great interest. It had been long known to farmers in the neighbourhood of Doncaster, that lime made from a certain limestone applied to the land, often injured the crops considerably. Tennant, in making a series of experiments upon this peculiar calcareous substance, found that it contained magnesia ; and on mixing some calcined magnesia with soil, in which he sowed different seeds, he found that they either died or vegetated in a very imperfect manner, and the plants were never healthy. And with great justice and ingenuity he referred the bad effects of the peculiar limestone to the magnesian earth it contains. 1177. Magnesian limestone is used with good effect in some cases. Magnesia has a much weaker attraction for carbonic acid than lime, and will remain in the state of caus- tic or calcined magnesia for many months, though exposed to the air. And as long as any caustic lime remains, the magnesia cannot be combined with carbonic acid, for lime instantly attracts carbonic acid from magnesia. When a magnesian limestone is burnt, the magnesia is deprived of carbonic acid much sooner than the lime ; and if there is not much vegetable or animal matter in the soil to supply by its decomposition carbonic acid, the magnesia will remain for a long while in the caustic state ; and in this state acts as a poison to certain vegetables. And that more magnesian lime may be used upon rich soils, seems to be owing to the circumstance that the decomposition of the manure in them supplies carbonic acid. And magnesia, in its mild state, i. e. fully combined with car- bonic acid, seems to be always a useful constituent of soils. Carbonate of magnesia (procured by boiling the solution of magnesia in supercarbonate of potassa,) was thrown upon grass, and upon growing wheat and barley, so as to render the surface white ; but the vegetation was not injured in the slightest degree. And one of the most fertile parts of Cornwall, the Lizard, is a district in which the soil contains mild magnesian earth. It is obvious, from what has been said, that lime from the magnesian limestone may be applied in large quantities to peats ; and that where lands have been injured by the application of too large a quantity of magnesian lime, peat will be a proper and efficient remedy. 1178. A simple test o/ magnesia in a limestone is its slight effervescence with acids, and its rendering diluted nitric acid, or aqua fortis, milky. From the analysis of Tennant, it appears to contain from 20-3 to 22-5 magnesia; 29'5 to 31-7 lime ; 47 '2 carbonic acid ; 0-8 clay and oxide of iron. Magnesia limestones are usually colored brown or pale yel- low. They are found in Somersetshire, Leicestershire, Derbyshire, Shropshire, Durham, and Yorkshire ; and in many parts of Ireland, particularly near Belfast. In general, when limestones are not magnesian, their purity will be indicated by their loss of weight in burning ; the more they lose, the larger is the quantity of calcareous matter they con- tain. The magnesian limestones contain more carbonic acid than the common lime- stones ; and I have found all of them lose more than half their weight by calcination. 1179. Gypsum. Besides being used in the forms of lime and carbonate of lime, cal- careous matter is applied for the purposes of agriculture in other combinations. One of these bodies is gypsum or sulphate of lime. This substance consists of sulphuric acid (the same body that exists combined with water in oil of vitriol,) and lime ; and when dry it is composed of 55 parts of lime and 75 parts of sulphuric acid. Common gypsum or selenite, such as that found at Shotover Hill, near Oxford, contains, besides sulphuric acid and lime, a considerable quantity of water; and its composition may be thus BOOK II. SPECIES OF MINERAL MANURES. 247 expressed : sulphuric acid one proportion 75 ; lime one proportion 55 ; water two pro- portions 34. 1 180. The nature of gypsum is easily demonstrated ; if oil of vitriol be added to quick- lime, there is a violent heat produced ; when the mixture is ignited, water is given off, and gypsum alone is the result, if the acid has been used in sufficient quantity ; and gyp- sum mixed with quick-lime, if the quantity has been deficient. Gypsum, free from water, is sometimes found in nature, when it is called anhydrous selenite. It is distin- guished from common gypsum by giving off no water when heated. When gypsum, free from water, or deprived of water by heat, is made into a paste with water, it rapidly sets by combining with that fluid. Plaster of Paris is powdered dry gypsum, and its property as a cement, and its use in making casts, depends upon its solidifying a certain quantity of water, and making with it a coherent mass. Gypsum is soluble in about 500 times its weight of cold water, and is more soluble in hot water ; so that when water has been boiled in contact with gypsum, crystals of this substance are deposited as the water cools. Gypsum is easily distinguished by its properties of affording precipitates to solutions of oxalates and of barytic salts. In America it is employed with signal success ; it has been advantageously used in Kent, but in most counties of England it has failed, though tried in various ways, and upon different crops. 1181. Very discordant notions have been formed as to the mode of operation of gypsum. It has been supposed by some persons to act by its power of attracting moisture from the air ; but this agency must be comparatively insignificant. When combined with water, it retains that fluid too powerfully to yield it to the roots of the plant, and its adhesive at- traction for moisture is inconsiderable ; the small quantity in which it is used likewise is a circumstance hostile to this idea. It has been erroneously said that gypsum assists the putrefaction of animal substances, and the decomposition of manure. 1182. The ashes of saintfoin, clover, and rye-grass, afford considerable quantities ofgyjisum ; and the substance probably is intimately combined as a necessary part of their woody fibre. If this be allowed, it is easy to explain the reason why it operates in such small quantities ; for the whole of a clover crop, or saintfoin crop, on an acre, according to esti- mation, would afford by incineration only three or four bushels of gypsum. The reason why gypsum is not generally efficacious, is probably because most cultivated soils contain it in sufficient quantities for the use of the grasses. In the common course of cultivation, gypsum is furnished in the manure ; for it is contained in stable dung, and in the dung of all cattle fed on grass ; and it is not taken up in corn crops, or crops of peas and beans, and in very small quantities in turnip crops ; but where lands are exclusively devoted to pasturage and hay, it will be continually consumed. Should these statements be con- firmed by future enquiries, a practical inference of some value may be derived from them. It is possible that lands which have ceased to bear good crops of clover, or artificial grasses, may be restored by being manured with gypsum. This substance is found in Oxford- shire, Glocestershire, Somersetshire, Derbyshire, Yorkshire, &c. and requires only pul- verisation for its preparation. 1 183. Upon the use of sulphate of iron, or green vitriol, which is a salt produced from peat in Bedfordshire,, some very interesting documents have been produced by Dr. Pearson ; and there is little doubt that the peat salt and the vitriolic water acted chiefly by pro- ducing gypsum. The soils on which both are efficacious are calcareous ; and sulphate of iron is decomposed by the carbonate of lime in such soils. The sulphate of iron con- sists of sulphuric acid and oxide of iron, and is an acid and a very soluble salt ; when a solution of it is mixed with carbonate of lime, the sulphuric acid quits the oxide of iron to unite to the lime, and the compounds produced are insipid and comparatively insoluble. 1 184. Vitriolic impregnations in soils where there is no calcareous matter are injurious ; but it is probably in consequence of their supplying an excess of ferruginous matter to the sap. Oxide of iron, in small quantities, forms a useful part of soils ; it is found in the ashes of plants, and probably is hurtful only in its acid combinations. The ashes of all peats do not afford gypsum. In general, when a recent peat-ash emits a strong smell, resembling that of rotten eggs, when acted upon by vinegar, it will furnish gypsum. 1 185. Phosphate of lime is a combination of phosphoric acid and lime, one proportion of each. It is a compound insoluble in pure water, but soluble in water containing any acid matter. It forms the greatest part of calcined bones. It exists in most excrementitious substances, and is found both in the straw and grain of wheat, barley, oats, and rye, and likewise in beans, peas, and tares. It exists in some places in these islands native, but only in very small quantities. Phosphate of lime is generally conveyed to the land in the composition of other manure, and it is probably necessary to corn crops and other white crops. 1186. JBone-ashes calcined and ground to powder will probably be found useful on arable lands containing much vegetable matter, and may perhaps enable soft peats to produce R 4 248 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PAKT II. whfeat ; but the powdered bone in an uncalcined state is much to be preferred in all cases when it can be procured. 1187. The saline compounds of magnesia will require very little discussion as to their uses as manures. In combination with sulphuric acid, magnesia forms a soluble salt. This substance, it is stated by some enquirers, has been found of use as a manure ; but it is not found in nature in sufficient abundance, nor is it capable of being made artificially suffi- ciently cheap to be of useful application in the common course of husbandry. 1 188. Wood-ashes consist principally of the vegetable alkali united to carbonic acid ; and as this alkali is found in almost all plants, it is not difficult to conceive that it may form an essential part of their organs. The general tendency of the alkalies is to give solu- bility to vegetable matters ; and in this way they may render carbonaceous and other substances capable of being taken up by the tubes in the radical fibres of plants. The vegetable alkali likewise has a strong attraction for water, and even in small quantities, may tend to give a due degree of moisture to the soil, or to other manures ; though this operation, from the small quantities used or existing in the soil, can be only of a second- ary kind. 1 189. The mineral alkali or soda is found in the ashes of sea-weed, and may be procured by certain chemical agencies from common salt. Common salt consists of the metal named sodium, combined with chlorine ; and pure soda consists of the same metal united to oxygen. When water is present, which can afford oxygen to the sodium, soda may be obtained in several modes from salt. The same reasoning will apply to the operation of the pure mineral alkali, or the carbonated alkali, as to that of the vegetable alkali ; and when common salt acts as a manure, it is probably by entering into the composition of the plant in the same manner as gypsum, phosphate of lime, and the alkalies. Sir John Pringle has stated, that salt in small quantities assists the decomposition of animal and vegetable matter. This circumstance may render it useful in certain soils. Common salt, likewise, is offensive to insects. In small quantities it is sometimes a useful manure, and it is probable that its efficacy depends upon many combined causes. Some persons have argued against the employment of salt ; because when used in large quan- tities, it either does no good, or renders the ground sterile ; but this is a very unfair mode of reasoning. That salt in large quantities rendered land barren, was known long before any records of agricultural science existed. We read in the Scriptures, that Abimelech took the city of Shechem, "and beat down the city, and sowed it with salt;" that the soil might be for ever unfruitful. Virgil reprobates a salt soil ; and Pliny, though he recom- mends giving salt to cattle, yet affirms, that when strewed over land it renders it barren. But these are not arguments against a proper application of it. Refuse salt in Cornwall, which, however, likewise contains some of the oil and exuviae of fish, has long been known as an admirable manure. And the Cheshire farmers contend for the benefit of the peculiar produce of their county. It is not unlikely, that the same causes influence the effects of salt, as those which act in modifying the operation of gypsum. Most lands in this island, particularly those near the sea, probably contain a sufficient quantity of salt for all the purposes of vegetation ; and in such cases the supply of it to the soil will not only be useless, but may be injurious. In great storms the spray of the sea has been carried more than fifty miles from the shore ; so that from this source salt must be often supplied to the soil. Salt is found in almost all sandstone rocks, and it must exist in the soil derived from these rocks. It is a constituent likewise of almost every kind of animal and ve- getable manure. 1190. Other compounds. Besides these compounds of the alkaline earths and alkalies, many others have been recommended for the purposes of increasing vegetation ; such are nitre, or the nitrous acid combined with potassa. Sir Kenelm Digby states, that he tiade barley grow very luxuriantly by watering it with a very weak solution of nitre ; but he is too speculative a writer to awaken confidence in his results. This substance consists of one proportion of azote, six of oxygen, and one of potassium ; and it is not unlikely that it may furnish azote to form albumen or gluten in those plants that contain them ; but the nitrous salts are too valuable for other purposes to be used as manures. Dr. Home states, that sulphate of potassa, which was just now mentioned as found in the ashes of some peats, is a useful manure. But Naismith (Elements of Agriculture, p. 78.) questions his results ; and quotes experiments hostile to his opinion, and, as he conceives, unfavorable to the efficacy of any species of saline manure. Much of the discordance of the evidence relating to the efficacy of saline substances depends upon the circumstance of their having been used in different proportions, and, in general, in quantities much too large. 1191. Solutions of saline substances were used twice a week, in the quantity of two ounces, on spots of grass and corn, sufficiently remote from each other to prevent any in- terference of results. The substances tried were super-carbonate, sulphate, acetate, nitrate, and muriate of potassa; sulphate of soda ; sulphate, nitrate, muriate, and carbonate of am- monia. It was found, that in all cases when the quantity of the salt equalled one thirtieth BOOK II. HEAT AND LIGHT. 249 part of tha weight of the water, the effects were injurious ; but least so in the instances of the carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of ammonia. When the quantities of the salts were one three-hundredth part of the solution, the effects were different. The plants watered with the solutions of the sulphates grew just in the same manner as similar plants watered with rain-water. Those acted on by the solution of nitre, acetate, and super-carbonate of potassa, and muriate of ammonia, grew rather better. Those treated with the solution of carbonate of ammonia grew most luxuriantly of all. This last result is what might be expected, for carbonate of ammonia consists of carbon, hydrogen, azote, and oxygen. There was, however, another result which was not anticipated ; the plants watered with solution of nitrate of ammonia did not grow better than those watered with rain-water. The solution reddened litmus paper ; and probably the free acid exerted a prejudicial effect, and interfered with the result. 1 1 92. Soot doubtless owes part of its efficacy to the ammoniacal salts it contains. The liquor produced by the distillation of coal contains carbonate and acetate of ammonia, and is said to be a very good manure. 1 193. Soapers' waste has been recommended as a manure, and it has been supposed that its efficacy depended upon the different saline matters it contains ; but their quantity is very minute indeed, and its principal ingredients are mild lime and quick-lime. In the soapers' waste, from the best manufactories, there is scarcely a trace of alkali. Lime, moistened with sea- water, affords more of this substance, and is said to have been used in some cases with more benefit than common lime. 1 194. The result of Sir H. Davy's discussion as to the extent of the effects of saline sub- stances on vegetation, is, that except the ammoniacal compounds, or the compounds con- taining nitric, acetic, and carbonic acid, none of them can afford by their decomposition any of the common principles of vegetation carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The alkaline sulphates and the earthy muriates are so seldom found in plants, or are found in such mi- nute quantities, that it can never be an object to apply them to the soil. The earthy and alkaline substances seem never to be formed in vegetation ; and there is every reason to believe, that they are never decomposed ; for, after being absorbed, they are found in their ashes. The metallic bases of them cannot exist in contact with aqueous fluids ; and these metallic bases, like other metals, have not as yet been resolved into any other forms of matter by artificial processes ; they combine readily with other elements ; but they re- main indestructible, and can be traced undiminished in quantity, through their diversi- fied combinations. CHAP. III. Of the Agency of Heat, Light, Electricity, and Water, in Vegetable Culture. 1195. The particular agency of heat, light, and water in vegetation and culture has been so frequently illustrated, that it only remains to give a general idea of their natures, and to offer some remarks on electricity. SECT. I. Of Heat and Light. 1 196. The heat of the sun is the cause of growth, and its light the cause of maturity, in the vegetable kingdom. This is universally acknowledged : animals will live without or with very little light ; but no plants whatever can exist for any time without the presence of this element. The agency of electricity in vegetation is less known. 1 1 97. Two opinions are current respecting the nature of heat. By some philosophers it is conceived to be a peculiar subtile fluid, of which the particles repel each other, but have a strong attraction for the particles of other matter. By others it is considered as a mo- tion or vibration of the particles of matter, which is supposed to differ in velocity in dif- ferent cases, and thus to produce the different degrees of temperature. Whatever deci- sion be ultimately made respecting these opinions, it is certain that there is matter moving in the space between us and the heavenly bodies capable of communicating heat ; the mo- tions of which are rectilineal : thus the solar rays produce heat in acting on the surface of the earth. The beautiful experiments of Dr. Herschel have shown that there are rays transmitted from the sun which do not illuminate, and which yet produce more heat than the visible rays ; and Ritter and Dr. Wollaston have shown that there are other invisible rays distinguished by their chemical effects. 1 198. Heat is radiated by tlie sun to the earth, and if suffered to accumulate, Dr. Wells observes, would quickly destroy the present constitution of our globe. This evil is pre- vented by the radiation of heat from the earth to the heavens, during the night, when it re- ceives from them little or no heat in return. But, through the wise economy of means, which is witnessed in all the operations of nature, the prevention of this evil is made the source of great positive good. For the surface of the earth, having thus become colder 250 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PAET II. than the neighbouring air, condenses a part of the watery vapor of the atmosphere into clew, the utility of which is too manifest to require elucidation. This fluid appears chiefly where it is most wanted, on herbage and low plants, avoiding, in great measure, rocks, bare earth, and considerable masses of water. Its production, too, tends to prevent the injury that might arise from its own cause ; since the precipitation of water, upon the tender parts of plants, must lessen the cold in them, which occasions it. The prevention, either wholly or in part, of cold, from radiation, in substances on the ground, by the in- terposition of any solid body between them and the sky, arises in the following manner : the lower body radiates its heat upwards, as if no other intervened between it and the sky ; but the loss, which it hence suffers, is more or less compensated by what is radiated to it, from the body above, the under surface of which possesses always the same, or very nearly the same temperature as the air. The manner in which clouds prevent, or occa- sion to be small, the appearance of a cold at night, upon the surface of the earth, is by radiating heat to the earth, in return for that which they intercept in its progress from the earth towards the heavens. For although, upon the sky becoming suddenly cloudy during a calm night, a naked thermometer, suspended in the air, commonly rises 2 or 3 degrees : little of this rise is to be attributed to the heat evolved by the condensation of watery vapor in the atmosphere, for the heat so extricated must soon be dissipated ; whereas the effect of greatly lessening, or preventing altogether, the appearance of a su- perior cold on the earth to that of the air, will be produced by a cloudy sky, during the whole of a long night. 1 1 99. Dense clouds, near the earth, reflect back the heat they receive from it by radiation. But similarly dense clouds, if very high, though they equally intercept the communication of the earth with the sky, yet being, from their elevated situation, colder than the earth, will ra- diate to it less heat than they receive from it, and may, consequently, admit of bodies on its surface becoming several degrees colder than the air. Islands, and parts of continents close to the sea, being, by their situation, subject to a cloudy sky, will, from the smaller quantity of heat lost by them through radiation to the heavens, at night, in addition to the reasons commonly assigned, be less cold in winter, than countries considerably distant from any ocean. 1200. Fogs, like clouds, will arrest heat, which is radiated upwards by the earth, and if they be very dense, and of considerable perpendicular extent, may remit to it as much as they receive. Fogs do not, in any instance, furnish a real exception to the general rule, that whatever exists in the atmosphere, capable of stopping or impeding the passage of radiant heat, will prevent or lessen the appearance at night of a cold on the surface of the earth, greater than that of the neighbouring air. The water deposited upon the earth, during a fog at night, may sometimes be derived from two different sources, one of which is a precipitation of moisture from a considerable part of the atmosphere, in consequence of its general cold ; the other, a real formation of dew, from the condensation, by means of the superficial cold of the ground, of the moisture of that portion of the air, which comes in contact with it. In such a state of things, all bodies will become moist, but those especially which most readily attract dew in clear weather. 1201. When bodies become cold by radiation, the degree of effect observed must depend, not only on their radiating power, but in part also on the greater or less ease with which they can derive heat, by conduction, from warmer substances in contact with them. Bodies, exposed in a clear night to the sky, must radiate as much heat to it during the prevalence of wind, as they would do if the air were altogether still. But in the former case, little or no cold will be observed upon them above that of the atmosphere, as the frequent application of warm air must quickly return a heat equal, or nearly so, to that which they had lost by radiation. A slight agitation of the air is sufficient to produce some effect of this kind ; though, as has already been said, such an agitation, when the air is very pregnant with moisture, will render greater the quantity of dew, one requisite for a considerable production of this fluid being more increased by it, than another is diminished. 1202. It has been remarked, that the hurtful effects of cold occur chiejly in hollow places. If this be restricted to what happens on serene and calm nights, two reasons from different sources are to be assigned for it. The first is, that the air being stiller in such a situation, than in any other, the cold, from radiation, in the bodies which it contains, will be less diminished by renewed applications of warmer air ; the second, that from the longer continuance of the same air in contact with the ground, in depressed places than in others, less dew will be deposited, and therefore less heat extricated during its formation. 1203. An observation closely connected with the preceding, namely, that in clear and still nights, frosts are less severe upon hills, than in neighbouring plains, has excited more attention, chiefly from its contradicting what is commonly regarded an established fact, that the cold of the atmosphere always increases with the distance from the earth. But on the contrary the fact is certain, that in very clear and still nights, the air near to the BOOK II. HEAT AND LIGHT. 251 earth is colder than that which is more distant from it, to the height at least of 220 feet, this being the greatest to which experiments relate. If then a hill be supposed to rise from a plain to the height of 220 feet, having upon its summit a small flat surface covered with grass ; and if the atmosphere, during a calm and serene night, be admitted to be 10 warmer there than it is near the surface of the low grounds, which is a less difference than what sometimes occurs in such circumstances, it is manifest that, should both the grass upon the hill, and that upon the plain, acquire a cold of 10 by radiation, the former will, notwithstanding, be 10 warmer than the latter. Hence also the tops of trees are sometimes found dry when the grass on the ground's surface has been found covered with dew. 1204. A very slight covering will exclude much cold. I had often, observes Dr. Wells, in the pride -of half knowledge, smiled at the means frequently employed by gardeners, to protect tender plants from cold, as it appeared to me impossible, that a thin mat, or any such flimsy substance, could prevent them from attaining the temperature of the atmosphere, by which alone I thought them liable to be injured. But, when I had learned, that bodies on the surface of the earth become, during a still and serene night, colder than the atmosphere, by radiating their heat to the heavens, I perceived immediately a just reason for the practice, which I had before deemed useless. Being desirous, however, of acquiring some precise information on this subject, I fixed, perpendicularly, in the earth of a grass-plot, four small sticks, and over their upper extremities, which were six inches above the grass, and formed the corners of a square, the sides of which were two feet long, drew tightly a very thin cambric hand- kerchief. In this disposition of things, therefore, nothing existed to prevent the free passage of air from the exposed grass, to that which was sheltered, except the four small sticks, and there was no substance to radiate heat downwards to the latter grass, except the cambric handkerchief. The temperature of the grass, 'which was thus shielded from the sky, was, upon many nights afterwards examined by me, and was always found higher than that of neighbouring grass which was uncovered, if this was colder than the air. When the difference in temperature, between the air several feet above the ground and the unsheltered grass, did not exceed 5, the sheltered grass was about as warm as the air. If that difference, however, exceeded 5, the air was found to be somewhat warmer than the sheltered grass. Thus, upon one night, when fully exposed grass was 11 colder than the air, the latter was 3 warmer than the sheltered grass ; and the same difference existed on another night, when the air was 14 warmer than the exposed grass. One reason for this difference, no doubt, was that the air, which passed from the exposed grass, by which it had been very much cooled, to that under the handkerchief, had deprived the latter of part of its heat; another, that the handkerchief, from being made colder than the atmosphere by the radiation of its upper surface to the heavens, would remit somewhat less heat to the grass beneath, than what it received from that substance. But still, as the sheltered grass, notwithstanding these drawbacks, was upon one night, as may be collected from the preceding relation, 8, and upon another 11, warmer than grass fully ex- posed to the sky, a sufficient reason was now obtained for the utility of a very slight shelter to plants, in averting or lessening injury from cold, on a still and serene night. 1 205. 1 'lie covering has most effect when placed at a littls distance above the plants or objects to be sheltered. A difference in temperature, of some magnitude, was always observed on still and serene nights, between bodies sheltered from the sky by substances touching them, and similar bodies, which were sheltered by a substance a little above them. I found, for example, upon one night, that the warmth of grass, sheltered by a cambric handkerchief raised a few inches in the air, was 3 greater than that of a neighbouring piece of grass which was sheltered by a similar handkerchief actually in contact with it. On another night, the difference between the temperatures of two portions of grass, shielded in the same manner, as the two above mentioned, from the influence of the sky, was 4. Pos- sibly, continues Dr. Wells, experience has long ago taught gardeners the superior ad- vantage of defending tender vegetables, from the cold of clear and calm nights, by means of substances not directly touching them ; though I do not recollect ever having seen any contrivance for keeping mats, or such like bodies, at a distance from the plants which they were meant to protect. 1206. Heat produced by walls. Walls, Dr. Wells observes, as far as warmth is con- cerned, are regarded as useful, during a cold night, to the plants which touch them, or are near to them, only in two ways ; first, by the mechanical shelter which they afford against cold winds, and secondly, by giving out the heat which they had acquired during the day. It appearing to me, however, that, on clear and calm nights, those on which plants frequently receive much injury from cold, walls must be beneficial in a third way, namely, by preventing, in part, the loss of heat, which the plants would sustain from radiation, if they were fully exposed to the sky : the following experiment was made for the purpose of determining the justness of this opinion. A cambric handkerchief having 253 SCIENCE OF GARDENING PART II. been placed, by means of two upright sticks, perpendicularly to a grass-plot, and at right angles to the course of the air, a thermometer was laid upon the grass close to the lower edge of the handkerchief, on its windward side. The thermometer thus situated was several nights compared with another lying on the same grass-plot, but on a part of it fully exposed to the sky. On two of these nights, the air being clear and calm, the grass close to the handkerchief was found to be 4 warmer than the fully exposed grass. On a third, the difference was 6. An analogous fact is mentioned by Gersten, who says, that a horizontal surface is more abundantly dewed, than one which is perpendicular to the ground. 1207. Heat from a covering of snow. The covering of snow, the same author ob- serves, which countries in high latitudes enjoy during the winter, has been very commonly thought to be beneficial to vegetable substances on the surface of the earth, as far as their temperature is concerned, solely by protecting them from the cold of the atmosphere. But were this supposition just, the advantage of the covering would be greatly circumscribed ; since the upper parts of trees and of tall shrubs are still exposed to the influence of the air. Another reason, however, is furnished for its usefulness, by what has been said in this essay ; which is, that it prevents the occurrence of the cold, which bodies on the earth acquire, in addition to that of the atmosphere, by the radiation of their heat to the heavens during still and clear nights. The cause, indeed, of this additional cold, does not constantly operate ; but its presence, during only a few hours, might effectually destroy plants, which now pass unhurt through the winter. Again, as things are, while low vegetable produc- tions are prevented, by their covering of snow, from becoming colder than the atmo- sphere in consequence of their own radiation, the parts of trees and tall shrubs, which rise above the snow, are little affected by cold from this cause. For their outermost twigs, now that they are destitute of leaves, are much smaller than the thermometers suspended by me in the air, which in this situation very seldom became more than 2 colder than the atmosphere. The larger branches, too, which, if fully exposed to the sky, would become colder than the extreme parts, are, in a great degree, sheltered by them ; and, in the last place, the trunks are sheltered both by the smaller and the larger parts, not to mention that the trunks must derive heat, by conduction through the roots, from the earth kept warm by the snow. In a similar way is partly to be explained the manner, in which a layer of earth or straw preserves vegetable matters in our own fields, from the injurious effects of cold in winter. (Essay on Dew, &c. 1819.) 1208. The nature of light is totally unknown : the light which proceeds from the sun seems to be composed of three distinct substances. Scheel discovered that a glass mir- ror held before the fire reflected the rays of light, but not the rays of caloric ; but when a metallic mirror was placed in the same situation, both heat and light were reflected. The mirror of glass became hot in a short time, but no change of temperature took place on the metallic mirror. This experiment shows that the glass mirror absorbed the rays of caloric, and reflected those of light ; while the metallic mirror, suffering no change of temperature, reflected both. And if a plate glass be held before a burning body, the rays of light are not sensibly interrupted, but the rays of caloric are intercepted ; for no sensible heat is observed on the opposite side of the glass ; but when the glass has reached a proper degree of temperature, the rays of caloric are transmitted with the same facility as those of light. And thus the rays of light and caloric may be separated. But the curious experiments of Dr. Herschel have clearly proved that the invisible rays which are emitted by the sun, have the greatest heating power. In those experiments, the dif- ferent colored rays were thrown on the bulb of a very delicate thermometer, and their heat- ing power was observed. The heating power of the violet, green, and red rays were found to be to each other as the following numbers: violet, 16'0; green, 22-4; red, 55-0. The heating power of the most refrangible rays was least, and this power increases as the refrangibility diminishes. The red ray, therefore, has the greatest heating power, and the violet, which is the most refrangible, the least. The illuminating power, it has been already observed, is greatest in the middle of the spectrum, and it diminishes to- wards both extremities ; but the heating power, which is least at the violet end, increases from that to the red extremity ; and when the thermometer was placed beyond the limit of the red ray, it rose still higher than in the red ray, which has the greatest heating power in the spectrum. The heating power of these invisible rayg was greatest at the distance of half an inch beyond the red ray, but it was sensible at the distance of one inch and a half v 1209. The influence of the different solar rays on vegetation has not yet been stu- died ; but it is certain that the rays exercise an influence independent of the heat they produce. Thus plants kept in darkness, but supplied with heat, air, and moisture, grow for a short time, but they never gain their natural colors ; their leaves are white and pale, and their juices watery and peculiarly saccharine : according to Knight they merely BOOK II. ELECTRICITY. WATER. 253 expend the sap previously generated under the influence of light. (Notes to Sir H. Davy's Agr. Cliem. p. 402.) SECT. II. Of Electricity. 1210. Electrical changes are constantly taking place in nature, on the surface of the earth, and in the atmosphere; but as yet the effects of this power in vegetation have not been cor- rectly estimated. It has been shown by experiments made by means of the voltaic bat- tery, that compound bodies in general, are capable of being decomposed by electrical powers, and it is probable that the various electrical phenomena occurring in our system, must influence both the germination of seeds and the growth of plants. It has been found that corn sprouted much more rapidly in water positively electrified by the voltaic instru- ment, than in water negatively electrified ; and experiments made upon the atmosphere show that clouds are usually negative ; and, as when a cloud is in one state of electri- city, the surface of the earth beneath is brought into the opposite state, it is probable that in common cases the surface of the earth is positive. A similar experiment is related by Dr. Darwin. (Phytologia, sect. xiii. 2, 3.) 1211. Respecting the nature of electricity different opinions are entertained amongst sci- entific men ; by some, the phenomena are conceived to depend upon a single subtile fluid in excess in the bodies said to be positively electrified, and in deficiency in the bodies said to be negatively electrified. A second class suppose the effects to be produced by two different fluids, called by them the vitreous fluid and the resinous fluid ; and others regard them as affections or motions of matter, or an exhibition of attractive powers, similar to those which produce chemical combination and decomposition ; but usually exerting their action on masses. 1212. A profitable application of electricity, Dr. Darwin observes, to promote the growth of plants is not yet discovered ; it is nevertheless probable, that in dry seasons, the erection of numerous metallic points on the surface of the ground, but a few feet high, might, in the night-time, contribute to precipitate the dew by facilitating the passage of electricity from the air into the earth ; and that an erection of such points higher in the air by means of wires wrapped round tall rods, like angle rods, or elevated on buildings, might frequently precipitate showers from the higher parts of the atmosphere. Such points erected in gardens might promote a quicker vegetation of the plants in their vicinity, by supplying them more abundantly with the electric ether. (Phytologia, xiii. 4.) J. Williams (Climate of Great Britain, 348.), enlarging on this idea, proposes to erect large electrical machines, to be driven by wind, over the general face of the country, for the purpose of improving the climate, and especially for lessening that superabundant moisture which he contends is yearly increasing from the increased evaporating surface, produced by the vegetation of improved culture, and especially from the increase of pastures, hedges, and ornamental plantations. SECT. III. Of Water. 1213. Water is a compound of oxygens and hydrogene gas, though primarily reckoned a simple or elementary substance. " If the metal called potassium be exposed in a glass tube to a small quantity of water, it will act upon it with great violence ; elastic fluid will be disengaged, which will be found to be hydrogen ; and the same effects will be produced upon the potassium, as if it had absorbed a small quantity of oxygen ; and the hydrogen disengaged, and the oxygen added to the potassium, are in weight as 2 to 1 5 ; and if two in volume of hydrogen, and one in volume of oxygen, which have the weights of 2 and 15, be introduced into a close vessel, and an electrical spark passed through them, they will inflame and condense into 17 parts of pure water." 1214. Water is absolutely necessary to the economy of vegetation in its elastic and fluid state ; and it is not devoid of use even in its solid form. Snow and ice are bad con- ductors of heat ; and when the ground is covered with snow, or the surface of the soil or of water is frozen, the roots or bulbs of the plants beneath are protected by the congealed water from the influence of the atmosphere, the temperature of which, in northern win- ters, is usually very much below the freezing point ; and this water becomes the first nourishment of the plant in early spring. The expansion of water during its congelation, at which time its volume increases one twelfth, and its contraction of bulk during a thaw, tend to pulverise the soil, to separate its parts from each other, and to make it more permeable to the influence of the air. 254 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. CHAP. IV. Of the Agency of the Atmosphere in Vegetation. 1215. The aerial medium which envelopes the earth may be studied chemically and phy- sically ; the first study respects the elements of which the atmosphere is composed ; and the second their action in a state of combination, and as influenced by various causes, or those phenomena which constitute the weather. SECT. I. Of the Elements of the Atmosphere. 1216. Water, carbonic acid gas, oxygen, and azote, are the principal substances composing the atmosphere ; but more minute enquiries respecting their nature and agencies are necessary to afford correct views of its uses in vegetation. 1217. That water exists ins s O January - Inch. 2.310 Inch. 2.177 Inch. 2.196 Inch. 3.4ol Inch. 5.299 Inch. 3.095 Inch. 1.595 Inch. 1.464 Fr. In. 1.228 Fr. In. 2.477 Inch. 2.530 February - 2.5(38 1.847 1.652 2.995 5.126 2.837 1.741 1.250 1.232 1.700 2.295 March - - 2.098 1.523 1.322 1.753 3.151 2.164 1.184 1.172 1.190 1.927 1.748 April - - 2.010 2.104 2.078 2.180 2.98(5 2.017 0.979 1.279 1.185 2.686 1.950 May . - 2.895 2.573 2.118 2.460 3.480 2.568 1.641 1.636 1.767 2.931 2.407 June - - 2.502 2.816 2.286 2.512 2.722 2.974 1.343 1.738 1.697 2.562 2.315 July - - 3.697 3.663 3.006 4.140 4.959 3.256 2.303 2.448 1.800 1.882 3.115 August 3.665 3.311 2.435 4.581 5.089 3.199 2.746 1.807 1.900 2.347 3.103 September - 3.281 3.654 2.289 3.751 4.874 4.350 1.617 1.842 1.550 4.140 3.135 October - 3.922 3.724 3.079 4.151 5.439 4.143 2.297 2.092 1.780 4.741 3.537 November - 3.360 3.441 2.634 3.775 4.785 3.174 1.904 2 222 1.720 4.187 3.120 December - 3.832 3.288 2.569 3.955 6.084 3.142 1.981 L736 1.600 2.397 3.058 36.140 34.121 27.664 39.714 53.994 36.919 21.331 20.686 18.649 33.977 1252. Frost, being derived from the atmosphere, naturally proceeds from the upper parts of bodies downwards, as the water and the earth ; so the longer a frost is continued, the thicker the ice becomes upon the water in ponds, and the deeper into the earth the ground is frozen. In about 16 or 17 days' frost, Boyle found it had penetrated 14 inches into the ground. At Moscow, in a hard season, the frost will penetrate two feet deep into the ground ; and Captain James found it penetrated 10 feet deep in Charlton island, and the water in the same island was frozen to the depth of six feet. Scheffer assures us, that in Sweden the frost pierces two cubits (a Swedish ell), into the earth, and turns what moisture is found there into a whitish substance, like ice ; and standing water to three ells or more. The same author also mentions sudden cracks or rifts in the ice of the lakes of Sweden, nine or ten feet deep, and many leagues long ; the rupture being made with a noise not less loud than if many guns were discharged together. By such means however the fishes are furnished with air, so that they are rarely found dead. The history of frosts furnishes very extraordinary facts. The trees are often scorched and burnt up, as with the most excessive heat, in consequence of the separation of water from the air, which is therefore very drying. In the great frost in 1683, the trunks of oak, ash, walnut, and other trees were miserably split and cleft, so that they might be seen through, and the cracks often attended with dreadful noises like the explosion of fire-arms. 1253. Hail is generally denned as frozen rain, it differs from it in that the hailstones are not formed of single pieces of ice, but of many little spherules agglutinated together ; neither are those spherules all of the same consistence ; some of them being hard and solid, like perfect ice ; others soft, and mostly like snow hardened by a severe frost. Hailstone has a kind of core of this soft matter ; but more frequently the core is solid and hard, while the outside is formed of a softer matter. Hailstones assume various figures, being sometimes round, at other times pyramidal, crenated, angular, thin, and flat, and sometimes stellated with six radii, like the small crystals of snow. Natural historians furnish us with various accounts of surprising showers of hail in which the hailstones were of extraordinary magnitude. 1 254. Snow is formed by the freezing of the vapors in the atmosphere. It differs from hail and hoar frost, in being as it were crystallised, which they are not. As the flakes fall down through the atmosphere, they are continually joined by more of these radiated spicula, and they increase in bulk like the drops of rain or hailstones. The lightness of snow, although it is firm ice, is owing to the excess of its surface in comparison to the matter contained under it : as gold itself may be extended in surface till it will ride upon the least breath of air. The whiteness of snow is owing to the small particles into which it is divided ; for ice when pounded, will become equally white. 1 255. Snow is of great use to the vegetable kingdom. Were we to judge from appearance only, we might imagine, that so far from being useful to the earth, the cold humidity of snow would be detrimental to vegetation. But the experience of all ages asserts the con- BOOK II. OF THE ATMOSPHERE. i'tfl trary. Snow, particularly in those northern regions where the ground is covered with it for several months, fructifies the earth, by guarding the corn or other vegetables from the intenser cold of the air, and especially from the cold piercing winds. It has been a vulgar opinion, very generally received, that snow fertilises the land on which it falls more than rain, in consequence of the nitrous salts, which it is supposed to acquire by freezing. But; it appears from the experiments of Margraaf, in the year 1731, that the chemical difference between rain and snow water, is exceedingly small ; that the latter contains a somewhat less proportion of earth than the former ; but neither of them contain either earth, or any kind of salt, in any quantity which can be sensibly efficacious in promoting vegetation. The peculiar agency of snow, as a fertiliser in preference to rain may be ascribed to its furnishing a covering to the roots of vegetables, by which they are guarded from the influence, of the atmospherical cold, and the internal heat of the earth is prevented from escaping. The internal parts of the earth are heated uniformly to the fifty-eighth degree of Fahrenheit's thermometer. This degree of heat is greater than that in which the watery juices of vegetables freeze, and it is pro- pagated from the inward parts of the earth to the surface, on which the vegetables grow. The atmosphere, being variably heated by the action of the sun in different climates, and in the same climate at different seasons, communicates to the surface of the earth, and to some distance below it, the degree of heat or cold which prevails in itself. Different ve- getables are able to preserve life under different degrees of cold, but all of them perish when the cold which reaches their roots is extreme. Providence has, therefore, in the coldest climates, provided a covering of snow for the roots of vegetables, by which they are protected from the influence of the atmospherical cold. The snow keeps in the internal heat of the earth, which surrounds the roots of vegetables, and defends them from the cold of the atmosphere. 1256. Ice is water in the solid state, during which the temperature remains constant, being 32 degrees of the scale of Fahrenheit. Ice is considerably lighter than water, name- ly, about one eighth part ; and this increase of dimensions is acquired with prodigious force, sufficient to burst the strongest iron vessels, and even pieces of artillery. Congel- ation takes place much more suddenly than the opposite process of liquefaction ; and of course, the same quantity of heat must be more rapidly extricated in freezing, than it is absorbed in thawing ; the heat thus extricated being disposed to fly off in all directions, and little of it being retained by the neighboring bodies, more heat is lost than is gained by the alternation : so that where ice has once been formed, its production is in this manner redoubled. 1 257. The northern ice extends about 9 from the pole ; the southern 1 8 or 20 ; in some parts even 30 ; and floating ice has occasionally been found in both hemispheres as far as 40 from the poles, and sometimes, as it has been said, even in latitude 41 or 42. Between 54 and 60 south latitude, the snow lies on the ground, at the sea-side, throughout the summer. The line of perpetual congelation is three miles above the surface at the equator, where the mean heat is 84 ; at Teneriffe, in latitude 28, two miles ; in the latitude of London, a little more than a mile ; and in latitude 80 north, only 1250 feet. At the pole, according to the analogy deduced by Kirwan, from a comparison of various observations, the mean temperature should be 31. In London the mean temperature is 50 ; at Rome and at Montpelier, a little more than 60 ; in the island of Madeira, 70 ; and in Jamaica, 80. 1258. Wind. Were it not for this agitation of the air, putrid effluvia arising from the habitations of man, and from vegetable substances, besides the exhalations from water, would soon render it unfit for respiration, and a general mortality would be the conse- quence. The prevailing winds of our own country, which were ascertained by order of the Royal Society of London, at London are, Winds. Days. Winds. Days. Winds. Days. ,.,*u *. 1 fo I \\7 rt n* eo o *.u 1Q South-west - 112 I West - - 53 North-east - 58 South-east North-west - 50 East - - 26 South North - - 16 The south wind blows more upon an average in each month of the year than any other, particularly in July and August ; the north-east prevails during January, March, April, May, and June, and is most unfrequent in February, July, September, and December ; the north-west occurring more frequently from November to March, and less so in September and October than in any other months. Near Glasgow, the average is stated as follows : Winds. Days. Winds. Days. South-west 174 I North-east - - 104 North-west 40 | South-east - - 47 In Ireland, the prevailing winds are the west and south-west. 1 259. Tfie different degrees of motion of wind next excites our attention ; and it seems al- S 3 26* SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. most superfluous to observe, that it varies in gradations from the gentlest zephyr, which plays upon the leaves of plants, greatly undulating them, to the furious tempest, calculated to inspire horror in the breast of the most callous. It is also a remarkable fact, that vio- lent currents of air pass along, as it were, within a line, without sensibly agitating that beyond them. An instance of this kind occurred at Edinburgh, where the celebrated aeronaut Lunardi ascended in his balloon, which was conveyed with great velocity by the wind at the rate of 70 miles an hour, while a perfect calm existed in the city and neighborhood. 1260. Causes of wind. There are many circumstances attending the operations of the air, which we term wind, that serve for a basis for well-founded conjectures, and those, united to the result of daily observ- ation, render the explanation of its phenomena tolerably satisfactory. It must be clear to the most common capacity, that as the rays of the sun descend perpendicularly on the surface of the earth under the torrid zone, that part of it must receive a greater proportion of heat than those parts where they fall obliquely ; the heat thus acquired communicates to the air, which it rarefies, and causes to ascend, and the vacuum occasioned by this operation is immediately filled by the chill air from the north and south. The diurnal motion of the earth gradually lessens to the poles from the equator : at that point it moves at the rate of fifteen geographical miles in a minute : this motion is communicated to the atmosphere in the same de- gree ; therefore, if part of it was conveyed instantaneously from latitude 30, it would not directly acquire the velocity of that at the equator ; consequently, the ridges of the earth must meet it, and give it the ap- pearance of an east wind ; the effect is similar upon the cold air proceeding from the north and south, and this similarity must be admitted to extend to each place particularly heated by the beams of the sun. The moon, being a large body situated comparatively near the earth, is known to affect the atmosphere in its revolutions by the pressure of that upon the sea, so as to cause the flux and reflux of it, which we term tides ; it cannot, therefore, be doubted, that some of the winds we experience are caused by her motion. 1261. The regular motion of the atmosphere, known by the name of land and sea breezes, may be accounted for upon the above principle : the heated rarefied land air rises, and its place is supplied by the chill damp air from the surface of the sea; that from the hills in the neighborhood, becoming cold and dense in the course of the night, descends and presses upon the comparatively lighter air over the sea, and hence the land breeze. Granting that the attraction of the moon, and the diurnal movement of the sun affects our atmo- sphere, there cannot be a doubt but a westward motion of the air must prevail within the boundaries of the trade-winds, the consequence of which is an easterly current on each side : from this, then, it proceeds that south-west winds are so frequent in the western parts of Europe, and over the Atlantic Ocean. Kirwan attributes our constant south-west winds, particularly during winter, to an opposite current prevailing between the coast of Malabar and the Moluccas at the same period : this, he adds, must be sup- plied from regions close to the pole, which must be recruited in its turn from the countries to the south of it, in the western parts of our hemisphere. 1262. The variable winds cannot be so readily accounted for ; yet it is evident, that though they seem the effect of capricious causes, they depend upon a regular system, arranged by the great Author of nature. That accurate and successful observer of part of his works, the celebrated Franklin, discovered in 1740, that winds originate at the precise points towards which they blow. This philosopher had hoped to observe an eclipse of the moon at Philadelphia, but was prevented by a north-east storm, that commenced at seven in the evening. This he afterwards found did not occur at Boston till eleven ; and upon enquiry, he had reason to suppose, it passed to the north-east at the rate of about 100 miles an hour. The manner in which he accounts for this retrogade proceeding is so satisfactory, that we shall give it in his own word?, particularly as his assertions are supported by recent observations, both in America and Scotland. He argued thus : " I suppose a long canal of water, stopped at the end by a gate. The water is at rest till the gate is opened ; then it begins to move out through the gate, and the water next the gate is put in motion and moves on towards the gate; and so on successively, till the water at the head of the canal is in motion, which it is last of all. In this case all the water moves indeed towards the gate ; but the successive times of beginning the motion are in the contrary way, viz. from the gate back to the head of the canal. Thus to produce a north-east storm, I suppose some great rarefaction of the air in or near the Gulph of Mexico ; the air rising thence has its place supplied by the next more northern, cooler, and therefore denser and heavier air ; a successive current is formed, to which our coast and inland mountains give a north-east direction." Ac. cording to the observations made by Captain Cook, the north-east winds prevail in the Northern Pacific Ocean during the same spring months they do with us, from which facts it appears the cold air from Ame- rica and the north of Europe flows at that season into the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. 1263. Other descriptions of winds may arise from a variety of causes. As the atmosphere has been ascertained to be composed of air, vapor, and carbonic acid and water, it is well known these frequently change their aerial form, and combine with different substances, and the reverse ; consequently partial winds and accumulations must continually occur, which occasion winds of different degrees of violence, continuance, and direction. 1264. The principal electrical p/tenomena of the atmosphere are thunder and lightning. 1265. Thunder is the noise occasioned by the explosion of a flash of lightning passing through the air : or it is that noise which is excited by a sudden explosion of electrical clouds, which are therefore called thunder-clouds. The rattling, in the noise of thunder, which makes it seem as if it passed through arches, is probably owing to the sound being excited among clouds hanging over one another, and the agitated air passing ir- regularly between them. The explosion, if high in the air and remote from us, will do no mischief; but when near, it may, and has, in a thousand instances, destroyed trees, animals, &c. This proximity, or small distance, may be esti- mated nearly by the interval of time between seeing the flash of lightning and hearing the report of the thunder, estimating the distance after the rate of 1142 feet for a second of time, or 3J seconds to the mile. Dr. Wallis observes, that commonly the difference between the two is about seven seconds, which at the rate above-mentioned, gives the distance almost two miles. But sometimes it comes in a second or two, which argues the explosion very near to us, and even among us. And in such cases, the Doctor assures us, he has sometimes foretold the mischiefs that happened. Season of thunder. Although in this country thunder may happen at any time of the year, yet the months of July and August are those in which it may almost certainly be expected. Its devastation is of very uncertain continuance ; sometimes only a few peals will be heard at any particular place during the whole season ; at other times the storm will return at the interval of three or four days, for a month, six weeks, or even longer ; not that we have violent thunder in this country directly vertical in any one place so frequently in any year, but in many seasons it will be perceptible that thunder-clouds are formed in the neighbourhood, even at these short intervals. Hence it appears, that during this particular period, there must be some natural cause operating for the production of this phenomenon, which does not take place at other times. This cannot be the mere heat of the weather, for we have often a long tract of hot weather BOOK II. OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 263 without any thunder ; and besides, though not common, thunder is sometimes heard in the winter also. As therefore the heat of the weather is common to the whole summer, whether there be thunder or not, we must look for the causes of it in those phenomena, whatever they are, which are peculiar to the months of July, August, and the beginning of September. Now it is generally observed, that from tee-month of April, an east, or south-east wind generally takes place, and continues with little interruption till towards the end of June. At that time, sometimes sooner and sometimes later, a westerly wind takes place ; but as the causes producing the east wind are not removed, the latter opposes the west wind with its whole force. At the place of meeting, there is naturally a most vehement pressure of the atmosphere, and friction of its parts against one another ; a calm ensues, and the vapors brought by both winds begin to collect and form dark clouds, which can have little motion either way, because they are pressed almost equally on all sides. For the most part, however, the west wind prevails, and what little motion the clouds have is towards the east : whence, the common remark in this country, that " thunder-clouds move against the wind." But this is by no means universally true : for if the west wind happens to be excited by any tern- porary cause before its natural period when it should take place, the east wind will very frequently get the better of it ; and the clouds, even although thunder is produced, will move westward. Yet in either case the motion is so slow, that the most superficial observers cannot help taking notice of a considerable resistance in the atmosphere. 12(it>. Thunderbolts. When lightning acts with extraordinary violence, and breaks or shatters any thing it is called a thunderbolt, which the vulgar, to fit it for such effects, suppose to be a hard body, and even a stone. But that we need not have recourse to a hard solid body to account for the effects commouly attributed to the thunderbolt, will be evident to any one, who considers those of gunpowder, and the several chemical fulminating powders, but more especially the astonishing powers of elasticity, when only collected and employed by human art, and much more when directed and exercised in the course of nature. When we consider the known effects of electrical explosions, and those produced by lightning, we shall be at no loss to account for the extraordinary operations vulgarly ascribed to thunderbolts. As stones and bricks struck by lightning are often found in a vitrified state, we may reasonably suppose, with Beccaria, that some stones in the earth, having been struck in this manner, gave occasion to the vulgar opinion of the thunderbolt. 1267. Thunder-clouds are those clouds which are in a state fit for producing lightning and thunder. The first appearance of a thunder-storm, which usually happens when there is little or no wind, is one dense cloud, or more, increasing very fast in size, and rising into the higher regions of the air. The lower sur- face is black, and nearly level ; but the upper finely arched, and well defined. Many of these clouds often seem piled upon one another, all arched in the same manner ; but they are continually uniting, swell- ing and extending their arches. At the time of the rising of this cloud, the atmosphere is commonly full of a great many separate clouds, that are motionless, and of odd whimsical shapes ; all these, upon the appear- ance of the thunder-cloud, draw towards it, and become more uniform in their shapes as they approach ; till, coming very near the thunder-cloud, their limbs mutually stretch towards one another, and they immediately coalesce into one uniform mass. Sometimes the thunder-cloud will swell, and increase- very fast, without the conjunction of any adscititious clouds ; the vapors in the atmosphere forming themselves into clouds whenever it passes. Some of the adscititious clouds appear like white fringes, at the skirts of the thunder-cloud, or under the body of it ; but they keep continually growing darker and darker, as they approach to unite with it. When the thunder-cloud is grown to a great size, its lower surface is often ragged, particular parts being detached towards the earth, but still connected with the rest. Sometimes the lower surface swells into various large protuberances, bending uniformly downward ; and sometimes one whole side of the cloud will have an inclination to the earth, and the ex- tremity of it nearly touch the ground. When the eye is under the thunder-cloud, after it is grown large and well-formed, it is seen to sink lower, and to darken prodigiously ; at the same time that a number of small adscititious clouds (the origin of which can never be perceived) are seen in a rapid motion, driving about in very uncertain directions under it. While these clouds are agitated with the most rapid motions, the rain commonly falls in the greatest plenty ; and if the agitation be exceedingly great, it commonly hails. 1268. Lightning. While the thunder-cloud is swelling, and extending its branches over a large tract of country, the lightning is seen to dart from one part of it to another, and often to illuminate its whole mass. When the cloud has acquired a sufficient extent, the lightning strikes between the cloud and the earth, in two opposite places ; the path of the lightning lying through the whole body of the cloud and its branches. The longer this lightning continues, the less dense does the cloud become, and the less dark its appearance ; till at length it breaks in different places, and shows a clear sky. Those thunder-clouds are sometimes in a positive as well as a negative state of electricity. The electricity continues longer of the same kind, in proportion as the thunder-cloud is sim- ple and uniform in its direction ; but when the lightning changes its place, there com- monly happens a change in the electricity of the apparatus over which the clouds passed. It changes suddenly after a very violent flash of lightning ; but gradually when the lightning is moderate, and the progress of the thunder-cloud slow. 1269. Lightning is an electrical explosion or phenomenon. Flashes of lightning are usually seen crooked and waving in the air. They strike the highest and most pointed objects in preference to others, as hills, trees, spires, masts of ships, &c. ; so all pointed conductors receive and throw off the electric fluid more readily than those that are terminated by flat surfaces. Lightning is observed to take and follow the readiest and best conductor ; and the same is the case with electricity in the discharge of the Leyden phial ; from whence it is inferred, that in a thunder-storm it would be safer to have one's clothes wet than dry Lightning burns, dissolves metals, rends some bodies, sometimes strikes persons blind, destroys ani- mal life, deprives magnets of their virtue, or reverses their poles ; and all these are well-known properties 1270. With regard to places of safety in times of thunder and lightning. Dr. Franklin's advice is to sit in the middle of a room, provided it be not under a metal lustre suspended by a chain, sitting on one chair, and laying the feet on another. It is still better, he says, to bring two or three mattresses or beds into the middle of the room, and folding them double, to place the chairs upon them ; for as they are not so good conductors as the walls the lightning will not be so likely to pass through them. But the safest place of all is in a hammock hung by silken cords, at an equal distance from all the sides of the room. Dr. Priestley observes, that the place of most perfect safety must be the cellar, and especially the middle of it ; for when a person is lower than the surface of the earth, the lightning must strike it before it can possibly reaph him. In the fields, the place of safety is within a few yards of a tree, but not quite near it. Beccaria cautions persons not always to trust too much to the neighborhood of a higher or better conductor than their own body, since he has repeatedly found that the lightning by no means descends in one undivided track, but that bodies of various kinds conduct their share of it at the same time, in proportion to their quantity and conducting power. < S 4 J04 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. SECT. II. Of the Means of prognostkating the Weather. 1271. The study of atmospherical changes has, in all ages, been more or less attended to by men engaged in the culture of vegetables, or the pasturage of animals ; and we, in this country, are surprised at the degree of perfection to which the ancients attained in this knowledge. But it ought to be recollected, that the study of the weather in the countries occupied by the ancients, as Egypt, Greece, Italy, and the continent of Europe, is a very different thing from its study in an island situated like ours. It is easy to foretel weather in countries where months pass away without rain or clouds, and where some weeks together, at stated periods, are as certainly seasons of rain or snow. It may be as- serted with truth, that there is a greater variety of weather in London in one week, than in Rome, Moscow, or Petersburg, in three months. It is not therefore entirely a proof of our degeneracy, or the influence of our artificial mode of living, that we cannot predict the weather with such certainty as the ancients ; but a circumstance rather to be accounted for from the peculiarities of our situation. 1272. A variable climate, such as ours, admits of being studied, both generally and lo- cally ; but it is a study which requires habits of observation and reflection like all other studies ; and to be brought to any useful degree of perfection must be attended to, not as it commonly is, as a thing by chance, and which every body knows, or is fit for, but as a serious undertaking. The weather may be foretold from natural data, artificial data, and from precedent. 1273. Tfie natural data for this study are, 1. The vegetable kingdom; many plants shutting and opening their flowers, contracting or expanding their parts, c. on ap- proaching changes in the humidity or temperature of the atmosphere ; 2. The animal kingdom; most of which, that are familiar to us, exhibiting signs on approaching changes, of which those by cattle and sheep are more especially remarkable ; and hence shepherds are generally, of all others, the most correct in their estimate of weather ; 3. The mineral kingdom ; stones, earths, metals, salts, and water of particular sorts, often showing indications of approaching changes ; 4. Appearances of the atmosphere, the moon, the general character of seasons, &c. The characters of clouds, the prevalence of particular winds, and other signs are very commonly attended to. 1 274. The influence of the moon on the weather hag, in all ages, been believed by the generality of mankind : the same opinion was embraced by the ancient philosophers ; and several eminent philosophers of later times have thought the opinion not unworthy of notice. Although the moon only acts (as far at least as we can ascertain) on the waters of the ocean by producing tides, it is nevertheless highly probable, according to the observations of Lambert, Toaldo, and Cotte, that in consequence of the lunar in- fluence, great variations do take place in the atmosphere, and consequently in the wea- ther. The following principles will show the grounds and reasons for their embracing the received notions on this interesting topic : There are ten situations in the mom's orbit when she must particularly exert her influence on the at- mosphere ; and when, consequently, changes of the weather most readily take place. These are, 1. The new, and 2. the full moon, when she exerts her influence in conjunction with, or in opposition to the sun. 3. and 4. The quadratures, or those aspects of the moon when she is 90 distant from the sun ; or when she is in the middle point of her orbit, between the points of conjunction and opposition, namely, in the first ind third quarters. 5. The perigee, and, 6. The apogee, or those points of the moon's orbit, in which she is at the least and greatett distance from the earth. 7. 8. The two passages of the moon over the equator, one of which Toaldo calls, 7. The moon's ascend- ing, and the other, 8. The moon's descending equinox, or the two tunistices, as De la Lande terms them. 9. The boreal lunistice, when the moon approaches as near as she can in each lunation, (or period be- tween one new moon and another,) to our zenith (that point in the horizon which is directly over our heads). 10. The austral lunistice, when she is at the greatest distance from our zenith ; for the action of the moon varies greatly according to her obliquity. With these ten points Toaldo compared a table of forty- eight years' observations; the result is, that the probabilities, that the weather will change at a certain period of the moon are in the following proportions : New moon, 6 to 1. First quarter, 5 to 2. Full moon, 5 to 2. Last quarter, 5 to 4. Perigee, 7 to 1. Apogee, 4 to 1. Ascending equinox, 13 to 4. Northern lunistice, 11 to 4. Descending equinox, 11 to 4. Southern lunistice, 3 to 1. 1275. That the new moon will bring with it a change of weather is in the doctrine of chances as 6 to 1. Each situation of the moon alters that state of the atmosphere which has been occasioned by the prece- ding one : and it seldom happens that any change in the weather takes place without a change in the lunar situations. These situations are combined, on account of the inequality of their revolutions, and the greatest effect is produced by the union of the syzigies, or the conjunction and opposition of a planet with the sup, with the apsides, or points in the orbits of planets, in which they are at the greatest and least dis- tatice from the sun or earth. The proportions of their powers to produce variations are as follows : New moon coinciding with the perigee, 33 to 1. Ditto, with the apogee, 7 to 1. Full moon coinciding with the perigee, 10 to 1. Ditto, with the apogee, 8 to 1. The combination of these situations generally occasions storms and tempests ; and this perturbing power will always have the greater effect, the nearer these com- bined situations are to the moon's passage over the equator, particularly in the months of March and that happen at a distance from the apsides. As it is perfectly true that each situation of the moon alters that state of the atmosphere which has been produced by another, it is, however, observed that many situ- ations of th moon are favorable to good and others to bad weather. BOOK II. OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 265 1276. The situations of the moon favorable to bad weather are the perigee, new and full moon, passage of the equator, and the northern lunistice. Those belonging to the former are, the apogee, quadratures, and the southern lunistice. Changes of the weather seldom take place on the very days of the moon's situations, but either precede or follow them. It has been found by observation, that the changes- affected by the lunar situations in the six winter months precede, and in the six summer months follow them. 1277. The octants. Besides the lunar situations to which the above observations refer, attention must be paid also to the fourth day before new and full moon, which days are called the octants. At these times the weather is inclined to changes ; and it may be easily seen, that these will follow at the next lunar situation. Virgil calls this fourth day a very sure prophet. If on that day the horns of the moon are clear and well defined, good weather may be expected ; but if they are dull, and not clearly marked on the edges, it is a sign that bad weather will ensue. When the weather remains unchanged on the fourth, fifth, and sixth day of the moon, we may conjecture that it will continue so till full moon, even sometimes till the next new moon ; and in that case, the lunar situations have only a very weak effect. Many observers of nature have also remarked, that the approach of the lunar situations is somewhat critical for the sick. According to Dr. Herschel, the nearer the time* of the moon's entrance, at full, change, or quarters, is to midnight (that is within two hours before and after midnight), the more fair the weather is in summer, but the nearer to noon the less fair. Also, the moon's entrance, at full, change, or quarters, during six of the afternoon hours, viz. from four to ten, may be followed by fair weather ; but this is mostly dependent on the wind. The same entrance during all the hours after midnight, except the two first, is unfavorable to fair weather ; the like, nearly, may be observed in winter. 1278. The artificial data are the barometer, hygrometer, rain-gauge, and ther- mometer. 1279. By means of the barometer, Taylor observes, we are enabled to regain, in some degree at least, that foreknowledge of the weather, which the anciertts unquestionably did possess ; though we know not the data on which they founded their conclusions. We shall therefore annex such rules, as have hitherto been found most useful in ascer- taining the changes of the weather, by means of the barometer. 1280. The rising of the mercury presages, in general, fair weather; and its falling foul weather, as rain, snow, high winds, and storms. The sudden falling of the mercury foretels thunder, in very hot weather, especially if the wind is south. The rising in winter indicates frost ; and in frosty weather, if the mercury falls three or four divisions, there will follow a thaw : but if it rises in a continued frost, snow may be expected. When foul weather happens soon after the falling of the mercury, it will not be of long duration ; nor are we to expect a continuance of fair weather, when it soon succeeds the rising of the quicksilver. If, in foul weather, the mercury rises considerably, and continues rising for two or three days before the foul weather is over, a continuance of fair weather may be expected to follow. In fair weather, when the mercury falls much and low, and continues falling for two or three days before rain comes, much wet must be expected, and probably high winds. The unsettled motion of the mercury indicates changeable weather. 1281. Respecting the words engraved on the register-plate of the barometer, it may be observed, that they cannot be strictly relied upon to correspond exactly with the state of the weather ; though it will in general agree with them as to the mercury rising and falling. The words deserve to be particularly noticed when the mercury removes from ' changeable' upwards ; as those on the lower part should be adverted to, when the mer- cury falls from ' changeable' downwards. In other cases, they are of no use : for, as its rising in any part forebodes a tendency to fair, and its falling to foul weather, it follows that, though it descend in the tube from settled to fair, it may nevertheless be attended with a little rain ; and when it rises from the words < much rain' to rain' it shows only an inclination to become fair, though the wet weather may still continue in a less consi- derable degree than it was when the mercury began to rise. But if the mercury, after having fallen to 'much rain,' should ascend to 'changeable,' it foretels fair weather, though of a shorter continuance than if the mercury had risen still higher ; and so, on the contrary, if the mercury stood at ' fair' and descends to < changeable,' it announces foul weather, though not of so long continuance, as if it had fallen lower. 1282. Concavity of the surface of the mercury. Persons who have occasion to travel much in the winter, and who are doubtful whether it will rain or not, may easily ascer- tain this point by the following observation : A few hours before he departs, let the traveller notice the mercury in the upper part of the tube of the barometer; if rain is about to fall, it will be indented, or concave ; if otherwise, convex or pro- tuberant. 1 283. Barometer in spring. Towards the end of March, or more generally in the be- ginning of April, the barometer sinks very low, with bad weather ; after which, it seldom falls lower than 29 degrees 5 minutes till the latter end of September or October, when the quicksilver falls again low, with stormy winds, for then the winter constitution of the air takes place. From October to April, the great falls of the barometer are from 29 degrees 5 minutes to 28 degrees 5 minutes, and sometimes lower ; whereas during the summer constitution of the air, the quicksilver seldom falls lower than 29 degrees 5 minutes. It therefore follows that a fall of one tenth of an inch, during the summer, is as sure an indication of rain, as a fall of between two and three tenths is in the winter. 1284. Barometer relative to situation. It must, however, be observed, that these heights of the barometer hold only in places nearly on a level with the sea; for cxpe~ 266 SCIENCE OF GARDENING, PART II. riments hare taught us, that for every eighty feet of nearly perpendicular height that the barometer is placed above the level of the sea, the quicksilver sinks one tenth of an inch : observations alone, therefore, must determine the heights of the quicksilver, which in each place denotes either fair or foul weather. 1285. The hygrometer is of various sorts, but cord, fiddle-string, and most of the siA- stances commonly used become sensibly less and less accurate, so as at length not to undergo any visible alteration from the different states of the air, in regard to dryness or moisture. A sponge makes a good hygrometer on this account, as being less liable to be changed by use than cord. To prepare the sponge, first wash it in water, and when dry, wash it again in water wherein sal ammoniac or salt of tartar has been dissolved ; and let it dry again. Now, if the air becomes moist, the sponge will grow heavier ; and if dry, it will become lighter. Oil of vitriol is found to grow sensibly lighter or heavier in proportion to the lesser or greater quantity of moisture it imbibes from the air. The alteration is so great, that it has been known to change its weight from three drams to nine. The other acid oils, or, as they are usually called, spirits, or oil of tartar, per deliquium, may be substituted for the oil of vitriol. Steel-yard hygrometer. In order to make a hygrometer with those bodies which acquire or lose weight in the air, place such a substance in a scale on the end of a steel-yard, with a counterpoise which shall keep it in equilibria in fair weather; the other end of the steel-yard, rising or falling, and pointing to a graduated index, will show the changes. Line and plummet. If a line be made of good well dried whipcord, and a plummet be fixed to the end of it, and the whole be hung against a wainscot, and a line be drawn under it, exactly where the plummet reaches, in very moderate weather it will be found to rise above such line, and to sink below it when the weather is likely to be- come fair. The ivhalebone hygrometer, originally invented by De Luc, is esteemed one of the best now in use. 128G. The rain-gauge, pluviometer, or hyetometer is a machine for measuring the quan- tity of rain that falls. A hollow cylinder forms one of the best-constructed rain gauges : it has within it a cork ball attached to a wooden stem (fig. 76.), which passes through a small opening at the top, on which is placed a large funnel. When this in- strument is placed in the open air in a free place, the rain that falls within the circumference of the funnel will run down into the tube and cause the cork to float ; and the quantity of water in the tube may be seen by the height to which the stem of the float is raised. The stem of the float is so graduated, as to show by its divisions the number of perpendicular inches of water which fell on the surface of the earth since the last observation. After every observ- ation the cylinder must be emptied. A coj)per funnel forms another very simple rain-gauge : the area of the opening must be exactly ten square inches. Let this funnel be fixed in a bottle, and the quantity of rain caught is ascertained by multiplying the weight in ounces by '173, which gives the depth in inches and parts of an inch. In firing these gauges, care must be taken that the rain may have free access to them ; hence the tops of buildings are usually the best places, though some conceive that the nearer the rain-gauge is placed to the ground the more rain it will collect. In order to compare the quantities of rain collected in pluviometers at different places, the instruments should be fixed at the same heights above the ground in all such places ; because, at different heights, the quantities are always different, even at the same place. 1287. Thermometer. As the weight of the atmosphere is measured by the barometer, so the thermometer shows the variations in the temperature of the weather ; for every change of the weather is attended with a change in the temperature of the air, which a thermo- meter placed in the open air will point out, sometimes before any alteration is perceived in the barometer. The scales of different thermometers are as follow. In Fahrenheit's the freezing point is 32 degrees, and the boiling point 212 degrees. In Reaumur's the freezing point is 0, and the boiling point 80 degrees. In the centigrade thermometer, which is generally used in France, and is the same as that of Celsius, which is the thermometer of Sweden, the freezing point is 0, and the boiling point 100 degrees. As a rule for comparing or reducing these scales, it may be stated, that 1 degree of Reaumur's scale contains 2| degrees of Fahrenheit, and to convert the degrees of the one to the other, the rule is to multiply by 9, divide by 34, and add 32. One degree of the centigrade scale is equal to one degree and eight-tenths of Fahrenheit ; and the rule here is to multiply by 9, divide by 5, and add 32. Any of these thermometers may be proved by immersing it in pounded ice for the freezing point, and in boiling water for the boiling point, and if the space between these points is equally divided, the thermometer is correct. BOOK II. OF THE ATMOSPHERE. -267 1288. The study of the weather from precedent affords useful hints as to the character of approaching seasons. From observing the general character of seasons for a long period, certain general results may be deduced. On this principle, Kirwan, on comparing a number of observations taken in England from 1677 (Trans. Ir. Acad. v. 20.) to 1789, a period of 1 12 years, found : That when there has been no storm before or after the vernal equinox, the ensuing summer is generally dry, at least five times in six. That when a storm happens from an easterly point, either on the 19th, 20th, or 21st of May, the sue. ceeding summer is generally dry, at least four times in five. That when a storm arises on the 25th, 26th, or 21th of March, and not before in any point, the succeed- ing summer is generally dry, four times in five. If there be a storm at S. W. or W. S. W. on the 19th, 20th, 21st, or 22d of March, the succeeding- sum- mer is generally wet, five times in six. In this country winters and springs, if dry, are most commonly cold; if moist, warm : on the contrary, dry summers and autumns are usually hot, and moist summers cold ; so that, if we know the moistness or dryness of a season, we can form a tolerably accurate judgment of its temperature. In this country also, it generally rains less in March than in November, in the proportion at a medium of 7 to 12. It generally rains less in April than October, in the proportion of 1 to 2, nearly at a medium. It generally rains less in May than September ; the chances that it does so, are, at least, 4 to 3 ; but, when it rains plentifully in May, as T8 inches or more, it generally rains tut little in September ; and when it rains one inch, or less, in May, it rains plentifully in September. 1289. The probabilities of particular seasons being followed by others, has been calculated by Kirwan, and although his rules chiefly relate to the climate of Ireland, yet as there exists but little difference between that island and Great Britain, in the general appear- ance of the seasons, we shall mention some of his conclusions. In forty-one years there were six wet springs, 22 dry, and 13 variable ; 20 wet summers, 16! dry, and 5 variable ; 11 wet autumns, 11 dry, and 19 variable. A season is accounted wet, when it contains two wet months. In general, the quantity of rain, which falls in dry seasons, is less than five inches, in wet seasons more ; variable seasons are those, in which there falls between SOlbs. and 361bs., a Ib. being equal to '157039 of an inch. January is the coldest month in every latitude ; and July is the warmest month in all latitudes above 48 degrees : in lower latitudes, August is generally the wannest. The difference between the hottest and coldest months increases in proportion to the distance from the equator. Every habitable latitude enjoys a mean heat of 60 degrees for at least two months j which heat is necessary for the pro- ' duction of corn. SECT. III. Of the Climate of Britain. 1290. The climate of the British isles, relatively to others in the same latitude, is tem- perate, humid, and variable. The moderation of its temperature and its humidity are owing to our being surrounded by water, which being less affected by the sun than the earth, imbibes less heat in summer, and from its fluidity is less easily cooled in winter. As the sea on our coasts never freezes, its temperature must always be above 33 or 34 ; and hence, when air from the polar regions at a much lower temperature passes over it, that air must be in some degree heated by the radiation of the water. On the other hand, in summer, the warm currents of air from the south, necessarily give out part of their heat in passing over a surface so much lower in temperature. The vari- able nature of our climate is chiefly owing to the unequal breadths of watery surface which surround us ; on one side, a channel of a few leagues in breadth ; on the other, the Atlantic ocean. 1291. The British climate varies materially within itself: some districts are dry, as the east ; others moist, as the west coast ; in the northern extremity, dry, cold, and windy ; in the south, warm and moist. Even in moist districts some spots are excessively dry, as part of Wigtonshire, from the influence of the Isle of Man, in warding off the watery clouds of the Atlantic ; and, in dry districts, some spots are moist, from the influence of high mountains in attracting and condensing clouds charged with watery vapor. 1292. The deterioration of the British climate is an idea entertained by some ; but whether in regard to general regularity, temperature, moisture, or wind, the alleged changes are unsupported by satisfactory proofs. It is not improbable but the humidity of our climate, as Williams alleges (Climate of Britain, &c. 1816), has of late years been increased by the increase of evaporating surface, produced by the multiplicity of hedges and plant- ations ; a surface covered with leaves being found to evaporate considerably more than a naked surface. If the humidity of the climate was greater before the drainage of mo- rasses and the eradication of forests for agricultural purposes, a comparative return to the same state by artificial planting and irrigation, must have a tendency to produce the same results. However, it will be long before the irrigation of lands is carried to such a degree as to produce the insalubrious effects of untrained morasses ; and as to our woods and hedges, we must console ourselves with the beauty and the shelter which they produce, for the increase of vapor supposed to proceed from them. 268 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. BOOK III. MECHANICAL AGENTS EMPLOYED IN GARDENING. 1293. HAVING considered the nature of vegetables, and the nature of the materials by which their culture or improvement is effected by art, the next step is to consider the means by which art is applied in the practice of cultivation. In general it may be ob- served, that every change effected in the circumstances of materials, either consists in, or must be preceded by, a mechanical change in their position. To effect mechanical changes, the fundamental engine is the human frame ; but its agency is essentially in- creased by the use of certain implements, utensils, machines, and buildings. The primary implements of gardening, as an art of culture, would necessarily be confined to a few tools for stirring the ground, and one or two instruments for pruning trees or gathering crops. But in the present state of the art, both the number and kind of agents are greatly extended and diversified. There are tools, instruments, and machines for culture, as the spade, knife, and water-engine ; for beautifying scenery, as the broom, scythe, and roller ; utensils for portable habitations of plants, or conveying materials, as pots and baskets ; structures for culture, as glass frames, hot-houses, and awnings ; and buildings for use, convenience, or decoration, as tool-houses, arbors, and obelisks. The whole may be included under implements, structures, and edifices, as in the following Table : Edifices Tools - Instruments Utensils - - Machines - Articles - - Portable or moi Partly moveahl Fixed fLever. Pick. - < Shovel. I Fork. 1 Dibber. (.Planter's hack. Planter's trowel. Planter's pick-axe. Garden-trowel. Transplanter. Hoe. Rake. Turf-raser. Turf-beetle. Turf-scraper. Weeder. Besom. Implement-cleaner. fGarden-lmife. I Garden-chisel. Of operation - } Pruning-bill. 1 Forest-are. LPruning-saw. Averruncator. Shears. Scythe. Scarifiers. Barking-irons. Hammer. Pincers. Fruit-gatherers." Climbing-spurs. fGarden-line. Of direction - {r^ = ure. Ground-compasses. Boming-piece. Level. Staff. tar* 4 - ^designation {$SSS$S- Name-stick. Label. "Of preparation f Screens, and deportation 1 Sieves. Mould-scuttle. Pot-carrier. Basket. Packing-case. Of culture. - {^ter-saucers. Plant-box. Plant-tub. Watering-pot. Syringe. Of protection or |G 1 ve modification lnaa e - Blancher. Hand-glass. Bell-glass. For vermin- - Birdtrap-cage. Beetle-trap. Wasp and fly trap. t Barrow. [Of labor - -< Watering engine. L Roller. PUtfonVi. Tree- transplanter. Seed-separater. For vermin - Engines of destruction. Engines of alarm or snares Living vermin-killers. For regulation Registering thermometer Alarum thermometer. Regulating thermometer. \ Temporary ' coping. fOf adaptation j Horizontal shelter. t- Netting screen. Garden-hurdle. Moveable edging. Protecting bag. Shoe-scraper. Of manufacture {Canvass. L Gauze. Netting. Wall-tree nails. Wall-tree lists. Of preparation {P? 5 - Covering materials. Planks. Various articles. pahlP ( J he flower - sta f? e - - I Opaque covering-frame. Glazed frame or sash. Glass case. Hotbed-frame. e - - - Pit. Adapted fra^y. . . . . Wall. Espalier rail. Permanent - Economical Anomalous Decorative - Hot-house. Mushroom-house. Cold house. SHead gardener's dwelling- Official or administrative . apartment. Seed-room. Fruit-room. Under-gardener's lodge. Entrance- lodge and gate. Building for raising water Ice-house. Apiary. Aviary. ruse*. - -{8T , Boat. Sepulchre. Gate. Fence. fte!- 10 - Convenient - ^ rtTco. | Arbor. LCave. Cavern. Grotto. Roofed seat. Exposed seat. Waterfall. Cascade. Jet or spout. Sun-dial. Vane. CRocks. [Characteristic JRug.^ Rarities. Monuments. Statues. Vegetable sculpturef. Inscriptions. Eye-traps. BOOK III. IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING. 269 CHAP. I. Implements of Gardening. 1294. Tlie usual mechanical agents employed in garden-culture, may be classed as fol- lows : 1 . Too/5, or simple implements for performing operations on the soil, and other dead or mineral matters ; 2. Instruments for performing operations on plants, or on living bodies, as insects and vermin ; 3. Utensils for habitations of plants, or the deportation or retention of either dead or living materials ; 4. Machines, or compound implements for any of the above or other purposes ; and, 5. Articles adapted, manufactured, or pre- pared, so as to serve various useful purposes. SECT. I. Tools. 1295. The common character of tools is, that they are adapted for labor which re- quires more force than skill ; they are generally large, and require the use of both hands and the muscular action of the whole frame, often aided by its gravity. Tools consist of two parts, the head, blade or acting part ; and the handle or lever, by which the power is communicated, and the tool put in action. As almost all tools operate by effecting a mechanical separation between the parts of bodies, they generally act on the principle of the wedge and lever, and consequently the wedge-shape ought to enter, more or less, into the shape of the head or blade of most of them, and the lever or handle ought to be of some length. Where the handle is intended to be grasped and held firm, its form may be adapted for that end, as in the upper termination of the handle of the shovel or the spade ; but where the human hand is to slide along the handle, then it should be perfectly cylindrical, as producing least friction, as in the hoe and the mattock. The materials of which tools are composed, are almost exclusively iron and timber ; and of the latter the ash is reckoned to combine most strength and toughness, the willow to be lightest, and fir or pine deal the straightest. The best quality of both materials should, if possible, be used, as scrap-iron and cast-steel, and root-cut young ash from rocky steeps. For light tools, such as the hoe and rake, the willow, or pine deal, may be used for the handles, but in scarcely any case can inferior iron or steel be admitted for the blades. 1296. The pick (fig. 77.) is a double or compound lever, and consists of the handle (a), which ought to be formed of sound ash timber, and the head (6), which ought to be made of the best iron, and pointed with steel. There are several varieties : the first, the pick with the ends of the head pointed (jig. 77.), is used for loosening hard ground, gravel, &c. ; the second, or pick-axe (Jig. 78.) with both ends wedge-shaped, in reversed positions, and sharp, is used for cutting through the roots in felling timber ; the third, or mattock (Jig. 79.), is used chiefly for loosening hard surfaces and for grubbing up roots of small trees or bushes. It is sometimes called a crow, and also a grubbing-axe, hoe-axe, &c. , 1297. Garden-levers are of two species, the removing and the carrying lever. 1 298. The removing-lever (Jig. 80. ) is a straight and generally cylindrical or polygonal bar of iron, somewhat tapered and wedge-shaped or flattened in the thick end ; it is used for the removal of large stones or other heavy bodies, in which its advantage is as the distance of the power (a), from the fulcrum (6), &c. 1 299. The carrying-lever, or hand-spoke, is used in pairs for carrying tubs of plants or other bodies or materials furnished with hooks or bearing staples, under or in which to insert the hand-spokes. Two of them united to a platform of boards form the common hand-barrow. 77 81 82 83 85 86 84 89 1300. The spade (Jig. 81.) consists of two parts ; the blade, of plate-iron, and the handle, 270 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PAW II. of tough root-cut ash timber, rather longer than the handle of the pick, but generally about two feet nine inches. Spades are manufactured of different sizes, and generally with a flat blade ; but perforated blades (Jig. 82.) are sometimes prized, as cleaning or freeing themselves better from earth in adhesive soils ; and semi-cylindrical blades (Jig. 83.), or what canal-diggers call grafting-tools, are preferred for the same reason, and also as enter- ing the soil easier, because gradually, and in effect as if a flat spade with a pointed or shield-like curved edge were used. Spades with curved edges or pointed blades are easiest to thrust into the earth in hard or stiff soils, and clean themselves better, but they are more apt to leave untouched parts (baulks) in the bottom of the trench than the common square-mouthed spade. They are the best species for new ground work, but not well adapted for culture. 1301. The shovel (Jig. 84.) consists of two parts, the handle and the blade ; the latter of plate-iron, and the former of ash timber. There are several species. Such as are turned up on the edges, and are used for shovelling mud, or, when formed of wood (generally of beech), for turning grain, seeds, or potatoes ; square-mouthed shovels, for gathering up dung in stables, and used by the gardener in the melon-ground ; heart-shaped or pointed-mouthed shovels, used for lifting earth out of trenches in ditch-making, trenching, or in other excavations ; and long narrow-mouthed shovels, for cleaning out drains, &c. 1302. The fork. (Jigs. 85, 86, and 87.) Of this tool there are three principal species : The first (Jig. 85. ), for working with litter, haulm, or stable-dung : the second (Jig. 86.), for stirring the earth among numerous roots, as in fruit-trees and flower-borders, or for taking uproots; and the third (Jig. 87.), for plunging pots in bark-pits, or for taking up asparagus or other roots. The prongs of the last are small, round, and should be kept clear or polished by use, or by friction with sand. In adhe- sive soils, a strong two-pronged fork (Jig. 86.) is one of the most useful of garden-tools, and is advantageously used on most occasions where the spade or even the hoe would be resorted to in free soils, but especially in stirring between crops. 1303. The turf-spade (Jig. 104.) consists of a cordate or scutiform blade, joined to a handle by a kneed or bent iron shank. It is used for cutting turf from old sheep- pastures, with a view to its being employed either for turfing garden-grounds, or being thrown together in heaps to rot into mould. It is also used in removing ant-hills and other inequalities in sheep-pastures, in parks, or rough lawns. A thin section is first removed, then the protuberance of earth is taken out and the section replaced, which, cut thin, and especially on the edges, readily refits ; and the operation is finished with gentle pressure by the foot, back of the spade, beetle, or roller. 1304. The dibber (Jigs. 88, and 89.) is a short piece of cylindrical wood, obtusely pointed, and sometimes shod with iron on the one end, and formed into a convenient spade-like handle in the other. There are three species. The common garden-dibber (Jig. 88.), the potatoe-dibber (Jig. 89.), and the ' forester's or planter's dibber. The forester's dibber has a wedge-shaped blade, forked at the extremity, for the purpose of carrying down with it the tap-root of seedling trees ; it has been much used in planting extensive tracts, but may be considered as a barbarous mode of treating plants, and deserving reprobation. There are also dibbers that make two holes at once, sometimes used in planting leeks or other articles that are placed within a few inches of each other ; dibbers which make several holes for planting beans and other seeds ; and wedge-shaped dibbers which in soft sandy soils are easily worked, and admit of spreading the roots better than the round kind. These wedge-shaped tools also admit of putting two plants in a hole, one at each extremity. 1305. The planter's hack, or double mattock (Jig. 90.), is used for the same purpose as the forester's dibber, and is much to be preferred. ( See Pontey's Profitable Planter. ) 1306. The planter's trowel is a triangular blade of iron joined to a short handle, used for planting young trees in free but unprepared soils, as heaths, moors, &c. (Song's Planters' Calendar.) 1307. The planter s pick-axe is the tool of that name (jig. 78.) in miniature ; or some- times merely a small mattock (Jig. 79.) used for planting in stony uncultivated soils. 1308. The garden-trowel is a tongue-shaped piece of iron, with a handle attached ; the blade or tongue either flat (Jig. 91.), or semi-cylindrical (Jig. 92.), or merely turned up on the sides. It is used to plant, or take up for transplanting, herbaceous plants and small trees. Trowels are also used for loosening the roots of weeds, and are then called weeding-irons. Sometimes they are used for stirring the soil among tender plants in confined situations. Wooden trowels or spatulae are sometimes used in potting plants to fill in the eartlj ; but the garden-trowel with the edges turned up is the best for this and most other purposes. 1309. The transplanter (Jig. 93.) consists of two semi-cylindrical pieces of iron with handles, and which are so inserted in the ground as to enclose a plant with a ball of earth between them. In this state they are attached to each other by two iron pins, and, being pulled up, bring with them the plant to be removed, surrounded with a ball of earth. III. IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING. 271 This being set in a prepared excavation surrounded by loose earth, the transplanter is then separated as at first, and being withdrawn, one half at a time, the earth is gently pressed to the ball containing the plant, and the whole well watered. Tender plants so transplanted receive no check, even if in flower. 103 102 104 iOb 1310. Hoes are of two species, the draw-hoe and thrust-hoe, of each of which there are several varieties. 1311. The draw-hoe (Jigs. 94. to 97.) is a plate of iron, six or seven inches long by two or three broad, attached to a handle about four feet long, at an angle less than a right angle. 'Die blade is either broad for cutting weeds (Jig. 94.); deep and strong for drawing earth to the stems of plants (jig. 95. ) ; curved so as to act like a double mould- boarded plough in drawing drills ; formed into two strong broad prongs for stirring hard adhesive soils (Jig. 96.) ; or it is formed to accomplish the first and last purposes, as in the double hoe. (Jig. 97.) 1312. The thrust-hoe (Jigs. 98, and 99.) consists of a plate of iron attached somewhat obliquely to the end of a handle, either by a bow (Jig. 98.), or a straight piece. (Jig. 99.) These hoes, which are sometimes called Dutch hoes, are used only for killing weeds, or loosening ground which is to be afterwards raked. As a man can draw more than he can push, most heavy work will be easiest done by the draw -hoe. 1313. The wheel-hoe (Jig. 108.) is a compound between the draw and thrust hoes, being drawn by one man and thrust by another. It is used for hoeing garden-walks in the Low Countries and France, where the walks are either of sand or earth. In this coun- try it could seldom be employed for this purpose ; and indeed for this or any other object it is a bad implement, as it requires two men to work it ; and two men working with the same tool will never do as much work as if they used separate tools. 1314. The garden-rake consists of a range of teeth inserted in a straight bar of iron or wood from six to eighteen inches in length, and attached at right angles across the end of a handle. Rakes vary in size, and in the length and strength of their teeth, and are used for covering seeds, or raking off weeds or cut grass, for smoothing surfaces and for removing or replacing thin strata of pulverised surfaces as in cuffing. For the latter pur- pose a wooden-headed rake is preferable, for the others iron is generally more eligible. 1315. The drill-rake has large coulter-formed teeth about six inches long and the same distance apart : it is used for drawing drills across beds for receiving small seeds, and the same rake serves to stir the soil between the rows after the seeds come up. In very loose soils, where a wide drill is required a sheath of wood may be fixed to the upper part of each prong to spread the earth, but this is seldom necessary. When the drills are re- quired not to be quite so wide as six inches, the operator has only to work the implement diagonally. 1316. The hoe-rake combines a hoe and rake, either at opposite ends of the same luu.-dle, as in France, or back to back at one end, as in England. (Jig. 100.) They are used for giving slight dressings to borders. 1317. The turf-raser (raser, Fr. to shave or trim.) (Jig. 101.) consists of a narrow 272 SCIENCE OF GARDENING PART II. kidney-shaped blade fixed to a straight handle, and is used for paring the edges of verges or borders of turf ; and for cutting the outlines of turves to be raised with the turf-spade. 1318. The turf-beetle (jig. 102.) is a cylindrical or conical piece of wood, of one hun- dred or two hundred pounds' weight, with an upright handle and two cross-handlets attached ; it is used chiefly for pressing down and levelling new-laid turf. There is a variety, consisting of a rectangular block with a handle placed obliquely (Jig. 103.), which is used when a less powerful pressure is desirable. 1319. Tlie turf-scraper is a head or plate of wood (Jig. 105.) or iron (Jig. 106.), fixed at right angles across the end of a long handle, and is used chiefly to scrape off earth, or the exuviai of worms, snails, &c. from lawns, grass verges, or walks, early in spring. In some cases, teeth, like those of a saw, are formed in the edge of the blade of such scrapers, in order to tear out the moss from lawns ; in many situations, however, a mossy lawn is much to be preferred to grass, as softer, and requiring less frequent mowing. Wire besoms are used with good effect for this purpose, as well as for removing moss from walls or trunks of large trees. 1 320. The dock-iveeder (Jig. 1 07. ) is composed of a narrow iron blade attached to a spade- like handle, with a protruding iron stay joined to the lower end of the handle, or to the iron shank of the blade, to act as a fulcrum. It is used for digging up long conical roots of weeds in pastures or close crops, where the spade or two-pronged fork cannot be introduced ; or for taking up crops of fusiform roots, as the parsnep, scorzonera, &c. 1321. The besom used in gardening is of three species. The spray broom, consisting of a small faggot of spray, generally that of the birch, or of spartium, with a handle inserted ; or a brush of bristles with a similar handle : the former sort are used for the open air, the latter in hot-houses, seed-rooms, &c. -The wire besom consists of a bundle of iron or copper wires, of one twentieth of an inch in diameter, fixed to a long handle. It is used for sweeping gravelled paths which have become mossy, mossy walls, mossy trunks of trees, &c. Such besoms requir% to be dipt in oil occasionally, to retard the progress of oxidation. 1 322. Implement-cleaners, are small spatulae formed of wood, generally by the operator himself. A small brush of wire like a painter's large brush is useful for cleaning pots, and some have a particular description of knife for that purpose, and for spades, hoes, &c. 1 323. Of these tools the essential kinds are the S]>ade, the dung-fork, and the rake ; for with these, all the operations for which the others are employed may be performed, though with much less facility, expedition, and perfection. There are diminutive sizes of most of them to be had in the shops for infant gardeners ; and portable and convertible sets for ladies and amateur practitioners. SECT. II. Instruments. 1 324. The common character of cutting-implements is, that they require in their use more skill than physical force : they may be divided into instruments for operations, as the knife, saw, &c. ; instruments of direction, as the measuring-rod, level, &c. ; and instruments of designation, as numbering-tallies, name-pieces, &c. SUBSECT. 1 . Instruments of Operation. 1 325. Operative instruments are used in labors of a comparatively light kind. They may be used in general with one hand, and commonly bring into action but a part of the mus- cular system ; the scythe however is an exception. They are similarly constructed to tools, and act on the same principles, differing from those only in being generally reducible to levers of the third kind, or those in which the power or hand is between the weight or matter to be cut or separated, and the fulcrum or arm, as in cutting off a shoot with a knife. But in clipping, the fulcrum is between the hand and the weight or object to be dipt off, and therefore shears act as wedges moved by levers of the second kind. The ma- terials of instruments are in general the same as tools, but the handles of knives are of horn, bone, ivory, or ramose fucus, and the greatest attention is requisite as to the iron and steel of the blades. 1326. The garden-knife is of several species and varieties. The common garden-knife consists of a blade of prepared steel, fixed without a joint in a handle of bone or horn, and kept in a sheath of leather or pasteboard. It varies in shape and size, and in the quality of the blade ; the best in England are generally made in London, but the great mass disposed of in com- merce are manufactured at Sheffield. Every working-gardener ought to carry one of these knives in a side-pocket on his thigh, that he maybe ever ready to cut off pieces of dead, decayed, or injured plants, or gather crops, independently of other operations. The common pruning-knife is similar to the former, but less hooked at the point ; for though the hook be useful in gathering some crops, and in cutting over or pruning herbaceous vegetables, yet as all knives cut on the same principle as the saw, it is injurious when the knife is used to cut woody shoots : therefore, wherever a clean section is of importance, the pruning-knife, with a straight-edged blade, and not th common garden-knife, with a hooked blade, ought to be employed. The folding pruning-knife differs from the other, in having the blade jointed in the handle, for the pur- pose of rendering it portable with greater ease and in any description of pockets ; uch knives are more BOOK III. IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING. 273 especially used by master-gardeners. There are varieties of these, with saws, chisels, penknives, &c. ; the two latte'r are more curious than useful. The grafting-knife (fig. 109.) differs from the common pruning-knife, in having a thinner and more nar- row blade fixed in a bone or horn handle. It is used for grafting, inarching, &c. 110 114 The budding-knife (fig. 110.) differs from the grafting-knife, in having the point of the sharp edge of the blade rounded off in the same manner as is the back or blunt edge of the grafting and pruning knives, it has also a thin wedge-shaped ivory or bone handle for raising up the bark, in the operation of inocu- lation. The asparagus-knife consists of a strong blade, fixed in a handle, blunt on both edges, and straight (fig. 111.) ; or slightly hooked, and serrated at one end. (fig. 112.) 1327. The garden-chisel is of two species, of which there are several varieties. The grafting-chisel differs from the carpenter's chisel, in being a narrow wedge tapering equally on both sides. It is used to split stocks where the common pruning-knife is not deemed sufficiently strong.^ The forest-chisel (fig. 113.) is a sharp edge of steel, with or without a sharp steel hook or hooks, generally called ears : this blade or wedge is attached to a handle, from six to ten feet long or upwards ; or better to a handle capable of being lengthened by additional joints. It is used for cutting off small branches of forest-trees close by the bole or trunk ; with one hand it is placed and adjusted under the branch, and with the other a smart blow is given by a wooden mallet, which, either at once or by repetition, effects separ- ation, arid leaves a smooth section. A variety of this instrument, used for pruning orchards, is furnished with a guard or plate behind the blade, to prevent its entering too far into the trunk or main branch. (fig- 114.) 115 o CL: its n SdDO 120 1328. The pruning bill is generally a hooked blade, sometimes sharpened on one and sometimes on both edges, attached to a handle of from one to four feet in length, There are several varieties : one resembles the pruning-knife on a large scale (jig. 115.), having a handle four feet long, and is used for pruning hedges in the best hedge-districts, such as Northumberland and Berwickshire ; another (Jig. 116.) has a handle of only one, or one foot and a half long, and is sharpened in part on the back, forming a sort of halberd- like blade, and. is used where hedges are plashed, as in Middlesex and Hertfordshire ; and the last we shall mention, contains a saw on one edge of the blade, and a knife on the other (Jig. 117.); of this and the first-mentioned sorts are small portable varieties with cases, &c. for amateur foresters. 1329. The forest-axe is a steel wedge fixed at right angles to the end of a handle of wood, from two and a half to four feet long, and is chiefly used for cutting roots or trunks at the ground's surface, where the saw cannot operate. Axes vary in dimension, and also in the shape of the head or wedge, which, for the purposes of gardening, ought to be long and narrow. 1 330. Occasional instruments. Besides the above there may be wanted, in extraordinary cases, adzes, gouges, carving-chisels, and peculiar-shaped instruments, which the intelligent gardener will search for or procure to be made to answer his intentions. 1331. The jrruning-saw (Jig. 118.) is a blade of steel, serrated in what is called the double manner on one side, and is either jointed like a folding pruning-knife ; joiutless as in the common knife ; shaped like a carpenter's saw (Jig. 119.); or of some length, say with a handle of six or eight feet, as in the forest-saw. (Jig. 120.) The small saws are used for cutting off branches where the knife cannot easily act owing to want of room, and the forest-saw is used in cutting off large branches. In either case the section must be smoothed with the forest-chisel or pruning-knife, and, if possible, or at least in delicate cases, should always be covered with some tenacious air-excluding composition. 1332. The averruncator (Jig. 121.) is a compound blade attached to a handle from five T 274 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. to eight feet in length, and operating by means of a lever moved by a cord and pulley. Its use is to enable a person standing on the ground to prune standard trees, which it. readily does when the handle is eight feet long, to the height of fifteen feet ; and, by using step-ladders, any greater height may be attained. Branches one inch and a half in diameter may readily be cut oft* with this instrument. There is a species made entirely of metal, to be used with one hand for pruning shrubs or hedges : of this species there are varieties made at Sheffield of different sizes and qualities. 1333. The shears used in gardening are of several species. 1334. TJie printing-shears (fig. 122.) differ from the common sort, in having a moveable centre (a) for the motion of one of the blades, by which means, instead of a crushing-cut, they make a draw-cut, leaving the section of the part attached to the tree as firm and smooth as if cut off with a knife. It is used in the same way as the common shears, and is very convenient in reducing the size of the shrubs or bushes, and strument of French invention for expediting the practice of both blades open at once, will give the best idea of its mode of operating, and is, in fact, a good substitute. 123 124 1336. The French pruning-skears (fig. 124.), by the curvature of the cutting blade, cuts in a sort of medium way between the common crushing and pruning shears : it is an expeditious implement for pruning the vine. 1337. Hedge-shears (figs. 125 & 126.) are composed of two blades, acting in unison by means of a pivot, vere formerly much used in i were then shorn or trimmed, At present the taste is different. Shears, however, are still wanted for hedges of privet and yew ; but where the twigs or shoots are stronger, as in the holly, thorn, and beech, the hedge-bill or pruning-shears is preferable, as producing wounds more easily cicatrised, and not thickening the outer surface of the hedge, by which means the interior shoots rot for want of air, especially in thorn and other deciduous hedges 125 126 1338. Verge-shears (fig. 127.) are a species in which the blades are joined to the handles by kneed shanks, to lessen stooping in the operator. They are chiefly used for trimming the sides of box-edgings and grass- verges. A variety has a small wheel appended, which in cutting grass-edgings is a great improvement. 1339. Turf-sheart (fig. 128.) are another variety, for cutting the tops of box-edgings and the tufts of grass at the roots of shrubs, not easily got at by the scythe. Some of these have also a wheel or even two wheels on an axle fixed to the shears on the principle of the table-caster. BOOK III. IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING. 275 1340. The scythe (Jig. 129.) is a sharp blade of steel attached to the end of a crooked wooden handle. It varies somewhat in size and in the angle made by the plate or knife, which is so contrived as to be varied at the pleasure of the operator ; and in mowing very short thick grass, is generally placed so as the plane of the blade may be parallel to the plane of the surface to be mown. 1341. Of the garden-scarifiers, or bark-sealers, there are several sorts. They are gene- rally hooked edge-tools or blunt knives, used for removing the already scaling off external epidermis of the stem and branches of fruit-trees of some age. They vary in size and strength, in order to suit different sorts of trees, and different parts of the same tree. The two-handed instrument (Jig. 130.) is for removing the bark from the axillae of the branches, or other angular parts difficult to be got at. The small hook (^g.131.) is for lateral branches of one and two inches in diameter; and the knife-hook (Jig. 132.) for the trunks of the largest trees. This operation should be performed in the middle of winter ; and to guard against accidents, the whole of a tree should seldom be done in one season. 130 131 134 135 1342. The moss-scraper, for standards, is a sort of horse curry-comb (Jig. 133.); and for wall-trees, is a sickle-like instrument. (Jig. 134.) In either form it is used to re- move moss from the branches, or woody parts of trees ; the existence of which is a cer- tain indication of the commencement of decay. It must be confessed, however, that such instruments seldom remove the moss completely, and that the scarifier, by removing a portion of the outer bark, does the business much more effectually, and is greatly to be preferred. 1343. The blunt knife (Jig. 135.) has a lanceolate, double-edged blade, somewhat obtuse on the edges, and is used for the removal of decayed wood from hollow wounds in old neglected trees. It can never be wanted where there has been any thing like good management. 137 138 /? . o 136 o 140 1 344. Of forest bar fang-irons there are two species and several varieties. They are used, not to scarify or remove the scaly decaying epidermis, but to remove Hie entire mass of T 2 276 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. cortical layers of the oak for the purposes of the tanner. The first species includes four varieties: the smaller instruments (Jigs. 136, 137, & 138.) are for undergrowth, or copse bark, or small branches ; the largest (fig. 139.) for the larger branches and trunks : the long blade (Jig. 140.) is the second species, and is used for cross-cutting the bark, before removed by the scarifiers, into proper lengths. 1345. The garden-hammer consists of a head with a flat face and forked claw, and is generally lighter than the carpenter's hammer. It is used chiefly by gardeners for driving or drawing the nails in dressing wall-trees. 1346. Of fruit-gatherers there are several species. 1347. Saul 's fruit-gatherer (Jig. 141.) consists of a pair of cutters (a and 2>) attached to a long pole, which may be lengthened by screwed joints or other- wise. The operating lever (c) may be attached to any part of the pole; the lever of the moving chop (rf) has a spring under it to keep it open ; and the communicating string passes over a pul- ley (e~); the cutters (a, 6) are so connected to the pole by a joint and arch (/), that they may be set at any angle required, for the purpose of getting at the fruit readily. Half the top of the basket may be covered to prevent the fruit from falling out when a full basket is brought down. 1348. Lane's fruit-gatherer (jig. 142.) consists of a pole (a), with a pair of forceps (6, c) at the end ; one forcep (6) being fixed, and the other (c) move- able ; a wire (rf, d) is attached to the moving forcep, which passes along a groove to the trigger (e). The pole being raised by the left-hand, the back of the right raises the trigger, and opens the forcep, which, being applied to the fruit, the trigger is pressed, by which the fruit is secured. The for- ceps are formed of a ring of metal, covered with soft leather and padded. 1349. The orange-gatherer used in Spain (Jig. 143.) consists of a rod with a cup at the end, composed of six Ungulate pieces of plate-iron or hoop, some- what sharp at the edges. The instrument is made to enclose the fruit, the stalk being between the iron- pfates ; a gentle twist is then given, when the fruit is detached and brought down in the cup. 1350. The Swiss fruit-gatherer (Jig. 145.) is a small basket, with the ends 'and edges of the ribs sharpened and protruding : it is used like the orange- gatherer, in collecting apples, pears, and walnuts. (Lasteyrie, Collect. de Mack. &c.) 1351. The orchardings hook (Jig. 144.) consists of a rod, with an iron hook fixed at one extremity, and a sliding-piece (a) at the other. The oper- ator being on the tree, seizes a branch with the hook, draws it towards him, and holds it in that position till he gathers the fruit, by hooking on the sliding cross-piece to another branch. This slider passes freely along the rod, but cannot drop off on account of the pin (6) at the end. 143 / h 148 144 145 1352. Garden-pincers are of three species ; those for drawing nails do not differ from those used by carpenters, consisting of two hooked levers of iron, acting as levers of the first kind ; those for twisting wire in repairing trellis or flower-baskets, &c. are the sort used by wire-workers, which operate both as pliers and pincers ; and those for pulling BOOK III. IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING. 277 weeds are, when large (fig. 146.), formed of wood pointed with plate-iron, and are used for pulling out large weeds, particularly thistles and other large plants in hedg )s, or other bulky crops. They are also sometimes used for common weeding, to prevent stooping and treading beds and borders ; but their chief use is to weed ponds, either reaching from the shores or from boats. A small sort formed of iron is sometimes used for weeding very hard gravel-walks. Gloves, having the first finger and thumb points cased with iron or steel, brought to a wedge shape, are also used for the same purpose. 1353. The grape-gatherer (./ig.147.) is a pair of scissars, combining also tweezers or pincers, attached to the end of a rod six or eight feet long, and worked by a cord and pulley, or lever and wire. The bunch of grapes to be gathered from the roof of a lofty vinery, or the sprig of myrtle to be culled from the summit of a green-house stage, is not only clipped cleanly off the plant by the sheers, but held fast by that part of them acting as pincers till it is brought down to the operator. 146 147 150 148 1 149 1354. The peach-gatherer (jig. 148.) consists of a tin funnel or inverted hollow cone, fixed on the end of a rod or handle at an obtuse angle, the funnel is first introduced under each fruit, and then gently raised or moved sideways ; if ripe, the fruit will fall into the funnel. It is used for gathering the peach! tribe, apricots, and plums. 1 355. The pear-gatherer resembles the above, but the funnel is deeply notched or ser- rated, in order to aid in gently drawing off ripe fruit. It is used in gathering the fine* sorts of pears and apples from walls. This and the last instrument are also sometimes used for gathering mulberries. Common pears and apples are often gathered by Lane's instrument, (jigs. 142. & 151.) 1356. The berry-gatherer (Jig. 149.) is the combined scissars and pincers above men'" tioned, worked by the hand like common scissars, and is used for gathering gooseberries, strawberries, raspberries, and such fruits as should be touched by no other hand than that which conveys them to the mouth. Some opulent proprietors have branches of fruit shrubs cut off and brought to table, as bouquets, in elegant china vases ; or have their strawberries grown in pots, and thus served up to be gathered as used, &c. Jerome Buonaparte, when king of Westphalia, passing through Warsaw, on his way to Moscow, in the campaign of 1812, had branches of cherry-trees laden with fruit held upright by soldiers round his table like a sort of grove, from the branches of which, extending over their heads, he and his guests gathered the fruit. 1357. The seed and cherry gatherer (Jig. 150.) consists of a valvular pocket placed on the end of a long rod. One valve or jaw of the mouth or pocket is fixed, and the other is kept open by a spring, and closed at pleasure, and made t( bite or pinch off seeds of forest-trees, 'or even fruits, especially cherries, by operating on it with a string and pulley, or wire and lever. It is peculiarly use- ful for gathering ash and sycamore keys, haws, and such like seeds. 1358. Flower-gatherers are of two sorts, the long-handled and the small flower-gatherer. The latter may be the same implement as the berry-gatherer. (Jig. 149.) The long-han- dled flower-gatherer (Jig. 152.), and which is also an excellent grape-gatherer, cuts and holds on the same principle as the wire- worker's pincers, or berry-gatherer. It is worked by means of two small cords, one (a) serves to vary the direction of the cutting part or scissars, and the other (6) to effect the amputation and retention of a flower, twig, or bunch of fruit. TS 278 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 1359. The climbing-spur (Jig. 153.) is of two sorts, one with, and the other without a stem. The first sort (a) is fastened to the upper part of the leg with a leather belt (6) ; the other sort (c) is tied to the feet. By means of these spurs, one on each foot, naked-stemmed trees may be ascended to any height, and when it is wished to stop a short time at any part, the screw of the ring (c/) is entered in the trunk, and forms a firm point for one foot. (Lasteyrie, Coll. de Machines, &c.) 1360. The essential operative instruments are the knife, saw, shears, scythe, and hammer. SUBSECT. 2. Instruments of Direction. 1361. The common characteristic of directive or preparatory instruments is, that they are used in actions preparatory to operations, rather than in operations themselves, and depend on scientific knowledge more than on practical dexterity ; this remark will apply also to their construction, which is founded on the doctrines of quantities, gravitation, &c. 1362. The garden-line is composed of three parts, the frame, generally of iron, the cord which is wound upon the frame, and the pin which terminates the cord. The common use of the line is perfectly understood from the name ; though generally used for straight lines, yet it is also applied, by means of pegs or small stakes, to form curved b'nes. 1363. The ground-measure. Of this there are at least three sorts used in gardening. A Gunter's chain of 100 links, or 66 feet, a rod of one twelfth, or any equal part of the chain, marked with links on one side, and feet on the other, and a common pocket-rule. To these may be added a pocket measuring-line, though it is not, from its contraction and expansion, to be much depended on. The chain is used to ascertain the contents of, or to lay out and subdivide considerable plots ; the rod for the detail of such plots, or for marking out rows, &c. ; and the pocket-rule for taking smaller dimensions. 1364. Of timber-measurers and dendrometers there are various kinds, and their use is for taking the dimensions of standing timber without climbing the tree. Broad's mea- surer (Jig. 154.) is composed of two pieces of deal about 13 feet long, with a brass limb or 154 index (a), on which are engraven figures denoting the quarter girth in feet and inches, liaising the instrument, the index end (a) is taken hold of, and the other applied to that part of the trunk where the girth is to be taken, opening it so wide as just to touch at the same time both sides of it, keeping the graduated index uppermost, on which the quarter girth will be shown, allowing 1 inch in 13 for the bark. (Trans. Soc. -Arts, vol. xxv. p. 20.) There are various other dendrometers, among which is a curious one by Monteath, which will be afterwards noticed. The above we consider as much the best. 1 365. For taking the height of a tree. Rods of deal or bamboo, seven feet long, made so as to fit into ferrules at the end of each other, tapering as in a fishing-rod, may be used. Five of them with feet marked on them would enable a man quickly to measure the height of a trunk of more than 40 feet, as he would reach above seven feet. 1366. The ground-compasses (Jig. 155.) are generally made of hard wood, such as oak, 155 157 shod with iron, and with an iron gauge or segment (a) ; their length may be six feet ; they are used chiefly for laying out parterres in the ancient manner ; since, by a previous BOOK III. IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING. 279 preparation of the soil, the curvilinear parts of such parterres can be described by them with perfect accuracy. The stationary foot is placed on a slip of board a few inches square, with a pin beneath to retain it in its place, and a lead cap above for the point of the foot. 1367. The borning-piece (Jig. 156.) is composed of the body (a), commonly a thin slip of board, four inches wide, half an inch thick, and four feet two inches long ; the head (6) of a similar slip of board placed across, but only eighteen inches long ; and the foot is either of the same form as the head, or merely the squared end of the body (as in the figure). The upper and under edge of the head and foot must be perfectly straight, and form right angles with thp edges of the body. Borning-pieces are used to prove, com- plete, and continue level lines, or lines on certain given slopes. One is placed at each end of a convenient length of the level or slope, and there held perpendicular to its sur- face, and others, being placed in the interval, and in the same line or vertical plane, the ground under the feet of the intermediate borning-pieces is raised or lowered till it is brought to the proper level or slope, when the upper edges of all the heads will range. Where box-edgings are to be planted with accuracy and beauty, the use of these imple- ments cannot be dispensed with. 1368. Of levels (figs. 157 & 158.) there are a variety of sorts ; but the most con- venient is half a square, with an iron index in the angle marked with ninety divisions or degrees. The use of these degrees is to facilitate the laying out of slopes ; at a perfect level the plummet will hang at 45, and for a slope it may be any lesser number in ascend- ing, or any greater number in descending from a fixed point. This level may also be used as a square to set off right angles, or indeed angles of any description. 1369. The adjusting horizontal level (,fig. 157.) is peculiarly useful in laying out roads, or regulating the slope of lawns or borders, as is also the following instrument. 1370. Dalsde'l's level, (fig. 159.) This is an instrument of a very simple description, 159 I lately invented, for ascertaining the relative elevation of unequal surfaces. It consists of a wooden bar (a) with a foot at one end (6), and at the other another larger foot with a groove and scale (c), to which the bar is connected by a screw and nut. ' In using this instru- ment, two points of different altitude being chosen, the support of the bar (6) is to be placed on the higher, and (c) the foot of the scale on the lower, while the position of both is secured by a slight turn of the thumb-screw. The bar being brought parallel to the horizon with the plummet (rf), will indicate, that the upper part of the scale is to be advanced, or the reverse, keeping its foot on the point of support, until some one of the graduations coincides with, or is visibly parallel to the upper edge of the bar. The difference of alti- tude sought is seen in figures, without calculation. Any person that understands the use of a level will see a variety of levelling operations on a small scale that this implement is calculated to simplify : for example, if it be required to construct an inclined plane, rising an inch in a foot, the inner edge of the scale is to be brought six feet from the foot end of the horizontal piece, and rendered perpendicular to it, by making the graduated line at six inches coincide with the horizontal edge of the bar. Being fixed immoveably by the screw in that position, the surface of the ground is then to be worked until the plummet hangs perpendicularly. The first six feet of the inclined plane having been thus con- structed, other portions are to be taken successively throughout the remainder. If a plane of a different inclination is required, as of half an inch in a foot, the scale is to be shifted to three inches, and so on. (High. Soc. Trans, vol. v. p. 575.) T 4 280 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 1371. Tlie sjiirit-level, with a theodolite, compass, and telescope, is used for laying out ex- tensive scenes. The most convenient are put together, and assume the form of a stout walking-stick. Smalcalder is at present the best London artist in this line. 1372. The staff is used in laying out straight lines. It may be a straight rod of six or eight feet Jong or upwards, and one inch in diameter ; with the first six inches at the top painted white, the second black, and the third six inches red. Two points of the desired straight line being found. or given, any greater number of points are found by placing other staffs or rods so as they shall range, and the first staff conceal from the eye placed behind it, all the rest in the line ; the use of the three different colors is to render the ends distinctly visible when the ground is fresh dug, white or covered with snow, or green, as in pastures. 1373. The straight-edge, for a garden, may also serve for a plumb-rule. It is merely a slip of board with straight parallel edges and sides, of any length from four to ten feet, with the addition of a plummet for occasional use as a plumb-rule. It is used to form and prove smaller levels, between points settled, by the borning-pieces ; or to prove beds or borders of even or plane surfaces. As a plumb-rule, this implement is also used to place espalier rails, temporary walls of boards, and even standard trees, upright. 1374. The stake is any straight piece of wood of an inch or two in diameter, and from one to four feet in length. There are two sorts, the one short and thick, of one foot or eighteen inches in length, and used, by being driven into the ground in levelling, as resting- places for the level, or fixed indications of surface alterations ; the other, comparatively slender and long, may either be covered with white- wash, or the lower half dipped in white- wash, and the upper half in a black -wash, or they may be painted as the staffs. The last kind are used for tracing out lines of any description, or for indicating the situations of trees, or other objects. Twigs and bits of lath are commonly used as substitutes, but wherever correctness is any object, the trifling expense of two or three hundred of such stakes, should not deter from procuring them. SUBSECT. 3. Instruments of Designation. 1375. Tlie object of designating instruments is to record and render ascertainable the individuality of objects, and chiefly of plants ; either as species, genera, or varieties. A tally or stake driven into the soil and remaining fast, is, mechanically considered, a wedge held in equilibrium by the resistance of the earth. Wherever there is a variety of plants cultivated, it becomes necessary to be able to mark and distinguish them, as well when in a growing state, as when in a state of hybernation, or recent insertion in the soil. In sending plants to any distance, the same tiling is requisite. For both purposes the name is either written on some instrument, and attached to or placed beside the plant ; or a number is made use of instead of the name, from which reference is made to a written list. Of both these a considerable variety is used in gardening. 1376. Notch numbering-sticks are of several distinct species. 1377. The common tally (tailler, Fr.), or number-stick (Jig. 160.), is a slip of lath, or 160 166 167 168 169 170 163 164 165 162 161 V ,v ~h 8 9 I > 1 i 2 3 4 _J fi 7 \ deal, or a piece of a rod, nine or twelve inches long, sharpened at one end and squared at the other. The numbers, to nine inclusive, are cut on the face with a knife in Roman numerals (I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX.) ; reading always from the insertion, or sharpened end. Ten is formed by a notch or tally on the near angle, and placed behind the above numerals, extends the series from eleven to nineteen. Twenty u formed by two notches, thirty by three, and so on : the nine numerals above being BOOK III. IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING. 281 placed after the notches, so as to form the intermediate terms of the series. Fifty, instead of five notches, is formed by a cross cut, or channel, like I, on the face, with a similar one on the right side joined to it. One hundred is formed by joining to these two cuts a similar cut on the other side, that is a channel continued on three sides; and one hundred and fifty, by a cut or channel continued on the four sides of the stick. Ninety may be more readily formed by using the mark for one hundred, and placing a notch behind it, to signify 100 less 10, than using the cuts for fifty, and adding four notches before. Other high numbers may be simplified in the same manner. A little reflection will show that this mode of numbering may be carried to almost any extent ; and in some nurseries, particularly in Scotland, we have known it carried as far as five hundred, which is formed by only three rings for 150 x 3 = 450, and a half ring for 50. Particular attention must always be had to read from the root, or insertion end. 1378. Setons botanic tally (Jigs. 161. to 165.) is a highly improved method of numbering, devised by Alexander and George, sons of the late Dr. Anderson. It proceeds upon the same general principles as that above, but with different marks, the ten cyphers ( t fig. 162.) being denoted by as many single distinct cuts of easy and expeditious exe- cution ; and any number, however high, requiring no more marks than it would require figures written with a pen. 1379. As an example of application, the number 590 (Jig. 161.) may be referred to. " The only way in which the memory is apt to misgive, in this scheme, is by confounding /&\, X\&|V, A& V> with each other, (as a child would confound the figures 6 and 9,) but this slight inconvenience will be remedied by the following key, which may be easily borne in the mind. Let us recollect that, in writing, we naturally draw a stroke from the right, at top, to the left, at bottom, thus / , and not in the opposite direction, thus \ : now, in all the above numbers, which differ from each other in the direction of the diagonal line, that which is in the direction usual in writing precedes the other, thus / \ A N A A; the other two, A & V> will not be confounded, on recol- 236789 45 lecting that V * s the usual numeral notation of five. In order to express the numbers which refer to a botanical catalogue, a practice of great use to every cul- tivating botanist, " we cut the stick in the form of a prism of four sides, whereof one is narrower than the rest; or of a triangle, with one of the angles cut off. A transverse section of the tally should be a truncate triangle. (fig. 162. a) On the narrowest side, notch the number corresponding with that of the genus, in the catalogue. Its being rather more easy to cut the numbers on the smaller than on the larger surface, is the reason for preferring the former for the genus, the number of which is, in most cases, greater than that of the species. On the opposite and wider side, put the number of the species ; and if there be a variety, put it on one of the intermediate sides. By this simple method, in going over the garden with the catalogue in our hand, we can see at once the genus, species, and variety of any plant we wish to look for; and in putting in plants, we have always the means ready at hand of placing the numbers with them, without the apparatus of whitened tallies, with ink, blacking, or any of those troublesome expedients in common use. The sticks themselves, which may be painted of a dark color, and kept always at hand, are, besides, less conspicuous and unsightly than the usual large white marks with writing on them, and they are not so easily effaced." (Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 348, 349.) 1380. The written number-stick (Jigs. 166. to 170.) varies in form, size, and materials. The first sort (Jig. 166.) is a flat piece of lath, smoothed and pointed with the knife, and either painted, or more commonly rubbed on the face with white lead at the time of using, and numbers corresponding with those of genus, species, and varieties are written on it with a lead pencil. Sometimes types and printers' ink are used : when the paint is dry, common ink, or black paint is also made use of; and in some cases the number is impressed by a cold type, or burnt in by one heated to redness. A little white lead rubbed on with the finger, and the name immediately written with a hard black lead pencil, will last as long as the wood, and is on the whole the best mode. Various sizes are used ; from laths formed with the knife three inches long, and half an inch broad, to pieces sawed out of deal, two or three inches broad, and from eighteen inches to three feet long ; the upper part painted white, and lower part pitched, charred, or coated with some preservative liquid, for durability. With respect to materials, fir deal is most commonly used, but oak boards, or old oak spokes are occasionally made use of in botanic gardens. Cast-iron is also used, and found by nurserymen to be in the end the most economical. Earthenware, hoop-iron, lead, and copper have been tried. The general form in all these cases, is a parallelogram pointed at the insertion end, and somewhat rounded at the other. To detect stealing, or mark appropriation, the name of the proprietors or of the garden may be cast on the back of all lead, or cast-iron, or earthenware naming-instruments. 1381. The stamped numbering-instrument is formed in various ways; the simplest and most economical is that of triangular slips of lead dipt or stampt from sheet-lead of 4lbs. to a superficial foot ; and for plants in pots, they need not be longer than three inches, nor broader at the head than half an inch. On these the number is stamped with a type, or the name at length may be stamped in the same manner. Such tallies are durable, unobtrusive, and not so readily driven out of pots as those of wood ; for herbaceous plants they may be of double size and weight. 282 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 1382. Number-bricks. For plants in the open ground, bricks set endways and rathej- obliquely in the soil, and the number painted on a black or white ground, answers well where they do not require to be often removed. This mode is extensively used in the herbaceous and tree arrangements in the nurseries of Messrs. Loddiges. 1383. The name-stick differs from the number-stick in having the name written or printed at length, instead of a number, figure, or sign referring to some list or catalogue containing the name. Any of the written number-sticks will serve also for a name-stick ; but frequently the upper end is broader, square, round, or oblong, (Jigs. 167, 168. 170.) and inclined to the stem, so as the name may meet the eye at a parallel angle for reading. A very neat sort of naming-instrument for plants in hot- houses, which do not require to be often removed, is formed of white earthenware, on which the name may be written with ink or pencil, or printed. A variety of other devices for numbering and naming planted plants, by instruments inserted in the ground, might be mentioned : in the garden of the Ducal Palace Pitti, at Florence, the name, &c. is printed on slips of paper, and placed inside a small glass bottle, which is fixed on the end of an iron rod, a complex mode, and one which can only succeed in climates like that of Italy. 1384. For writing the figures or letters on small sticks, a little white lead is rubbed on with a bit of stiff leather, and a hard pencil is then used ; on a larger scale, and on durable materials, the stick is first painted, and the figures or letters afterwards put on in oil colors. On earthenware instruments either ink or oil color may be used. On large sticks the skeleton type may be used. This is the practice in the Paris garden ; the classes, orders, and generic name are cut out of one thin plate of brass, which is applied to the face of the stick, and then oil color brushed over it : the specific name is then added in separate letters, from an alphabet so cut or stampt out of brass lamina. 1385. The plant-label is distinguished from the number and naming sticks, in being hung or tied to the plant, or nailed, or otherwise fixed to the wall or trellis against which it is trained. There are two species or varieties, the permanent and temporary. 1386. The permanent label is a slip or plate an inch or more in width, and two or three inches long, of deal, metal, earthenware, leather, horn, bone, ivory, ftc. on which the number or name is impressed or written, and it is then hung to trees or nailed on the wall or espalier rail to which trees are trained. The difficulty in the case of hanging labels on trees, is to find a durable tie, or thread, and for this purpose, untanned leathern thongs or catgut is preferred ; silver or lead wire may also be used, the former for select plants, and the latter for commoner cases. 1387. The temporary label is a shred of paper or parchment, and sometimes of leather, with a string attached, and is used chiefly by nurserymen to designate plants sold. 1388. The mode of naming or registering by series, chiefly applies to fruit-trees in kitchen- gardens or orchards, and is done by marking down the names in a book or on a plant, in the same order in which the trees or shrubs are planted in the garden. Thus, suppose the east side of an east wall is to be planted and registered without the use of naming- instruments or labels. Begin at the south corner and write down under that title the sort of trees in the order in which they are planted, placing in the list a number against each name in regular series. Suppose that at any time afterwards, you wish to find which tree is the golden pippin ; then looking in the list, that name is found opposite No. 9 ; counting nine, therefore, from the south corner, will give you the tree, &c. This mode of registering by series is always a very good check to any other mode of numbering or naming. Sometimes it is done on a general plan of the garden, but the plan must then be on a large scale to admit of writing down all the numbers or names of the trees in the spots where they are planted. 1389. The essential instruments of direction and designation are the line, rule, level, and common tally. SECT. III. Utensils. 1390. Utensils may be characterised by their property of being adapted to hold, con- tain, or include some material or thing, and either for the preparation of materials, the deportation of plants and garden-productions, or their culture and protection. SUBSECT. 1. Utensils of Preparation and Deportation. 1391. Preparatory utensils are the screen and sieve. Their construction and use em- brace a variety of operations, mechanical and chemical. 1392. Screens are used in gardening for fining or sort- 171 ing earths, gravel, or tanners' bark. The mould-screen (Jig. 171.) is a wire frame with a jointed fulcrum, by which it can be placed sloping to any required degree ; its use is to separate stones and coarser particles from mould, either in trenching over ground intended for bulbous or other tender and succulent roots, or in turning over compost- heaps. The soil must be well broken with the spade before thrown on the screen, and it is in vain attempting to use the utensil, unless the earth is dry. BOOK III. IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING. 283 1 393. In gravel-screens the wires are placed wider, according to the use to which the gravel is to be applied. In general, one quarter of an inch is the width for earth, and half an inch for garden-gravel ; but for gravel used in the highways, one inch is not too wide for excluding small stuff, nor two inches too narrow for admitting the stonelets to be used. 1394. Garden-sieves are of various kinds. The mould-sieve, is a piece of cloth of wire firmly attached to a circular rim, and the holes or interstices need not be above one fourth of an inch in diameter. It is used for sifting mould for small pots ; sieves are also required in gardening, for cleaning seeds ; and wooden sieves of different kinds for airing or keeping fruit. 1 395. Utensils of deportation are, the mould-scuttle, pot-carrier, basket, and packing-case. 1396. The 'mould-scuttle is a wooden box for carrying sifted earth in situations where the wheelbarrow cannot be brought into use. Sometimes it is made of iron, like the common coal-scuttle. 1397. The pot-carrier is an oblong board, with a hoop-handle in the middle : it is used for carrying pots of plants from one part of the garden to another. A wire sieve answers the same purpose ; but it is an ill application of that utensil, and besides occupies both hands, and requires stooping. 1398. Garden-baskets are of several species and varieties, used for growing, earring, measuring, or keeping vegetable productions. They are woven or worked of the spray, bark, or split woody fibre of trees, or of the young shoots of willow, hazel, and other shrubs. 1399. The plant basket is a vessel of wicker-work, and shaped like a large pot, not less than eighteen inches wide, by twenty inches deep, and is used by some nurserymen, and particularly by the Dutch, to grow large peach-trees, vines, &c. for deportation. By the means of these baskets, when new garden-walls or hot-houses are built, one, and often two years, may be saved in the fruit-trees ; the mode is at present a good deal out of use, but deserves to be revived. 1400. The planters' basket is a flat, rectangular utensil of wicker-work, or boards partitioned into three or more parts, for the purpose of carrying with the gardener when about to plant or remove plants. One division is for the plants taken up ; another for the plants to be planted; and a third, for the tools which he uses, and for any decayed parts of plants, stones, weeds, or other refuse. By using such a basket the young gardener may proceed in his operations with order, accuracy, and neatness. 1401. The mould-basket is a strong reticulated utensil of unpeeled willows or hazel, used for carrying earth, gravel, or tanners' bark. 1402. Carrying-baskets and package-baskets are workmanship. 'Such as are large, coarse, and wi boats, barges, and other local names. 1403. Measuring-baskets are chiefly in use by market-gardeners : the largest are bushels and half-bushels, formed of unpeeled or peeled willow shoots or withies ; pecks and half-pecks are formed of peeled withies ; and sieves, punnets, pottles, and thumbs, for the more rare culinary vegetables and fruits, are formed from shavings of woody fibre. 1404. The plant packing-case is of various species, according as plants in a growing state, plants in a state of rest, and with or without leaves, cuttings, bulbs, or other roots, or seeds, are to be packed. Each of these species varies also according to the distance to which it is to be sent, climate, season of the year, and mode of conveyance. In sending plants in leaf from this country to the continent, and the contrary, a close-bot- tomed box hooped over (Jig. 172.), is generally used ; . _ the cover of the upper part being either netting, or if matting very frequently removed. 1405. The glazed packing- case is the most suitable for importing plants from distant countries. One of this kind employed by Sir R. Farquhar, in send- ing plants from the Mauritius to the Horticultural Society (Jig. 173.), was made of inch boards, three feet long, four feet wide, and twenty inches deep. The sloping roof consisted of two glazed shutters 173 of various sizes, shapes, and qualities of material and thout handles are called hampers, and about London, i jv__ j /ITJ i r j ; i ' f .' i SI ED 3 v. E [x T".t (T-1 ^ bj t-'-I 284 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. (a, a, ), which opened to admit air (6), and could be covered at pleasure with two rolls of tarpawling (c, c) ; the trees were planted in wooden boxes just large enough to contain a single plant and perforated in their sides and bottom ((/), and their surface was carefully covered with moss (e), tied down with cord. SUBSECT 2. Utensils of Culture. 1406. The utensils used in grmuing plants are the pot, water-saucer, box, tub, watering- pot, and syringe. 1407. Of flower-pots there are several species and many varieties. The common flower-pot is a cylindrical tapering vessel of burnt clay, with a perforated bottom, and of which there are ten British sorts, distinguished by their sizes thus : the 1st size has 2 to the cast, and are called twos, being iid 4 fours 3d 6 sizes 4th S .. .. .. eishths , r >th 12 .. .. .. twelves 6th 16 .. .. .. sitteens In. In. din. deep. 18 i 12 I 9 8 S 7 In. In. ilia. Jeep. "th size has 24 to the cort,and are called twenty -fours, being 5 6 8th 32 thirty-twos 4 5 9th 48 .. .. .. forty-eighths 3 4 10th 60 .. .. .. sixties 2 2 llth 80 .. .. .. thumbs or eighties 1J 2 Common flower-pots are sold by the cast, and the price is generally the same for all the. 10 sorts ; two pots or a cast of No. 1, costing the same price as eight pots, or a cast of No. 11. The storc-poi is a broad flat-bottomed pot, used for striking cuttings or raising seedlings. The pot for bulbous roots is narrower and deeper than usual. The pot for aquatics should have no holes in the bottom or sides. The pot for marsh-plants should have three or four small holes in the sides about one third of the depth from its bottom. This third being filled with gravel, and the remainder with soil, the imitation of a marsh will be attended with success. The stone-ware pot may be of any of the above shapes, but being made of clay, mixed with powdered stone of a certain quality, is much more durable. The glazed pot is chiefly used for ornament ; they are generally gla-zed green, but, for superior occa- sions, are sculptured and painted, or incrusted, &c. 1408. The propagation-pot (fig. 175.) has a slit in the side, from the rim to the hole in the bottom, the use of which is to admit a shoot of a tree for propagation by ringing in the Chinese manner. Opposite to the slit is an ear, or round appendage, with a hole for hanging the pot to a branch. To those who practise the mode of rooting shoots without laying them down to the ground, such pots will prove very convenient. In 175 176 France and Italy they are formed in a similar manner, and for the same purpose, of tinned iron ; and by such means they propagate the camellia, banksia, &c. The square pot is preferred by some for the three smallest sizes, of pots, as containing more earth in a given surface of shelf or basis ; but they are more expensive at first, less convenient for shifting, and, not admitting of such perfection of form as the circle, do not, in our opinion, merit adoption. They are used in different parts of Lombardy and at Paris. The classic pot is the common material formed into vases, or particular shapes, for aloes and other plants which seldom require shifting, and which are destined to occupy particular spots in gardens or conserva- tories, or on the terraces and parapets of mansions in the summer season. The Chinese pot is generally glazed, and wide in proportion to its depth ; but some are widest below, with the saucer attached to the bottom of the pot, and the slits on the side of the pot for the exit or- absorption of the water. Some ornamental Chinese pots are square at top and bottom, and bellied out in The French pot, instead of one hole in the centre of the bottom to admit water, has several small holes about one eighth of an inch in diameter, by which worms are excluded. 140S Flower-pot gauge. (Jig. 174. ) In order to form pots of different sizes of a regular ratio to each other, Knight has suggested a plan, of which this may be considered the substance. Assume as a convenient proportion as to width at top, bottom, and height, 8, 5, and 6; lay down the vertical section of a pot of this proportion on a board or large paper ; from its centre (a) draw two lines (b and c) passing through the bottom of the sides, and equal distances measured on these lines will give equal accretions to smaller or larger sized pots. Knight considers 2 inches as forming a proper difference in diameter m the scale of sizes of pots, which is nearly double that in common use. 1410. 1 'lie flower-pot saucer is a flat circular vessel, with a rim from one to two inches high, and is made somewhat larger than tne bottoms of all the above sorts of pots. Its chief use is to prevent the water, which escapes by the bottom of the pot, from proving inconvenient on the shelves or stages in rooms or particular situations. In gardens they are seldom wanted. A species named the carnation-saucer (jig. 176.) is formed as much larger than the pot to be placed in it as to admit of surrounding its base with water, in*order to prevent creeping insects from getting at the pot. In the centre of tlie saucer is raised a basement on which to place the pot, in order to keep it dry, &c. 1411. The qualities and durability of pots and saucers depend on the sort of clay and degree of burning, in which a knowledge can only be acquired by observation and ex- perience. Pots too much burned, crack and fall in pieces ; and those which are not burnt enough, splinter or scale off with the frost and continued moisture. Porous earthenware is most congenial to the plants; but by admitting transpiration by the sides, BOOK III. IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING. 385 dries the earth within sooner. Glazed or stone-ware pots are not congenial, but retain moisture a long time. 1412. Tke plant-box (figs. 177, 178, & 179.) is a substitute for a large pot; it is of a cubical figure, and generally formed of wood, though in some cases the frame is formed of cast-iron, and the sides of slates cut to fit, and moveable at pleasure. Such boxes are chiefly used for orange-trees. The construction of those of Versailles is generally pfSL 177 178 approved. Two of the opposite sides are fixed, the other two are moveable, but kept in their places by a couple of iron bars with hinges, which are fastened on one side, and on the other are hooks to catch in (Jig. 177.), that the state of the roots may be readily ex- amined, the old earth taken out, and fresh put in at pleasure. Another material advan- tage gained in these boxes is, that the plants may be shifted by sliding them into others. 1413. The plant-tub (Jig. 180.) is a circular utensil formed by the cooper for the same purpose as the plant-box. In shifting, the box is unhooped, and when the old earth is removed it is refitted on the same or a new bottom by the cooper. v 1414. The garden watering-pot is of different species. The common watering-pot is a tinned iron or copper vessel, used for conveying water to plants. There are several varieties ; but the principal are, 1st, the common large pot, with two roses of different sizes, the one pierced with small, and the other with large holes ; 2d, the long spouted pot, for watering plants in pots, at a small distance, either with or without a rose ; and, 3d, the shelf watering-pot, which is a small cartouche-shaped pot for watering plants on shelves, or the back part of stoves, close under the glass, consequently above the eye of the gardener. 1415. The French watering-pots (Jigs. 181, 182, & 183.) are generally formed of copper, and some (fig. 183.) have zig-zag spouts, to break the force of the water when pouring it on plants without the use of the rose. 180 184 181 182 183 1416. The Italian watering-pot is formed of earthenware in shapes similar to the French. 1417. The watering-tube (fig. 184.) is a tin tube with a funnel joined to it at right angles at one end, and with or without a rose joined to it in an opposite direction at tne other. It is used for watering pines, and other potted plants in pits or beds, not easily reached, and where it is desirable not to moisten the leaves. 1418. The garden-syringe is of different species : the common is made of tinned iron, copper, or brass, generally about two feet in length, and two inches in diameter. 1419. Read's syringe (fig. 185.) is by far -the best implement of the kind. By means of a ball valve (rf), which can never go out of repair, the water is drawn in through a large opening, and forced out either through a fine rose (e], a larger rose (6), or in one spout (a), each forming a separate cap, which screws off and on. In common syringes the air above the piston proves an obstacle to the operation of the syringe, and greatly increases the labor of the operator ; but in Read's syringe there is a tube (f) by which this air escapes in the operation of drawing in water, and the space is as readily replaced with air through the same aperture in pressing the water out again. It isi PART II. 185 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. lishine how much this I^ns the power requisite either to fill tin- syringe or emnty it. A child may do with Head's engine, hat nquilW a man in the common kind. This instrument may IK- i-o.isuleml as superseding not only the cofnmon hand-syringes, l.ut even the barrow-engine, and other machines of this kind to which the same improvements are not applied. SUBSECT. 3. Utensils of Protection. 1420. Utcntils of shade, shelter, and exclusion are the cover, shade, blancher, hand-glass, and bell-glass. 1421. Plant-covers arc of different species. 1422. Thejwrtable doth ewer or shelter is of different species: it consists of a frame of wicker-work, of any size, from that of a hand-glass, to six or eight feet high, which is covered with gauze, oiled canvas, matting, and sometimes entirely with wicker-work. It is used for protecting half-hardy shrubs and plants in the winter season, and when recently transplanted. 1423. The portable paper cover or shelter is a small frame, like the skeleton of a hand-glass, covered with oil-paper, and is used for protecting cauliflower-plants, striking cuttings, &c. 1424. Shades are of three species. The place -umbrella (Jig. 186.) resembles the domestic instrument of that name ; but instead of the ordinary handle, has a pointed rod, shod with iron, for insertion in the ground. It is used for shading tender plants from the sun, or sheltering them from the rain. For both purposes it is conve- nient to have a joint in the stem, so as to incline the cover afccord- ing to the situation of the sun and the direction of the rain. They M are much used in the Paris garden, and at Monza, in Lombardy. 1425. The portable wire shade is a bottomless cage of wire or wicker work, to place over tender plants, to protect them from excess of wind, sun, and rain. They are a good deal used in the botanic gardens of the continent, for moderating the direct influence of the sun on plants of cold climates. 1426. The earthenware shade (Jigs. 187, & 188.) is in the form of a flower-pot, but with a section cut from one side to admit the air and light. This open side in the case of auriculas and Alpine plants, is placed to the north, and in the case of tender plants to the south, or other points. These utensils are exceedingly useful in transplanting tender plants, and in cultivating Alpine plants. One species (Jig. 188.) is entirely per- forated with holes, for shading ferns, mosses, and fungi. Common pots are often used for sheltering and shading newly transplanted articles with the greatest benefit. 1 427. Blanchers are any close utensil that when whelmed over a plant will exclude the light. The most common is the blanching-pot, which is used to exclude light from sea- cale and rhubarb-stalks, and some other culinary vegetables, where the green color is to to be avoided. In the Pyrenees they are used for blanching celery. 1428. The conic blanching-pot is in the form of a sugar-loaf, and is used in France for blanching lettuce and endive. (Lasteyrie.) In Valentia, asparagus is blanched stalk by stalk, by portions of reed with a knot or joint placed over each. (Ibid.) - 190 1429. The hand-glass is of various species. The leaden hand-glass is a small portable glazed case, formed by grooved strips of lead, and is either quarc or polygonal in the plan and roof. It is used for the protection of culinary and other plants, during the winter months; its first cost is less than that of any other hand-glass. TV copper hand-glass (fig. 189.) is a very light and elegant variety of hand-glass, in which the bars are formed of copper, the sides bevelled, and the top or roof sometimes projects over the latter, with glass The lead hand-glass is the cheapest, but this is by far the most elegant ; they are manufactured "I Jwden, and others, in Birmingham, and constitute one of the most elegant utensils used in gardening. rV cart-iron kand-glass (fig. 190.) consists of two parts, the sides either square or polygonal, and the top of suitable ihape. Each side is cast separate, with screws and nuts j the four sides are afterwards BOOK III. IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING. 287 1430. The wrought-iron hand-glass (Jigs. 191, & 192.) is composed of solid iron sash-bars, and may therefore be formed of any shape or height. It is particularly eligible for covering tender shrubs, fixed in the open air, as tree-poeony, some half- hardy mimosas, &c., and even geraniums and fuchsias in the south of England. 1431. The bell-glass differs from the hand-glass in being one entire piece of glass and commonly bell- shaped, semi-globular,or cylindrical. 1432. The common green glass bell (fig. 193.) is formed of bottle glass, and is com- monly used in the open garden for protect- 192 194 195 196 ing cauliflowers or other culinary plants, or for striking cuttings or retaining a moist atmosphere about seeds, &c. 1433. T/ie crystal bell or receiver, (Jigs. 194, 195, & 196.) used in gar- dening, is generally from three to eight inches in diameter, and from four inches to one foot in height ; they are employed in striking tender cuttings in the exotic departments, especially heaths. 1434. The essential utensils are the sieve, flower-pot, watering-pot, and hand-glass. SUBSECT. 4. Utensils for entrapping Vermin. 1435. JSird, beetle, and wasj> traps constitute the only genera of this tribe of the class -orth mentioning. , 197 1436. The birdtrap-cage (Jig. 197.) is a wicker utensil with a funnel, through which the bird having descended in quest of the bait placed within, cannot ascend. It is successfully employed to catch young sparrows. 1437. The earwig and beetle trap (Jig. 198.) is often only a hollow cylinder, but from this, if not taken regularly at certain seasons, the insects escape. A close box, with an inverted truncated cone of glass in the centre as a hopper, is better ; because when earwigs, beetles, wood-lice, or such insects enter, they cannot .escape, and may be drowned or scalded, or suffered to die there. The common bait is crumbs of bread. 1468. The wasp and fiy trap, is merely a bottle half full of water honied at the mouth to entice their entrance. Some assert that the plant hoya carnosa, whilst in bloom, will attract wasps and all other insects from the fruit in the house in which it grows (Maher, inHort. Trans, vol. i. 197.) ; and others that boiled carrots will have the same effect. SECT. IV. Machines. 1439. Machines are agents for abridging manual labor. All the operations of gar- dening may be performed by the simple tools, instruments, or utensils, already mentioned ; but in practice some labors would be insufferably tedious, and others inconveniently cumbersome ; and in many operations, the ordinary force of man could not be conveniently brought into action. Rollers, as opposed to the turf-beetle, are illustrative of the first case ; the German devil, and Bramah's hydrostatic press, as opposed to a number of men with ropes or levers, of the second ; and the boat-scythe, as performing the oper- ations of the pincers or common scythe, of the third case. But the machines of gar- dening are very few, and chiefly artificial contrivances for the defence of gardens or scientific machines for measurement or designation of temperature. In contriving either 198 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 200 of those simplicity ought to be attended to ; for a complicated machine is not only more eipi'iisiu', and more apt to be out of order, but there is also a greater degree of friction, according to the number of rubbing parts. SUBSECT. 1. Machines of Labor. \ 440. The more cumbrous machines of gardening are the barrow, roller, watering-engine, boat-scythe, ladder engine, and transplanter. 1441. Garden-wheelbarrows are of several species. The common garden-wheeWarroiu (Jig. 199.) is a box, open at top, placed on two levers, terminating in a wheel and axle at one end, and in two handles at the other. They are commonly made of wood, the levers of ash or elm, and the sides and bottom of any soft wood. The wheel is either wholly of cast-iron, or of wood, shod with wrought-iron. Excellent garden-wheelbarrows are now made of wrought-iron ; but wooden ones are better for new ground work. They are used for conveying dung, ,weeds, garden-soils, litter, &c. 1 442. The sejtarating barrow is, in appearance, the same as the above, but the body being kept in its place by two iron bolts at opposite angles of the bottom, may be lifted off by two men, and thus tan, dung, and other articles are readily carried into hot-houses, where the wheel and levers could not be pushed along. 1443. The new ground work barrow (jig. 200.) differs from the first in having the sides and back very low, and a front of the same height It is made much stronger, and is used chiefly for wheeling earth, clay, or gravel, in extensive ex- cavations or removals of these materials. 1444. The haulm-barrow (fig. 201.) is an open box or case of wicker or other work placed on or suspended from a pair of handles, with or without a wheel, and is useful for carrying litter, leaves, haulm, spray, prunings of hedges, &c. 1445. The flower-pot barrow is a flat surface and wheel, on which plants, pots, or leaves are placed either directly, or when small in one or more.shallow baskets. 1446. The water-barrow, instead of a box, contains a barrel, tub, or cistern, in fluid manure or mere water is conveyed to different parts of the garden. 1447. The hand-barrow is a frame of wood carried by two levers, which form four handles, and is used, in gardening, for re- moving large pots or tubs of trees in blossom or in fruit, and which wheeling might shake and otherwise injure. 1448. Watering-engines are of several species. 1 449. T/ie jntmp-syringe, or hand forcing- pump (Jig. 202.) consists of a barrel-piston and directing-tube. The water is drawn up through a perforated base ; and the ad- vantage of this engine is, that it may be placed in any common watering-pot or bucket, and thus much room and some trouble and expense saved in small gardens. 1450. The barrow watering-engine (fig- 203.) is a portable forcing-pump so ar- ranged as to throw the water forty or fifty feet distance, and either in the form of a spout or a fine shower. The cistern commonly contains from twenty to thirty gallons of water, and the frame which holds it being fitted up as a wheelbarrow, it may be wheeled round the garden, and the walks, borders, or even the compartments to the extent of forty-five feet from the walk may be watered completely. llie most desirable variety of this machine 201 BOOK III. IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING. 289 is that which is furnished with a sucking- pipe ( a), like the fire-engines, by means of which, if there are ponds or regular sup- plies by pipes or wells in a garden, the labor of cariying the water is avoided. 1 45 1 . The curved-barrel engine (jig. 204. ) has the barrel and piston-rods curved so as to form part of a circle, &c. By this construc- tion, the bore of the barrels may be formed in the lathe, and consequently made perfectly true : the piston-rods move exactly in the direction of the axis of the barrels, and there- fore operate with the least possible friction. For a portable engine this is one of the best. Both these engines would receive great ad- ditional power, by adopting the improve- ments on the syringe by Read. (1419.) 1452. The self-acting greenhouse-engine is a small vessel of cast-iron, one part of which is filled with air, highly condensed by a piston, and the other 204 with water, which, by turning the cock, is let out by a spout either as a shower or stream. The machine may be held in the hand, and the stream or shower directed against any particular plant. Instead of water, if tobacco-smoke is intro- duced, the smoke will be driven with great force to a consider- able distance. This machine will throw the water from thirty to fifty feet, but its chief use is in green-houses, for the pur- poses of fumigation, as a plant on the upper part of a stage may thus be fumigated without touching it, or the operator being nearer it than the path. On the whole, it is more an instrument for the amateur than the practical gardener. 1 453. The carriage water-barrel is used for watering lawns the first season after their formation, when the weather is dry ; or for watering borders or other cultivated surfaces near a 1 broad wall. In the former case, the water is delivered by horizontal tube six or eight feet long, perforated at the lower angle so as to produce a series of horizontal jets ; in the latter, a long leathern tube, ter- minating in a rose, is made use of. The barrel in the first case is drawn slowly along by a horse, in the latter it is nearly stationary, and a man waters on each side as far as may be deemed advisable, or as the leathern tube admits. 1454. The roller water-engine (Jig. 205.) consists of a horse, frame, and wheels, on which is placed a water-barrel, and under it an iron roller. It is an excellent machine for lawns and roads, as they may be watered and rolled by the same operation. The person who directs the water, irrigating the space to be rolled, not that which has undergone the operation. 205 1455. The garden-roller is formed either of wood, stone, or cast-iron. The first requires to be loaded ; the second, from the smallness of its diameter, is heavy to draw ; and there- fore the third, which may be formed of any diameter, weight, or breadth, is generally pre- ferred for garden-walks. The cylinder need not be above four feet wide, which will cover most walks at two or three breadths. For extensive lawns the horse-roller will be preferred. U SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 1 456 Garden-laddrrs are of three species. ' The connm.ii wall-tree ladder Afters fromtliose used in other arts in having two nitres of ten or twelve ind.es in length, projecting at right angles from the upper end, the DM of which is to avoid injuring the trees, by keeping the top of the ladder at a small dw- t nice from the wall, and thus admit of the operation of nailing, as well there as elsewhere. 1458 The orcfiard-tiidtler consists of a frame on low wheels, as a basis for several lad- dors which (it into each other, and are capable of being hoisted up by machinery so as a person near the extremity of the ladder may have access to any part of a tree with con- venience, 'cither to prune it or gather the fruit. 1 459, The thr,\--styf,'d, forked, and double ladders (Jig. 206. a, b, c) are also well adaptec for the ordinary purposes of gathering fruit or pruning. 206 1460. The rule-joint ladder (Jig- 207.) is used for working on curvilinear roofs either of glass, or domes of lead, stone, &c. which require panes renewed or trees nailed. Each step or foot-board, has what is called a stop, to prevent the feet from breaking the glass, and at every joint is a moveable foot to project in the case of training trees on such surfaces, in order that their leaves, &c. may not be injured. Such ladders are particularly useful for repairing curvilinear hot-house roofs. 207 208 1461. The stejy-ladder (Jig. 208.), instead of round rods on which to place the feet, has steps or boards, an improvement essentially necessary, where much work is to be done, icause less fatiguing to the feet. Such ladders have a back or fulcrum by which they stand independently of any other object, and which is removeable at pleasure by drawing BOOK III. IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING. 2-91 210 1 462. The platform is of two species. 1 463. The portable platform combines a step-ladder and platform, which in part comes to pieces, and in part folds together, so as readily to be carried from place to place, and to occupy little room in a tool-house. 1464. The wheel-platform (Jig. 209.) is a flat surface of boards generally five or six feet square, elevated by a frame with wheels ; it can thus be moved along lawns or walks, and is used chiefly in clipping lofty hedges. A variety of this, used in some places, has folding steps or boards on two sides, supported by brackets, by which three men at different heights, and one on the ground, can proceed with dressing the whole side of a hedge at once. Such a machine is used in shearing the magnificent hornbeam hedges in the imperial gardens at Schcenbrunn, and those of spruce fir at Petrowsky, near Moscow. 1465. The boat-scythe, for mowing weeds in ponds, is a machine invented by General Betancourt, now of Petersburgh, consisting of a boat with a system of wheels and pinions placed in the head, which give motion to a vertical shaft, containing on its lower end (which passes through the bottom of the boat into the water) three scythes ; two men communicate motion to the machinery, and one man rows the boat ; the upright shafts on which the scythes are placed, can be raised or lowered according to the depth of the weeds, &c. This machine has been improved by General Betancourt, but is capable of being further simplified. 1 466. The garden sharjring-engine is of several sorts. 1467. The grindstone, as well as whetstone, scythestone, hone for penknives, (the last used in making cuttings of heath and such like plants,) are necessary in every garden. Blunt spades, hoes, or knives should never be used, as they cannot operate properly in the hands of the most expert gardener. 1468. Tree-transplanting machines of two or more species have been invented. The pole and wheels (Jig- 210.) is for general pur- poses the best of any of them. It consists of a long beam or pole, attached to an axle and wheels. The tree being prepared for removal, and the pole placed in a vertical position against it, the stem or trunk is attached to it by ropes ; thus attached, they are brought into a horizontal position, by men or horses, with the ball of earth attached to the tree. Horses may then be yoked to the axle at the oppo- site end of the pole, or root end of the tree, with or without the aid of another axle, and the tree drawn to any distance and planted. In favorable climates, and when a little extra expence is no object, astonishing effects may be produced by removing large trees; and no machine is better adapted for aiding in the labor than this simple union of the pole and cart-axle. 1469. The German devil is a frame of timber, with a cylinder moved by a combination of wheels, and a winch, as in raising clay or earth from pits or mines by manual labor. But instead of the bucket of clay, three hooks are attached to the end of the lifting rope, and these are fastened to the roots. (See Hunter s Evelyns Sylva.} 1 470. The hydrostatic jrress ( Jig. 2 1 1 . ) may 2 1 1 be applied to the same purpose as the Ger- man devil, with incomparably greater effect. The only difficulty is in finding a proper and convenient fulcrum ; that done, this engine will root out the largest trees. It is suc- cessfully employed by engineers in drawing piles, gate-posts, raising stones, &c. (See Nicholsons Arch. Diet. art. Hydrostatic Press.} 1471. The garden-seed sejmraler is a small portable threshing machine, on Meikle's prin- ciple, but fed, in Lee's manner, from a hopper, and with a winnowing machine either under or connected with it. (jig. 283.) 1472. The essential machines of garden-labor may be considered the wheelbarrow, roller, and hand forcing-pump. U 2 292 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 212 SUBSECT. 2. Machines for Vermin, and Defence against the Enemies of Gardens. 1473. Of engines for entrapping or destroying vermin, and for the defence of gardens, there are but a few. All of them, with their modes of operating, are referable to commonly un- derstood mechanical and chemical principles, and to certain instincts and propensities of animated beings, which it is unnecessary to detail. 1474. Engine-traps for man are of two species, the common and the humane. 1 475. The common man-trap is a rat-trap on a large scale, differing from it only in the mode of setting ; the former being baited and left loose, and the latter not being baited, but fixed to the ground by a chain. This is a barbarous contrivance, though rendered absolutely necessary in the exposed gardens around great towns. Its defect is, that its severity defeats its own purpose ; for though kept and exposed to view in many places in the day-time, yet few venture to set them at night, and hence intruders, calculating on this humanity, enter and commit their depredations in spite of these machines. 1476. The humane man-trap, instead of breaking the leg by crushing, and consequently by the worst of all descriptions of compound fractures, simply breaks the leg, and therefore is comparatively entitled to the appellation of humane. It is not unfrequently set in market- gardens near the metropolis. 1477. Engine-traps for quadrupeds are chiefly the mouse, rat, and mole traps. 1478. The garden mouse-trap is generally composed of a slate and a brick, supported by a combination of three slips of wood, forming the figure 4, and baited by a pea or bean. A few cats domiciled in the back sheds of hot-houses, will generally keep a walled garden clear of this enemy ; but the above trap is good for open grounds. 1 47 9. The garden rat-trap (fig. 212.) should generally be a box, or enticing engine, of some sort, rather than a toothed iron trap ; because unless there is a great scarcity of food, which is seldom the case as to the field rat, it will not be allured by the bait of the former ; whereas a trap may be so disguised by straw, or moss, or leaves, and so scented by oil of anise, as to be resorted to or at least not recog- nised by the rats till they are taken. 1480. The mole-trap (Jigs. 213, & 214.) is of various forms, and either made of wood or iron, or of both mate- rials. There are several varieties to be obtained in the shops ; none of which appear superior to the original bow-trap, which any laborer may form for himself. Moles may be effectually destroyed by taking their nests in spring. 1481. Engines of destruction are the spring-gun, musket, and fumigating bellows : the musket is essentially necessary, both as a destroyer, and scare of birds. 1482. The fumigating bellows (Jig. 215.) differs from the common domestic bellows in having a receptacle (a) for leaves of damaged foreign or of home-grown tobacco, which being ignited, and the blast sent through it, a powerful issue of smoke is produced by the rose (6), which can either be directed against insects on particular plants, or used to fill the atmosphere of a hand-glass, frame, or hot- house. 1483. Engines of alarm, or scares, are the bell or gong alarm for man ; and the rattle-engine driven by hand, or a small wind-engine for herds. 1484. The concealed alarm is a system of wires spread over a gar- den or orchard, like those of the spring-gun, and terminating in a bell or gong alarm, which goes off when any of the wires are dis- turbed. This alarm may be in or near to the gardener's room, watch- tower, or other suitable place, though at a considerable distance from the wires. This is, perhaps, on the whole, the best way of detecting intruders. In addition to setting off an alarm, the same wire may let loose a watch-dog, drop a heavy body, or a fulminating glass bead, discharge a gun, &c. 1485. Of living vermin-killers, the ferret is useful for catching rabbits, squirrels, and ground rats ; the cat for mice, rats, and birds; the terrier for eradicating foxes ; and ducks and gulls eat snails, worms, frogs, &c. 1486. The essential vermin- engines are the mole and mouse traps, fumigating bellows, and musket. 213 214 215 BOOK III. METEOROLOGICAL MACHINES. 293 SUBSECT. 3. Meteorological Machines. 1487. The garden-indicators of weather differ from those in common use only in two instances, that of the registering thermometer and regu- lating thermometer. The barometer, hygrometer, rain-gauge, and vane or Eolian index, may all be usefully employed in gardening, (1278.) and should be fitted up in and about the gardener's office. The rain- gauge and vane may be placed on the roof of his office, and should communicate with the interior by means of tubes and machinery, the detail of which is perfectly known to opticians, and such as fit up ap- paratus of this kind. 1488. Six's registering thermometer (Jig. 216.) is so contrived as to indicate the extreme points to which it falls or rises in the course of the day or night, and is, therefore, particularly useful as a check upon the working gardeners, who have to attend to the fires, or steam, &c. of hot-houses in the winter time. In the open air it is also a very useful instrument, by pointing out the extremes of temperature. Encyc. art. Thermometer.) 21 6 N #/ fo so in eo ?o i VriniliniiildTrriiTTniiTiTlrrTfr.TiTTrTTTTiTiirr- ' 91 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART 11. 1489. Kewley's alarum-thermometer (Jig. 219.) consists of a glass tube (a, a), about ten inches in length, hermetically sealed atone end, and united at the other to a capillary tube (6, 6), with an intervening and also a terminating ball (c and ), the fire or steam-damper (96 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. window, to go either up or down, in order to admit air. The rafters being made move- able, by being fixed with hooks to stretchers at top and bottom, tlie whole could easily be removed or replaced at pleasure. Thus a frame might be made of ten, fifteen, twenty, or more feet in length, to answer for one or more trees, as may be required ; and if the whole be packed and laid up in a dry loft, garret, or shed, each season after using, it may last for many years." (Nicol.) 1497. The canvass curtain is so arranged by means of pulleys and weights, as to be drawn up over a wall of a hundred feet in length in a few seconds, and let down and spread out to dry in a short time. It is kept at a distance from the trees by cords stretched from the coping to the ground in a sloping direction : a fine example of this occurs at Dalmeney Park garden, near Edinburgh, erected under the inspection of J. Hay of Edinburgh, a meritorious designer of kitchen-gardens. " If screens be made in sheets," Nicol observes, " they are best to hoist up and lower with pulleys and cords (which pulleys may be fixed to the coping, as above mentioned, or to a beam or stretcher fixed at the top of the wall), they should be suspended over small rafters or spars, of an inch and a half to two inches square, according to their lengths, placed so closely as to pre- vent the canvass from dashing against the trees, as above hinted. Sheets of this kind may be of any convenient size, and made to cover one or more trees, as may be required. I have had one sheet 200 feet in length, which I could join or unjoin at two or three different places, and could unclew and hoist, or lower and clew up, in fifteen or twenty minutes. I first contrived it to clew at the top of the wall, but afterwards found it safer to do it at bottom, as a gust of wind had once nearly torn it away altogether. In the clew it was hung by loops to the bottom part of the upright spars (which were placed at four feet asunder), so as to be a few inches clear of the ground. These rafters were fastened with hooks and eyes to the coping at top ; and at bottom to stakes drove fast into the earth, eighteen inches clear of the wall." (Kalendar.} 1498. The oiled-paper frame consists of a light frame of timber, with cross bars mor- tised into the sides, and intersected by packthread, forming meshes about nine inches square. Common printing-paper is then pasted on, and, when quite dry, painted over with boiled linseed-oil. These frames are then fitted to the wall, or subject of protection, according to circumstances. 1499. The garden-hurdle is of different species. Wire hurdles are used as inconspicuous fences, and sometimes for training plants or young hedges. Wattled hurdles, or such as are woven with shoots or spray, for shelter and shade. Straw and reed hurdles are used for shelter, for shade, and for covering frames and other plant-habit- ations, or for forming temporary cases around plants to exclude cold. 1500. Moveable edgings to borders, beds, or patches of flowers, are of different species. 1 50 1 . The basket-edging (Jig. 219.) is a rim or fret of iron- gjg 220 wire, and sometimes of laths ; formed, when small, in entire pieces, and when large, in seg- ments. Its use is to enclose dug spots on lawns, so that when the ^-rAr( flowers and shrubs cover the V W surface, they appear to grow from, or give some allusion to, a basket. These articles are also formed in cast-iron, and used as edgings to beds and plots, in plant-stoves and conservatories. 1502. The earthenware border (Jig. 220.) is composed of long narrow plates of com- mon tile-clay, with the upper edge cut into such shapes as may be deemed ornamental. They form neat and permanent edgings to parterres ; and are used more especially in Holland, as casings, or borderings to beds of florists' flowers. 1503. Edgings of various sorts are formed of wire, basket-willows, laths, boards, plate- iron, and cast-iron ; the last is much the best material. 1504. Protecting bags, for guarding ripening fruits from insects, are formed of gauze, oiled-paper, or muslin-paper ; gauze is preferable, as it admits the air. They are used with advantage, in the case of grapes and stone-fruit, on walls in the open air, and in some cases are required even in hot-houses. 1505. The shoe-scraper is a plate of iron, fixed vertically, either in a portable or fixed frame ; and to render it complete, should always have a rigid brush and dust-box at- tached, both of which may be taken out and cleaned ; their use in gardening is consi- derable, portable ones being placed at the entrances to every description of garden- building, and fixed ones at the exits from compartments to the main walks. They ought to abound, and their use be effectually insisted on wherever clean and pure gravel or turf- walks are desired objects. 1506. Garden or bass mats y are sh6ets of cloth, woven or matted from the bast (Russ.) BOOK III. ARTICLES OF MANUFACTURE. 297 or inner bark of trees, and generally of the lime. They are manufactured in the inland parts of Russia and Sweden, and even in some parts of Monmouthshire, of different sizes. They are used in gardening for a great variety of purposes ; for protecting wall-trees, by being hung before them, and removed in mild weather ; for protecting espaliers and standards, by being thrown over them ; for protecting more delicate shrubs, by being thrown over an envelope of hay or straw, in which way most American trees and standard- roses are protected in the neighbourhood of Petersburg!! ; for protecting tender 'plants coining through the ground, by being spread on its surface, and such as are of a larger size, by being supported on hooped framing. They are used to cover hot-beds, hot-houses, hand-glasses, and every sort of glass case ; to shelter plants from wind, shade them from the sun, &c. 1507. Prepared coverings are double mats with a layer of hay or straw within, like mattresses ; they are used for covering hot-beds in mid-winter, but are readily rendered injurious by heavy rains. A mode which would produce the same effect, is to use three thicknesses of mats, keeping them apart by small frames of lath or hollow rollers ; the object being to preserve vacuities or strata of air between the glass and first mat, between the first and second mat, and between the second and third mat, which, if attended to, would resist any external cold whatever without cumbrous loads of hay, straw, &c. (See Dr. Wells on Dew, and Remarks on Hot-houses, &c.) 1508. Straw coverings are formed of straight long wheat or rye straw, tied in handfuls in the middle, so as each handful may be nearly of the length of two straws, and the hand- fuls are connected together by packthread. They are thus formed into rolls, and were for- merly much used, especially in the culture of early salading, and in covering glass cases. Melons were formerly protected by nothing more than loose wheat-straw, and this mode by rolls seems merely a more economical and neat mode of practice. Loose wheat-straw is used by the market-gardeners, to protect early crops of radishes and other saladings. 1509. Reed coverings are formed exactly like those of straw, and are used chiefly for protecting glass, or forming protecting cones round tender shrubs, or bee-hives of the common kind. SUBSECT. 2. Articles of Manufacture. 1510. The manufactured articles used in gardening are chiefly canvass, gauze, netting, mats, and nails. 1511. Canvass, either plain, oiled, tanned, or painted, is used for protecting the blossoms of wall-trees ; excluding cold from plants or plant-structures, shading or sheltering plants, and for keeping off rain. 1512. Coarse gauze and netting, such as is used by fishers and bird-catchers, may be prepared similarly to canvass, and used for the same purposes as that article, excepting excluding rain. Oiling or tanning is best adapted for gauze ; as painting or tarring destroys its property of transmitting light. 1513. A netting of straw ropes has been found efficacious in protecting trees from frost, either thrown over an entire standard-tree, or hung before fruit- walls. They are used at Dalkeith gardens, near Edin- burgh, and were formerly much resorted to in the Netherlands. 1514. Wall-tree nails are of several sorts, but the principal are, the small cast-iron nail, in most common use with lists ; the flat-headed wrought-iron nail, used either with lists, loops of cord, or mat ; and the eyed cast-iron nail (^g.,221.), used with small pieces of spray, dried willow-twigs, or mat-ties, as in trellis-training. Its chief advantage is the not being so liable to lodge the larvae of insects as the nails which are used with lists ; and being once driven, they never require removal, or occasion the injury of the wall, as the branches may be loosened, or altered, by merely taking out the slips of spray, or cutting the mat-ties. (Caled. Mem. vol. iii.) 1515. Wall-tree lists are marginal ends or shreds of broad cloth cut into lengths of from two and a half to four inches, and from one half to one inch in breadth, according to the size of the shoots, &c. Their grand disadvantage is the harboring of insects, for which some have substituted shreds of leather with ad- vantage, and others recommend steeping the shreds in a mixture of sulphur and soap- suds, or better in that of corrosive sublimate, recommended for preserving specimens of plants. (581.) The colors of black, scaflet, and reddis'h-brown are the best for lists, as contrasting well with vegetation. SUBSECT. 3. Articles of Preparation. 1516. The prepared materials used in gardening are numerous : we shall merely enu- merate props, ties, covering materials, gravel, sand, cinders, lime and straw. 1517. Props for plants are of two kinds, rods or poles, and spray. Rods vary from six inches to six feet or upwards in length, tapering to a point, and thick in proportion. For small plants in pots, and for delicate bulbous roots, as hyacinths, small splinters of lath, dressed with a Knife or small plane, are the best ; and for hyacinths and florists' flowers in general, they should be painted green ; for botanical plants, however, this may, in some cases, appear too formal For hardy plants and climbing shrubs, young shoots or poles of hazel or ash from copse- woods are the most suitable j they should 298 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. in general, bp straight and tapering to a point, and as delicate as the weight of the plant, and the exposure of the situation will admit. The side shoots of these props should, in most cases, be cut off; but in others, as in propping the dahlia, it is desirable to have some lateral studs, from three to eight inches long, near the top, so as to spread out the head. In lieu of this, several props are sometimes used, placed in form of an inverted pyramid, or cone, or of a regular prism. One prop, however, judiciously managed, will gene- rally be found sufficient. In no case should the bark be removed, because its natural tint is less glaring, and therefore preferable to that of peeled wood, and also because it preserves better the texture of the wood. In order that they may last several years, they should be cut in mid-winter, and the thick end pointed and charred by burning, or dipped in boiling pitch. The elegant propping of plants deserves the particular attention of the young gardener, as it is frequently done in so slovenly a manner as greatly to detract from the order and neatness which ought to reign m most descriptions of gardens. In pleasure- grounds or picturesque scenes, trees and shrubs should, in general, prop themselves, or each other ; but in flower and botanic-gardens, flower-borders, green-houses, &c. the greatest degree of art and high- hat re- too apt -, -, -, . - keeping, and a sort of drilled polish, easier felt than described, ought always to prevail. In all that re- spects this part of gardening, the French and Germans greatly excel the English, who are herein t to look at the end, without regarding the means. 1518. Spray or branches are used as props for plants furnished with tendrils, as the common pea, and ', such as that of the beech, hazel, ic resinous tribe, and especially of the spruce and silver firs, is valuable, as producing wa'rmth a'nd "shelter, by its numerous chaffy leaves, ised as props for plants furnished , _, many of the leguminous tribe. Spreading frond-like, and yet thin spray, such as that of the beech, hazel, or Scotch elm, is generally preferable ; but for early crops the spray of the vhich are non-conductors. 1519. Ties are various; the most general are the ligular threads of bass matts; for espaliers some use withs, or tarred cords or threads : on the continent, rushes (Juncus ejfusus) cut green and dried in the sun are used ; and often wheat-straw. When mat, bark, rush, willow or other spray or shoots, or straw are used, they should be previously soaked a short time in water. 1520. Covering materials are straw, reeds, haulm of any sort, spray, &c. They may either be used loose, which when the weather is dry and calm, is the most effectual way of excluding cold ; or drawn, that is, with the stalks or spray arranged in parallel lines in the manner of thatch, by which means the rain runs off, and then they exclude cold both in dry and wet weather. Sometimes straw and reeds are so prepared in frames, or rails suited to the size of beds in the manner of the reed, or spray, or wattled hurdle. (1499.) Sometimes they are covered with mats; but as the latter readily admit rain, this mode is much inferior to that of arranging the straw or reeds in the manner of thatch. 1521. Hoards and planks are used in gardening, for wheeling up declivities, over steps and hollows, across borders, walks, &c. The notched or bridge-plank is used to protect edgings, serving as a bridge across them. Tressels are used for raising planks in ex- tensive operations on the soil, in forming pieces of water, new gardens, or garden-scenery. 1522. Various prepared articles might be mentioned as of frequent or occasional use. Scoria from a forge is used for forming a platform impervious to worms, on which to place pots of plants. Soaper's ashes or waste is used for the same purpose. The use of gravel and sand is very general ; fine sand, uncontaminated with ferruginous matter, is parti- cularly useful in propagating heaths and other delicate plants by cuttings. Oyster- shells are used as crocs or sherds for covering the bottom holes of pots. Quick-lime in powder or infusions to destroy vermin, especially worms. Tobacco and other prepared matters are also used for the same purpose. Moss is used in packing and for other objects. Tanner's bark for its heat and fermentation. CHAP. II. Structures used in Gardening. 1523. By garden-structures we mean to designate a class of buildings which differ from all other architectural productions, in being applied to the culture, or used exclu- sively as the habitations of plants. As edifices, the principles of their construction belong to architecture ; but as habitations for plants, their form, dimensions, exposition, and, in many respects the materials of which they are composed, are, or ought to be, guided by the principles of culture, and therefore under the control of the gardener. They may be arranged into the moveable, as the hot-bed frame ; fired, as the wall, trellis, &c. ; and permanent, as the hot-house. SECT. I. Temporary or Moveable Structures. 1524. Of these, some are for protecting plants in fixed places, as against walls or trel- lises, and exemplified in the different methods of covering by frames of canvass, netting, or glass ; others constitute habitations for plants, as the hot-bed frame, pit, &c. SUBSECT. 1, Structures Portable, or entirely Moveable. 1 525. Portable structures are the flower-stage, canvass or gauze frame or case, glass frame or case, glass tent, and glazed frame. 1526. Of the jlower-stage there are two principal species ; the stage for florists' flowers and the stage for decoration. 1 527. The stage for florists' flowers, when portable, is commonly a series of narrow shelves rising in gradation one above the other, and supported by a frame and posts, so as to be 3 or 3J feet from the ground at the lowest shelf. These shelves are enclosed, generally, BOOK III. PORTABLE STRUCTURES. 299 on three sides by boards or canvass, and on the fourth side by glass doors. This stage, when in use, is placed so as the glazed side may front the morning sun, or the north, so as the colors of auriculas, carnations, &c. may not be impaired by him. (See FLORICULTURE, Part III. Book II. Ch. VIII.) 1 528. The decorative stage consists of shelves rising in gra- dation, in various forms, according to taste, and particular situation. Those to be viewed on all sides are commonly co- nical (fig. 222.) or pyramidal ; those to be seen only on one side triangular. They are constructed either of boards or iron work, and placed in parterres, open courts, and large chambers. 1529. The opaque covering-frames are borders of board, strengthened by cross or diagonal slips of wood or rods of iron, and covered with canvass, gauze, woollen, or common net- ting, or soiled paper. They are used for protecting plants from cold, or for sheltering from wind, or shading, either singly, supported by props, or connected so as to form roofs, cases, or enclosures. 1530. The transparent covering, or glazed frame or sash, consists of a boundary frame com- posed of two side pieces called styles, and two end pieces called the top and bottom rails, with the interspace divided by rabbeted bars to contain the glass. It is used as the opaque covering frames, and has the advantage of them in admitting abundance of light. In general the rabbeted bars are inserted in one plane, as in common hot-bed sashes ; but in some cases the surface is in angular ridges, or ridge and furrow-work (fig. 223.), cuneform (Jig. 224.), or trigonal (Jig. 225.), in order, in each of these cases, to admit 223 224 225 more of the rays of the sun in the morning and afternoon, and to moderate it in the middle hours of the day. Such frames are used for placing over beds of hot dung, for growing cucumbers, forcing roots or flowers, and for a great variety of purposes. The materials of sashes is commonly timber, but iron, cast and wrought, and copper, are also used. 1531. The common glass case is a glazed wooden frame or frames, so contrived as to fit together, and cover either single trees, espaliers, or shrubs too large for the hand-glass. The flavor of plums and cherries on espa- 226 liers in bad seasons is much improved by the use of this structure. In France it is chiefly used for peaches. For orange-trees, it con- sists of a number of frames, chiefly parallelo- grams, but partly right-angled triangles (Jig. 226-), easily put together and taken asunder, to be used in the summer months in growing melons, or covering walls or espalier rails ; and in winter in protecting orange-trees in situations where they are planted in rows against walls, or in groves in the open air. 1532. The hot-bed frame is of three species, the common, fixed-bottomed, and move- able-bottomed. 1533. The common hot-bed frame is a rectangular box of wood, bottomless and highest at the side to be placed to the north, subdivided by cross bars dove-tailed into the outer frame, and each subdivision covered by a glazed sash. Knight, instead of having the north side of the frame highest, has all the four sides of equal height, but forms the base ment of the dung-bed, and builds the dung-bed itself of that slope which he thinks most suitable for the sashes of hot-beds. 1534. The fixed-bottomed frame is the common hot-bed frame, with a boarded bottom for the retention of earth. In the boards are holes for the emission of water. 1535. The adjusting-bottomed frame has a box for the earth, of the size of the inside di- mensions of the frame, and the frame being deep or placed on walls, like those of a pit, the bottom and its earth and plants, or its pots and plants, may be raised or lowered by a 300 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. power composed of a pinion and screw, or any other equally convenient power. The bottom is composed of perforated boards, and has boarded sides to keep in the earth. The object is to prevent plants from being burned when the dung is very hot, by raising them ; to raise them close to the glass when young, and to lower them in cold nights. The chief difficulty it managing it is, to keep the earth of uniform moisture. Lawrence, in the last edition of his Kalendar (1715), suggests the idea of putting a bottom of wire to the frames of hot-beds, and of covering it with flat tiles, and over these the earth, &c. so as to admit of the whole being lifted, and the dung below stirred or renewed at pleasure. He says he has not seen it done, but merely suggests it as a hint to the ingenious. A century af- terwards, J. Weeks, of the Horticultural Manufactory, King's Road, London, invented his patent forcing-frame, which is that just described. 1536. Separating frames. The component parts of any of the above frames, instead of being mortised into one another, are fastened by keyed iron bolts, which easily admit of their being taken asunder and put under cover, when not wanted for use ; these frames may, consequently, be preserved longer from decay, and are also more portable than the common sort. 1537. Mallet's frame (Jig. 227.) is the invention of ^^g^>^ 227 a French horticulturist of that name, and the ad- vantages it possesses are, 1. The admission of more light and solar heat from the elevated angle of the curvilinear roof; and, 2. The direct admission of the sun's rays when air is given. Professor Thouin (Cours d' Agriculture, &c. art. Chassis) says that they have not been much used, owing to the cost of their first con- struction. 1538. The essential portable structures are the common hot-bed frame with flat sashes ; and next in order, the can- vass curtain or netting screen. SUBSECT. 2. Structures partly Moveable. 1539. Plant-structures partly moveable are pits and adapted frames : the characteristic of the pit is, that it is surrounded by a wall of earth or masonry, enclosing a pit or bed for containing dung or bark. The characteristic of the adapted frame is, as the name im- ports, a hot-bed frame adapted to some structure of timber, masonry, or iron. 1540. Of the pit. The species are the earth, walled, flued, vaulted, and pillar-pit. 1541. The earth or primitive jrit is in part sunk in the earth, and in part raised above it by walls of loam or turf. On these walls, glass frames are sometimes placed, and at other times only mats or canvass frames. Such pits are used by nurserymen and market-gar- deners, and answer perfectly for the preservation of half-hardy plants. 1542. The walled pit is also partly sunk in the ground, and in part raised above it; but instead of earth or turf walls, they are formed of brick or stone, finished with a wooden coping the width of the Wall, in which cross rafters are mortised to support the sashes. For ordinary purposes, such as growing melons or young pines, or half-hardy plants, such pits need not be above five feet deep, and if only one sash between each rafter is to be used, they should not be above six or eight feet wide. Where double sashes, one lapping over the other are to be used, the width of the pit may be from eight to twelve feet. Artificial heat is supplied to such pits entirely from the' bed of tan or leaves. 1543. The fined pit (Jig. 228.) is the same as the last described, with the addi- tion of a flue, which either makes the circuit of the pit, or runs along and re- turns by its back wall. This is the most generally useful description of this class of buildings, as, whenever the heat of the bark or other fermentable matter subsides, or whenever the air in the pit is too moist, and in danger of generating damps, a fire can be lighted which will remove both evils. 1544. Scott' s fined pit and Knight 1 spit are both excellent varieties of this species, and will be described in treating of the pine and melon, for which they are particularly adapted. 1545. Suck's fined pit (fig. 229.\ by the interior position of the flues, saves some- thing in the length of the sashes, at the expense, however, of a greater first cost for the flues, and the obvious loss of a portion of the fire-heat ever afterwards. It is fully described in Hort. Trans, iv. 535. 1546. The vaulted pit, in its simplest form, is the walled pit, with an arch thrown from the front to the back wall. Under the arch the fire is made, or steam admitted ; or in some 228 BOOK III. MOVEABLE STRUCTURES. 301 cases fermenting litter thrown 329 in. A great improvement on this species of pit has been made by J. West, of Castle Ash- by, Northamptonshire. The principle of the improvement is the facilitating the passage of the heat from the vault to the bed of earth over it by sub- stituting a thin floor of boards or slates, or wattled hurdle, for brick-work ; the walls are also flued, and the heat supplied is that of fermenting dung, litter, weeds, &c. On the whole it seems an excellent improvement. Nine years' expe- rience enable its inventor to recommend it for neatness of appearance, the power of regulating the heat to the greatest nicety, and for forcing asparagus, strawberries, and the most delicate kind of cucumbers. By raising the walls of the pit higher above the earth, it is evident it would answer equally well for growing pines, or forcing shrubs, or any other purpose to which pits are applied. 1547. In West's pit the dttng is placed in a chamber (e) three feet and a half deep, being about eighteen inches below the surface-line ; the walls (g) which surround it are nine-inch brick-work ; both on the front and at the back of the chamber are two openings (), about two feet six inches square each, with moveable doors through which the dung is introduced ; the doors fit at bottom into grooves (6), and are fastened by a wooden pin and staple at top. - In front of the doors, is a small area (o) sunk in the ground, surrounded by a curb of wood, by which the introduction or removal of the dung is facilitated. Along the centre of the chamber is a bar (d), which serves as a guide for packing the dung ; and across the top, at intervals of twelve inches, are placed, on their edges, cast-iron bars (/*), two inches wide, and three quarters of an inch thick, to support a layer of small wood, bushes, and leaves (i), over which is laid the soil for the plants (/t). Just below the level of the bars all round the dung-chamber, are holes (/), passing in a sloping direction through part of the wall into a cavity (g) in the upper part of the wall at the back front and both ends of the pit. In the exterior part of the back wall are holes with plugs (/), to let out the steam and heat at discretion. 230 At the commencement of forcing, half the chamber is filled longitudinally with dung, and if the doors are kept shut, this will afford sufficient heat from twelve to eighteen days. As 231 the heat declines the other half of the cham- ber is filled, and the temperature is kept up by additions to the top of the dung, on either or both sides, as it settles. When the united heat of the two sides ceases to be sufficient, the side first filled must be cleared out, and mixed with fresh dung and replaced, and so on, adding and turning as circumstances require. (Hort. Trans. iv. 220.) 1548. As an improvement on the construction 302 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. of this pit, we would suggest the perforation of the whole of the side walls (Jig- 231. ) in order to admit the steam more readily than it can find admittance by a single range of openings adopted by West. Where pits on West's plan are already built, a substitute for this preparation in the side walls may be found in the application of a wattled hurdle against them (Jig. 231. 6), as has been adopted in the Cointe de Vande's garden at Bayswater. On wet soils a hollow bottom is an obvious improvement. 1549. The pillar-pit, or Alderstone pit (Jig. 232.), is constructed with cast-iron pillars of 232 three feet in height (a, a), which being joined by plates of that metal, form a support to the wall on which the sashes rest. Above ground, this wall (b, b, b, 6), of four or nine inches in thickness, is built on the iron plates, and carried the usual height of a cucumber-frame. On this, a coping, or plate, either of wood or iron, is placed, to which is fixed cross rafters either of wood or iron (c, c, c, c), to hold the sashes (d, d). Around the pit is a trench (e, e) of the same depth as the cast-iron pillars, and its exterior sides supported by a brick wall. The centre of the bed, under the sashes, is filled with dung or bark in the usual manner, and the surrounding trench is destined for linings, which being protected by the wall, and covered by boards (f, f,f,f), supported on cross pieces of iron, retain their heat longer, and are less influenced by changes in the atmosphere. The chief advantage alleged in favor of this frame, is the greater durability of the brick walls, than of frames of wood, and its more elegant appearance in a garden. 1550. Of adapted frames there are M'Phail's, or the frame with dung-flues, the pit with rising frame, and the frame with props. 1551. M'PhaiTs frame (Jig. 233.) consists of two parts, the frame (a, a) and lights (6), which are of wood, and not different from those used for growing cucumbers, and the basement (c, d} on which the frame is placed, which is flues of brick- work, with the outer wall uniformly perforated. Against these perforated flues, linings of dung are formed, the steam of which enters the flue and heats the earth (e, e,e] in the centre of each light. The chief objections to this plan are the first cost, and the greater consumption of dung, which some allege is required to keep up the proper heat. Its advantages are, that hot dung may be used without any preparation, by which much heat is gained ; and in the winter months, when a powerful artificial heat is required, and (in the case of common hot-beds) is apt to burn the plants, they are here in the coldest part of the soil, and cannot possibly be injured by any degree of heat which can be communicated by dung. 233 6 a 1552. The pit with rising frame (Jig. 234.) contains a basement-wall of brick-work of the height of the dung or bark (a, a), and in this is a perpendicular vacuity (b, b} in which a common frame (c, c) is placed, and by a spindle, pinion, &c. (rf) may be raised or lowered at pleasure. Its object is the same as that of Weeks's frame already described, and which it attains with less risk to the plants, but at a great comparative expense. This variety of pit is the invention of John Nairn, (Hort. Trans, vol. iii.) who has had it executed, and heated by surrounding tubes ( 13 ft. wide. t placed at each side of a large orangery - J 16 ft. high. eft ughT BOOK III. PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN IN HOT-HOUSES. 311 Messrs. Sweets and Miller - Bristol - - 1 Thomas Fox, Esq. - Beaminster, Dorsetshire 1 j" Green-house. T 40ft. long. ; Gothic span roof, with folding doors at (he J. 15 ft. wide. L ends, and glaxed on all sides - - - \ 9 ft. 6 in. high. \ Grapery. I Plain sloping roof, a.* an addition to an old r, f 42 ft. long. Friends of T. Fox, Esq. CLyndhurst, near 7 1 plain sloping roof 'T"*' . . . 1 " *- , . - < Southampton, Ring- > Z j 1 9 ft. 6 in. high. 1 wood, lists'- K . f ] Peach-house. I M !S6 L Plain sloping roof, in separate sashe, - - \ 3J T. A. Russell, Esq. - - Cheshunt Park, Herts 1 < Circular front, witrTdormcal ventilator, > 22 ft. wide. " R i made to rise and fall at pleasure - - - i 16 ft. 6 in. high. Henry Brooke, Esq. - Bristol - - - 1 . S,oping r^^rcSTn^tters and }? * ">f ^ZS"*** ***-* front - -* \ "I?A^ Earl of St. Vincent - - Rochetts, Essex - - 1 Spherical shape, with cast-iron coping and V 19 % <*? anleter , gutter, ventilators in front and back walls J w "' gn * Pine-stove. John Hullett, Esq. {Champion Hill, Cam- 1 , berwell - - - j Curvilinear roof, the bars fixed into a cast- 1 en a i iron gutter in front, with ventilators un- ! ?V 5' ?' denieath, and in the back walls glazed up- ll " Wlde- right ends - - j f Sovth Stove. f" 50 ft. long. 1 Curvilinear roof, with glazed ends, cast-iron< 12 ft. 3 in. wide. The Horticultural Society Tumham Green - - 2 North Stove. t 3 !?''?"^' Curvilinear roof, with brick ends - - - "^ ll ft high' ' Sir Wm. Rouse Boughton,Bt. { D L u d^^ r H f 11 ' I 631 . } 2 - Pine-stove. f 51 ft. 4 in. lone 1 Curvilinear roof, with brick ends . - 1 l*ft. wide. | Green-house. f 25 ft. 6 in. long. Curvilinear roof - - - - - \ 12 ft 10 in. wide Charles Hutchins, Esq. - - ] "^"* 1 uare ' Lon " 1 1 < Opening sashes in front, and ventilators at C 10 ft.' wide. J i the ends \ 8 ft. high. James Burton, Esq. - - Regent's Park - - 1 Henry Seymour, Esq. - - {^um,_ Bedford- J , f Green-house. ~> } Circular laced roof, the bars fixed in a circu. I ") lar cast-iron gutter, with wooden frame f (. and'doors underneath - - . . . \ 21 ft. diameter. roof, with r o^riing*tashes at the top fixedto a wooden house. 1588. Great emulation now exists in this department of horticulture, not only among country gentlemen, but among commercial gardeners. One house for growing palms and scitaminae, erected by Messrs. Loddiges, is 45 feet high and 60 feet wide, and another by the same nurserymen for green-house plants, is 23 feet wide, 18 feet high, and upwards of 100 feet long, without a single rafter or standard : and these spirited cultivators, and also Messrs. Gunter, Grange, Wilmot, Andrews, and others, have heated the whole of their extensive ranges of glass by steam. 1589. The application of steam to the heating of hot-houses appears first to have been attempted by Wakefield of Liverpool, in 1788, and afterwards effectually applied in the vault of a cucumber-house at Knowle in that neighbourhood, by Butler, gardener to the Earl of Derby, in 1792. It made little progress till about 1816, since which it has extended rapidly, and wherever an extensive range of hot-houses are to be heated, it will be found a saving of fuel and labor, attended with less risk of over heating or con- tamination by bad air. 1590. The grand cause of the improvements which have been made in hot-houses, may be traced to their being no longer as formerly under the control of mansion architects. To civil architecture, as far as respects mechanical and chemical principles, or the laws of the strength and durability of materials, they are certainly subject in common with every description of edifice ; but in respect to the principles of design or beauty, the found- ation of which we consider, in works of utility at least, to be " fitness for the end in view," they are no more subject to the rules of civil architecture, than is a ship or a fortress ; for those forms and combinations of forms, and that composition of solids and openings which are very fitting and beautiful in a habitation for man or domestic animals, are by no means fitting, and consequently not beautiful in a habitation for plants. Such, however, is the force of habit and professional bias, that it is not easy to convince architects of this truth ; for structures for plants are considered by them no further beautiful than as displaying not only something of architectural forms, but even of opaque materials. Fitness for the end in view, we repeat, is the basis of all beauty in works of use, and, therefore, the taste of architects so applied, may safely be pro- nounced as radically wrong. We shall consider the subject of hot-houses as to the principles of construction, external forms, and interior details. SUBSECT. 1. Of the Principles of Design in Hot-houses. 1591. 'To ascertain the principles of action, it is always necessary to begin by consider- ing the end in view. The object or end of hot-houses is to form habitations for veget- ables, and either for such exotic plants as will not grow in the open air of the country X 4 312 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. P A nr II. where the habitation is to be erected ; or for such indigenous or acclimated plants as it is desired to force or excite into a state of vegetation, or accelerate their maturation at extraordinary seasons. The former description are generally denominated green- houses or botanic stoves, in which the object is to imitate the native climate and soil of the plants cultivated ; the latter comprehend forcing-houses and culinary stoves, in which the object is, in the first case, to form an exciting climate and soil, on general principles ; and in the second, to imitate particular climates. The chief agents of ve- getable life and growth are heat, light, air, soil, and water ; and the merit of artificial climates consists in the perfection with which these are supplied. 1592. Such heat as is required in addition to that of the sun is most generally produced by the ignition of carbonaceous materials, which heat the air of the house, either directly when hot embers of wood are left in a furnace or stove, placed within the house, as in Sweden and Russia ; mediately, as when smoke and heated air, from, or passing through ignited fuel, is made to circulate in flues ; or indirectly, when ignited fuel is applied to boil water, and the hot vapor, or the water itself, is impelled through tubes of metal or other conductors, and either to heat the air cf the house at once, as in most cases, or to heat masses of brick-work, sand, gravel, rubble, or earth, tan, or even water, (Hort. Trans, vol. iii. ) which materials may afterwards give out the heat so acquired slowly to the atmosphere of the house. But heat is also occasionally supplied from fermenting vegetable substances, as dung, tan, leaves, weeds, &c. applied either beneath or around the whole or a part of the house, or placed in a body within it. 1593. In particular situations heat may be obtained from anomalous sources, as in Iceland, Toeplitz, and Matlock, from hot springs ; and perhaps in some cases, especially in coal districts, from a basement composed of certain compounds of sulphur and iron, &c. Dr. Anderson ( Treatise on the Patent Hot-house,} proposed to preserve the superfluous heat generated by the sun in clear days, and to retain it in reservoirs placed under, above, or at one side of the house, re-admitting it as wanted to keep up the temperature ; but the plan, though ingenious and philosophical, required too much nicety of execution, and the clear days in this country are too few to admit of .adopting it as a substitute for heating by ignition. Heat must not only be produced in hot-houses, but its waste avoided, by forming as large a portion of the cover as possible of materials through which it escapes with difficulty, as far as this is consistent with other objects. Hence, in certain classes of houses, the side to the north is formed of opaque and non-conducting materials. 1594. Light is admitted by constructing the roof, or cover, of transparent matter, as oiled'paper, talc, or glass, (the last being found much the best material,) joined to as small a proportion of opaque substances, as timber or metal, as is found consistent with the strength requisite to bear the weight of the glass, resist the accidents of weather, &c. All plants require perpendicular light, but some, as many succulents and others, which throw out, or are allowed to radiate their branches on all sides, require the direct influ- ence of light on all sides ; others naturally, as creepers or climbers, or artificially, when rendered creepers or climbers, by the art of training on walls or trellises, require direct light on one side only ; and hence it is, that for certain purposes of culture, hot-houses answer perfectly well when the transparent covering forms only a segment of their transverse section, provided that segment meets the sun's rays at a large angle the greater portion of the growing season. This, of course, is subject to limitations and variations according to circumstances, and has given rise to a great variety in the external forms of hot-houses, and the angles of their roofs. It decides, however, the necessity of placing all houses whose envelope is not entirely transparent, with their glazed side to the south. 1595. The introduction and management of light is the most important point to attend to in the construction of hot-houses. Every gardener knows, that plants will not only not thrive without abundance of light, but will not thrive unless they receive its direct influence by being placed near or at no great distance from the glass. The cause of this last fact has never been satisfactorily explained. (Sowerby on Light and Colors, 1816.) It seems probable, that the glass acting in some degree like the triangular prism, partially de- composes or deranges the order of the rays. It is an important fact also, that light in nature is always accompanied by heat; and, therefore, it should not only be an object to admit the sun's direct rays in clear weather, when he is visible, but even when the rays are refracted and deranged by clouds and vapors, when he is invisible. 1596. The theory of the transmission of light through transparent bodies, is derived from a well known law in optics, that the influence of the sun's rays on any surface, both in respect to light and heat, is directly as the sine of the sun's altitude, or in other words, directly as his perpendicularity to that surface. If the surface is transparent, tlie num- ber of rays which pass through the substance is governed by the same laws. Thus, if 1000 rays fall perpendicularly upon a surface of the best crown-glass, the whole will pass through, excepting about a fortieth part, which the impurities of even the finest BOOK III. PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN IN HOT-HOUSES. 315 crystal, according to Bouguer, will exclude ; but if these rays fall at an incidental angle of 75, 299 rays, according to the same author, will be reflected. The incidental angle, it will be recollected, is that contained between the plane of the falling or impinging ray, and a perpendicular to the surface on which it falls. 1597. The benefit derived from the sun's influence on the roofs of hot-houses depends, as far as respects form of .surface, entirely on this principle. Boerhaave applied it to houses for preserving plants through the winter, and of course required that the glass surface should be perpendicular to the sun's rays at the shortest day, when most heat and light were required. Miller (Diet. art. Sun,) applied it to plant-stoves, and prefers two angles in the roof; one, as the upright glass, to meet the winter's sun nearly at right angles, and the other, as the sloping glass, to meet him at an angle of 45 for summer use, and "the better to admit the sun's rays in spring and autumn." Williamson (Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 161.) prefers this angle (45) in all houses, as do most gardeners, probably from habit ; but Knight prefers, in forcing-houses at least, such a slope of roof as shall be at right angles to the sun's rays, at whatever season it is intended to ripen the fruit. In one of the examples given (Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 99.), his object was to produce a large and highly flavored crop, rather than a very early crop of grapes ; and he accordingly fixed upon such a slope of roof as that the sun's rays might be perpen- dicular to it about the beginning of July, the period about which he wished the crop to ripen. The slope required to effect this purpose in latitude 52, he found to form an angle of 34 with the plane of the horizon. In the application of the same principle to the peach-house (Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 206.) in order to ripen the fruit about mid- summer, the roof was made to form an angle with the horizon of 28. Both these houses, Knight assures us, produced abundant crops perfectly ripened. 1598. As data to determine the angles of glass roofs, the following are laid down by Wilkinson. The angle contained between the back wall of the forcing-house, and the inclined plane of the glass roof, always equals the sun's altitude, when his rays fall perpendicularly on that plane, provided that the inclination of the plane to the horizon be at an angle not less than 28 2', nor greater than 75. Within the above limits, the sun's rays are perpendicular twice in the year, once in going to, and once in returning from, the tropic. Hence then, having determined in what season we wish to have the most powerful effects from the sun, we may construct our houses accordingly by the following rule. Make the angle contained between the back wall of the house and its roof, equal to the complement of latitude of the place, less or more the sun's declination for that day on which we wish his rays to fall perpendicularly. From the vernal to the autumnal equinox, the declination is to be added, and the contrary. Thus, to apply these principles to the slope of roof recommended by Knight, for ripening grapes in July ; say at London we have Latitude of London 61 29' Sun's declination on the 21st July - - 17 31' 33 88' or 34- nearly. Wilkinson adds that " as we want the genial warmth of the sun most in spring, therefore, for general purposes, that construction would perhaps be best which gives us the greatest quantity of perpendicular rays then. If the inclination were 45, the sun's rays would be perpendicular about April 6th and September 4th. And as the rays would vary very little from the perpendicular for several days before and after the 6th of April and September 4th, the loss of rays arising from reflexion, would, as appears from the annexed table, be nearly a minimum. Even at the winter solstice, the loss by the obliquity of the angle of incidence would be only two in 1000 more than when the rays fall perpendicularly, as appears by Bouguer's Table of Rays reflected from Glass. Of 1000 incidental rays when the angle of incidence is 87 3ff 584 are reflected. 85 543 82 30 474 75 299 are reflected. 34 are reflected. 27 25 25 25 70 222 65 157 412 60 112 356 50 57 Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 237. When, in addition to this, it is considered, that the slope of 45 is the least that will effectually drain the water from the intervals between the lapping over of the panes of glass, that angle appears to us, as Williamson suggests, decidedly the best slope for general purposes. 1599. Air is supplied by the portion of the atmosphere enclosed by the tegu- ment. This air may be raised in temperature, charged with vapors, or renewed, at the will of the operator. It might also be put in motion by art, for the sake of obtaining strength of stem in ramose or tree-like plants ; but the motion communicated to plants, by opening the cover, and exposing them to the direct influence of the air in fine weather, is deemed sufficient, either for this purpose, or giving flavor to fruits when advancing to maturity. A very fit machine for putting air in motion, or for extracting air, was invented by B. Deacon (Patent- office, 1812, and Remarks on Hot-houses, part 2.) It 314 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. is impelled by manual labor, or clock or jack machinery, and has been successfully used for ventilating public rooms and churches. 1600. Soil, it must be obvious, is perfectly within the control of ait, which, in fact, can far surpass nature, when increased dimensions of the parts of plants and improved quality of fruit are objects. 1601. Water is equally at our command with soil : it may be made to pass through the house in a surface-rill ; or under the soil in subterraneous channels; may be retained in a cistern or basin ; or introduced in tubes, either to throw up innumerable jets from the floor, or pour them down from the roof to serve as rain. It may be supplied directly to the roots of plants, without wetting their leaves, in the manner of irrigation ; be stagnated round them, as in natural marshes, or made to ascend as vapor from steam-pipes, by pouring it on flues or hot bodies, or even watering the floor or interior surface of the house. Having ascended and filled the air, it parts with its caloric, and is precipitated on the plants in the form of dew. SUBSKCT. 2. Forms of Hot-house Roofs. 1602. The general form and appearance of the roofs of hot-houses, was, till very lately, that of a glazed shed or lean-to ; differing only in the display of lighter or heavier frame- work or sashes. But Sir George Mackenzie's paper on this subject, and his plan and elevation of a semi-dome (Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 175.), have materially altered the opinion of scientific gardeners. Knight made the first observations on this figure. Sir George Mackenzie's plan for forcing-houses, he observes, is extremely interesting ; but contains "some defects which cannot be obviated without deviating from the spherical to the spheroidal form, which Sir George states to be objectionable, on account of the great nicety requisite in the workmanship. On making a few trials, to ascertain the varieties of forms which might be given to forcing-houses, by taking different segments of a sphere, I, however, soon became perfectly satisfied that forcing-houses, of excellent forms, for almost every purpose, and of any convenient extent, might be constructed without deviating from the spherical form ; and I am now perfectly confident, that such houses will be erected and kept in repair at less expense, will possess the important advantage of admitting greatly more light, and will be found much more durable than such as are constructed according to any of the forms which have been hitherto recommended. By employing a small segment (Jig' 251. b, c) of a large sphere (jig* 251. a, a), as low and as wide a forcing-house as can be wanted for any purpose, may be readily obtained. Instead of the half of a hemisphere of thirty feet diameter, let the half of one of fifty feet (a, a) be chosen, and from the base of this, cut off thirty- five degrees (6, 6), and from the summit fifteen degrees (c, c) ; and the following pro- portions for a forcing-house (Jig. 251. b, c) will be given. Its height (including eighteen inches of upright opaque front, opening as shutters,) will be twelve feet ; its width in the centre fourteen feet, and its length very nearly forty feet ; and there are very few purposes for which a house, constructed according to some of the intermediate forms, between that above mentioned and the acuminated semi-dome, will not be found extremely well adapted." A few observations on Sir G. Mackenzie's plan, and the improvements on it, proposed by Knight, were made by Neill (Edin. Encyc. art. Hart.} and the next in order by us in Remarks on the Construction of Hot-houses, &c. 1 8 1 7. A year be- fore ( 1 816) we had invented a wrought-iron sash-bar, the section of which (fig. 252. a) is not more than half an inch wide, and a half bar (fig. 252. 6) equally light (a specimen of both of which was presented to the Hort. Soc. in May 1816.) ; and in 1818 we completed a considerable erection of glass roofs at Bayswater (Jig. 253.), on the curvilinear principle, the first, we believe, attempted in Britain. The object of such a junction of different curvatures in the Bayswater example . is to show, BOOK III. FORMS OF HOT-HOUSE ROOFS. 315 that, in regard to form, the strength and tenacity of the iron bar, and the proper choice of shape in the panes of glass, admits of every conceivable variety of glazed surface. In this we have eomplctely succeeded, without in the least interfering with the objects of culture. To render all these improvements available by the public, as matters of trade, we transferred, in 1818, our right in the invention of the bar to efficient tradesmen ( W. and D. Bailey, 272. Holborn, London), who have since, from our plans, constructed in a most excellent style of workmanship, the curvilinear houses in different parts of the country, of which we have already given a list and description. (1587.) 1603. Some forms of hot-houses on the curvilinear prindpk shall now be submitted, and afterwards. some specimens of the forms in common use ; for common forms, it is to be observed, are not recommended to be laid aside in cases where ordinary objects are to be attained in the easiest manner ; and they are, besides the forms of roofs, the most con- venient for pits, frames, and glass tents, as already exemplified in treating of these struc- tures. 1604. The acuminated semi-globe. (Jig. 254.) The most perfect form ^-tssssrr^ 254 of a hot-house is indisputably that of a glazed semi -globe. Here plants, as far as respects light, would be nearly in the same situation as if in the open air; and art, as already observed, ( 1 592. ) can add heat, and all the other agents of vegetation, nearly to perfec- tion. But in respect to excluding the rain, the semi-globe is too flat at top, and requires to be acuminated ; and in regard to economy, the first cost and expense of maintaining an artificial heat against its constant abduction through a thin medium, ex- posed to the north winds, would, for most purposes, be a great objection. 1 605. An acuminated semi-dome, or a vertical section of the last figure, placed against a wall built in a direction from east to west, removes a great part of the objection as to heat, and will still admit an adequate supply of light to plants kept constantly in the same position, or turned very frequently. This, therefore, may be reckoned the second best form for a plant-habitation for general purposes, and without reference to particular modes of culture. 1606. The semi-ellipse (Jig. 255.) is a figure which, in the plan (a, a), displays half an 255 316 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. ellipsis, or oval, and in the superstructure (b, 6) one fourth part of the solid figure. Its ad- vantage over a semi-dome is, that, whether the trees are to be trained on a trellis parallel to the glass, or against the back wall, a greater surface for training is obtained in propor- tion to the volume of cubic air to be heated. On the other hand, its glass surface is less perfect in respect to perpendicularity to the sun's rays ; though in this respect the differ- ence is not of great consequence. Houses of this sort, Adanson informs us, are of Dutch invention. As the sun retired from them in the afternoon, the eastern parts of the ellipse, as they fell successively into shade, were covered with reeds or mats ; and, in like manner, in the morning the east end was uncovered first, and the west end only as the sun came round on it. (Families d&s Plantes, vol. i. Pref.) 1607. The parallelogram with curved roof and ends (Jig. 256.) is one of the most con- venient forms of curvilinear roofs for the common purposes of culture, as it admits of more regular figures of beds, paths, trellises, &c. within, and of every variety of dimen- sion. In regard to light, heat, and beauty, they do not differ materially from the semi- ellipse. Of this form, a considerable number of forcing-houses, and some green-houses, have been erected. Among the latter may be noticed one for Messrs. Loddiges, and another for the Horticultural Society. (See the Table, 1587.) 256 1 608. The ridge and furrow roof may be effected either in curvilinear or right-lined hot- houses ; and consists in placing the bars in the rebates of which the glass is put, in such a manner as that the section of the roof may always be a zig-zag line, in which the space traversed by each side or zig may either contain several bars (jig- 257.), or merely one pane of glass. (Jig. 258.) In both modes it is generally desirable, that the ends of all the bars should terminate in one horizontal line on the top of the parapet; which need not, however, be the case in their termination against the back wall. Some apparent difficulty of glazing is thus occasioned in the lower part of the roof; but the difficulty is only apparent, for as smaller and only triangular pieces of glass can be used there, it becomes, in fact, more economical, by occasioning the use of pieces of glass which would otherwise be thrown away. The advantages of ridge and furrow roofing are chiefly obtainable in countries liable to heavy falls of snow or hail, and in houses which are parallelograms in plan. Almost any weight of snow may be carried by such roofs, especially when the bars are not far apart, as the pressure will evidently be almost entirely on the upper bars, and not on the glass. As to hail, as it will always meet the surface of the glass in a ridge and furrow roof at an angle of 45, it can never do it much, if any, harm. Curvilinear houses with roofs of this description are therefore peculiarly suitable for the north of Europe, and especially for Russia ; and in houses with triangular and straight-lined roofs, the sun (a, Jigs. 257, & 258.) will be perpendi- cular to half the roof (by being so to half each ridge) at that period which forms half BOOK III. FORMS OF HOT-HOUSE ROOFS. 317 the time between his rising and mid-day, and perpendicular to the other half, at half the period of time between mid-day and sunset. Another advantage of ridge and furrow roofs is, that the laps between the panes, unless very broad or puttied, are always kept free from accumulations of dust. This takes place in consequence of their angle of in- clination, which being about 45, the gravity of the column of water between the laps is found to counterbalance the attraction of cohesion, and slides in the lap from the crown to the bottom of the furrow. 1609. The general form 259 and appearance of a ridge and furrow house (jig. 259.) is _ ~ : . _-. -=^=*-=L not materially different from that of others. Where the curved end is adopted, it will not be necessary to deviate from the common mode of glazing in these parts of the roof, unless with a view to resist a weight of snow. the roof, therefore, is ridged (Jig. 260. a, a), the ends will present a smooth surface (Jig. 260. 6, 6). 1610. The polyprosopic hot-house (Jig. 261. ) re- sembles a curvilinear house, but differs in having the surface thrown into a num- ber of faces, the chief advan- tages of which are, 1. That by hinging all the different faces at their upper angles, and by having rods connecting the lower outside corners of the faces terminating in chains which go over pulleys in the top or above the back wall, the whole roof, including the ends, may be opened or raised sympathetically, like Vene- tian blinds (jig. 261. a.), either so as each sash or face may be placed in the plane of the angle of the sun's rays at the time, or to the perpendicular, to admit a shower of rain. While the parallelogram part of 260 In consequence of this arrangement, the plants in a polyprosopic house may, at any time, and in a few minutes, be placed in effect, or as far as respects light, air, wind, rain, dew, &c. in the open air ; and being so placed, may, whenever desired, be as speedily restored again to their proper climate. The arrangement by which this is effected, and which is perfectly simple, is applicable to every form of hot-house, whether of glass on all sides, on two, or on three sides ; or whether the roof is formed of curved or straight lines. We consider it, indeed, to be the ne plus ultra of improvement, as far as air and light are concerned. One objection to all curvilinear forms in this respect is, that the roof, unless a considerable expense be incurred, must be fixed, and air admitted by horizontal wooden or glazed shutters in the parapets, or between the props, and allowed to escape by sky- lights or shutters at the top of the back wall ; but here the air is equally admitted in every part of the house, in the most natural manner, without the creation of currents or eddies, and without excluding any more sun than will be obstructed by the thickness or edge of the faces or sashes. In like manner, a great objection to straight-lined roofs with sliding sashes is, that air can only be partially admitted, and that while this is being done, one glazed frame being slid over the other in all those parts where there is a double portion of glass, a double portion of light must be excluded ; and as opticians are aware, the light so transmitted will be doubly decomposed by passing through two surfaces of glass. 1611. This roof, with respect to the sun's rays, may be considered as exactly equivalent to a curvilinear figure whose curve lines shall touch all the angles of the faces, so that the sun in general would be nearly perpendicular to some one face every hour in the day, and every day in the year. A specimen of glass roof, constructed on this principle, formed a part of the erection at Bayswater , (1602.), already referred to, but which owing to local alterations it became necessary to remove in 1823. 318 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 1612. A range of hot-houses (Jig. 202.) of any or of all the different varieties of cur- vilinear surfaces, every one will allow to have a better effect than the common gjazed sheds or lean-to hot-houses of kitchen-gardens. 1613. Lean-to glass roofs are of various sorts. The simplest and most economical hot- house of this description may be compared to a large pit. The back and front walls and ends being of masonry, and a sloping side above of glass, and either fixed or moveable ; if fixed, then air is admitted by openings in the front wall and top of the back wall ; if moveable, the sashes slide, or are moved in grooves, the lower one being drawn up, and the upper sash let down. Such a house will succeed perfectly well for grapes and pines. The first improvement on this form consists in forming moving glass frames in front, in- stead of the opaque wall of masonry and shutters ; a second consists in adding glass ends ; a third, in forming the roof into two slopes ; and a fourth, in bevelling the positions of the front sashes, and forming the whole roof into three different slopes, the lower for receiving the sun's rays in winter ; the second for spring and autumn ; and the third, for midsummer. 1614. A variety of other forms will afterwards be given, both regular and anomalous, adapted to specific purposes of culture, particular situations, as conservatories or cabinet appendages to mansions, or for variety in flower-gardens. SUBSECT. 3. Details of the Construction of Roofs, or the glazed Part of Hot-houses. 1615. The glazed tegument, or cover, may either be wholly fixed, wholly moveable, or partake of bom modes. Each of these varieties may be considered in respect to com- ponent parts and materials. 1616. Fired roofs are either formed of a series of bars 'of iron or' wood, proceeding at once from the front parapet to the back wall ; or from the base to the centre, or they may be composed of sashes placed beside each other, or between rafters, as in common lean-to houses. Roofs of this fixed kind have been approved of by Knight for vines ; by Beattie, of Scone, for peaches ; and by most cultivators for the culture of pines and palms ; but, excepting for the two latter purposes, the general experience of gardeners is (in our opinion, very justly,) against them. -It is to be observed, that in all cases of fixed roofs, shutters for ventilation are formed in the parapet, and in the upper part of the back wall immediately under the roof. Economy in first cost, and less breakage of glass after- wards, are the chief arguments in their favor ; the latter advantage, however, is generally denied, it being improper glazing rather than the moving of the sashes, which occasions the breakage of glass. 1617. Moveable roofs are generally composed of sashes, six or eight feet long, and three or four feet wide, which slide over each other, and are moved by cords and pulleys, and sometimes balanced by weights, to facilitate their motion ; but they are also occasionally formed of sashes which open outwards by means of iron levers at their lower extremities, and hinges at their upper angles (Jig. 263.), in the manner of the poly- prosopic house. (Jig. 261.) 1618. Roofs partaking of both characters generally have a few sashes which let down or rise up in the roof or front glass ; or in the case of domes or acuminated roofs, the top part rises in the manner of a sky-light 1619. The material of fixed roofs is generally iron, as being least bulky in proportion to the strength required, most durable, and admitting, in the case of curvilinear roofs, a curvature to be formed at less expense than it could be of timber. In these roofs, in gene- ral, no other bars or opaque bearers are required than those for receiving the glass ; and hence their simplicity and unity with regard to component parts, and the equal degree of transparency in every part of the surface. 1620. The materials of moveable roofs are most commonly timber ; but frequently also timber and iron, or timber and copper joined together. Thus cast-iron and wrought-iron rafters are frequently used ; and in these are placed sashes with styles and rails of timber, and bars of copper, and of cast or wrought iron. Two of the lightest-roofed shed-houses yet built with sliding sashes are, one by Timmins, of Birmingham, in 1811, at Loddiges' nursery, in which the rafters are of wrought-iron, cased in copper, to which are screwed pulleys, on which the sashes, composed of copper bars and timber styles, slide without grooves ; and -the other is at the Union Nursery, King's Road, erected by J. S. Jorden, in 1815, in which the upper part of the roof only moves; the rafters are trusses of wrought-iron, supporting bars of cast-iron ; and the entire sash is formed of hollow sheet- BOOK III. GLAZING OF HOT-HOUSE ROOFS. 819 copper. The use of sheet-copper, however, may now be considered as exploded in hot- house building, wrought-iron being a much more economical, wholesome, durable, and equally elegant substitute for timber. In general, it may be observed, that where sashes and rafters are used in the formation of moveable roofs, a mixture of timber and metal is better than timber alone, the former in extremes of temperature being liable to expansion and contraction. Thus sashes with iron bars, and the outer frame or the styles and rails of timber, move readily in the grooves of cast-iron rafters, because when the metal expands with great heat, the timber in a slight degree contracts. The reverse is also the case, and cast-iron sashes slide readily in timber rafters. In both cases small rollers should be in- serted, either into the sides of the sash or the fillet or groove of the rafters, or both. Cast- iron rafters need not, for general purposes, be more than half an inch 264 thick, and six or eight inches deep ; where the house is wide, they require to be supported by slender pillars. Wrought-iron rafters may be rolled out of broad bar-iron (jig. 264. ), so as to present as light and elegant an appearance as our moulded wrought-iron sash- bar. (Jig. 252.) 1621. Arrangements for covering the roofi of hot-houses by boards, canvass, or mats, to be lifted or rolled up or down, might be easily contrived and advantageously used ; but ex- cepting in pits and low hot-houses, they are not thought worth attending to, it being con- sidered better to gain the admittance of all the light possible, than lose it for the sake of a little economy in fuel. 1622. The pillars or props which are placed on the parapet, to support the rafters, whether of timber or iron, are generally formed of the same thickness as the rafters, because similar sashes are placed between them. 1623. Interior uprights to support wide roofs are almost always of iron, either wrought- metal or small cast-iron columns, sometimes forming intersecting arches, or treillaged capitals, or connecting imposts for training creepers. 1624. The wall-plate, or coping of the parapet, is sometimes a plate of timber, some- times of stone, and occasionally of cast-iron. Wherever upright glass is not employed, it must of necessity form also the guttering for the water of the roof, and at the same time for the water which condenses on the glazed inside of the house. 1 625. Objections to metallic roofs. In general it may be observed, that till lately gar- deners had a prejudice against metallic roofs. Of authors, who have avowed this, Aber- orombie, Mean, and Nicol, may be mentioned ; others have adopted a cautious neutrality, as M'Phail, Forsyth, Aiton, &c. Philosophical and amateur gardeners have generally approved of their introduction ; among which may be named Knight, Sir George Mac- kenzie, Loddige, and others. We shall here, as briefly as possible, enumerate the ob- jections to metallic roofs, which are expense, rust, breakage of glass, abduction of heat, and attraction of electricity. Expense. Metallic houses are, in general, rather more expensive than wooden ones ; but they admit more light and are more durable and elegant. Rust. That all ordinary metals are liable to rust is undeniable. This objection cannot be got rid of. The reply is, balance against it the advantages of light and durability ; and take into- consideration that careful painting will in a great degree prevent it. Knight observes, if one third of the sum requisite to keep a wooden roof properly painted be expended upon an iron roof, no injury will ever be sustained from the liability of that to suffer from rust. (Hart. Trans, v. 231.) Breakage of glass. This is altogether denied, as respects cast or wrought iron at least, and if appli- cable at all, can only be so to copper or compound metallic roofs, where weakness produces a bending of the sash ; or where corrosion or unequal expansion of improper mixtures of metals as iron cased with copper, occasions a twisting of the bar. Cast-iron or solid wrought-iron frames, have never been known to occasion the breakage of more glass than wood. The grand cause of the breakage of glass, arises in almost every case from glazing with broad laps. The expansibility of copper is greater than that of brass, and that of brass greater than the expansion of iron in the proportion of 95, 89. 60. (Young's Lect.} Con- sequently copper is above one third part more likely to break glass than iron ; but when it is considered, that a rod of copper expands only one hundred thousandth part of its length, with every degree of heat, and that iron only expands the one hundred and sixty-six thousand six hundred and sixty-sixth part, the practical effects of our climate on these metals can never amount to a sum equal to the breakage of glass. Abduction of heat. The power of metals to conduct heat is an objection, which, like those of rusting and additional expense, cannot be denied. The reply is, the smaller the bars, the less their power of con- ducting ; and a thick coat of paint, and the covering of half the bar by the putty requisite to retain the glass, also lessens this power ; it is added, heat may be supplied by art, but solar light, the grand advan- tage gained by metallic bars, cannot, by any human means, be supplied otherwise than by the transparency Attraction of electricity. To this objection it is replied, that if metallic hot-houses attract electricity, they also conduct it to the ground, so that it cannot do any harm. Also that no instance can be produced of iron hot-houses having been injured by the effects of this fluid. SUBSECT. 4. Glazing of Hot-house Roofs. 1626. Glazing was formerly performed with the very worst description of glass, called green glass; and accordingly, Adanson, in 1710, recommends the adoption of Bohe- mian glass, then the best in Europe, but now equalled by our best crown or patent crown tables. If, as Bouguer has shown, one fortieth part of the light which falls perpendicu- larly on the purest crystal is reflected off, or does not pass through it, it may safely be 320 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. asserted, that green glass reflects off more than three fourths. Economy, as to the quality of glass, therefore, is defeating the intention of building hot-houses, which is to imitate a natural climate in all the qualities of light, heat, air, water, earth, &c. as per- fectly as possible. Without a free influx of light, the sickly pale etiolated appearance of plants is more painful than agreeable to the eye of any who take an interest in the vegetable kingdom. As the panes or pieces of glass employed in hot-house roofs lap over each other, the air which enters by the lap, when uneven glass is employed or care- less glazing performed, no doubt, suggested the idea of closing the lap with lead or putty. But both these modes being found to prevent the water which collects on the inner sur- face of glass roofs, from escaping by the outside surface, gave rise, first, to partially closing the lap ; and subsequently to various forms of panes, and descriptions of laps, of which the principal are as follow. 1627. Common sash-glazing is performed by even the best hot-house builders with a lap of from one fourth to three fourths of an inch ; but by the great majority of glaziers, with a full inch lap. The objection to this mode is, that the broader the lap, the greater the quantity of water retained in it by capillary attraction ; and when such water, through a deficiency of heat in the house, is frozen, the glass is certain of being broken. But supposing this breakage not to take place, the broader the lap, the sooner it fills up witli earthy matter, forming an opaque space, both injurious by excluding light, and unpleas- ing because imperfect : or if the lap is to be puttied, the opacity is the same. The accidental filling up of such spaces (when not puttied by art) with dust and earthy matter, is what prevents them from being broken, by excluding the water in a great degree. Where the lap is not more than one fourth of an inch, it may be puttied without a very disagreeable effect. The rectangular pane is the only form which can with propriety be admitted in curvilinear roofs ; and the most approved practice as to the lap, whether in roofs or common sashes, is never to make the lap greater than the thickness of the glass, and not to close it with putty. It is extremely difficult to get glaziers to attend to this ; but by employing superior workmen, and obliging them to remove every pane which shall project over the other more than one sixteenth of an inch, the thing may be accom- plished. This is not only the most elegant of all modes for a curved roof, or indeed for any other, but the safest for the glass, which is, we repeat, seldom broken by any other natural means than the expansion of frozen water retained between the laps. It must not be forgotten that this form is also by far the easiest to repair, and that no mode of puttying or closing a narrow lap with lead is of long duration. 265 a b c d e f g 1628. Glazing with a leaden lap (265. a) was formerly practised with a view of ex- cluding the air by a more permanent material than putty. The sort of lap made use of, is that used by glaziers in latticework windows (Jig. 266. a.) The panes being inserted in the grooves, formed in the edges of the lap, are of 266 course all in one plane, and the water in running down either the outside or inside of the roof, must ac- cumulate on the upper edge of each riband or cross- string of lead, and so penetrate between it and the glass, and drop on the plants in the house. This indeed forms the chief objection to the leaden lap, which is now deservedly exploded. .1629. An improved form of lead lap (Jig. 266. b) consists in using slips of lead rolled so thin as not to be thicker than fine drawing paper, in connection with putty, and for the sole purpose of retaining it in its place. It is never allowed to project beyond the exterior edges of the glass, so that it readily permits the descent of the water. Its thinness renders it easily manageable, and the time employed in filling up such laps, when one man is stationed outside the glass and another within, is not much more than that occupied in glazing a roof with the common putty lap. Such lead laps may either have a small opening in the middle, or at the angles, and are equally applicable to any of the modes of glazing to be described. The lead is rolled to any width, and dipt or cut to the size wanted as used. BOOK III. GLAZING OF HOT-HOUSE ROOFS. 321 1630. The copper lap (jig. 265. c) is the invention of D. Stewart, and its origin may be recognised in the ess-shaped shred of lead introduced by glaziers between newly glazed panes, to retain them in their places (Jig. 265. rf). The lap is drawn through graduated moulds till at last it is brought into the shape of the letter ess compressed. It adds greatly to the strength of glazing, by giving each pane a solid firm bearing on the upper and lower edges, and by preventing water from lodging between the panes. Where the sashes are flat, however, it occasions droppings of condensed water on the plants, against which there is a general prejudice among gardeners ; and it has been alleged, that the drip from copper becomes in a few years poisonous from the partial oxidation of the metal. In steep roofs, however, this objection does not hold, and there remains in such cases only the objection of the opacity produced by the lap. It has been used in the large conservatories at East Sheen and Woodlands ; but appears to us much too opaque for hot-house roofs, and only adapted for sky-lights in common buildings. If so much light can be spared as is lost by these laps, it were better to increase the number of sash- bars, by which the panes would be smaller, and consequently stronger and less expensive, and no metallic lap would be wanting. It is now entirely or nearly out of use. 1631. Fragment glazing (Jig. 265. 6). This is the primitive mode adopted by nur- serymen and market-gardeners, before it was supposed that the productions raised under glass would pay for any thing better. In steep roofs it answers nearly as well as any other mode in respect to keeping out rain and air, but as a somewhat greater lap is re- quired in these crooked or undulated pieces of glass, a flat roof is liable to be covered by dark lines, formed by the lodging of earthy matter in the laps or interstices. Where the bars are not placed more than six or seven inches asunder, centre from centre, this method is much more economical than any other ; and is therefore useful for such country-nur- serymen or market-gardeners as have not, like the nurserymen of London, the opportu- nity of purchasing the hot-houses of decayed gentlemen or bankrupts ; and consequently are obliged to build and construct every part ab origine. 1632. In rhomboidal glazing (Jig. 265. c), the panes are in the form of rhomboids, the advantage of which is, tliat the water runs rapidly to the lower angle, and passes off both inside and outside along the bar ; and what is retained by capillary attraction, is alleged to be so small as not to have the power of breaking the glass. 1633. Perforated shield glazing (Jig. 265. rf). This is a supposed improvement on the last described mode, which it would be, were it not that by the perforation in the upper part of the shield as it is called, the dexter and sinister chiefs are liable to be broken off; and by the prolonged acumination of its base, it is rendered obnoxious to the same casualty in the nombril point. 1634. Entire shield glazing (Jig. 265. e). This plan has been used by Butler, a London hot-house builder ; but it does not seem either to merit or obtain general adoption. It is difficult, indeed, to conceive what are the arguments in its favor beyond that of strength, with a very great loss of light, which may surely be better obtained by Stewart's lap. 1635. Curvilinear lap glazing (Jig. 265. f}. This mode appears, unless on very flat roofs, preferable to the common square mode, because the curve has a tendency to conduct the water to the centre of the pane. If the lap is broad, however, the globule retained there by attraction is situated precisely in the point where it is calculated to do most mischief, being in fact as a power on the end of two levers. When the lap is not more than one sixteenth of an inch, no evil of this sort can happen ; it also happens less frequently for the first few years after puttying the lap, and leaving a small opening in the centre for the water to escape. In time, however, according as the house has been used, the putty begins to decay, it becomes saturated with water, and during frost, when- ever the temperature of the house is inadequate to prevent this water from freezing, the panes are certain of being broken. It can hardly be too often impressed on the mind of the gardener, that puttying or otherwise filling up the lap is in no case requisite, if care be taken in the glazing to use flat glass, and never to let the lap exceed one fourth, or fall short of one sixteenth of an inch. This is now rendered the more easily practicable since the invention of a variety of glass called patent crown glass, and which, purchased in panes fit for hot-houses, is hardly more expensive than the other. It may be added, that taking all circumstances into consideration, and especially that of repairs, the common rectangular pane of a small size is, according to common consent, decidedly the best. 1636. Reversed curvilinear glazing (Jig. 265. g) is a method of throwing the water of condensation to the bars, so as to carry it off by their means, and, if possible, prevent it from dropping in the house. 1637. Anomalous surfaces can only be glazed by throwing the panes into triangles, and by no other manner, unless by annealing and bending the glass, because three is the greatest number of points that will touch a globular surface in one plane. By adopting triangular panes the most singular-shaped roofs may be glazed as perfectly as the simplest forms of surface. Y SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 1638. Though the making of putty be hardly within the gardener's province, yet it is fitting he should know that there are several sorts, of which the following are the prin- cipal : Soft putty, being a well-wrought paste of flour of whitening and raw linseed-oil ; Hard putty, composed of whitening and boiled linseed-oil ; Harder putty, in which a portion of turpentine, or what is called, drying, is introduced ; and the Hardest putty, composed of oil, red or white lead, and sand. The first is the most durable of all, be- cause it forms an oleaginous coat on the surface, but it requires a longer time for drying. The hard sorts are apt to crack, if not soon well painted ; and the hardest of all, though it appears to be impenetrable, and of the greatest durability, yet renders it difficult to replace a pane when broken. It seems, therefore, quite unfit for hot-houses. Much depends on well working the putty some days before it is to be used; and in general, that putty which has been ground and wrought in a putty-mill is to be preferred. 1639. The best sort of paint for hot-houses is that which, for the last twenty years, has been known by the name of anti-corrosion, which is composed chiefly of the powdered scoria? of the lead-mines of Col. Beaumont, near Hexham. There are other sorts, which are called anti- corrosive and impenetrable paints ; but they have not been long enough in use to enable us to recommend them. It may be a sufficient recommendation of the anti-corrosion to state, that it is used in government works, and especially on all cast-iron erections, by Rennie, Telford, and others. As to the color of paint, or washes of any sort, for the walls or interior of hot-houses, it is almost unnecessary to observe, that as light is the grand object, white is to be preferred. SUBSECT. 5. Walls and Sheds of Hot-houses. 1 640. Walls of some sort are necessary for almost every description of hot-house, for even those which are formed of glass on all sides are generally placed on a basis of masonry. But as by far the greater number are erected for culinary purposes, they are placed in the kitchen-garden, with the upper part of their roof leaning against a wall, which forms th*eir northern side or boundary, and is commonly called the back wall, and the lower part resting on a low range of supports of iron or masonry, commonly called the front wall. Behind the back wall a shed is commonly formed, and under this is placed the furnace, the fuel to be used therein, and other materials or implements con- nected with the culture or management of the hot-house. 1641. The parapet, or front ivall, of hot-houses comes first in order. Where upright sashes are used, there are generally brick walls, either carried up solid from the found- ation, or built on piers, according as it may be desirable to have the roots of the plants within pass through to the soil without, or not. In the case of fixed roofs, that part of the wall which is above ground is formed with horizontal openings, to which opaque or glazed shutters are fixed, opening outwards for the purpose of admitting air. A recent improvement on parapets consists in forming them of cast-iron props or pillars (Jig. 267.), which are placed on a basis of two or three bricks (c, c), three or four feet under the sur- face : to these props, top and bottom rails are fitted, which are rebated to receive a shut- ter. (Jig. 268.) The wall-plate (a, b,Jigs. 267, & 268.), which receives the ends (d] of the rafters or sash-bars, forms also a gutter for carrying off the water of the roof, exter- nally (a), and the condensed water internally (Jigs. 267, & 268. 6). .J c 267 268 269 1642. Where the roof is moveable on the polyjyrasopic plan, no such shutters are re- quired, and therefore the ends of the rafters may go at once three or four feet into the soil, according to the nature of the foundations, and rest "on brick- work ; the surface of the ground, and the lower edge of the lowest sash being united by a moveable plate, forming at once a gutter and a rest for the lower rail of the sash. BOOK III. HOT-HOUSE FURNACES AND FLUES. 323 1643. Holes for vine-stems (Jig. 2G8./,/). In all parapets or front arrangements where vines are to be introduced from without, particular care must be had to provide for the withdrawing of the vines, even when their wood is of a considerable age and thick- ness. For this reason, where horizontal shutters are used, the lower styles or pieces against which they shut, should always be moveable ; and, in general, it may be stated, that of the various modes for the introduction of the vine from without which have been adopted, that by cutting off a corner of the sloping or front sash, is the best ; by this means, when the sash is opened, a vine of almost any size (Jig. 269. a) may be taken out with ease. A piece of thin board or cork cut every year to fit the increasing diameter of the shoot is screwed to the wall-plate or lower style, as the case may be, and the vacuity, which must necessarily be left around the stem, is closed up with moss. When the vine is to be taken out by unscrewing the triangular board, and opening the sash, or shutter, a more than sufficient space for drawing out any ordinary-sized plant is obtained without the least trouble or chance of fracturing the shoots. It may be added, that in curvilinear ground plans, some exertion of design and nicety of workmanship is required in framing the horizontal shutters, so as they shall not twist, and also that they require in such cases to be hinged with what are called coach-hinges. 1644. Glazed shutters (Jig. 269.) are preferred by some to an opaque panel, the utility of which must, of course, depend on the relative height of the pots or plants immediately within. The mode of opening such shutters, and keeping them open (Jig- 270.), is perfectly simple. 1645. The back wall is in general straight or perpendi- cular, and carried up one or two feet higher than the glass, to shelter it from the north. (Jig. 255.) Sometimes, how- ever, it is bevelled or curved to meet the sun's rays. (fig. 261. 6) 1646. The back shed (Jig. 256. a) is naturally con- nected with the back wall, and in form and extent, is ge- nerally regulated more by its uses as a working^shed, than by the mere enclosure and covering of the fire-places and fuel, its original and legitimate objects. The width may be varied at pleasure, but sel- dom exceeds ten or twelve feet, and the height is generally seven or eight feet in the lower wall, and nearly of the same height as the back wall ; but where opening shutters are formed in the back wall, for the purposes of ventilation, the upper angle of the shed-roof must be kept under the level of the shutters to save intricacy of contrivance. But as these shutters frequently do not communicate directly with the open air, but with passages under the shed-roof, or channels in the top of the back wall, the height of the shed may in such cases be made higher. In some cases, instead of shutters (Jig. 270. ), boards slid- ing in grooves, or a sort of Venetian blind, or which is best, flaps held close by a cord, pulley, and weight, are used ; but the great heat of hot-houses is apt to warp and derange some of these contrivances. The essential part of the back shed, as respects the hot- house, is the situation for the furnace and fuel, or steam-apparatus, with which no other use to which it may be applied must be allowed to interfere. Sometimes back sheds are not enclosed, but supported on pillars, in which case they are used for fermenting tan, leaves, or dung, growing mushrooms on ridges of dung, holding pots, pease-sticks, and other similar purposes. Where the range of hot-houses is situated in the middle of the garden, great care must be taken, that it present nothing offensive, and that the sheds behind neither resemble a row of workshops, alms-houses, brickmakers' sheds, or cattle- hovels. An effectual way of preventing this, is by carrying up the walls of the sheds as high as the other walls, thus completely concealing their roofs. SUBSECT. 6. Furnaces and Flues. 1647. The most general mode of heating hot-houses is by fires and smoke-Jlues, and on a small scale, this will probably long remain so. Heat is the same material, however pro- duced ; and a given quantity of fuel will produce no more heat when burning under a boiler than when burning in a common furnace. Hence, with good air-tight flues, formed of well burnt bricks and tiles accurately cemented with lime-putty, and arranged so as the smoke and hot air may circulate freely, every thing in culture, as far as respects heat, may be perfectly accomplished. 1648. The hot-JiouseJire-place, or furnace, consists of several parts : a chamber, or oven, to contain the fuel, surrounded by brick-work, in which fire-brick (a sort containing a large proportion of sand, and thus calculated by their hardness not to crumble by heat, &c.) is used; a hearth or iron grating, on which the fuel is laid; a pit or chamber in which the ashes drop from this grating, and iron doors to the fuel-chamber and ash-pit. Y 2 324 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 271 1 649. The iron doors admit of several varieties ; but it does not appear that there is any great difference in the effect produced by the different plans of Nicol, Hay, Stewart, and others. A double door has the advantage of durability, of preserving heat, and of not so readily admitting cool air to pass over the fire ; which air, of course, must be less heated, and consequently less capable of heating the flue than such as, entering from below, passes through it. The use of the ash-pit door is to act as a regulator to the current of air, or as a damper or suffocator. 1 650. Vacuities have been, formed around furnaces, and by communications between these and the open air, and an air -flue in the house, a stream of heated air has been introduced : but this air is so little at the command of the gardener ; is so dried up or burnt, as the phrase is, that is, mixed with offensive gases from decomposed water, burned oil, iron, sulphur, or very fine dust ; and so liable to be mixed with smoke, that such plans are now generally laid aside. Vacuities, however, are frequently formed round furnaces, and along the first four or six feet of the flue, in order to temperate the heat in that part ; but such vacuities rarely have any communication with the air of the house. Where a house of considerable length and volume is to be heated, it is generally deemed better to increase the number of furnaces than to increase their size, or have recourse to air-flues ; for when the latter practice is resorted to, they are necessarily projected so far into the shed, or otherwise kept back from the house, that a great part of the heat is lost in the mass of brick-work which surrounds them. Small furnaces, on the contrary, may be built in great part under the walls or floor of the house. In countries where turf, wood, or inferior coal, is used for fuel, the chamber of the furnace must be large ; on the contrary, where the best coal, cinders, charcoal, or coke (the three last, the best of all fuel for hot-houses, as having no smoke), is used, they may be made smaller in proportion to the different de- grees of intensity of the heat produced by these different materials. In fixing on the situation of furnaces, care must be taken that they are always from one to two feet under the level of the flue, in order to favor the circulation of the hot air and smoke, by allow- ing it to ascend. 1651. A small lime-kiln (Jig. 271. a) is in some places constructed or fixed over hot-house furnaces for burning lime ; and when the heat, which passes through the limestone, is made to enter the flues ($), it is evident a real benefit must result from the practice, as the heat applied to the burning of the lime in the common way escapes in the atmosphere. The grate or. fuel bars (rf) are contrived to draw out, by means of a grooved frame (c), so that when the lime is burned, it then drops into the ash-pit (6). 1652. As to the size of hot-house fire- places, the door of the furnace may be from ten inches to one foot square ; the fuel- chamber from two to four feet long, from eighteen inches to two feet wide, and of the same dimensions as to height. Every thing depends on the kind of fuel to be used. For Newcastle coal, a chamber of two feet long, eighteen inches broad, and eighteen inches high, will answer as well as one of double the size, where smoky Welsh or Lancashire coal is to be used. Various contrivances, as hoppers, horizontal wheels, &c. have been invented for supplying fuel to furnace-fires without manual labor, and especially during night ; but from the nature of combustion, and the common mate- rials used in this country to supply it, no effectual substitute has yet been discovered. If wood or charcoal, or even cinders or coke were used, there would be a greater chance of such inventions succeeding, but we do not think ourselves warranted in detailing any of them. 1653. The modes of constructing flues are various. The original practice was to build them on the naked earth, like drains or conduits ; or in the solid walls of the backs and fronts of the pits, like the flues of dwelling-houses. The first improvement seems to have been that of detaching them from the soil by building them on flag-stones, or tiles sup- ported by bricks ; and the next was, probably, that of detaching them from every descrip- tion of wall, and building their sides as thin as possible. A subsequent amelioration consisted in not plastering them within, but in making their joints perfect by lime-putty, by which means the bricks were left to exert their full influence in giving out the heat of the smoke to the house. BOOK III. HOT-HOUSE FURNACES AND FLUES. 325 1654. The sides of common flues are commonly built of bricks placed on edge^ and the top covered by tiles, either of the full width of the flue outside measure, or one inch nar- rower, and the angles filled up with mortar, which Nicol prefers, as neater. Where a stone that will endure fire-heat without cracking is found to be not more expensive than tiles, it is generally reckoned preferable, as offering fewer joints for the escape of the smoke. Such stones are sometimes hollowed on the upper surface, in order to hold water for the benefit of plants in pots, or for steaming the house. 1655. Broad and deep flues, agreeably to the Dutch practice, have been 272 recommended by Stevenson (Caled. Mem.) ; that of making them narrow and deep, agreeably to the practice in Russia, is recommended by Oldacre, gardener to Sir Joseph Banks, and that of using thin bricks (Jig. 272.) with thick edges, by S. Gowen (Hort. Trans, iii. ) In Gowen's flues, the section (Jig. 273. a) shows less materials than any other brick flue, the covers (6) and the side wall bricks (c) being quite thin, the base requisite for building the latter on one another being obtained by the thickness of their edges (d, e), which is equal to that of common bricks. * 1656. Can-flues (jig. 274.), long since used by the Dutch, imbedded in sand, and for the last fifty years occasionally in Eng- land, are sometimes employed. They consist of earthen pipes, straight (a), or rounded at the ends for returns (b), and joined together by cement, placed on bricks (c). They are rapidly heated, and as soon cooled. None of the heat, however, which passes through them, can be said to be absorbed and lost in the mass of enclosing matter, as Knight and Sir Joseph Banks (Hort. Trans.) assert to be the 274 275 case with common flues. They are only adapted for moderate fires, but judiciously chosen, may frequently be more suitable and profitable than common flues ; as, for example, where there are only slight fires wanted occasionally ; or where there is a re- gular system of watching the fires, in which case, but not otherwise, the temperature can be regulated with sufficient certainty. 1657. Ttie embrasure flue (flg.275.) is the invention of Sir G. Mackenzie, and is by him strongly recommended, as exposing a greater heated surface in proportion to its length. (Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 175.) 1658. Cast-iron flues have also been recom- mended on account of their durability, but unless they were to be imbedded in sand, or masonry, they are liable, in an extreme degree, to the same objections as can-flues. A triangular cast-iron flue, to be coated over with a mixture of one part clay and three of sand, is recommended for trial by Sir G. Mackenzie. (Hort. Trans, v. 216.) For our part we cannot perceive a single circumstance in favor of its adoption. 1659. The best sort of flues, after all that has been said on the subject, is, in our opi- nion, the common form, built of thin well burned bricks neatly jointed, with the bottom and top of tiles, and no plaster used either inside or outside. Where only one course of a flue can be admitted the broader it is the more heat will be given out as it proceeds, and as a consequence, one extremity of the space to be heated will be hotter than the other ; a return or double course of a narrow flue is, therefore, almost always preferable to one course of a broad flue. With respect to the embrasure flue, flues with iron tubes, or iron covers, and various others that have been recommended or described in recent volumes of the Horticultural Society's Transactions, they are liable, in our opinion, to great objections, and chiefly to produce sudden excesses of heat, and in general as tending to extremes of temperature. 1660. The size of flues is seldom less than nine inches wide, by fourteen or eighteen inches high inside measure, which suits a furnace for good coal, whose floor or chamber is two feet long, eighteen inches wide, and eighteen inches high. According as the object varies, so must the proportion both of furnaces and flues. (Designs for Villas, &c. 1812; Y 3 326 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. Hart, Trans, vol. iv.) The furnaces from whence the flues proceed, are generally placed behind the back wall, as being unsightly objects ; but in point of utility, the best situation is at the end of the front wall, so as it may enter the house, and proceed a con- siderable length without making an angle. A greater utility, however, is here given up for fitness ; it being more fitting in a gentleman's garden that something should be sa- crificed to neatness, than that all should be sacrificed to profit. .1661. The direction of flues, in general, is round the house, commencing always within a short distance of the parapet, and after making the course of three sides, that is, of the end at which the fire enters, of the front, and of the opposite end, it returns (in narrow houses) near to or in the back wall, or (in wide houses) up the middle, forming a path ; and in others, immediately over or along side of the first course. In all narrow houses this last is the best mode. 1662. The power of flues depends so much on their construction, the kind of fuel, the roof, mode of glazing, &c. that very little can be affirmed with any degree of certainty on this subject ; 3000 cubic feet of air is in general enough for one fire to command in stoves or forcing-houses ; and 5000 in lean-to green-houses. In houses exposed on all sides, 2000 cubic feet is enough in stoves, and 3000 cubic feet for green-houses. The safest side on which to err is rather to attach too little than too much extent to each fire, as ex- cessive fires generally force through the flues some smoke or mephitic air ; and besides produce too much heat at that part of the house where the flue enters. 1663. Dampers, or valves, are useful in flues and chimneys, both in case of accident and also to moderate the heat, or in case of one furnace supplying two flues, to regulate the passage of smoke and heat. For general purposes, however, the ash-pit door is perfectly sufficient. The damper, and furnace, and ash-pit doors ought seldom to be all shut at the same time, as such a confinement of the hot air of the flue is apt, owing to its ex- pansion by increased heat from the hot masonry, to force some of it through the joints of the flue into the house. 1664. Chimney-tops are generally built on the coping of the back wall, and some- times ornamented with mouldings, and even disguised as vases. Where there are only one or two to a conservatory or other house of ornament, these last modes may be allowable ; but in culinary ranges, it appears to us an unsuitable application of orna- ment either to form on the stone or brick chimneys many mouldings, or to disguise them, as urns or vases. When these last are to be adopted, cast-iron presents abundant facilities of economical execution. There is a four-sided composition -stone chimney-pot recently come into use near London, which will answer extremely well till it becomes so common as to be reckoned vulgar. Sometimes the flues are carried under ground to some distance from the hot-house, and the chimney carried up in a group of trees, or other- wise concealed. This practice is suitable to detached buildings formed of glass on all sides. SUBSECT. 7. Steam Boilers and Tubes. 1 665. Steam affords the most simple and effectual mode of heating hot-houses, and indeed large bodies of air in every description of chamber, for no other fluid is found so con- venient a carrier of heat. The heat given out by vapor, differs in nothing from that given out by smoke, though an idea to the contrary prevails among gardeners, from the cir- cumstances of some foul air escaping into the house from the flues, especially if these are over-heated or over- watered ; and from some vapor issuing from the steam -tubes when these are not perfectly secure at the joints. Hence flues are said to produce a burnt or drying heat, and steam-tubes a moist or genial heat, and in a popular sense this is cor- rect for the reasons stated. It is not, however, the genial nature of steam heat which is its chief recommendation for plant-habitations, but the equality of its distribution, and the distance to which it may be carried. Steam can never heat the tubes, even close to the boiler, above 212 degrees, and it will heat them to the same degree, or nearly so, at the distance of 1000, 2000, or an indefinite number of feet. Hence results the convenience of heating any range or assemblage of hot-houses, however great, from one boiler, and the lessened risk of over or insufficient heating at whatever distance the house may be from the fire-place. The secondary advantages of heating by steam are the saving of fuel and labor, and the neatness and compactness of the whole apparatus. Instead of a gardener having to attend to a dozen or more fires, he has only to attend to one ; instead of ashes, and coal, and unsightly objects at a dozen or more places in a garden, they are limited to one place ; and instead of twelve paltry chimney-tops, there is only one, which being necessarily large and high, may be finished as a pillar so as to have effect as an object ; instead of twelve vomitors of smoke and flakes of soot, the smoke may be burned by using Parkes's or some other smoke-consuming furnace. The steam-tubes occupy much less space in the house than flues, and require no cleaning ; they may often pass under paths where flues would extend too deep ; there is no danger of steam not drawing or circulating freely as is often the case with flues, and always when they are too narrow or BOOK III. STEAM BOILERS AND TUBES. 327 too wide, or do not ascend from the furnace to the chimney ; steam is impelled from the boiler and will proceed with equal rapidity along small tubes or large ones, and descend- ing or ascending. Finally, with steam, insects may be effectually kept under in hot-houses, with the greatest ease, by merely keeping the atmosphere of the house charged with vapor from the tubes for several hours at a time. 1666. The disadvantages of steam as a vehicle for conveying heat to hot-houses are few. On a small scale it is more expensive than the mode by flues, and more trouble is required to attend to one boiler than to one or even two or three furnaces. These are all the dis- advantages we know of. It has been stated by some that steam draws up or etiolates bo- tanic plants, and lessens the flavor of fruits ; but we are inclined to consider such effects, when attendant on plants or fruits in houses heated by steam, as resulting from some de- ficiency of management in other points of culture. 1667. The boilers used to generate steam are formed of cast or wrought iron, or copper, and of different shapes. Wrought-iron and an oblong form are generally preferred at present, and the smoke-consuming furnace most approved is that of Parkes. 1668. The tubes used for conveying steam are formed of the same metals as the boilers ; but cast-iron is now generally used. Earthen or stone ware tubes have been tried ; but it is extremely difficult to prevent the steam from escaping at their junctions. The tubes are laid along or around the house or chamber to be heated, much in the same manner as flues, only less importance is attached to having the first course from the boiler towards the coldest parts of the house, because the steam-tube is equally heated throughout all its length. As steam circulates with greater rapidity, and conveys more heat in proportion to its bulk, than smoke or heated air, steam-pipes are consequently of much less capacity than smoke- flues, and generally from three to six inches diameter inside measure. Where extensive ranges are to be heated by steam, the pipes consist of two sorts, mains or leaders for sup- ply, and common tubes for consumption or condensation. Contrary to what holds in circulating water or air, the mains may be of much less diameter than the consumption pipes, for the motion of the steam is as the pressure ; and as the greater the motion, the less the condensation, a pipe of one inch bore makes a better main than one of any larger dimension. This is an important point in regard to appearance as well as economy. In order to procure a large mass of heated matter, M'Phail and others have proposed to place them in flues, where such exist. They might also be laid in cellular flues built as Y 4 328 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. cellular walls. (Jig. 238.) The most complete mode, however, is to have three parallel ranges of steam-pipes of small diameter, communicating laterally by cocks. Then, when least heat is wanted, let the steam circulate through one range of pipes only ; when more, open the cocks which communicate with the second range; and when most, let all the three ranges be filled with steam. This plan has been adopted by Messrs. Lod- diges at Hackney, and Messrs. Bailey in heating the hot-houses at Knowle and other places. 1669. As an example of the power and convenience of steam, as a medium of conveying heat to hot-houses, we may refer to the garden, mansion, and farm-yard of Edward Gray, Esq. of Harringay House, Hornsey, where ten large hot-houses, and the largest of them 550 feet from the boiler, have been heated in a masterly manner by Messrs. Bailey. There are for this purpose two boilers (Jig.276. a& b} : one smaller than the other for mild' weather, and when the whole of the forcing-houses are not in operation ; and the other larger as a re- serve boiler in case of accident, as an accessory power in extremely severe weather, or for use alone in cold weather. A main from these boilers heats in succession two graperies (c, d) two pineries (e,f], a peach-house (g), strawberry-pit (A), plant-stove (i), grapery (/t), green-house ( /), conservatory (i), and a mushroom-house, in all upwards of 50,000 cubit feet of air. In addition it supplies a steam-apparatus in the farm-yard () ; and it would also heat the mansion (o) if required. The boilers to this steam-apparatus are on the most approved construction : they are fitted up with furnaces for consuming the smoke Q>), have safety-valves (y), a supply-cistern (r), and chimneys (s) sufficiently high to pre- vent what smoke or contaminated air may pass off by them from injuring the garden. So effectually is heat carried by steam, that at the extreme distance from the boiler (t) a thermometer applied to the steam-pipe will rise to within two degrees of what it will stand at close to the boiler. The whole is a most masterly performance. 1670. Pipes of hot water have been proposed to be circulated through hot-houses by Knight (Hort. Trans, vol. iii.); the plan was tried many years ago by the late Gould, gardener to Prince Potemkin, in the immense conservatory of the Tauridian palace at Petersburgh. There, how r ever, pumps were employed to re-deliver the water to the boiler. It was adopted to a certain extent by Davis, a sugar-boiler in Essex ; but it does not appear likely to become general. The only advantage proposed is, that should the boiler or steam-apparatus go wrong in the night-time, pipes filled with water would be longer of cooling than pipes filled with steam. It has been asserted in reply, that an appa- ratus capable of circulating hot-water, would be much more likely to go out of order than one adapted to circulate steam. SUBSECT. 8. Trellises. 1671. Trellises are of the greatest use in forcing-houses and houses for fruiting the trees of hot climates. On these the branches are readily spread out to the sun, of whose influence every branch, and every twig and single leaf partake alike, whereas, were they left to grow as standards, unless the house were glass on all sides, only the extremities of the shoots would enjoy sufficient light. The advantages in point of air, water, pruning, and other parts of culture, are equally in favor of trellises, independently altogether of the ten- dency which proper training has on woody fruit-trees, to induce fruitfulness. 1672. The material of the trellis is either wood or metal ; its situation in culinary hot- houses is against the back wall, close under the glass roof, or in the middle part of the house, or in all these modes, Sometimes it is in separate parts, and either fixed or moveable ; and in some cases, though rarely, it is placed across the area of the house. Sometimes it is introduced ornamentally in arches, festoons, &c. The most general plan is to place it under the glass roof, and at the distance of from ten to twenty inches from it, according to the length of the footstalk of the leaves of the plants to be trained, 1673. The back watt trellis was formerly in general use, and considered the principal part of the house for a crop ; but that is now only the case in narrow houses. In many cases a trellis is still applied against the back wall for temporary crops, till the plants trained under the front glass trellis cover the roof ; or for figs, which are found to succeed better than most trees under the shade of others. 1674. The middle trellis is generally recurvate so as not to exclude the light from the back wall. Sometimes it is horizontal for the same purpose, and sometimes it is omitted, and dwarf standards preferred in its room. 1675. The front or roof trellis- generally extends under the whole of the roof, at a mo- derate distance (256, 6) from it, according to circumstances. It is generally formed of wires stretched horizontally at 6 or 8 inches' distance, and retained in their places by being passed through wrought-iron trellis-rods proceeding from the parapet to the back wall, or the lower edges of the rafters, when formed in a manner adapted for this end. BOOK III. PITS, STAGES, DOORS, PATHS, &c. 329 1676. The Jtxed rafter-trellis consists ordinarily of three wires, which pass through the points of crosses (Jig. 277.), in breadth from fourteen to eighteen inches, and which crosses are screwed to the under edge of the rafter ; the first fixed at the plate of the parapet, and the last at the upper end of the rafter, and the intermediate ones at distances of from three to four feet. 1677. The moveable rafter-trellis consists of a rod bent parallel to the roof, with horizontal studs or rods, extending from 6 to 10 inches on each side, containing two collateral wires, the rod itself forming the third. This rod is hinged, or moves in an eye or loop, fixed either immediately above the plate of the parapet, or near the top of the front glass. It terminates within one or two feet of the back wall, and is suspended from the roof by two or more pieces of chain attached to the studs, the links of which are put on hooks attached to proper parts of the roof. Their advantage is chiefly in the case of very early forcing, when they can be let down two or three feet from the glass, and thus is lessened the risk of injury from frost. A whole sheet or tegument of trellis, if desirable, may be lowered and raised on the same general plan. (See the details, Hort. Trans, vol. iii.) Rafter-trellises are in general used only for such houses as are not chiefly devoted to vines ; such as pineries, peach-houses, and sometimes green-houses. 1678. The secondary trellis is placed from six inches to eighteen inches behind the first, and is used for training shoots of the current year, while that nearest the light is devoted to such as are charged with fruit. In ordinary trellises, the wires are generally placed from nine inches to a foot asunder, in a horizontal direction ; on the secondary trellis they are placed at double that distance. 1679. The cross trellis has been sometimes employed in peach-houses, and is strongly recommended by Sir George Mackenzie, in what he calls an economical hot-house. These trellises, however, unless kept very low, darken the house to such a degree as to prevent the ripening of fruits. They may be useful for nurserymen for training peaches or fig- trees for sale, but for culinary forcing are worse than useless. Sir G. M.'s house, though lauded by Dr. Duncan (Caled. Memoirs, vol. ii.), was soon obliged to be cleared of its cross trellisses, and restored to the common form. The only houses where such trellises can be used with any reasonable prospect of advantage, are such as are placed south and north, and span-roofed, or glass on all sides. On these two or more lines of low trellis may be placed, and the plants will enjoy the forenoon's sun on one side, and the after- noon's sun on the other. 1680. The entrance to hot-houses is commonly at each end, and sometimes in the middle, either of which modes answers perfectly where the ground-plan is a parallelo- gram ; but for any description of curvilinear house, the entrance is more commodiously made through a lobby at each end of the house, and which lobby is best formed behind the wall. When there are a number of curvilinear houses placed against one wall, one door in the wall between each will serve every purpose, and the whole will be at once elegant and commodiously connected. (Jig. 262.) SUBSECT. 9. Paths, Pits, Stages, Shelves, Doors, $c. 1681. The paths in hot-houses vary in direction, breadth, and construction. In ge- neral, one path runs parallel to the front, sometimes upon the front flue, but more gene- rally beside it ; at other times, as in peach-houses, it passes near the back wall, or through the middle of the house. In pineries and houses with pits, it generally surrounds these, and in green-houses it is commonly confined to a course parallel to the front and ends. Some of the most prnamental paths we have yet seen have been formed by Messrs. Bailey, of cast-iron plates, laid over steam-pipes, and so perforated as to form an elegant running pattern, or cast-iron carpet. 1682. The materials of which the path is composed in the case of some houses, are mere planks, or lattice-work, supported on cross pieces of timber, in order to admit the sun and air to the soil below, and not to indurate it by the pressure of feet. An improve- ment, on this mode consists in using grated cast-iron plates, which are more durable, and may be set on iron stakes driven in till their tops are on a level, and at a proper height, &c. These gratings are also particularly preferable when the path is over a flue, not only as presenting a cooler surface to walk on than the covers of the flue, but also by readily admitting the ascent of the heat in the interstices, and preventing the movement of the covers by the motion of walking. But the best material for a permanent path, as in green-houses, botanic stoves, &c. is argillaceous flag-stone, and of this one of the best varieties is that obtained from Arbroath, and known by the name of Arbroath pavement. It is a light grey schistus, which rises in lamina of from three to six inches in thick- ness, and eight or ten feet square ; requires very little work on the surface ; and has the property of but very slightly absorbing moisture from the atmosphere, or from the 330 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. moist ground on which it may be placed. Tims, unless when watered on purpose, it always appears perfectly dry and agreeable, however moist the soil below. Where the paths in a house are on different levels, they are commonly united by steps ; but an inclined plane, when not steeper than one inch in six, will generally be found more con- venient for the purposes of culture and management ; and if the slope is one in eight, it is more agreeable to ascend or descend than a stair. 1683. Pits, as applied to the interior parts of houses, are excavations, or rather en- closures, for holding bark or other fermentable substances. They should be formed so as the plants may stand at a moderate distance from the glass, which of course depends on the nature of these plants, whether dwarf bushy plants, as the pine, or taller, as palms and hot-house trees. They are generally surrounded by walls of brick, four or nine inches thick, or to save room, by plates of cast-iron, stone, or slate. Sometimes the slope of their surface approaches to that of the roof ; but as, in this case, the tan or leaves in the course of fermentation, do not settle or compress regularly, the pots are thrown off their level, and therefore the more common way is to adopt a slope not exceeding 5, or to form a level surface. Tan will ferment with all the rapidity necessary for bottom heat, if in a layer of two and a half or three feet thick, and therefore no tan-pits need exceed that depth. Those for leaves may be somewhat deeper. Heat from fire, or steam, or water, is sometimes substituted for that afforded by fermentable substances, and in these cases various forms of construction are adopted. For fire-heat, flues are made to cir- culate under a covering of pavement, on which sand, gravel, scoria, or sawdust, is placed to preserve a moist heat round the pots. An air-chamber is thus formed under the pit, from which the heated air may be allowed to escape, if desired, by upright tubes, with stops, as in the Chelsea garden, or small openings in the side walls of the pit, as at N. Kent's, of Clapton, or as we suggested and executed at different places in 1804. (Tr. on Hoth. 8vo. Edin. 1804. Hort. Trans, vol. ii.) Another mode consists in filling the vacuities round the flues with loose stones (as in the Glasgow garden), flints, brick-bats, or large gravel. These materials, when once heated, retain their heat a very long time, and give it out slowly to the superincumbent mass of sand, gravel, or other media, in which the pots may be plunged. Sometimes soil is placed over this stratum of stone and gravel, and the plants inserted in the soil. Pines have been successfully grown in this way at Underley Park from our suggestions. (Tr. on Hoth. 8vo. Edin. 1804. : Tr. on Country Resid. vol. i. 1806.) Another, and very old method of heating pits by smoke is by forming a vault under them, building in a furnace and ash-pit door at one end, and a chimney at that opposite. This is the mode originally used in France and Germany. (Encyc. Method, in vol. d'Aratoire et Jardinage, art. Serre.} Knight suggests the idea of building the walls of bark-pits cellular, and of admitting at their bottom a current of external air, to be heated in the cells, and issue in that state into the house. This he " feels confident" will save fuel, but as it would be at the expense of the heat of the bark or other fermenting material in the pit, it does not appear to us that any advantage would result from the plan. (Hort. Trans, vol. v. 246.) 1684. Pits may be heated by steam by substituting tubes for flues, and in the case of the vault, merely by introducing the steam-tube about the middle of the space, and omit- ting the chimney. Or the tubes may circulate at once in the tan, sand, or sawdust; or a vacuity may be formed not more than six inches deep, the whole width of the pit, covered by pierced oak boards, and the steam introduced there at proper intervals. All these and other plans have been tried by Butler, at Knowle, near Prescot, in 1791 ; Mawer, at Dairy, in 1795 ; Thomson, at Tynningham, in 1805 ; Gunter, at Earl's Court, in 1818 ; W. Phelps, of Wells, in 1822 (H. Trans, v. 357.), and various other persons ; accompanied, as was to be expected, by different degrees of success. A cistern of water of the size of the pit has been heated by steam, and left to give out its heat to the superin- cumbent materials of the pit, by Count Zuboff, at Petersburgh. We have seen cucum- bers grown over a cistern in which the hot water from a distillery passed through. The result of all the attempts hitherto made to find a substitute for the heat of ferment- able substances, as applied to pits in which pots are to be plunged, is not such as to warrant much deviation from the usual practice. But that bottom heat may be very generally dispensed with altogether, at least with ornamental plants, modern experience goes far to prove ; and it is more likely that it will be given up altogether, and bottom moisture obtained by plunging the pots in gravel or scoria, than that methods so expen- sive, and attended with so much risk to the plants, will ever come into general use. 1685. Beds and borders in hot-houses are generally formed on the ground level, though sometimes raised above it. They are either composed of earth, for the direct growth of plants, or of gravel or scoria, in or on which to place pots. When the use of tan is given up, as in some plant-stoves, the tan-pits are filled with gravel, on or in which, the pots are set or plunged. Where heat and moisture are judiciously applied, this mode is found to succeed perfectly, as at the Comte de Vandes', Bayswater, and Messrs. Loddiges', Hackney. BOOK III. DETAILS FOR WATER, AIR, &c. 331 1686. Shelves, excepting such as are placed near the ground, or almost close under the upper angle of the roof, are extremely injurious to the vegetation going forward in the body of the house by the exclusion of light. This consideration, therefore, must be kept in view in placing them ; m some cases they are inadmissible, as in conservatories ; in others, as in propagating-houses, the light they exclude can better be spared, than in fruiting or flowering departments. For forcing strawberries, they may be introduced under the roof in vine and peach-houses, and removed when their shade proves inju- rious, &c. The ordinary form is that of a flat board ; but an improvement consists in nailing two fillets along its edges, and covering the board with a thin layer of small gravel or scoria. This preserves a cool genial moisture which keeps the earthen pot moist, and lessens the effect on the earth of alternate dryings and waterings ; and it also admits the more ready escape of water from the orifices in the bottoms of the pots. Some, in the case of forcing strawberries and French beans, have the fillets or ledges of the shelves so high as to contain two or three inches of water, by which means whole rows of pots can be inundated at one operation ; but this is too indiscriminate an application of a material on which so much in the growth of plants depends. 1687. Stages are shelves in series rising above each other, and falling back so as their general surface may form a slope. They vary in form according to that of the house. The houses with shed roofs and opaque ends have merely a series of steps reaching from one end to the other ; but wherever the ends are of glass, by returning each shelf to the back wall, due advantage is obtained from the light furnished by the glass ends. The addition of ledgement, or turned-up edges to each shelf, and the covering them with gravel, is, of course, as advantageous as in separate shelves, and surely more consonant with natural appearances, than leaving them naked like household, or book shelves. Shelves and platforms of stone are now very general, and found more congenial to the plants than dry painted boards. SUBSECT. 10. Details for Water, Wind, and Renewal of Air. 1688. The reservoirs of water in hot-houses are commonly cisterns of stone or timber, lined with lead, or cast-iron troughs or basins. Sometimes, also, tanks are built in the ground, and lined with lead or cement. The cistern is sometimes placed in an angle, or other spare part of the house, and the water lifted from it at once with the watering-pots ; but a more complete plan is to build it in an elevated part of the back wall, where it may have the benefit of the heat of the house, and whence pipes may branch off to different parts of the house with cocks, every 80 or 40 feet, for drawing supplies. Tanks and cisterns below the level of the front gutter may be supplied great part of the year from the water which falls on the roof ; but more elevated cisterns must either be supplied by pumps, or elevated springs. The sources of supply, and the quality of the water must be taken into consideration before the situation of the cisterns are determined on. In all cases, there must be waste-boxes at the cocks, and waste-pipes from the cistern, to coun- teract the bad effects of leakage. 1689. Artificial rain. A very elegant plan has been invented and executed by Messrs. Loddiges, for producing an artificial shower of very fine rain in hot-houses, by conduct- ing pipes horizontally along the roof, at the distance of six or eight feet, and having these pipes very finely perforated by a needle. According to the power of the supply, one or more pipes may be set to work at a time, and a very fine shower thrown down on the leaves of the plants with the greatest regularity. This has been done in one of the palm-houses of these spirited cultivators at Hackney, and for which a medal was voted to them by the Horticultural Society, in 1817. The following is a particular account of this apparatus. (Hort. Trans, vol. iii. p. 15.) A leaden pipe of half an inch bore is introduced into one end of the house, in such a situation that the stop-cock, which is fixed in it, and which is used for turning on the supply of water, may be within reach : it is then carried either to the upper part, or the back of the house, or to the inside of the ridge of the glass frame-work, being continued horizontally, and in a straight direction, the whole extent of the house, and fastened to the wall or rafters, by iron staples, at convenient distances. From the point where the pipe commences its horizontal direction, it is perforated with minute holes, through each of which the water, when turned on, issues in a fine stream, and, in descending, is broken, and falls on the plants, in a manner resembling a gentle summer shower. The holes are perforated in the pipe with a needle, fixed into a handle like that of an awl ; it being impossible to have the holes too fine, very small needles are necessarily used for the purpose, and in the operation great numbers are of course broken. The situation of the holes in the pipe must be such as to disperse the water in every direction that may be required, and in this particular the relative position of the pipe, and of the stations of the plants to be watered, must be considered, in miking the perforations. The holes are made, on an average, at about two inches' distance from each other, horizontally, but are somewhat more distant near the commence- ment, and rather closer towards the termination of the pipe, allowing thereby for the relative excess and diminution of pressure, to give an equal supply of water to each end of the house. A single pipe is sufficient for a house of moderate length : one house of Messrs. Loddiges, which is thus watered, is sixty feet long, and the only difference to be made in adapting the plan to a longer range, is to have the pipe larger. The reservoir to supply the pipe, must of course be so much above the level, as to exert a sufficient force on the water in the pipe, to make it flow with rapidity, as it will otherwise escape only in drops; and as too strong a power may be readily controlled by the stop-cock, the essential point to be attended to, in this particular, is to secure force enough. From the above details it will be observed, that 332 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART It. some nicety is required in the arrangement and formation of the machinery ; but it is only neteSsary to view the operation in Messrs. Loddiges' house, to be convinced of the extreme advantage and utility of the invention, when it is properly executed. (Shbine, m Hort. Trans, vol. iii. p. 15.) We adopted this plan on a smaller scale in our erections at Bayswater, and the whole of the plants under the square dome (in fig. 253.) were watered from a perforated pipe, which passed round the dome near its apex, and radiated from thence a very fine shower, which reached every part of the floor beneath. 1690. Wind in hot-houses has been attempted, or rather recommended to be attempted, by Dr. Anderson and others by means of fans. If any thing of this sort were desirable, the Eolian machine invented by B. Deacon, already mentioned (1599.) might be employed, either placed in the house, and kept in motion by human, or mechanical power, or placed at one end to force in or draw out the air. In a range of houses form- ing a circle or square, or any endless figure, a perpetual breeze might be readily produced in the following manner. Place under the floor, a powerful fan of the width of the house. Exactly over the fan, place a glass division across the house, and let the fan draw in the air through apertures in the floor on one side of the division, and give it out through similar apertures, or through tubes of any sort on the other. It is evident, a regular current would thus be produced, more or less powerful according to the size of the fan, and the rapidity of its motion. 1691. Ventilators, $c. The general mode of renewing the air, is by opening the sashes or doors of the house, in periods when the exterior temperature and weather is such as not to injure the plants within. The cool air of the atmosphere being then more dense than that of the house, rushes in till it cools down the air of the house nearly to an equilibrium with that without. The next mode most common, is that of having a range of boards hinged to oblong openings, in the lower and upper parts of the house, and generally in the front and back wall : those in the back wall opening to the south, or having the opening otherwise guarded, so as to prevent the rushing in of cold north winds. Sometimes these ventilators are made with a cylinder and fans to extract the air, and sometimes, as most generally, they are mere openings of small dimensions ; but, in order to effect any circulation or renewal with this sort of ventilators, the opening must have an area of two or three feet, and there must be a considerable difference of temperature between the air of the house and the open air. 1692. To effect the renewal, or cooling doivn the air, without manual labor, some con- trivances have been adopted besides the automaton gardener of Kewley already described. (Jig. 217.) Dr. Anderson and J. Williams made use of oblong bladders made fast at one end, and with the other attached by means of a cord to a moveable pane or small sash. The bladder being filled with air at the common temperature allowed for the house, and hermetically sealed, the window remains at rest ; but as the air of the house becomes heated, so does that of the bladder, which consequently swells, and assumes the globular form, its peripheries are brought nearer together, and of course the sash or pane pulled inwards. In a small house this scheme may answer perfectly well for the pre- vention of extreme heat. Another mode is by using a rod of metal, such as lead, of the whole length of the house, and one end being fixed to the wall, on the other is attached a series of multiplying wheels, the last of which works into one, which in various ways may open valves or sashes. As the expansion of lead is considerable, the effect of twenty degrees of increase with proper machinery, might perhaps guard against extremes, as in the other case. A column of mercury , with a piston-rod and machinery attached, has also been used, and a ring on a barometrical principle is suggested by Silvester; but the only complete mode is that of Kewley. For details at greater length on all the departments of the construction of hot-houses, see Remarks, &c. 4to. 1817. SECT. IV, Mushroom-houses. 1693. The mushroom-house is a genus of plant-habitation, which differs from the others in requiring very little light. The simplest form of the mushroom-house is that of an open shed or roof, supported on props, for throwing off the rain, and protecting from per- pendicular cold. Under this, the mushrooms are grown on ridges, covered by straw, &c. to maintain the requisite temperature. 1694. The Jlued mushroom-house (Jig. 278.) is an improvement on the shed, by being better calculated for growing them in winter. Provided it be placed in a dry situation, the aspect, size, proportions, doors, or windows, are of little consequence. To be suffi- 278 BOOK III. MUSHROOM-HOUSES. 33S ciently warmed by one fire in winter, it should not contain more than 10,000 cubic feet of air. As mushrooms will not thrive without some light, and at all events require air, it ought to have two or three windows or valves for these purposes. 1695. The German mushroom-house (Jigs. 279, 280 & 281,) It is a common practice with German gardeners to grow mushrooms on shelves, and in pots and boxes, placed behind stages, or other dark parts of their forcing-houses otherwise unoccupied. (Dietrich's Gartner's Lexicon; Ranslebens Briejfe, &c.) This practice was carried to Russia, and from Russia was brought to England by Isaac Oldacre, who thus describes the sort of house adapted for the German practice. " The outside walls (G, H.Jigs. 279, 280.) should be eight and a half feet high, for four heights of beds, and six feet and a half for three heights, and ten feet wide witliinside the walls ; this is the most convenient width, as it admits of a set of shelves three feet and a half wide on each side ; and affords a space through the middle of the house, three feet wide for a double flue and walk upon it. The wall should be nine inches thick, and the length of the house as it may be judged necessary. When the outside of the house is built, make a floor or ceiling over it fas high as the top of the outside walls) of boards one inch thick, and plaster it on the upper side (e, e) with road-sand well wrought together, one inch thick (this will be found supe- rior to lime), leaving square trunks (/) in the ceiling, nine inches in diameter, up the middle of the house, at six feet distance from each other, with slides (s) under them, to admit and take off air when necessary ; this being done, erect two single brick walls (y, v), each five bricks high, at the distance of five feet and a half from the outside walls, to hold up the sides of the floor-beds (a, a), and form one side of the air-flues (tu, tu), leaving three feet up the middle (t x t ) of the house for the flues. Upon these walls (v, v) lay planks (t v} four and a half inches wide and three inches thick, in which to mortise the standards (t k) which support the shelves. These standards should be three inches and a half square, and placed four feet six inches asunder, and fastened at the top (k, k), through the ceiling. When the standards are set up, fix the cross bearers (z n, in), that are to support the shelves (o, o), mortising one end of each into the standards (z), the other into the walls (n). The first set of bearers should be two feet from the floor, and each succeeding set two feet from that below it. Having thus fixed the uprights (tk), and bearers (in), at such a height as the building will admit, proceed to form the shelves (o, o) with boards an inch and a half thick, observing to place a board ((/, d), eight inches broad and one inch thick, in the front of each shelf, to support the front of the beds. Fasten this board on the outside of the standards, that the width of the beds may not be 2-79 280 diminished. The shelves being complete, the next thing to be done is the construction of the flue (P, Jig. 281.), which should commence at the end (L) of the house next to the door, run parallel to the shelves the whole length of the house, and return back to the fire-place, where the chimney (S) should be built, the sides of the flue inside to be the height of four bricks, laid flat-ways, and six inches wide, which will make the width of the flues fifteen inches from outside to outside, and leave a cavity (tu, Jigs. 279, 280.) on each side, betwixt the flue and the walls that are under the shelves, and one (xy) up the middle, betwixt the flues, two inches wide, to admit the heat into the house from the sides of the flues. The middle cavity (xy) should be covered with tiles, leaving a space (h) of one inch betwixt each tile, for the admission of the heat. The top of the flue, including the covering, should not be higher than the brick walls that form the front of the floor-beds. The reason why the sides of the flues are recommended to be built stronger than usual, is, because they support the walk. The walk itself is formed by three rows of tiles, the outside rows making the covering of the flues, and those of the centre row are what cover the middle cavity (xy), as above mentioned ; the outside cavities (t u) of the flue are left open, the tiles which are placed over the flues being laid so as not to cover these 334 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. cavities, which allows the heat of the sides of the flues to rise upwards." (Oldacre, in Hort. Trans, vol. ii.) 281 SECT. V. Cold Plant-habitations. 1696. Cold plant-habitations, : though seldom or never erected, yet deserve to be men- tioned as resources under certain circumstances. These circumstances may be, a desire to cultivate the alpine plants of Europe in tropical climates, or to cultivate the mosses and ferns of the north of Europe in its more southern countries. 1697. The principle on which a cold house can be constructed in a warm climate must either be that of the exclusion of the heat by coverings or envelopes ; or the abduction of heat by evaporation or contact with cold bodies. Heat will be, to a certain extent, ex- cluded, by forming the house in the ground ; by excluding the sun's rays from its roof; by a high wall on three sides, leaving only an opening in the middle of the north side ; and by a double or treble roof of glass to the excavation. A house to be cooled by eva- poration may also be sunk in the ground; or it may be raised above it, shaded from the sun, and over it may be supported a number of shower-pipes (1689.), which, by pro- ducing a gentle and continual rain on the glass roof and stone or other sides of the house, would draw off much heat by evaporation. Enclosing it by a line of powerful jets-d'eau would effect the same purpose. To produce cold by abduction, the house might be sunk ; its floor supported on pillars ; and its sides and bottom kept in contact with a running stream ; or, if it could be afforded, ice renewable as it melted. These hints are sufficient to show how cold plant-habitations may be formed in any climate : to enter more at length on the subject would be useless, in a work calculated chiefly for the climate of Britain. CHAP. III. Edifices used in Gardening. 1698. Edifices of different kinds are required in gardening, for carrying on operations, for retaining or preserving materials and products, and for recreative or decorative pur- poses. We shall consider the leading genera in the order of economical, anomalous, and decorative edifices. In all of these, the details of construction belong to civil ar- chitecture ; but the design of the greater part ought to be regulated by the judgment of the gardener or garden-architect. SECT. I. Economical Buildings. 1699. Economical buildings are chiefly dwellings, store-rooms, and working-places, entrance-lodges, and buildings for procuring or retaining water. 1700. The head-gardener's dwelling-house, in small places, often assumes the character of porter's lodge to the gate or entrance ; or is placed in some point of the grounds requiring protection. In all cases it should be near to the garden, and if forcing is carried on, the nearer it is placed to that department the better. Sometimes it is placed in the back sheds, but that is an unwholesome situation ; such sheds fronting the direct north, and without a sirigle opening to the south, east, or west, are entirely excluded from the sun, excepting during a few mornings and evenings in summer. A small enclosure, near the forcing-department, and, if possible, on rising ground, so as to command a view of at least that part of the garden, is to be preferred. With respect to accommodation, no dwelling in this country, for a servant expected to do his duty, ought to contain less on the ground-floor than a kitchen, back-kitchen, and parlor ; on the floor above that, at least two bedrooms, with closets, and other requisite appendages, internal as well as ex- ternal. This will suit a prudent man and his wife, not in circumstances to keep a maid, or to produce a numerous offspring. But for such as afford to keep a servant, or have, or deem it right to have, a large family, or persevere without thinking any thing about BOOK III. ECONOMICAL BUILDINGS. 335 the consequences in generating one child after another, more bedrooms will be necessary, and a larger parlor and kitchen. As a gardener, in common with other domesticated servants, is liable to be removed from the house he occupies at a short notice, and with- out ary reference to his having, or being able to procure another, it follows, as a matter of justice, that what are called house-fixtures should be provided by the master. Water should be conducted to a pump fixed in the back-kitchen ; a furnace and boiler for washing affixed ; a proper range, with oven, &c. dressers, tables, shelves, &c. in the prin- cipal kitchen ; grates, and such closets and clothes-presses placed in the parlor and other rooms, &c. as the occupier would place there, if he held the house on lease. In general, we may observe that a master has seldom occasion to repent making his servants' abode comfortable, and even rather agreeable and elegant, than otherwise. A master of a well regulated mind, indeed, will be anxious to effect this, as far as lies in his power, for every portion of animated nature under his protection. 1701. The gardener's office is necessarily omitted in small places; but it is an essential requisite wherever several men are kept. It should, if possible, adjoin the dwelling, and be connected with the seed-room, fruit-room and cellar, root-cellar, tool-house, and gar- dener's lodge. The furniture or appendages to this room are the writing-desk ; a bookcase, containing a small library, to be lent out to the men ; a map of the garden, and of all the grounds under the master's care ; a herbarium press, and a cabinet for such specimens of plants as the gardener may find it useful to dry for his own use, or, as often happens, for that of his family ; a drawing-board and T square ; a board to be used when new grounds are laying out, as a plain table (in geometry) ; a theodolite, Gunter's chain, and measuring laths ; with any similar articles, as spare thermometers, budding- knives, &c. 1702. The seed-room may be connected with the office by a door in the lobby. This should be a small room, well ventilated, with a cabinet of drawers, as in a common seed- shop, but on a smaller scale, and somewhat different system. The lower tier of drawers should, of course, be the largest, and may be one foot deep by two wide on the face, and eighteen inches broad within. This tier will serve for beans, peas, acorns, mast, &c. A second may be three fourths the size, for carrot, turnip, spinage, larch-seed, &c. A third, half the size, for salad-seeds ; and the fourth for those of pot and sweet herbs, need not be more than four inches deep on the face. The upper part of the cabinet may consist of shallow drawers, divided into ten or twelve compartments each, for flower-seeds ; and on the top of all, as being least in requisition, similar shallow drawers, with moveable parti- tions for bulbous roots. As the kind or kinds placed in each drawer will probably vary every year, it seems better that their names should only be written on paper and pasted on. There ought to be a small counter, with a weighing machine (that of Medhurst is preferable), an ink-piece placed on it, and drawers, with paper bags, packthreads, &c. below. Some seeds, which it is desirable to keep in the fruit, as capsicum, pompion, &c. may be suspended from rows of hooks, fixed in the ceiling. 1703. The fruit-room may be connected with the seed-room. This ought to be well ventilated, for which purpose, like the three other rooms, it ought to have a small fire- place. The fruit-room was formerly a mere loft, where fruits were kept on the floor in common with onions, with no proper means of separation, or arrangement for systematic consumption. Now, however, they are regularly fitted up, either with shelves of lattice- work, on which to place sieves of different sorts of fruit ; or ^ with close shelves, for jars, boxes, &c. according to the various modes adopted of preserving them. The room may be of any form, but one long and narrow (jig. 282. a, a) is generally best adapted for ventilation and heating, or drying, when necessary, by a flue. The system of shelves (6, #) may be placed along one side, and may be raised to the height of six feet or more, (c, c) according to the number wanted. These shelves are formed of open work (rf, d), on which to place square sieves of fruit, each of which should be numbered, and a table or slate (e), containing the corresponding numbers, may be hung up in the room, and 282 S36 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. opposite each number should be a space for noting down daily the number taken out of each sieve for use. From this table statements may be made from time to time of the quantity of fruit on hand for the use of the house-steward. (Maker, in Hort. Trans. vol. ii. 76. ) Forsyth directs that all the floors or shelves on which apples are to be kept or sweated, should be made of white deal, as when red deal is made use of for these purposes, it is liable to give a disagreeable resinous taste to the fruit, and spoil its flavor ; when white deal cannot be procured, he advises covering the shelves with canvass. Those sorts of fruit which keep longest are generally best preserved in jars, excluded from the air, and placed in cold dry situations, not under 32 nor above 40. 1704. The root-cellar should be placed beneath the office and seed-shop ; and the fruit-cellar below the fruit-room, and both descended to from the lobby. The great ob- ject is to keep the air in these apartments cool, and always, as near as possible, of the same degree of coolness : and for this purpose the windows should be small, placed be- low the ground level, and furnished with double or treble casements or sashes. These cellars should also be approached through double doors for the same reason. The fruit - cellar may be fitted up with binns or cells, like a wine cellar, in which casks and jars or sieves of fruit may be placed ; and the root-cellar may have a few divisions on the ground to keep different roots apart, and sand, to keep them of uniform plumpness or moisture. 1 705. The seed rooms or garrets may consist of one for drying and cleaning seeds ; one for 283 drying bidbous roots, as onions, hyacinths, &c. ; and one for drying fruits or preserving them there. In all of these rooms, there should be hooks from the roof for hanging bundles of pot- herbs, branches of seeds, sieves, bags, &c. and a moveable table or counter in the centre of each, with lattice-shelves below for holding sieves of roots, seeds, or fruits. A very small fanning- machine, and a couple of grooved cylinders to act as a threshing-machine, or a Meikle's hand threshing-machine (Jig- 283.) to be worked by two men, are requisite appendages of the seed-room. Supposing these rooms to form one wing to the gardener's house, the office opening into his kitchen ; then the other wing may consist of a tool-house and men's living-room on the ground-floor ; cellars for po- tatoes and fuel for their use under, and sleeping-apartments over, with a door, lobby, and stair, corresponding with the other wing. 1706. The tool-house is commonly a small apartment in the back sheds of hot-houses, in which the tools are laid down or piled up in the angles promiscuously ; but in a proper tool-room, wherever situated, there should be contrivances of different sorts for hanging up the tools, so as their important parts, such as the teeth of rakes, blades of hoes, and spades, &c. may always be so exposed, that the master may see whether or no they are properly cleaned. There are certain tools, of which each workman appropriates one to himself, as spades, scythes, &c. ; in these cases a small space should be allotted to each hired man, with his name affixed, &c. Watering-pots, syringes, engines, &c. should have their moveable parts separated, and be reversed, in order that they may drain and continue dry. Lists, nails, and mat-ties, should be kept in close drawers. Priming- instruments oiled, and laid horizontally on latticed shelves or pins. A grindstone and other stones, and hones, with a vice, and files for sharpening the tines and teeth of forks and rakes, are the appropriate furniture of the tool-house. 1707. The lodge for under-gardeners should never consist of less than three apartments or divisions ; first, an outer lobby, with a pump and exit for water, in which the work- men may wash their hands on entering to their meals, and the party who acts as cook or servant, which is generally taken by turns, may wash, scour, &c. ; secondly, the cook- ing and living room, in which should be an economical kitchen-range, with an oven and boiler included, and proper closets, cupboards, tables, c. to expedite and simplify cooking ; and, thirdly, the bedroom over, where the bedsteads should be of iron, nar- row, and without curtains, and for not more than one person. To each bed, there should be a small clothes-press, in which should be kept the linen, &c. belonging to each bed, and for which the occupier ought to be rendered responsible. A cellar for fuel and edible roots should be formed below. It is a common practice to place the lodges for working gardeners behind the hot-houses, or some high wall, in what is called a back shed. There, in one ill-ventilated apartment, with an earthen or brick floor, the whole routine of cooking, cleaning, eating, and sleeping is performed, and young men are rendered familiar with filth and vermin, and lay the foundation of future diseases, by breathing unwholesome air, and checking the animal functions by cold and damp. How BOOK III. BUILDINGS FOR RAISING WATER. 337 masters can expect any good service from men treated worse than horses, it is difficult to imagine ; but the case is ten-fold worse, when head-gardeners and their families are com- pelled to lodge in these shed-houses. Independently of filth and incommodiousness, the mother never fails to contract, early in life, rheumatism or ague ; and it is only the ex- treme healthfulness of the employment of gardening, and the consequent vigor of the operatives, that ward off till a later day the same and similar diseases in the fathers and journeymen. 1708. As a general arrangement of a gardener's house, office, and other appendages, the house may form a centre ; the office, seed and fruit apartments, cellar, and garrets, one wing ; and the lodge for under-gardeners, tool-house, &c. the other. 1709. A line of sheds is generally placed behind the range of hot-houses, or be- hind the hot-wall, or other high wall of the garden. These are used as stores, or places of reserve for utensils, machines and implements, and for working-sheds. The width and height of this line of sheds is necessarily regulated by the height of the wall. The roof of the shed being towards the north, and therefore without the advantage of the sun to dry it after rains, should not make an angle of less than 40 degrees with the horizon, and as the lower wall or line of props ought, at least, to be seven feet high above the level of the floor of the shed, the width is guided accordingly. All the fitting up requi- site for the part destined to hold materials, is a few hooks and projecting pins for ladders, &c. and a sound floor, either paved or prepared with mortar, Roman cement, and scoria ; and the whole, or the greater part of the division may have props or piers in front, in- stead of a wail and windows. As these sheds generally contain the hot-house furnaces, each of these, or every pair or group of them, ought to be enclosed with a low parapet to retain the fuel, give an orderly and neat appearance, and guard against accidents by fire, which might communicate with mats, litter, &c. Doors generally communicate with the hotrhouses at different points, and near to each of these should be a bench or table on which to set or shift pots, &c. 1710. The part of these sheds more particularly set apart for working, ought to be en- closed with a wall on all sides, and warmed by a fire-place or flue. It ought to be made perfectly light, and well aired by having numerous windows, and along these a range of benches or tables, for potting cuttings or bulbs, sowing seeds, preparing cuttings, num- ber-tallies, painting and naming them, preparing props for plants, hooks for layers, lists for wall-trees, making baskets, wattled hurdles, and a great variety of other operations performed in winter, or severe weather, when little or nothing can be done in the open air. It may by some be thought too great a refinement to place a fire-place or a flue in such sheds ; but if work is really expected to be done in them in cold weather, the saving will soon be rendered obvious. 1711. In small gardens, where there are no hot-houses, one small building is generally devoted to all the purposes for which the office, seed, tool, and fruit rooms, and working- sheds, are used. This should be fitted up with some degree of attention to the various uses for which it is designed, and a fire-place never omitted. 1712. Entrance lodges and gates more properly belong to architecture than gardening. But, as in small places, they are sometimes designed by the garden-architect, or land- scape-gardener, a few remarks may be of use. In respect to style, the lodge ought al- ways to bear as much analogy as possible to the mansion. If the one is Grecian, so should the other ; but the lodge should display less decoration, because, as the mind na- turally ascends from the less to the greater, the lodge would otherwise prove a false index to the mansion. In regard to general form, a cubic mass with a central chimney, is an unvaried comfortless-looking dwelling, especially when small. It is an attempt to form a whole without composing it of parts. A lodge, however small, to be a picturesque ob- ject, ought to contain a principal and subordinate mass or masses, and in the composition of which, the gate and piers may form one gradation. In respect to accommodations for the occupier, it ought never to contain less than three apartments a kitchen or living- room, back kitchen, and sleeping-room, with the usual conveniencies ; and, at least, two sleeping-rooms where there are children. A handsome architectural entrance is but a poor compensation for its want of harmony with the mansion, of which that at Sion- House is an instance, and that at Blenheim of the contrary. But architects, like all of us, are sometimes so wrapt up in their art, or their favorite part of it, that they forget that congruity of parts is essential to the unity of the whole. 1713. Buildings for raising water. There are various contrivances for procuring water in garden-scenery, where it is not found in springs, rills, or lakes ; and where it is found, of collecting and retaining it. The principal of these are wells, conduit-pipes or drains, and reservoirs. Wells are vertical excavations in the earth ; always of such a depth as to penetrate a porous stratum charged with water, and mostly as much deeper as to form a reservoir in this stratum or in that beneath it. A well otherwise excavated is a mere tank for the water which may ooze into it from the surface strata. The form of the well is generally circular, and to prevent the crumbling down or falling in of the sides, this circle is lined with timber^ masonry, or rones of metal. The earthy rau- SCIENCE OF GARDENING. II terials being thus pressed on equally in every point of this circle, are kept in equilibrium. When Che weil is not very deep, and in firm ground, this casing is built from the bottom to top, after the excavation is finished ; but when the soil is loose, the excavation deep, or its diameter considerable, it is built on the top in zones, sometimes separated by hori- zontal sections of thin oak boards, which, with proper management, sink down as the excavation proceeds. There are various other modes, which those who follow this department of architecture are sufficiently conver- sant with. The height to which the water rises in the well, depends on the height of the strata which supply the water ; occasionally it rises to the surface, but generally not within a considerable distance. In this case it is raised by buckets and levers (fig. 284.), by buckets and hand- machines placed over the well, or by buckets raised by horse-machines. (fig- 171 14. The lever and bucket mode is the most ancient and the simplest. _ ___ It is common in the market-gardens round London and Paris, and in most of the villages from France to Berlin, Warsaw, Moscow, Astracan ; and, we are told, it is to be seen in Turkey, Persia, India, and China. The hand and horse-machines are more recent inventions, applicable to market-'gardens. 1715. The process of boring the earth for water has of late been successfully practised in various places, and especially at Tottenham, Middlesex, and Mitcham, Surrey. An augur like that used in draining is employed, and when the spring is reached, the augur hole is kept open by tin tubes soldered one to the other as they are pushed down. Up these tubes the water rises to the height of the source of the spring, and when this height does not reach the surface, a well is dug down to the level to which the water will rise. It is evident that where the spring will rise to the surface boring must be a great saving, but less so in proportion as the source of the spring is low. (London Journal of Arts, &c. Oct. 1822. p. 204.) 1716. Pumps are of various kinds, as the lifting-pump ; the forcing-pump, for very deep wells ; the suction- pump ; and the roller-pump, a recent invention for such as do not exceed thirty-three feet in depth, A good pump for gardens, where the water is not to be raised above twenty-eight or thirty feet in depth, is that of Robertson Buchannan (author of a Treatise on Heating by Steam, &c.), because this pump, which also acts by the pressure of the atmosphere, will raise drainings of dunghills, or even water thickened by mud, sand, or gravel "The points in which it differs from the common pump, and by which it excels, are, that it discharges the water below the piston, and has its valves lying near each other. The advantages of this arrangement are that the sand or other matter, which may be in the water, is discharged without injur- ing the barrel or the piston-leathers ; so that besides avoiding unnecessary tear and wear, the power of the pump is preserved, and it is not apt to be diminished or destroyed in moments of danger, as is often the case with the common and chain pumps ; that the valves are not confined to any particular dimensions, but may be made capable of discharging every thing that can rise in the suction-piece without danger of being choked ; and that if, upon any occasion, there should happen to be an obstruction in the valves, they are both within the reach of a person's hand, and may be cleared at once, without the disjunction of any part of the pump. It is a simple and durable pump, and may be made either of metal or wood, at a moderate expense." Where clear water only is to be raised, Aust's (of Hoxton) curvilinear pump is pre- ferable even to Buchannan's. The advantages depend on the curvilinear form of the barrel, which allows, and indeed obliges, the rod, the handle, and the lever, on which it works, to be all in one piece. Hence simplicity, cheapness, precision of action, more water discharged in proportion to the diameter of the barrel, and less frequent repairs. (Repertory of Arts, Jan. 1821.) Perkins's square-barrelled pump is a powerful engine (London Journal, &c.) ; but this and other contrivances for raising water will be found detailed in works on hydraulics. 1717. Conduits for watering gardens are either open or surface conduits, or internal tubes or apertures. Open conduits are not common in Britain, though very general in France and Italy. They are formed in the commonest gardens of puddled or well incorporated clay ; in the better sort of brick, or rough stone lined with stucco or cement; and in the best,of hewn stone, in regular troughs, carefully jointed both by mecha- nical and chemical means. Internal tubes may be formed of timber, iron, lead, or earthenware. For mains or large supplies, cast-iron is the most durable, and timber the cheapest material ; but for the minute ramifications necessary to afford supplies at different points, lead excels every thing else. A beautiful ap- plication of the principles of chemistry to the jointing of lead pipes, has been made by Kewley (inventor of the automaton gardener) . Instead of a large gibbous joint, formed by plastering on a mass of solder at an expense both of material and time, which in inch-pipes amounts to at least 3s. a joint, Kewley prepares clear transverse sections on the extremities to be joined, places these in perfect contact, heats the pipe within a few degrees of the melting point, and then, with one drop of solder not larger than a pea, he forms a junction as perfect as if no separation had previously existed. By proper irons this is done in three minutes, at an expense, time and materials included, of not more than one penny per joint Earthen pipes in a clayey sub-stratum may be used with economy, to convey water from one point to another ; their disadvantages are liability to fracture or derangement from operations performed on the soil, to guard against which they should be laid at not less than three feet depth from the surface, and well bedded in worked clay. Conduits of common masonry can seldom be advantageously used on a small scale, unless for serving jointly as drains and conduits, but where they are eighteen inches or two feet in diameter, a complete cylinder of masonry may be formed, which, well executed, becomes very durable. It is observed, however, that all conduits of masonry, and even earthen pipes, can only be used BOOK III. ICE-HOUSE. 339 as such where the water is conducted along a level or declining bed ; whereas by metal or wooden pipes, water may pass alternately over hollows and eminences, the latter not being higher than the source, without loss in the ground through which it passes. 1718. Reservoirs may be either tanks, cisterns, basins, or ponds. Tanks and cisterns are sometimes old barrels well tarred or painted, and then sunk in the soil ; occasionally they are framed boxes of timber, the joints filled with oxide of lead and oil, and the whole pitched over, and then placed where they are to remain either above or on a level with the surface. 1719. Ponds or large basins (jig. 286.) are reservoirs formed in excavations, either in soils retentive of water, or rendered so by the use of clay. This clay is tempered, or made compact and tenacious, by working it so as to exclude the larger globules of air and water, and intimately unite all its parts with as much moisture as leaves it plastic. The bottom and sloping sides of the excavation, being smoothed and made firm, this tempered clay or puddle is to be spread evenly over it, from margin to margin, about a foot thick, and well compacted by beating. To preserve it from injury by the pressure of feet, or other accidents, it should be covered with gravel, in thickness according to the supposed liability to accidents. If cattle are to enter it, eighteen inches of coarse gravel, or stones covered with six inches of fine* gravel, will not be too much. Sometimes these basins are lined with pavement, tiles, or even lead, and the last material is the best, where complete dryness is an object around the margin. 286 287 288 1720. Tanks or cisterns (Jig. 287.) are generally excavations in the earth, lined with masonry, and sometimes raised two or three feet above it. This masonry is always built with mortar which sets or hardens under water, as the Dorking and other sorts of lime, gypsum, and any lime mixed with oxide of iron, in the form of what is called Roman cement, or Puzzolana earth. (Davy's Elements of Agr. Chem. lect. vii.) To protect this, the bottom of the cistern or basin is sometimes covered with six or eight inches of clay. Sometimes the bottom of the excavation for a pond or tank, is naturally a retentive clay, while the sides are of porous earth. In this case, the simplest way is to raise a wall, or vertical stratum of puddle (fig. 288.), from the horizontal stratum of clay, to within a few inches of the surface of the ground. 1721. Water for culinary purposes should be preserved in tanks, or in barrels interiorly charred, sunk deep in the ground, and rendered inaccessible to surface water. Tanks should be arched over with ma- sonry, leaving, as ought always to be done in wells, a hole for the pump, sufficiently large to admit a man to clean or repair. A similar construction is proper for reservoirs of liquid manures, but they need not be so deep, as coolness in them is less sought for. (Ratcltff's Agr. of Fland. 1819.) All reservoirs for pure water, to be used in gardening, ought to be exposed to the sun and air. SECT. II. Anomalous Buildings. 1722. Collecting and preserving ice, rearing bees, &c. .however unsuitable or dis- cordant it may appear, it has long been the custom to delegate to the care of the gardener. In some cases also he has the care of the dove-house, fish-ponds, aviary, a menagerie of wild beasts, and places for snails, frogs, dormice, rabbits, &c. but we shall only consider the ice-house, apiary, and aviary, as legitimately belonging to gardening, leaving the others to the care of the gamekeeper, or to constitute a particular depart- ment in domestic or rural economy. That the subject of anomalous buildings may not occur again, we shall here conclude it by treating also of their management. SUBSECT. 1. Of the Ice-house and its Management. 1723. The ice-house. Ice is kept on the continent in cellars, at a greater or less depth from the surface according to the climate. These cellars are without windows, surrounded by very thick walls, and entered by double and treble doors, sometimes placed in angular or circuitous passages, and always with intervals of several feet between them. Sometimes precautions are taken to carry off any water which may arise from a partial thaw, by forming gutters across the floor, and covering it with a grating of strong lattice- work, leading to a cess-pool in the passage, whence the water can be taken out by utensils without opening the inner door ; but very frequently full confidence is had in the coolness of the situation, especially if the surrounding soil be dry. Where the sur- rounding soil is moist, a frame-work or cage of carpentry, grated at bottom, is con- structed in the cellar, so as to be from one to two feet apart from the floor, sides, and roof, and in this the ice is as perfectly preserved as in a dry soil. (Cours, &c. ; Bordley's Essays and Notes on Husbandry, Philadelphia, 1780.) Ice is kept in the cellars of con- Z 2 340 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. fectioners, and also by some of the market-gardeners, in heaps, with a very thick covering of straw or reeds. 1724. To keep ice in stacks or heaps in tlie open air, 289 an elevated circular platform (Jig. 289. a) is raised of earth ; on this the ice is piled up in a conic form during a severe frost, and the addition of water enables the builder to form the cone very steep. On this cone wheat-straw is laid a foot in thickness (6), over this a stratum of faggot-wood or spray (c), and finally another thick stratum of thatch or long litter of any sort (d). In this way ice will keep a year, care being taken to expose it to the air as short time as possible in taking supplies. 1725. The form of ice-houses commonly adopted at country-seats, both in Britain and in France, is gene- rally that of an inverted cone, or rather hen's egg, with the broad end uppermost. (Jig. 290. ) 1 726. The proper situation for an ice-house is that of a dry spot of ground ; as, where- ever there is moisture, the ice will be 'liable to dissolve : of course, in all strong soils which retain the wet, too much care cannot be taken to make drains all round the house to carry off moisture. The situation should likewise be elevated, that there may be descent enough to convey off any wet that may arise near it, or from the ice melting ; and also as much exposed to the sun and air as possible. 1727. The depth and diameter of the ice-well should be proportioned to the quantity of ice wanted ; but it is always best to have sufficient room, as when the house is well built, it will keep the ice two or three years : and there will be this advantage in having it large enough to contain ice for two years' consumption, that if a mild winter should happen, when there is not ice to be had, there will be a stock in the house to supply the want. Where the quantity wanted is not great, a well of six feet diameter, and eight feet deep, will be large enough ; but for a large consumption, it should not be less than nine or ten feet diameter, and as many deep. 1728. The excavation for the ice-well, where the situation is either of a dry, chalky, gravelly, or sandy kind, may be made entirely below the surface of the ground ; but in strong loamy, clayey, or moist ground, it will be better to raise the well so high above the surface, as that there may be no danger from the wetness of the soil. 1729. In building the ice- well there should be a space about two feet deep left at the bottom (Jig. 290. a), for re- ceiving any moisture which may drain from the ice, and a small underground drain (6) containing a stop or trap for the exclusion of air (c) should be laid from this, to carry off the wet. Over the space at bottom (a) should be placed a strong grate of wood or a cart-wheel, to let the moisture fall down, which may at any time happen from the melting of the ice. The sides of the well (d) must be walled up with brick or stone at least two feet thick ; or the wall may be built hollow. When the proper height is attained the wall may be arched over with two arches with a vacuity between, and leaving in the centre a hole for the admission of the ice (e), and in the sides a door for taking it out (/). This door, in order the better to exclude the air should open into a porch (g) with the three other doors, the spaces between which should be filled with straw to exclude more effectually the heat of the atmosphere. The whole being covered first with a layer of tempered clay and next with a hill of earth, the appear- ance will not be disagreeable (Jig. 291.) and may be made ornamental. 1730. Management. When the house is finished, it should have time to dry before the ice is put into it ; as when the walls are moist, the damp of them frequently dissolves the ice. At the bottom of the well, upon the wooden grate, some small faggots should be laid ; and if upon these a layer of reeds be placed smooth for the ice to rest upon, it will be better than straw, which is commonly used. In the choice of the ice, the thinner it is, the better it may be broken to powder ; as the smaller it is broken, the better it will unite 29O BOOK III. APIARY. 341 when put into the well. In putting it in, it should be rammed close, and a space left be- tween it and the wall of the well, by straw being^ placed for the purpose, so as to give passage to any moisture that may be collected by the dissolving of the ice on the top or otherwise. If snow is used instead of ice, it ought to be pressed very firmly together, so as to exclude air, and in fact approach in texture to ice. To aid in consolidating both ice and snow, a little water may be occasionally poured over it from the rose of a watering- pot. In putting the ice into the house, some mix a little nitre or common salt with it, to make it congeal more fully ; but this is not necessary. As the ice becomes solid in the well, an iron crow is necessary to take it up with. 1731. An ice-cold chamber is found of great use in horticulture, in preserving gathered vegetables, as pease, beans, cauliflowers, &c. in a fresh state, for some time after they are gathered. Potatoes and other tubers and bulbs, also plants in pots, cuttings, &c. may have their vegetation retarded by being placed in so cold an atmosphere. Several ice- houses, Neill informs us, excellently adapted not only for the main purpose, but for these secondary views, which nowise interfere with the other, have lately been constructed in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, under the directions of Hay, particularly at Dalmeny Park and Dundas Castle. These ice-houses have double walls, a passage being left be- tween the outer and inner. In the thick wall immediately enclosing the ice, are four re- cesses, with stone shelves for receiving the vegetables or fruits. In the outer wall, the same object is provided for. The roof, it may be added, is arched with stone, and has a hole in the top, over the centre of the ice-chamber, for introducing the ice. The passage between the two walls is likewise arched, and has two or three small grated apertures, which are closed with fitted stones, and may be opened for the purpose of admitting light and air when wanted. (Supp. to Encyc. Brit. art. Hort.) 1732. If an ice-cellar was added to the domestic offices of country-seats, and the ice preserved in it, and placed under the immediate care of the steward or housekeeper, it would certainly be more convenient for culinary use, and attended with less risk of melt- ing when ice was taken out. Ice-cold rooms, which would be found useful for various purposes in domestic economy, might be formed adjoining. It is possible, however, that artificial modes of producing cold and ice as wanted, may supersede the use of ice-houses altogether. A very scientific view of the subject of ice-houses will be found in Rozier's Diet, of Agr., and in Nouveau Cours d? Agriculture, &c. art. Glaciere. SUBSECT. 2. Of the Apiary and the Management of Bees. 1733. The care of bees seems more naturally to belong to gardening than the keeping of ice ; because their situation is naturally in the garden, and their produce is a vegetable salt. The garden-bee is found in a wild state in most parts of the globe, in swarms or governments ; but never in groups of governments so near together as in a bee-house, which is an artificial and unnatural contrivance to save trouble, and injurious to the insect directly as the number placed together. Thus, if ten acres are sufficient to maintain two hives, a hundred acres will be required to maintain twenty ; but while, in the former case, the hives being placed in the centre of the ten acres, each bee need not perform a longer journey than two hundred yards ; in the latter, the colony being simi- larly situated as to the hundred acres, the average journey for each insect will be nearly a mile. Hence, independently of other considerations, one disadvantage of congregating hives in bee-houses or apiaries. The advantages are, greater facility in protecting from heats, colds, or thieves, and greater facilities of examining their condition and progress. Independently of their honey, bees are considered as useful in gardens, by aiding in the impregnation of flowers. For this purpose, a hive is sometimes placed in a cherry-house, and sometimes in peach-houses ; or the position of the hive is in the front or end wall of such houses, so as the body of the hive may be half in the house and half in the wall, with two outlets for the bees, one into the house, and the other into the open air. By this arrangement, the bees can be admitted to the house and open air alternately, and ex- cluded from either at pleasure. Z 3 342 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 292 1 734. The apiary, or bee-house. The sim- plest form of a bee-house consists of a few shelves in a recess of a wall or other building ( fig. 292.) exposed to the south, and with or without shutters, to exclude the sun in summer, and, in part, the frost in winter. The scientific or experimental bee-house is a detached building of boards, differing from the former in having doors behind, which may be opened at any time during day to inspect the hives. In both kinds of houses, small holes, say half an inch high and three inches wide, with a small projection as a landing-place, are made in the front shutters, opposite the situation of each hive on the shelf. The upper part of these openings or entrances is sometimes guarded by a hori- zontal fillet to throw off the rain. Bee-houses may always be rendered agreeable, and often ornamental objects : they are particularly suitable for flower-gardens ; and one may occur in a recess in a wood or copse, accompanied by a picturesque cottage and flower-garden. They enliven a kitchen-garden, and communicate particular impressions of industry and usefulness. 1735. The position of the apiary is thus treated by Huish: in the southern countries the aspect which is preferred is always to the eastward ; in the northern countries, it is always to the eastward and the southward ; but in England little or no attention is paid to the aspect. It is certain, however, that the aspect of the apiary should vary with the climate of the country ; and in this climate, there can be little doubt that two points to the eastward of south, is the best. Protection from high winds is essential in whatever position the hives are placed. In this country, therefore, a protection from the south-west is advisable. The high winds not only prevent the bees from leaving the hive in quest of honey, but they also surprise them in the fields, and often kill them by dashing them against the trees and rocks, or into the rivers. The hives in an apiary should always be placed in a right line ; but should the number of the hives be great, and the situation not capacious enough to admit of their being placed longitudinally, it is more ad- visable to place them over one another, on shelves, than in double rows on the ground. A bee, on leaving the hive, generally forms an angle of about forty-five with the horizon ; the elevation of the hive should, therefore, be about two feet from the ground, in order to protect it from humidity. The greater the elevation of the hive, the longer is the flight of the swarm; and when they are at a certain point of elevation, the swarms are lost for ever to the proprietor. If the hives are to be placed in a double row, the hinder ones should alternate with, and be placed at, such a distance from the front ones, that when the bees take their flight, no obstruction is offered to their ascent. Placing several hives upon the same bench, is very injurious, and during the swarming season, it is often attended with very destructive consequences. Huish was once requested by a gentleman to perform an experiment upon a hive, which was placed on the same bench with six others, and in attempting to move the hive destined for the operation, the others were agitated, and the whole apiary became in a little time in a state of confusion. The easy access also, which the bees of one hive have to those of another, pro- motes quarrels and murderous battles. It is an erroneous opinion, though held by some skilful apiarians, that all the bees of one apiary know each other, and that it is only the bees of a foreign apiary, with whom they quarrel. Huish having been often witness of the destructive animosity of these little insects, and the wars which they wage upon the weaker hives in their own establishment, endeavours to impress it strongly upon the attention of every apiarian, to place every hive upon a respective pedestal. In general a post is placed at each corner of the stand, as some prejudiced people believe that a hive stands firmer upon four feet than upon one ; but Huish is certain that they who have once used the single pedestal, will never have recourse again to the four-legged stool. Another advantage particularly arises from the use of a single pedestal, which is, that the hive may be chained down and locked. The apiary should be kept particularly clean; all noxious weeds carefully removed, and no rubbish' be left in which the enemies of the bees can conceal themselves. A few low trees or shrubs, planted in the vicinity of the apiary, will be found useful in arresting the flight of the swarms, for they very often alight on espalier trees, or on currant and gooseberry bushes. It is essential, however, to observe, that the apiary should not be incommoded with herbs or plants, which rise to a height equal to, or exceeding the entrance of the hive ; because the bees, on their arrival from their journeys, being much fatigued, are impeded by these plants, and regain their habitation with difficulty. If they touch these plants on passing, they often fall to the ground, and become victims to their enemies, or are unfortunately trodden under foot. Such plants also serve the purpose of a ladder, for the enemies of the bees to ascend into the hive, and especially the ants, which in some districts are particularly numerous. These little insects are a great detriment to a hive, and they baffle the most vigilant attention of the apiarian to prevent their depredations. I have found that a small leaden reservoir of water, encircling the bottom of the pedestal, is of great service in preventing the ascent of these insects. The vicinity of great towns is not a proper situation for an apiary. The smoke of a city is very detri- mental to bees, and the chimneys are in general the resort of the swallows and martins, who are great destroyers of these insects. The proximity of a large river is also injurious, as the bees in their homeward flight are often dashed into it by the high winds, or fall into it from fatigue. 1736. The position of hives, according to Dr. Howisan, should be such as to receive the rays of the rising as well as meridian sun ; heat and light appearing the principal stimulants to the action of bees. A hive so situated as not to be touched by the sun until some hours later than the other hives in the same garden, would, in the course of the season, lose a proportional number of days' labor. Hives should stand at some distance from walls and hedges. When lately building a garden-wall, with a good exposure for bees, I ordered a number of niches to be made, into which I afterwards put hives. These were, however, so much infested with snails in summer, and mice in winter, that I was under the necessity of removing them to a more open situation. BOOK III. APIARY. 343 17.37. The furniture of the apiary, or bee-house, consists of the hives or utensils in which each hive or swarm is congregated, and lives, and works, and of these there is a great variety of sorts. 1738. The Polish hive, or log-hive, (Pasieka Pol.) (fig. 203.) may be considered as 293 the primitive form of artificial dwellings for bees. It is simply the trunk of a tree, of a foot or fourteen inches in diameter, and about nine feet long. It is scooped out (boring in this country would be better) for about six feet from one end, so to form a hollow cylinder of that length, and of six or eight inches dia- meter within. Part of the circumference of this cylinder is cut out during the greater part of its length, about four inches wide, and a slip of board is made to fit the opening. On the sides of this slip (a), notches are made every two or three inches, of sufficient size to allow a single bee to pass. This slip may be furnished with hinges and with a lock and key ; but in Poland it is merely fastened in by a wedge. All that is wanting to complete the hive is a cover at the top to throw oft' the rain, and then it requires only to be placed upright like a strong post in the garden so as the bottom of the hollow cylinder may be not nearer the ground than two feet, and the opening slip look to the south. When a swarm is to be put in, the tree, with the door or slip opened, is placed obliquely over it ; when the bees enter, the door is closed, and the holes stopped with clay till the hive is planted or placed upright. When honey is wanted, the door is opened during 294 the finest part of a warm day, when most of the bees are out ; its entire state is seen from top to bottom, and the operator, with a segar in his mouth, or with a lighted rag, to keep oft' the bees from his hands, cuts out, with a hooked knife, as much comb as he thinks fit. In this way fresh honey is obtained during the whole summer, the bees are never cramped for room, nor does it become neces- sary to kill them. The old comb, however, is annually cut put to prevent or lessen the tendency to swarming, which, notwithstanding this and the size of their dwelling, they generally do once a year ; for the laws of nature are not to be changed. Though it is a fact that a small swarm of bees will not do well in a large hive, yet if the hive extend in length and not in breadth, it is ad- mitted both by Huber and Huish, that they will thrive in it. " If too great a diameter," says Huber " be not given to the abode of the bee, it may without danger be increased in the elevation, their success in the hollow trees, their natural domicile, incontestably proves the truth of this assertion." We wit- nessed in 1813, near Grodno, the management by a woman, Panna Andriewschieskniowna, (N. M. Ma- gazine, June 1818.) in whose house we lodged, of above a dozen of these hives, for nearly four months, and are of opinion that they merit a trial in this country. It is singular, that this should be almost the only continental hive that Huish, who seems to have paid more attention to the subject by foreign travel, study, and practice, than almost any man, has not seen. In Poland, he says, the inhabitants have no regular bee-hives. (Treatise on Sees, 3d edit. 1817, p. 52.) 1739. The common hive, called by the French the Scotch hive, is a thimble-shaped basket of rushes, straw, and sometimes of willows, about a foot in diameter within, and fourteen inches high. It is formed by coiling ropes of straw of wheat on a mould, sewing the layers to each other in advancing by flattened shoots of bramble, clematis, or willow. In Georgia, hives of this class are wrought with willows in the form of a cone, and the bees enter by the apex. (Johnston's Journey overland from India, 1817.) 1740. The glass hive is variously constructed, sometimes with two of the sides of glass in order to see the bees at work ; at other times the hive is entirely of wood or straw, but with a flat surface at top, pierced with holes about an inch diameter, on which to insert crystal bell-glasses or drinking.glasses, in which the bees may be seen at work., and which glasses, when filled with comb, may be removed and replaced by empty ones, and thus occasional supplies of fresh honey obtained during summer. In the glass hive of White and Thorley, one large globe is used, which, as often as filled, is removed and replaced by an empty one. Such hives must necessarily be placed in the bee-house, or under a proper cover to exclude the weather. Huish says, " they are fit only for the amateur, or those persons who wish to have a little fine honey during the season, but who have no inclination to preserve the bees for the benefit of the succeeding year." 1741. The storying or pyramidal hive admits of increase, by the addition of horizontal sections of case, whether of straw or timber. The object is to produce a very strong hive ; but this, when carried beyond a certain point, is found injurious, rather than otherwise. (Huish, p. 67.) 1742. The hive of Palteau (fig. 294.) is composed of three or four frames, each a foot square, by three inches in height. These square frames are placed the one on the other, and the first and last can always be lifted without deranging the work in the others. Each square is strengthened from every side by a cross piece of eight or ten lines in width, and two lines in thickness, which serves to sustain the combs of the bees. All the frames are tied together by means of these cross pieces ; a board is placed on the top ; and a general cover is placed over the whole to guard it from the effects of the seasons. In autumn, when the honey is to be taken from this hive, the cross pieces are untied, and one or two of the upper frames are removed, passing the long blade of a knife or a wire between. This done, an empty frame is placed above, and another under all the rest, which makeup for the two removed. " In an hour after," says Bosc, who de- scribes and recommends this hive, " the bees are at work as if nothing had happened; and the same operation can be renewed to infinity." 1743. Mulsh's hive (fig. 295.) is about the capacity of the common straw hive (1739.), in shape like a flower-pot, placed on its narrow end, with a convex cover (a). It is so constructed interiorly that each comb (c) may be extracted by itself without deranging the rest ; the combs being attached to slips of board (b) placed across the mouth or top of the .hive. Any one of them may be lifted up, and to this the tapering construction of the interior is favorable. To prevent the bees from working between the slips, air is admitted by means of pierced plates of tinned iron (fig. 296. a), and to prevent human thieves from parrying off the whole hive, it is chained and padlocked (fig. 296. b) to a strong post, which serves also as a fulcrum. The inventor of this hive has tried it, he says, for nearly twenty years, and the following he states as the mode of using it, and the ad- vantages attending its construction. " At any time and season when I require some honeycomb, or at the end of the season, when I deprive my bees of their superfluous store, I open the top, and take the side- boards out, from which having cut the honeycomb, I replace them in the hive, and the operation is Z 4 344 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. 295 PART II. 296 facilitated by having some vacant boards ready to supply the place of the full ones. This oper- ation is very easily and speedily performed ; it has the advantage of not disturbing the middle combs, and I have often deprived these hives of their honey without the loss of a single bee, ex- cepting those few who left their stings in various parts of my dress. Two very considerable ad. vantages arise from the use of this hive : in the first place, there is never any occasion to make an addition to the hive at the bottom, when the bees, by lying out in clusters, declare that they stand in need of room ; for the operation of de- priving them of a part of their combs from the top, will give them the room which they require, and which they will soon replenish with honey. In the common hive it is customary, in this pre- dicament, to place, what is called in Scotland an eek, which consists of from four to six bands of the same diameter as the hive ; but, on taking away this eek in the autumn, I have seen the most injurious consequences result to the hive. It is, in general, performed by cutting the combs with a wire between the hive and the eek, and then, whilst one person lifts up the hive another draws the eek away : the hive then rests on the stool. Few persons, however, consider that, as the combs are cut parallel with the bottom of the hive, they will all touch the stool on which it stands, and I have thus known a whole hive perish. The second advantage is, that the whole of the interior of the hive is open to your inspection, and you are thus enabled to examine the devastation of the moth, or to ascertain the presence of any other enemy." (Treatise on Bees, p. 85.) 1744. Dr. Hawison's hive (figs. 297. to 299.) for obtaining the honey without killing the bees, " consists of two distinct hexagons (figs. 297, 298.) ; one placed above the other. The under is formed of six panes of half-inch deal, each measuring ten inches in width and eight in depth, and covered with a thin board at top. This forms a box that will contain two pecks' measure of corn, and which he considers as sufficient for the largest swarm. This is intended for the breeding, as well as winter habitation of the bees. The upper is of the same dimensions and form as the under at bottom, but, in order to give it a conical shape, for the more conveniently fixing thereon a coat of straw, the panes at top are only five inches wide, which is also covered by a piece of board. The upper box has a moulding (fig. 297. a) fixed to its under part, which projects about a quarter of an inch, and so exactly embraces the upper part of the lower box, as to join these two firmly together. In the deal which forms the top of the lower box, are cut four oval holes (.fig. 298. e), each one inch wide and two inches long, through which the bees pass into the upper. This communication, when not wanted, is shut by a board which moves on a nail in its centre. The small pane 297 298 299 of glass (fig.Syj. 6), in the top of the upper box, admits of seeing the progress the bees have made in it, without separating it from the lower one. This pane is covered to exclude light and cold or heat by a small shutter (c). When the swarm is first put into the lower box, the communication is shut with the upper, until the bees have completely filled the lower with combs. The communication is then to be opened, when the bees will ascend, and, if the season is favourable and the swarm numerous, they will fill it also, but not until they have completely stocked the lower. By removing the straw covering, and looking through the glass in the upper box, it may be seen what honey has been collected. Should a part or the whole of it be wanted, it will only be necessary carefully to separate the upper from the lower box, and shut the board of communication. The upper box is then to be removed to some distance, and the bees con- tained in it driven off, on which they will immediately join their companions in the lower. So soon as the honey is taken from the box, it can be replaced, and if early in the season, the communication opened for making more honey, but if late, it must be kept shut umil the hive has swarmed next summer. Both the lower hexagon (fig. 298.) and the upper (fig. 299.) contain the usual cross horizontal sticks (a, a, a) for sup- porting the combs. If honeycomb early next season is preferred to a swarm, then the communication must be opened about the beginning of June. All the honey procured in this way is remarkable for its purity, none of the cells having been ever polluted by the hatching of young bees. The greatest advantages, how- ever, from this method, are the early and large swarms ; the consequence of not killing the bees." (Cale- donia* Memoirs, vol. ii. p. 133.) BOOK III. APIARY. 345 1745. Management of bees. Being of opinion that the common straw or Scotch hive is the best for general purposes, we shall give Dr. Howison's mode of management as the simplest and most effectual for the common end in view. If the lives of the bees are to be saved, then some of the others may be tried ; and the most suitable for this purpose, we think, is the Polish hive, and the next best that of Howison. The most ingenious, and the fittest for an amateur, is no doubt that of Huish. The latter author justly remarks, that " there is no certain method, nor will one be ever dis- covered, by which a great harvest of wax and honey, and great swarms, can be ob- tained at pleasure : these are chimerae, which it is folly to pursue ; because the former depends on the seasons being more or less favorable to the secretion of honey, on the countries which the bees inhabit being more or less wooded and covered with flowers, and the latter on the fecundity of the queen. Hence that annual difference between the harvest of honey and wax, and the largeness or small ness of the swarms which is found in all countries. To the same causes may be attributed the fact, that a mode of treatment, which has succeeded one year, will not succeed the next, although the circumstances be almost the same in appearance. It is these dif- ferences and variations, which, for the period of fifty-five years, have given rise to hives of different forms and materials, which have only tended to instruct us, that bees can inhabit, work, and collect provisions in vessels of every form, from the excavated trunk of the tree, as it is used in Poland and the northern countries, to the expensive and useless glass hive, or to the hive of Du Hamel ; and, where no hollow trunk of the tree can be found, in the holes of walls, in chimneys, and under the roofs." 1746. Choice of bees. To the common observer, all working bees, as to external appearance, are nearly the same ; but to those who examine them with attention, the difference in size is very distinguishable ; and they are in their vicious and gentle, indolent and active natures, essentially different. Of the stock which I had in 1810, it required 250 to weigh an ounce ; but they were so vicious and lazy, that I changed it for a smaller variety, which possesses much better dispositions, and of which it requires 296, on an average, to weigh an ounce. Whether size and disposition are invariably connected, I have not yet had sufficient expedience to determine. 1747. Materials and size of hives. Hives made of straw, as now in use, have a great advantage over those made of wood or other materials, from the effectual defence they aflbrd against the extremes of heat in summer, and cold in winter. That the hives in size should correspond as nearly as possible with that of the swarms, has not had that attention paid to it which the subject demands, as much of the success in the management of bees depends on that circumstance. From blind instinct, bees endeavour to fill with combs whatever hive they are put into, before they begin to gather honey. Owing to this, when the hive is too large for its inhabitants, the time for collecting their winter store is spent in unprofitable labor : and starvation is the consequence. This evil also extends to occasioning late swarming the next summer ; it being long before the hive becomes so filled with young bees as to produce a necessity for emigration, from which cause the season is too far advanced for the young colonies to procure a winter stock. I should consider it as a good rule in all cases, that the swarm should fill two thirds of the hive. The hives used by me for my largest swarms, weighing from five to six pounds, will contain two pecks' measure of corn, and will yield, in a good season, eight Scots pints of honey, and for smaller swarms in proportion. Hives with empty combs are highly valuable for second swarms, as the bees are thereby enabled much sooner to begin collecting honey. 1748. Feeding of bees. Near the sea little honey is collected after the first week in August ; but in high situations, where the flowers are later and heath abounds, the bees labor with advantage until the middle of September. These are the proper periods, according to situation, for ascertaining if the hives intended to be kept, contain a sufficient winter stock. The killing of the drones perhaps marks this time with more precision. If a large hive does not weigh thirty pounds, it will be necessary to allow it half a pound of honey, or the same quantity of soft sugar, made into a syrup, for every pound that is deficient of that weight ; and, in like proportion to smaller hives. This work must not be delayed, that time may be given for the bees to make the deposit in their empty cells before they are rendered torpid by the cold. 1749. Preparing sugar for bees. I must here notice, that sugar simply dissolved in water (which is a common practice), and sugar boiled with water into a syrup, form compounds very differently suited for the winter store of bees. When the former is wanted for their immediate nourishment, as in spring, it will answer equally as a syrup ; but if to be laid up as a store, the heat of the hive quickly evaporating the water, leaves the sugar-in dry crystals, not to be acted upon by the trunks of the bees. I have known several instances of hives Rilled by hunger, while some pounds' weight of sugar in this state remained in their cells. The boiling of sugar into syrup forms a closer combination with the water, by which it is prevented from flying off, and a consistence resembling that of honey, retained. I have had frequent experience of hives not containing a pound of honey, preserved in perfect health through the winter, with sugar so pre- pared, when given in proper time, and in sufficient quantity. 1750. Covering the hives. Bees are evidently natives of a warm climate, a high temperature being ab- solutely necessary to their existence ; and their continuing to live in hollow trees during the severe win- ters of Russia and America, must depend on the heat produced from the great size of the swarms which inhabit these abodes. From my own observation, the hives which are best covered during winter, always prosper most the following summer. In consequence, about the end of harvest, I add to the thin covering of straw put on the hives at the time of swarming a thick coat, and shut up the aperture through which the bees entered, so that only one can pass at a time. Indeed, as a very small portion of air is necessary for bees in their torpid state, it were better, during severe frosts, to be entirely shut up, as num- bers of them are often lost from being enticed to quit the hive by the sunshine of a winter day. It will, however, be proper at times to remove, by a crooked wire or similar instrument, the dead bees and other filth, which the living at this season are unable to perform of themselves. 1751. Treatment during the breeding season. To hives, whose stock of honey was sufficient for their main- tenance, or those to which a proper quantity of sugar had been given for that purpose, no further atten- tion will be necessary, until the breeding season arrives. This, in warm situations, generally takes place about the beginning of May, and in cold, about a month after. Owners of hives are often astonished, that, at this advanced season, when their bees had, for weeks preceding, put on the most promising ap- pearance, after a few days of rain, they become so weak and sickly as to be unable to leave the hive, and continue declining until they at last die. From paying attention to this subject, I am convinced that the cause is as follows : The young bees for a short time previous to their leaving their cells, and some time after, require being fed with the same regularity that young birds are by their parents ; and if the store Hows : The young bees for a short time previous tf m.er, require being fed with the same regularity that young biru aic uj mcn t /r gates, such as the gate with falling bars (Jigs. 324, 325.) ; the stile, which is of various sorts ; turn-wicket ; horizontal grating ; and various other modes of permitting man to pass a barrier and yet excluding cattle, belong rather to agriculture than to gardening. 1800. Gates, as decorations, may be classed according to the prevailing lines, and the materials used. Horizontal, perpendicular, diagonal, and curved lines, comprehend all gates, whether of iron or of timber, and each of these may be distinguished more or les.s by ornamental parts, which may either be taken from any of the known styles of archi- tecture, or from heraldry or fancy. 1801. The published designs for gates are numerous, especially those for iron gates ; for executing which, the improvements made in casting that metal in moulds afford great facilities. By a judicious junction of cast and wrought iron, the ancient mode of en- riching gates with flowers and other carved-like ornaments might be happily re-intro- duced. 1802. Gates in garden-scenery, where architectural elegance is not required to sup- port character, simple or rustic structures (jig. 326. ), wickets, turn-stiles, and even move- 326 BOOK III. CONVENIENT DECORATIONS. 355 327 able or suspended rails, like the German schlagbaum (fa. 324.), may be introduced according to the character of the scene. 1 803. Rails or fences, for parks and garden- scenery, are, as to lines, similarly character- ised as gates ; and, like gates, fences are of many species, from the rudest barriers with- out nails or iron work (Jig. 327.) to the numerous sorts of iron and wire barriers. Hurdles, whether of wood or iron, are the most convenient description of temporary fences. They are manufactured of various forms and dimen- sions, so as to prove, as to height and openings between the rails, rods, or wires, barriers to hares, sheep, cattle, or deer. Where iron fences are considered as permanent fixtures, those parts which are inserted in the ground should be of cast-iron, as resisting oxidation much better than the wrought material. It ought, at the same time, to be covered with tar, pitch, orpyroligneousacid, or, whilst hot, painted over with oil. For interior fences, poles or laths may be formed into treillage-work of different kinds (Jig. 328.) ; preserv- ing the bark of the former, and pitching or charring the ends inserted in the earth. A 328 neat garden or lawn fence, and one which will last a long time may be made of the stems of young larch-trees. (Jig. 329.) 329 1804. Walls are unquestionably the grandest fences for parks ; and arched portals, the noblest entrances ; between these and the hedge or pale, and rustic gate, designs in every degree of gradation, both for lodges, gates, and fences, will be found in the works of Wright, Gandy, Robertson, Aikin, Pocock, and other architects who have published on the rural department of their art. The pattern books of manufacturers of iron gates and hurdles, and of wire workers, may also be advantageously consulted. SUBSECT. 2. Convenient Decorations. 1805. Of convenient decorations the variety is almost endless, from the prospect-tower to the rustic seat ; besides aquatic decorations, agreeable to the eye and convenient for the purposes of recreation or culture. Their emplacement, as in the former section, be- longs to gardening, and their construction to architecture and engineering. 1806. The prospect-tower is a noble object to look at, and a gratifying and instructive position to look from. -It should be placed on the highest grounds of a residence, in order to command as wide a prospect as possible, to serve as a fixed recognised point to strangers, in making a tour of the grounds. It may very properly be accompanied by a cottage ; or the lower part of it may be occupied by the family of a forester, game- keeper, or any rural pensioner, to keep it in order, c. 1807. The kiosque is the Chinese prospect-tower, of peculiar construction, charac- terised by numerous stories, designated by projecting roofs and pendent bells. An ex- ample exists at Kew, and its details will be found in the Plans of the Buildings, &c., erected there by Sir W. Chambers. Sometimes the prospect-tower is a hollow column, as in the monumental column of London, that to the memory of Lord Nelson, at Edinburgh, and to Lord Hill, at Shrewsbury ; but the stairs in such buildings are ne- cessarily too narrow for the prospect-tower of country-residences, and besides there can A a 2 356 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. be no rooms as resting-places, which are absolutely necessary, where ease and enjoyment are studied, and where some attention is had to the delicacy of women, and the frailties of old age. 1808. Temples, either models or imitations of the religious buildings of the Greeks and heathen Romans, are sometimes introduced in garden-scenery to give dignity and beauty. In residences of a certain extent and character, they may be admissible as imi- tations, as resting-places, and as repositories of sculptures or antiquities. Though their introduction has been brought into contempt by its frequency, and by bad imitations in perishable materials, yet they are not for that reason to be rejected by good taste. They may often add dignity and a classic air to a scene ; and when erected of durable mate- rials, and copied from good models, will, like their originals, please as independent ob- jects. Knight, and some other connoisseurs of less note, disgusted by the abuse of temples, have argued, as it appears to us, too exclusively against their introduction, and contend for cottages as the fittest ornaments of rural scenery : but why limit the resources of an art because they are liable to abuse ? Thatched roofs may become tiresome, as well as columns ; and if Stow is an example of the latter carried to excess, White Knights is as certainly of the former 1809. Porches and porticoes (jig. 330.) are sometimes employed as decorative marks to the entrances of scenes ; and sometimes merely as roofs to shelter seats or resting benches. 1810. Alcoves (Jig. 331.) are used as winter resting-places, as being fully exposed to the sun. 1811. Arbors are used as summer seats and resting-places : they may be shaded with fruit- trees, as the vine, currant, cherry ; climbing ornamental shrubs, as ivy, clematis, &c. ; or herba- ceous, as everlasting pea, gourd, &c. They are generally formed of timber lattice-work, some- times of woven rods, or wicker- work, and occasionally of wire. 1812. The Italian arbor (Jig, 330 332.) is generally covered with a dome, often framed of thick iron or copper wire painted, and covered with vines or honeysuckles. 332 33S 1818. The French arbor (Jig. 333) is characterised by the various lines and surfaces, which enter into the composition of the roof. 1814. Caves and caverns, where they exist naturally in the grounds of a residence, as at Piercefield, Corby Castle, &c., or can be readily formed, are to be regarded more as singu- larities or picturesque objects than as places of use or enjoyment in this climate ; in Italy and Spain they are great luxuries. 1815. Grottoes are resting-places in recluse situations, rudely covered externally, and within finished with shells, corals, spars, crystallisations, and other marine and mineral productions, according to fancy. To add to the effect, pieces of looking-glass are in- serted in different places and positions. BOOK III. CONVENIENT DECORATIONS. 357 1816. Roofed seats, boat-houses, moss houses, flint houses, bark huts, and similar con- structions, are different modes of forming resting-places containing seats, and some- times other furniture or conveniences in or near them. Very neat buildings and furni- ture of this class may be formed of hazel-rods ; or of any tree with a clean bark, and straight shoots, as young oaks or mountain ash. The spruce fir affords a good outside material : and five or six young trees coupled together, make good rustic columns. At White Knights, the Slopes at Windsor, and Bothwell Castle, are good examples of covered seats of the rustic kind. (jigs. 334, 335, 336.) 334 335 336 337 338 1817. Roofed seats of a more polished description are boarded structures generally semi-octagonal, and placed so as to be open to the south. Sometimes they are portable, moving on wheels, so as to be placed in different positions, according to the hour of the day, or season of the year, which, in confined spots, is a desirable circumstance. Some- times they turn on rollers, or on a central pivot, for the same object, and this is very common in what are called barrel-seats. In general they are opaque, but occasionally their sides are glazed, to admit the sun to the interior in winter. 1818. Folding cliairs. A sort of medium seat, between the roofed and the exposed, is formed by constructing the backs of chairs, benches, or sofas with hinges, so as they may fold down over the seat, and so protect it from rain. After rain, when these backs are replaced in their proper position, a dry seat, and dry back to lean against, are at once obtained. 1819. Elegant structures of the seat kind for summer use, may be constructed of iron rods and wires, and painted canvas ; the iron forming the supporting skeleton, and the canvass the protecting tegument. The mushroom or umbrella form (Jig. 337.), and that of the Turkish tent (Jig. 338.), the oriental pavilion, or any other exotic form free from vul- garity and meagre lines, may be made choice of on such occasions. 1820. Exj)osed seats include a great variety, rising in gradation from the turf bank to the carved couch. Inter- mediate forms are stone benches,root stools,sec- tions of trunks of trees, wooden, stone, or cast- iron mushrooms paint- ed or covered with moss, or mat, or heath ; the Chinese barrel-seat, the rustic stool, chair, tripod, sofa, the cast-iron couch or sofa, the wheeling-chair, and many sub-varieties. 1821. Sumngt (Jig. 339.), see-saws, &c. are not very common in English gardens, but, as exercising places for children, are very proper in retired, but airy parts of the pleasure-ground. Hurley-burleys, riding- wheels, &c. are better substituted by donkies and ponies. No greater danger is incurred, and something of the art of horsemanship is thus actually acquired. In every country-residence where there are children, contrivances for their exercise and amusement ought to be considered essential objects ; for these purposes, a riding school, and bath or pond for learning to swim and row a boat, may be considered essential. The former may also serve for ac- quiring the infantry and cavalry exercise, and learning to fire at a mark; jump, run, wrestle, box, climb trees or smooth poles, ascend ropes, &c. A a 3 339 358 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 1822. Of constructions for displaying ivater, as an artificial decoration, the principal are cascades, waterfalls, jets, and fountains. The foundation of the cascade and waterfall, is the head or dam which must be thrown across the river or stream ; and in this, two things are to be considered, its strength, and the materials of which it is composed. 1823. With respect to strength, the pressure of water is as its depth, and consequently a dam, whose section is a right-angled triangle (Jig. 340. , b, c), and whose hypothenuse (a, 6) forms an angle of 45, with the base (a, c) formed of any material of greater specific gravity than water, would, as far as strength is concerned, hold in equilibrium a body of still water of a depth equal to its perpendicular. If the hypothenuse, or sloping side, be placed next the water, it will more than hold the water in equilibrium, by the weight of the triangle fa, b, d) of the water superincumbent on the triangle of the dam or bank. 1824. That the materials of the bank must be of a nature impervious to water, and also must adhere to the base or bottom, so as not to admit water to escape beneath it, are ob- vious conditions of the foregoing proportion. The practice of forming dams or heads, is derived from this theory ; but to guard against accident, the base of the triangle is always made three or more times greater than its height ; the slope next the stream may form an angle with the horizon, of from 40 to 20, and that on the lower side is regulated by the uses of the dam. If for raising water so as to cover a hollow where there is little or no overflow expected, then the slope is generally of earth, 40 or 35 (Jig. 340. e,f], turfed or planted ; if for a cascade, the slope is regulated by the form or undulations on which the rocks to produce the breaking of the water are to be placed ; and if for a waterfall, a perpendicular wall is substituted, over which the water projects itself in a sheet or lamina, in breadth proportioned to the quantity of the current. 340 1 825. In all these cases, instead of forming the dam entirely of materials impervious to water, it is sufficient if a vertical stratum of wrought-clay be brought up its centre (Jig. 340. g.f], and the surface of the bank rendered firm by a coating of gravel on the slope next the water. 1826. The construction of the waterfall, inhere avowedly artificial, is nothing more than a strong-built wall across the stream, perfectly level at top, and with a strong, smooth, ac- curately fitted, and well jointed coping. On the perfection of the coping, both as to level and jointing, depends the regular distribution of the lamina of water to be projected. Formerly artificial cascades of this sort were curved in the ground-plan, the concavity pointing down the stream, by which some strength and a better view of the water were supposed to be obtained. With respect to strength, this can only hold true, or at least be of consequence, in cases where the upper slope of the dam is very steep, and the force of the current great; and as to a fuller view, this can only take place when the eye of the spectator is in the focus of the segment. Where a natural waterfall is to be imitated, the upright wall must be built of huge irregular blocks ; the horizontal lamina of water broken in the same way by placing fragments of rocks grouped here and there so as to throw the whole into parts; and as nature is never methodical, to form it as if in part a cascade. 1827. In imitating a natural cascade in garden-scenery, the horizontal line must here also be perfect, to prevent waste of water in dry seasons, and from this to the base of the lower slope the surface must be paved by irregular blocks, observing to group the promi- nent fragments, and not distribute them regularly over the surface. In the infancy of landscape-gardening, the lower bank or slope of the dam was formed into ogee and other curves, or a serpentine line, and smoothly paved or causeyed, fixing on the convexities of the curves projecting boards across the current ; and the current being thus interruptedj was thrown up in arched waves. Such was the sort of beauty then admired ; for it is a long time in the progress of improvement before man can see any other beauty than that which he has himself produced. 1 828. The greatest danger in imitating cascades and waterfalls, consisting in attempting too much, a very few blocks, disposed with a painter's eye, will effect all that can be in good taste in most garden-scenes ; and in forming or improving them in natural rivers, there will generally be found indications both as to situation and style, especially if the country be uneven, or stony, or rocky. Nothing can be in worse taste than piles of stones and rocks across a river either natural or artificial, in a tame alluvial meadow : they may be well chosen fragments from suitable materials, and arranged so as to form a cas- cade or waterfall very beautiful of itself, but whose beauty is really deformity or mon- BOOK III. CONVENIENT DECORATIONS. 359 strosity, relatively to the surrounding scenery, or to that whole of which it should form an accordant part. 1829. Jets and other hydraulic devices, though now less in repute than formerly, are not to be rejected in confined artificial scenes, and form an essential decoration where the ancient style of -landscape is introduced in any degree of perfection. 1830. The Jtrst requisite for jets or jn-ojected sjjouts, or threads of water, by atmospheric pressure, is a sufficiently elevated source or reservoir of supply. This being obtained, pipes are to be conducted from it to the situations for the jets. No jets, however con- structed, will rise as high as the fountain-head ; because the water is impeded by the re- sistance of the air, the friction against the opening of the pipe or adjutage, and its own gravity. It is not easy to lay down data on this head ; if the bore of the adjutage be too small, the rising stream will want sufficient weight and power to divide the air, and so being clashed against it will fall down in vapor or mist. If too large, it will not rise at all. The length of pipe between the reservoir and the jet will also impede its rising in a slight degree by the friction of the water on the pipe. This is estimated by P. J. Francois (Art des Fontaines, 1 37. ) at one foot for every hundred yards from the reservoir. The proportion which this author gives to the adjutages relatively to the conducting-pipes, is one fourth ; and thus for a jet of four lines, or a third of an inch, he requires an adjutage of between four and five lines, and a conducting pipe of one inch and a half diameter ; for a jet of six or seven lines, a conducting-pipe of two inches, and so on. From these data, the height of the fountain and the diameter of the conducting-pipe being given, the height to which a jet can be forced can be estimated with tolerable accuracy, and the contrary. But where the pipes are already laid, and the power of the head, owing to intervening obstructions, not very accurately known, the method by trial and correction by means of a leaden nozzle, the orifice of which inay be readily increased or diminished, will lead to the exact power under all the circumstances. 1831. Adjutages are of various sorts. . Some are contrived so as to throw up the water in the form of sheaves, fans, showers, to support balls, &c. ; others to throw it out hori- zontally, or in curved lines, according to the taste of the designer ; but the most usual form is a simple opening to throw the spout or jet upright. The grandest jet of any is a perpendicular column issuing from a rocky base, on which the water falling, produces a double effect both of sound and visual display. A jet rising from a naked tube in the middle of a basin or canal, and the waters falling on its smooth surface, is unnatural, without -being artificially grand. 1832. Drooping fountains (^gs. 341, 342, 343.), overflowing vases, shells (as the chama gigas), cisterns, sarcophagi, dripping rocks, and rockworks, are easily formed, requiring only the reservoir to be as high as the orifice whence the dip or descent pro- ceeds. This description of fountains, with a surrounding basin, are peculiarly adapted for the growth of aquatic plants. Both classes of water-works successfully combine. 341 342 1833. Vfaste-drains. In all water-works in gardens, pipes or drains must be contrived to carry off such of the water as is not used in culture. The diameter of these should be somewhat larger than the conducting-pipes, for obvious reasons. 1834. Sun-dials are venerable and pleasing garden-decorations ; and should be placed in conspicuous frequented parts, as in the intersection of principal walks, where the " note which they give of time" may be readily recognised by the passenger. Elegant and cheap forms are now to be procured in cast-iron, which, it is to be hoped, will render their use more frequent. 1835. Vanes are useful in the same way, but are an unsuitable garden-ornament, though frequently introduced on the summits of garden-buildings. The ideas to which they give rise, as connected with ships, flags, fairs, military standards, &c. are all oppo- site to the stillness and repose of gardens. Over a library or office they are useful, con- nected with an internal index ; and they are characteristic and proper over churches, family-chapels, clock-towers, and domestic offices. Aa 4 3GO SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. SUBSECT. 3. Ckaracteristic Decorations. 1836. As characteristic decorations are purely decorative, without any pretensions to convenience, they should ever be very sparingly employed, and only by persons of judgment and experience. A tyro in gardening will be more apt to render himself ridiculous by the use of decorations, than by any other point of practice, and most apt by the use of characteristic decorations. 1837. Rocks are generally considered as parts of the foundation of the earth, and their general character is that of grandeur, sometimes mixed with the singular, fantastic, or romantic. Their expression forms a fine contrast to that of perishable vegetation, and therefore they have been eagerly sought after in gardens, both on this account, and as forming a suitable habitation for certain descriptions of plants. Plant-rockworks are protuberant surfaces, or declivities irregularly covered with rocky fragments, land-stones, conglomerated gravel, vitrified bricks, vitrified scoriae, flints, shells, spar, or other earthy and hard mineral bodies. Such works are, in general, to be looked on more as scenes of culture than of design or picturesque beauty. 1838. Rockworks for effect or character require more consideration than most gar- deners are aware of. The first thing is to study the character of the country, and of the strata of earthy materials, whether earth, gravel, sand, or rock, or a mere nucleus of either of these, such as they actually exist, so as to decide whether rocks may, with propriety, be introduced at all ; or, if to be introduced, of what kind, and to what extent. The design being thus finally fixed on, the execution is more a matter of labor than of skill. 1839. The ruins of objects adapted by their natures or constructions to brave time, have always excited veneration ; and this sentiment, forming a contrast with those emo- tions raised by mere verdant scenes, has ever been esteemed very desirable in gardens. Hence die attempt to produce them by forming artificial ruins, which, being absolute deceptions, cannot admit of justification. If any thing is admissible in this way, it is the heightening the expression of ruins which already exist, by the addition of some parts, which may be supposed to have existed there when the edifice was more entire. Tims, the remains of a castle- wall, not otherwise recognisable from that of a common house or enclosure, may be pierced with a window or a loophole, in the style appropriate to its date, or it may be heightened or extended in some degree. In other cases, turrets, or pinnacles, or battlements, or chimney-tops may be added according to circumstances, and as a judicious and experienced taste and antiquarian architect may direct. Unless the style of the age of the ruins be adopted, the additions become worse than useless to all such as are conversant in the history of architecture, of which an example may be given in the modern Gothic turrets, in the grounds of White Knights, intended to represent the abbey of that name, founded soon after the Norman conquest. 1840. Antiquities (Jig- 344.) are nearly allied to ruins, but differ from them in being of some value as objects, independently of locality. They may be valuable from their groat age, as druidical ; from historical traditions connected with them, as stones indi- cating the site of a battle, the cross-stone of an ancient town, c. ; or from the excel- 344 BOOK III. CHARACTERISTIC DECORATIONS. 361 Icnce of the workmanship or the material, as in the fragments of Grecian and Roman sculpture and architecture. This class of decorations is very common in Italy, and espe- cially near Rome and Naples. Viewed as parts of landscape, almost every thing depends on their union with the surrounding scenery. 1841. Rarities and curiosities, like antiquities, possess a sort of absolute value ; but the sentiments to which they give rise are more allied to wonder than veneration. They are occasionally introduced in gardening, such as the jaw-bones of the whale, basaltic columns, lava blocks, pillars of earthy rock-salt. The tuffa, corals, and madrepores brought from Otaheite by Captain Cook, as ballast, now form part of the rock work in the Chelsea garden. Chinese rocks, idols, and other Chinese garden-ornaments, are sometimes admitted, not as imitations of rocks or sculpture, but as curiosities. 1842. Monumental objects, as obelisks, columns, pyramids, may occasionally be intro- duced with grand effect, both in a picturesque and historical view, of which Blenheim, Stow, Castle Howard, &c. afford fine examples ; but their introduction is easily car- ried to the extreme, and then it defeats itself, as at Stow. In this department may be truly said, after Buonaparte, " Du sublime au ridicule U ny a quun pas /" 1843. Sculptures. Of statues, therms, busts, pedestals, altars, urns, and similar sculptures, nearly the same remarks may be made. Used sparingly, they excite interest, often produce character, and are always individually beautiful, as in the pleasure-ground* of Blenheim, where a few are judiciously introduced ; but profusely scattered about, they distract attention. 1844. Vegetable sculptures (fig. 345.) are very appro- priate in parterres and other scenes in the ancient style. That they may be executed with correctness and without loss of time, the skeleton should be formed of wire, with- in which all the shoots should be confined, and when once the form is filled up with vegetation, the gardener has only to clip the protruding shoots. Groups of figures of different colors may be very curiously executed by using different colored greens. In the garden of the convent of the Madre di Dio, near Savonna, is a group representing the flight of Joseph into Egypt, in yellow box, variegated holly, myrtle, cypress, laurel, and rose- mary. The attending priest told us these plants com- pleted their forms in three years. 1845. Inscriptions, as historical records, without comment, may in some cases be ad- missible ; as the date when any work was begun and finished, the height of elevated points above the level of the sea, or relatively to other surrounding elevated and conspi- cuous objects, &c. &c. ; but sentimental and religious inscriptions cannot be approved of by men in general. They are something superadded to what is or ought to be already complete, and place nature in the situation of the painter, whose portraits required the aid of graphical description. " This is a black bear." That is " A happy rural seat of various view. 1846. Eye-traps, painted perspectives, on walls or boards, as terminations, mock hermits, soldiers, banditti, wooden lions (as at Hawkstone), sheep in stucco, or any other figures of men or animals, intended to pass for realities, though still used in Holland and France, may be pronounced as too puerile for the present age. If they are still admired by the city mob in a suburban tea-garden, so much the better ; the mob must be pleased as well as their superiors, and the rich vulgar may join with them ; but the object of all the arts, whether useful or agreeable, is to elevate our tastes and enjoyments ; and therefore as soon as men's minds are prepared for any refinement on former things, the particular art to which these things belong should prepare the way for their removal, by presenting appropriate substitutes. A few reading tents and portable coffee-houses scattered over the public parks round London and Edinburgh, as at Paris and Vienna, in umbrageous and pictu- resque situations, would be fitting resources for one class of pedestrians, as those crowded yards called tea-gardens are for others. CHAP. IV. Of the Improvement of the Mechanical Agents of Gardening, 1847. The greater number of the implements and buildings enumerated in the fore- going chapters may no doubt be done without, even in the first-rate gardens. & number more, however, might have been added, which are in use in particular situations and circumstances, but we have omitted them, some as not meriting to become general, and 362 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. others because their forms or constructions were too obsolete for modern practice, or too new and imperfect in construction to merit recommendation. A gardener of science and experience is not to be confined in his choice to what is or has been in this or in any department of his art ; but drawing from the resources of his own mind, he may, and ought not only to improve what is already in use, but design and get executed, new tools, instruments, and constructions, better calculated to effect the ends in view gene- rally, or more suited to the exigencies of his particular case. Notwithstanding the al- terations and ameliorations which have of late been so frequently made, there are few of the mechanical agents of gardening now in use, that do not admit of some, and many of them, unquestionably, of much improvement. The ultimate effect of all these amelior- ations is to lessen human labor, and increase the quantity, or improve the quality, of gar- den-productions, so that every attempt to extend them is highly meritorious. 1848. As a general principle in respect to implements, structures, and buildings, the best designs should be selected, and their execution procured in the best manner and of the best materials. This can scarcely be too strongly impressed on the mind of the gardener or his employer. With tools or instruments made of improper timber or iron, and of in- different workmanship, the operator can never satisfy himself or his master. The quan- tity of his labor is less, and the quality inferior ; add to this, that the instrument soon begins to decay, and requires to be renewed, so that independently altogether of the loss in the quantity and quality of labor, the loss occasioned by the renewal of the tool, instrument, or machine, ought to be a sufficient inducement to procure at first only the very best. The true way to ensure this, where the party are not judges, is to employ tradesmen of good repute and long standing. In general, seedsmen should be the per- sons from whom all the implements of gardening ought to be procurable ; but as they often omit this branch of their business, from the want of regular demand, recourse must be had to ironmongers, or to those new establishments called Horticultural and Agri- cultural Repositories. 1849. Hot-houses are by far the most important class of garden-constructions. With respect to them, no degree of horticultural skill and practical attention will compensate for the want of light or air, or a bad exposure ; and where the arrangements for supplying arti- ficial heat are imperfect, the risk is great, and painful for a zealous gardener to contem- plate. One night may destroy the labors of the past year, and forbid hope for the year to come ; the blame may be laid where it is not merited, and a faithful servant may lose his situation and his character, without Jiaving committed either errors of ignorance or carelessness. 1 850. In all structures and edifices, the most complete, elegant, or grand design, when badly executed, is disagreeable to the view, defective in the object of its erection, and ruinous to the proprietor. Bad foundations and roofs, improper materials, materials of different degrees of durability, piled incongruously together, and bad workmanship form the elements of bad execution. In no country are materials and labor obtained in greater perfection than in England ; and in all regular works coming under the architect or the engineer, we generally find little to condemn, and often much to admire in the execution of the work. Garden-buildings, however, and especially that important class, hot-houses, are, relatively to civil architecture, an anomalous class of structures ; and hence they are more the subject of chance or caprice in design, and of local convenience in execution, than those of any department of rural architecture. The subject of horti- cultural architecture, indeed, till very lately, has not been deemed of sufficient import- ance, to induce an architect to make himself master of the first step towards improvement in every art, the knowledge of what has already been done in it by others. Hence it fol- lows, that garden-buildings, and especially hot-houses, are left either wholly to gardeners, who understand little of the science of architecture, or wholly to architects, who under- stand as little of the science of gardening. The consequence in either case, generally is, incongruity in appearance, want of success in the useful results, and want of permanency in duration. It would be more e'asy to adduce examples than to avoid the charge of im- partiality in the selection. 1851. The recent improvement in the manufacture of iron, and the war-price of timber, have greatly extended the use of the former material in most erections, and contributed, from the novelty of the thing, to a good deal of incongruity in the disposition of the ma- terials of buildings. Thus we have cast-iron sashes in deal frames, cast-iron rafters placed on timber waHrplates, iron bars sheathed with copper, and many such dis- cordant arrangements, certain in the end of defeating the purpose for which they were adopted. 1852. Artists. There are two modes which proprietors may adopt who are desirous of embodying in garden-erections the modern improvements. The first is, to employ a first-rate head gardener, and to authorise and require of him, to consult with a regular architect or engineer, previously to fixing on any plan for a structure or machine ; and the second is, to employ a regular garden-architect. A connoisseur will, no doubt, think BOOK IV. OF THE OPERATIONS OF GARDENING. 365 for himself, and form his own plans ; and a spirited amateur will be the first to adopt new improvements ; but the policy of a well regulated man, who has no pretensions to particular skill himself, will certainly lead him to adopt one of the two first modes. BOOK IV. OF THE OPERATIONS OF GARDENING. 1 853. ALL the operations of gardening are mechanical in the first, instance, though the principal intention of many of them is to effect chemical changes, and of others, changes on the vital principle. They are also all manual, or effected by man, who, though possessing little power over nature in his naked, unarmed state, yet taking in his hands some one of the implements or machines described, becomes thereby armed with a new power, and operates on the soil, or on the vegetable itself, by effecting changes in his own centre of gravity, and by muscular movements of his legs and arms, calculated by pushing, drawing, or lifting, to bring the implement into the action proper for per- forming the operation in view. All these movements are governed by the laws of me- chanics, and the operations performed, are all referable to one or more of the mechanical powers, and chiefly, as we have before observed, to the lever and the wedge. 1854. The operations of gardening present astonishing proofs of the advanced state of the art. In the infancy of gardening, as the implements were few, so would be also the operations of culture. The ground would be loosened on the surface with a hooked stick (Jig. 2.), or scratched with a bone, or a horn in the spring season ; the plants or seeds rudely inserted, and the produce in autumn broken over or pulled up, as wanted by the family or band to whom they belonged. But in the present state of human improve- ment, the operations of gardening have branched out into a number and variety which at first sight appear astonishing. The operations of pulverisation and sowing, for ex- ample, are not confined to spring ; but are practised in every month of the year. The season of reaping or gathering crops is equally extended ; and for such productions as cannot be produced or preserved in the open air, recourse is had to hot-houses, and fruit and root store-rooms. Vegetation is accelerated, retarded, and modified, almost at the will of the operator ; and by processes which suppose a considerable degree of physiolo- gical and chemical science, as well as practical skill, mechanical dexterity, and personal attention. Thus, shading, airing, and watering, though operations exceeded by none in manual simplicity, cannot be performed without continual reference to the state of the plant, of the soil, and of the climate or weather. Hence it is, that an. operative gardener who really knows his profession, requires to be not only a habile workman, but a thinking and reasoning being, and a steady man. We shall consider the operations of gardening, 1. As consisting of operations or labors in which strength is chiefly required ; 2. As operations where skill is more required than strength ; and, 3. As operations or pro- cesses where strength, skill, and science, are combined. CHAP. I. Operations of Gardening, in which Strength is chiefly required in the Operator. 1855. To acquire the practice of gardening-operations, a few hours' labor with the im- plements or machines will be of more use than a volume of words ; all that we shall submit, therefore, will be some observations relatively to the mechanical action of the implement and operator, the object of the operation, and the best season of performing it. They may be arranged as, 1 . Mechanical operations common to all arts of manual labor ; 2. Garden-labors on the soil ; and, 3. Garden-labors on plants. SECT. I. Mechanical Operations common to all Arts of Manual Labor. 1856. All the operations which man performs with implements or machines are, as far as his own person is concerned, reducible to lifting, carrying, drawing, and thrusting. Man himself, considered as an engine, derives his power from alterations in the posi- tion of his centre of gravity, and he applies it chiefly by his hands, arms, and legs acting as levers of the third kind. 1857. Lifting is performed by first stooping or lowering the centre of gravity, and at the same time throwing it to one side The object being then laid hold of by the hands, the body is raised, and the centre of gravity, in being restored to its true position, acts as a counterbalancing weight to the weight to be raised. The weight retained by 364 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. TART II. the hand is now raised a certain height, never exceeding half that of the man ; if to be raised higher, recourse is had to muscular strength, or the power of the arms to act as levers. 1858. Carrying' To carry a thing is merely to walk with a greater weight than before, and walking is performed by a series of alternate derangements and adjustments of the centre of gravity, slow or rapid, according as the person may walk or run. According to Delolm, the most advantageous weight for a man of common strength to carry hori- zontally is 112lbs. ; or, if he returns unladen, 135lbs. 1859. Drawing. In this operation, the upper part of the body is thrown forward, so as to act as a power to counterbalance or lift up the body or weight to be moved ; and by joining to this lifting motion the operation of walking, the weight is at once lifted up and drawn along. This compound operation is exemplified in a horse, when straining at a draught in a plough or cart. He first lowers his chest, then raises it, and lastly steps forward. When drawing at ease, the lifting motion is scarcely dis- tinguishable from the progressive one. 1860. Pushing or thrusting is performed exactly on the same principles as drawing, and differs from it chiefly in the kind of implement or machine which requires to be employed ; all machines which are to be pushed requiring to be attached to the animal machine by parts acting by their rigidity ; whereas, those to be drawn may be attached by parts acting by their tenacity merely. 1861. All these operations may be varied in quantity, either by a variation in the weight or gravity of the man, or moving power ; or by a variation in the time or rapidity of his motions. Thus a heavy man may, in one movement, lift a weight ten times greater than can be done by one of less weight ; but a light man may, by increasing the time of performance, lift the same weight at ten times. A man, who in digging can apply with his feet five cwt. of his weight towards pushing the wedge or blade of the spade into the soil, has an evident advantage over a lighter man who can only apply three cwt. for that purpose ; but yet the latter may equal the former, by accompanying his power or foot with a proportionate increase of motion. The power in this last case is said to be obtained by the momentum, or quantity of matter in a body multiplied by the velocity with Avhich it is moved. Power, therefore, we thus ascertain, is obtained by matter and motion jointly, and what may be deficient in the one, may be made up by excess in the other. Thus, a small, light workman may (though with more animal exertion) produce as much work as a larger or heavier man : for if we suppose the quantity of matter in the large man to be thirty, and his motion at the rate of two, then if the quantity of matter in the small man be twenty, and his motion at the rate of three, he will pro- duce an equal effect with the large man. As small human machines, or little men, are generally constructed of firmer materials, or more healthy and animated, than large ones, the small man performs his rapid motions with nearly as great ease to himself as the heavy man moves his ponderous weight ; so that in point of final result they are very nearly on a par. SECT. II. Garden-labors on the Soil. 1862. The simple labors peculiar to arts of culture are performed either in the body of the soil, as picking, digging ; on its surface, as hoeing, raking ; or on vegetables, as cut- ting, clipping, &c. 1863. Picking. The pick, as we have seen (Jig. 77.) is a blunt wedge, with a lever attached to it at right angles, and the operation of picking consists in driving in the wedge perpendicularly, so as to produce fracture, and then causing it to operate ho- rizontally by the lever or handle, so as to effect separation, and thus break up and loosen hard, compact, or stony soils. It is also used to loosen stones or roots ; and the pick- axe is used to cut the latter. For breaking and pulverising the soil, the most favorable conditions are, that the earth should be moderately moist, to facilitate the entrance of the pick, but in tenacious soils not so much so as to impede fracture and separation. 1864. Digging. The spade is a thin wedge, with a lever attached in the same plane, and the operation of digging consists in thrusting in the wedge by the momentum (or weight and motion) of the operator, which effects fracture ; a movement of the lever next effects separation, whilst the operator, by stooping and rising again, lifts up the spitful or section of earth on the blade or wedge of the spade, which, when so raised, is dropt in a reversed position, and at a short distance from the unbroken ground. The separation between the dug and undug ground is called the trench or furrow ; and when a piece of ground is to be dug, a furrow is first opened at that end of it where the work is to commence, and the earth carried to one end where it is to terminate, where it serves to close the furrow. In digging, regard must be had to maintain a uniform depth throughout ; to reverse the position of each spitful, so as what was before surface may now be buried; to break and comminute every part where pulverisation is the leading object ; to preserve each spitful as entire, and place it separate, or isolated as BOOK IV. GARDEN-LABORS ON THE SOIL. 365 much as possible where aeration is the object ; to mix in manures regularly where they are added ; to bury weeds not injurious ; and to remove others, and all extraneous matters, as stones, &c. in every case. For all these purposes a deep open trench is requisite, and that this may not be diminished in the course of the operation, it must never be increased in length. If allowed to become crooked by irregular advances in the digging, it is thus increased in length, and necessarily diminished in capacity, unless, indeed, the dug ground is allowed to assume an uneven surface, which is an equally great fault. 1865. Weather for the operation. Digging, for pulverisation and mixing in manures, is best performed in dry weather ; but for the purposes of variation, a degree of moisture and tenacity in the soil is more favorable for laying it up in lumps or entire pieces. The usual length of the blade of a spade is from ten inches to a foot, but as it is always in- serted somewhat obliquely, the depth of pulverisation in gardens attained by simple digging seldom exceeds nine inches, and in breaking up firm grounds it is seldom so much. 1866. Shovelling is merely the lifting part of digging, and the shovel being broader than the spade, is used to lift up fragments separated by that implement or the pick. 1867. Excavating is the operation of working out pits, furrows, or other hollows in grounds, either for the commencement of other operations, as digging or trenching, or for planting, burying manures, inserting roots ; or on a large scale, for forming pieces of artificial water, &c. 1868. levelling, in the ordinary sense of the term, as used in gardening, consists in spreading abroad the soil in such a way that its surface may be nearly in one uniform plane, either level or nearly so ; to be correct, this plane ought to be parallel with that of tlie horizon ; but very generally an even surface, if not very far from level, answers all its purposes. The terms level and even, in ground-work, however, ought to be considered as quite distinct : the former should be like the surface of still water, and the latter merely free from inequalities. 1869. Marking, ivith tlte line is an operation preparatory to some others, and consists in stretching and fixing the line or cord along the surface by means or its attached pins or stakes, in the direction or position desired, and cutting a slight continuous notch, mark, or slit in the ground, along its edge with the spade. 1870. Trenching is a mode of pulverising and mixing the soil, or of pulverising and changing its surface, to any greater depth than can be done by the spade alone. For trenching, with a view to pulverising and changing the surface, a trench is formed like the furrow in digging, but two or more times wider and deeper ; the plot or piece to be trenched is next marked off' with the line into parallel strips of this width ; and beginning at one of these, the operator digs or picks the surface stratum, and throws it in the bottom of the trench. Having completed with the shovel the removal of the surface stratum, a second, and a third, or fourth, according to the depth of the soil and other circumstances, is removed in the same way ; and thus, when the operation is completed, the position of the different strata is exactly the reverse of what they were before. 346 In trenching, with a view to mixture and pulverisation (Jig. 346.), all that is necessary is to open, at one corner of the plot, a trench or excavation of the desired depth, three or four feet broad, and six or eight feet long. Then proceed to fill this excavation from one end by working out a similar one. In this way proceed across the piece to be trenched, and then return, and so on in parallel courses to the end of the plot, observing that the face or position of the moved soil in the trench must always be that of a slope, in order that whatever is thrown there may be mixed, and not deposited in regular layers, as in the other case. To effect this most completely, the operator should always stand in the bottom of the trench, and first picking down and mixing the materials, from the solid side (n), should next take them up with the shovel, and throw them on the slope or face of the moved soil (6), keeping a distinct space of two or three feet between them. For want of attention to this, in trenching new soils for gardens and plantations, it may be truly said that half the benefit derivable from the operation is lost. In general, in trenching, those points which were mentioned under digging, such as turning, breaking, dunging, &c. require to be attended to, and sometimes an 366 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. additional object, that of producing a level from an irregular surface is desired. In this case double care is requisite to avoid forming subterraneous basins or hollows, which might retain water in the substratum, at the bottom of the moved soil, and also to mix inferior with better soil, &c. where it becomes requisite to penetrate into depositions of inferior earthy matters. 1871. Ridging is a mode of finishing the surface, applicable either to dug or trenched grounds, which, when so finished, are called ridge-dug or ridge-trenched. Instead of being formed with an even surface, ridged grounds are finished in ridges, or close ranges of parallel elevations, whose sections are nearly equilateral triangles. Hence, supposing the triangles to touch at their bases, two thirds more of surface will be exposed to the influence of the atmosphere and the weather, than in even surfaces. 1872. Forking. The fork is composed of two or three separate, parallel, and uniform wedges, joined so as form one general blade, which is acted on like the spade, by means of a shoulder or hilt, for thrusting it into the matters to be forked, and a lever or handle for separating and lifting them. In gardening, forking is used for two pur- poses ; for pulverising the soil among growing crops, and for moving vegetable manures. In the first case the operation is similar to digging, the only difference being that pulverisation is more attended to than reversing the surface ; in the other, the fork separates chiefly by drawing and lifting ; hence for this purpose a round-pronged (or dung) fork (Jig. 85. ) produces least friction during the discharge of the forkful and re- insertion; and in the other abroad-pronged (or garden) fork (Jig. 86.) separates and lifts the soil more readily. Dry weather is essentially requisite in forking soils, and most desirable for spreading manures ; but dunghills may be turned, and hot-beds built, during rain, with no great injury. 1873. Hoeing is performed by drawing or thrusting the wedge or blade of the draw or thrust hoe along the surface of the soil, so as to cut weeds at or under the surface, and slightly to pulverise the soil. It is used for four purposes, sometimes together, but commonly separate ; first, to loosen weeds so as they may die for want of nourishment, or be gathered or raked off, for which purpose, either the thrust or draw hoe may be used ; the second, to stir the soil, and for this purpose, when ho weeds require killing, the pronged hoe is preferable, as being thrust deeper with less force, and as likely to cut the roots of plants ; the third, is to draw up or accumulate soil about the stems of plants, for which purpose a hoe with a large blade or shovel will produce most effect ; and the fourth is to form a hollow gutter or drill, in which to sow or insert the seeds of plants, for which a large or small draw-hoe may be used, according to the size of the seeds to be buried. The use of the hoe for any of the above purposes requires dry weather. 1874. Raking is performed by drawing through the surface of the soil, or over it, a series of small equilateral wedges or teeth, either with a view to minute pulverisation, or to collecting weeds, stones, or such other extraneous matters as do not pass through the interstices of the teeth of the rake. The teeth of the rake being placed nearly at right angles to the handle, it follows that the lower the handle is held in performing the operation, the deeper will be the pulverisation, and on the contrary, that the higher it is held, the interstices being lessened, the fewer extraneous matters will pass through the teeth. The angle at which the handle of the rake is held must therefore depend on the object in view ; the medium is forty-five degrees. For all raking, except that of new-mown grass, dry weather is essentially requisite. 1875. Cuffing is a mode of excavating used in preparing a surface for seeds, and in covering them when sown ; the surface being well pulverised by digging and raking, is laid out into beds with alleys between, at least three times the breadth of the operator's foot. Then take a wooden-headed or cuffing-rake (1314.), stand on the alley of the opposite ' side of the bed ; turn the rake on its back, and push off the earth from the one half of the bed to the purposed depth, as far as the side of the alley marked by your feet, being careful to keep the earth so pushed off quite straight. When one side is finished, turn round and do the other in the same manner. After the seeds are sown take the rake, stand on the alley on the opposite side of the bed ; put in the teeth of the rake imme- diately beyond the cuffing or ridge of earth pressed off, and, by a sudden pull, draw it on the bed so as to cover its own half equally. And having finished this half, turn round, and finish the other in the same manner j and the operation is completed. (Sang's. Plant. Kal. 242.) 1876. Scraping is drawing a broad and blunt wedge along hard surfaces, in gardening generally those of lawns or walks, to remove excrementitious matters thrown out of the soil by worms. Moist weather best suits the operation on lawns, and dry weather on gravel. 1877. Sweeping, mechanically considered, is the same operation as scraping. In gar- dening, it is chiefly used after mowing, and for collecting leaves ; for both which purposes dewy mornings are preferable, as at such seasons the leaves or grass being moist, conglo- merate without adhering to the dry soil. BOOK IV. GARDEN-LABORS WITH PLANTS. 367 1878. Wheeling is a mode of carrying materials in which the weight is divided between the axle of the wheel and the arms of the operator. The arms or shafts of the barrow thus become levers of the second kind, in which the power is at one end, and the fulcrum at the other, and the weight between them. The weight is carried or moved on by the continual change of the fulcrum with the turning of the wheel ; and this turning is pro- duced by the operator throwing forward his centre of gravity so as to pusli against the wheel by means of the moveable axle, &c. The chief obstacles to wheeling are the roughness or softness of the surface to be wheeled on. Where this is firm, there wheel- ing will be best performed with the greater part of the load resting on the axle ; but when soft and deep, the centre of gravity should be nearest the operator, who will find it easier to carry than to overcome excessive friction. Dry weather is obviously prefer- able for this operation. " With wheelbarrows," Dr. Young observes, " men will do half as much more work as with hods." 1879. Beating is the application of pressure to surfaces or to materials, with a view to render them more fit for particular uses. Thus, in new-laid turf verges, or gravel alleys, compactness and adhesion are required and obtained by beating ; in working clay for puddling or claying the bottom of ponds or cisterns, intimate mixture, exclusion of air, and of hard particles, are effected by the same means. 1 880. Rolling is the application of pressure to surfaces on a large scale, and chiefly to turf and gravel. The roller, mechanically considered, is the second mechanical power, or wheel and axle, to which the handle becomes a lever of the second kind, as in the wheel- barrow. The amount of its action is as the breadth of the wheel and joint weight of it and of the axle ; it is drawn over the surface, and produces by far the greatest effect when the ground is saturated with moisture below, but dry on the immediate surface. 1881. Sifting or screening are operations for separating the coarser from the finer par- ticles of earth, gravel, tanners' bark, &c. The materials require to be dry, well broken, and then thrown on the screen (Jig. 1392.), which being a grated inclined plane, in slid- ing down it, the smaller materials drop through while the larger pass on. In sifting, the same process is effected by motion with a sieve or circular and flat grating of limited ex- tent. The screen is calculated for coarser operations, as with gravel and bark on a large scale, and the sieve for finer operations with plant-moulds and composts. SECT. III. Garden-labors with Plants. 1882. The simple operations performed on vegetables sue sawing, cutting, clipping, splitting, mowing, and weeding. 1883. Sawing. The saw is a conjoined series of uniform wedges, which, when drawn or thrust in succession across a branch or trunk gradually wear it through. In perform- ing the operation, the regularity of the pressure and motion are chiefly to be attended to. In green or live shoots, the double-toothed saw produces less friction on the sides of the plate, by opening a larger channel for its motion. Where parts are detached from living trees, the living section ought generally to be smoothed over with a knife, chisel, or file ; and a previous precaution in large trees is to cut a notch in the lower part of the branch immediately under and in the line of the section, in order to prevent any accident to the bark, when the amputated part falls off. Sawing is a coarser mode of cutting, mowing, or shaving ; or a finer mode of raking, in which the teeth follow all in one line. 1 884. Cutting is performed by means of a very sharp wedge, and either by drawing this through obliquely or across the body to be cut, as in using the knife ; or by pressing or striking the axe or hedge-bill obliquely into the body, first, on one side of an imagi- nary line of section, and then on the other, so as to work out a trench across the branch or trunk, and so effect its separation. The axe, in gardening, is chiefly used in felling trees, and for separating their trunks, branches, and roots into parts. The knife is ex- tensively used for small trees, and the hedge-bill and chisel for those of larger size. In amputating with the knife, one operation or draw-cut ought generally to be sufficient to separate the parts ; and this ought to be made with the knife sufficiently sharp, and the motion so quick as to produce a clean, smooth section, with the bark un- injured. 1885. Every draw-cut produces a smooth section, and a fractured or bruised section ; and one essential part of cutting living vegetables, is to take care that the fractured sec- tion be on the part amputated. Another desirable object is, that the section of the living or remaining .part should be so inclined (a, Jig. 347.) as not to lodge water or overflowing sap, and so far turned to the ground (rf) or to the north, as not to be struck by the direct rays of the sun. To accomplish both these purposes, as well as to make sure of having the fractured section on the part amputated, the general practice is to cut from below or from the under edge of the branch or shoot, unless the position of the leading bud occa- sions a deviation from the rule (6). The cut should also be made in all shoots of not more than three or four years old, within fronl one fourth to half an inch, or a little more of the bud intended to take the lead ; when this is not done, and half an inch or more of 368 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. shoot left without a bud (c and e], the consequence is, the stump dies back to the bud in the course of the season (g), and if not carefully cut off (/), will end in a decaying ori- fice both unsightly and injurious. The bud selected for a leader ought always to be a leaf-bud, and in general the plane of the section ought to be parallel to the angle which the bud makes with the stem (d). Exceptions occur in the case of plants with much pith (h), as the vine, elder, &c. in cutting the year-old shoots of which, an inch or more ought to be left, as these always die back a few lines ; and thus the leading bud might be injured, if this precaution were not taken. In like manner, when pruning a large tree, the section of amputation ought to be made so oblique as to throw off the rain ; as generally as possible, it should be turned from the sun, and rather downwards than up- wards, in order to shield it from heat and cracking : and whenever it can be done, it should be made near a branch, shoot, or bud, which may take the lead in the room of that cut off, and thus, by keeping the principle of life in action at the section, speedily heal up the wound. 1886. In pruning roots, the same principle, as far as applicable, ought to be attended to ; the trunk or stem when cut over ought to be sloped to the north (), and the lateral roots cut so as the section may be on the under side (), and therefore less likely to rot than when the cut faces the surface of the ground (/), or is bruised by neglecting to form the smooth section on the attached extremity. When roots are large always cut to a lateral, and when they are small to a fibre ; for in roots as in shoots, naked extremi- ties always die back to the nearest leader. When a root broken or bruised has neither laterals nor fibres, then merely cut back to sound wood, leaving a smooth section ; for the sap which always operates first and most powerfully at the extremities both of roots and shoots, will there originate fibres. 1887. In cutting with the chisel, the blade is applied below the branch to be amputated, so as to rest on the trunk or main branch, and so applied, a quick blow with a mallet is applied to the handle of the chisel by the operator or his assistant. If this does not effect a separation, it is to be repeated. In forest-pruning it is often advantageous to apply one cut of the chisel on the underside of the branch, and then saw it through with the forest-saw from the upper. 1888. Clijqring is an imperfect mode of cutting adapted for expedition and for small shoots. The separation is effected by bruising or crushing along with cutting, and, in consequence, both sections are fractured. In gardening it is chiefly applied for keeping hedges and edgings in shape ; but the hedge-knife (Jig. 115.), which operates by clean, rapid, draw-cuts given always from below, is generally preferable, as not decreasing the live ends of the amputated shoots. The new pruning-shears (Jig. 122.), and the averuncator (Jig. 121.), it is to be observed, by producing cuts much more like the draw- cuts of knives, are greatly to be preferred to the common hedge-shears. 1889. In respect to the seasons for saiving, cutting, or dialing living trees, the best seem early in spring, and in midsummer. Earfy in autumn, trees are apt to bleed ; later, and in winter, the section is liable to injury from the weather; but trees pruned early in spring remain only a short period before the wound begins to heal ; and in those pruned at mid- summer wounds heal immediately. There are, however, exceptions as to spring pruning in evergreens, cherries and other gummiferous trees ; and summer pruning is but ill adapted for forest-work or trees in crowded scenery. 1890. Splitting, as an operation of gardening, is generally performed on roots of trees remaining in the soil, for the purpose of facilitating their eradication. The wedge in its simplest form, and of iron, is driven in by a hammer or mallet, till it produces fracture and separation, when the parts are removed as detached, &c. 1891. Mowing is performed by the rapid motion of a very sharp wedge across the mat- ters to be cut or mown, and at an oblique angle to them. In gardening it is applied to grassy surfaces, in order, by repeated amputations, to keep the plants short, spreading, and thick, and by always admitting light and air to the roots or stools, to render the sur- face green. This operation requiring great force, and also a twisting motion of the body, brings almost every muscle into action, and is, in fact, one of the most severe in vegetable culture. 1892. Mowingfrom a boat, is in use for cutting weeds in rivers and ponds. The operator stands in the boat, and is rowed forward by another, as required. Sometimes scythe- blades are tied or rivetted together, and worked by means of ropes like a saw from one shore to the other ; but the first mode is generally reckoned the best, even in public canals, and is unquestionably so in gardening. 1893. Weeding is the operation of drawing or digging out such plants from any given BOOK IV. TRANSFERRING DESIGNS OF GARDENS. 369 plot as are foreign to those cultivated there. In this sense every plant may become a weed relatively ; but absolute or universal weeds are such as are cultivated in no department of gardening, excepting in that purely botanical. Weeds are drawn out of the ground by the hand or by pincers (Jig. 146.), or they are dug or forked out by weeding tools. Aquatic weeds are necessarily drawn up by pincers. The best season for weeding is after CHAP. II. Operations of Gardening in which Skill is more required than Strength. 1894. Operations of skill require the end to be known and kept in view by the operator, during the operation. The labors which we have enumerated in the foregoing chapter, may almost all be performed by the laborer without reference to any plan or design ; but those which come next to be enumerated, require a greater or lesser degree of reference to the ultimate object. Of this, even the simple operations of digging a drain to carry off water, planting in a row, or forming a bed of earth, may be mentioned as examples. Previously to proceeding to these operations, it becomes necessary to consider the subject of transferring designs from ground to paper, or to memory, and from paper or memory to ground ; we shall then be prepared to treat of executing designs. SECT. I. Of transferring Designs from Ground to Paper or Memory. 1895. The subject of taking plans or designs of objects is to be considered as part of a gardener's general education, since none who aspire to any degree of eminence in their art ought to be ignorant of the first principles of geometry, land-surveying, and drawing. We shall merely, therefore, touch on a few points with a view to assisting a gardener in bringing the knowledge he has so acquired into action. A gardener may require to take plans of gardens, or parts of gardens, or of implements or buildings, for his own instruc- tion, or to execute similar objects for his employer. It is as requisite, therefore, that a gardener should be able to copy a garden, as a carpenter a gate or a roof. 1896. The dimensions of simple objects, as of a bed of earth or dung, border or other plot, he may retain in memory, and transfer from memory to the imitation or copy ; but in general he will require the assistance of graphic memorandums, either of the pen or pencil, or both. The instruments necessary for taking measurements and angles so as to transfer plants from the ground to paper, are the measuring-line or chain, the measur- ing-rod, and occasionally the theodolite ; but for all ordinary purposes the chain and rod are sufficient. 1897. The simplest form of surface-plan to transfer from ground to paper is a circle ; for here it is only necessary to find the diameter. The next is a parallelogram or bed, in which it is only requisite to take the length and breadth. Most of the details of the plans of kitchen-gardens, may be reduced to parallelograms, so that they are transferred to paper, or even taken down arithmetically, as in the land-surveyor's field-book, with great ease. 1898. Irregular figures, as parterres, outlines of picturesque plantations (Jig- 348.), or water ; or the plans of winding walks, require greater nicety. In such cases, temporary or imaginary lines (jig. 348. a, b, c), forming parts of regular figures (as d with b, Jig. 348.), are first to be formed, or partially indicated around, or through the plot to be transferred ; and dimensions are next to be taken relatively to these known and simple lines or figures. Of all temporary or skeleton figures, the triangle is the most simple, the most correct, and the most generally used. The skeleton or temporary figure (e) or line (a b, &c.) being transferred to paper, the dimensions (d) are set off from it, and the irregular plot and all its details are thus correctly protracted. 348 1899. Raised or dejrressed surfaces, whether naturally or artificially so, require a sort of double measurement ; first, horizontally, by true horizontal lines, to get the surface-plan ; and next, to measure their elevations or depressions from these lines, in order to find their height or depth. Few gardens of any description are made perfectly flat ; the borders of Bb 370 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. the kitchen-departments generally rise on each side of the walks ; and in large parterres, one of the chief beauties arises from the inequalities of the surface. The depth of ponds, excavations for dung, earth, &c. ridges, hot-beds, rock works, even houses, trees, &c. are all to be measured with reference both to their horizontal and perpendicular extensions. Four persons are required in performing such operations accurately ; two to hold the chain or line in a horizontal position, or in the plane of the general surface ; one to take the dimensions downwards or upwards from this with the measuring-rod, and one to mark down the dimensions. 1 900. In protracting elevations and depressions on paper, the simplest way is to introduce sections, in dotted or otherwise distinguished lines, to prevent their being mistaken for surface-lines ; or in wavy surfaces, figures may be introduced, thus * or 4, to denote their elevation above, or depression below, some piece of water, or other surface fixed on as a medium. Some excellent observations on this subject will be found in Major Lehman's Topographical Plan Drawing, as translated by Lieutenant Siborn, (oblong fol. Land. 1822,) which it is to be hoped will soon be appropriated in the popular books on land- surveying, and adopted in practice. 1901. Wliere it is in contemplation to form pieces of water, the elevations and depressions or levels must be taken and recorded either by sections or arithmetically with the greatest accuracy ; and, in some cases, sections may require to be taken to show particular trees, buildings, the depth of water, or other objects. (Jig. 349.) 1902. With respect to the elevations and shapes of kills and mountains which may lie within parks or plantations, they are only to be measured correctly by the quadrant and theodolite, in the hands of regular land-surveyors ; and, therefore, are not considered as here included. Their shape and dimensions are laid down in maps in the same manner as those of smaller deviations from the flat surface. * Inaccessible dimensions of height, as of trees or buildings, are obtained by the quadrant, or by relative comparisons of shadows ; of depth, as of water or wells, by rods ; of breadth or length, by finding the two angles of a triangle whose base shall be in one extremity of the distance ; and apex in the other. These, and many other equally simple problems in trigonometry, need not be enlarged on, because they must be supposed to form a part of general education. 1 903. The greatest accuracy is requisite in transferring plans of garden-scenery. Not only the mere ground-lines are to be transferred ; but to form a complete plan, the distances between scattered trees or trees in rows, or otherwise regularly disposed, ought to be marked, the situations of their stems indicated, and, where they are of considerable size, representations of the horizontal extension of their heads (Jig. 350. 6) should also be given. The same ought to be done in the case of walls, buildings, and all other raised ob- jects. The intention of a ground-plan is to give an idea of the superstructure ; and with- out such additions as these and others of a pictorial nature (Jig. 350.), to the mere ground-lines, that idea must be very imperfect, at least in plans of mixed scenery. 1 904. For protracting rural objects various modes have been adopted by land-surveyors : trees are sometimes shown by small crosses or ciphers, triangles or dots (Jig. 350. a) ; by c an orbiculate line representing the extension of the branches or head, and a dot in the place of the trunk (a and e] ; by the same, with the addition of a shadow, taken when the sun is south or south-west, and his elevation exactly 45, by which the points of the com- pass are readily ascertained throughout the plan, and the shape of the head, and the height of the tree exhibited (e) ; sometimes an elevation or profile of the tree is given, either BOOK IV. TRANSFERRING DESIGNS OF GARDENS. 371 in foliage (/), or to show the form of the trunk and branches (g), or merely to give a rude idea of a tree (c). Hedge-rows, whether with or without trees, are either shown in elevation or profile (Ii), or in vertical profile or bird's-eye view (/'). They may be de- lineated either in skeleton or foliage. Buildings may be shown either in general .plan (&), detailed plan (/), vertical profile of the roof (m), elevation (n), perspective view (o) ; or a plan may be given (;>), and a diagonal elevation (y) taken and placed opposite the .plan in the margin of the map. A pictorial surveyor, who understands perspective, and is desirous of conveying a correct idea of the subject he is to measure and delineate, will readily find expedients for attaining success. 1 905. In portraying the general surface of land-estates, different modes have been adopted by modern land-surveyors. The first we shall mention is the old mode of giving what may be called the ground-lines only ; as of roads, fences, water-courses, situations of buildings and trees. (Jig- 351.) This mode has no other pretensions than that of accuracy of dimensions, and can give few ideas to a stranger who has not seen the property, beside those of its contents and general outline. 351 352 1 906. In the second, elevations of the objects are added to these lines ; but which, in crowded parts, tend much to obscure them. (Jig. 352.) This mode is perhaps the best calculated of any to give common observers a general notion of an estate ; more especially if ably executed. Very frequently, however, this mode is attempted by artists ignorant of the first principles of drawing, optics, or perspective, and without taste. 1907. In the third, a vertical profile, or geometrical bird's-eye view, that is, a bird's-eye view in which all the objects are laid down to a scale is presented. In this the upper sur- face of every object is seen exactly as it would appear to an eye considerably elevated above it, and looking centrically down on it. (Jig. 353.) This mode, properly executed, 353 372 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. FART II. is calculated to give a more accurate idea of the furniture or surface-objects of an estate than any other ; and if the declivities be correctly indicated, and the shade of the hollows 354 and eminences be laid on with reference to some medium elevation, referred to or illus- trated by sections, taken in the direction of indicated lines (a.. .6), it will give an equally correct idea of the variations of the ground. In short, it is the best mode for most pur- poses, and is now coming into general use. 1 908. A very complete method of giving the plan of an estate, is to adopt the profile manner and include such a portion of the plans of the adjoining estates or country as shall be contained within a circle of moderate extent (Jig. 354.), the centre of which may be the centre of the demesne-lands, family-mansion, or prospect-tower. Around a map so formed, the distant scenery, as seen from the roof of the house or prospect-tower, may form a panoramic circumference, or margin of prospects. (Jig. 354. ) In all these modes, dimensions and contents are given or obtainable along with effect ; in those which follow, effect or general appearance only is obtained. 1909. The natural bird's-eye view is intended to give a general idea of the external ap- pearance of an estate. In this the eye of the spectator is supposed to be considerably elevated above the centre of the estate, and all the objects are portrayed exactly as they would appear to him in that situation ; largest in the centre, and gradually diminishing to the circumference of the circle of vision. In such a delineation, parts of other adjoining estates may often require to be included, in order to complete the circle ; but these are necessary to the general idea, and can easily be distinguished from the principal property by minute marks on the delineation. 1910. In the panoramic view, the delineator supposes himself placed on an eminence, as the roof of the mansion, where centrical, and looking round on all that he sees on every side. Where there is a prominent hill, or where the mansion is on an eminence, this is a very desirable mode of giving a general idea of a domain, and by the aid of hori- zontal lines and lines converging to them from the centre of vision, some idea may be had, on flat surfaces at least, of the relative heights and distances of objects. 1911. A simple mode is to give a general vieiv, or distant prospect of the estate, or its BOOK IV. TRANSFERRING DESIGNS TO PLANE SURFACES. 373 principal parts (Jig. 355. ), as seen from some elevated conspicuous hill, building, or object near it ; or if the estate, as is frequently the case, is situated on the side of a hill, or range of hills, a situation on the plain, or flat grounds opposite to it, will be sufficient. 355 1912. Great improvements have been made in the art of delineating estates by T. Hornor, an elegant and scientific chorometer and draughtsman. See his Mode of Delineating Estates, 8vo. 1813; and Lehman's Toj ^graphical Plan JDrau'ing> oblong fol. 1822. Mo^- flels of estates are also formed in cork, papier inactive, and other substances, which for hilly scenery are very useful and entertaining. SECT. II. Of transferring Designs from Paper or Memory to Ground. 1913. Staking or marking out plans is a subject requiring much greater skill than the last, on account of the inequalities and other obstructions met with on the ground's surface. It may be considered, 1. As to transferring figures to plane surfaces; 2. To irregular or obstructed surfaces ; and, 3. Arranging quantities. SUBSECT. 1. Transferring Figures and Designs to plane Surfaces. 1914. The transferring of plane or regular jigures to even ground is nothing more than performing the elementary problems of geometry on a large scale. The subject has been amply illustrated by Switzer, Le Blond, and other writers of their day; but a very few examples will here suffice, as the school education of gardeners is now superior to what it was in those times. 1915. A perpendicidar to any line 356 may either be found by taking a garden-line, doubling a portion of it, and applying the extremities at equal distances from the point whence the perpendicular is to proceed (fig. 356. a) ; or more simply, but on a large scale with less accuracy, by applying the garden-square (6), or on any scale by the use of a rope or line united at the extremity, and divided in the proportions of 6, 8, and 10 (c). The 6 is to be placed as the perpendicular of a right-angled triangle, the 8 as the base, and the 10 as the hypothenuse ; or three rods of similar proportions, or divided into feet, and the proper numbers taken, may be used for this purpose. Switzer informs us this was the mode in which all right-angled figures in gardens, and all other works, were set out in his time. 1916. To divide an angle, a line united at the extremities, and divided into four equal parts (d), may readily be so applied to any angle as to divide it equally ; or the same tiling may be done by a portion of line bisected, and its extremities applied at equal distances from the angle (e). A line divided into three equal parts readily forms an equilateral triangle (Jig. 356. f). . 1917. To describe an oval within a given length, the length may be divided into three equal parts ; then let the two inner points so found be the centres of two circles which shall form the ends of the oval, and the sides may be formed by segments whose centres are the intersecting points of the circles (Jig. 357. a). The same oval may be formed by Bb 3 374 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PAKT IL 358 359 357 dividing the given line into four parts ; forming the ends by segments of which the two outermost points are the centres, and the sides by segments proceeding from a line passing at right angles through the centre of the given line (Jig. 357. 6). 1918. The gardener's oval, or one in which both diameters are given, is thus formed. Bisect the long diameter by the transverse one, itself thus bisected by the other. Divide half the transverse diameter into three parts. Take one of these parts, and set it off from both extremities of the long diameter. Fix there two pins or stakes, and fix a third stake one part from the end of the transverse diameter ; double a line and put it round these stakes, of such a length that when stretched, it may touch the extremities of one of the diameters. Then, with a pin in this extremity, move it completely round, and so strike out the oval (Jig. 357. c). The long and short diameters are more easily divided arithmetically ; thus, supposing the given length of the oval be ninety feet, and its width sixty feet ; then the third part of half of the width is ten feet, and this distance set back from the extremities of the diameters gives the situation of the stakes at once. 1919. A spiral line, or volute, may be sometimes re- quired in gardening, for laying out labyrinths or curious parterres. The width or diameter of the spiral being given (Jig. 358. i, h), bisect it, and divide each half into as many parts as the spiral is to form revolutions (fig. 358. g to h}. Then, from the centre draw all the halves of the spirals which are on one side of the diameter line (be, de, fg, /') ; and from the point where the first semi- spiral intersects the diameter line (6), as a centre, draw all the others (dc,fe, fig ). 1920. Uniting three points in a curved line. A very useful problem both in laying down plans on paper, and transferring them to gardening, is that which teaches how, Jrom any three points (fig. 359. a, 6, c), not in a straight line, to find tlie centre of a circle whose circumference shall JMSS through them. Imagine the three points connected by two straight lines ; bisect these lines by others (g and e), perpendicular to them, and where these intersect (at g) will be found the centre of the circle whose circumference shall pass through the three points. 1921. T/ie method of laying out polygons on even ground, or any geometrical figure, will be perfectly sim- ple to such as can perform the problems on paper ; all the difference on the ground is, that the line is used in- stead of the compasses, with or without the assistance of thf square and arithmetical calculation. 1922. Laying out the ground-lines of gardens, parterres, or any large figures on plain surfaces, is merely a mixed application of geometrical problems. It is only necessary to premise, that a straight line is found by placing rods upright, so as they may range one behind the other at convenient distances, and so accurately adjusted, that the one next the eye may conceal all the rest. A plan of a garden, &c. (fig. 360. a) being given with a scale and north and south line attached, first find its extreme dimensions, and supposing you have space sufficient for laying it out, find the central lines (fig. 361. a,a,b,b], and lay them down first, distinguishing them by rows of stakes ; then from these set off the lines of the central plot, if any, the walks, alleys, walls, &c., distinguishing them by strong stakes, which may remain till the ground is put into proper form. 1923. In laying mit polygonal gardens, or plots, or ponds (fig. 360. 6), when the dimen- 360 BOOK IV. TRANSFERRING DESIGNS TO IRREGULAR SURFACES. 375 sions are too great for inscribing a circle of' the full size with a line ; the obvious mode is to form a small circle in the centre, and mark the figure on its circumference ; then from the points where the sides intersect radii can be extended as far as required, and 361 ~J-_. -J..J 362 OX j^ ..J... , is ;iF r ,c::'l.j. -^ J- -1 4 -r. r the length of one being found, the rest can be adjusted accordingly, and the plot thus laid out of the required size. (Jig. 362.) 363 1924. Intricate and fanciful figures of parterres are most correctly transferred to ground, as they are copied on paper, by covering the figure to be copied with squares (fig- 363. a) formed by temporary lines intersecting each other at equal distances and right angles, and by tracing on the ground similar squares, but much larger, according to the scale (fig. 363. b). Sometimes the figure is drawn on paper in black, and the squares in red, while the squares on the ground are formed as sawyers mark the intended path of the saw before sawing up a log of timber ; that is, by stretching cords rubbed with chalk, which, by being struck on the ground (previously made perfectly smooth), leave white lines. With the plan in one hand and a pointed rod in the other, the design is thus readily traced across these indications. The French and Italians lay out their most curious parterres (fig- 364.) in this way. 364 i ISiKnii SUBSECT. 2. Transferring Figures and Designs to irregular Surfaces. 1 925. Staking or marking out plans on irregular surfaces constitutes the most difficult part of practice, whether in arranging grounds in the country, or streets, or other improvements in towns. These difficulties do not arise from the intricacy of the princi- ples of action ; but from the variety of operations often requisite to overcome the obstruc- Bb 4 376 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART 11. tions. They may be all classed under three heads, that of transferring a straight line, a curved line, and a level line. 1926. Where a straight line is to be indicated among objects or inequalities not more than fifteen or twenty feet high, its plan or tract on the earth (Jig. 365. a ... 6) may be found by the use of poles, a few feet higher than the elevation of the obstructions, the director being placed on a step-ladder, or other elevation at one end. Where this method cannot be adopted on account of the height of the inequalities, the line 'must either be formed along the summits of these inequalities, which may be done if they are houses, hills, or trees ; or parallel lines (c, d, e) formed where practicable, and the main line found by offsets (f, g, h} from those collateral lines at such places as are suitable. A third method, but one not always perfectly accurate, is to take a plan of the field or scene of operations, and on this to set out the proposed line ; then by ascertaining its bearings and distances relatively to the obstructions, it may be transferred from the paper to the ground. In carrying straight lines through woods, lanterns have been used ; but a much more correct method is to elevate poles above the surface of the wood. 365 1927. Continuous lines may always be made perfectly straight, however irregular the surface, by following the same parallel as indicated by points of the compass ; or by the shadow of the operator during sunshine. If the needle does not move, or the shadow of the spectator is always projected at the same angle to his course, the direction in which he walks, in either case, must be straight. The mode of forming right lines in such cir- cumstances being understood, the formation of right-lined figures is merely a repetition of the process, uniting each side by the required angle. 1928. Curved lines on irregular surfaces are in general only to be laid down by the previous establishment of straight lines ; first, leading straight lines (Jig- 348. a, b, c) aiid next secondary straight lines (Jig- 348. d, rf), which shall form skeletons to the curves. A second mode, and on a large scale by much the most certain, is to find the leading points of the curves by triangles from a known base or known bases ; but as both modes are rare in the practice of gardening, they need not be enlarged on. 1929. Circles, ovals, and every description of curvilinear Jigure may be laid down by either of the above modes ; but where the obstructions are not great, circles, or parts of circles, may be transferred more expeditiously by the following method. The diameter of the circle (Jig. 366.), and any two points fa and c) which 366 its circumference is to touch, being given, next ascertain the side of the largest square which the circle will contain. Then, if the director place himself in the given point of the cir- cumference, and look either through the sights of a. theodo- lite, or along the edge of a common carpenter's square (rf),- or any right-angled board, the straight line traced by his eye will intersect the situation of the circumference of the cir- cle ; if he then causes to be measured along that straight line, the length of the side of the square contained within the circle, the extent of the dimension will determine a point in the circumference. Then looking along the other side of the square, or through the sights of the theodolite at right angles to the former observation, he will by a similar process determine another circumferential point; and now, by changing his position either to the right or left, taking care to set off always the same dimension from the side of the square, he will trace out the circumference of the circle or any portion of it. It is evident to any person in the slightest degree acquainted with BOOK IV. ARRANGEMENT OF QUANTITIES. 377 367 practical geometry, that the same object may be attained by an adjusted triangle (such as e\ the extremities of which will indicate points in the circumference without further trouble. 1 930. Other modes on similar jrrinciples, well known to land-surveyors, are occasionally resorted to in laying out gardens, especially in the geometric style, and in preparing the foundations of farmeries, and other rural offices and appendages. A very obvious application of it is that of reducing an irregular basin of water to a circular figure. The director moves round with the adjusted triangle (Jig. 367. a) ; his assistant sets off the dimensions and as each point in (he circumference is ascertained, it is marked by a stake (b, c, rf). 1931. A level line (Jig. 368./,/), whether straight or curved in direction, can only be determined on an irregu- lar surface by measuring down from an elevated level line (a), or from level lines in parallel directions, and so transferring the points by horizontal levels to the proper line. Straight rods are the ready means of measuring down, and the points must be marked by hillocks or hollows (6) ; or by smooth-headed stakes driven into the surface, and pro- truding above, or sunk under it, according to the obstructions. 368 1932. Lines of uniform acclivity or declivity (Jig. 368. e, e, e] are readily formed on the same principle. In this and the former case, the common level and the borning- pieces (a and rf), with measuring rods and stakes, are all the instruments required. The formation of level lines and uniform slopes, by the borning-pieces and common level, ought to be familiar to every working-gardener ; for, without considerable adroitness in this department of garden-operations, none can be considered as fit to form a walk, or even plant a box-edging. 1933. Levelling for terrace-slopes (Jig. 369. )> or for geometrical surfaces, however varied, is performed by the union of both modes, and requires no explanation to those who have acquired the rudiments of geometry, or understand what has been described. 369 SUESECT. 3. Of tJie Arrangement of Quantities. 1934. The dividing and subdividing of land is generally the business of the land-sur- veyor, but it sometimes comes under the practice of the gardener, on a small scale, and on simple principles. Thus it may be required to determine the dimensions of a square, of a circle, of an oval, or of a mixed figure of a kitchen-garden, which shall contain a certain 378 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART 11. number of acres, or acres and parts of acres. Or, on a certain compartment in a garden of given breadth and length, it may be required to sow or plant a certain number of poles of any given crop, &c. 1935. Where the Jigiires are simple and regular, as squares, parallelograms, triangles, circles, &c., these problems are easily solved ; but where they are irregular, the safest way for practical gardeners, not much in the habit of calculation, is by trial and correction. Thus, supposing it required to find the dimensions and ground-plan of a garden-wall, which shall enclose two acres, the north and south walls to be straight and parallel, and the two ends parts of ellipses. Try a parallelogram, which shall contain 1^ acres, and try and adjust two curves to its ends, which shall each contain -i- of an acre. If an eighth of an acre does not give sufficiently curved ends, narrow the parallelogram part a little, which will admit an increase to the curved ends. All this being laid down on paper to a scale, when the figure is completed, ascertain its contents by the scale, and vary it as above, till it corresponds exactly with what is required. 1936. For more intricate Jigures, first cover the paper with squares, each containing a certain area ; say a yard, a pole, c., according to the magnitude of the design to be ad- justed. Then, on these squares adjust the form and the contents of the given figure, by alternate delineations of the desired shape, and numbering the squares for the desired contents. When the end appears to be attained, prove the whole by measuring from the scale. 1937. With respect to measuring for crojqring compartments or borders, supposing it is desired to sow three poles of turnips on a compartment 60 feet broad, then the first question is simply, given 60 feet as one side, required the length of another requisite to form a pole. A pole contains 30^ square yards, or 273^ square feet ; dividing the last sum by 60, the quotient, 4 feet 6y, is the length of one pole at this breadth. Or, if by links, then 60 feet = 136 '2 links, and 625 square links= 1 square pole ; hence 625 -r- 136*2^6^ links. 3x4 feet 6| inches, or 3 x 6J 5 links =13 feet 8 inches, or 20 T 7 ^ links, the length of three poles of the given breadth. 1 938. For arranging work done by contract, it is necessary for the gardener to be able to determine the superficial and solid contents of ground, whether it is to be cultivated on the surface, as in digging or hoeing ; turned over to a considerable depth, as in digging drains or trenching ; or removed from its place, as in former excavation for water or foundations. All this is abundantly simple, where the first rudiments of mensuration are understood. The most important part is what relates to digging out large excava- tions, and wheeling the earth to different distances ; and to guide in this, the following rules, known to every canal contractor, may be worth attending to by the gardener. 1 939. For excavating and transjwrting earth. In soft ground, where no other tool than the spade is necessary, a man will throw up a cubic yard of 27 solid feet in an hour, or ten cubic yards in a day. But if picking or hacking be necessary, an additional man will be required ; and very strong gravel will require two. The rates of a cubic yard, depending thus upon each circumstance, they will be in the ratio of the arithmetical numbers 1, 2, 3. If, therefore, the wages of a laborer be 2s. 6rf. per day, the price of a yard will be 3d. for cutting only, 6rf. for cutting and hacking, and 9d. when two hackers are necessary. In sandy ground, when wheeling is requisite, three men will be re- quired to remove 30 cubic yards in a day, to the distance of 20 yards, two filling and one wheeling ; but to remove the same quantity in a day, to any greater distance, an additional man will be required for every twenty yards. To find the price of removing any number of cubic yards to any given distance: Divide the distance in yards by 20, which gives the number of wheelers ; add the two cutters to the quo- tient, and you will have the whole number employed ; multiply the sum by the daily wages of a laborer, and the produce will be the price of 30 cubic yards. Then, as 30 cubic yards is to the whole number, so is the price of 30 cubic yards to the cost of the whole. Example. What will it cost to remove 2730 cubic yards to the distance of 120 yards, a man's wages being three shillings per day ? First, 120 -=- 20 = 6, the number of wheelers ; then, + 2 fillers = 8 men employed, which, at three shillings per day, gives 24 shillings as the price of 30 cubic yards ; then 30 : 24 : : 2750 and 24 x 2750 -=- 30 = HO/. For elementary instructions in this department, see Mutton's Mensuration, Nicholson's Architectural Dictionary, and the article Canal, in the principal Encyclopaedias. SECT. III. Of carrying Designs into Execution. 1940. To realise alterations projected or marked out on the ground, recourse is had to the mechanical operations of gardening. These require to be directed to the following ob- jects. Removing surface incumbrances, smoothing surfaces, draining off superfluous water, forming excavations for retaining water, forming artificial surfaces, and forming walks and roads. 1941. Removing surface incumbrances is one of the first operations of improvement in reclaiming neglected lands, or preparing them for ulterior purposes. The obstacles are generally large blocks of stone, bushes, roots of trees, and sometimes artificial obstacles, as parts of walls, hedges, buildings, &c. Where the stones cannot ultimately baren- BOOK IV. CARRYING DESIGNS INTO EXECUTION. 379 dered useful or ornamental near to where they lie, they are to be loosened by levers, and placed on sledges and dragged off; and to facilitate this, they may be previously blown in pieces by gunpowder ; or large pits may be dug, and they may be buried near to where they lie. The other obstacles are easily got rid of; large roots may be split with wedges, reft with gunpowder, and drawn out by wrenches ; or, the hydrostatic press applied, as for drawing piles. The use of gunpowder was formerly often attended with accidents to the operators ; but the risk is now greatly lessened, since it has been dis- covered that sand may be poured in, instead of ramming clay and stoney matters over the charge. (Suppl. Encyc. Brit. art. Masting.) 1 942. Smoothing surfaces. Whatever be the nature of the future improvements, this operation generally takes place to a certain extent after the removal of obstacles. Pits, quarries, pools, &c. are to be filled up ; banks, dykes, artificial mounds, and excrescences to be broken down and scattered about, before the natural surface can be duly under- stood and appreciated, and before drains and other preliminary improvements, as roads, fences, &c., can be conveniently marked out. 1943. Drawing off superfluous water by subterraneous drains. The theory of this sub- ject has been already noticed (1096.), and as it more properly belongs to agriculture than gardening, we shall confine our remarks to execution. The designer or director of the improvements, having, by the aid of levelling, and consideration of the causes of the su- perfluous moisture, marked out by proper stakes the main drain and lateral cuts, the lowest point or outlet of the former is first to be begun on, and excavated to the proper width and depth. If the soil is very soft, the materials for filling in, or forming the channel, or drain, should have been previously carted there, as this operation, performed on soft ground after the excavation is made, is apt to damage the sides of the drain. No part of the drain ought to be filled, till the whole has been completed, and any errors in the level of its bottom or water-way corrected. The height to which the materials are to be laid, must be regulated by the use to which the surface is to be applied. For permanent pastures, as in lawns and parks, they may be brought near the surface, but in kitchen-gardens, or scenery were digging or trenching are occasionally to take place, they should not come within six inches of the bottom of the loosened strata. As to materials for drains, whatever will form a porous or hollow stratum or vein may be employed ; but round stones are unquestionably the most durable for collecting- drains ; and tubes of earthenware, or built drains of stone or bricks, for drains of con- veyance. The most complete description of master-drain, is one with a built cylinder or barrel of stone or brick below, covered by a vein or vertical stratum of round stones, terminating near the surface in coarse gravel. Wherever much draining is to be done, all the various methods should be considered as detailed in the county surveys, and col- lected in Marshall's Treatise on Landed Property, and Johnston's System of Draining ; and those fixed on which may be considered as most suitable to the particular case. 1 944. Drawing off superfluous water by surface drains is seldom admissible with good effect in garden-scenery. Ridges, whether broad or narrow, communicate a vulgar field-like character to parks or lawns ; and large open gutters are only ditches. Per- haps the least objectionable mode is to use the mole-plough, or to form underground gutters with the spade on a similar principle. The blade of the spade should be in the form of the letter V, rather blunt at the point, and as each spitful is dug out, half its lower part is to be cut off, and the upper part returned to the gutter, so that no ex- ternal deformity is produced. Such drains, as well as the channels made by the mole- plough, required to be renewed every three or four years, especially if cattle and horses are admitted on the grounds in winter. Hence, many use straw or small faggot-wood to fill the gutters as in Norfolk, or flints as in Kent, gravel as in Berkshire, or cinders and scoriae as in some parts of Lancashire. 1 945. Forming excavations for retaining water. Previously to commencing this oper- ation, the levels must be staked out with great accuracy, as well as the places indicated from which the larger masses of earth are to be moved or to which they are to be taken. Ex- cavations for water vary in respect to the difficulties and manner of execution, according as they may be intended for running or stagnated water ; for water already existing on the spot, or to be brought there, or according to the nature of the soil and surface. For running water more depends on the design than on the execution ; for a current, if well directed, will, in a short time, form a suitable bed and banks for itself : but for stagnated water all depends on art, both in the design of the shape and the execution of the bed and margin.- Water already existing in a body on the spot generally implies a suitable- ness of soil for retaining it, and the existence of springs for an increased supply, and these serve as useful guides in the course of execution : but where water is to be brought to a situation, it generally implies an unsuitableness both of soil and surface to retain it, and hence requires the greatest attention in the application of art, both as to design and execution. The most suitable surface for water is a hollow or level, and the best soil a clay or strong loam. In all these cases the executive part reduces itself to three oper- 380 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. utions ; the removal and disposal of the earth, the formation of the bed and margin, and the formation of the dam or head and sluice. 1946. In the removal and disposal of the earth, regard should be had to preserve the best soil for what is to be future surface ; and, in poor lands, it may often be advisable to dig or pare off the surface of the spots to be covered by the excavated earth, and preserve them for the same purpose. Where the new soil is to be thinly scattered over the old, fallowing, trenching, or digging may effect the proper mixture. When large masses of new earth are to be laid down, that of worse quality must be farthest removed from the probable reach of the roots of future trees ; or, if the roots of trees will pene- trate the whole mass, then the whole soil should be mixed. Gravelly materials should be kept at such a distance from the margin of the water, as not to act as a drain from it ; and, in forming the mass of earth requisite at most dams or heads, the less gravel or porous matter used alone, the more compact and retentive will be the head. In every mode in which excavated earth is disposed of, care is requisite to blend its out- lines with those already existing, so as to avoid all appearance of patches laid on, bumps, warts, or excrescences, than which nothing is more disagreeable in surfaces. 1947. In the formation of the bed, where the excavation has been made in a level sur- face, no farther attention is requisite than attending to the depths indicated in the design, which will generally be greatest towards the middle, and diminishing to the sides, as in nature. Few pieces of water require to be deeper in the middle than ten feet, which will generally deter cattle from wading across them, and prove unfavorable for the growth of most aquatic plants. Where water is formed by damming up, or throwing ;i head across a hollow, of which, perhaps, the most notable instance on record is that of Blenheim, the bottom does not require any attention, excepting adjoining the head ; the mass of materials forming which should form an inclined plane under the body of water for the sake of securing the head ; and to prevent the water from penetrating into this mass of materials, its surface should be regularly clayed or puddled over, as well as a part of the firm ground on all sides, and even in the bottom of the excavation. For if this firm ground is of a sandy or gravelly nature, the water may, by entering it, find its way to the mass of new and not yet consolidated earthy matters, and by softening them, speedily ruin the whole mound or head. A safe mode is to leave the head to consolidate for a year or more before filling with water. This was Brown's practice at Blenheim, Harewood Hall, and other places. 1948. Wlien water is formed on the side of a hill, the lower part of the excavation must be raised and clayed with equal care, as in the case of the head or dam, and for the same reasons. It is almost needless to mention, that claying must never be omitted wLere the bottom or sides are either newly formed, or not naturally retentive of water. Where clay cannot be had, loamy, or calcareous, and even somewhat sandy earth, by abundant working, becomes retentive of water. This the celebrated engineer Brindley first dis- covered and practised. 1949. The margin of all water, where nature is imitated, ought, as much as possible, to be formed of stony or gravelly materials, as most likely to give a dry appearance quite to the edge of the water, to admit of walking there, of cattle drinking without poaching and bemiring themselves, and to prevent the growth of such grasses and aquatics as communicate a morassy or marshy appearance ; and finally as being more natural and picturesque than banks of mud. For this purpose, during the excavation, all or a suitable quantity of such gravelly or stony materials as occur, should be reserved for depositing along the margin, for at least one yard beyond the edge of the water, and two yards down the slope of the bed. If suitable materials are not to be had from the excavation, they should be procured ; for without them there can be but little beauty in the mar- gins at least of stagnated water. The margins of rivers may be left in a great degree to nature, watching every proper opportunity after floods or winds, to heighten indications of picturesque effects, not materially inconsistent with local cha- racter and utility. 1950. In the formation of the fiead, or dam (Jig. 370. rf), the points requiring particular attention are the claying, and the forming the sluice or valve for empty- ing the pond. Claying should either be performed over the whole of the inner surface of the head, or by a perpendicular stratum of clay in the middle of the bank. 370 BOOK IV. CARRYING DESIGNS INTO EXECUTION. 381 The last mode is the most simple of execution; but if the great body of loose materials are of a sandy or porous nature, the former will be found the safest ; either however, well executed, will suffice ; and in this point of practice, execution is certainly of more consequence than design. 1951. The sluice is the stopper or valve to a drain (jig. 370. e), carried through the bank of a piece of artificial water at the lowest part of its bed, in order to be able to empty it at pleasure. There are various kinds, from the simple tube and stopper (Jig. 37 1 . a), to the plank-sluice (c), or grooved frame (6) . This last is formed of a plate of boards, generally two or three feet wide, and six or eight feet high, attached to a stalk, and worked by means of a pinion and rachet in a frame of timber. The sluice is built vertically into the drain as a damper is into a flue, and the length of the stalk and frame is always such as to reach somewhat above the ground's surface for conveniency of work- ing. The grand object as to the sluice is to construct it so as to admit the least possible escape of water. This will generally be best attained by forming the tunnel, in which the sluice is to be built, in the solid ground at the side of the head, and not in the new and loose earth, building it of masonry or brick set in cement, claying it completely on all sides, and fitting in the sluice with the greatest nicety. 1952. Syj)hon sluice. As it is practically impossible to form sluices and drains that da not lose more or less water, owing to the great pressure of the volume in the lake or pond, it is better, where the supply is very limited, to have no drain or sluice, and to draw off the water when required by a large syphon, which may easily be formed of boards ; or a drain may be formed, and, instead of a sluice, a well of clay adopted as a stopper. The power of drawing off the water is seldom 372 used, and, unless in fishponds, or where frequent clearing is necessary, sluices are of little use. The superfluous water which escapes over the head when abund- ant, may form a cascade or waterfall ; but where the waste is small, it may escape at one side (Jig. 371. a) as a small gur- .gling rill over a bed formed of well- worked clay, to prevent its working out hollows, and covered by gravel, stones, &c., to give it a clear and natural-like ap- pearance. As the head is generally straight mound, destitute of natural beauty, it should be disguised by small islands (fig. 372. b, c), or varied by plant- ing on the margin, or both ; but as our present business is merely to describe the operations requisite to the formation of pieces of water, we must refer, for what concerns it as a material of landscape, to LANDSCAPE-GARDENING. (Part III. Book IV.) 1953. Surfaces to imitate nature, such as hills, knolls, and all the variety of raised surfaces in pleasure-grounds, are formed by heaping up materials in the indicated shapes ; and hollows of equal variety, by hollowing them out ; in both cases, studying to keep the best earth at the surface, and so to blend the forms with those to which they are united, that no line of demarcation may ever afterwards be discoverable. 1954. Surfaces avowedly artificial, as levels, terraces, slopes, banks, beds of earth, or dung-beds, being once distinctly marked out, are executed with equal facility and greater certainty of attaining the end or effect. Formerly the geometric style of gardening af- forded an ample field for the exercise of this class of operations ; but at present they are chiefly confined to the kitchen-garden, the sites of buildings, and a limited space around 382 SCIENCE OF GARDENING PART II. the mansion. Whatever may be the surface destined for a court or square of buildings, as a stable-yard or tannery, it must be reduced to a plane or planes connected in such a way as not to interfere with utility or effect. It is not essential that the surface be formed to a perfect level, or to any one slope, but that order and connection should enter into the choice of the slopes, whatever that may be. In kitchen-gardens it sometimes happens that a level, or one general slope, may be adopted ; but much more frequently that different slopes enter into the composition of the enclosed surface. These subordi- nate planes or surfaces are all so connected as to balance and harmonise, and present to the intelligent eye a work, not of chance, but of design and reflection. In a seemingly level garden it often happens that not one of the compartments is level ; but each compartment of itself forms one plane, diverging from the centre, north wall, or some other point of the garden, and terminating on the same level, at the extreme corners of the compartment, or at the lower extremity of the garden. Besides these means, the formation of raised bor- ders, and the furniture of gardens, such as espaliers, bushes, &c. enable the designer to harmonise forms and surfaces seemingly the most incongruous and unsuitable for a scene of culture. 1 955. There are two modes of reducing an irregular surface to one plane. The first is by taking sections of the surface in parallel lines at every ten or twenty feet distance, according as the surface may be more or less irregular ; laying down these sections on paper geometrically, and from the whole finding a mean section. The stakes of all the parallel lines of levels still remaining in the ground, it will be easy to transfer the mean section by raising these stakes in some places, and lowering them in others, as the scale of the diagram will direct. The second and more general mode is by approximation, or trial and correction, which, in all ordinary cases, is sufficiently correct. Suppose an irre- gular surface, 100 feet square, is to be reduced to a level or plane. The degree of slope is first ascertained (by the American or any other level) from the highest side of the square to the lower, and it is found, we shall suppose, that the ground will not easily reduce to a horizontal surface. It is, therefore, determined to reduce it to a slope ; and. for this purpose a certain height is determined on by the eye for the extremities of the slope ; in fixing on which, the object is to adjust the slope to the earth, so as the former may be completed without exterior aid or superfluity. Supposing the lower side of the plot to be twenty-five inches below the level of the upper side, then the fall is a quarter of an inch in each foot, and a few lines of stakes can be run across the ground in the direction of the slope, with their tops adjusted to this declivity. Or this may be omitted, and the same end attained by borning-pieces used after the ground has been roughly levelled. But this is one, among many parts of the business of a gardener, which can more readily be acquired by practice than verbal instruction. 1956. Walks are spaces in gardens formed for the purposes of inspecting the garden, recreation, and carrying on the operations of gardening. As one great requisite is, that they should always be dry, the bottom of the walk in most cases forms a drain. There are three descriptions of walks common to gardens, those of gravel, sand, and grass. All walks consists of two parts, their substrata and surface-covering. The substratum is generally placed in an excavation, the section of which is a segment of a circle, or an inverted pointed arch, being deepest in the centre, where, in wet soils and situations, a notch or drain is often formed to carry off the water which oozes from the sides of the bottom, or sinks through the gravel. In all ordinary cases, however, the water will run off without this notch, provided the general levels of the bottoms of the walks or the drains which cross them, or lead from them, be contrived accordingly. The foundation of the walks is to be filled with stones, the largest at bottom ; or with rubbish of old buildings, flints, or any other similar materials, observing always to place the smallest at top. When this is done, before the covering of gravel, sand, or turf is laid on, the substratum should be well rolled, so as it may never afterwards vary its position, either with the weight of the covering, or any weight which may pass over it. 1957. The covering of gravel 373 (Jig. 373. a) need seldom be thicker than six inches, and generally four inches will be sufficient. That this gravel may bind in so thin a stratum, it is requisite that it be free from larger stones than those the size of a pigeon's egg, that the general size be that of large gooseberries or plums, and that there be about a sixth part of rusty sandy matter to promote its binding. The choice of gravel is seldom within the power of the gardener ; but, in general, pit-gravel is to be preferred to river-gravel, as binding better, and having a better color. Gravel abounding in oxide of iron, if laid down where it is finally to remain, when newly taken out of the pit, and well watered and rolled, will often bind into one compact body like what is called pudding-stone. Such gravels, however, BOOK IV. CARRYING DESIGNS INTO EXECUTION. 383 are seldom well colored. The best in this respect in England, and also a good gravel for binding, is the gravel of Kensington, to which good qualities it adds that of being the most beautiful in the world. There are some very agreeable sea-gravels, formed chiefly of small shells, or fragments of larger ones. The way to make a handsome walk with this gravel is to mix it with about a tenth part of a composition consisting of equal parts of brickdust and puzzolana earth or Roman cement. This done, and the gravel laid down in a wet state, and well rolled, it will form a surface like that of shell-marble. 1 958. Where a covering of sand is adopted, its thickness must depend on its qualities, and whether sand is taken from preference or necessity. When sand is taken from pre- ference, the intention is to produce soft walks, which shall yield to the feet like turf, in which case its thickness may be from three to six inches ; but if sand is used because gravel cannot be procured, then little more should be laid on than what is sufficient to fill up the interstices of the upper surface of the substrata. Sometimes an attempt is made to bind such sand, by mixing it with dried clay in a state of powder, or with the scrapings of stone roads, and then watering and rolling ; but it is not often that this succeeds ; and it may certainly be considered as unfortunate where the best walks about a residence are covered with sand. 1959. The covering of turf and earth (Jig. 373. 6) should not be less than six inches in thickness, that there may be sufficient pasturage and moisture for the roots of the grasses in the dry season. For this purpose, the soil laid under the turf should be a medium be- tween a stiff clayey and a loose sandy soil, so as more completely to serve as a sponge than either. 1960. Substitutes for gravel and sand are burned lumps of clay reduced to powder, pounded bricks, stones, or slates, scoria, ashes, soaper's waste, coal, shells, sawdust, tan- ner's bark, ferruginous earth, and even moss or peat-earth. Bark and peat-earth are often used in Holland ; the former, when fresh, has much of the color of Kensington gravel, and assorts well with vegetation. 1961. Substitutes for turf are green mosses recently gathered and stuck on mortar or cement ; the same process with lichens from trees, or with flow-moss or heath-tops. 1 962. The form of the surface of gravel, sand, and grass walks, should almost always be flat ; or, in the case of gravel, gently raised in the middle, so as to throw the water towards the sides, in approaching which it may sink gently into the substrata. But in turf walks this should never be attempted ; as it is desirable, on account of equally watering the plants, and retaining an equal firmness throughout their surface, that the water should sink in where it falls. It is a common practice to form turf walks of solid earth, without any regard to the substrata ; and this succeeds very well in dry soils, and where such walks are little used, excepting in summer ; but whenever turf walks are to be in constant use, the above is much the best way of forming them. Gravel and sand have, in like manner, been laid on the surface of the soil in small gardens, and in very dry sub-soils, and where this can be done with the attainment of the desired objects, it has this advantage, that the roots of trees may range under the walks, as indeed always happens in shrubberies and plantations. The scoria) of metals, coal-ashes, the refuse of mines and glass-works, and other similar matters, are often used instead of gravel ; but their color seldom harmonises well with that of vegetation. 1 963. The breadth of walks generally depends on the extent or scale of the whole residence, and not of the particular garden or scene, which may be small, and yet connected with greater. They should never be narrower than is sufficient to allow a party of two to walk abreast, the minimum breadth for which is four feet six inches ; but they may be large enough for a party of half a dozen, or in public walks, or walks in extensive pleasure- grounds, avenues, &c., for one or two dozen. For the latter number thirty-six feet suf- fices. The direction of walks depends on their particular use, and connection with the different scenes or subjects of gardening. 1964. Alleys are smaller walks generally covered with a thin coat of sand, gravel, or shells. In parterres they are sometimes of various widths, to suit the particular forms which constitute the design ; and there also they are sometimes covered with different sorts of gravels, shells, scoriae, &c., or paved with flints, pebbles, &c. ; but the alleys of separation, in walled gardens, are generally two feet wide, and formed in right lines, parallel to the main walks, or borders. Sometimes they are not gravelled, and at other times they are covered with road-grit, or the scrapings of roads ; which, of course, is to be considered as the powder of the material of which the road is made, mixed with vegetable matter from the droppings of horses and cattle, and is considered as well adapted for binding or forming a compact surface. 1965. Roads are walks on a large scale; they are formed on the same general plan ; but when of fifteen or twenty feet in breadth, and on a wet or retentive soil, they have generally a drain on each side instead of one "in the centre. On the sides of slopes, where, during heavy rains, these roads intercept the water from the upper grounds, they should have frequent gratings, or pierced stones, communicating with the drains on 384 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. the upper side (Jig. 374.), unless pro- vision is made for intercepting the water before it comes on the gravel, by a gentle 374 hollow (a), running parallel and close to the road, and communicating in like manner with the drains. 1966. The durability and comfort of roads and walks depend on their power to 376. c). With certain species this is a very convenient and sure mode of propagation. All that is requisite, is to allow the plantlet on the shoot or runner to be well rooted before being separated from the parent. It may then be planted where it is finally to remain. 1992. By suckers. (Jig. 376. 6). These are merely runners under ground ; some run to a considerable distance, as the acacia, narrow-leaved elm, sea-limegrass, alkekengi, &c. ; others are more limited in their migrations, as the lilac, syringa, Jerusalem arti- choke, saponaria, &c. All that is necessary is to dig them up, cut off each plantlet with a portion of root, after which its top may be reduced by cutting off' from one fourth to one half of the shoot, in order to fit it to the curtailed root, and it may then be planted, either in the nursing-department, or, if a strong plant, where it is finally to remain. SUBSECT. 2. Projxigation by Layering. 1993. Layers, as we have already observed (840.) are indicated by nature, and we shall here point out the improvements of art and their applications. The roots in natural layers are produced by the stimulus of the moist earth on which the shoots, from the na- ture of the tree or plant, or accidental causes, recline ; art increases the natural stimuli, and adds others, especially that of diminishing the resources of the shoot in the parent plant, by incision or fracture. 1994. Season. In general, the operation of layering in trees and shrubs is commenced before the ascent of the sap, or delayed till the sap is fully up, and thence the two seasons are early in spring or in midsummer. Autumn and winter are resorted to for convenience in extensive concerns. The shoot, or extremity of the shoot, intended to become a new plant, is half separated from the parent plant, at a few inches' distance from its extremity, and while this permits the ascent of the sap at the season of its rising,. the remaining half of the stem being cut through and separated, forms a dam or sluice to the descending sap, which, thus interrupted in its progress, exudes at the wound in the form of a gra- nulous protuberance, which throws out roots. If the cut or notch in the stem does not penetrate at least half way through, some sorts of trees will not form a nucleus the first season ; on the other hand, if the notch be cut nearly through the shoot, a sufficiency of alburnum or soft wood is not left for the ascent of the sap, and the shoot dies. In deli- cate sorts it is not sufficient to cut a notch merely, because in that case, the descending sap, instead of throwing out granulated matter in the upper side of the wound, would descend by the entire side of the shoot ; therefore, besides a notch formed by cutting out a portion of bark and wood, the notched side is slit up at least one inch, separating it by a bit of twig, or small splinter of stone or potsherd. 1995. Manipulation. Shoots when layered are often cut and mangled at random ( t fig. 377. a, b, c), or buried insufficiently, or so deep in the soil (d) that they throw out but few roots ; or not placed upright (e) , by which they make unsightly plants. In order to give some sort of principle to go upon, it should be remembered, that the use of the notch is to prevent the heel or part intended to throw out granulous matter from being bruised, which it generally is, by the common practice of performing this operation by one cut sloping upwards; and that the use of the slit is to render it more difficult for the 377 descending sap to return from the extremity of the heel. In conformity with this idea, Knight recommends taking up the shoot after it has grown some time, and cutting off a ring of bark below the notch and slit, so as completely to hinder the return of the sap, and thereby force the shoot to employ it in forming roots. (Hort. Trans, vol. i. 256.) In burying an entire shoot (/) with a view to induce shoots to rise from every bud, notches alone are sufficient without either slitting or ringing. The use of the splinter of wood, or bit of tile or potsherd, is partly to prevent the union of the parts when the bent position of the shoot is not sufficient, and partly, and in some cases principally, to act as a stimulus, like the bottom and sides of pots. - On what principle it acts as a stimulus BOOK IV. PROPAGATION BY LAYERING. 389 has not, we think, been yet determined, but its effects have long been very well known to gardeners. In all cases the layer must be held firmly in its place by hooked pegs. The operation of layering is performed on herbaceous plants as well as trees ; and the part to become the future plant is, in both cases, covered with soil about a third of its length. 1996. Layering by twisting, ringing, piercing, and wiring the shoot intended for the future plant is also occasionally practised. 1997. Piercing is performed with an awl, nail, or penknife, thrust through two or three times in opposite directions at a joint ; from which wounds, first, granulated matter oozes, and finally, fibres are emitted. 1998. Ringing is cutting oft" a small ring of bark and part of the wood, by which the return of the sap being wholly prevented, it is, therefore, as it were, compelled to form roots. Care must be taken, however, that the ring does not penetrate far into the wood, otherwise the sap will be prevented from ascending in the first instance, and the shoot killed. 1 999. Wiring is performed by twisting a piece of wire round the shoot at a joint, and pricking it at the same time with an awl on both sides of the wire. It is evident that all these methods depend on the same general principle, that of permitting the ascent of the sap through the wood, but checking its descent by cutting off or closing the vessels of the bark. 2000. Layers which are difficult to strike may be accelerated by ringing. Ringing is an excellent method for making layers of hard-wooded plants strike root with greater certainty, and in a smaller space of time than is attained in any other way. The accu- mulated vegetable matter in the callus, which is formed on the upper edge of the ring, when brought into contact with the soil, or any material calculated to excite vegetation, readily breaks into fibres, and roots. (Hort. Trans, iv. 558.) 2001. In layering trees in the open garden, whatever mode be adopted, the ground round each plant intended for laying, must be digged for the reception of the layers ; then making excavations in the earth, lay down all the shoots or branches properly situated for this purpose ; pegging each down with a peg or hooked stick ; laying also all the proper young shoots on each branch or main shoot, fixing each layer from about three or four to six inches deep, according as they admit, and moulding them in at that depth, leaving the tops of every layer out of ground from about two or three to five or six inches, according to their length, though some shorten their tops down to one or two eyes. Observe also to raise the top of each layer somewhat upright, especially tongue or slit layers, in order to keep the slit open. As the layering is completed, level in all the mould finally, and equally in every part close about every layer, leaving an even, smooth surface, presenting only the tops of each layer in the circumference of a circle, and the stems or stools in the centre. Sometimes the branches of trees are so inflexible, as not to be easily brought down for laying ; in which case they must be plashed, making the gash or cut on the upper side ; and when they are grown too large for plashing, or that the nature of the wood will not bear that operation, they may be thrown on their sides, by opening the earth about their roots, and loosening or cutting all those on one side, that the plant may be brought to the ground to admit of laying the branches. 2002. Layering plants in pots. When layers are to be made from green-house shrubs, or other plants in pots, the operation should generally be performed either in their own pots, or in others placed near that of the stool to receive the layer. 2003. General treatment. After laying in either of the above methods, there is no par- ticular culture requisite, excepting that of keeping the earth as much as possible of uniform moisture, especially in pots; and watering these in the open air in dry weather. 2004. Management of stools. When the layers are rooted, which will generally be the case by the autumn after the operation is performed, they are all cleared from the stools or main plants, and the head of each stool, if to be continued for furnishing layers, should be dressed ; cutting off all decayed and scraggy parts, and digging the ground round them. Some fresh rich mould should also be worked in, in order to encourage the production of the annual supply of shoots for layering. 2005. Chinese laying. The Chinese method of propagating trees by first ringing, or nearly so, a shoot, and then covering the ringed part with a ball of clay and earth, covered with moss or straw, is obviously on the same general principle as layering ; and is better effected in this country by drawing the shoot through a hole in a pot (such a pot as Jig. 175.) ; ringing it to the extent of three fourths of its circumference, near the the bottom or side of the pot, and then the pot, being supported in a proper position, and filled with earth, it may be watered in the usual way. Some plants difficult to strike, and for which proper stocks for inarching are not conveniently procured, are thus pro- pagated in the nursery hot-houses. 2006. Removal of the rooted layer or plantisaf. Though layers of trees completed eariy Cc 3 390 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. in spring, and of herbaceous plants after the season of their flowering, are generally Jit to remove from the parent plant the end of the succeeding autumn ; yet many sorts of American trees require two years to complete their roots. On the other hand, some sorts of roses and deciduous shrubs, if their present year's wood be laid down when about half grown, or about the middle of August, it will produce roots, and be fit to separate the succeeding autumn. SUBSECT. 3. Propagation by Inarching. 2007. Inarching may be described as a sort of layering, by the common or slit process, in which the talus or heel intended to throw out fibres, instead of being inserted in the soil, is inserted in the wood, or between the wood and bark of another plant, so as to incorporate with it. It evidently depends on the same general principles as layering ; and all the difference is, that the granulated matter which exudes between the bark and the wood of the talus or heel, instead of throwing out fibres, unites with the Avood of the stock or plant to which it is attached, forming a solid ligneous union, which, when the layer or shoot is separated from the mother plant, supplies it with nourishment as the fibres do the common layer. It is the most certain mode of propagation with plants difficult to excite to a disposition for rooting ; and when all other modes fail, this, when a proper description of stock or basis is to be found, is sure to succeed. Professor Thouin (Caurs Complet d' Agriculture, &c. art. Greffe] has enumerated thirty-seven varieties of inarching ; but they may all be reduced to two, crown inarching, in which the head of the stock is cut off (Jig- 378. a), and side inarching (6 and c), in which the head of the stock is left on. With young hardy trees, the first mode is reckoned the best, as the whole effort of the stock is thereby directed to the nourishment of the inarched shoot ; the other is resorted to in propagating delicate trees, and for filling up blanks in branches, and other purposes. 2008. Preparatory measures. The stocks designed to be inarched, and the tree from which the layer or shoot is to be bent or arc/ted towards them, and put in or United, must be placed if in pots, or planted if in the open soil, near together. Hardy trees of free- growing kinds should have a circle of stocks planted round them every year in the same circumference, every other one being inarched the one year, and when removed, their place supplied by others, so that there will always be, by this practice, stocks of one year's standing ready to receive the shoot. If the branches of the tree are too high for stocks in the ground, they should be planted ia pots, and elevated on posts or stands, or sup- ported from the tree, &c. 378 2009. Manipulation. Having made one of the most convenient branches or shoots approach the stock, mark on the body of the shoot the part where it will most easily join to the stock ; and in that part of each shoot pare away the bark and part of the wood two or three inches in length, and in the same manner pare the stock in the proper place for the junction of the shoot ; next make a slit upwards in that part of the branch or shoot, as in layering, so as to form a heel, but more of a tongue shape than in layering, and make a slit downward in the stock to admit it. Let the parts be then joined, slipping the tongue of the shoot into the slit of the stock, making both join in an exact manner, and tie them closely together with bass. Cover the whole afterwards with a due quantity of tempered or grafting clay or moss. In hot-houses, care must be taken not to disturb the pots containing the plants operated on. 2010. Seasons for the operation. Inarching, like layering, is commonly performed in BOOK IV. PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 391 sirring, and in general cases, the union is effected in four or five months, when the layer or inarched shoot may be separated from the mother plant. This must be done with a very steady hand, so as not to loosen or break out the adhering shoot, sloping it off down- wards, close to the stock ; and if the head of the stock was not cut down at the time of inarching, it must now be cut off in a sloping direction close to the union ; and all the old clay and bandage cleared away and replaced with new, to remain a few weeks longer till the adhesion is complete, when it may be finally removed. In some cases, however, the inarched shoot requires to remain two years, during the whole of which period, it should be carefully covered to exclude the air from the wounds ; nor must the binding be removed more than once during that period for fear of disturbing the cicatrising parts. 2011. Inarching a branch or shoot on the same tree (Jig- 378. b) is frequently a very convenient mode of filling up vacancies in trees ; in which case it is generally performed without heading down. Knight adopted this practice on a peach-tree, for a very in- genious purpose, that of procuring returning or concocted sap to swell and ripen the fruit. " In the last season (1812), a peach-tree in my garden, of which I was very anxious to see the fruit, had lost, by the severity of the weather, all its blossoms, except two, which grew upon leafless branches : I was very desirous to preserve these, as well as to ascertain the cause why the peach and nectarine, under such circumstances, fail to acquire maturity. The most probable cause, according to my hypothesis, appeared to be the want of return- ing sap (which the leaves, if existing, would have afforded), and the consequent morbid state of the branch ; I therefore endeavoured to derive the necessary portion of returning sap from another source. To obtain this object, the points of the branches, which bore fruit, were brought into contact with other branches of the same age that bore leaves ; and a part of their bark, extending in length about four times their diameters, was pared off immediately above the fruit. Similar wounds were then made upon the other branches, with which these were brought into contact; and the wounded surfaces were closely fitted ; and tightly bound together. An union soon took place ; and the fruit, apparently in consequence of it, acquired the highest state of maturity and perfection." Inarching, like grafting, may be applied to various curious and useful purposes (c, rf). Harte men- tions that the hornbeam-hedges, in some parts of the Netherlands, were worked in the lozenge form (rf), and that by removing the bark at each intersection, the whole had be- come united as if one tree. Some curious examples of inarching and grafting combined are to be seen in the Jardin des Plantes. 2012. Inarching herbaceous vegetables may, in almost all solid or sub-solid stalked plants, whether annual or of longer duration, be performed with equal certainty as in ligneous kinds. The vine of the cucumber may be inarched on that of the gourd, the love-apple on the potatoe, &c. (Baron Tschoudi.) SUBSECT. 4. Propagation by Grafting. 2013. Grafting is a mode of propagation applicable to most sorts of trees and shrubs ; but not easily to very small under-shrubs, as heath or herbaceous vegetables. It is chiefly used for continuing varieties of fruit-trees. A grafted tree consists of two parts, the scion and the stock ; their union constitutes the graft, and the performance of the operation is called grafting. The scion is a part of the living vegetable, which, united or inserted in a stock or other vegetable of the same nature, identities itself with it, and grows there as on its natural stem and roots. 2014. The end of grafting is, 1st. To conserve and multiply varieties and subvarieties of fruit-trees, endowed accidentally or otherwise with particular qualities, which cannot be with certainty transferred to their offspring by seeds, and which would be multiplied too slowly, or ineffectually, by any other mode of propagation. 2. To accelerate the fructification of trees, barren as well as fruit-bearing ; for example, suppose two acorns of a new species of oak, received from a distant country ; sow both, and after they have grown one or two years, cut one of them over, and graft the part cut off on a common oak of five or six years' growth ; the consequence will be that the whole nourishment of this young tree of five years' growth being directed towards nourishing the scion of one or two years', it will grow much faster, and consequently arrive at perfection much sooner than its fellow, or its own root left in the ground. A French author found the advantage of this practice in the case of a new species of ash, to be as five to one in point of height. (Cours Complet d' Agriculture, &c. art. Greffe.) The third use of grafting is to improve the quality of fruits ; the fourth to perpetuate varieties of ornamental trees or shrubs ; and the fifth to change the sorts of fruit on any one tree and renew its fruitfulness. 2015. The theory of grafting may be reduced to the following particulars : 201 6. To graft or unite only varieties of the same species ; species of the same genus ; and by extension, genera of the same natural family. Unless this union of natures be attended to, success will not attend the operation. 2017. To observe the analogies of trees, as to the periods of the movement of their sap ; in the permanence or deciduous duration of their leaves ; and the qualities of the juices of Cc 4 392 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. their fruits, in order to estimate the probable advantage of grafting a fruit of any parti- cular flavor on another of similar or different qualities. 201 8. To unite exactly the inner bark of the scion with the inner bark of the stock in order to facilitate the free course of the sap. 2019. To make choice of the proper season, and perform the operation with celerity. 2020. Any scion will not succeed on any stock. Professor Thouin observes, that the historians and poets of antiquity have written, and the moderns repeated on the faith of others, that every scion will take on any sort of stock, provided there be a resemblance in their barks. Thus Pliny, Varro, Columella, &c. speak of apples and vines grafted on elms and poplars ; and Evelyn mentions, that he saw a rose grafted on an orange-tree in Holland. The ancients acknowledged, however, that such grafts were but of very short duration. " The result of numerous experiments which we have made," observes the professor, " proves that if any one of these grafts seems at first to succeed, they all perish more or less promptly." 2021. Certain species of trees, and certain varieties of fruits, take more easily on some stocks than on otliers. Sometimes the cause is known, and at other times we are ignorant of it. Thus the platanus-leaved maple will not receive the scions of any species of its genus ; the reason of which may perhaps be deduced from its milky sap, which indicates an organisation different from its congeners. In like manner, the common walnut takes with difficulty on the late walnut ; because the times of the motion of their sap do not coincide. But why certain varieties of pear succeed better on the quince than on the seedling, and others better on the seedling than on the quince, cannot so easily be ac- counted for. Such anomalies are frequent, and make part of the practical science of gardeners ; of so much the more importance, because less subjected to general laws. (Cours Complet, &c. art. Greffe.) 2022. Grafting may be performed on all herbaceous vegetables with solid stems. The dahlia roots are frequently grafted in this country, and sometimes the stems are grafted or inarched. Baron Tschoudi at Strasbourg, and other physiologists at Paris, have grafted melons on cucumbers, love-apples on potatoes, cauliflowers on cabbages, &c. and made other similar unions with perfect success. Many of them are detailed in Essai sur la Greffe de V Herbe, &c. by the Baron Tschoudi, 1819. 2023. Grafting may be 'performed with the current year's shoot, or with shoots of several years' growth. This is evident from the general principles of the art, as well as from ex- perience. Knight, the Baron Tschoudi, and others, have grafted young shoots in leaf; and Professor Van Mons, at Brussels, has grafted an entire 'tree, 15 feet high, on the stump of another of similar diameter. (Netil, in Horticultural Tour, 310.) 2024. Influence of the stock. The stock does not change the character of the species of tree, which may be grafted on it ; nor even that of the variety, if the connection between the stock and scion is intimate : but by a particular choice of stocks, the tree is often mo- dified differently in the dimensions of its parts ; in its general aspect ; in the flavor and size of its fruit, though perhaps in a very slight degree ; and in the duration of its ex- istence. 2025. The nature of tlie fruit is to a certain extent affected by the nature of the stock. Miller says decidedly, " that crab-stocks cause apples to be firmer, to keep longer, and to have a sharper flavor ; and he is equally confident, that if the breaking pears be grafted on quince-stocks, the fruit is rendered gritty or stony, while the melting pears are much improved by such stocks. This, according to Neill, is scarcely to be considered as incon- sistent with Lord Bacon's doctrine, < that the scion overruleth the graft quite, the stock being passive only ;' which, as a general proposition, remains true ; it being evident, that the scion, bud, or inarched shoot is endowed with the power of drawing or forming from the stock that peculiar kind of nourishment which is adapted to its nature, and that the specific characters of the ingrafted plant remain unchanged, although its qualities may be partially affected." (Ed. Encyc. art. Hort.) 2026. Fruitf ulness and precocity produced by grafting. The effects produced upon the growth and produce of a tree by grafting, Knight observes, " are similar to those which occur when the descent of the sap is impeded by a ligature, or by the destruction of a circle of bark. The disposition in young trees to produce and nourish blossom-buds and fruit, is increased by this apparent obstruction of the descending sap ; and the fruit of such young trees ripens, I think, somewhat earlier than upon other young trees of the same age, which grow upon stocks of their own species ; but the growth and vigor of the tree, and its power to nourish a succession of heavy crops are diminished apparently by the stagnation in the branches and stock of a portion of that sap, which, in a tree grow- ing upon its own stem, or upon a stock of its own species, would descend to nourish and promote the extension of the roots. The practice, therefore, of grafting the pear-tree on the quince-stock, and the peach and apricot on the plum, where extensive growth and durability are wanted, is wrong ; but it is eligible wherever it is wished to diminish the vigor and growth of the tree, and where its durability is not thought important," BOOK IV. PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 393 He adds, " When great difficulty is found in making a tree, whether fructiferous or ornamental, produce blossoms, or in making its blossoms set, when produced, success will probably be obtained in almost all cases, by budding or grafting upon a stock which is nearly enough allied to the graft to preserve it alive for a few years, but not permanently. The pear-tree affords a stock of this kind to the apple ; and I have obtained a heavy crop of apples from a graft which had been inserted in a tall pear-stock, only twenty months previously, in a season when every blossom of the same variety of fruit in the orchard was destroyed by frost. The fruit thus obtained was externally perfect, and possessed all its ordinary qualities ; but the cores were black, and without a single seed ; and every blossom had certainly fallen abortively, if it had been growing upon its native stock. The experienced gardener will readily anticipate the fate of the scion ; it perished in the following winter. The stock, in such cases as the preceding, promotes, in propor- tion to its length, the early bearing and early death of the graft." 2027. Species and varieties iif grafting. The chief modern writers on grafting are, Quintiney, Du Hamel , Rosier, and Professor Thouin, among the French ; Mayer, Die- derich, Christ, and Sickler, among the Germans ; Clarici and P. Re, among the Italians ; and Miller, Curtis, and Knight, among the English. Professor Thouin has refined so much on the subject, as to have produced or enumerated above forty modes of grafting, besides a great many kinds of budding and inarching, named chiefly after eminent an- cient and modern botanists and gardeners, as Pliny, Virgil, Quintiney, Miller, Adanson, c. Most of these are, however, varieties of the ordinary species, and separated by such slender shades of difference, or so remotely connected with utility (as the Greffe Banks), that they do not appear of sufficient importance for admission here ; and we shall, there- fore, chiefly describe such varieties as have been long known and practised ; which form the basis of all the others ; and which every individual may vary according to his taste. The reader who would enquire further into the subject, may consult Curtis'b Lectures on Botany, vol. iii. and Nouveau Cours Compkt d' Agriculture, &c. torn. xvi. art. Greffe. 2028. Whip-grafting (jig. 379. a), 379 or, as it is sometimes called, tongue- grafting, is the most generally adopted in nurseries for propagating fruit- trees. To effect this mode in the best style, it is desirable, that the top of the stock, and the extremity of the scions should be nearly of equal dia- meter. Hence this variety admits of being performed on smaller stocks than any other. It is called whip- grafting, from the method of cutting the stock and scions, sloping on one side so as to fit each other, and thus tied together in the manner of a whip- *eM :.'\jfc J i / Afc tfnr ^Si^=a~-. lis> f thong to the shaft or handle. The 9^& scion and stock being cut off obliquely a at corresponding angles, as near as the operator can guess, then cut off the tip of the stock obliquely or nearly horizontally ; make now a slit nearly in the centre of the sloped face of the stock downwards, and a similar one in the scion upwards. The tongue or wedge- like process, forming the upper part of the sloping face of the scion, is then inserted down- wards in the cleft of the stock ; the inner barks of both being brought closely to unite on one side so as not to be displaced in tying, which ought to be done immediately with a riband of bass, brought, in a neat manner, several times round the stock, and which is generally done from right to left, or in the course of the sun. The next operation is to clay the whole over an inch thick on every, side, from about half an inch or more below the bottom of the graft, to an inch over the top of the stock, finishing the whole coat of clay in a kind of oval globular form, closing it effectually about the scion and every part, so as no light, wet, nor wind may penetrate ; to prevent which is the whole intention of claying. It may be added, that the whip-grafting of Lawson, and other old horticultural writers, was then practised without a tongue, which addition gave rise to the latter term. The French mode of whip-grafting differs from the English in their never paring more off the stock, however large, than the width of the scion (Jig. 380. e,f, g). In both modes, the stock is sometimes not shortened down to the graft, but a few inches left to serve as a prop to tie the shoots proceeding from the scion ; or even to admit of fastening the liga- tures used in the operation more securely. In either case, if the graft has succeeded, this appendage is cut off at the end of the season. 2029. Cleft-grafting (Jig. 379. 6) is resorted to in the case of strong stocks, or in head- ing down and re-grafting old trees. " The head of the stock or branch (which we may suppose to be two or three inches in diameter) is first cut off obliquely, and then the 394 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PAET II, - ^E^-^Wr-i^^^ 3^P sloped part is cut over horizontally near the middle of the slope ; a cleft nearly two inches long is made with a stout knife or chisel in the crown downwards, at right angles to the sloped part, taking care not to divide the pith. This cleft is kept open by the knife. The scion has its extremity for about an inch and half, cut into the form of a wedge, it is left about the eighth of an inch thicker on the outer or back side, and brought to a fine edge on the inside. It is then inserted into the opening prepared for it ; and the knife being withdrawn, the stock closes firmly upon it." If it be intended to graft any pretty large stocks or branches by this method, two or more scions may be inserted in each. The stock being prepared by cutting over as above, cleave it across in two places parallel and at a small distance apart, and insert a scion in each cleft : or by cutting or sawing the head off horizontally, and smoothing the section, a radiated series of clefts may be made, and scions inserted in each. 2030. Crown-grafting is another mode adopted for thick stocks, shortened branches, or headed down trees. It is sometimes called grafting in the bark or rind, frtfm the scion being inserted between the bark and wood. This mode of grafting is performed with best effect, somewhat later than the others, as the motion of the sap renders the bark and wood of the stock much more easily separated for the admission of the scions. In per- forming the operation, first cut or saw off the head of the stock or branch, horizontally or level, and pare the top smooth ; then having the scions, cut one side of each flat and some- what sloping, an inch and half long, forming a sort of shoulder at the top of the slope, to rest upon the crown of the stock ; and then raise the rind of the stock with the ivory wedge, forming the handle of the budding-knife (Jig. 110.) ; so as to admit the scion be- tween that and the wood two inches down ; which done, place the scion with the cut side next the wood, thrusting, it down far enough for the shoulder to rest upon the top of the stock ; and in this manner may be put three, four, five, or more scions, in one large stock or branch. It is alleged as a disadvantage attending this method in exposed situations, that die ingrafted shoots for two or three years are liable to be blown out of the stock by violent winds ; the only remedy for which is tying long rods to the body of the stock or branch, and tying up each scion and its shoots to one of the rods. 2031. Side-grafting (Jig. 379. c) resembles whip or tongue grafting, but differs in being performed on the side of the stock without bending down. It is practised on wall trees to fill up vacancies, and sometimes in order to have a variety of fruits upon the same tree. Having fixed upon those parts of the branches where wood is wanting to furnish the head or any part of the tree, there slope off the bark and a little of the wood, and cut the lower end of the scions to fit the part as near as possible, then join them to the branch, tie them with bass, and clay them over. 2032. Saddle-grafting is performed by first cutting the top of the stock into a wedge- like form, and then splitting up the end of the scion and thinning off each half to a tongue shape ; it is then placed on the wedge, embracing it on each side, ,and the inner barks are made to join on one side of the stock, as in cleft-grafting. This is a very strong and handsome mode for standard-trees when grafted at the standard-height. It is also desirable for orange-trees, and rose-standards, as it makes a handsome finish, covering a part of the stock, which by the other methods, long remains a black scar, and some- times never becomes covered with bark. The stocks for this purpose should not be much thicker than the scions, or two scions may be inserted. 2033. A local variety of saddle-grafting (Jig. 379. d, e, /) is thus described by Knight, as practised upon small stocks, and almost exclusively in Herefordshire. It is never at- tempted till the usual season of grafting is passed, and till the bark is readily detached from the alburnum. The head of the stock is then taken off by a single stroke of the knife obliquely, so that the incision commences about a diameter below the point where the me- BOOK IV. PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 395 dulla appears in the section of the stock, and ends as much above it, upon the opposite side. The scion, which should not exceed in diameter half that of the stock, is then to be divided longitudinally, about two inches upwards from its lower end, into two unequal divisions, by passing the knife upwards just in contact with one side of the medulla. The stronger division of the scion is then to be pared thin at its lower extremity, and in- troduced, as in crown-grafting, between the bark and wood of the stock ; and the more slender division is fitted to the stock upon the opposite side. The scion consequently stands astride the stock, to which it attaches itself firmly upon each side, and which it covers completely in a single season. Grafts of the apple and pear rarely ever fail in this method of grafting, which may be practised with equal success with young wood in July, as soon as that has become moderately firm and mature. 381 2034. A subvariety o/ saddle-grafting (Jig. 381.), applicable to very slender shoots, is practised by Knight, who gives the rationale and manipulation in his usual masterly manner. As this mode has rarely " or never been properly executed, it will be necessary that I describe the motion of the sap as I conceive it to be, at the period when grafts are most advantageously in- serted. The graft first begins its efforts to unite itself to the stock just at the period when the formation of a new internal layer of bark commences in the spring ; and the fluid, which generates this layer of bark, and which also feeds the inserted graft, radiates in every direction from the vicinity of the me- dulla, to the external surface of the alburnum. The graft is of course most advantageously placed when it presents the largest surface to receive such fluid, and when the fluid itself is made to deviate least from its natural course. This takes place most efficiently, when a graft of nearly equal size with the stock is divided at its base and made to stand astride the stock, and when the two divisions of the graft are pared extremely thin, at and near their lower extremities, so that they may be brought into close contact with the stock (from which but little bark or wood should be pared off) by the ligature. I have adopted this mode chiefly in grafting cherry-trees, and I have rarely ever seen a graft fail, even where the wood has been so succulent and immature as to preclude every hope of success by any other mode." (Hort. Trans, v. 147.) 2035. Shoulder, or chink-grafting, is performed with a shoulder, and sometimes also with a stay at the bottom of the slope. It is chiefly used for ornamental trees, where the scion and stock are of the same size (Jig. 380, a, b, c, d). 2036. Root-grafting (Jig. 380. ti) is sometimes performed in nurseries on parts of the roots of removed trees, when the proper stocks are scarce ; and in which case, the root of the white thorn has been resorted to as a stock both for the apple and pear. In general, however, a piece of the root of the tree of the same genus is selected, well fur- nished with fibres, and a scion placed on it in any of the ordinary ways for small stocks. Thus united, they are planted so deep as to cover the ball of clay, and leave only a few eyes of the scion above ground. Some gardeners have thought, that in this way, the plant must preserve a near resemblance to the parent tree ; but Abercrombie remarks, that though it is an expeditious way of obtaining a new plant, such a graft cannot be materially different from a cutting or layer. 2037. A variety of root-grafting, practised by Knight, is thus described. " Trans- planting, many years ago, some pear-stocks from a seed-bed, of which the soil was soft and deep, I found that the first emitted roots of many of them descended a foot or more perpendicularly into the earth, before they divided into any lateral ramifications : and as I did not like to replant the young trees, with such an inconvenient length of perpendi- cular root, I cut off about six inches from each. The amputated parts were then accu- rately fitted and bound, as in splice or whip-grafting, to scions of pear-trees, which were selected as nearly as possible of the same size ; and the roots, with their attached branches, were deposited in the ground as cuttings, so deep, that the whole of the root, and about an inch of the scion, were covered. The soil was then drawn up with the hoe on each side of the plants, which were placed in rows, so that one bud only of each graft was above the soil, and another just within it. These grafts succeeded perfectly well ; and I have subsequently repeated the same experiment with equal success upon the apple, the plum, and the peach. In the greater part of these experiments, the roots were perfectly cleansed from mould by washing, before they were fitted to the graft, and were then placed in wet moss, till a sufficient number were ready to be carried to the nursery ; a common dibber only was employed in planting them ; but the mould was washed into the holes with water, to close it well round the roots, and to supply the place of the clay used in other methods of grafting." (Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 239.) A variation of this 396 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. mode, consists in leaving that part of the tap-root not wanted with the removed tree undis- turbed in the soil, and grafting on it there. Such root-grafts grow with uncommon vigor. 2038. Terebration, or peg-grafting (Jig. 380. z), is an old method, in which the stock being cut off horizontally, a hole was bored in the centre of it ; and the scion being se- lected to fit the stock, within an inch and a half of its lower end, a circular incision was made, and the part between that and the end reduced, so as to fit the hole in the stock. This peg filling the hole was supposed to secure the graft from the effect of the winds. 2039. Future treatment. In a month after grafting, it may be ascertained whether the scion has united with the stock, by observing the progress of its buds ; but, in general, it is not safe to remove the clay for three months or more, till the graft be completely cica- trised. The clay may generally be taken off in July or August, and at the same time the ligatures loosened where the scion seems to require more room to expand ; a few weeks afterwards, when the parts have been thus partially inured to the air, and when there is no danger of the scion being blown off by winds, the whole of the ligatures may be removed. If the stock was not shortened down close to the graft or junction of the scion with the stock at the time of performing the operation, it may be done now, or as soon as the ligatures can be entirely dispensed with. In particular cases, a ligature round the graft, or a stake, or other prop, for the shoots of the scion, may be necessary for a year to come, to protect against winds ; or a bandage of moss kept over the graft, to preserve moisture, and encourage the expansion of the parts, and complete filling up of the wound. 2040. Choice and treatment of stocks. The stocks on which the operation of grafting is performed, are most commonly the stems of young trees, raised from the seed, or from suckers, layers, or cuttings, reared for that purpose. For what are called dwarf-trees, the stock at the time of grafting must always be headed down within a few inches of the ground for the insertion of the scion ; and for standards, the heading of the stock for the insertion of the scion may either be near the ground, the scion inserted accordingly, and one of the first shoots from it trained up to form a stem, or the scion inserted at the pro- per height. But if, as is the case with standard cherries, the stock is intended to form the stem, then it must be suffered to grow six or seven feet high, and be afterwards headed down at five or six feet for the reception of the scion. The French and Americans graft and bud their stocks much higher than is practised in Britain, which some consider to contribute to the durability of the tree. J. Wilmot is of opinion, that, by the oppo- site practice, the whole of the wild or proper stock, in garden-grounds where the soil is continually raised by manure, becomes buried in the soil, and reduced to a mere root, and then, he says, the tree begins to decline in vigor, and soon decays and dies. (Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 215.) 2041. The species of stocks for fruit-trees are divided into what are called free-grouing and dwarfing stocks. The free-growing are such as naturally attain the full height of the species to be grafted on them, as the seedlings of the common apple, common pear, plum, and cherry. The dwarfing stocks are such as naturally form much smaller trees than the sorts to be grafted on them, and therefore have a tendency to diminish the magnitude of the adopted sorts ; as the paradise, doucin, and creeper, for apples ; the quince, for pears ; bullace, for plums ; and perfumed, and wild red cherry, for cherries. 2042. Tlie species of stocks for timber and ornamental trees is generally some hardy spe- cies or variety of the same genus ; often, however, plants of a different genus, but of the same family, will answer. This, as already observed (2021.), is partly a matter of theory, and partly of experience. 2043. Scions are generally the young shoots of last summer's growth, and should be chosen from the outside lateral branches of healthy trees. The outside lateral branches are preferred, because in them the shoots are not so robust and apt to run to wood as in the centre and top of the tree, nor so weak as those which are at its base, and under the shade and drip of the rest. Such shoots are uniformly found to be the best bearers, and to pro- duce the truest specimen of the fruit of the tree on which they grow. An exception to this rule is to be found in the case of debilitated trees, where, of course, the scions should be taken from the strongest shoots in the centre of the tree. The middle part of each shoot makes always the best scion, for the same reasons as those given for choosing the shoots from the middle part of the tree ; but long shoots, and especially where the scion is of a rare variety, may be cut into several scions of four or six inches in length, reserving not fewer than two, nor more than five eyes, to form the future head of the tree. 2044. Preparation of scions. Scions should be gathered several weeks before the sea- son for grafting arrives ; the reason is, that experience has shown that grafting may most successfully be performed, by allowing the stock to have some advantage over the graft in forwardness of vegetation. It is desirable that the sap of the stock should be in brisk motion at the time of grafting ; but by this time the buds of the scion, if left on the parent tree, would be equally advanced ; whereas the scions, being gathered early, the buds are kept back, and ready only to swell out when placed on the stock. Scions BOOK IV. PROPAGATION BY BUDDING. 397 of pears, plums, and cherries are collected in the end of January, or beginning of Fe- bruary. They are kept at full length, sunk in dry earth, and out of the reach of frost till wanted, which is sometimes from the middle of February to the middle of March. Scions of apples are collected any time in February, and put on from the middle to the end of March. In July grafting (2033.), the scions are used as gathered. 2045. The materials vised in grafting are, a strong pruning-knife for cutting off the heads of the stocks previous to their preparation by the grafting-knife for the scion ; a small saw for large stocks ; and a penknife for very small scions ; a chisel and mallet for cleft-grafting ; bass-ribands as ligatures ; and grafting-clay. 2046. Grafting-day is prepared either from stiff yellow or blue clay, or from clayey loam or brick-earth ; in either case, adding thereto about a fourth part of fresh horse- dung, free from litter, and a portion of cut hay, mixing the whole well together, and adding a little water ; then let the whole be well beaten with a stick upon a floor, or other hard substance ; and as it becomes too dry apply more water, at every beating turning it over ; and continuing beating it well at top till it becomes flat and soft. This process must be repeated, more or less, according as the nature of the clay may require to render it ductile, and yet not so tough as to be apt to crack in dry weather ; for instance? it should be several times beaten the first day ; and next morning repeat the beating, still moistening it with water, and by thus repeating the beating several times every day for two or three days, or every other day at least, for a week, it will be in proper order for use ; observing that it should be prepared a week at least before it is used ; but if a month, the better, keeping it moist. Some recommend salt to be mixed with the clay, and others ashes or lime-rubbish, or drift-sand ; the object in these cases being to prevent its crack- ing with the sun ; which, however, the horse-droppings, if well incorporated, will in general fully prevent. 2047. The grafting-clay of the French, and Dutch, Onguent de St. Fiacre (St. Fiacre being the patron saint of gardening), is composed of half cow-dung, free from litter, and half fresh loam, intimately incorporated. They prefer this to all others for exclud- ing the external air from wounds of every description, and ridicule the idea of certain complex compositions. Bosc ( JV. C. < Ag. &c. torn. v. art. Englumen) observes of a noted English composition for healing wounds, that it is so " complicated and ridiculous in the eyes of those who have any knowledge of chemistry or natural philosophy, that it is a matter of astonishment how it could be proposed in our age." 2048. Substitutes for grafting-clay. Abercrombie and various authors mention resinous substitutes for clay, the details of which are given in the first edition of Miller's Diet. These substitutes are recommended for small and delicate trees, as camellias, daphnes, &c. and are composed of wax and pitch, pitch and tallow, tallow and oil, or a compound qf turpentine, bees'-wax, and rosin, at first melted together, and afterwards heated as wanted ; care being taken not to apply it too hot. A coating laid on with a brush, to the depth of a quarter of an inch, is said to be less liable to crack than clay; and it is added, that when the full heat of summer arrives, the composition melts away of its own accord. This last circumstance, we must confess, appears a sufficient argument against its use, since its re- moval must depend on the weather, and not on the state of the graft. We have seen its use in Italy attended by such consequences. D. Powel, Esq. spreads it on shreds of brown paper ; wraps these round the graft, and over them some bass ties. (Hort. Trans, v. 282.) 2049. The use of compositions for covering grafts is threefold ; 1 st. To prevent the extra- vasation of the sap from the wounds ; 2d. The too sudden drying of the wood ; and, -3d. The introduction of rain-water in the wound or cleft. It is evident, therefore, that what- ever sort of clay or coating is adopted, much will depend on its immediate application, and instantaneous repair in future, wherever it cracks or falls off. In addition to claying, some nurserymen cover the clay with a coating of moss, to preserve a moderate degree of moisture and tenacity ; and others, in the case of dwarf-trees grafted close to the ground, earth up the grafts for the same purpose. These practices suit particular cases, but are not generally necessary. Earthing up is one of the best accompaniments to claying, and should seldom be omitted when it caji be adopted. SUBSECT. 5, Propagation by Budding. 2050. Budding, or grafting by gems, consists, in ligneous plants, in taking an eye or bud attached to a portion of the bark, of different sizes and forms, and generally called a shield, and transporting it to a place in another, or a different ligneous vegetable. In herbaceous vegetables the same operation may be performed, but with less success. It may also be performed with buds of two or three years' standing, and on trees of considerable size, but not generally so. The object in view in budding is almost always that of grafting, and depends on the same principle ; all the difference between a bud and a scion being, that a bud is a shoot, or scion, in embryo. In all other respects, budding is conducted on the same principles as grafting. 2051. A new application of budding has been made by Knight. It is that of transferring 398 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. " a part of the abundant blossom-buds from one tree to the barren branches of others." He tried this first on roses, and afterwards on the pear and peach, with much success. In this way also he considers that fruit might be produced on yearling trees, not as matter of utility (as in supplying barren trees with blossom-buds), but as a curious experiment. 2052. Advantages of budding. Budded trees are generally two years later in producing their fruit than grafted ones ; but the advantage of budding is, that where a tree is rare, a new plant can be got from every eye, whereas by grafting it can only be got from every three or four eyes. There are also trees which propagate much more readily by budding than grafting ; and others, as most of the stone-fruits, are apt to throw out gum when grafted. When grafting has been omitted or has failed in spring, budding comes in as an auxiliary in summer. 2053. Season of budding. The operation of common budding is performed any time from the beginning of July to the middle of August ; the criterion being the formation of the buds in the axillae of the leaf of the present year. The buds are known to be ready by the shield or portion of bark, to which they are attached, easily parting with the wood. The buds preferred are generally those on the middle of a young shoot, as being neither so apt to run to wood as those at the extremity, nor so apt to lie dormant as those at the lower end. In some cases, however, the buds from the middle and extremity of the shoots are to be rejected, and those taken which are at the base of the annual shoots, as Knight (Hort. Trans, vol. iii. 135.) found in the case of the walnut-tree. Scalope-budding may be performed in spring, or at any season. 2054. Stocks for budding may, in general, be much smaller than for grafting, as the operation may be performed on the same year's shoot. But it may also be performed on shoots or stems of several years' growth, and in such, by inserting a number of buds, a complete tree may be formed at once. Scalope-budding may be performed on trees of considerable age. 2055. Choice of buds. For gathering the shoots containing the buds, a cloudy day or an early or late hour is chosen, on this principle, that the leaves being at these periods in a less active state of perspiration, suffer least from being separated from their parent plant. They are preserved fresh, and may be sent a great distance by inserting their ends in water or moist moss ; though, in general, they should be used as soon after gathering as possible ; indeed, as in grafting and inarching, the whole operation ought to be per- formed with the greatest celerity. 2056. Kinds of budding. Professor Thouin enumerates twenty-three species and va- rieties of budding ; but we shall here describe only four, of which but one variety is in general use in Britain. 2057. Shield-budding, or T budding (jig. 382.) is thus performed : 882 Fix on a smooth part on the side of the stock, rather from than towards the sun, and of a height depending, as in grafting, on whether dwarf, half, or whole standard-trees are desired ; then, with the budding-knife, make a horizontal cut across the rind, quite through to the firm wood ; from the middle of this transverse cut, make a slit downward, perpendi- cularly, an inch or more long, going also quite through to the wood. This done, proceed with all expedition to take off a bud ; holding the cutting, or scion, in one hand, with the thickest end outward, and with the knife in the other hand, enter it about half an inch or more below a bud, cutting near half way into the wood of the shoot, continuing it with one clean slanting cut, about half an inch or more above the bud, so deep as to take off part of the wood along with it, the whole about an inch and a half long (Jig. 382. a) ; then directly with the thumb and finger, or point of the knife, slip off the woody part remaining to the bud ; which done, observe whether the eye or gem of the bud re- mains perfect ; if not, and a little hole appears in that part, it is improper, or as gardeners express it, the bud has lost its root, and another must be prepared. This done, placing the back part of the bud or shield between your lips, expeditiously with the flat haft of the knife separate the bark of the stock on each side of the perpendicular cut, clear to the wood (c), for the admission of the bud, which directly slip down, close between the wood and bark, to the bottom of the slit (d). The next operation is to cut off the top part of the shield (6) even with the horizontal first made cut, in order to let it completely into its place, and to join exactly the upper edge of the shield with the transverse cut, that the descending sap may immediately enter the bark of the shield, and protrude granulated matter between it and the wood, so as to effect a living union. The parts are now to be immediately bound round with a ligament of fresh bass (e\ previously soaked in water, to render it pliable and tough, beginning a little below the bottom of the perpendicular slit, proceeding upward closely round every part, except just over the eye of the bud, and continue it a little above the horizontal cut, not too tight, but just sufficient to keep the whole close, and exclude the air, sun, and wet. BOOK IV. PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 399 2058. Shield-budding reversed, or reversed j, budding, differs from the former in having the transverse cut made at the bottom of the perpendicular slit, instead of at its top, and of course the shield is reversed in its position. This mode is represented as preferable to the other by such as contend that the sap rises in the bark equally with the wood ; but as this opinion is now generally considered as exploded, the first, or T mode, may justly be considered as the most scientific mode of budding. Professor Thouin describes shield- budding reversed under the name of Schnerivoogth. The advantages attending it, he says, are, that it is not easily drowned with sap or grum ; and the disadvantages, that it often fails when there is a scarcity of sap. It is practised occasionally in the orange-nurseries near Genoa, as may be seen in the plants imported to this country. 2059. Scalope-budding consists in paring a thin tongue-shaped section of bark from the side of the stock ; and in taking a similar section from the shoot of buds, in neither case removing the wood. The section or shield containing the bud is then laid on the corresponding scollop in the stock ; its upper edge exactly fitted, as in shield-buddino-, and at least one of its edges, as in whip-grafting. After this, it is tied in the usual way. The advantages of this mode are, that it can be performed when the wood and bark do not separate freely ; on trees having very stiff, thick, suberose barks, and at any season of the year. Its disadvantages are, that it requires longer time to perform the operation, and is less certain of success. The French gardeners often bud their roses in this manner in spring ; and if they fail, they have a second chance in July by using the common mode. 2060. Budding with double ligatures is a mode invented by Knight, and .described by him (Hort. Trans, vol. i. 194.) as " a new and expeditious mode of budding." The operations are performed in the manner first above described ; but instead of one liga- ture, two are applied, one above the bud inserted upon the transverse section through the bark ; the other, which had no farther office than that of securing the bud, was applied below in the usual way. As soon as the buds had attached themselves, the lower ligatures were taken off; but the others were suffered to remain. " The pas- sage of the sap upwards was in consequence much obstructed, and the inserted buds began to vegetate strongly in July (being inserted in June) ; and when these had afforded shoots about four inches long, the remaining ligatures were taken off, to permit the ex- cess of sap to pass on ; and the young shoots were nailed to the wall. Being there pro- perly exposed to light, their wood ripened well, and afforded blossoms in the succeeding spring ; and these would," he adds, " no doubt, have afforded fruit; but that, leaving my residence, I removed my trees," &c. 2061. Future treatment. In a fortnight at farthest after budding, such as have adhered may be known by their fresh appearance at the eye ; and in three weeks all those which have succeeded will be firmly united with the stock, and the parts being somewhat swelled in most species, the bandage must be loosened, and a week or two afterwards finally removed. The shield and bud now swell in common with the other parts of the stock ; and nothing more requires to be done till spring, when, just before the rising of the sap, they are to be headed down close to the bud, by an oblique cut, terminating about an eighth or a quarter of an inch above the shield. In some cases, however, as in grafting, a few inches of the stalk is left for the first season, -and the young shoot tied to it for protection from the winds. 2062. The instruments and materials for budding are merely the budding-knife (Jig. 110.) and bass ligatures. SUBSECT. 6. Propagation by Cuttings. 2063. Propagation by cuttings has been long known, and is abundantly simple when applied to such free-growing hardy shrubs, as the willow (Jig. 383. a) or the gooseberry (6) ; but considered as the chief mode of propagating most of the ericese, myrteae, pro- teaceae, &c. becomes one of the most delicate and difficult modes of continuing the species, and fifty years ago was an operation known to very few of even the first-rate gardeners. It may be considered, as to the choice of cuttings, their preparation, their insertion, in the soil, and their future management. 400 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 2064. In respect to the choice of cuttings, those branches of trees and shrubs which are thrown out nearest the ground, and especially such as recline, or nearly so, on the earth's surface, have always the most tendency to produce roots. Even the branches of resinous trees, which are extremely difficult to propagate by cuttings, when reclining on the ground, if accidentally, or otherwise, covered with earth in any part, will there often throw out roots, and the extremity of the lateral shoot will assume the character of a main stem, as may be sometimes seen in the larch, spruce, and silver fir. Cuttings then are to be chosen from the side shoots of plants, rather than from their summits or main stems ; and the strength and health of side shoots being equal, those nearest the ground should be preferred. The proper time for taking cuttings from the mother plant is when the sap is in full motion, in order that, in returning by the bark, it may form a callus or protruding ring of granular substance, between the bark and wood whence the roots proceed. As this callus, or ring of spongy matter, is generally best formed in ripened wood, the cutting, when taken from the mother plant, should contain a part of the former year, or in plants which grow twice a year, of the wood of the former growth ; or in the case of plants which are continually growing, as most ever- green exotics, such wood as has begun to ripen, or assume a brownish color. This is the true principle of the choice of cuttings as to time ; but there are many sorts of trees, as willow, elder, &c. the cuttings of which will grow almost at any season, and even if removed from the mother plant in winter, when the sap is comparatively at rest. In these and Bother trees, the principle of life seems so strong, and so universally diffused over the vegetable, that very little care is requisite for their propagation. Cuttings from herbaceous plants are chiefly chosen from the low growths, which do not indicate a tendency to blossom ; but they will also succeed in many cases, when taken from the flower-stems, and some rare sorts of florists' and border flowers, as the dahlia, rocket, cardinal-flower, scarlet lychnis, wallflower, &c. are so propagated. 2065. The preparation of the cutting depends on, or is guided by this principle, that the power of protruding buds or roots resides chiefly, and in most cases entirely, at what are called joints, or at those parts where leaves or buds already exist. Hence it is that cuttings ought always to be cut across, with the smoothest and soundest section possible, at an eye or joint. And as buds are in a more advanced state in wood somewhat ripened or fully formed, than in a state of formation, this section ought to be made in the wood of the growth of the preceding season ; or as it were in the point between the two growths. It is true, that there are many sorts of cuttings, which not only throw out roots from the ring of granulated matter, but also from the sides of every part of the stem inserted in the soil, whether old and large (c), or young and small (d, e\ as willows, currants, vines, &c. ; but all plants which are difficult to root, as heaths (/), camellias, orange-trees, &c. will be found in the first instance, and for several years after propagation, to throw out roots only, from the ring of herbaceous matter above mentioned ; and to facilitate the formation of this ring, by properly preparing the cuttings of even willows and currants, must be an obvious advantage. It is a common practice to cut off the whole or a part of the leaves of cuttings, which is always attended with bad effects in evergreens, in which the leaves may be said to supply nourishment to the cutting till it can sustain itself. This is very obvious in the case of striking from buds (g), which, without a leaf attached, speedily rot and die. Leaves alone, as in bryophyllum calycinum, will even strike root and form plants in some instances ; and the same, as Professor Thouin observes, may be stated of certain flowers and fruits. 2066. Cuttings which are difficult to strike may be rendered more tractable by previous ringing ; if a ring be made on the shoot which is to furnish the cutting, a callus will be created, which, if inserted in the ground after the cutting is taken off, will freely emit roots. A ligature would perhaps operate in a similar manner, though not so efficiently ; it should lightly encircle the shoot destined for a cutting, and the latter should be taken off when an accumulation of sap has apparently been produced. The amputation in the case of the ligature, as well as in that of the ring, must be made below the circles, and the cutting must be so planted as to have the callus covered with earth. (Hort. Trans, vol. iv. 558.) 2067. The insertion of the cuttings may seem an easy matter, and none but a practical cultivator would imagine that there could be any difference in the growth, between cut- tings inserted in the middle of a pot, and those inserted at its sides. Yet such is actually the case, and some sorts of trees, as the orange, ceratonia, &c. if inserted in a mere mass of earth, will hardly, if at all, throw out roots, while, if they are inserted in sand, or in earth at the sides of the pots, so as to touch the pot in their whole length, they seldom fail of becoming rooted plants. Knight found the mulberry strike very well by cuttings, when they were so inserted, and when their lower ends touched a stratum of gravel or broken pots ; and Hawkins, (Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 12.) who had often tried to strike orange-trees, without success, at last heard of a method (long known to nurserymen, but which was re-discovered by Luscome), by which, at the first trial, eleven cuttings BOOK IV. SOWING, PLANTING, AND WATERING. '101 out of thirteen grew. " The art is, to place them to touch the bottom of the pot ; they are then to be plunged in a bark or hot-bed, and kept moist." 20G8. The management of cuttings after they are planted, depends on the general prin- ciple, that where life is weak, all excesses of exterior agency must have a tendency to render it extinct. No cutting requires to be planted deep, though such as are large (i) ought to be inserted deeper than such as are small (/, A). In the case of ever- greens, the leaves should be kept from touching the soil (A) otherwise they will damp or rot off; and in the case of tubular-stalked plants, which are in general not very easily struck, owing to the water lodging in the tube, and rotting the cutting, both ends (7) may in some cases (as in common honeysuckle,) be advantageously inserted in the soil, and besides a greater certainty of success, two plants will be produced. Too much light, air, water, heat, or cold are alike injurious. To guard against these extremes in tender sorts, the means hitherto devised is that of enclosing an atmosphere over the cut- tings, by means of a hand or bell glass, according to their delicacy. This preserves a uniform stillness and moisture of atmosphere. Immersing the pot in earth (if the cut- tings are in pots) has a tendency to preserve a steady uniform degree of moisture at the roots ; and shading, or planting the cuttings, if in the open air, in a shady situation, prevents the bad effects of excess of light. The only method of regulating the heat is by double or single coverings of glass or mats, or both. A hand-glass placed over a bell-glass will preserve, in a shady situation, a very constant degree of heat. What the degree of heat ought to be, is generally decided by the degree of heat requisite for the mother plant. Whatever degree of heat is natural to the mother plant when in a grow- ing state will, in general, be most favorable to the growth of the cuttings. There are, however, some variations, amounting nearly, but not quite, to exceptions. Most species of the erica, dahlia, and geranium strike better when supplied with rather more heat than is requisite for the growth of these plants in green-houses. The myrtle tribe and camellias require rather less * r and in general it may be observed, that to give a lesser portion of heat, and of every thing else proper for plants in their rooted and growing state, is the safest conduct in respect to cuttings of ligneous plants. Cuttings of deci- duous hardy trees taken off in autumn should not, of course, be put into heat till spring, but should be kept dormant, like the mother tree. Cuttings of succulents like geraniums will do well both with ordinary and extraordinary heat. 2069. Piping is a mode of propagation by cuttings, and is adopted with herbaceous plants having jointed tubular stems, as the dianthus tribe ; and several of the grasses, and tree arundos, might be propagated in this manner. When the shoot has nearly done growing, which generally happens after the blossom has expanded, ils extremity is to be separated at a part of the stem where it is nearly, or at least somewhat indurated or ripened. This se- paration is effected by holding the root end between the finger and thumb of one hand, below a pair of leaves, and with the other, pulling the top part above the pair of leaves, so as to separate it from the root part of the stem at the socket formed by the axillae of the leaves, leaving the stem to remain with a tubular or pipe-looking termination. These pipings, or separated parts (&), are inserted without any further preparation in finely sifted earth, to the depth of the first joint or pipe, gently firmed with a small dibber, watered, a hand-glass placed over them, and their future management regulated on the same general principles as that of cuttings. SECT. III. Operations of Rearing and Culture. 2070. Operations of rearing and cultivation are various, and some of them of the sim- plest kind, as stirring the soil, cutting, sawing, weeding, &c. have been already consi- dered as garden-labors on the soil and on plants (1862. & 1882.) ; we here, therefore, confine ourselves to the more complex processes of sowing, planting, watering, trans- planting, pruning, thinning, training, and blanching. SUBSECT. 1. Solving, Planting, and Watering. 2071. Sowing is the first operation of rearing. Where seeds are deposited singly, as in rows of beans or large nuts, they are said to be planted ; where dropt in numbers to- gether, to be sown. The operation of sowing is either performed in drills, patches, or broad-cast. Drills are small excavations formed with the draw-hoe, generally in straight lines parallel to each other, and in depth and distance apart varying according to the size of the seeds and future plants. In these drills, the seeds are strewed from the hand of the operator, who, taking a small quantity in the palm of his hand and fingers, re- gulates its emission by the thumb. Some seeds are very thinly sown, as the pea and spinage ; others thick, as the cress and small salading. For sowing by bedding-in, see edding-in planting (2091.), and Cuffing. (1875.) 2072. Patches are small circular excavations made with the trowel; in these, seeds are either sown or planted, thicker or thinner, and covered more or less, according to D d 402 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. their natures. This is the mode adopted in sowing in pots, and generally in flower- borders. 207 3. In broad-cast solving, the operator scatters the seed over a considerable breadth of surface previously prepared by digging or otherwise minutely pulverised. The seed is taken up in portions in the hand, and dispersed by a horizontal movement of the arm, to the extent of a semicircle, opening the hand at the same time, and scattering the seeds in the air, so as they may fall as equally as possible over the breadth taken in by the sower at once, and which is generally six feet; that being the diameter of the circle in which his hand moves through half the circumference. In sowing broad-cast on the surface of beds, and in narrow strips or borders, the seeds are dispersed between the thumb and fingers by horizontal movements of the hand in segments of smaller circles. 2074. Dry weather is essentially requisite for sowing, and more especially for the oper- ation of covering in the seed, which in broad-cast sowing is done by treading or gently rolling the surface and then raking it ; and in drill-sowing, by treading in the larger seeds, as peas, and covering with the rake ; smaller seeds, sown in drills, are covered with the same implement without treading. 2075. Planting, as applied to seeds, or seed-like roots, as potatoes, bulbs, &c. is most frequently performed in drills, or in separate holes made with the dibber ; in these, the seed or bulb is dropt from the hand, and covered with or without treading, according to its nature. Sometimes planting is performed in patches, as in pots or borders, in which case the trowel is the chief implement used. 20.76. Quincunx is a mode of planting in rows, by which the plants in the one row are always opposed to the blanks in the other, so that when a plot of ground is planted in this way, the plants appear in rows in four directions. 2077. Planting, as applied to plants already originated, consists generally in inserting them in the soil of the same depth, and in the same position as they were before re- moval, but with various exceptions. The principal object is to preserve the fibrous roots entire, to distribute them equally around the stem among the mould or finer soil, and to preserve the plant upright. The plant should not be planted deeper than it stood in the soil before removal, and commonly the same side should be kept towards the sun. Planting should, as much as possible, be accompanied by abundant watering, in order to consolidate the soil about the roots ; and where the soil is dry, or not a stiff clay, it may be performed in the beginning of wet weather in gardens ; and in forest-planting, on dry soils, in all open weather during autumn, winter, and spring. 2078. Watering becomes requisite in gardens for various purposes, as aliment to plants in a growing state, as support to newly transplanted plants, for keeping under insects, and keeping clean the leaves of vegetables. One general rule must be ever kept in mind during the employment of water in a garden ; that is, never to water the top or leaves of a plant when the sun shines. A moment's reflection will convince any one that this rule is agreeable to the laws of nature, for during rain the sun's rays are intercepted by a panoply of fog or clouds. All watering, therefore, should be carried on in the even - ing or early in the morning, unless it be confined to watering the roots, in which case, transplanted plants, and others in a growing state, may be watered at any time ; and if they are shaded from the sun, they may also be watered over their tops. Watering over the tops is performed with the rose, or dispenser attached to the spout of the watering-pot, or by the syringe or engine. Watering the roots is best done with the rose ; but in the case of watering pots in haste, and where the earth is hardened, it is done with the naked spout. The compartments of gardens are sometimes watered by a leather tube and muzzle attached at pleasure to different pipes of supply ; but this depends on local circumstances, and, in general, it may be observed that the great increase of labor occasioned by watering compartments renders the practice very limited. In new-laid turf, or lawns of a loose porous soil and too mossy surface, the water-barrel (Jig- 205.) may be advantage- ously used. SUBSECT. 2. Transplanting. 2079. Transplanting is the next operation of rearing, and consists in removing propa- gated plants, whether from seeds, cuttings, or grafts, according to their kinds and other circumstances, to a situation prepared to receive them. The uses of transplanting lig- neous plants are chiefly to increase the number of fibrous roots, so as to prepare or fit young subjects for successful removal from the places where they are originated to their final destination ; but in herbaceous vegetables it is partly used to increase the propor- tion of fibrous roots in plants, relatively to their ramose roots, by which it is found the size and succulency of their leaves, flowers, and fruit are increased. Transplanting involves three things : first, the preparation of the soil to which the plant is to be removed ; secondly, the removal of the plant ; and, thirdly, the insertion in the pre- pared soil. JJooK IV. TRANSPLANTING. 403 2080. The prqyaration of the soil implies, in all cases, stirring, loosening, mixing, and comminution ; and, in many cases, the addition of manure or compost, according to the nature of the soil and plant to be inserted, and according as the same may be in the open ground, or in pots or hot-houses. 2081. The removal of the plant is generally effected by loosening the earth around if, and then drawing it out of the soil with the hand ; in all cases avoiding as much as pos- sible to break, or bruise, or otherwise injure the roots. In the case of small seedling plants, merely inserting the spade and raising the portion of earth in which they grow will suffice ; but in removing larger plants, it is necessary to dig a trench round, or on one side of the plant. In some cases, the plant may be lifted with a ball or mass of earth, containing all or great part of its roots,, by means of the trowel or transplanter ( fig. 93. ) ; and in others, as in the case of large shrubs or trees, it may be necessary to cut the roots at a certain distance from the plant, one year before removal, in order to furnish them with young fibres, to enable them to support the change. In pots, less care is necessary, as the roots and ball of earth containing them are, or may be, preserved entire. 2082. Inserting the removed plant in the prepared soil, is performed by making an ex- cavation suitable to the size of the plant, with the dibber, trowel, or spade, placing the plant in it to the same depth as before its removal, and then covering its roots with earth firmly, but not harshly or indiscriminately, pressed to it ; lastly, adding water. There are various modes of insertion according to the age and kind of plant, tools employed, object in view, &c. of which the following are the principal species and varieties. 2083. Of spade planting there are a variety of different sorts, known by the names of hole planting, trench planting, trenching-in planting, slit or crevice planting, holing-in planting, drill planting, bedding-in planting, furrow planting, &c. All these modes are almost peculiar to nursery gardening. 2084. Hole planting is the principal method practised in the final planting of all sorts of trees and shrubs in the open ground; and is performed -by opening round holes for the reception of each plant somewhat larger than its roots, then inserting the plant according to the general principles of planting. (2077.) 2085. Trench planting is practised in nurseries, in planting out seedlings oft for box-edgings, small hedge-plants, asparagus, &c. It is performed by opening a long narrow trench "with a spade, making one side upright, placing the plants against the upright side, and turning in the earth upon their roots. 2086. Trenching-in planting is practised in light pliable-working ground, for planting young trees in nurseries, thorn-hedges, &c. It is performed by digging a trench one spit wide, by a line, and planting from one end of the trench towards the other, as the trench is being dug. Thus, the line being set and the plants ready, with your spade begin at one end, and standing sideways to the line, throw out a spit or two of earth, which forming a small aperture, another person being ready with the plants, let him directly insert one in the opening, whilst the digger proceeds with the digging, and covers the roots of the plants with the earth of the next spit. Another aperture being thereby also formed, place therein another plant, and so on. 2087. Another method of trenching-in planting sometimes used for planting certain roots, such as horse- radish-sets, potatoes, &c. is performed by common trenching, placing a row of sets in each trench or fur- row. The horse-radish should be planted in the bottom of the open trench, if not above twelve inches deep, turning the earth of the next over them ; and the potatoe-sets placed about four or six inches deep, and cover them also with the earth of the next trench. 2088. Slit planting. This method is performed by making slits or crevices with a spade in the ground, at particular distances, for the reception of small trees and shrub-plants. It is practised sometimes in the nursery, in putting out rows of small plants, suckers, &c. from about a foot or eighteen inches or two feet bigh, and that have but small roots: it is also sometimes practised where very large tracts of forest-trees are to be planted by the most expeditious and cheapest mode of performance ; the following is the method : A line is set or a mark made accordingly ; then having a quantity of plants ready, for they must be planted as you proceed in making the slits, let a man, having a good clean spade strike it into the ground with its back close to the line or mark, taking it out again directly, so as to leave the slit open : he then gives another stroke at right angles with the tirst ; then the person with the plants inserts one immediately into the second-made crevice, bringing it up to the line or mark, and directly pressing the earth close to the plant with his foot ; proceed in the same manner to insert another plant, and so on. A man and a boy, by this method, will plant ten or fifteen hundred, or more, in a day. 2089. Holing-in planting. This is sometimes used in the nursery in light loose ground; and some- times in planting potatoes, &c. in pliable soils. The ground being previously digged or trenched, and a line placed, proceed thus : Let one man, with his spade, take out a small spit of earth, and in the hole so formed let another person directly deposit a plant ; then let the digger take another spit at a little distance, and turn the earth thereof into the first hole over the roots ; then placing directly another plant in this second opening, let the digger cover it with the earth of a third, and so on. 0090. Drill planting. This is by drawing drills with a hoe, from two to four or five inches deep, for the reception of seeds and roots, and is a commodious method of planting many sorts of large seeds, such as walnuts, chestnuts, &c. ; sometimes also broad beans, but always kidneybeans and peas : likewise of planting many sorts of bulbous roots, when to be deposited in beds by themselves. The drills for all of these purposes should be drawn with a common hoe, two or three inches deep, though, for large kinds of bul- bous roots, four or five inches deep will be requisite, and the seeds and roots should al- ways be covered the depth of the drills. 2091. Bedding-in planting. This is frequently practised for planting the choicer kinds of flowering buds, such as hyacinths, &c. ; also for larger seeds of trees ; as acorns, large nuts, and other kinds of seeds, stones, and kernels, and is performed by drawing the earth from off the tops of the beds, some inches in depth, in the manner of cuffing, then plant- ing the seeds or roots, and covering them over with the earth, drawn off for that purpose. Dd 2 404 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. The following is the mode of performance : The ground must be previously digged or trenched, raked, and formed into beds three or four feet wide, with alleys between bed and bed ; then with a rake or spade, trim the earth evenly from off the top of the bed into the alleys, from two or three to four inches deep for bulbous roots, and for seeds, one or two inches, according to what they are, and their size ; then, if for bulbous roots, draw lines along the surface of the bed, nine inches' distance, and place the roots, bottom downward, along the lines, six or eight inches apart, thrusting the bottom into the earth. Having thus planted one bed, then with the spade, let the earth that was drawn off into the alley be spread evenly upon the bed again, over the roots or seeds, being careful that they are covered all equally of the above depth, and rake the surface smooth. This method is also practised in nurseries, for sowing such seeds as require great accuracy in covering, as the larch, pine, and fir tribes ; and, indeed, for most other tree-seeds. 2092. Furrow planting. This is by drawing furrows with a plough, and depositing sets or plants in the furrow, covering them in also with the plough. It is sometimes practised for planting potatoe-sets in fields, and has been practised in planting young trees, for large tracts of forest-tree plantations, where the cheapest and most expeditious method was required ; but it can only be practised advantageously in light pliable ground. It is thus performed : a furrow being drawn, one or two persons are employed in placing the sets or plants in the furrow, whilst the plough following immediately with another furrow, turns the earth thereof in upon the roots of the plants. 2093. Dibble planting. This is the most commodious method for planting most sorts of fibrous-rooted seedling plants, slips, off-sets, and cuttings both of herbaceous and shrubby kinds ; and likewise for some kinds of seeds and roots, such as broad beans, po- tatoe-sets, Jerusalem artichokes, and horseradish-sets, bulbous roots, &c. It is expedi- tiously performed with a dibble or setting-stick ; therewith making a narrow hole in the earth for each plant or root, inserting one in each hole as you go on, &c. 2094. Trowel planting. This is performed with a garden -trowel, which being made hollow like a scoop, is useful in transplanting many sorts of young fibrous-rooted plants with balls of earth about their roots, so as they may not be checked by their removal. 2095. Planting with balls. By removing a plant with its roots firmly attached to a surrounding ball of earth, it continues in a growing state, without receiving any, or but very little check from its removal. This mode is often practised, more particularly with the more delicate and choicer kinds of exotics, both trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants ; and occasionally to many of the fibrous-rooted flowery plants, both annuals and perennials, even in their advanced growth and flowering state, when particularly wanted to supply any deficient compartments, or when intended to remove any sort of tree or plant out of the proper planting season, as very late in spring, or in summer. The most difficult tribe of plants to transplant, when in a growing state, are bulbous roots ; which succeed with difficulty, even when removed with balls -attached. 2096. Planting by mudding-in (einschlameri) is a German practice in planting fruit- trees, particularly suitable to the dry sandy soils of that country, and sometimes adopted in similar situations in this country. The pit being dug out, the mould in its bottom is watered and stirred so as to form a mass of mud about half the depth of the pit ; the tree is then inserted, and its roots worked up and down in the mud so as to spread them as much as possible equally through it. More mud, previously prepared, is poured in till the pit is full, which is then covered with dry earth, raised round the stem, but hollowed in the middle, so as to form a basin round its stem, and finally covered with litter (mul- ched), and, if a standard, it is fastened to a stake to protect it from winds. Diel, a scientific German author already mentioned (224. ), assures his readers, that trees planted in this way in spring thrive better in cold situations than those planted in the ordinary way in the preceding autumn ; and, that though it occasions considerable trouble, it should never be neglected either in spring or autumn. He found it also particularly useful in the case of planting fruit-trees in pots. (Obst. Orangerie, &c. vol. ii.) Pontey, alluding to this mode, says " planting in a puddle occasions the soil speedily to firm, not only too hard for the roots of the plant to spread, but also so far as perfectly to exclude water." (Rural Imp-over, p. 89.) 2097. Planting by firing with water is an excellent variety of the last species. It has been successfully practised by Pontey, and is thus described by him : The hole being made, and the tree placed in it in the usual manner, the root is then slightly covered with the finer part of the soil ; the tree being at the same time shaken, as is com- mon, to settle the earth among its roots. Water is then applied by a common garden watering-pot, by pouring it upon the soil with some force, in order to wash it close to and among the roots of the plant. But this can only be done effectually by elevating the pot as high in the hands as can be conveniently used, after first taking off the rose. It will be obvious, that for such purposes a large pan with a wide spout is to be preferred. The hole is then filled up with the remainder of the soil, and that again consolidated with water as before, which usually finishes the business. The foot is never applied except in BOOK IV. TRANSPLANTING. 405 the case of bad roots, which sometimes occasion the plants to b left a little leaning. In such cases, the application of the foot slightly, once or twice, after the soil has become somewhat firm (which generally happens in less than an hour), sets the tree upright, and so firm as to require no. staking. (Rural Improver, p. 89.) 2098. Panning, mulching, and staking. Panning is an almost obsolete phrase, applied by Switzer, and writers of his day, to the operation of forming a hollow or basin round trees, for the purpose of retaining water when given them by art. Mulching consists in laying a circle of litter round the roots of newly planted trees, to retain the natural humi- dity of the soil, or to prevent the evaporation of artificial watering. Staking is the oper- ation of supporting standard-trees, by tying them with straw, or other soft ties, to poles or stakes inserted firmly in the ground close to the tree. 2099. Planting edgings. Edgings are rows of low-growing plants, as box, daisy, &c. planted in lines along the margins of walks and alleys, to separate them from the earth and gravel. They should always be planted before either the gravel or substratum are deposited. To perform the operation, the first thing is to form the surfaces for the edg- ings in planes corresponding with the established slopes or levels of the borders or other parts of the garden, observing, that a line crossing the walk at right angles, and touching both of the prepared surfaces, must always be a horizontal line, whether the walk be on a level or slope. Suppose a walk 150 feet long on a gentle declivity, and that the level or height of both ends are fixed on ; then by the operation of the borning-pieces, any num- ber of intermediate points is readily formed to the same slope, and the spaces between these points are regulated by the eye or the application of the straight-edge. The earth, so formed into a regular slope, need not exceed about a foot in breadth, on which the line being stretched, half is to be cut down, with a face sloping towards the walk, and against this sloping, or nearly perpendicular face, the box is to be laid as thin and regular as practicable, and every where to the same height, say one inch above the soil. The box is to be previously prepared by separation, and shortening the roots and tops. This is one of those operations, on the performance of which, with accuracy, depends much of the beauty of kitchen-gardens. 2100. Planting verges. Verges are edgings of turf, generally two feet broad or up- wards. The turves being cut in regular lamince, with the edges or sides of each turf per- pendicular, and the two ends oblique in the same slope, they are to be placed so as the one may fit exactly to the other. They are next to be beat with the beetle, afterwards watered, and again beat or rolled, and finally a line applied to their edges, and the raser (Jig. 101.) used to cut them off neatly and perpendicularly. If the turf is from loamy soil, this is readily effected ; but if no turf can be got but from sandy soils, then it must be cut very thin, and placed on good earth or loam, according to circumstances. Verges are sometimes, though rarely, formed of chamomile, strawberries, dwarf-thyme, &c, in which situations the wood-strawberry and chamomile produce abundant crops. 2101 . Transplanting or laying down turf. Turfing, as this operation is commonly called, consists in laying down turf on surfaces intended for lawn, in parterres or pleasure- grounds. 'The turf is cut from a smooth firm part of an old sheep-pasture, free from coarse grasses, in performing which the ground is first crossed by parallel lines, about a foot asunder, and afterwards intersected by others three feet asunder, both made with a line and the turf-raser. Afterwards, the turf-spade or turfing-iron is employed to separate the individual turves, which are rolled up, and conveyed to the spot where they are to be used. It is to be observed, that, in this case, all the sides of each turf are be- velled ; by which means, when they are laid down exactly as they were before being taken up, their edges will fit, and in some degree lap over each other, and thereby, after rolling, a more compact surface will be formed. The surface en which the turves are to be laid, ought previously to be either dug or trenched, so as to be brought to one de- gree of consistency, and then rolled, so as it may not afterwards sink ; the turves being laid so as to fit, are to be first beaten individually, and then watered and rolled till the whole is smooth and even. 2102. In transplanting in pots, the general practice is to begin with the smallest-sized pot, and gradually to transplant into others larger, as the plant advances, and as the ob- ject may be to produce a large or a small plant. In the case of balsams and tender an- nuals, this may require to be performed three or four times a month, till the plant has attained its full size ; in the case of heaths, not more than once a year or seldorner. 2103. The operation of potting is thus performed. Having the pots and mould ready for the reception of 'the intended plants, observe, previous to planting them, to place some pieces of tile, potsherds, or oyster- shells, or gravel over the hole at the bottom of the pot, both to prevent the hole from being clogged and stopped with the earth, and the earth from being washed out with occasional watering ; and also to prevent the roots of the plants from getting out. Having secured the holes, place some earth in the bottom of each pot, from two or three to five or six inches or more in depth, according to the size of the pot, and the roots of the plant. This done, insert the plant in the middle of the pot, upon the earth, in an upright position ; if without a ball of earth, spread its roots equally every way, and directly add a quantity of fine mould about all the roots and fibres, shaking the pot to cause the earth to settle close about them ; at the same time, if the roots stand too low, shake it gently up, as you shall see occasion j and having filled the Dd 3 40G SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. j.ot with e;:rth, press it gently all round with the hand to settle it moderately firm in every part, and to steady the upright posture of the plant, raising the earth, however, within about halt' an inch, or less, or the top of the pot It will soon settle lower, and thereby leave a void space at top, which is necessary to steady the upright posture of the plant, raising the earth, however, within about halt' an inch, or less, or It will soon settle lower, and thereby leave a void space at top, which is necessary to receive occasional waterings. As soon as the plant is thus potted, give directly a moderate watering to settle the earth more effectually close about all the roots, and promote their shooting into the new earth ; repeating the waterings as occasion requires. 2104. Transplanting potted plants from one pot to another is called shifting; and is performed with the whole ball of earth contained in die pot entire, so as to preserve the plant in its growing state. 2105. The method of removing them out of the pots with balls is generally easily effected. Sometimes in small plants it is performed by turning the pot upside down, and striking the edge against the side of a bench, or edge of the boards of a wheelbarrow, or the like,*when the ball comes out entire ; or occasionally a plant that is very well rooted, and whose numerous fibres surround the outside of the ball, will readily quit the pot by drawing it by the stem. But if, by either of the above methods, the ball will not readily quit the pot, thrust a narrow thin slip of wood down ail round the pot, when the ball will come out by the process of striking the edge of the pot, with the greatest facility. Sometimes, however, the bellied form of the pot, and the luxuriance of the roots which circulate between the pot and earth, pre- vent the possibility of removing the ball entire; in which case, either that circumstance must be dispensed with, or the pot be broken. 2106. In replanting in larger pots, the first step regards the management of the numerous fibres which sur- round the outside ball. When these are not numerous, the general practice is to leave them untouched ; but when they are so abundant as to form a sort of matted coat, like the inside of a bird's nest all around, then the practice is to trim the greater part of them off close to the ball, both on the sides and bottom, together with some of the outward old earth of the ball ; then having the pots of proper sizes, larger than the former ones, and having secured the holes at bottom, and put in some fresh compost, deposit the plant with its entire ball in the pot, taking care that it stands in the centre, erect, and of the same depth as before. Then fill up all the interstices round the ball with fresh mould, pressing it down, and ramming it round the sides with a broad stick, adding more mould gradually, and raising it so as to cover the old ball, and finish with a moderate watering, to settle the new earth close in every part. Hayward has sug- gested the idea of a moveable bottom for more readily shifting potted plants with matted roots ; and we have already (1412.) described the orange-boxes used at Versailles, and by Mean at Wormsleybury, by which fresh earth can be put to the sides of the largest plants with little trouble. 2107. Transplanting with balls is to be avoided in the case of diseased plants, unless it be evident that the disease has no connection with the ball of earth and the roots. Very frequently, however, the diseases of plants in pots arise from the want of a proper vent for the water, and from their having had too much given them ; hence in transplanting such plants, it is eligible to shake the whole entirely out of the earth, in order to examine its roots, and trim off all decayed and other bad parts ; then having a fresh pot, and some entire new compost, replant as already directed. 2108. In potting plants from the open ground, or beds of earth on dung, or otherwise, if they have been previously pricked out at certain distances, and have stood long enough to fix their roots firmly, they may be moved into pots with balls, by the proper use of the trowel transplanter, or hollow spade. Seed- lings, however, cannot often be raised with balls, and are therefore planted in the smallest-sized pots first, and gradually removed into larger ones with their balls entire. 2109. 'Plants in pots are never shifted directly from small into large pots, but always into a size only one gradation larger than that in which they are. Experience proves that this is the best mode, and also that plants, in general, thrive best in small pots. The reason seems to be that, in large pots, the roots are apt to be chilled and rotted by the retention of more water than is requisite for their wellbeing. SUBSECT. 3. Pruning. 2110. The amjmtatwn of part of a plant with the knife, or other instrument, is practised for various purposes, but chiefly on trees, and more especially on those of the fruit-bear- ing kinds. Of two adjoining and equal-sized branches of the same tree, if the one be cut off, that remaining will profit by the sap which would haVe nourished the other, and botli the leaves and the fruits which it may produce will exceed their natural size. If part of a branch be cut off which would have carried a number of fruits, those which remain will set, or fix better, and become larger. On the observation of these facts is founded the whole theory of pruning ; which, though like many other operations of art, cannot be said to exist very obviously in nature, is yet the most essential of all operations for the culture of fruit-trees. 2111. The objects of pruning may be reduced to the following : promoting growth and bulk ; lessening bulk ; modifying form ; promoting the formation of blossom-buds ; enlarging fruit ; adjusting the stem and branches to the roots ; renewal of decayed plants or trees ; and removal or cure of diseases. 2112. Pruning for promoting the growth and bulk of a tree is the simplest object of pruning, and is that chiefly which is employed by nursery-men with young trees of every description. The art is to cut off all the weak lateral snoots, that the portion of sap destined for their nourishment may be thrown into the strong ones. In some cases, besides cutting off the weak shoots, the strong ones are shortened, in order to produce three or four shoots instead of one. In general, mere bulk being the object, upright shoots are encouraged rather than lateral ones ; excepting in the case of trained trees, where shoots are encouraged at all angles, from the horizontal to the perpendicular, but more especially at the medium of 45 degrees. In old trees, this object is greatly promoted by the removal, with the proper instruments, of the dead or already scaling off outer bark. 2113. Pruning for lessening the bulk of the tree is also chiefly confined to nursery-practice, as neces- sary to keep unsold trees of a portable size. It consists in little more than what is technically called heading down, that is cutting off the leading shoots within an inch or two of the main stem, leaving, in some cases, some of the lower lateral shoots." Care is taken to cut to a leaf-bud (1885.), and to choose such from among the side, upper, or under buds of the shoot according as the succeeding year's shoots may be wanted, in radiated lines from the stem, or in oblique lines in some places to fill up vacancies. It is evident that this unnatural operation persisted in for a few years must render the tree knotty and unsightly, and in stone-fruits, at least, it is apt to generate canker and gum. 2114. Pruning for modifying the form of the tree embraces the management of the plant from the time of its propagation. Almost every tree has a different natural form, and in botanic and landscape gardening it is seldom desirable to attempt altering these by pruning, or by any other operation. But in rearing trees planted for timber, it is desirable to throw the timber produced, as much as possible, into long compact masses ; and hence pruning is employed to remove the side branches, and encourage the growth of the bole or stem. Where this operation is begun when the trees are young, it is easily performed every two or three years, and the progress of the trees under it is most satisfactory ; when, however, it is BOOK IV. PRUNING. 407 delayed till they have attained a timber size, it is, in all cases, much less conducive to the desired end., and sometimes may prove injurious. It is safer in such cases to shorten or lessen the size of lateral branches, rather than to cut them off close by the stem, as the large wounds produced by the latter practice either do not cicatrise at all, or not till the central part is rotten, and has contaminated the timber of the trunk. In all cases, a moderate number of small branches, to be taken off as they grow large, are to be left on the trunk, to facilitate the circulation of the sap and juices. Where timber-trees are planted for shelter or shade, unless intermixed with shrubs or copse, it is evident pruning must be directed to clothing them from the summit to the ground with side brandies. In avenues and hedge-row trees, it is generally desirable that the lowest branches should be a considerable distance from the ground in trees intended to conceal objects, as many branches should be left as possible ; and in others, which conceal distant objects desired to be seen, or injure or conceal near objects, the form must be modilied accordingly. In all these cases, the superfluous parts are to be cut off with a clean section, near a bud or shoot if a branch is shortened, or close to the trunk if it is entirely removed : the object being to facilitate cicatrisation. 2115. Pruning fruit-trees. The grand art of pruning, not only as to the modification of form, but in all its other varieties, relates to fruit-trees, of which the leading characters are standards and wall-trees ; the former including dwarfs and half-standards, and the latter, dwarfs and riders. 2116. In pruning to form standards (arbres a plein-vent, Fr.), the first thing to be determined on after the plant has been received from the nursery and planted, is, whether the stem is to be tall (haut-tige) or short (basse-tige) ; and the next, if the head is to be trained in any particular form, as a cone, globe, semi-globe, radiated pyramid, &c. ; or left to assume its natural shape. If a cone or pyramid is determined on, then a leading upright shoot must be carefully preserved, and the side shoots kept at regular distances from each other, and as far as practicable, equally extended on the one side of the main stem as on the other, keeping always in view the ultimate figure. If a globe is to be produced no shoot must be permitted to take the lead, but a number encouraged to ra- diate upwards from the graft, and these kept as regular as possible, both in regard to distance from each other, and of their extremities from the centre of the globe. If the tree is to be left to its natural shape, which in our opinion is by far the best mode, it will, in the ap- ple, pear, cherry, and most other fruit-trees, assume something of the conical shape, at least for some years ; but whatever shape it has a tendency to assume, that shape must not be counteracted by the pruner, whose operations must be chiefly negative, or directed to thin- ning out weak and crowded shoots, and preserving an equal volume of branches on one side of the tree as on the other : in technical language, preserving its balance. Knight's directions for this mode of pruning, both in his Treatise on the Apple and Pear, and in different papers in the Horticultural Transactions, are particularly valuable. For the apple and all standard trees he recommends that the points of the external branches should be every where rendered thin and pervious to the light ; so that the internal parts of the tree may not be wholly shaded by the external parts : the light should penetrate deeply into the tree on every side ; but not any where through it. When the pruner has judiciously executed his work, every part of the tree, internal as well as external, will be productive of fruit ; and the internal part, in unfavorable seasons, will rather receive protection than injury from the external. A tree thus pruned, will not only produce much more fruit, but will also be able to support a much heavier load of it, without danger of being broken ; for any given weight will depress the branch, not simply in proportion to its quantity, but in the compound proportion of its quantity and of its horizontal distance from the point of suspension, by a mode of action similar to that of the weight on the beam of the steelyard ; and hence a hundred and fifty pounds, suspended at one foot distance from the trunk, will depress the branch which supports it no more than ten pounds at fifteen feet distance would do. Every tree will, therefore, support a larger weight of fruit without danger of being broken, in proportion as the parts of such weight are made to approach nearer to its centre. Hitt recommends that the shape or figure of standards should be conical, like the natural growth of the fir- tree : and this form, 'or the pyramidal or sub-cylindrical (en quenouille, Fr.) is decidedly preferred by the French, and universally employed both by them and the Dutch. 2117. In pruning to form dwarf-standards (basse-tiges, Fr.), the plants being received from the nursery, furnished with shoots of one year's growth, are to be cut down to three or four buds, which buds will throw out other shoots the following year, to form the bush or dwarf. If these buds throw out, during the second year, more than can grow the third year without crossing or intermixing with each other, then the superfluous shoots must be cut off; but if too few to form a head regularly balanced, or projecting equally beyond the stem on all sides, then one or more of the shoots in the deficient part must be cut down to three or four eyes, as before,' to fill up by shoots of the third year the vacancies in the bush. In this way must the tree be treated year after year, cutting away all cross-placed branches and crowded shoots, till at last it shall have formed a head or bush globular, oblong, or of any other shape, according to its nature, and with this property common to every form, that all the shoots be so far distant from each other as not to exclude the sun's rays, air, or rain, from the blossoms and fruit. Such is the most approved modern mode of training fruit-tree bushes or dwarf-standards ; but, Dd 4 408 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. about a century ago, when dwarfs were in the greatest vogue, they were trained into re- gular geometrical shapes, without the least regard to the natural shape or tendency of the branches of the tree. In the works of Quintiney and Arnaud d'Andilly are described concave, conical, fusiform, spiral, and other dwarfs. 2118. Concave or cup-shaped dwarfs (arbonjin boomen, Dut. ; en gobelet or en tonnoir, Fr.), being trained concave or hollow in the middle, having all the branches ranged cir- cularly around the stem, in an ascending direction, so as to form the heart of the tree hollow or concave. 2119. Conical or pyramidal dioarfs, tapering like a cone or pyramid from the base to the summit. When pyramidal trees are so pruned that the horizontal branches form stages above one another, they are termed chandelier-like, or en girandole, 2120. Fusiform (en quenouttle, Fr.) or convex dwarfs, being trained, bellied out, or somewhat spindle-shaped in the middle, or like a full distaff. 2121. Horizontal dwarfs, in which all the branches were trained in a flat position, pa- rallel to the surface of the earth. 2122. Sjnral dwarfs (fig. 384.), in which the branches were trained spirally round stakes, which stakes were afterwards removed. 384 2123. Fan-dwarfs (palmettes, Fr.) in which the branches were spread out like the hand, or like a spread fan. 2124. Natural dwarfs or bushes (arbres en buisson, Fr.), in which the branches were permitted to advance in their natural mode of growth, being only thinned, or shortened, or deprived of supernumerary side shoots, as already described. 21 25. Estimate of the forms of dwarfs. Some authors observe that all these forms may be introduced for the sake of variety ; but of all forms which require constraint, as being con- trary to the natural shape of the bush and tendency of the branches, it may with certainty be observed, that they can only be maintained by continual exertion in, counteracting nature ; and that the trees so constrained and cut, generally throw out, at particular parts, such a superfluity of useless wood, as greatly to lessen their tendency to produce blossom-buds. Each variety of the apple-(ree, observes Knight, " has its own peculiar form of growth, and this it will ultimately assume, in a considerable degree, in defi- ance of the art of the pruner." The same remark, it is obvious, applies to every sort of tree. 21 26. Pruning half standards is conducted exactly on the same general principles as pruning dwarfs ; the only difference between them being that, in the one case, the bush . or head is close to the ground, and in the other, it is elevated from it three or four feet. Of the common hardy fruit-trees, it may be observed, that the apple, plum, quince, medlar, and mulberry form a forked irregular head (fig. 385. o), and the pear and cherry a more regular cone or distaff, with lateral branches proceeding from an upright stem (6). The French are particularly expert in pruning their pear-trees into this last form, assisted sometimes by a rod to train the central shoot. 2127. Crown or umbrella headed standards (kroon boomcn, Dut. ) are a sort of half-stand- ard, formed by the Dutch, and chiefly on dwarfing stocks. The stems are six or seven feet BOOK IV. PRUNING. 409 high, and terminate in a few branches, which stretch out on all sides horizontally : this position being given by inclining them downwards by ties. 2128. Balloon-headed standard-trees have been formed by a mode of training adopted by J. Brookhouse, Esq. at Warwick. The trees are apples, six feet high in their stems, from the tops of which, the branches, whic three or four years' growth, extend outwards, and nearly horizontally in all directions, from fi hich are of five to six feet from the centre. Round the tree, at about three feet from the stem, and at two feet from the ground, is placed a hoop, fastened to stakes, and towards this hoop the ends of the branches are directed by worsted cords fastened to their extremities, and to the hoop. The branches, by this means, assume a curved direction, straighter near to their origin in the centre, much arched afterwards, and having their ex- tremities turned inwards. The average distance from the ground to the ends of the branches thus secured is about four feet. The general outline of the tree has much resemblance to that of a balloon, and the cords which are attached all round to the hoop in a slanting direction inwards, increase the similitude. After the fruit has been gathered, the fastenings are removed; in winter the trees are pruned, the upright shoots which have been made, are shortened to spurs, except where fresh branches are wanted to complete the uniformity and regularity of the whole; and in spring the operation of tying is re- peated. Sabine observes on this mode, " It is scarcely possible to conceive a row of trees in a garden more beautiful than one thus arranged, not only from the uniformity in size, and regularity of growth of the trees ; but from the beautiful display of blossoms and fruit in the different seasons, occasioned by this peculiar mode of training, which is calculated to exhibit the whole so perfectly. The advantages of the plan are many and important. The downward inclination given to the branches increases the dis- position to form blossom-buds, and consequently to produce more abundantly ; the foliage is well exposed to receive the influence of the light and air ; the fruit is uniformly distributed over the surface of the tree, and does not suffer from being shaded by irregularly placed branches ; whilst the ligatures at the ends of the shoots keep the whole so steady, that they are never so agitated by wind as to lose their crop prematurely, nor do the branches suffer like those of other trees, by lashing each other in strong gales of wind." (Hort. Trans, vol. v. 186.-) However fascinating this plan may appear at first sight, and for a few years while the trees are young, it Is, like most of the French and Dutch modes of training just described, radically bad, and certain of ultimately defeating the object in view. The main effort of trees so constrained will annually be directed to sending up upright shoots from the apex of the balloon ; and though these may be " shortened to spurs" for a year or two, the spurs so formed will only bear shoots not blossoms, and will rapidly increase in size till they present only a deformed mass of knots sending up a crowd of shoots, and depriving the pendent branches of nourishment. Every gardener can foresee this. There is only one mode of training that nature approves of, and that is the fan mode. (2144.) 2129. Pruning, for the modification of fruit-trees trained on walls (en espalier, Fr.) or on espaliers (en contre-espalier, Fr.), depends en the principle of training which may be adopted. The selection being made of such shoots as are requisite for carrying on the form of the training tree ; the others are to be cut off, first on the general principles re- commended for all cutting (1884.) ; and secondly, according to the particular nature of the tree. All trees which are much cut or constrained, have a tendency to throw out over-luxuriant shoots at particular parts of the branches where the sap is suddenly checked ; such shoots seem to employ the great body of the sap, and thus divert it from performing its functions in the other parts of the branch or tree. The largest of these shoots, the French term gourmands, or gluttons ; and the lesser ones, which have their leaves very distant and the wood slender, with hardly any appearance of buds in the axillae of the leaves, they term water-shoots. As soon, in the growing season, as the cha- racter of both these sorts of shoots, especially of the latter, is known, they ought to be pinched off, with the exception of some cases, at the discretion of an intelligent pruner, where the gourmand may fill up a vacancy, supply a decaying branch, or otherwise be so situated as to assist in forming the tree. This chiefly happens when they are thrown out on the sides of wall-trees, so as to admit of being checked by a horizontal or ob- lique position in training. What are called fore-right and back shoots, or such as are thrown out nearly at right angles to the training surface, ought to be rubbed or pinched off, as ill adapted for training, or being applied to the training surface ; but with the same exceptions as for gourmands. Where the grand object is fruit, however. it is well remarked by Marshall (Introd. to Gard.}, " that in this matter, the end in view is not to be sacrificed to fanciful precision." 2130. Pruning to promote the formation of blossom-buds depends on the nature of the tree. The peach and nectarine, for example, produce their blossoms on the preceding year's wood ; consequently the great art of pruning a peach-tree is to have a regular distribution of young wood over every part of it. This the tree has a natural tendency to effect itself, and all that is required from the pruner is, when these shoots are too abundant, to rub them off in the summer pruning, and where they are too few, to cut or shorten some of the least valuable branches or shoots in the winter pruning. In apples and pears, on the contrary, the blossoms are chiefly produced on short leafy protuberances, called spurs, which form themselves naturally along the sides of the shoots, chiefly of apples and pears, but also of plums, cherries, quinces, medlars, and to a certain degree, the apricot, which produces blossoms on last year's wood, and on spurs and small twigs from the shoots of the second year preceding. The production of bearing or blossom buds is sometimes promoted by cutting out weak wood, by which what remains is strengthened ; and shortening or stopping the shoots of the vine in summer is believed by many to have the same effect. The rose, syringa, spiraea frutex, and many shrubs, produce their blossoms in the wood of the present year, and to give 410 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PARI II. vigor to such plants, it is desirable, when blossoms are wanted in these shrubs, to cut down both old and new wood. 2131. Pruning for the enlargement of the fruit is effected either by diminishing the number of blossom-bearing branches, or shortening them ; both which operations depend on the nature of the tree : the mode of shortening is particularly applicable to the vine, the raspberry, and to old kernel fruit-trees. 2132. Pruning for adjusting the stem and branches to the roots is almost solely applica- ble to transplanted trees, in which it is an essential operation ; and should be performed in general in the interval between removal and replanting, when the plant is entirely out of the ground. Supposing only the extremities of the fibres broken off, as is the case in very small plants and seedlings, then no part of the top will require to be re- moved ; but if the roots have been broken or bruised in any of their main branches or ramifications, then the pruner, estimating the quantity of root of which the plant is deprived by the sections of fracture and other circumstances, peculiar and general, will be able to form a notion of what was the bulk of the whole roots before the tree was undisturbed. Then he may state the question of lessening the top to adjust it to the roots thus : As the whole quantity of roots which the tree had before removal is to the whole quantity of branches which it now has or had, so is the quantity of roots which it now has to the quantity of top which it ought to have. In selecting the shoots to be re- moved, regard must be had to the ultimate character the tree is to assume, whether a standard, or trained fruit-tree, or ornamental bush. In general, bearing-wood and weak shoots should be removed, and the stronger lateral and upright shoots, with leaf or shoot eyes, left. 2133. Pruning for reneival of the head is performed by cutting over the stem a little way, say its own thickness, above the collar or the surface of the ground. This practice applies to old osier-beds, coppice-woods, and to young forest-trees. Sometimes also it is performed on old or ill-thriving fruit-trees, which are headed down to the top of their stems. This operation is performed with the saw, and better after scarification, as in cutting off the broken limb of an animal. The live section should be smoothed with the chisel or knife, covered with the bark, and coated over with grafting clay, or any conve- nient composition which will resist drought and rain for a year. 2134. Pruning for curing disease has acquired much celebrity since the time of For- syth, whose amputations and scarifications for the canker, together with the plaster or composition which he employed to protect the wounds from air, are treated of at large in his Treatise on Fruit Trees. Almost all vegetable diseases either have their origin in the weakness of the individual, or induce a degree of weakness ; hence to amputate a part of a diseased tree is to strengthen the remaining part, because the roots remaining of the same force, the same quantity of sap will be thrown upwards as when the head and branches were entire. If the disease is constitutional, or in the system, this practice may probably, in some cases, communicate to the tree so much strength as to enable it to throw it off; if it be local, the amputation of the part will at once remove the disease, and strengthen the tree. For the removal of diseases, whole branches, the entire head, single shoots, or merely the diseased spot in the bark or wood, may require to be cut oft'. In the removal of merely diseased spots, care must be taken to remove the whole extent of the part affected with a part of the sound wood and bark ; and, in like manner, in amputating a diseased shoot or branch, a few inches or feet of healthy wood should be taken away at the same time, to make sure of removing every contamination. Insects may be removed, or at least prevented from spreading on trained trees, especially such as are in houses, and on dwarf-trees, where the whole plant comes readily under the eye, either by cutting off, in the summer season, the young shoots or the individual leaves on which the insects, as the coccus, aphis, acarus, &c. are found. This is frequently practised on gooseberry-plants, and Sir Brook Boothby (Hort. Trans. voL i.) asserts that he keeps his peach-trees free from the red spider by cutting off every leaf the moment he sees an insect on it. 2135. Pruning tlie roots of trees. What effect it would have on the roots of trees, if they could be exposed to view, and subjected to pruning and training, as well as the branches, it is not easy in many cases, to determine ; but where they are diseased, or growing on soil with an injurious substratum, could the pruning-knife be applied to their descending and diseased roots annually, the advantages would be considerable. The practice of laying bare the roots of trees to expose them to the frost, and render the tree fruitful, is mentioned by Evelyn and other writers of his time ; but in doing so, it does not appear that pruning was any part of their object. The pruning of roots can therefore only take place, according to the present state of things, in the interval between taking up and replanting ; as such roots are generally small, and some of them broken or in- jured, all that the pruner has to do, is to facilitate the healing of the ends of broken roots by a more perfect amputation ; and in fruit-trees he may shorten such roots as have a tendency to strike too perpendicularly into the soil. The form of the cut in either case is a matter of less consequence than in the shoot ; but like it, it ought in general to be made from the under side of the shoot, that only one section may be fractured, and that the removed section may be the fractured one ; and also that water or sap may rather de- BOOK IV. TRAINING. 411 scend from than adhere to the wound. The chief reason for this practice, however, is the facility of performing it, for a section directly across, as if made with a saw, will, in roots, heal as soon, if not sooner, than one made obliquely ; but to make such a section in even small roots would require several distinct cuts, whereas the oblique section is completed by a single operation. The Genoese gardeners, in pruning the roots of the orange-trees, always make a section directly across, which, in one year, is in great part covered by the protruding granulated matter. (See 1886). The roots of trees might be completely prmied, if done by degrees ; say that the roots extended in every direction in the form of a circle ; then take a portion, say one eighth, of that circle every year till it is completed ; and remove the earth entirely from above and under the roots ; then cut oft' the diseased parts, or those roots which penetrate into bad soil ; and laying below them such a stratum as shall be impenetrable by them in future, intermix and cover them with suitable soil. 2136. Pruning herbaceous plants, or what is called trimming, consists generally in thinning the stems to increase the size and flowers of those which remain ; but it may also be performed for all the purposes before mentioned ; and for some other purposes, such as the prolongation of the lives of annuals by pinching off their blossoms, strengthening bulbous roots by the same means, increasing the lower leaves of the tobacco-plant by cutting over the stem a few inches above ground, &c. In trimming the roots of herbaceous plants, the same general principles are adopted as in pruning the roots of trees. In transplanting seedlings, the tap-root merely requires to be shortened ; and in most other cases merely bruised, diseased, or broken roots cut off, and fractured sections smoothed. 2137. The seasons for pruning trees are generally winter and midsummer ; but some authors prefer spring, following the order of the vegetation of the different species and varieties. According to this principle, the first pruning of fruit-trees begins in Fe- bruary with the apricot, then the peach, afterwards the pears and plums, then the cher- ries, and lastly the apples, the sap of which is not properly in motion till April. Some have recommended the autumn and mid-winter ; but though this may be allowable in forest-trees, it is certainly injurious to tender trees of every sort, by drying and harden- ing a portion of wood close to the part cut, and hence the granulous matter does not so easily protrude between the bark and wood, as in the trees where those parts are fur- nished with sap. For all the operations of pruning, therefore, which are performed on the branches or shoots of trees, it would appear the period immediately before, or com- mensurate with, the rising of the sap, is the best. 2138. Summer pruning commences with the rubbing off of the buds, or disbudding, soon after they have begun to develope their leaves in April and May, and is continued during summer in pinching off or shortening such as are farther advanced. It is obviously, to a certain extent, guided by the same general rules as winter or general pruning ; but the great use of leaves in preparing the sap being considered, summer pruning wisely conducted will not extend farther than may be necessary to maintain as much as possible an equilibrium of sap among the branches ; to prevent gourmands and water-shoots from depriv- ing the fruit of their proper nourishment, and to admit sufficient air and light to the fruit. Most authors are of opinion, that the other objects of pruning will be better effected by the winter operations. Summer pruning is chiefly applicable to fruit-trees, and among these to the peach ; but it is also practised on forest and ornamental trees when young, and is of great importance in giving a proper direction to the sap in newly grafted trees in the nursery. 2139. Thinning the branches of individual trees may be considered as included i n pruning. In herbaceous vegetables, or young trees growing together in quantities, it consists in removing all such as impede the others from attaining the desired bulk, form, or other properties for which they are specially cultivated, and is generally per- formed in connection with weeding or hoeing. SUBSECT. 4. Training. 2140. By training is to be understood the conducting of the shoots of trees or plants over the surface of walls, espalier rails, trellisee, or on any other flat surface. It is per- formed in a variety of ways, according to the kind of tree, the object in view, and the par- ticular opinions of gardeners. 2141. The object of training is, either to induce a disposition to form flower-buds in rare and tender trees or plants ; to mature and improve the quality of fruits which would not otherwise ripen in the open air ; or to increase the quantity and precocity of the fruit of trees which mature their fruit in the open air. Such are the principal objects of training : which are effected by the shelter and exposure to the sun of the surface to which they are trained, by which more heat is produced, and injuries from severe weather better guarded against ; by the regular spreading of the tree on this surface, by which the leaves are more fully exposed to the sun than they can be on any standard ; and by the form of training : which, by retarding the motion of the descent of the sap, causes it to spend itself in the formation of flower-buds. 2142. The leading modes of training woody-stemmed trees are the fan, horizontal, and vertical (fig. 386. ,/, ). To which may be added the wavy or curvilinear. Their varieties are, the herring-bone (a), the irregular fan (&)> the stellate fan (c), the drooping 412 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. 386 PART II. fan (rf), the wavy fan (e) ; the horizontal, with screw stem (g), and with double stem (A) the vertical, with screw or wavy shoots (A), and with upright shoots ('). Haywood pro- poses a sort of wavy training (Jig-, 387.), little different from that of the wavy fan, but which is cer- tainly superior to some of the other of the above modes in principle, as it has no tendency to constrain the shoots, and produce an irregu- lar distribution or exhibition of the sap in gourmands, &c. (Science of Horticulture, 8vo. 1818.) 2143. Trees with flexible stems, such as the vine and other climbers, admit of three other varieties of training (Jig. 388.), which, as vines bear the sweetest fruit at the greatest distance from the root, is particularly suitable for them. 2144. Fan training, as the name imports, directs the spreading out of all the branches like the spokes of the fan : it is reckoned of universal application and peculiarly suitable for peaches and other stone-fruits. 388 ft 389 ^ / 2145. Horizontal training is that in which, from a main stem, lateral branches are led out horizontally on each side, and is more especially adapted for pear-trees. 2146. Horizontal training uith the screw stem is chiefly applicable to pears and apples, and the use of the screw is to cause buds to push at proper places for the horizontal shoots. Where this is not adopted, the annual heading down of the vertical shoot is resorted to, by which the same effect is produced; but the tree requires in this case a longer period to fill the wall . It may be effected either with one or two main stems ; but, in ge- BOOK IV. TRAINING. 41$ 390 noral, the latter mode is preferable (Jig. 389. ), as distributing the sap or vigor of the tree more equally. 2147. Oblique training resembles the two last, with this difference, that the lateral shoots are trained obliquely to the main stem. It is particularly adapted for cherries. Thouin remarks, that the shoots should not be raised above an angle of forty-five degrees, unless in the case of a very weak shoot, which, for one season, may be led perpendicularly ; nor lowered below the horizontal line, unless in the case of an excessively strong gourmand or water-shoot. The angle of forty-five degrees indeed is recommended by the French writers, as the best for all shoots of fruit-trees to assume, whether by the training against walls or the pruning of standards. See the articles Esjialier and Treille in Cours Complet d* Agriculture, &c. 2148. Perpendicular training is performed by leading one horizontal shoot from eacli side of the stem, and within a foot or eighteen inches of the ground ; the shoots which proceed from these are led up perpendicularly to the top of the wall ; sometimes such shoots are trained in the screw or serpentine manner, particularly in vines and currants, which bear remarkably well in this form. This is the original mode of training practised by the Dutch, and is still more common in Holland and Flanders than any where else. 2149. Stellate training refers chiefly to standards trained on walls, or what by some are called riders. The summit of the stem being elevated six or eight feet from the ground by its length, the branches are laid in like radii from a centre. 2150. The open fan (jig. 390.) is a mode of training described by Professor Thouin, and exemplified in the Jar- din des Plantes. It does not appear to differ much from a mode de- scribed by Knight, which he applied to the peach, and considers, with a little variation, appli- cable, even with supe- rior advantages, to the cherry, plum, and pear- tree. This form, he adds, "might with much advantage be given to trees whilst in the nursery ; and perhaps it is the only form which can be given without subsequent injury to the tree." There is nothing very peculiar in this form the first and second year of training (a, b\ after being headed down ; but in the third year (c), the reversing of the lateral shoots (rf), becomes a characteristic. 2151. Wavy or curvilinear training, Haywood considers as combining "all the grand requisites stated to be produced" by the modes recommended by other writers on fruit- trees. " The stems (jig. 391. a) being two principal branches through which the sap will flow in equal portions from the root, to the length of three feet, before it is permitted to form collaterals, the same effect will be produced as if the whole sap was to pass up a single stem of a standard of six feet, which is justly observed by Bradley, to make fruit-branches in such plenty, that hardly any barren shoots are to be found upon them.' It also is conformable to the idea of Hales, that < light, by freely entering the extended surfaces of leaves and flowers, -contributes much to the ennobling the principles of vegetables.' By avoiding the precise horizontal position in which Hitt 4H SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. directs the branches to be fixed, the sap is more regularly and uniformly disposed of, and there will be no necessity for cutting branches short to form studs for producing bearers, nor to adopt the method recommended by Forsyth for furnishing bearers, that of repeatedly pinching off the tops, and shortening the leading shoots. The whole of the sap will, by this mode, be expended in profitable and increasing production, and all the desirable effects which these authors describe to be attainable, will be produced in less time and with less difficulty. By this mode, also, it is possible to train a tree to its ut- most extent without ever using the knife for any other purpose than for removing worn- out branches, or old bearers, nor need a branch ever be shortened. It will be found like- wise to support Knight's ideas, ' and expose a greater surface of leaf to the light,' in the shortest possible time. It will also ' promote an equal distribution of the circulating fluids ;' and without cutting off the strongest and weakest branches, ' each annual shoot, as produced, will possess nearly an equal degree of vigor.' And, as the horizontals will be formed of the most luxuriant shoots, they will find sufficient space to be trained in, and thus by * proper treatment,' will, in due season, be found to * have uniformly produced the finest possible bearing wood for the succeeding year,' and this without pinching off shoots. Thus, also, the same square of walling will be furnished with more bearing wood, in the third and fourth years, than can possibly be done by any other mode, and than can be effected by the common mode of practice, in less than eight or ten years." 2152. Preparatory training. Nearly the same routine is gone through when the trees are young, for all the different modes of training. The shoots of grafted trees newly received from the nursery (Jig' 392. a) are not shortened by the best modern practi- tioners : at the end of the first season the side branches are left at an elevated angle (6), to encourage them to throw out laterals ; afterwards they are brought down (c, rf) to an oblique or nearly horizontal position, and each shoot, placed in its final position, as it increases in size. 392 2153. Materials used in training. The operation of training on walls is performed chiefly by means of nails and shreds, on trellises by bass ties, and on espalier rails osier-twigs are most commonly used. The bass, after being applied, is gently twisted round with the finger and thumb, in order that it may run into a firm knot without tearing and weaken- ing the ligament. The osier tie is made fast by twisting the two ends, somewhat in the manner done by reapers in tying up sheaves of corn, and well known in the nurseries. But the nicety of the operation of training consists in the proper use of nails and shreds on a wall ; in which business, as Marshall has observed, " ingenuity will evidence itself in neatness and symmetry." When a shoot requires some constraint to retain it in its position, the pressure must always be against the shred and never against the nail. Of both nails and shreds there should be two sizes used, the larger for strong, and the smaller for weak shoots. Trees trained to boards can hardly have nails too small ; and those trained to stone or old brick walls generally require a larger size. 2154. Shreds should be adapted to the strength of the branches, and the distance of the buds from each other ; so that with strong shoots, having their buds wide, such broad shreds may be used as would make weak shoots unsightly, and spoil them by covering the buds ; many a well cut tree has been made disgusting, merely by irregular and dang- ling shreds. A uniformity of color can hardly be accomplished, but a regularity of size may ; scarlet, if all alike, looks best, and white the worst. The general width of shreds should be from half an inch to three quarters, and the length two inches to three, having some wider, longer, and stronger, for large branches. In the disposition of shreds, some must have their ends turned downwards, and some upwards, as best suits, for bringing the shoots to their proper place, and straight direction. Though some pruners observe a sort of alternate order, yet the ends hanging chiefly down will look best. Use no more shreds and nails than necessary to make good work, as the effect is rude and injurious. As nails are apt to break out pieces of the wall in drawing, it is a good way to give the nail a BOOK IV. INDUCING FRUITFULNESS. 415 tap to drive it a little, which loosening it from its rust, makes it come out easier, and so saves a wall from large holes, which is a material thing. (Introd. to Card. ) 2155. Herbaceous training is performed by means of poles, rods, branches, and pegs. Plants that twine and grow high are furnished with high poles, on which to twine them- selves, as the tamis, convolvulus, &c. Plants with tendrils, as the pea, the bryonia, &c. are furnished with branches or spray, through which the plant springing up attaches itself by its tendrils, and is thus better exposed to the sun and air, and not so liable to rot as when it lies on the ground. Props or poles are used for supporting and leading upright, tall, slender, growing plants, as the dahlia, tree-lupin, and the like. Creeping and trail- ing plants, as the melon, gourd, &c. are generally trained in the stellate manner on the ground by means of pegs ; sometimes also on walls and trellises. SUBSECT. 5. Blanching. 2156. Blanching is an operation of culture performed by earthing the stems of plants, by tying up their leaves, or by covering them with utensils from the light. 2157. Blanching by earthing is performed on the celery, chardoon, asparagus, &c. In the case of annuals the earth is generally drawn up so as to press on the leaves of the plant as it advances in growth ; in the case of perennials a covering of loose earth is generally placed over them before the growing season, through which the stalks shoot up, and are blanched. 2158. Blanching by tying together the leaves is sometimes performed on lettuce, cabbage, endive, &c. The plant being nearly in its most leafy state, the head or fasciculus of leaves are gathered together, and tied up with bass ribands. By this operation two effects are produced : the inner leaves as they grow, being excluded from the light, are blanched ; and being compressed in proportion to the growth, which takes place after tying up the head, the fasciculus becomes both tender and solid. 2159. Blanching by overlaying is merely the laying down of tiles, slates, pieces of boards, &c. on endive and other salading, when nearly full grown, and of which, being thus ex- cluded from the sun, the future growth is colorless. Covering by the following mode is preferable. 2160. Blanching by covering with utensils is a recent invention applied to sea-kale, rhubarb, asparagus, &c. and consists in placing over them the utensils already described as appropriated to this purpose. (1427.) SECT. IV. Operations for inducing a State of Fruitfulness in barren and unblossoming Trees and Plants. 2161. Various means have been tried to induce fruitfulness with different degrees of success. Almost every description of fruit-tree, if planted in a thin stratum of rich loam on a dry and impervious sub-soil, will come into bearing in regular course, according to its nature ; but it too frequently happens that the stratum of soil is too deep, or the roots penetrate into the sub-soil, or by some means, not always obvious, acquire the power of throwing much superfluous sap into the tree, which spends itself in leaves and branches, instead of blossoms. Similar circumstances produce similar effects in ornamental trees and shrubs, whether in the open air or in artificial climates. Attempts are known to have been made for upwards of a century and a half, to cause such trees to produce blossoms, attended with different degrees of success ; but the practice was carried on empirically, without any knowledge of the reason or principle which operated in producing the desired end, till its true rationale was given by Du Hamel, in his Physique des Arbres, 1 758. 2162. Laying bare the roots of trees is mentioned by Evelyn as conducive to fertility. Transplanting the tree frequently", by Van Osten. Boring a hole, and driving in an oaken plug is mentioned by the same author as the "old way." Every one must have observed that trees partially blown out of the ground, or with the earth washed or otherwise removed from their roots in banks or river-sides, or with their trunks or roots broken, bent, or mutilated in any way, are always more fruitful than others ; and this, we conceive, has suggested the various modes of artificial mutilation. Mutilation, both in plants and animals, is attended by a sort of maturity ; and maturity in all living things is the period of reproduction. 2163. Cutting the roots of trees is an old practice, generally performed in winter or spring, but recently by Beattie, gardener at Scone, in midsummer. " In the begin- ning of July 1811, I had a border on the south wall, of 400 feet long, trenched to the depth of from two and a half to three feet; in doing this, I had the opportunity of cutting the roots of all the trees, as the work went on, which I did so completely, that they in a manner hung by the nails and shreds, with a ball of earth of about two feet from the stem of the tree. As cutting the roots of fruit-trees has a tendency to make them fruitful, that may possibly proceed from the small quantity of fibrous roots produced by the operation." Beattie says, he acted on the principle of depriving the tree of the means of containing such a great quantity of sap, thereby preventing it from 4HJ SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. growing so much to wood, and of course inclining it to become fruitful. (Caled. Mem. vol. i. 272.) Nicol suggests the same expedient in his Forcing and Fruit Gardener, 4th edit. p. 240. 21 Q4. Cutting notches in the stem or branches has been tried on many occasions on the same principle as cutting the roots. 2165. Partial decortication is the removal of the bark already scaling off, covered with mosses and lichens, or carbonised by the action of the atmosphere. It is only applicable to old trees, or trees of a certain age, and the effect is to increase the vigor of the tree, and thus promote the production of young wood and blossom-buds. It was recommended by Arnaud d'Andilly, in 1650, and has been practised for several years, by Forsyth, Lyon, and various others, on standard-trees, and by King, a com- mercial gardener, at Teddington, on the vine. 2166. Stripping off pieces of the bark from the stem and branches is said by Marshall to check the luxuriance, and promote the fruitfulness of pear-trees. (Introd. to Gard. &c. 4th edit. p. 156.) 2167. Ringing the stem and branches, circumcision, or excision, &c. was known to the Romans, and is mentioned by Virgil, Columella, &c. Among the moderns, it seems to have been revived by Du Hamel in the beginning of the 18th century, more especially in 1 733, when he perfectly succeeded in rendering trees fruitful, and has given an account of his experiments in the Memoires de V Academic des Sciences, A. D. 1788. The subject has since been taken up by Suriray Delarue, and by Lancry ; the former of whom has given an excellent history and rationale of the practice in the Journal Physico-CEconomique for 1803. It is also ably treated in the Cours Complet d' Agri- culture, &c. art. Bourrelet. The effect of ringing has been perfectly well known and acted on in Holland and Germany since Uu Hamel's time, as any one may be assured of by the perusal of the works of Christ, Diederich, and Diel ; and it is remarkable, that so late as 1815, A. Hempel, a clergyman of Saxony, should have published an account of his practice in ringing, as new. The use of ringing would be, in all probability, introduced into England soon after Du Hamel's experiments were published ; but though it has been known and occasionally practised by some gardeners for upwards of half a century, it seems not to have been generally known, either in 1817, when, judging from a paper of Dr. Nbhden, the subject was considered new in the Horticultural Society ; or, in the end of last century, when Dr. Darwin, in his Notes to Phytologia, vol. i. p. 393, describes the practice, and accounts for its effects. It is now frequently practised, both for the purpose of inducing blossoms on trees, or rendering them pro- ductive; and for accelerating the maturity and increasing the size of fruits. The fonner has been termed production-ringing, and the latter maturation-ringing. (Hort. Trans, iv. 557.) Production-ringing should be performed in the spring, and will pro- duce its effects in the following year : maturation-ringing when the plants are in blossom, and it will show its effects the same season. 2168. Maturation-ringing. Ringing has been found not only to induce blossom- buds, but where these prove fertile, to increase the size and accelerate the ripening of fruits. In a paper read before the Horticultural Society in 1808, Williams, of Pitmaston, describes a mode of making annular excisions in the bark of vines. These were made rather less than a quarter of an inch in width, that the exposed wood might be covered again with bark by the end of autumn. " Two vines of the white Frontiniac, in similar states of growth, being trained near to each other on a south wall, were selected for trial ; one of these was experimented on (if I may use the term), the other was left in its natural state, to form a standard of comparison. When the circle of bark had been removed about a fortnight, the berries on the experimented tree began evidently to swell faster than those on the other, and by the beginning of Sep- tember showed indications of approaching ripeness, while the fruit of the unexperimented tree continued green and small. In the beginning of October, the fruit on the tree that had the bark removed from it was quite ripe, the other only just began to show a dis- position to ripen, for the bunches were shortly afterwards destroyed by the autumnal frosts. In every case in which circles of bark were removed, I invariably found that the fruit not only ripened earlier, but the berries were considerably larger than usual, and more highly flavored. The effects thus produced, I can account for only by adopting Knight's theory of the downward circulation of the sap through the bark. It is not of much consequence in what part of the tree the incision is made ; but in case the trunk is very large, I should then recommend, that the circles be made in the smaller branches." 2169. The operation of maturation-ringing should be deferred till the flowers are fully expanded, or rather till they are passing into fruit, or even till the fruit is set. The sap, being interrupted in its descent by the annular incision, is held in the bough, and thus the fruit gains a more ready and uninterrupted supply of nourishment, the consequence of which is not only an increase of size, but earlier maturity. This operation, besides, may be serviceable in ripening the seeds of plants, which otherwise would not be per- Boos IV. INDUCING FRUITFULNESS. 417 fected; for as the fruit is sooner ripened, so the seeds will likewise be sooner matured. When the influence of ringing is limited to three or four months, as in the case of maturation-ringing, it is obvious that the ring need not be so broad as when it is to be extended to a longer period ; from which it follows that maturation-ringing, as it keeps the bark separated for a shorter period, will do less injury to the health of the branch than the other mode. (Hort. Trans, iv. 557.) 2170. Ringing is said to force young trees to show blossoms. Hempel states as a consequence resulting from ringing, that you may force young trees to show fruit, before they otherwise would do. That ringing may have some effect in this way, we think highly probable ; but by no means so much as is ascribed to it by Hempel. Trees must arrive at their age of puberty, like animals, ^before they can propagate their species. Abundance of food and heat will, no doubt, induce a degree of precocity in the subjects of both kingdoms ; and as ringing gives in effect abundance of food to the particular part above the excision, it must have some effect, but it has not been proved to have much. Ringing will produce blossoms in all plants, herbaceous or shrubby, propagated by ex- tension, that is, originated otherwise than from seed, at any age; but its effects on young trees raised from seed, or in causing blossoms on any description of tree to set, are much less certain ; though in all pases where they do set, the size of the fruit will be greatly enlarged for the first year or two. 2171. In performing the operation of ringing, a ring of outer and inner bark, not larger than the tree can fill up in stone-fruit in one, and in kernel-fruit in two, or at most three years, is cut clean out with a knife, or the ringing shears. (Jig. 123.) If larger, the tree becomes too much excited to fruitfulness, and the part of it , separated from the root by the ring dies, while the stem and parts adjoining the root become too luxuriant. When the rings are made so wide as that the barks cannot unite for two or three years, the result, says the author of the article, Rourrelet, in JV. C. d' Agriculture, &e. will be to "accelerate the production of blossoms, and the setting of fruit, and to augment their size during the first year ; and then, during the following years, to make them languish, and at last die." "There is a pear-tree," Sabine observes, "against one of the walls in the kitchen-garden, belonging to his Majesty, at Kew, which underwent the operation of ringing about fifteen years ago. The part operated on was near the root; and, as it was a principal arm, about one half of the whole tree became influenced by the operation. This half has uniformly borne fruit, the other half has been nearly barren. The portion of stem which was laid bare is about six inches wide, and it has not been again covered by bark. That part just above the ring is considerably larger than the part below it. The ends of the branches appear in much decay, and there are but very few young shoots thrown out from the sides ; whilst, on the other part of the tree, the shoots, as usual, proceed from the extremities, as well as from the sides of the main branches. I appre- hend, from the present appearance of the whole, that the portion of the tree which, by the separation of the bark, has been deprived in a great measure of supply from the root, cannot survive many years." 2172. Renewal of the soil about fruit-trees has been found by Hay, of Newliston, near Edinburgh, in the case of peaches ; and Maher, of Arundel, in the case of figs, and by various others, to renew the fruitfulness of trees. There may be two reasons given for this, both of which may be concerned in the effect : the first is the exhaustion of the soil generally ; and the second is its exhaustion of the particular sort of food pre- ferred by the kind of tree. Though we are not so certain that every species of tree requires, to a certain extent, a particular sort of food, as we are that herbaceous vegetables, as wheat, oats, &c. do ; yet analogy renders the fact highly probable. At any rate, it is clear that a renewal of soil must always be conducted with reference to the state of the plants ; a poor, limy, sandy soil may be substituted for one where the luxuriancy of the plants shows that it is too rich ; and a rich loamy one for one of an opposite description, where the plants are unthriving, &c. 2173. Rending down the branches has been found conducive to fruitfulness; and is accounted for on the same principle as ringing. It has been well exemplified by Mayer (Hort. Trans, i.), in fixing clay balls to the extremities of the shoots of young apple-trees after midsummer, which, depressing them, stagnated the sap, and induced the production of abundance of flower-buds. 2174. To induce the production of blossoms in herbaceous plants, any or all of the above modes may be adopted with most species, but on a large scale the first object is to place the plants in a soil neither too poor nor too rich. A dry soil, not deep, and resting on a dry firm bottom, is most favorable to fruitfulness, especially when joined to abundance of air and light. In perennials, the effect can only be produced the second year, as in trees ; but in annuals it will be immediate : in the former class, however, where the de- fect is want of nourishment, the effect may take place even the first year. Knight in- duced the production of blossoms on an early variety of potatoe, by depriving the plant of its tubers, as soon as they made their appearance ; by which means, the nourishment Ee 418 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. which would have been devoted to their enlargement, was employed by the plant in the production of blossoms, as the remaining mode which it had of propagating its species. The reverse of the practice is found proportionally to increase the bulk of the tubers, and has become an important point of practice in potatoe culture. The Dutch, as Darwin informs us, were the first to adopt this mode in the culture of bulbous-rooted flowers. In general, it may be stated, that the art of producing blossoms in perennial herbaceous plants consists in permitting them to have abundance of leaves, fully exposed to the light and air the preceding year, and in not cutting them over when in a state of growth, as is too frequently done, but in letting them first begin to decay. By this means, healthy vigorous buds and roots are prepared for exertion the following year. 2175. General estimate of these practices. All these operations may be resorted to oc- casionally as expedients, but the only permanent and general mode of inducing fruitful- ness is by supplying judicious soil, exposure, and pruning. SECT. V. Operations for retarding or accelerating Vegetation. 2176. To overcome difficulties is the last stage in the progress of art. After civilised man has had every thing which he can desire in season, his next wish is to heighten the enjoyment by consummation at extraordinary seasons. The merit here consists in con- quering nature ; and in gardening this is done by cold-houses and hot-houses ; and by ex- cluding or increasing the effects of the sun in the open air. The origin of these practices is obviously derived from the fact, that heat is the grand stimulus to vegetation, and its comparative absence, the occasion of torpor and inactivity. SUBSECT. 1. Operations for retarding Vegetation. 2177. Retarding by the form of surface, is effected by forming beds of earth in an east and west direction, sloping to the north at any angle at which the earth will stand ; here salading may be sown in summer, and spinage, turnips, and such crops as shoot rapidly into flower-stems during hot weather. 2178. Retarding by shade. The simplest mode of retarding vegetation is, by keeping plants constantly in comparative shade in the spring season. This is either to be done by having them planted in the north side of a wall or house, or sloping bank, hill or other elevation ; or by moving them there in pots ; or by placing a shade or shed over, or 011 the south side of the vegetables to be retarded. Where the object of retarding vegetation is to have the productions in perfection later in the season, the first method is generally resorted to ; but where vegetation is only retarded in order that it may burst forth with greater vigor when the shades are removed, then either of the others is preferable. Trees on an east and west espalier-rail, shaded from the sun from February to the middle of May, will be later of coming into blossom, and therefore less likely to have their blos- soms injured by frost. 2179. Retarding by the cold-house) or ice-cold chamber, (Jigs. 169. 173.) is more particu- larly applicable to plants in pots ? especially fruit-trees, and might be made a practice of importance. Vegetation may in this way be retarded from March to September, and the plant removed at that season, by proper gradations, to a hot-house, will ripen its fruit at mid-winter. It is even alleged by some gardeners, who have had experience in Russia, that the vegetation of peach-trees may be so retarded an entire year ; and that afterwards, when the plant is removed into spring or summer heat, in the January of the second year, its vegetation is most rapid, and a crop of fruit may be ripened in March or April, with very little exertion on the part of the gardener. The earliest potatoes are obtained from tubers which have been kept two seasons ; that is, those are to be planted which have been produced the season before the last ; or, the produce of summer 1821, in December 1822. 2180. Retarding the ripening of fruits by excluding oxygen. M. Berard, of Montpelier, in an essay on the ripening of fruits, which gained the prize of the French Academy of Sciences in 1821, found that the loss of carbon is essential to the ripening of fruits ; that this carbon combines with the oxygen of the air, and forms carbonic acid ; and that when the fruit is placed in an atmosphere deprived of oxygen, this function becomes suspended, and the ripening is stopped. Hence it results, that most fruits may be preserved during a certain period, by gathering them a few days before they are ripe, and placing them in an atmosphere free from oxygen. The most simple process for effecting this consists in placing at the bottom of a bottle, a paste formed of lime, sulphate of iron, and water ; then introduce the fruit so as they may rest detached from the bottom of the bottle, and from each other, and cork the bottle and cover it with cement. Peaches, plums, and apricots have been kept in this way for a month ; pears and apples for three months. Afterwards they will ripen perfectly by exposure to the air. (Journal R. Inst. vol. xi. 396.) BOOK IV. ACCELERATING VEGETATION. 419 SUBSECT. 3. Operations fir accelerating Vegetation. 2181. Accelerating by the form of surface consists in forming beds or banks in an east and west direction, and sloping to the south, forming an angle with the horizon, the maximum of which, in garden-soils, cannot exceed 45 degrees. On such beds early sown crops, as radishes, peas, turnips, &c. will come much earlier, and winter standing crops, as lettuce, broccoli, &c. suffer less from severe weather than those on a level sur- face. The north side of such beds or ridges may be used for retarding vegetation, as leeks, borecoles, &c. (2177.) 2182. Acceleration by shelter, and exposure to the sun, is the simplest, and probably only primitive mode of accelerating the vegetation of plants ; and hence one of the objects for which walls and hedges are introduced in gardens. A May-duke cherry, trained against a south wall, and another tree, of the same species, in the open compartment of a sheltered garden, were found, by the late J. Kyle, of Moredun, near Edinburgh, on an average of years, to differ a fortnight in the ripening of their fruit. In cold, damp, cloudy seasons, they were nearly on a par ; but in dry, warm seasons, those on the wall were sometimes fit to be gathered three weeks before the others. It may be here remarked, that though, in cloudy seasons, those on the wall did not ripen before the others ; yet their flavor was, in such seasons, better than that of the others, probably from the comparative dryness of their situation. Corn and potatoes on the south and north sides of a hill, all other circum- stances being equal, ripen at about the same relative distances of time. 2183. Accelerating by soils is effected by manures of all sorts, but especially by what are called hot and stimulating manures and composts, as pigeons' dung for cucumbers, blood for vines ; and, in general, as to soils, lime-rubbish, sand, and gravel, seem to have the power of accelerating vegetation to a much greater degree than rich clayey or loamy soils, or bog or peat earth. 2184. Accelerating by previous preparation of the plant is a method of considerable im- portance, whether taken alone, or in connection with other modes of acceleration. It has long been observed by cultivators, that early ripened crops of onions and potatoes sprout, or give signs of vegetation, more early next season than late-ripened crops. The same of bulbs of flowers which have been forced, which re-grow much earlier next season, than those which have been grown in the open air. It was reserved to Knight, however, to turn this to account in the forcing of fruit-trees, as related in a paper, ac- companied as usual by what renders all the papers of that eminent horticulturist so truly valuable, a rationale of the practice. 2185. The period which any species or variety*of fruit will require to attain maturity, under any given de- grees of temperature, and exposure to the influence of light in the forcing-house, will be regulated to a much greater extent than is generally imagined, by the previous management and consequent state of the tree, when that is first subjected to the operation of artificial heat. Every gardener knows, that when the pre- vious season has been cold, and cloudy, and wet, the wood of his fruit-trees remains immature, and weak abortive blossoms only are produced. The advantages of having the wood well ripened are perfectly well understood ; but those which may be obtained, whenever a very early crop of fruit is required, by ripening the wood very early in the preceding summer, and putting the tree into a state of repose, as soon as pos- sible after its wood has become perfectly mature, do not, as far as my observation has extended, appear to be at all known to gardeners ; though every one who has had in any degree the management of vines in a hot-house, must have observed the different effects of the same degrees of temperature upon the same plant, in October and February. In the autumn, the plants have just sunk into their winter sleep : in February they are refreshed, and ready to awake again ; and whenever it is intended prematurely to ex- cite their powers of life into action, the expediency of putting those powers into a state of rest, early in the preceding autumn, appears obvious. (Hort. Trans, vol. ii. 368.) Knight placed some vines in pots, in a forcing-house, in the end of January, which ripened their fruit in the middle of July ; soon after which the pots were put under the shade of a north wall in the open air. Being pruned and removed in September to a south wall, they soon vegetated with much vigor, till the frost destroyed their shoots. Others, which were not removed from the north wall till the following spring, when they were pruned and placed against a south wall, " ripened their fruit well in the following season in a climate not nearly warm enough to have ripened it at all, if the plants had previously grown in the open air." Peach-trees, some- what similarly treated, unfolded their blossoms nine days earlier, " and their fruit ripened three weeks earlier" than in other trees of the same varieties. (Hort. Trans, vol. ii. 372.) Pots of grapes which had produced a crop previously to midsummer, were placed under a north wall till autumn : on the 12th of January, they were put into a stove, and ripened their fruit by the middle of April. (Hort. Trans. iv. 440.) 2186. By thus inducing a state of rest in plants in pots, say vines or peaches, in August, and placing them immediately in the ice-cold room till the beginning of January, which is allowing four months of a winter to them, they would, in all probability, produce very early crops of grapes with less forcing than would be required for such as ripen their wood in October. Such pots might be placed in pine and other stoves, where a certain degree of heat is kept up at any rate, and might be contrived to produce a succession of fruit, in the manner practised by W. Masland, of Stockport, by a vineyard in pots, which pass in regular succession through his pine-stoves, and furnish ripe grapes the whole year. A state of rest is readily induced by withholding water from plants under cover ; and in the open air by covering trees, and a portion of the surface or border around or before them, with canvass or oil-cloth, to throw off the autumnal and part of the winter rains. EC 2 420 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 2187. decelerating by housing, such as removing plants in pots and boxes, to sheds or rooms in the night, and exposing them in fine weather to the sun, was practised by the gardener of Tiberius, to procure early cucumbers ; and by those of Louis XIV. to force peas. (Benard.) Parkinson and Gerarde describe the practice as applied to raising cu- cumbers and melons in this country. 2188. Accelerating by artificial heat in walls is a very frequent and useful practice. In general it is accompanied by protecting-covers of canvass or netting (1495.): but some gardeners, as Trotter of Alva, a very high and exposed situation on the Ochill hills, never cover their hot-walls ; but in ripening the wood in autumn, and in saving the blossom and setting the fruit in spring, keep up such fires as will repel the frost, and evaporate the wet that might fall on the wall. " No danger," Trotter observes, " is to be apprehended from the severity of the spring months, even when exposed to all sorts of weather ; every kind of covering being superseded by the genial heat of the wall." This he has long experienced, even in England, but especially in Scotland, to be " the best preservative of the blossom of young fruits." (Caled. Mem. vol. ii. 113.) 2189. Accelerating by fined borders has been occasionally attempted, but can never succeed by fire heat ; by tubes of steam, perhaps, something might be done, but the heat can always be more economically applied by means of pits or frames, placed on raised beds of mould, with arches, or some similar contrivance underneath. (See a description of a flued border in Keil's Treatise on the Peach Tree, 8vo. 1780.) 2190. Accelerating by covering with glass cases, of different sizes and descriptions, pro- bably succeeded to housing. The Romans are supposed to have hastened the ripening of grapes and peaches, by placing them under talc cases (55. ) j and a French author, B&- nard, informs us, that the origin of forcing the vine arose from one Gordon observing that a shoot which had entered his room-window through a crevice, ripened its fruit some time before those branches of the same tree which remained in the open air. The practice of forcing peaches in Holland, is said to have originated from a gardener near Haarlem putting hot-bed lights against his walls to ripen peaches in a bad season. By a mere covering of glass, without any description of bottom heat, or any auxiliary mode of ac- celeration, almost all fruits and flowers which grow, in the open air in this country, may be forwarded from one fortnight to one month, according to the season. Fruits may by the facile means thus afforded of covering and protection, be retained in a ripe and plump state from one to three months ; so that in general it may be observed, that cold frames, as they are called, and mere glass cases, will double the ordinary time of enjoying hardy fruits, and certainly they greatly increase the flavor of such as ripen late, and especially of the vine and peach. 2191. Accelerating by glass cases and artificial heat combined is effected by hot-beds, pits, and hot-houses. 2192. Accelerating by the common hot-bed is an ancient, general, but still somewhat pre- carious and unmanageable mode. The heat being produced by a fermenting mass of ve- getable matter, over which is placed the earth containing the plants, it becomes difficult to regulate any excess of heat, and the plants are sometimes, in the empirical phrase, burnt. When, however, the heat declines, it is readily renewed by linings or a sur- rounding layer of dung. To remedy the defects of the common hot-bed, and prevent the possibility of burning the plants, by interposing a stratum of air between the dung and the mass of earth which contains them, is the object of the vaulted pit and M'PhaiPs frame (Jigs. 230. 233.) ; to which there is no objection, but the greater original cost. These structures actually save dung, and are more agreeable to the eye of those who value order and neatness than dung-beds, 2193. Accelerating by means of walled pits is very similar to that of forcing by hot-beds ; with the advantages of having more room between the surface of the beds and the glass for the tops of shrubs, and of the glass having a better slope ; but with the disadvantages of a chance of burning in the first instance, and no power of increasing the bottom heat when it once declines. Bark is generally used to lessen the first evil, as it does not ferment so powerfully as dung, and the second is remedied by a surrounding flue. Such pits are much used in all the branches of garden-culture. Henderson, of Brechin, proposes to lay on the surface of beds of tan, or on hot-beds, pits, pineries, &c. fine drifted river or sea sand, three inches deep. " This covering," he says, " possesses many advantages. It will extirpate the slater or wood-louse (oniscus asettus}, as the nature of the sand pre- vents the insect from concealing itself from the rays of the sun. In dung hot-beds, it keeps down the steam. To fruit, it affords a bed as warm and as dry as tiles or slates. This covering also retains the moisture in the earth longer than any other, and is itself sooner dry. It gives the houses a clean, neat appearance, and though it cannot be ex- pected to remove the infection, where already introduced, will be found a powerful pre- ventive of that great evil, mildew." 2194. Accelerating by means of hot-houses is the master-piece of this branch of culture, and is but of modern invention, being unknown till the end of the 17th century. Im- BOOK IV. ACCELERATING VEGETATION. 421 provement in the form as well as management of these buildings has, as in every other case, been progressive; and there are now a great choice both of the forms adopted, the materials used in the construction of these forms, and the mode of producing artificial heat. 2195. There are two leading modes of accelerating plants in hot-houses; the first is by placing them there permanently, as in the case of the peach, vine, &c. planted in the ground ; and the second is by having the plants in pots, and introducing or withdrawing them at pleasure. As far as respects trees, the largest crops, and with far less care, are produced by the first method ; but in respect to herbaceous plants and shrubs, whether culinary, as the strawberry and kidneybean, or ornamental, as the rose and the pink, the latter is by far the most convenient method, and it is also the best adapted for afford- ing very early crops. (2185.) Where large pots are used, the peach, cherry, fig, &c. will produce tolerable crops. Knight has observed, that " vines and other fruit-trees, being pruned in autumn, occupies twenty square feet of the roof of a hot-house ; and I have constantly found that vines in such pots, being abundantly supplied with food and water, have produced more vigorous wood, when forced very early, than others of the same varieties, whose roots were permitted to extend beyond the limits of the house." (Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 373.) 2196. When trees are planted for a permanency within, or close to the outside of a hot- house, the soil requires to be prepared of depth and quality according to the nature of the tree ; and a principal consideration is to form, if such does not naturally exist, a sub- soil, which shall be impenetrable to the roots. The depth of soil on such a substratum need not in general be great, provided it be rich. Formerly a depth of three or four feet was recommended ; but Hayward proposes to have his fruit-tree borders only fifteen or eighteen inches deep ; which is conformable to an observation of Hitt, that the finest crop of peaches he had ever seen, grew on trees which were nourished from a border not more than one foot deep, with a compact rock below. Nicol allows from twenty-four to thirty inches of soil. Knight is of opinion, that " a large extent and depth of soil seem to be no farther requisite to trees than to afford them a regular supply of water, and a sufficient quantity of organisable matter ;" and, he thinks, " the rapid growth of plants of every kind, when their roots are confined in a pot to a small quantity of mould, till that becomes exhausted, proves sufficiently the truth of this position." (Hort. Trans. vol. ii. p. 127.) 2197. The operations of forcing chiefly respect the admission of air, the supply of heat, of light, and of water. The grand effect is produced by heat, and the great art is just to supply as much as will harmonise with the light afforded by the sun and the nature of the species of plant to be forced. All the operations of nature are gradual ; and a good gardener will always follow these as the safest examples. He will never be anxious to apply artificial heat before buds have naturally swoln ; he will then increase the temperature gradually for some weeks ; he will in particular guard against any sudden decrease of warmth, it being most necessary towards success, to con- tinue the course of vegetation uninterruptedly, through foliation, inflorescence, and fructification. 2198. Heat and light. An error in hot-house culture in general, of very considerable importance, and which has prevailed till lately, consists in not adjusting the heat of art to the light of the sun. In cloudy weather, and during night, the artificial atmosphere is kept hot by fires and exclusion of the external air, while in clear days and during sunshine, fires are left off or allowed to decline, the external air is admitted, and the at- mosphere within is reduced to the temperature of that without. As heat in nature is the result of the shining of the sun, it follows that when there is most light there is most heat ; but the practice in forcing is very generally the reverse. " A gardener, in forcing," Knight observes, " generally treats his plants as he would wish to be treated himself; and consequently, though the aggregate temperature of his house be nearly what it ought to be, its temperature, during the night, relatively to that of the day, is almost always too high." In one of Knight's forcing-houses, in which grapes are grown, he always wishes to see its temperature, in the middle of every bright day in summer, as high as 90 ; " and after the leaves of the plants have become dry, I do not object to ten or fifteen degrees higher. In the following night, the temperature sometimes falls as low as 50 ; and so far am I from thinking such change of temperature injurious, I am well satisfied that it is generally beneficial. Plants, it is true, thrive well, and many species of fruit acquire their greatest state of perfection in some situations within the tropics, where the tempera- ture in the shade does not vary in the day and night more than seven or eight degrees ; but in these climates, the plant is exposed during the day to the full blaze of a tropical sun, and early in the night it is regularly drenched with heavy wetting dews ; and con- Ee 3 422 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. sequently it is very differently circumstanced in the day and in the night, though the tem- perature of the air in the shade at .both periods may be very nearly the same. I suspect," he continues, " that a large portion of the blossoms of the cherry and other fruit-trees in the forcing-house often proves abortive, because they are forced by too high and uniform a temperature, to expand before the sap of the tree is properly prepared to nourish them. I have, therefore, been led, during the last three years, to try the effects of keeping up a much higher temperature in the day than in the night. As early in the spring as I wished the blossoms of my peach-trees to unfold, my house was made warm during the middle of the day ; but towards night it was suffered to cool, and the trees were then sprinkled, by means of a large syringe, with clear water, as nearly at the temperature at which that usually rises from the ground, as I could obtain it ; and little or no artificial heat was given during the night, unless there appeared a prospect of frost. Under tins mode of treatment, the blossoms advanced with very great vigor, and as rapidly as I wished them, and presented, when expanded, a larger size than I had ever before seen of the same varieties. Another ill effect of "high temperature during the night is, that it exhausts the excitability of the tree much more rapidly than it promotes the growth, or ac- celerates the maturity of the fruit ; which is in consequence ill supplied with nutriment, at the period of its ripening, when most nutriment is probably wanted. The muscat of Alexandria and other late grapes are, owing to this cause, often seen to wither upon the branch in a very imperfect state of maturity ; and the want of richness and flavor in other forced fruit is, I am very confident, often attributable to the same cause. There are few peach-houses, or indeed forcing-houses of any kind in this country, in which the temperature does not exceed, during the night, in the months of April and May, very greatly that of the wannest valley in Jamaica in the hottest period of the year : and there are probably as few forcing-houses in which the trees are not more strongly stimulated by the close and damp air of the night, than by the temperature of the dry air of the noon of the following day. The practice which occasions this cannot be right ; it is in direct opposition to nature." (Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 130.) 2199. Air. Knight considers that gardeners often arid widely err, " by too freely admitting the external air during the day, particularly in bright weather. Plants gene- rally grow best, and fruits swell most rapidly, in a warm and moist atmosphere ; and change of air is, to a very limited extent, necessary or beneficial. The mature leaves of plants, and according to Saussure, the green fruits (grapes at least), when exposed to the influence of light, take up carbon from the surrounding air, whilst the same substance is given out by every other part of the plant ; so that the purity of air, when confined in close vessels, has often been found little changed at the end of two or three days by the growth of plants in it. But even if plants required as pure air, as hot-blooded animals, the buoyancy of the heated air, in every forcing-house, would occasion it to escape and change as rapidly, and indeed much more rapidly, than would be necessary. It may be objected, that plants do not thrive, and that the skins of grapes are thick, and other fruits without flavor in crowded forcing-houses ; but in these it is probably light, rather than a more rapid change of air^hat is wanting. When fruits approach to maturity such an in- crease of ventilation, as will give the requisite degree of dryness to air within the house, is highly beneficial ; provided it be not increased to such an extent as to reduce the tem- perature of the house much below the degree in which the fruit has previously grown, and thus retard its progress to maturity. The good effect of opening a peach-house, by taking off the lights of its roof, during the period of the last swelling of the fruit, appears to have led many gardeners to over-rate greatly the beneficial influence of a free current of air upon ripening fruits ; for I have never found ventilation to give the proper flavor or color to a peach, unless that fruit was at the same time exposed to the sun without the intervention of glass ; and the most excellent peaches 1 have ever been able to raise, were obtained under circumstances where change of air was as much as possible prevented con- sistently with the admission of light (without glass) to a single tree." 2200. Water. The supplies of water given to plants should be regulated by the sup- plies of heat, the nature of the plant, its state in regard to growth, and the object for which it is cultivated. Abundance of heat should generally be succeeded by copious waterings, unless the nature of the plant, as its succulency, or its dormant state in regard to growth, render that improper. Plants cultivated for their fruits should be less watered during the ripening season than such as are grown for their effect ; a dry atmosphere being most conducive to flavor. The succulent shoots of trees, Knight observes, always appear to grow most rapidly, in a damp heat, during the night ; but it is rather elongation than growth, which then takes place. The spaces between the bases of the leaves become longer, but no new organs are added ; and the tree, under such circumstances, may with much more reason be said to be drawn, than to grow ; for the same quantity only of ma- terial is extended to a greater length, as in the elongation of a wire. BOOK IV. OPERATIONS OF EXOTIC CULTURE. 42J SECT. VI. Operations to imitate ivarm Climates. 2201 . The imitation of warm climates by hot-houses must not be confounded with the art of forcing the vegetables of temperate climates into the premature production of their flowers or fruit. The former was the first object for which hot-houses were erected, and conservatories, green-houses, and plant-stoves existed in this country before any descrip- tion of forcing-house ; even pineries are of subsequent introduction to botanic and orna- mental hot-houses. The various climates and constitutions of plants require atmospheres of different degrees of temperature and moisture : but experience has proved, that the plants of every warm country in the world may be grown in one or other of the three following descriptions of hot-houses : 1. The green-house, of which the varieties are the Sinarium, or house for Chinese plants ; the Conservatory, in which the plants are inserted in the soil without pots ; the Cold-frame for bulbs, and Heathery for Cape plants, &c. 2. The dry-stove, for succulent plants, or such as require a dry atmosphere ; and 3. The moist or bark-stove, for pines, palms, and the tropical plants which require the highest degree of heat, and an atmosphere moist in proportion. 2202. Treatment common to the three species of artificial climates, fin general, hot-house exotics are kept in pots ; but in some cases, fruit-bearing plants, as the orange, and plants with large roots, as the Strelitzia, and luxuriant creepers, as the different Passifloras, are planted in the ground. The soils are, of course, very various, and can only be treated of with advantage under each species, tribe, or family. There are none of them, however, that will not thrive either in bog-earth, sand, or loam, or a mixture of these. For pines, oranges, and large-blossomed plants, rotten leaves or old cow-dung are added with advan- tage, and to some of these,. as to the orange and pine-apple, liquid manures are frequently applied. Gardeners in general are averse to the application of any thing rich to the soil of exotic plants which are not cultivated for their fruit, a prejudice evidently contrary to analogy, and originating, in all probability in the circumstance, that it is in general de- sirable to keep exotic plants small, both for want of room in ordinary-sized houses, and by that means to induce a flowering state. Now, however, when the facilities of hot-house building by wrought and cast iron admit of covering several acres of ground with a glass roof at fifty, a hundred feet, or at any distance from the surface ; and when the mode of heating by steam readily admits of keeping such a space at any required temperature, all exotic plants, where expense is not an object, may be planted in the ground duly pre- pared, cultivated and manured like a shrubbery, and allowed to attain their natural size. Such a house or scene may be watered after Loddiges' method already described (1689.), and its temperature regulated, if desired, by the ingenious machine of Kewley. (Jig. 217.) With the exception of temperature, the operations in imitation of artificial climates are the same as those for forcing ; we shall, therefore, confine ourselves to indicating the temperature of its three leading departments. 2203. The green-house is freely exposed to the influence of our atmosphere when the open air is not colder than 48 of Fahrenheit, and when winds and rains do not prevent the opening of the roofs or other means of ventilation. " As long as the weather continues fair without frost," says Abercrombie, " open the green-house windows in the daytime an hour after sunrise, and close at the same time before sunset. Never admit air by the door or sashes in foggy or damp weather, or when bleak cutting winds prevail. The admis- sion of air in the middle of a clear frosty day will not hurt the plants, if counteracted by fire heat. Admit air freely when the external temperature is at 42 by Fahrenheit, or above ; admit it guardedly when between 35 and 42 ; but not at all when under 35 before the furnace is employed." Green-house plants are generally placed in the open air during the five mildest months in the year, either by taking off the roofs of the houses when these are moveable, or by removing the pots, and placing them in the open garden. 2204. Dry-stoves are opened night or day in the summer seasons, but only during sun- shine in winter and spring, beginning as in the forcing-houses, by opening the top sashes or ventilators first, by which the external air descends and cools down the temperature, partly by mixing with the internal air, and partly by forcing it out. Afterwards, when the temperature of the atmosphere is above 50, the lower or front sashes or ventilators may be opened, by which means a regular circulation or breeze is promoted in every part of the house, if a detached house ; and in most parts of it, if forming part of a range of connected houses. 2205. Moist or bark stove. The range of temperature which bark-stove plants can endure, " is from 63 to 81 of Fahrenheit, the instrument being in the middle of the house, at a considerable distance from the furnace, and out of reach of the sun's rays." According to Abercrombie the temperature by artificial heat of the bark-stove " is 58 min. 70 max. When meridian summer is felt, the temperature must keep pace with the increase of heat in the atmosphere ; and therefore will ascend through all the intermediate degrees, to 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, and even 100. The maximum heat in the house, in July and August, may in general be kept down to 90, by free admissions of air, and by evaporation from Ee 4 424 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. the watei given to the plants ; although the force of the season will sometimes prevail to 95 and 100." M'Phail, however, found that pines will bear without injury 130, and he considers that no plant whatever will be injured by 1 20. " It is not uncommon to give air to a hot-house only through the day, and to shut it up close at night, perhaps even increas- ing the temperature in the evening. Judicious horticulturists reverse the practice. Knowing, for example, that, in the West Indies, chilly and cold nights usually succeed to the hottest days, they rather imitate nature, by shutting up the house during the day, and throwing it open at night. This practice, however, can only be followed in our climate in the summer and autumn seasons." (Neill, in Ed. Ency. art Hort.} This opinion is in unison with Knight's, who considers excess of heat during the night, as in all cases highly injurious to the fruit-trees of temperate climates, and not at all beneficial to those of tropical climates ; " for the temperature of these is in many instances low during the night. In Jamaica, and other mountainous islands of the West Indies, the air upon the mountains becomes, soon after sunset, chilled and condensed, and in consequence of its superior gravity descends and displaces the warm air of the valleys ; yet the sugar-canes are so far from being injured by this sudden decrease of temperature, that the sugars of Jamaica take a higher price in the market than those of the less elevated islands, of which the temperature of the day and night is subject to much less variation." (Hort. Trans. vol. ii. p. 131.) SECT. VII. Operations of Protection from Atmospherical Injuries. 2206. The injuries which plants may receive from the atmosphere, are as various as its changes. Many vegetables which flourish in Britain in the open air during the summer season require protection during some or all of the other seasons of the year. Some also, from the state of their health, or other circumstances, require to be protected from the direct rays of the sun, from excessive rains, winds, frosts, and even from heat and evaporation. From these and other evils the gardener protects by opaque coverings or shelters of different kinds, and by transparent covers or glass cases, and by other operations and processes. 2207. Protecting by fronds and frond-like branches is performed by sticking in the foot-stalks of the fronds of any of the ferns, but especially of the pteris aquilina, branches of fir, whin, or broom, or of any other evergreens, between the branches of wall- trees and the wall, so as the frond or leafy branches may project, and either retard the blossom by excluding the sun, as is often done in Denmark and Sweden, or protect it from the frost and winds, as is generally the object in Britain. This is a very simple and economical protection for myrtles, camellias, and other tender botanical plants, trained to walls, or even growing in the open ground as stools, and also for fruit-trees. Archd. Gorrie (Caled. Mem. vol. i. 276.) formed a frame for the more commodiously containing the branches of spruce and silver firs, and other evergreens ; and applied frames so clothed to his fruit-tree walls, on the principle of retarding the blossom. The success was equal, and even beyond his expectations. He covered them on the 20th of February, and removed the frames on the 1st of June. During this period, the frames were opened every fine day, but always shut at night. Adjoining were some trees of the same kinds, which were covered night and day, during the above period, with a woollen net. The shoots of these trees were infected with the curl or wrinkled leaf a disease peculiar to peach-trees in exposed situations ; while those protected by the frames of branches were perfectly healthy ; and what is remarkable, though retarded nearly four weeks in the period of their blossoming, the fruit ripened one week sooner. 2208. The advantage of using frames in covering by fronds and branches is, that the screens or protecting frames can be removed in the daytime ; whereas, attaching the fronds to the trees, they must, in general, remain till they have effected their object. It is easy to conceive that trees so treated must often suffer from want of light, and accordingly Nicol, on the whole, rather disapproves of it. " It is," he says, " a common practice, to screen the blossoms of wall-trees by sticking twigs of larch, or of evergreens, as firs, or laurels, between the branches and the wall, in such a manner as to overhang the blossoms where thickest ; and some, instead of these, use the leaves of strong fern. These last are certainly fitter for the purpose than the former mentioned, as being lighter, and less liable to hurt the blossoms, when dashed by the wind against them. But all these are objectionable, on account of their shading the bloom too much, and too constantly, from the sun and light, by which it is rendered weak, and the fruit produced often drop away, before arriving to any '.considerable size; so that all this trouble taken goes for nothing, as there would probably have been as good a crop, had the trees been left to take their chance." 2209. Protecting by straw ropes is effected by throwing the ropes in different directions over the trees, and sometimes depositing their ends in pails of water. It is a Dutch practice, and appears to have been first made known in this country by Dr. Anderson, in his Recreations, &c. in 1804. James Laird appears to have tried it successfully on wall- trees, and on potatoes and other herbaceous vegetables. His method is as follows : " As soon as the buds of the trees become turgid, I place poles against the wall, in front of the trees, at from four to six feet asunder; thrusting their lower ends into the earth, about a foot from the wall, and fastening them at the top with a strong nail, either to the wall or coping. I then procure a quantity of straw or hay ropes, and begin at the top of one of the outer poles, making fast the end, and pass the rope from pole to pole, taking a round turn upon each, until I reach the end ; when after securing the end well, I begin BOOK IV. OPERATIONS OF PROTECTION 425 about eighteen inches below, and return in the same manner to the other end, and so on, till I have reached to within eighteen inches or two feet of the ground. I have also found straw ropes to be very useful in protecting other early crops from the effects of frost, as peas, potatoes, or kidneybeans, by fixing them along the rows with pins driven into the ground. Old herring nets, and branches of evergreens, are not so efficacious as straw ropes, which, besides being much cheaper, may be obtained in every situation." 2210. Protecting by nets is effected by throwing either straw, hay, bass, hempen, or woollen nets over standard- trees, the extreme shoots of which will support the net ; or by throwing it over hooped beds, or hooped single plants of herbaceous vegetables, or fixing it over the fruit-trees trained against a wall (fig. 218.), or by placing it over tender flowers and botanic plants, as auricula and hydrangea, &c. by means of net frames or portable cases. 2211. The ordinary way of applying nets, Nicol observes, " is to hang them over the trees, close to the branches ; the flower-buds and spurs often sticking out beyond the net. Instead of being hung on in so unmeaning a manner, they should be placed out, at the distance of fifteen or eighteen inches from the tree ; being kept off by hooked sticks, with their buts placed against the wall, and at the distance of about a yard from each other. In order to make these stand firmly, the net should be first stretched tightly on, and be fastened on all sides. By further stretching it, to the extent of fifteen or eighteen inches, over the hooked ends of the sticks, it will be rendered so firm that no wind will displace it and the sticks will also be made quite fast at the same time. If the nets were doubled, or trebled, and put on in this way, they would be the more effectual a screen, as the meshes or openings would, in that case be rendered very small." Woollen nets are deemed the best, and are now in general use in Scotland. Bass nets are used in Sweden, and straw nets at the Duke of Buccleugh's garden at Dalkeith. " In screening with nets of any kind," Nicol observes, "they are always to be let remain on night and day, till all danger of frost be over; the trouble of putting them properly on being considerable, and there being no ne- cessity for repeating such trouble, as they will in nowise injure the health of the trees, being incapable of shading them very much." 2212. Protecting by canvass or bunting screens is effected either by placing moveable canvass cases over or around detached trees ; portable hand-cases over herbaceous plants; tents or open sheds over the florists' productions; or frames or sheets against trees trained on walls. In all cases they should be placed clear of the tree or plant, either by extended, forked, or hooked sticks, or hooping, or any other obvious resource. " For hot-walls," Nicol observes, " they should be placed about the distance of a foot at top, and of eighteen inches at bottom. In using canvass or bunting screens, in either of the above-mentioned forms, the trees are always to be exposed to the free air and light, in good weather, through the day ; screening only at night, and on bad days ; applying them from the time the buds begin to open, till the fruit is fairly set, or till any fear of further danger from the effects of frost be past." 2213. Protecting by mats is the commonest of all modes for bushes, beds, and single herbaceous plants. Sometimes also screens of mats sewed together, or bound in frames, are applied to fruit-trees, either singly or in frames, or on hooks and pegs. Nicol considers that they are " in no way so good, effectual, or ultimately so cheap screens as those of canvass." 2214. Protecting by straw and litter is effected in herbaceous plants by laying it round their roots, as in the artichoke, asparagus, &c. ; or covering the tops of seedlings, which was formerly done, in cultivating the cucumber and melon, and is still practised by market-gardeners in raising radishes and other tender salading. Straw is also formed into coverings of various sorts for frames ; screens for projecting from walls ; and cones for bushes, herbaceous plants, and beehives. 2215. Protecting by oiled paper frames is effected on exactly the same plan and prin- ciple as that by bunting or canvass screens. " Frames covered with oiled paper have been successfully employed at Grangemuir garden in Fifeshire. The frames are of wood, inch and half square, with cross bars mortised into the sides. To give support to the paper, strong packthread is passed over the interstices of the frames, forming meshes about nine inches square. Common printing (or unsized) paper is then pasted on ; and when this is quite dry, a coating of boiled linseed-oil is laid on both sides of the paper with a painter's brush. These frames are placed in front of the trees, and made move- able, by contrivances which must vary according to circumstances. If the slope from the wall be considerable, a few triangular side frames may be made to fit the spaces. At Grangemuir, the frames are not put up till the blossoms be pretty well expanded ; till which time they are not very apt to suffer from spring frosts or hail showers. In this way, it may be remarked, there is much less danger of rendering the blossom delicate by the covering, than if it were applied at an earlier period. The paper frames, if carefully preserved when not in use, will endure for a good many years, with very slight repairs." 2216. Protecting copings and horizontal shelters, mentioned by Miller and Laurence, are used chiefly with a view of preventing the perpendicular cold. They are projected generally from the top, but in lofty walls, also from the middle, and remain on night and day during the cold season. When there is only a temporary coping, it is recom- mended by Miller and others to be hinged, and to have strings hanging down from 426 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. every board on each side of the wall, so as the board may be projected or thrown back to rest on the top of the wall at pleasure. . 2217. Protecting by transparent covers is effected with small plants by placing over them a hand or bell glass ; with larger ones, by other portable bell or curvilinear shaped portable cases, and with considerable shrubs or fruit-trees by moveable cases or glass tents. (Jig. 226. ) For culinary seedlings, herbaceous plants in pots, and young trees of delicate sorts, timber frames with glass covers are used ; or the plants are placed in pits dug in the ground, over which sashes are laid. In whichever way transparent protections are used, they must be partially or wholly removed, or otherwise opened, in fine weather, to admit a change of atmosphere, and a free current to dry up and destroy the appearance of what are called damps ; and also to harden and prepare such plants for the removal of the covers. 2218. Transparent screens are made by placing sashes not in use on edge, and thus forming as it were glass walls or partitions, which, applied to green-house plants, set out in the open air, have the effect of producing shelter without shade, and at the same time of admitting the fall of rain on the plants. Many plants receive sufficient pro- tection by being placed near to the south side of a wall, hot-house, or other building, or under a tree or bush during the winter months, without any covering or guard whatever. SECT. VIII. Operations relative to remain, Diseases, and other Casualties of Plants and Gardens. 2219. The casualties of gardens, from human enemies, vermin, and diseases, are nu- merous, and have given rise to a variety of devices and operations. SUBSECT. 1. Of the Kinds of Vermin most injurious to Gardens. 2220. The human enemies of gardens are such as break in secretly to steal clandestinely, to injure, or destroy ; or, under the guise of regular operators, pilfer and otherwise act as enemies to the garden and its proprietor. The operations for deterring and detecting thieves are, watching by men, by dogs, by peacocks and turkeys allowed to sit on high trees, and by ducks. The dog is most effectual ; but peacocks and ducks are known to scream or cry on the approach of strangers in the night-time ; as neither of these birds scratch the earth, they are in some descriptions of gardens, especially nurseries, more useful in picking up insects than they are injurious. Man-traps, spring-guns, and alarums, are also set to detect and deter, and the notices of these dreadful instruments, as well as the fear of the law, have considerable influence. 2221. The brute vermin which injure gardens and garden-productions may be classed as quadrupeds, birds, insects, and worms. 2222. Of the quadruped enemies, the larger are excluded by fences, and the smaller species which are most injurious are, the hare, mouse, mole, and rat. Where the hare or other similar animals are not excluded by a sufficient fence, they must be caught by traps or shot. Or where the hare is chiefly injurious by barking trees, smearing the stem with cow-dung, ordure, tar, or coal-liquor will deter them. Mice may be kept under by the different domestic traps, or the gardeners' or fourth figure trap, or by an earthen vessel with a narrow mouth and bellied out within, sunk in the earth, and a few leaves or straws placed over it, as is common about Paris. But 'two or three cats kept in a garden, are the most effectual destroyers of mice. The mode of setting the common moletrap is familiar to every countryman ; the true mode however of getting rid of moles, and one most readily put into execution is, to dig up their nests in spring. The heaps of earth over these nests are easily known from common mole-heaps by their size. Field rats are destroyed by dogs ; and house rats, where they are troublesome, by poison and other well known means. 2223. The feathered enemies of gardens are numerous but not very destructive, excepting in very severe winters, when they eat the buds, and during the coming up of small seeds. To preserve ripening or germinating seeds where birds are numerous, they must either be covered with a net or watched by man. Scares of different sorts, as mock men or cats, mock hawks or eagles, miniature windmills, rattles, lines with feathers, the smell of tar and bruised gunpowder, &c. are of some use ; but the chief dependence must be on watch- ing, nets, and the frequent use of the gun. P. Musgrave, a practical gardener, who has treated the subject of vermin in a scientific manner, has the following observation on this subject. " It is a too common practice amongst gardeners to destroy without discrimination, the birds which frequent their gardens. This, in my opinion, is bad policy. Although I am aware some of the kinds of birds are great enemies to some crops, it certainly must be a trifling crop indeed, that will not bear the expense of a person to watch it, or a net to protect it, until it is out of danger: thus the gardener preserves the birds to per- form a double office, eating up the vermin from the trees, and the seeds of weeds and eggs of insects from the ground. I have often stood and observed the male bird, while the female was sitting upon her eggs or her young, fly to the spot with his bill full of caterpillars to feed his mate or young ; and when the young ones become so strong as to BOOK IV. OF VERMIN. 427 accompany their parents in quest of food, it is really astonishing the number of cater- pillars they destroy. I can say, from my own observation, that if it was not the case that the birds destroy a vast number of caterpillars, our trees in general would exhibit nothing but bare stumps, for the insects would become as numerous as the locusts of Spain and America. It is from that circumstance that we find so few flies in com- parison of the great number of caterpillars. I one day followed a nest of young ox- eyes, which had just flown, in order to see how the old ones acted. I saw them fly from branch to branch, and pick from the curled leaves the caterpillars, with which they flew to their young to feed them. From these considerations, it is my opinion, that should the gardener, instead of pursuing a system of indiscriminate warfare against the feathered tribe, avail himself of the services of these useful allies, he might, with their exertions and his own united, soon rid himself of those insects that have hitherto set his efforts at defiance." (Col. Mem. iii. 333.) 2224. The insects ivhich infest plants are almost as numerous as the plants themselves : almost every species having a particular insect which it seems destined by nature to sup- port. Insects are distinguished from quadrupeds, birds, and reptiles, by their more numerous feet, being without bones, and by their head being furnished with a pair of antenna? or horns. From the vermes, or worm-like animals, insects are sufficiently dis- tinguished by their having feet. 2225. Taking a general view of insects we find most of them are oviparous ; of course the first state in which insects appear is that of an ovum or egg. This relates to the generality of insects, for there are some examples of viviparous insects, as in the genera aphis, musca, &c. The eggs of insects (Jig. 393.) 393 are of two sorts : the first membranaceous, like the eggs of the tortoise, and the other reptiles ; the other covered with a shell like those of the birds. Their figure varies exceedingly ; some are round, some elliptical, some lenticular, some cylindrical, some pyramidal, some flat, some square, but the round and oval are the most common. As an example of the various shapes of the eggs of insects, and of their natural as well as magnified size, we refer to those of the common slug (a), phalama nupta (6), brown-tailed moth (c), currant-moth (rf), common gooseberry-moth (e), turnip-butterfly (f\ spider (g), house-cricket (A), and common chafer (r). 2226. The eggs of insects seldom increase in size, from the time they have been de- posited by the parent, till they are hatched ; those of the tenthredo, however, and of some others, are observed to increase in bulk. At first there is nothing to be perceived in the eggs of insects but a watery fluid ; after some little time, the head, like an obscure point, is observable in the centre. The' little insect remains in the egg till its limbs have ac- quired strength to break the egg and make its escape ; the different species of insects remain enclosed in the egg for very different periods ; some continue enclosed only a few days, others remain for several months. The eggs of many insects remain without being hatched during the whole winter, and the young insects do not come forth from them, till the season at which the leaves of the vegetables on which they feed begin to expand. 2227. The insect in its second or caterpillar state (Jig. 394.) has been usually known by the name of eruca or larva, being a sort of masked form or disguise of the insect in its com- plete state. The larva; of insects differ very much from each other, according to the several tribes to which they belong ; those of the butterfly (Papilia) and moth (Phalama) tribes are generally known by the name of caterpillars ; those "of the beetle (Scarabeeus), except 428 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. such as inhabit the water, are of a thick, clumsy form, called grubs. The larvae of the locust, or grasshopper ( Gryllus), do not differ very much in appearance from the com- plete insect ; except being without wings. The larvae of flies (Musca}, bees {Apis}, &c. are generally known by the name of maggots, and are of a thick short form. Those of water-beetles (Dytiscus] are of highly singular forms, and differ, perhaps, more from that of the complete insect than any other, except those of the butterfly tribe. Some insects undergo no change of shape, but are hatched from the egg complete in all their parts, and they undergo no farther alteration than that of casting their skin from time to time, till they acquire the complete resemblance of the parent animal. In the larva state most insects are peculiarly voracious, as in many of the common caterpillars. In their per- fect state some insects, as butterflies, are satisfied with the lightest nutriment, while others devour animal and vegetable substances with a considerable degree of avidity. As an example of the caterpillar state of some of the commoner insects, we may refer to that of the privet-moth (Sphinx Kgustri) (a) ; the cabbage-butterfly (Papilio brassica) (6) ; the tur- nip-butterfly (P. napi} (c) ; gooseberry-moth (Phalcena wavaria} (d} ; the currant-moth (PA. grossularia} (e); the dragon-fly (Libettula virgo) (f) ; the common chafer (Scarabams melolontha} (g} ; the phryganea rhombica (A) ; the frog-hopper (Cicada spumaria} (i} ; and the musca pumilionis (Ar). 2228. When the larva is about to change into the chrysalis or pupa state ( jig. 395) it ceases to feed, and having placed itself in some quiet situation, lies still for several hours, and then, by a sort of effort, it divests itself of its external skin, and immediately appears in the dif- ferent form of a chrysalis or pupa ; in this state, likewise, the insects of different genera differ almost as much as the larvae. In most of the beetle tribe it is furnished with short legs, capable of some degree of motion, though very rarely exerted. In the butterfly tribe it is destitute of legs ; but in the locust 395 tribe it differs very little from the perfect insect, except in not having the wings complete. In most of the fly tribe it is perfectly oval, without any apparent mo- tion or distinction of parts. The pupa of the bee is not so shapeless as that of flies, exhibiting the faint appearance of limbs. Those of the dragon-fly (Libellula'} differ most widely from the appearance of the complete insect ; from the pupa emerges the image or insect in its ultimate form, from which it never changes, nor receives any farther increase of growth. As ex- amples of the chrysalis of various insects, we give those of the beetle (Scarabceus me- lolontha} (Jig. 395. a), papilio napi (6), P. lo, (c), phalasna grossularia (rf), Ph. wavaria (e), tipula cornicina (/), phryganea rhombica (g), musca pumilionis, natural size and magnified (A, A). 2229. The sexes of insects are commonly two, male and female. Neuters are to be met with among those insects which live in swarms, such as ants, bees, &c. As examples of the appearance of different insects in regard to sex, we refer to the male, female, and neuter ant (Jig. 396. a, b, c), and to the male or drone, female or queen, and neuter or working bee (d, sphynge, or sphinx, is chiefly seen in the evening. The name sphynx is applied to the genus on account of the posture assumed by the larvae of several of the larger species, which are often seen in an attitude much resembling that of the Egyptian sphynx, with the fore parts elevated, and the rest 3f the body applied flat to the surface. One of the most elegant insects of this genus is the privet hawiJ-moth (Sphinx ligustri) (fie. 404.), measuring nearly four inches and a half from wing's end to wing'send. The caterpillar (fig.394. a}, which is very large, is smooth, and of a fine green, with seven ob- lique purple and white stripes along each side: at the extremity of the body, or top of the last joint, is a hon or process pointing backwards. Ihis beau- tiful caterpillar is often found in the months of July and August, feeding on the privet, the lilac, the poplar, and some other trees, and generally changes to a chrysalis (fig. 404. a) in August or September, retiring for that purpose to a considerable depth beneath the surface of the ground ; and after cast- ing its skin, continuing during the whole winter in a dormant state, the sphinx emerging from it in the succeeding June. The egg of the sphinx (6) is very different from that of the papilio. Another perhaps still more beautiful insect is the sphinx ocellata, or eyed hawk-moth, which is principally found on the willow-tree, in its j>erfect state, in the month of June. The largest and most remarkable of the British hawk-moths, is the sphinx atropoa, or death's head hawk-moth. The upper wings are of a fine dark-grey color, with a few slight va- riegations of dull orange and white : the under wings are of a bright orange color, marked by a pair of transverse black bands : the body is also orange- colored, with the sides marked by black bars : on the top of the thorax is a very large patch of a most singular appearance, exactly resembling the usual figure of a skull, or death's head, and is of a pale grey, varied with dull ochre color and black. When in the least disturbed or irritated, this insect emits a stri- dulous sound, sometimes like the squeaking of a bat or mouse ; and from this circumstance, as well as from the mark above mentioned, is held in much dread by the vulgar in several parts of Europe, its appear- ance being regarded as a kind of ill omen, or harbinger of approaching fate. The caterpillar from which this curious sphinx proceeds, which is principally found on the potatoe and the jessamine, is in the highest degree beautiful, measuring sometimes five inches in length : its color is a bright yellow, and its sides are marked by stripes of a mixed violet and sky-blue color. It usually changes into a chrysalis in the month of September, and emerges the complete insect in June or July following : some individuals, however, change in July or August, and produce the moth in November. 404 BOOK IV. OF VERMIN. 433 2253. The moths (Phaltsnts) are a numerous genus like the sphinges. They fly abroad only in the evening id during the night, and obtain their food from the nectar of flowers. The larva is active and ouick m and d motion _ - . is active and quick m , and preys voraciously on the leaves of plants. The most remarkable British moths are the clothes, moth (P. sarcitella] (fig. 405. ) ; the eggs of which are deposited on woollen clothes, furs, &c. on which the larvae feed and change to chrysahds, appearing in the imago state in August. The most troublesome in gardens are the cabbage-moth (P. oleracea) (b), the gooseberry-moth (P. wavaria) (c), the currant-moth (P. grossularia) (d), and the codling-moth, common on fruit-trees, hedges, and oak-trees (P.pomonclla) (c). v 405 2254. Tlte neuroptera, or nerve-winged insects, have four naked membranaceous wings, but no stings ; and they differ from the last order, as their wings are without their minute scales or down. Most of the insects in this family are aquatic, residing in the water during their immature state, and resorting thereto in their perfect state. 2255. The dragon-fly (Libellula) is well known as frequenting rivers, lakes, pools, and stagnating waters, in which the females deposit their eggs. The egg, when deposited by the parent in the water, sinks to the bottom, and remains there till the young insect has acquired sufficient maturity and strength to burst from its confinement. The larva, at first small, increases to nearly half the size of the perfect fly, by changing its skin at different intervals, like the caterpillars of moths and butterflies. The slender-bodied dragon-fly (L. virgo) (fig. 406. o) is the most common. 4O6 2256. The day-fly (Ephemera) differs in many respects from all other insects. The larvae live in water (where earth and clay seem to be their only nourishment) for three years, the time they consume in pre- paring for their change, which is performed in a few moments. The larva, when ready to quit that state, rises to the surface of the water, and, getting instantaneously rid of its skin, becomes a chrysalis. This chrysalis is furnished with wings, which it makes use of to fly to the nearest tree or wall ; and there set- tling, it in the same moment quits a second skin, and becomes a perfect ephemera. In this state all the ipecies live but a very short time, some of them scarcely half an hour, having no other business to per- form than that of continuing the race. They are called the insects of a day ; but very few of them ever ee the light of the sun, being produced after sunset, during the short nights of summer, and dying long before the dawn. All their enjoyments, therefore, excepting coition, are confined to their larva state. The E. vulgata (fig. 406. 6) is the largest British species. 2257. The spring-fly (Phryganea) in the caterpillar state, lives in the water, and is covered with a silken tube. The caterpillars or larvae have a very singular aspect ; for, by means of a gluten, they attach to the tubes in which they are enclosed small pieces of wood, sand, gravel, leaves of plants, and not unfrequently live on testaceous animals, all of which they drag along with them. They are very commonly found on the leaves of the water-cress ; and, as they are often entirely covered with them, they have the appear- ance of animal plants. They are in great request among fishermen, by whom they are distinguished by the name of stone or cod-bait. The fly, or perfect insect, frequents running water, in which the females deposit their eggs. P. rhombica (fig. 406. c) is common. 2258. The hymenoptera, or four-winged insects with stings, includes the gall-insect, wasp, bee, ant, &c. At the extremity of the abdomen, the females of several of thege- Ff 434 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PAET II. nera have an aculeus or sting, that lies concealed within the abdomen, which is used as a weapon, and instils into the wound an acrid poison : those which want the sting are furnished with an oviduct that is often serrated, and with which the eggs are deposited, either in the bodies of the caterpillars of other insects, or in wqod. From these eggs the larva? are produced, which in some have no feet, in others more than sixteen. They change to pupae incomplete, which are enclosed in cases. Some of the insects of this order live in societies, others are solitary. 2259. The gatt-fly (Cynips) pierces the leaves, &c. of plants with its sting, and deposits its eggs in the wound ; the extravasated juices rise round it, and form a gall (Jig. 407. a) which becomes hard ; and in this the larva (b) lives and feeds, and changes to a pupa (c, c), and afterwards to the imago, or perfect insect (d}. The C. quercus folii (Jig. 407. d), and C. glechomatis, or ground-ivy gall-fly, are very common. 2260. The saw-fly (Tenthredo], in the larva state 407 (fig. 407. e), bears a strong resemblance to some of the caterpillars of the lepidopterous insects ; but is distinguishable by the number of the feet, which are never fewer than sixteen, exclusive of the thoracic pairs ; the larva? feed on the leaves of plants, and the pupa is enclosed in a strong gummy case (/), retiring in the autumn, and the perfect fly (g) emerges early in the ensuing spring The serrated sting is used by the female in the manner of a saw, to make incisions in the twigs, or stems of plants, where it deposits its eggs. T. rosa? (fig. 407. e, f, g} is a common species. The T. gros. sularia? (h) is also frequent in gardens : both are very troublesome species of this genus. 2261. The ichneumon is a very numerous genus, there being upwards of 800 British species. The eggs, in most kinds, are deposited in the bodies of caterpillars or pupa?, which are there hatched : the larva? have no feet ; they are soft and cylin- drical, and feed on the substance of the caterpillar ; this last continues to feed and even to undergo its change into a chrysalis, but never turns to a per- fect insect: when the larva? of the ichneumon are full grown they issue forth, spin themselves a silky web, and change into a pupa incompleta, and in a few days the fly appears. The I. manifestator ' "V. 407. i) is common in woods. 408 2. The bee (Apis), wasp (^espa), and ant (Formica) are well known. All the species of ant are of three sorts, male, female, "and neuter. The neuters alone labor ; they form the ant-hill, bring in the provisions, feed the young, bring them to the air during the day, carry them back at night, defend them against attacks, &c. The females are said to be retained merely for laying eggs, and as soon as that is accomplished they are unmercifully discarded. The males and females perish with the first cold ; the neuters lie torpid in their nest, and thus nature compensates them by duration, what it denies them in intensity of enjoyment. 2263. The diptera, or two-winged insects, have two wings, and behind or below them two globular bodies, supported on slender pedicles, called halteres or poisers. At the mouth they have a proboscis, sometimes contained in a vagina, and sometimes furnished at its sides with two palpi, but no maxilla. Their eyes are reticulated and large. The females, in general, lay eggs, but some are viviparous ; the larva? of the insects of this order are as various in their appearance as the places in which they are bred. In general they do not cast their skins, but change into a pupa state. Flies, strictly so called, gad- flies, and gnats belong to this order. 2264. The gad-fly (OSstrus) is a genus exceedingly troublesome to horses, cattle, and sheep, in the skins of which they deposit their eggs (fig. 408. a), which soon change into larva?, that feed under the skin of living animals (b), and often line the stomachs of horses under the name of bots (Clarke, in Linn. Trans, vol. iii.) ; the larva? are soft, smooth, annu- late, without feet, and in most species furnished with hook-like appendages : the chrysalis (c) differs little in form from the larva?. The O. bovis (d) in- fests oxen ; O. ha?morroidalis (e), horses ; and O. ovis, sheep. 2265. The crane-fly (Tipula) resembles the gnat, it feeds on various substances; the larva? are without feet, soft and cylindrical; pupa cylindrical, horned ; some species reside amongst the roots of aquatic vege- tables, others amongst grass ; but by far the greater number are aquatic. The perfect flies are found in abundance in the autumnal months. The T. oleracea, or long-legs, feeds on the roots of the cabbage; and the T. crocata (fig. 409. a) and other species inhabit meadows, and are common from spring to autumn. The wheat-fly, T. tritici (b) t twelve of which have been observed at one time, laying their eggs in a single ear of wheat, would soon become of serious injury to mankind, were not their race kept within due bounds by several natural enemies, particularly the ichneumon tipula?. The well-known gaffer long- legs, so frequently seen in houses in the autumnal evenings, flying about the flame of the candles and often perishing in the blaze, is the T. rivosa (c), one of the larger species of the genus. The eggs of the wheat- fly (d) are very small ; when magnified they appear roundish (e) ; the larva; also (/), and the perfect insect (b), to be studied, should be magnified (g, h). BOOK IV. OF VERMIN. 435 2266. The fly genus (Musca) presents many curious species. The common flesh-fly (M. wmit&rta) (fig 410 a) eposits its eggs on the meat in our shambles and larders. These eggs (b) speedily become larva? (r), aresoon 410 full grown (d\ change to the chrysalis state (e), and in a month the fly appears (a). The rapid multiplication of the fly is thus calculated by Leuwenhoeck. " Let us suppose, that in the beginning of June there shall be two flies, a male and a female, and the female shall lay 144 eggs, which eggs, in the beginning of July, shall be changed into flies, one half males and the other half females, each of which females shall lay the like num- ber of eggs ; the number of flies will amount to 10,000 : and, supposing the generation of them to proceed in like manner another month, their number will then be more than 700,000, all produced from one couple of .flies in the space of three months." The Hessian fly (M.pu- pilionis) (f) is very destructive to wheat and rye, and has occasionally been a source of great alarm to our agri- culturists. The cheese-fly (M.putris) (g), well known to housewives under the name of hopper, deposits its eggs in the crevices or holes of the cheese, whence those nu- merous maggots (A), that so much amuse us by their agility and surprising leaps. One of these insects, not a quarter of an inch in length, has been known to leap out of a box six inches deep. The chrysalis (a) is straight and crusty. 2267. The gnat (Culex) is frequent in the neighbor- hood of waters and marshy places.. In southern re- gions there is a larger species, which is known by the name of musquito. Its bite is painful, raising a considerable degree of inflammation, and its continual piping note is exceedingly irksome where it abounds, especially during the night. When it settles to inflict the wound and draw the blood, it raises its hind pair of feet. In Lapland, the injuries the inhabitants sustain from it are amply repaid by the vast num- bers of water-fowl and wild-fowl which it attracts, as it forms the favorite food of their young. The fecundity of the common gnat (C.pipiens) (fig. 410. *) is as remarkable as that of the flc&h-fly. 2268. The tabanus genus greatly resembles musca, and produces some species troublesome to men and other animals on whose blood they feed. The spider fly (Hippobosca) inhabits woods. The species know.n as the forest-fly (H. equina) (fig. 410. /) is particularly tormenting to the horse. 2269. The aptera, or insects without wings in both sexes, is composed of genera of such varied forms, that no other general characters can be affixed. Linnaeus comprehended in this order spiders, lice, lobsters, crabs, shrimps, &c. which Leach and most other modern naturalists class separately. 2270. The louse (Pediculus} and flea (Pulex) are well known : the only genera of this order which are trou- blesome in gardens are the mite-spider (Acarus}, the common spider (Aranea}, and the woodlouse (Oniscus.} 2271. The red spYfcxis the Acarus tellurius, L. (fig. 411. a), and the same name is also applied by gardeners to the scarlet acarus (A. holosericeus, L.) (b}, the only two British species of the genus which infest plants, and to Which perhaps they do more injury than all other insects put together. Watering over the leaves is the well known preventive and remedy : the water should be applied to both sides of the leaf in a finely divided state, and with great force, so as to dash the insects to the ground. For this purpose Read's syringe is the most efficient implement at present in use. The sheep-tic (A. reduvius} (c), the dog-tic (A. ritinvs) (d), the cheese-mite (A. sirp}, and the itch-mite (mite de la gale, Fr.) (A. exulcerans, L.) which inhabits the ulcers of the itch, are the principal species mentioned by Linnaeus ; but some naturalists consider that every animal, and most plants, have their peculiar species of acarus. The harvest bug is by some considered an acarus, and by others a phalangium. 2272. The common spider (Aranea) is a numerous genus, and very prolific : as they live entirely on insects they cannot be con- sidered as otherwise injurious in gardens than by their unsightly appearance. 2273. The wood-louse (Oniscus) is of retired habits, shunning the light and the heat of the sun. It lives on leaves, fruit, and also on animal substances, and casts its crust or skin like the spider. In gardens it is easily caught by bundles of reeds or beans, or other hollow stalks, like the earwig. The O. aquaticus (fig. e} is common in springs and clear ponds, or cisterns of water. The dog-tic and water onis- cus both require to be magnified to be studied properly (/, g}. 436 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 2274. Of worms (class Vermes, L.), there are only a few genera which are materially in- jurious in gardens, the earth-worm (Lumbricus], the slug (Limax), and the snail (Helix]. 2275. The slug (Umax] is without a shell, and distinguished by its lateral pore. There are 16 British species : the L. ater (fig. 412. b), alba, and hyalinus are the most common in gardens ; and the L. agrestis (a) is common both in gardens and fields, and is the species recommended to be swallowed by consumptive persons. The snail (Helix) is a numerous genus, and, like the slug, very destructive to plants and fruit : both snails and slugs are hermaphrodite, having both sexes united in each individual ; they lay their eggs with great care in the earth, and the young ones are hatched, the slugs without shells, and the snails with shells completely formed. They are most troublesome in spring and autumn, and during mild weather in winter. In dry warm weather, and during frosts, they retire into the earth and remain there in a torpid state. The most common species is the H. hortensis (Jig. 412. c), or garden-snail, of which it is 412 remarked, that having once attacked a leaf or fruit, it will not begin on another till the first is wholly eaten. Snails, slugs, and worms, may be annoyed by caustic substances scattered over them, or by water- ing with bitter infusions, acids or alkalis, as vinegar, or what is equally effectual and cheaper, lime-water ; but the only effectual way of getting rid of snails in gardens is by hand-picking. They may be collected under decaying leaves or haulm, laid down on purpose to attract them. In this way a garden may soon, and at little trouble and expense, be effectually cleared of the worm class of enemies. SUBSECT. 2. Operations for subduing Vermin. 2276. The Derations for deterring the human, quadruped, and feathered enemies of gardens are few, and have been already noticed. (2220. 2222, 2223.) 2277. The operations for destroying insect vermin, or counteracting their injurious effects, are of three kinds, preventives, palliatives, and efficient processes. 2278. The preventive operations are those of the best culture in the most extensive sense of the term, including what relates to choice of seed or plant, soil, situation, and climate. If these are carefully at- tended to, it will seldom happen that any species of insect will exist in gardens to an injurious degree. But some parts of culture, such as climate, are often beyond our control ; as, for example, when a very dry spring and east winds prevail, in which case many insects increase, or rather their larvae are hatched and reared under such favorable circumstances that few of them die, and all of them become strong in pro- portion as the plants on which they live, in consequence of the dry weather (favorable to the insects), become weak. In such a case as this, or its reverse, that of a series of cold moist weather, the gardener cannot apply good culture to plants in the open air, and therefore cannot prevent the increase of insects. In artificial plant-habitations of every kind, however, properly constructed, his power in regard to culture IB complete, and therefore he may always prevent, not the existence, but the injurious increase of insects. 2279. The palliative operations are various. Artificial bad weather will annoy every description of organised being, and especially animals. Excessive waterings, stormy applications of water with a syringe, violent wind produced by shaking the plant or tree in the air instead of moving the air round the tree, as in natural wind ; these and similar operations will materially injure and annoy insects, both in their common func- tions and in the work of generation, hatching, and'rearing. Insects may be farther annoyed by throwing on them acrid waters or powders, as tobacco- water, lime-water, powdered quick-lime, soot, ashes, barley-awns, &c. &c. The smell of tar is particularly offensive to various moths and butterflies ; and it is said, if a little of it is placed under plants, or if they are watered with tar-water, these insects will not lay their eggs on them. It is also said that if shreds of flannel are hung on trees -or plants, moths and butterflies will lay their eggs on the shreds, in preference to the leaves of the plant. The effect of the fumes of tobacco, sulphur, urine, &c. are well known. Saline substances mixed with water are injurious to most insects with tender skins, as the worm and slug ; and hot water, where it can be applied without injuring vegetation, is equally, if not more powerfully, injurious. Water heated to 120 or 130 degrees will not injure plants whose leaves are fully expanded and in some degree hardened ; and water at 200 degrees or upwards may be poured over leafless plants. There are various other ways in which insects may be annoyed, and often in part destroyed, which will be pointed out in treating of the plants which particular species inhabit. The effects of insects may also be palliated on one species of plant, by presenting to them another which they prefer : thus wasps are said to prefer carrots, the berries of the yew, and the honey of the hoya, to grapes ; honey or sugared water to ripe fruit, and so on. One insect or animal may also be set to eat another, as ducks for slugs and worms, turkeys for the same purpose, and caterpillars, and ants for aphides, and so on. 2280. The operations for the utter removal or destruction of insects are few, and chiefly that of hand- picking, or otnerwise removing or killing by manual operations with a brush, sponge, or net Destruction by hand-picking should, if possible, commence with the parent insect in its fly or perfect state before it has deposited its ova. Thus the gathering of moths, butterflies, and large wasps may save the gathering afterwards of thousands of caterpillars and the drowning of hundreds of wasps, as preventing weeds from seeding in a garden will soon eradicate them altogether. It is no small proof of the advantages of a knowledge of natural history to gardeners, and also of the progress of knowledge among this ingenious and useful class of artisans, that a practical gardener has actually practised for several years the catching of moths, to prevent them from laying their eggs on his trees. P. Musgrove, gardener, at May-field near BOOK IV. OF DISEASES. 437 Edinburgh, has almost completely cleared his trees of caterpillars by the following mode: " I examine," he says, " the trees I wish to clear, in the beginning of June, that being the time the moths begin to leave the chrysalis state. When I find one of those of a dark color, I am aware the insect will make its appearance in the course of a few days. That chrysalis I examine daily until the insect comes out ; and although I do not see the insect emerging from the shell, yet I am sure to find it in the neighborhood of the covering which it has left, exhausted with fatigue in consequence of the exertion in extricating itself from confinement. At first I put a few of the chrysalids into paper bags, which gave me an opportunity of examining them minutely. I also watched some of the chrysalids of the bore-worm, which causes gooseberries to fall off in great quantities by boring into the berry, and I found that fly to be of the same class with those which infest the apple, pear, and cherry trees. I was also able to prove decidedly, that the females come into existence full of the rudiment of eggs, which I found by dissecting several of them, and examining the ovarium. I also found, by carefully noticing every insect which I caught, that the greater number were females." Having made himself completely acquainted with the enemy with which he had to contend, he con- tinued his labors : " going over a number of wall-trees which I fixed upon for the experiment, with a branch of a willow-tree in my hand, with which I switched the leaves and branches, for it is amongst the leaves and branches of the trees the insect secretes itself; but in order that it may be done with more ex- pedition and success, I would recommend a birch-besom to be used in preference. There should be two persons, one to go over the leaves and branches of the trees, in order to make the insect leave its retreat and one with a net attached to a pole to catch the fly, or to destroy it if it should alight on the ground, as it will be apt to do, if the day is clear and sunny, for these insects cannot bear the bright rays of the sun, which is the cause of their remaining amongst the leaves during the day ; but should the day be dull, the net will be highly necessary to catch the insect, as it will then likely fly to some distance before it alights. This operation must be continued until all the insects are destroyed ; but it is not needful that it should be performed every day, but every other day, as the insects are some days from the chrysalid state before they are ready to deposit their ova, which is done during night. The method followed with standards is as follows : The time for going over them is generally two or three weeks later than the wall-trees. It is a singular fact, that the insect keeps pace with the leafing of the tree. With the standards nothing will be required but the net, as the branches can be gently shaken which is sufficient to cause the fly to leave its nestling-place ; but as it might be the means of bringing too many down at one time, if the tree was shaken all at once, care must be taken to shake the branches one by one. Where the trees are lofty, a pole with a hook attached to the end may be used. The net used is made of strong black gau-ze, that color being best for the purpose. It is a yard and a half in circumference, a foot deep, and attached to a whalebone rim. The handle is made of common wood, about a yard and a half long. With regard to the manner in which it should be used, all I have to say is, that I kept the net in my right hand ; and the moment an insect was driven from its place, I swung the net in the direction opposite to that in which it flew. If I missed in the first attempt, the second generally succeeded. The success of this plan of destroying moths has' succeeded equal to my expectations ; indeed it carries conviction on the face of it. It is not only simple, and can be performed at very little expense ; but it is sure, and can be acted upon in the most extensive orchards. When we consider the great number of eggs one destroys by killing a single female in the beginning of the season, the utility of the plan I think will at once appear. Supposing, then, that any person, by going over twenty or thirty trees each day, which can be done easily in a few hours, kills 00 insects ; there will be no fewer than 10,000 eggs destroyed or prevented. If the operation be carried on for a month only, every alternate day over this number of trees, the amount of eggs destroyed will be 150,000. This is actually what I have done myself: there is surely, then, very little reflection necessary, to convince any unprejudiced person, that by following the same plan, he might soon be able to bid defiance to such a formidable foe. When we also take into consideration how much the success of the crop depends upon an uninjured foliage, and a free and strong expansion of blossom, the propriety of adopting this method must be obvious : hitherto all the plans of liming, oiling, peeling, &c. have failed." (Caled. Mem. iii. 333.) 281. Catching the winged insect, or hand-picking the eggs, or larva?, are the only certain modes of pre- venting the ravages of the gooseberry caterpillar. As soon as the eggs which are white, and no thicker than hairs, appear on the under side of the leaf, they should be rubbed off, or the entire leaf gathered. It is true, watering the leaves well, and then dusting them with powdered quick-lime, will destroy all those eggs which are wet at the time the lime falls on them ; but will it fall on the under sides of the leaves ? Watering with lime-water is better ; but even that operation is less certain, more troublesome, and not much more expeditious than hand-picking taken in time. In extreme cases, both modes may be combined. 28. The aphides may be destroyed by the fumes of tobacco from the fumigating bellows, or by excessive watering. 283. The red spider and most insects may be destroyed by the fumes of sulphur, produced by flues, the tops of which have been washed with it ; or from hot plates, or by burning sulphurated paper and rags, or distilling it with a retort. Ammoniacal gas, produced either from urine, recent stable-dung, or tillation from bones, or other substances, is also, where the air is charged with it for sometime togeth an effectual mode of destroying all animals. Watering, and a moist and warm atmosphere, will destroy tillation from bones, or other substances, is also, where the air is charged with it for sometime together, jstroying all animals. Watering, and a moist and warm atmosphere, will destr the red spider and keep under all insects. Heat and moisture combined, indeed, are what the gardener has chiefly to depend on, especially in every description of plant-habitation. This will appear more fully in the practical parts of this work, where the particular application of these general remarks is made to the culture and treatment of particular plants. 84. Snails and slugs, as already observed, are most effectually destroyed by lures of decayed leaves or haulm and hand-picking. (275.) The earth-worm is most effectually kept under by watering with lime-water. Salt, vinegar, alum, or other acrid waters, will have the same effect, but are injurious to vegetation, and besides less economical. The lime-water, as Forsyth directs, is to be prepared by pouring water on quick-lime, and letting it stand till it settles clear, the ground infested with worms should have their casts scraped off, and then the water should be applied from the rose of a watering-pot. The evening, and early in the morning, or on ap- proaching rain, are the best seasons. 2285. The young gardener should carefully and assiduously study the nature, names, and classification of insects ; and make himself acquainted with all the species he can pick up, either in gardens, houses, or fields. Besides being of material use to him in his profession, he will find it a never failing source of interest and enjoyment, at least equally so with the study of botany. For this purpose let him read the articles on insects in such Encyclopsedias as come within his reach, and borrow, or otherwise procure, a reading of the Essays and Works of Dr. Skrimshire, of Wood, Kirby and Spence, Donovan, Samouelle, and other authors that he will find quoted and referred to in this and other books which mention the subject. SUBSECT. 3. Operations relative to Diseases and other Casualties. 2286. The subject of the accidents and diseases to which plants are liable has been treated at length in the "study of the vegetable kingdom" (Part II. Book I. Chap. IX.); and it there appeared, that very little could be done by art in curing diseases ; but that much might be done to prevent them by regimen and culture, and something to the healing of wounds by amputation and exclusion of air. Ff 3 438 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 2287. The operationsfor the cure of accidents are chiefly cutting off injured parts, sup- porting, and coating over. Amputation must be performed with suitable instruments, and so as to leave a smooth section calculated to throw off the water. In cutting out large wounds which are deep, the chisel will require to be used ; and in cutting off dis- eased or injured parts from small and delicate plants, a very sharp knife. Supporting the stem or trunk of bruised and wind-shaken trees, or such as are otherwise injured or rendered less secure in their general 1 structure, is an obvious operation, and requires to be done promptly and effectually. It is also requisite in the case of cutting out such deep wounds as may endanger the stems or branches of trees or plants exposed to the free air. Coating over wounds to exclude air is a useful practice ; and though it may be dispensed with in the case of small wounds on healthy plants, ought never to be reglected in the case of large wounds on any description of plants, or small ones made on such as are sickly. The usual application is now clay and loam made so thin as to be laid on with a brush, and two or three coats may be given. On large wounds paint, or putty and paint may be used ; and in the case of deep hollow wounds, the part may be filled up with putty, or putty and small stones, for the sake of saving the former, and then made smooth and well painted. 2288. The operations for curing diseases are few, besides those for the cure of accidents. Washes are applied by the sponge, brush, syringe, or watering pot, for filth, mildew, and blight ; and for the two latter diseases sulphur, or powdered lime is sometimes added by dredges or the hand while the plant is wet. Slitting the bark is the operation for hide- bound trees ; and peeling off the outer, rough, and already separating bark by scraping- irons and bark-sealers, is resorted to in the case of old trees, as cutting out is in the case of canker. In scaling off care must be taken not to injure the inner bark ; and in cutting out for canker sharp instruments must be used, and a coating applied. (See 873. to 901.) SECT. IX. Operations of Gathering, Preserving, and Keeping. 2289. Gathering, preset-ring, and keeping vegetable productions, form an important part of the horticultural division of gardening. Some productions, after being reared and perfected, are to be gathered for immediate consumption ; but a part require to be pre- served in a state fit for culinary purposes ; or for sowing or dispersing ; or sending to a distant market, family or friend. 2290. Gathering vegetables or their different parts is, in part, performed with a knife, as in cutting off some fruits, as the cucumber, or heads of leaves, as the cabbage ; and in part by fracture or torsion with the hand, as in pinching off strawberries between the finger and thumb, gathering peas, with one hand applied to retain the stem firm, and the other to tear asunder the peduncle, &c. In all cases of using the knife, the general principle of cutting is to be attended to, leaving always a sound section on the living plant. Gathering with the hand ought to be done as little as possible, as there are now garden-pincers for all such purposes, which do the work quicker, with far less injury to the plant, and more regard to cleanliness. Sometimes the entire plant is gathered, as in celery and onions ; and at other times only the root or tuber, as in potatoes and carrots. In taking up these, care must be taken not to injure'their epidermis, as on the preserv- ation of this depends their retention of juices, beauty, and keeping. 2291. The gathering of hardy fruits should take place "in the middle part of a dry day ; not in the morning before the dew is evaporated, nor in the evening when it begins to be deposited. Plums readily part from the twigs when ripe : they should not be much handled, as the bloom is apt to be rubbed off. Apricots may be accounted ready when the side next the sun feels a little soft upon gentle pressure with the finger. They ad- here firmly to the tree, and would over-ripen on it and become mealy. Peaches and nectarines, if moved upwards, and allowed to descend with a single jerk, will separate, if ready ; and they may be received into the peach-gatherer (fig. 148.) or any tin funnel lined with velvet, so as to avoid touching with the fingers or bruising. The old rule for judging of the ripeness of figs, was to observe if a drop of water was hanging at the end of the fruit ; a more certain one is, to notice when the small end becomes of the same colour as the large end. The most transparent grapes are the most ripe. All the berries on a bunch never ripen equally ; and it is therefore proper to cut away unripe or decayed berries before presenting the bunches at table. Autumn and winter pears are gathered, when dry, as they successively ripen. The early varieties of apples begin to be useful for the kitchen in the end of June ; particularly the codlins and the jenneting; and in July they are fit for the dessert. From this time till October or November, many kinds ripen in succession. The safest rule is to observe when the fruit begins to fall naturally. Another easy mode of ascertaining, is to raise the fruit level with the footstalk; if ripe, it will part readily from the tree : this mode of trial is also applicable to pears. A third criterion is to cut up an apple of the average ripeness of the crop, and examine if its seeds have become brown or blackish ; if they remain uncolored, the fruit is not ready for pulling. Immature fruit never keeps so well BOOK IV. GATHERING AND PRESERVING. 439 as that which nearly approaches maturity ; it is more apt to shrivel and lose flavor. Winter apples are left on the trees till there be danger of frost : they are then gathered on a dry day." (Ed. Encyc. art. Hort.) In no case should fruit be gathered with the hand when any of the different descriptions of fruit -gatherers (Jigs. 141. to 153.) can be used. With one or other of these, and the use of proper ladders (Jigs. 206. to 209.), every kind of fruit, from the gooseberry to the walnut, may be gathered without bruising, soiling, or fingering the fruit, and without injuring the tree. 2292. The gathering of seeds should take place in very dry weather, when the seed- pods, by beginning to open, give indications of perfect ripeness. Being rubbed out with the hand, beat with a stick, or passed through a portable threshing-machine, they are then to be separated by sieves and fanners from their husks, &c. and spread out in a shaded airy loft till they are so dry as to be fit for putting up in linen or paper bags, or putting in drawers in the seed-room till wanted. 2293. Preserving heads or leaves of vegetables is effected in cellars or sheds, of any temperature, not lower, nor much above the freezing point. Thus cabbages, endive, cliiccory, lettuce, &c. taken out of the ground with their main roots in perfectly dry weather, at the end of the season, and laid in, or partially immersed in sand or dry earth, in a close shed, cellar, or ice-cold room, will keep through the winter, and be fit for use till spring, and often till the return of the season of their produce in the garden. The German gardeners are expert at this practice ; and more especially in Russia, where the necessities being greater have called forth greater skill and attention. 2294. Flowers and leaves for decoration may be preserved by drying between leaves of paper, or in ovens ; or imbedded in their natural position in fine dry sand, placed in that state in an oven. In this pot of sand they will keep for years ; but they must not be taken out till wanted. When at a little distance it will be difficult to distinguish them from such as are fresh gathered. A rose is cut when the petals and leaves are perfectly dry, a little sand is put in the bottom of the flower-pot, the rose is stuck in the sand, and sand is then slowly sprinkled in till the rose be covered and the pot filled. At Paris and Milan the more popular flowers are frequently preserved in this way. 2295. Roots are preserved in different ways, according to the object in view. Tuberous roots, as those of the dahlia,, pasonia, tuberose, &c. intended to be planted in the suc- ceeding spring, are preserved through the winter in dry earth, in a temperature rather under than above what is natural to them. So may the bulbous and tuberous roots of com- merce, as hyacinths, tulips, onions, potatoes, &c. ; but for convenience, these are kept either loose in cool dry shelves or lofts, or the finer sorts in papers, till the season of planting. 229G. Potatoes, turnips, and all similar roots which it is desired to preserve in a dor- mant or unvegetating state beyond the season of planting, have only to be sunk in pits to such a depth as thatf vegetation will not take place. A pit filled with these roots to within five feet of the surface, and the remainder compactly closed with earth, and kept quite dry, will keep one or more years in a sound state, and without vegetating. (Farmers' Mag.) For convenience of using, there should be a number of small pits, or rather of large pots of roots, so buried at a little distance from each other, as that no more may be taken up at a time than what can be consumed in a few days. The mould or compost ground will, in general, be found a convenient scene for this operation ; and, for a small family, pots contrived with covers, or with their saucers, used as covers, may be deeply immersed in a large shaded ridge of earth, to be taken up, one at a time, as wanted. Grain, apples, and potatoes are kept the whole year in deep pits, in sandy soil, formed in the village-greens of some parts of Gallicia and Moravia, and in banks and rocks in Spain. Oldacre informs us, in his account of his mushroom-house (Hort. Tr. vol. ii.), that he preserved broccoli in it through the winter ; and Henderson, of Brechin, makes use of the ice-house for preserving " roots of all kinds till the return of the natural crop:" " By the month of April," he says, "the ice in our ice-house is found to have subsided four or five feet ; and in this empty room I deposit the vegetables to be pre- served. After stuffing the vacuities with straw, and covering the surface of the ice with the same material, I place on it case-boxes, dry ware casks, baskets, &c. ; and fill them with turnips, carrots, beet-roots, celery, and, in particular, potatoes. By the cold of the place, vegetation is so much suspended, that all these articles may be thus kept fresh and uninjured, till they give place to another crop in its natural season." 2297. Green fruits are generally preserved by pickling or salting, and the operation is performed by some part of the domestic establishment ; but in some countries it is made the province of the gardener, who, in Poland, preserves cucumbers and khol- rabbi by salting, and then immersing them in casks at the bottom of a deep well, where the water, preserving nearly the same temperature throughout the year, impedes their decay. It must be confessed, however, that vegetables so preserved are only fit to be eaten with animal food, as preserved cabbage (i. e. sour-crout,) or other salted legumes. 2298. Such ripe fruit as may be preserved is generally laid up in lofts and bins, or Ff 4 440 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. shelves, when in large quantities, and of baking qualities ; but the better sorts of apples and pears are now preserved in sets of drawers (Jig- 279.), sometimes spread out in them, at other times wrapt up in papers ; or placed in pots, cylindrical earthen vessels, among sand, moss, paper, chaff, hay, sawdust, &c. or sealed up in air-tight jars or casks, and placed in the fruit-cellar. ( 1 704. ) The finest pears, as the cressannes and chaumon- telles, should have their footstalks previously tipped with sealing-wax, as practised in France and the isles of Jersey and Guernsey. 2299. Hitt's method of keeping pears may be here mentioned. Having prepared a number of earthenware jars, and a quantity of dry moss (different species of hypnum and sphagnum), he placed a layer of moss and of pears alternately till the jar was filled ; a plug was then inserted, and sealed round with melted rosin. These jars were sunk in dry sand to the depth of a foot ; preferring a deep cellar for keeping them to any fruit-room. 2300. Miller, after sweating and wiping pears, in which operations he says great care must be taken not to bruise the fruit, packs them in close baskets, having some wheat- -straw in the bottom and around the sides to prevent bruising, and a lining of thick soft paper to hinder the musty flavor of the straw from infecting the fruit. Only one kind of fruit is put in each basket, as the process of maturation is more or less rapid in differing kinds. A covering of paper and straw is fixed on the top, and the basket is then deposited in a dry room, secure against the access of frost, " and the less air is let into the room, the better the fruit will keep.' 1 A label should be attached to each basket, denoting the kind of fruit ; for the basket is not to be opened till the fruit be wanted for use. 2301. James Steivart preserves his choice apples and pears in glazed earthenware jars, provided with tops or covers. In the bottom of the jars, and between each layer of fruit, he puts some pure pit-sand, which has been thoroughly dried on a flue. The jars are kept in a dry airy situation, as cool as possible, but secure from frost. A label on the jar indicates the kind of fruit ; and when this is wanted or ought to be used, it is taken from the jars, and placed for some time on the shelves of the fruit-room. The less ripe fruit is sometimes restored to the jars, but with newly dried sand. In this way he pre- serves colmars and other fine French pears till April ; the terling till June ; and many kinds of apples till July, the skin remaining smooth and plump. Others who also em- ploy earthenware jars, wrap each fruit iti paper, and, in place of sand, use bran. (Ed. Encyc. art. Hvrt.) 2302. Ingram, at Torry, in Scotland, finds that for winter pears two apartments are requisite, a colder and a warmer ; but the former, though cold, must be free from damp. From it the fruit is brought into the warmer room, as wanted ; and by means of increased temperature, maturation is promoted, and the fruit rendered delicious and mellow. Chaumontelles, for example, are placed in close drawers, so near to a stove, that the tem- perature may constantly be between 60 and 70 Fahr. For most kinds of fruit, how- ever, a temperature equal to 55 is found sufficient. The degree of heat is accurately determined by keeping small thermometers in several of the fruit-drawers, at different distances from the stove. The drawers are about six inches deep, three feet long, and two broad ; they are made of hard wood, fir being apt to spoil the flavor of the fruit. They are frequently examined in order to give air, and to observe the state of the fruit, it being wiped when necessary. Ingram remarks, that, in Scotland particularly, late pears should have as much of the tree as possible, even although some frost should supervene ; such as ripen freely, on the other hand, are plucked rather before they reach maturity. 2303. Winter apples are laid in heaps, and covered with mats or straw, or short or grass well dried. Here they lie for a fortnight or more, to sweat, as it is called, or to discharge some of their juice ; after which the skin contracts in a certain degree. They are next wiped dry with a woollen cloth, and placed in the fruit-room. Sometimes, when intended for winter dessert fruit, they are made to undergo a farther sweating ; and are again wiped and picked : they are then laid singly on the shelves, and covered with paper. Here they are occasionally turned, and such as show any symptoms of decay are immediately removed. 2304. The sweating of fruit is entirely disapproved by some, who affirm, that it thereby acquires a bad flavor, or, at any rate, that the natural flavor of the fruit is deteriorated, and that it gets dry and mealy. They consider it better to carry the fruit directly from the tree, carefully avoiding all sort of bruising, and to lay it thinly on the shelves of the fruit-room ; afterwards wiping each fruit, if necessary. The room, they say, should be dry, and the only use that should be made of a stove, is to take off the damp. Such is the prevailing practice at the present time. From what we have observed in the practice of such as are successful in preserving bread corn, and other seeds, as acorns, nuts, &c. we are inclined to think that sweating, by getting rid of a quantity of moisture, jnust, to a certain extent, be a beneficial practice. Marshall, and most French gar- BOOK IV. GATHERING AND PRESERVING. 441 deners, and English gardeners of the last century, are in favor of the practice, and those of the present day are against it. 2305. Knight's experience in Deserving fruits, with the rationale of his practice, is given in the following valuable extract : Fruits which have grown upon standard-trees, in climates sufficiently warm and favorable to brine them to maturity, are generally more firm in their texture, and more saccharine, and therefore more capable of being long preserved sound, than such as have been produced by wall-trees ; and a dry and warm atmosphere also operates very favorably to the preservation of fruits, under certain circumstances, but under other circumstances, very injuriously : for the action of those elective attractions which occasion the decay and decomposition of fruits, is suspended by the operation of different causes, in different fruits, and even in the same fruit, in different states of maturity. When a grape is growing upon the vine and till it has attained perfect maturity, it is obviously a living body, and its preservation dependent upon the powers of life ; but when the same fruit has some time passed its state of perfect maturity and has begun to shrivel, the powers of life are probably no longer, or at most very feeble, in action: and the fruit appears to be then preserved by the combined operation of its cellular texture, the antiseptic powers of the saccharine matter it contains, and by the exclusion of air by its external skin ; for if that be de- stroyed, it immediately perishes. If longer retained in a dry and warm temperature, the grape becomes gradually converted into a raisin ; and its component parts are then only held in combination by the ordinary laws of chemistry. A nonpareille apple or a catittac, a d'auch, or bergamotte de bugi pear, exhibits all the characters of a living vegetable body long after it has been taken from the tree, and appears to possess all the powers of other similar vegetable bodies, except that of growing, or vitally uniting to itself other matter and the experiments which I shall proceed to state, prove that the pear is operated upon by external caus'es nearly in the same manner after it has been detached from the tree, as when it remains vitally united to it. Most of the fine French pears, particularly the d'auch, are much subject, when cultivated in a cold and unfavorable climate, to crack before they become full grown upon the trees, and, consequently, to" decay before their proper season or state of maturity ; and those which present these defects in my garden are therefore always taken immediately from the trees to a vinery, in which a small fire is constantly kept in winter, and they are there placed at a small distance over its flue. Thus circumstanced, a part of my crop of auch pears ripen, and will perish, if not used, in November, when the remainder continue sound and firm till March or April, or later ; and the same warm temperature which preserves the grape in a slightly shrivelled state, till January, rapidly accelerates the maturity, and consequent decay of the pear. By gathering a part of my swan's egg pears early in the season (selecting such as are most advanced towards maturity), and subjecting them, in the manner above mentioned, to artificial heat, and by retard- ing the maturity of the later part of the produce of the same trees, I have often had that fruit upon my table nearly in an equal state of perfection from the end of October to the beginning of February ; but the most perfect, in every respect, have been those which have been exposed in the vinery to light and arti- ficial heat, as soon as gathered. 2306. The most successful method of preserving pears and apples, which I have hitherto tried, has been placing them in glazed earthen vessels, each containing about a gallon (called, provincially, steens), and surrounding each fruit with paper ; but it is probable that the chaff of oats, if free from moisture or any offensive smell, might be used with advantage instead of paper, and with much less expense or trouble. These vessels, being perfect cylinders, about a foot each in height, stand very conveniently upon each other, and thus present the means of preserving a large quantity of fruit in a very small room ; and if the spaces between the top of one vessel, and the base of another, be filled with a cement composed of two parts of the curd of skimmed milk, and one of lime, by which the air will be excluded, the later kinds of apples and pears will be preserved with little change in their appearance, and without any danger of decay from October till February and March. A dry and cold situation, in which there is little change of temperature, is the best for the vessels ; but I have" found the merits of the pears to be greatly increased by their being taken from the vessels about ten days before they were wanted for use, and being kept in a warm room ; for warmth at this, as at other periods, accelerates the maturity of the pear. The same agent accelerates its decay also ; and a warmer climate cannot contribute to the superior success of the French gardeners ; which probably arises only from the circumstance of their fruit being the produce of standard or espalier trees. 2307. Preserving ripe fruit by retaining it on the tree, or on detached shoots. Some fruits may be preserved through the winter by allowing them to hang on the tree in a moderate climate, somewhat above the freezing point. Vines are sometimes so preserved ; and Diel mentions that frequently on the nonpareil pippin, planted in pots, and kept under glass, without any fire-heat, he has had the fruit hanging on the tree till the ripening of the succeeding crop. Arkwright (Hort. Trans, vol. iii. 97.), by late forcing, retains plump grapes on his vines till the beginning of May, and even later, till the maturity of his early crops. In this way he gathers grapes every day in the year. By covering some sorts of cherry, plum, gooseberry, and currant trees, either on walls or as bushes, with mats, the fruit of the red and white currant, and of the thicker-skinned gooseberries, may be preserved to Christmas and later. Grapes, in the open air, may be preserved in the same manner ; and peaches and nectarines may, in this way, be kept a fortnight hang- ing on the trees after they are ripe. 2308. Preserving ripe fruit in air-tight vessels, in a low temperature, is perhaps the most effectual and certain mode, at least with the more hardy fruits. Apples and pears, placed in jars or pipkins in which butter had been kept, have been closely sealed up, and placed in a cellar, in a temperature never below 32, and not exceeding 42, for a year, and found in perfect order for eating. (Braddick, in Hort. Trans, vol. iii. ; Encyc. Brit. Supp. art. Food.} 2309. Preserving fruit, by gathering it before it is ripe, and then retarding its ripening. Retarding the wasting or decay of fruit or vegetables gathered for use, is effected by burying them in boxes in the soil, immersing them in deep wells, or, as already stated, placing them in an ice-house, or an ice-cold room. Ripe peaches may thus be kept a week, and other fruits longer ; pears, cauliflowers, salads, &c. preserved in a fresh state for some days, and potatoes and other tubers and bulbs for a long period, both fresh and without growing. 442 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 2310. Seeds. When seeds are to be preserved longer than the usual period, or when they are to be sent to a great distance, various devices have been adopted to preserve their vitality. Sugar, salt, tallow, cotton, sawdust, sand, clay, paper, &c. have been adopted with different degrees of success. 231 1. Livingston, who, from a long residence in China, is well informed on the horticul- ture of the Chinese, states that, " from April to October, rain is so frequent in China, and the air is generally so moist, that it is nearly impossible to preserve seeds. If excluded from the air they are quickly covered with mildew, and when exposed, no less certainly destroyed by insects." He proposes to dry Chinese seeds by means of sulphuric acid, in Leslie's manner, which he found dried " small seeds in two days, and the largest seeds in less than a week. Seeds thus dried," he observes, " may be afterwards preserved in a vegetating state for any necessary length of time by keeping them in an airy situation in common brown paper, and occasionally exposing them to the air in a fine day, espe- cially after damp weather. This method will succeed with all the larger mucilaginous seeds. Very small seeds, berries, and oily seeds may probably require to be kept in sugar, or among currants or raisins." (Hort. Trans, vol. iii. 184., and the article Cold, in Supj). Encyc. Brit.) It is probable many seeds might be preserved and sent to a distance with safety, if, after being thoroughly matured and dried, they were enveloped or baked into a large ball of loam. Such a mode, at all events, being suggested by na- ture, deserves a trial. 2312. Nuts sent from the East Indies, compactly packed in a barrel of clay, and the head of the cask firmly put on, have made a partial developement of their parts during the voyage, and still grown after their arrival. Linrueus, writing to John Ellis says, " Fresh seeds may be conveyed in the following manner : Fill a glass vessel with seeds, so deposited in dry sand as not to touch each other, that they may freely perspire through the sand, laying a bladder or piece of paper, over the mouth of the vessel. This glass must be placed in one of larger dimensions, the intermediate space, of about two inches all round, being quite filled with three parts nitre, one of common sea-salt, and two of sal-ammoniac, all powdered and mixed, but not dried. This mixture will produce a constant cold, so as to prevent any injury to the seeds from external heat, as has been proved by experience." (Corresp. W. Linn. 110.) Ellis very cor- rectly answers Linnajus, that salts of no kind will generate cold air during dissolution, and that afterwards the mixture, whether dry or fluid, will soon acquire the same temperature with the sur- rounding air. He imagines the true use of salts to be to prevent putrefactive fermentation in the seeds. After trying a great variety of experiments on seeds and nuts sent to America, and even China, he found that sweating acorns, then letting them become perfectly ; dry, and enveloping them in melted tallow, or a mixture of melted tallow and wax, was the best mode. The tallow must not be hotter than blood heat when the seeds or nuts are bedded in it ; each must be kept separate ; and the greatest care had that they are thoroughly dried before being enveloped. Wax alone and gum he also found suc- cessful ; but, on the whole, he found tallow best Acorns kept a year in it, grew vigorously when taken out and planted. (Corresp. of Linn, p. 119. et seq.) 2313. J. Howeson, when in Bengal, wrought a variety of seeds into a thick mucilage of gum Arabic, in the same way that caraway seeds are wrought into dough in making gingerbread. These he afterwards divided into small cakes, and placed them in the sun, until perfectly dry ; but as a number of the seeds still appeared on their surface, he dipped the cakes in a thin solution of gum, until the whole were com- pletely covered. On looking into a trunk, twelve years after his return to this country, he found a cake containing babul, or gum Arabic tree seeds, which, having separated, by dissolving the cake in water, he sowed on a hot-bed, when the proportion of three out of four seeds became healthy plants. He adds, " while I was in India, none of the methods then in use were effectual for bringing out garden-seeds from England in a sound state, even although enclosed in varnished cases, and sealed bottles. It appeared to me, that the air which occupied the spaces between the seeds contained a sufficient quantity of water in solution to produce, during the ship's passage through the warm latitudes, a musty fermentation, which inevitably destroys the living principle in seeds. It was from this view of the subject, that I was led totally to exclude air, by giving to each its own envelope." (Caled. Mem. iii. 238.) 2314. Roots, cuttings, grafts, and perennial plants in general are preserved, till wanted, in earth or moss, moderately moist, and shaded from the sun. The same principle is followed in packing them to be sent to a distance. The roots or root-ends of the plants or cuttings are enveloped in balls of clay or loam, wrapped round with moist moss, and air is admitted to the tops. In this way orange-trees are sent from Genoa to any part of Europe and North America in perfect preservation ; and cuttings of plants sent any distance which can be accomplished in eight months, or even longer with some kinds. Scions of the apple, pear, &c. if enveloped in clay, and wrapt up in moss or straw, and then placed in a portable ice-house so as to prevent a greater heat than 32 from pene- trating to them, would, there can be little doubt, keep a year, and might thus be sent from England to Australasia or China. Knight found that the buds of fruit-trees might be preserved in a vegetating state, and sent to a considerable distance, by reducing the leaf-stalks to a short length, and enclosing the shoot in a double fold of cabbage-leaf, bound close together at each end, and then enclosing the package in a letter. " It was found advantageous to place the under surface of the cabbage-leaf inwards, by which the enclosed branch was supplied with humidity, that being the perspirating surface of the leaf, the other surface being nearly or wholly impervious to moisture." (Hort. Trans. vol. iv. p. 4O3.) 2315. Packing and conveying plants in pots. Plants in pots are packed among moss in boxes, with their tops covered with a net, and sent to any distance where the climate 'will not injure them, and where water is supplied. Where the climate is severe, they are covered with a glazed tegument, and thus glass cases or temporary hot-houses are employed in ships to carry tender plants from this country to the colder colonies, and to BOOK IV. FINAL PRODUCTS DESIRED OF GARDENS. 443 bring plants from the warmer colonies home. Stove-plants are also transported from France, Holland, and Hamburgh, into Germany and Russia, in waggons with glass covers. 2316. In packing plants for importation, much more care is requisite than has in general been bestowed on the subject. " It is thought enough," Lindley observes (Hort. Trans, v. 192.), " to tear a plant from its native soil, to plant it in fresh earth, to fasten it in a wooden case, and put it on board a vessel." Nothing can be more erroneous : preparatory for packing, the plants should have their roots well established in pots or boxes, which may, in woody kinds, require from one to three months. Boxes with proper per- forations in the bottom are better than pots, because less liable to break, and of less weight. When the period for embarking them arrives, they should be placed in wooden cases, the tops of which must be capable of being opened, and should slope both ways, like the roof of a double green-house These cases must be furnished with a tarpawling, fixed along their tops, and sufficiently large, when unrolled, to cover them completely, so as to protect the plants from being damaged by the salt-water dashing over them in rough weather. It cannot be expected that heavy cases should meet with very gentle treatment on ship- board ; and it is certain they will be handled in the roughest manner by watermen, carters, and custom- house officers, after they have arrived in port. The materials, therefore, of which they are made, ought to be of a very strong description, and the joints of the lower part either secured by iron bands or well dovetailed together. The person in charge of the cases on board should have directions never to ex- clude them from air and light in fine weather, unless to protect them from the cold, as the vessel makes the land, and after she is in port, or during high winds, or especially when the seamen are washing the decks ; but in foul weather to close the lids down, and to unrol the tarpawling over the latter, so as to exclude the sea-spray effectually. If, notwithstanding these precautions, saline particles should become encrusted upon the leaves and stems of the plant, it is necessary that the former should be removed as soon and as carefully as possible, with fresh water and a sponge, otherwise the salt will soon kill them. The quantity of water the plants receive must be determined by what can be spared ; so that no other direction for its application can be given, than to keep the mould just moist. The requisite supply of water must also depend much upon the way in which the cases are drained. The best manner in which this can be effected, is by causing holes about half an inch in diameter to be bored through the bottom of the cases and pots. Much mischief being occasionally done to collections by monkeys and parroquets on board the vessels, it is highly necessary that means should be taken to guard against their attacks. 2317. Collections are not infrequently injured after they arrive in this country, by the pots being shaken so violently as to be deprived of a large portion of their mould. Nothing can well be more destructive of vegetable life than this, which should be prevented by the pots being made square, so as to fit accurately into the bottom of the outer case. There then could be no difficulty in keeping them steady ; and if they were fastened down by cross pieces of wood, they would be secured still more completely. In addition, the surface of the mould ought to be covered deeply with coarse moss, or other similar substance (not grass), which Tiight be secured by packthread passed frequently across the box from its sides, or by slender laths, which would be less likely to become rotten than packthread. By this means, evaporation of the watery particles which are necessary to the existence of the plants, proceeds much less rapidly than when the mould is exposed ; and the latter has an additional security against being shaken out of the pots. When it happens that pots are not to be procured, the want of them must be supplied by the collection being planted in earth in the cases themselves, their bottom being previously strewed to the depth of an inch or two with fragments of earthenware or bits of wood. In such cases, it is particularly necessary that the mould should be securely fastened down. 2318. Parasitical orchidece, or, as they are commonly called, air plants, may be transported safely to any distance, by being packed loosely in moss, and put into boxes so constructed that the plants may be ex- posed to a free admission of air, but protected from the sea- water. 2319. Bulbs travel most securely if they are packed in paper or canvass bags, they having been previously dried, till all the moisture in their outer coats is evaporated. Dry sand is a good medium for placing them in, if opportunities should not have occurred of giving them the necessary exposure to the sun. But minute bulbs, such as those of ixias, gladioluses, oxalises, and others of a similar kind, only require to be folded in separate little parcels without any previous preparation. Terrestrial orchidea? should be transplanted when in flower, and not when their roots are in a state of rest. 2320. Any woody or bony seeds, or capsules, that may have been procured should be buried among the mould in which plants are potted ; or any of those seeds, the juices of which become rancid soon after gathering, such as those of the guttifereae, magnoliacea?, sterculiacea?, &c. Camellia-seeds which are not readily transported, if sown in mould in China, will have become seedling plants before they reach this country. Acorns and walnuts may be conveyed from hot countries much better in this way than in any other. Palms, too, are better sent in this way than in bags or paper. The plants in all cases, if possible, should have numbers punched upon small pieces of thin sheet-lead, and fastened round the subjects to which they belong with fine iron or copper wire. When such lead is not to be procured, little wooden tallies should be used instead. (Hort. Trans, v. 194.) 2321. Packing and transporting roots of plants, or entire plants in a dormant state, is a very simple operation. When the distance does not exceed a week's journey, they are packed in straw, and covered with mats : if a longer period is required, the roots are en- veloped in earth or moss ; but very moist moss is not desirable, as it occasions mouldiness, and rots off the bark of the roots when it begins to dry. Regard in all cases must be had to the kind of plant, season of the year, distance, time, and mode of carriage. CHAP. IV. Operations relative to the final Products desired of Gardens, and Garden-scenery. 2322. T/ie object of gardening is certain vegetable productions, and certain beauties and effects in respect to design and taste. We now propose to notice the general principles by which the gardener ought to be guided, in directing the operations for the attainment of these ends ; the mode of conducting the business of a garden in an orderly manner ; and the leading points of attention, requisite to ensure the beauty and order of garden- scenery. SECT. I. Of the Vegetable Products desired of Gardens. 2323. The vegetable productions of gardens are fruits, seeds, roots, stems, and stalks, leaves, flowers, barks, woods, and entire plants. 444 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 2324. Fruits. All plants require to attain the age of puberty, before they will pro- duce fruits or seeds. In annuals, as in the melon, this happens in a few weeks or months ; in trees, as the pear, it requires several years. The first object is to induce the production of blossom-buds ; the next, to induce the blossoms to set or fecundate ; and the third, to swell and ripen the fruit. New fruits are procured from seeds properly pro- duced and selected ; continued in trees by grafting or budding ; in perennials, by slips or runners ; in annuals, by seeds. The quality of fruits is improved by abundant supplies of nourishment, by increased air, light, and heat, by pruning, thinning, and other means ; their bulk by moisture ; and their flavor by withholding moisture and increasing light, heat, and air. Fruit is preserved by placing it in a low dry temperature, burying it in the earth, or drying it in the sun. 2325. Seeds are the essential part of fruits, or constitute the entire fruit, and are pro- duced on the same general principle. Those produced for culinary purposes in garden- ing are chiefly from annuals, and used green, as the pea, bean, Indian cress, &c. ; but seeds of almost all garden-vegetables are occasionally produced for the sake of propagat- ing the species. Here attention is requisite to make choice of a proper stock, and to place it so as not to be in danger of impregnation from other allied species, which might hybridise the progeny ; to thin out superfluous blossoms ; to remove leafy or barren exuber- ances, or bulbs, tubers, or other productions which might lessen the nourishment devoted to the production of the seed. Seeds of common forest-trees are not generally subjected to so careful management as those of herbaceous vegetables or rarer trees ; but, wherever the best progeny are desired, the same practices are applicable. Light, air, and a free exposure, with dry, warm weather, are essential to the proper ripening of seeds. They are preserved in dry, cool temperatures, like fruits ; and, if perfectly excluded from air and moisture, will never vegetate ; but the vital principle of most seeds is but of short duration. 2326. Roots, to be produced in perfection, require a deep, well pulverised, pliable, porous soil, and moderate moisture. The plants should, in all cases, be prevented from bearing seeds, should have their roots thinned where practicable, and their leaves care- fully preserved, and fully exposed to the sun, air, and weather. Roots are preserved by burying in the earth ; by being placed in low, dry temperatures, like fruits; or by being kept dry, or dried by art ; or having their buds scooped out, when not intended for vegetation. 2327. Leaf-stalks are increased in size in the same way as roots, by a rich, deep, well pulverised soil, by preventing the plant from producing blossoms, or even flower-stalks, and by thinning out weak or crowded leaves. Leaf-stalks are blanched to lessen their acrimony, as in the celery, asparagus, and chardoon, or used in a green state, as in the rhubarb and angelica. They are preserved to a certain extent in cool, dry, but well ven- tilated situations ; some sorts, as celery, similarly to roots. The stems of some plants, as the asparagus, are used like leaf-stalks. 2328. Leaves. Abundant nourishment supplied by the usual means ; abundant moisture, and room for expansion of growth ; free exposure to light and air ; thinning, and preventing the appearance of flower-stalks, will in general ensure large succulent leaves, which are sometimes used separately and green, as in the spinage and white beet ; in tufted or compact heads, as in the cabbage and lettuce, or blanched, as in the endive. Leaves of the headed or tufted sorts may be preserved similarly to leaf-stalks ; others, as those of most salads, require to be used immediately ; while most herbs are dried, before being used, either on small kilns or ovens, or in the sun, at the time the plant begins to blossom. 2329. Flowers. These are produced for culinary purposes, medicine, and ornament. The principal of those grown for culinary purposes are the cauliflower and broccoli, and here the first object is to produce a large and vigorous plant, by abundant nourishment and moisture in a temperate, moist, but not over-warm climate. Free room for the roots and leaves to extend on every side must be given, and the situation should be open and exposed to the full light of the atmosphere ; though, if in very hot weather the direct in- fluence of the sun's rays be impeded by a screen at a moderate distance, there will be less risk of over-rapid growth. When the plant is fully grown, the flower appears, and, in the case of the sorts mentioned, is gathered whilst the fasciculus of blossom is in embryo. Such flowers may be preserved, on the same principle as stalks and headed leaves, for a moderate period. Other flowers, used for culinary purposes, as those of the nasturtium, caper, &c. for pickling, require less attention, the object being flavor rather than magnitude. 2330. Flowers for medical jwrjwses should have no culture whatever ; for, in proportion as they are increased in bulk they are diminished in virtue. For ornament, flowers are enlarged, increased in number, rendered double, and variegated in a thousand ways, by excess of nourishment, peculiar nourishment, and raising from selected and curiously im- pregnated seed : these are called florists' flowers. Other flowers are grown for ornament, with a moderate degree of culture, which enlarges their parts generally : such are border- flowers. Others are grown, as much as possible, without producing any change in their parts, as in botanical collections, whether hardy or exotic. BOOK IV. SUPERINTENDENCE OF GARDENS. 445 2331. Barks produced by British gardening are applied only to one purpose, that of tanning. Little or no culture is ever given expressly to increase or improve the bark ; but abundant nourishment and all the requisites of vegetable growth will increase that part of the plant in common with others. Moss, or any other cortical parasites, should be removed. Bark is best separated from the wood, when the sap is ascending with the greatest vigor, late in spring. 2332. Woods. The production of timber, and coppice-wood or small timber, is an important and extensive branch of gardening. Timber is propagated in various ways, but the principal sorts generally from seed, either sown where it is finally to arrive at maturity, or in nursery-gardens, and transplanted into prepared or unprepared ground. The growth of all timber may be greatly increased by culture, and especially by deeply turning over, and pulverising the soil previously to planting or sowing, and stirring it, and removing weeds afterwards. The timber is also produced in the most useful, or in any desired form, as in trunks or branches, straight or crooked, or in spray or small shoots, by pruning. But as it is chiefly desired in the form of a straight stem or trunk, pruning is particularly useful in this respect, especially when joined to judicious thinning, to al- low of the beneficial effects of air, and the motion produced by wind. Though pruning and pulverising the soil are undoubtedly of great use in hastening the growth of trees when young, and consolidating their timber as they grow old, yet planting trees in a more rich, warm, and moist soil than is natural to them, is to be avoided. The timber of the Scotch pine and the oak, grown in deep fertile valleys, or in alluvial depositions, is found to be less hard, tough, and durable, than when grown in colder situations and thinner soils. This doctrine applies more especially to the resinous tribe of timber-trees, which, as every one knows, thrive best in cold regions, produced by elevation in warm, countries, as in the Alps of Italy, or by high latitudes, as in Russia and Sweden. Where timber is grown for fuel, the more rapidly it is made to grow, whether by culture or the choice of species (as the willow, robinia, &c. ), the greater will be the produce and profit within a given period. The preservation of timber from fungi, insects, dry rot, and natural de- cay is best effected by immersion in water or in earth, or complete desiccation in the open air. (Supp. Encyc. Brit. art. Dry Rot.} 2333. The entire plant is produced in gardening, for ornament, in herbs, shrubs, and trees, but especially in exotics ; sometimes for culinary purposes, as in the fungi and fuci ; for purposes of general economy, as in hedge-plants ; for shelter and shade, in hardy trees ; and for picturesque effect in trees and shrubs, in parks and pleasure- grounds. In general, the object of culture for this purpose ought to be to give each in- dividual plant sufficient nourishment and space fully to expand itself, and, as it were, show and express its nature or character : but though this will often apply in hot-houses and artificial gardens, it is in general but partially accomplished, even in picturesque scenery, in the open air, where the object is connection and grouping of different objects, rather than the display of single ones ; and it is inconsistent with the formation of hedges, rows, strips, and masses. SECT. II. Of the Superintendence andtManagement of Gardens. 2334. Whenever the culture and management of a garden requires more than the labor of one man, one of those employed must necessarily be appointed to arrange the labors of the rest, and, in fact, to establish a general system of management. It is only under such a system that the performance of operations can be procured in the proper season, and the objects in view successfully attained, and' at a moderate expenditure. 2335. On being appointed to a situation as head gardener, the first thing to be done, in that capacity, is to survey the extent of the field of operations, and to ascertain any peculiar products or objects desired by the master, so as to determine the number of per- manent hands that will be required. Then the number of implements of every kind must be fixed on and procured, and an estimate formed of the occasional hands, men or women, that may be necessary as extraordinary assistants at particular seasons. If only two or three permanent men are required, then one of them should be appointed foreman, to act as master during absence or sickness, and to have constantly the special charge of the hot- houses, or forcing and exotic departments. If, however, the situation is of such extent as to require a dozen permanent hands or upwards, then it will generally be found best to appoint a foreman to each department ; as one to the artificial climates of the kitchen- garden, another to the open garden, one to the flower-garden and shrubbery, pleasure- ground, &c. (when there are plant-stoves and collections of florists' flowers, these de- partments should be divided), and one to the woods and plantations, unless there is a regular forester directly under the control of the master. To each of these foremen a limited number of permanent men should be assigned, and when occasion requires, assistance should be allowed them, either by common laborers or women, or by a temporary transfer of hands from any of the other departments from which they can be spared. 4-16 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 2336. Economical arrangements. The next thing is to fix on the hours of labor and of rest, the amount of wages, and regulations as to board, lodging, Sec. The hours of labor ought to be at least one hour per day less than those for common laborers (who require no mind), in order to allow time for studying the science of -the art to be practised. The amount of fines should also be fixed on at the same time : as for absence at the hours of going to labor ; for defects in the performance of duty of various sorts, as putting by a tool without cleaning it, being found without a knife or apron, or not knowing the name of a plant, &c. - A set of general maxims and rules of conduct should be drawn up by the master (for which the succeeding section will afford some hints), and printed, and the amount of fine specified at the end of each rule. The fines may either be applied to some general purpose, or returned by equal distribution quarterly. 2337. The system of keeping accounts may next be determined on, and this, in gar- dening, is very simple. The books necessary are, the time-book, the cash-book, and tlie forest or plantation book. 2338. The time-book is a large folio volume, ruled so as to read across both pages, with columns titled, as in the specimen in the next page. In this the master inserts the name of every hand ; and the foreman of each department inserts the time in days, or proportions of a day, which each person under his care has been at work, and the par- ticular work he or she has been engaged in. At the end of each week the master sums up the time from the preceding Saturday or Monday, to the Friday or Saturday inclu- sive ; the sum due or to be advanced to each man is put in one column, and when the man receives it he writes the word received in the column before it, and signs his name as a receipt in the succeeding column. The time-book, therefore, will show what every man has been engaged in during every hour in the year for which he has been paid, and it will also contain receipts for every sum, however trifling, which has been paid by the gardener for garden-labor. In short, it would be difficult to contrive a book more satisfactory for both master and servant than the time-book, as it prevents, as far as can well be done, the latter from deceiving either himself or his employer, and remains an authentic indisputable record of work done, and of vouchers for money paid during the whole period of the head gardener's services. In laying out grounds in a distant part of the country, where upwards of two hundred men were employed under one foreman, we have had their time, employment, and payments recorded, and receipts taken, in this way, and found it an effectual bar to every thing doubtful or disagreeable. 2339. The next book is the cash-book, (see next page,) which may be a common quarto or octavo book, with horizontal lines running across both pages ; Dr. and Cr. columns for cash on the left-hand page ; and the right-hand page left blank for signatures. The cash-book may be finally balanced once a-year, or oftener, and, if requisite, the sums received from the woods and plantations can be taken out and added together, to show the amount of profit by that department. In small gardens, this is the only book that gardeners in general require to keep ; but our business here is to show what belongs to first-rate gardens. 2340. The forest-book, (see next page,) where that department is not an entirely separate concern, may be simply what, in Italian book-keeping, is called a waste-book. The size may be quarto, with a column for cash to each page, and the intention of the book is to serve as a record for all bargains for the sale of timber, fuel, bark, or the felling of timber, grubbing, planting, &c. When the money is received for any such sale, it is entered in the cash-book ; as paid for work done, it is entered in the time-book. In very extensive concerns it may be necessary to open accounts for particular woods or plantations, as well as for individuals who become purchasers of timber, bark, fuel, charcoal, &c. ; in such cases it is hardly necessary to observe, that recourse is to be had to the common ledger of merchants. 2341. Substitutes for books. When a man acting as gardener, forester, or foreman over a number of laborers, can neither read, nor write, he may keep an account of their time, money, and a journal of work done, in various ways, and among others as follows : For men's time he may take seven small flower-pots for the seven days of the week and set them in order on a shelf. In each pot put as many bits of sticks as there are men employed, and a different kind of wood for each man ; and then cut each stick with four edges or sides. To prevent mistakes as to the in- dividual men the different woods represent, apply the names of the woods to the men, and this from first hiring them, (" John Davies, I shall call you Lime-tree, and here is your stick," &c.) and always after- wards when speaking to them. To note their time on the sticks, let a corner notch denote one entire day ; a cut on one face, one quarter; on two faces, or half round the stick, two quarters ; or three sides, four quarters ; and on four sides, or a single notch and one side, five quarters, and so on. When pay night comes, take one kind of wood out of each of the pots, reckon the notches and cuts, and adding them together, call the man " Lime-tree, your time is five days," &c. To keep a cash-account, have three bags for gold, silver, and copper, and different-colored stones or shells, &c. in each, to represent sovereigns, shillings, &c. Then have three pots for payments, answering to the Cr. /. *. d. columns in a cash-account ; the bags answering to the Dr. columns. Then, for every real transaction make a counter-transaction between the bags and pots, &c. The rest is obvious. To keep a ledger, for each man as represented by a sort of wood, or each object as represented by a bit of itself, &c. keep bags and pots, and effect counter-transactions, &c. To keep a journal of operations, for each man devote seven pots for a week, or twenty-eight for a month, &c. Then suppose you wish to note what Lime-tree is doing on Monday, put in his pot a bit of some- thing taken from the place where he is at work, or the things he is at work with ; thus, if he is at work with tan or gravel, a little of each in a paper ; pruning, a twig ; mowing, a little grass ; watering, a bit of iris or other water-plant ; or on a journey, a leaf of wayfaring-tree or a little road-grit ; digging, a leaf or twig from some noted tree in that compartment, &c. &c. These visible memoranda will, to a man whose memory is unencumbered by written signs, readily recall operations, and enable him after months to recount, in the order in which it was executed, the work done by himself or the men under his care. As farm-bailiffs are often very illiterate, it might also be tried, with them, and would at all events serve to occupy and amuse some descriptions of masters and mistresses. BOOK IV. SUPERINTENDENCE OF GARDENS. 447 I t *1 1IIII3 ijfjj es, it jljfj fflii If 8 & n II 3 2 * III * I t* J i 11 *S : S ^filflilii 22 I gj 448 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. 2342. The time, cash, and forest books, and, in common cases, the two first, will answer every purpose as to money matters in private gardens : where gardening is practised as a trade, as in nurseries, &c. of course the routine books common to trades become necessary. 2343. The additional books which a gardener may require as official records in his office are a journal of sowing and reaping, trenching-book, produce-book, and weather-book , or some of these books may be very well supplied by tables of common folio or quarto size. The sowing and reaping-book may be an octavo blank book, with a column for the date on each page. On the left hand page, the time and place of sowing or planting is recorded, and when the crop is fit to gather, that circumstance is noticed in the opposite page, and in an opposite line, thus 1821. April 4. Sowing or Planting. 1821. Gathering the Crop. Planted Mazagan beans in Q. No. 1. A. Sowed spinage between the rows of beans in ditto. July 23. May 29. Gathered the first dish of beans. Gathered part of the spinage. 2344. Or a cropping table may be used for this purpose ( 'fig. 4 1 3. ) in which there Nov may be two vertical columns for each of the principal crops sown in gardens, and horizontal lines for each month. Then suppose frame peas, sown in Novem- ber, begin a line on the left hand co- lumn, headed peas, opposite November, and write the variety frame in the right hand column ; and when the peas are fit to gather, trace the line diagonally down to the horizontal line representing the month (May, in the figure) in which they ripen. This is a very simple mode, as it presents the sowing and reaping of the whole of the principal kitchen- garden crops at one view. A few large sheets, ruled in this manner, might be bound together ; one page would serve for a year, and when a few years were recorded, the whole would present a rich assemblage of facts to suggest ideas as to cropping. 2345. The trenching-book. Another very requisite book in extensive gardens is the trenching-book, which is simply a thin octavo volume, in which a page is devoted to each compartment of the kitchen-garden or nursery, or to any ground frequently trenched; and in this column the date of the trenching and the depth is recorded. The object is to ensure fresh soil at the surface, by never trenching twice in succession to the same depth. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 413 'yet, Sf Beau Turn ens fr,Ca tes ' ;, . . \ \ M aff ; \ffarfr \\ \\ ITiyfs \\\ -Early 1 i \\\\ SJ V \\ ^\\\ \\\ \\\ \\ ^ \ V \v\ \\\ So \\\ \\\ < \v \v x \\\\ \\N \\\ \\\ \\\ v\\\\ \\\ \\v \ \ \\\ \\\ \v \\\\ r \,, VJL V- \\\ \ \ \ i \\ \ \\ V \ \ o*a Hath" s Cl s lr s &_JS _ 1817 to 1820. Compartment, No. 2. A. 1817 to 1820. Compartment, No. 2. B. 1817 April. 1818 September. 1819 January. 1820 October. Trenched two spits after asparagus for turnips. three spits and winter fallow. 1817 February. 1818 1819 1820 August. Trenched two spits, and dunked for strawberries. Strawberries. Strawberries. Trenched three spits, and well dunged. 2346. Or a trenching-table may be easily arranged thus : Com. No. 1. Com. No. 2. Com. No. 3. Com. No. 4. Slip, No. 5. A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D 1817. 4 3 2 1 1 3 j 1 4 1 1 2 4 1 2 4 1 3 1 1 1818. 3 2 3 2 4 _ 4 2 - 2 4 3 1 2 3 3 4 2 3 1 1819. 2 1 4 3 2 _ 2 3 - 3 3 4 2 _ - 2 3 1 4 '2 1820. 1 4 I 4 - - 1 4 1 4 2 - 3 - - 1 3 - - 4 2347. Plan of the kitchen-garden. For the two last books or tables, as well as for a variety of other purposes, it is necessary that a plan of the kitchen-garden should be made. BOOK IV. SUPERINTENDENCE OF GARDENS. 449 and the compartments numbered, and their subdivisions lettered ; and this plan, as well as another exhibiting every scene under the gardener's care, should be framed and hung up in the office for constant reference. 2348. The produce-book may be either a quarto or octavo volume, ruled with blue lines across both pages, with a column for the date on the left-hand page, and the other blank for signatures. In this book is to be entered daily, on the left-hand page, the disposal of produce gathered or taken from the garden or garden-stores, as the fruit-room, ice- cold room, &c. On the right-hand page the name of the party in the family of the master receiving it is to be signed by the receiver as a receipt. Such books are not uncommon in first-rate gardens; and, like the game-book and cellar-book, are of very considerable use. 1821. Garden Produce. ent peas, onions, parsley, cabbage, spinage, and herbs, to the kitchen, by J. Gott Two bunches sweetwater grapes, two cucumbers, a pottle of strawberries, and a pine, by J. Twigg A large nosegay for Lady Alineria, by J. Gott Sent a fine fruit of the blood pine to the Horticultural Society in London ; and also a seedling mango plant, and some seeds of the new red lettuce. Booked them, per mail at Reading, and directed them to J. Sabine, Esq. Horticultural Society, Regent Street, London. Signatures. Receired by me, Leah Fry, cook. Received by me, Joseph Tomcat, butler. Received by me, Juliet Flirtwell, for my Lady A. 2349. A weather-book is very useful, and may be either of the folio or quarto size, with columns for the 1821. June T : ii. ien nett N F E. Baro- meter. Rain and Hail. Wind. General character of the weather. Trees in Leaf, or defo- liated. Fungi appear, &c. Plants in Flower or Fruit. Birds and Insects ap- pear or dis- appear. Observ- ations as to Fish and other Ani- mals. Miscellane- ous. Bodily Pains, pre- vailing Dis- eases, &c. 21 22 '23 ,'Vl 53 r il 71 61) fil 60 58 5y 28.90 28.8 28 8 0. 0.02 00 S. S.W. S.W. Fair. Showers. Cloudv Marchantia polymorpha tion. Lilium can- didum in full blow. Sphinx elpenor appears. Spawn of the Carp hatched in breeding pond. Dull and sleepy. 24 r 'S 70 .58 28.7 0.01 S.W Windy. na in flower. Ditto Bream. pains. There is a very good model of this description, called the Naturalist's Calendar, by the Honorable Daines Barrington, in quarto, which may be procured and filled up. Indeed every apprentice ought to be made to keep such a kalendar, for the sake of inducing habits of observation. For further instruction, see the Naturalist's Kalendar, of White, and Naturalist's Pocket-book, of Graves. It has been judiciously remarked (Farm. Mag. 1820.), that in all kalendars of nature, particular attention should be paid to the in- florescence of aquatics, as these are much more regular in their times of foliation and flowering than land plants. The comparative denseness of 'the medium in which they live, prevents their being affected by winds or rains, and probably also by electrical and other atmospherical changes. 2350. For keeping a register of the temperature of hot-houses and the open air, a book with columns may be adopted, or a table (Jig. 414.) may be fixed on, in which the ver- 414 August,!, 2, 3, .4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. 1 1,12,13,14, 15,1 6,17,18.19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 24,26,26, 27,28,29. 50 Days. Pinerv. tical lines representing days of the month, and the horizontal ones degrees, the variations of each house, and the open air, may be shown by wavy lines made by daily increments depressed or raised, according to the rise or fall of the thermometer in each separate 150 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART III. house or place. Twelve tables, or twelve pages of an oblong folio book ruled in this way, would keep a register of all the hot-houses, frames, and the open air of a garden for a year. A very beautiful graphic mode (Jig. 415.) of recording the variations of temperature of the open air, or of any one hot- house during a year, is given 415 by Howard, in his Climate of London, a simplification of which may be adopted by the curious gardener. Here the indicating line waves upon a circular zone, composed of ra- diating lines, representing time, and concentric circles repre- senting degrees of heat. One line represents the average tem- perature of the year : all the degrees exceeding the average temperature are projected be- yond this line towards the ex- tremity of the zone ; and all the degrees under the average are projected from the average line towards the inner circum- ference of the zone. A series of tables of this sort might prove useful to the gardener, by enabling him at all times, by a simple glance, to compare the present weather with that of se- veral past years. Howard's nomenclature of clouds, already given (1235.), deserves also the study of the gardener desirous of scientifically registering the weather. (Encyc. Brit. Sup. vol. iii. art. Cloud.} 2351. Records of the gmvtli of plants are sometimes kept to show the comparative warmth and congeniality of seasons to vegetation. When that is to be done, a table 416 Feb. March, April. May. June. Julj. Aug. Briony. Kiclnejbean. (Jig. 416.) may be composed of horizontal lines, the distance between which shall represent space in feet or inches, and vertical lines, the dis- tance between which shall represent time by months or days. Then supposing a plant (briony) beginning to push in the middle of March, make a mark on the lowest line in the middle of the column for that month, and trace the line as the plant grows, ascending diago- nally through the other months, according to the progress of the shoot in feet. If a kidney- bean germinates in the beginning of April, and attains the height of ten feet by the first of Sep- tember, then the indicatory line will pass through five vertical columns or months, and through ten feet, or spaces, between the horizontal lines (as in the figure). All these books, tables, and records must be kept in the office as a part of its library ; by which means, when the head gardener is changed, the new-comer will the sooner become acquainted with the situation and climate, his duties, and a variety of other useful circumstances. 2352. Memorandum books. Besides the above book sand tables, it is almost unnecessary to add, that various small blank books for inventories of tools, memorandums of agree- ments, out of door entries lists of names, &c. will be required both by the head gardener and by his different foremen. Models of all these books may be had at Harding' s Agricultural Library, St. James's Street, London. 2353. The reading library of the gardener's office should at least contain the following works. One of the best Encyclopedias, and whichever one is adopted, add the Suppl. to the Encyc. Brit., the best work of its kind hitherto published. The Agricultural Survey of the County, and statistical account of the parish. If convenient, the surveys of all the counties in the empire should be procured. The best modern Systeema Nature of the time ; Turton's Linnaeus, is very imperfect, but the only one to be had at present. The best Introduction to Botany, say that of Sir J. E. Smith, for technical or systematic bo- tany ; and that of Keith for physiology. The best catalogues of plants, say those of Sweet and Page. The best Flora Britannka for the time, say Galpine's, or the Translation of Flora Britannica, by Sir J. E. Smith. Sowerby's British Botany ; his Mineralogy ; BOOK IV. BEAUTY AND ORDER OF GARDEN-SCENERY. 451 and Zoology, when published, Kirby and Spence's Introduction to Entomology ; and Samouelle's Entomologist's Useful Companion. The best Dictionary of Botany and Cul- ture, say that of Miller, enlarged by Martyn. Marshall, Pontey, and Sang, on planting. Wheatley, Girardin, Price, and Repton, on laying out grounds. The Transactions of tlie London and Edinburgh Horticultural Societies. The best Gardeners Calendar for the time, say that of Abercrombie for England, and Abercrombie or Nicol, for Scotland and Ireland. All new works on practical gardening, if possible, as they appear. Eng- lish, Latin, French, and Geographical Dictionaries, and as many other works as the master may be pleased to deposit in the gardener's office, or lend from the library of the mansion. 2354. These books ought to be considered as for the use of journeymen and apprentices, as well as the master ; but the latter ought to be responsible for their being kept clean and perfect. Where the head gardener is of a humane and kind turn of mind, he may as- semble the men and also the women, and read aloud, and expound to, or answer ques- tions put by them ; or he may cause them to read aloud to and question one another, in such a way as to blend entertainment with instruction. In short, he ought to consider it as a part of his duty to improve their minds, as well as to render them habile in his art, and by all means to ameliorate their condition and manners as much as is in his power. Neill, one of the best modern writers on gardening, and obviously a humane and bene- volent man, states of the late Walter Nicol, that " he observed a praiseworthy practice, too much neglected by head gardeners, that of instructing his young men or assist- ants, not only in botany, but in writing, arithmetic, geometry, and mensuration. He used to remark, that he not only used to improve his scholars, but taught himself and made his knowledge so, familiar, that he could apply it in the daily business of life." The same practice, as already observed (235.), is still carried on in Germany. SECT. III. Of the Beauty and Order of Garden-scenery. 2355. To unite the agreeable with the useful is an object common to all the departments of gardening. The kitchen-garden, the orchard, the nursery, and the forest, are all in- tended as scenes of recreation and visual enjoyment, as well as of useful culture ; and enjoyment is the avowed object of the flower-garden, shrubbery, and pleasure-ground. Utility, however, will stand the test of examination longer and more frequently than any scene merely beautiful, and hence the horticultural and planting departments of gar- dening are, in fact, more the scenes of enjoyment of a family constantly residing at their country-seat, than the ornamental or picturesque departments. It has been a very common assertion since the modern style of gardening became prevalent, and absorbed the attention of gardeners and their employers, that beauty and neatness may be dispensed with in a kitchen-garden ; but this is to assign too exclusive limits to the terms beauty and neatness ; and, in truth, may be considered as originating in the vulgar error of confounding beauty with ornament, which latter quality is unquestionably not essential to scenes of utility. Every department of gardening has objects or final results peculiar to itself ; and the main beauty of each of these departments will consist in the perfection with which these results are attained ; a secondary beauty Avill consist in the display of skill in the means taken to attain them ; and a third in the conformity of these means to the generally received ideas of order, propriety, and decorum, which exist in cultivated and well regulated minds. It is the business of this section to offer some general observ- ations, with a view to the attainment of the beauties of order, propriety, and decorum. The entire work is devoted to the former beauties. 2356. Order, it has been well observed, is " Heaven's first law." It is, indeed, the end of all law. Without it, nothing worth having is to be attained in life, even by the most fertile in resources ; and with it much may be accomplished with very slender means. A mind incapable of an orderly and regular disposition of its ideas or inten- tions, will display a man confused and disorderly in, his actions; he will begin them without a specific object in view : continue them at random, or from habit, without knowing well why, till some accident or discordant result puts an end to his present progress, unmans him for life, or awakens reflection. But a well ordered mind reflects, arranges, and systematises ideas before attempting to realise them, weighs well the end in view, considers the fitness of the means for attaining that end, and the best mode of em- ploying these means. To every man who has the regulation and disposal of a number of servants, this mode of orderly arrangement is essentially necessary in order to reap the full effects of their labors ; and to no men is it of more importance than to master- gardeners, whose cares are so various, and the success of whose operations, always con- nected with, and dependent on, living beings and weather, depends so much on their being performed in the fitting moment. 2357. Propriety relates to what is fitting and suitable for particular circumstances ; it is the natural result of an orderly mind, and maybe said to include that part of order which directs the choice and adaptation of means to ends, and of ideas and objects to G g 2 452 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. PART II. cases and situations. It belongs to order for a master to allow workmen proper periods for rest and refreshment ; propriety dictates the time and duration of these periods ; prudence suggests the wisdom of departing as little as possible from established practices. 2358. Decorum is the refinement of propriety. It is in order to procure stable-dung for hot-beds, and to cart it into the framing-ground ; it is proper to do this at all times when it is wanted, but it is decorous to have the work performed early in the morning, that the putrescent vapors and dropping litter may not prove offensive to the master of the garden, should he, or any of his family or friends, visit that scene. 2359. Neatness, as opposed to slovenliness, is well understood ; it consists in having every thing where it ought to be; and in attending to the decorum of finishing operations, and to minute things in general. These abstract hints maybe considered as more parti- cularly directed to master-operators ; the following practical directions apply both to masters and their journeymen or laborers. 2360. Perform every operation in tlie proper season. The natural, and therefore the best indications for the operations of sowing and reaping, transplanting, &c. are given- by the plants themselves, or by the progress of the season as indicated by other plants. But there are artificial kalendars or remembrancers, the use of which is to remind the master of the leading crops and operations of culture throughout the year. But, even if such books were made as perfect as their nature admits of, still they are only calculated to aid the memory, not to supply the place of a watchful and vigilant eye, and habits of attention, observation, reflection, and decision. Unless a gardener has these, either na- turally, or partly natural and partly cultivated, in a considerable degree, he will be but little better than a common laborer as to general management and culture of garden- scenery. 2361. Perform every operation in the best manner. This is to be acquired in part by practice and partly also by reflection. For example, in digging over a piece of ground, it is a common practice with slovens to throw the weeds and stones on the dug ground, or on the adjoining alley or walk, with the intention of gathering them off afterwards. A better way is to have a wheelbarrow, or if that cannot be had, a large basket, in which to put the weeds and extraneous matters, as they are picked out of the ground. Some per- sons, in planting or weeding, whether in the open air or in hot-houses, throw down all weeds, stones, and extraneous matters on the paths or alleys, with a view to pick them up, or sweep or rake together afterwards ; it is better to carry a basket or other utensil, either common or subdiv ided ( 1 400. ) , in which to hold in one part the plants to be planted, in another the extraneous matters, &c. 2362. Complete every part of an operation as you jrroceed. This is an essential point in garden-operations, and though it cannot always be attended to, partly from the nature of the operation, partly from weather, &c. yet the judicious gardener will keep it in view as much as possible. Suppose a compartment, or breadth of rows of potatoes, containing one tenth of an acre, required to have the ground stirred by the Dutch hoe, the weeds raked off, and then the potatoes earthed-up with the forked hoe ; the ordinary practice would be, first to hoe over the whole of the ground, then to rake it wholly over, and, lastly, to commence the operation of earthing-up. If the weather were certain of holding good two days, this, on the principle of the division of labor, would certainly be somewhat the most economical mode. But supposing the weather dry, the part left hoed and not raked will, for a time (and one hour ought to be an object in a fine garden), appear unfi- nished ; and if rain should happen to fall in the night, the operation will be defeated in most soils. Better, therefore, to hoe, rake, and earth-up a small part at a time : so that leave off where you will, what is done will be complete. 2363. Finish one job before you begin another. This advice is trite, but it is of great importance ; and there are few cases where it cannot be attended to. 2364. In leaving off working at any job, leave your work and tools in an orderly manner. Are you hoeing between rows, do not throw down your hoe blade upwards, or across the rows, and run off the nearest way to the walk the moment the breakfast or dinner hour strikes. Lay your implement down parallel to the rows, with its face or blade to the ground ; then march regularly between one row to the alley, and along the alley to the path. Never drop your tools and leave off work before the hour has well done striking ; and above all, never run on an occasion of this kind ; it argues a gross bru- talised selfishness, highly offensive to well regulated minds. 236-5. In leaving off ivork for the day, make a temporary Jinish, and carry your tools to the tool-house. In general, do not leave off in the middle of a row ; straighten your trenches in digging, because, independently of appearances, should a heavy rain of a week's duration intervene, the ground will have to be re-dug, and that will be more commodiously done with a straight than with a crooked, and consequently unequal trench. 2366. In passing to and from your work, or, on any occasion, through any part of what BOOK IV. BEAUTY AND ORDER OF GARDEN-SCENERY. 453 is considered under the charge of the gardener, keep a vigilant look out for weeds, de- cayed leaves, or any other deformity, and remove them, or some of them, in passing along. Attend to this particularly on walks, edgings, and in passing through hot- houses, &c. In liks manner take off insects, or leaves infected by them. Much in large as well as in small gardens may be effected by this sort of timely or preventive attention, which induces suitable habits for a young gardener, and occupies very little time. 2367. In gathering a crap or any part of a crop, remove at the same time the roots, leaves, stems, or whatever else belonging to the plant of which you have cropped the desired part is of no further use, or may appear slovenly, decaying, or offensive. In cutting cabbage, lettuce, borecoles, &c. pull up the stem (with exceptions) and roots, and take them at once with the outside leaves, to the compost-heap. Do the same with the haulm of potatoes, leaves of turnips, carrots, celery, &c. Do not suffer the haulm of peas and beans to re- main a moment after the last gathering of the crop. 2368. Let no crop of fruit, or herbaceous vegetables, or any part thereof, go to 'waste on the spot. Instantly remove it when decay or any symptom of disease appears, to the compost-yard, or to be consumed by pigs or cattle. 2369. Cut down the flower-stalks of all flowering plants, with the proper exceptions, the moment they are fully done flowering, unless seed is an object. Cut off decayed roses, and all decaying double flowers, with their foot-stalks, the moment they begin to decay ; and the same of the single plants, where seed is not wanted. From May to October, the flower-garden and shrubbery ought to be looked over by apprentices or women, every day, as soon as the morning dews are evaporated, for this purpose, and for gathering decayed leaves, tying up tall-growing stems before they decline or become strag- gling, &c. 2370. Keep every part of what is under your care perfect in its kind. Attend in sp'ring and autumn to walls and buildings, and get them repaired, pointed, glazed and painted, where wanted. Attend at all times to machines, implements, and tools, keeping them clean, sharp, and in perfect repair. With an imperfect tool, no man can make perfect work. See particularly that they are placed in their proper situations in the tool-house. House every implement, utensil, or machine not in use, both in winter and summer. Allow 710 blanks in edgings, rows, single specimens, drills, beds, and even where prac- ticable in broad-cast sown pieces. Keep edgings and hedges cut to the utmost nicety. Keep the shapes of your wall-trees filled with wood according to their kind, and let their training be in the first style of perfection. Keep all walks in perfect form, whether raised or flat, free from weeds, dry, and well rolled. Keep all the lawns under your care, by all the means in your power, of a close texture, and dark-green velvet appear- ance. Keep water clear and free from weeds, and, if possible, let not ponds, lakes, or arti- ficial rivers, rise to the brim in winter, nor sink very far under it in summer. 2371. Finally, attend to personal habits and to cleanliness. " Never perform any oper- ation without gloves on your hands that you can do with gloves on ; even weeding is far more effectually and expeditiously performed by gloves, the fore-fingers and thumbs of which terminate in wedge-like thimbles of steel, kept sharp. Most other operations may be performed with common gloves. Thus, no gardener need have hands like bears' paws. Always use an iron tread fastened to your shoe when you dig ; and generally a broad-brimmed, light, silk or straw hat, to serve at once as a parasol and umbrella. You will thus save the use of your feet, lessen the wear of your shoes, and avoid the rheu- matism in the neck. Let your dress be clean, neat, simple, and harmonious, in form and color : in your movements maintain an erect posture, easy and free gait and mo- tion ; let your manner be respectful and decorous to your superiors ; and conduct fair and agreeable to your equals. Elevate, meliorate, and otherwise improve, any raw, crude, harsh, or inharmonious features in your physiognomy, by looking often at the faces of agreeable people, by occupying your mind with agreeable and useful ideas, and by continually instructing yourself by reading. This also will give you features if you have none. Remember that you are paid and maintained by and for the use and plea- sure of your employer, who may no more wish to see a dirty, ragged, uncouth-looking, grinning, or conceited biped in his garden, than a starved, haggand, untutored horse in his stable." (Traugott Schwamstapjier.) 2372. He who undertakes the profession of a gardener, says the Rev. W. Marshall, takes upon himself a work of some importance, and which requires no small degree of knowledge, ingenuity, and exertion, to perform well. There are few businesses which may not he learned in much less time than that of a gardener can possibly be. It often happens, however, that a man who has been very little in a garden, and that only as a laborer, who can do little more than dig, or put out cabbage plants, will call himself a gardener ; but he only is worthy of the name who having had much practice in the various parts of horticulture, possesses a genius and adroitness, fitting him for making experi- ments, and for getting through difficulties that the existing circumstances of untoward seasons, &c. may bring him into. He should possess a spirit of enquiry into the nature Gg 3 4.34 PRACTICE O> GARDENING. PART III. of plants and vegetation, and how far art (in his way) may be made successfully useful, or at least probably so. The mode of growth, the pruning, the soil, the heat, and the moisture that suits particular plants, are not to be understood without a native taste, and close application of the mind. Whoever will give himself the pains to trace a good gardener through the several stages of his employ, in all the seasons of the year, will find it to be one continued circle of reflection, labor, and toil. Gardening depends more upon the labor of the brain than of the body : there is no such thing as always proceeding with certainty and ensuring success. Plants will die, and that sometimes suddenly, under the very best management. There are few things to be done in a garden which do not re- quire a dexterity in operation, and a nicety in hitting the proper season for doing it. A gardener should be a sort of prophet in foreseeing what will happen under certain cir- cumstances, and wisely cautious to provide, by the most probable means, against what may happen. A man cannot be a good gardener, except he be thoughtful, steady, and industrious ; possessing a superior degree of sobriety and moral excellence, as well as genius and knowledge adapted to his business. He should be modest in his manners and opinions. It too often happens, with those who have much practical skill, that they slight what is written upon subjects of their profession ; which is a fastidious temper that the man of real merit will hardly entertain. 2373. The character of a gardener 'is here set high; but it is the goal of respectability at which he ought to aim who presumes to call himself a professed one. A gardener has reason, indeed, to love his employment, as he meets with health and tranquillity in the exercise of it ; but considering what he is, and what he does, in his proper capacity, he may justly claim a superior degree of estimation and reward. A true gentleman is of a liberal spirit, and I would plead for his gardener as a proper person to be generous towards, if his manners be good. (Introd. to Card. p. 447.) PART III. GARDENING AS PRACTISED IN BRITAIN. 2374. The art of gardening in tlie earlier ages of society would be practised without those local subdivisions, or technical distinctions, which its progressive improvement has since rendered necessary ; and being then carried on in one enclosure, called a Garden, the term Gardening was then sufficiently explicit fer every purpose. But at present the local subdivisions and technical distinctions of this art are various ; we have the kitchen, fruit, flower, forcing, and exotic gardens, the pleasure-ground, shrubbery, park, and timber-plantation, all within the province of Gardening ; and the terms culinary gardening, fruit-gardening, flower-gardening, planting, &c. as technical distinctions for them. The vague manner in which so many terms have been used by gardeners and authors, has led to some confusion of ideas on the subject, which it is much to be wished could be avoided in future. Taking the word gardening as a generic term, we have arranged its ramifi- cations or divisions, in what we conceive to be permanent or specific distinctions. The principle of classification which we have adopted, is that of the use or object in view ; and applying it, we think all the varieties of gardening may be included under the four fol- lowing species : 2375. Horticulture, the object of which is to cultivate products used in domestic economy. It includes culinary and fruit gardening, or orcharding ; and forcing or exotic gardening, as far as respects useful products. 2376. Floriculture, or ornamental gardening, the object of which is to cultivate plants ornamental in domestic economy. It includes flower, botanic, and shrubbery gardening ; and forcing and exotic gardening, as far as respects plants of ornament 2377. Arboriculture, or planting, the object of which is to cultivate trees and shrubs, useful in general economy. It is practised in forests, woods, groves, copses, stripes, and rows. 2378. Landscape-gardening, the object of which is to produce landscapes ; or, so to arrange and harmonise the external scenes of a country- residence, as to render them orna- mental, both as domestic scenery, and as a pan of the general scenery of the country. Tin's branch is by some called picturesque, rural, ornamental, or territorial improvement ; rural ornament, ornamental gardening, pictorial improvement, new ground work, ornamental planting, &c. It includes the ancient, formal, geometric, or French gardening, and the modern, natural, picturesque, or English gardening. BOOK I. FORMATION OF A KITCHEN-GARDEN. 455 2379. There are other terms applied to gardens and gardening; as nursery, market, physic, &c. gardens, and nursery-gardening, market-gardening, &c. ; but these concern gardening as a trade, rather than as an art, and their discussion is referred to the succeeding part of this work, in which gardening is considered statistically. BOOK I. HORTICULTURE. 2380. In treating of horticulture, some, as Nicol and Abercrombie, have neglected its local unity, and adopting its technical subdivisions, treated of the culinary fruit and forcing departments, as if they were separate gardens. But as these departments are all generally carried on within the same ring-fence, and as it is impossible to form and ar- range a kitchen-garden, without at the same time forming and arranging the walls and borders destined to receive the most valuable part of the fruit garden, and equally so to lay out the area enclosed, without determining the situation and extent of the forcing-depart- ment, we deem it preferable to treat of Horticulture as actually carried on, and in the fol- lowing order : viz. The formation of the kitchen-garden. The distribution of the fruit- trees. The forming and planting of a subsidiary orchard. The general culture of the kitchen-garden. The general culture of the orchard. The construction of buildings used in the forcing-department. The general culture of the forcing-department. Catalogue of plants and trees used in horticulture. A monthly table of horticultural productions. CHAP. I. The Formation of a Kitchen-garden. 2381. The arrangement and laying out of a kitchen-garden, embraces a variety of con- siderations, some relative to local circumstances, as situation, exposure, soil, &c. ; others depending on the skill of the artist, as form, laying out the area, water, &c. : both require the utmost deliberation ; for next to a badly designed, ill placed house, a misplaced, ill arranged, and unproductive kitchen-garden is the greatest evil of a country-residence. SECT. I. Situation. 2382. The situation of the kitchen-garden, considered artificially or relatively to the other parts of a residence, should be as near the mansion and the stable-offices, as is consistent with beauty, convenience, and other arrangements. Nicol observes, " In a great place, the kitchen-garden should be so situated as to be convenient, and, at the same time, be con- cealed from the house. It is often connected with the shrubbery or pleasure-garden, and also placed near to the house. There can be no impropriety in this, provided it be kept in good order, and that the walls be screened by shrubbery from the immediate view of the public rooms ; indeed it has been found, that there is both comfort and economy in having the various gardens of a place connected, and placed at no great distance from the house. In stepping from the shrubbery to the flower-garden, thence to the orchard, and lastly to the culinary garden, there is a gradation both natural and pleasant. With such an arrangement, in cases where the aspect of the ground is answerable, and the surface, perhaps, is considerably varied, few faults will be found." 2383. Sometimes we Jind the kitchen-garden placed immediately in front of the house, which Nicol " considers the most awkward situation of any, especially if placed near, and so that it cannot be properly screened by some sort of plantation. Generally speaking, it should be placed in the rear or flank of the house, by which means the lawn may not be broken and rendered unshapely where it is required to be most complete. The neces- sary traffic with this garden, if placed in front, is always offensive. Descending to the consideration of more humble gardens, circumstances are often so arbitrary with respect to their situations, as that they cannot be placed either so as to please, or give satisfaction by their products. There are cases where the kitchen-garden is necessarily thrust into a corner, and perhaps is shaded by buildings, or by tall trees, from the sun and air ; where they are placed on steep hangs in a northern aspect, the sub-soil is a till or a cankering gravel, and the site cold and bleak. Such situations as these are to be avoided, and should be considered among the worst possible. Next are open, unsheltered plains. But even there, if the soil be tolerably good, and the sub-soil be not particularly bad, shelter may be reared, so as that in a few years the garden may produce a return for the expense laid out in its improvements." (Kalendar, p. 8.) 2384. To place the fruit and kitchen gardens at perhaps half a mile's distance or more from Gg4 456 PRACTICE 0F GARDENING. PART III. the house was formerly the prevailing taste. In many cases, Neill observes, " this has been found inconvenient, and it can seldom happen that the garden-walls may not be effectually concealed by means of shrubs and low growing trees, so as not to be seen, at least from the windows of the public rooms, and the garden yet be situated much nearer to the house. It is scarcely necessary," he adds, " to observe that an access for carts and wheel- barrows, without touching the principal approach, is indispensable." (Ed. Encyc. art. Bart.} 2385. With respect to the natural situation of a garden, Nicol and Forsyth agree in pre- ferring a gentle declivity towards the south, a little inclining to the east, to receive the benefit of the morning sun. " If it be situated in a bottom, the wind will have the less effect upon it ; but then damps and fogs will be very prejudicial to the fruit and other crops ; and if situated too high, although it will in a great measure be free from damps and fogs, it will be exposed to the fury of the winds, to the great hurt of the trees, by breaking their branches, and blowing down their blossoms and fruit. " (Tr. on Fruit Trees, p. 286.) 2386. The situation should not be so elevated as to be exposed to boisterous and cutting winds ; nor should a very low situation be chosen, if circumstances afford any choice. It should be situate conveniently for access from the house. (Abercrombie's Practical Gardener, p. 1,2.) 2387. Avoid low situations and bottoms of valleys, say Switzer, Darwin, Bradley, and Lawrence, " because there is often a sourness in the earth that cannot be eradicated, and in this uncertain climate of ours, such heavy fogs and mists that hang so long on the fruit and leaves in low situations, that not only vegetation is retarded, but also the fruit." (Pract. Fruit Gard. 2d edit. p. 19.) "The greater warmth of low situations," Dr. Darwin observes, " and their being generally better sheltered from the cold north-east winds, and the boisterous south-west winds, are agreeable circumstances ; as the north- east winds in this climate are the freezing winds ; and the south-west winds being more violent, are liable much to injure standard fruit-trees in summer by dashing their branches against each other, and thence bruising or beating off the fruit ; but in low situations the fogs in vernal evenings, by moistening the young shoots of trees, and their early flowers, render them much more liable to the injuries of the frosty nights, which succeed them, which they escape in higher situations." (Phytologia, sect. xv. 3. 6.) Professor Brad- ley " gives a decisive fact in regard to this subject. A friend of his had two gardens, one not many feet below the other, but so different, that the low garden often appeared flooded with the evening mists, when none appeared in the upper one ; and in a letter to Bradley he complains that his lower garden is much injured by the vernal frost, and not his upper one. A similar fact is mentioned by Lawrence, who observes, that he has often seen the leaves and tender shoots of tall ash-trees in blasting mists to be frozen, and as it were singed, in all the lower parts and middle of the tree ; while the upper part, which was above the mist, has been uninjured." (Darwin s Phytologia, sect. xv. 3. 6.) 2388. Main entrance to the garden. Whatever be the situation of a kitchen-garden, whether in reference to the mansion or the variations of the surface, it is an important object to have the main entrance on the south side, and next to that, on the east or west. The object of this is to produce a favorable first impression on the spectator, by his viewing the highest and best wall (that on the north side) in front ; and which is of still greater consequence, all the hot-houses, pits, and frames in that direction. Nothing can be more unsightly than the view of the high north wall of a garden, with its back sheds and chimney-pots from behind ; or even getting the first coup d'ocil of the hot-houses from a point nearly in a parallel line with their front. The effect of many excellent gardens is lost or marred for want of attention to this point, or from peculiarity of situation. Even the new garden of the London Horticultural Society, when finished according to their engraved plan, will be obnoxious to it : the Chelsea garden is liable to the objec- tion, and those of Oxford and Liverpool particularly so. 2389. Bird's-eye view of the garden. When the grounds of a residence are much varied, the general view of the kitchen-garden will unavoidably be looked down on or up to from some of the walks or drives, or from open glades in the lawn or park. Some arrange- ment will therefore be requisite to place the garden, or so to dispose of plantations that only favorable views can be obtained of its area. To get a bird's-eye view of it from the north, or from a point in a line with the north wall, will have as bad an effect as the view of its north elevation, in which all its " baser parts" are rendered conspicuous. SECT. II. Exposure and Aspect. 2390. Exposure is the next consideration, and in cold and variable climates is of so much consequence for the maturation of fruits, that the site of the garden must be guided by it, more than by locality to the mansion. 2391. The exposure should be towards the south, according to Nicol, and the aspect at some point between south-east and south-west, the ground sloping to these points in BOOK I. EXTENT. 457 417 K an easy manner. If quite flat, it seldom can be laid sufficiently dry ; and if very steep, it is worked under many disadvantages. It may have a fall, however, of a foot in twenty, without being very inconvenient, but a fall of a foot in thirty is most desirable, by which the ground is sufficiently elevated, yet not too much so. (Calendar, p. 6.) 2392. An exposure declining towards the south, is that approved of by Switzer, " but not more than six inches in ten feet. Two or three inches he considers better." (Pract. Fruit Gard. 2d edit. p. 17.) 2393. An open aspect to the east, Abercrombie observes, " is itself a point of capital importance in laying out a garden, or orchard, on account of the early sun. When the sun can reach the garden at its rising, and continue a regular influence, increasing as the day advances, it has a gradual and most beneficial effect in dissolving the hoar frost, which the past night may have scattered over young buds, leaves, and blossoms or setting fruit. On the contrary, when the sun is excluded from the garden till about ten in the morning, and then suddenly darts upon it, with all the force derived from considerable elevation, the exposure is bad, particularly for fruit-bearing plants, in the spring months ; the powerful rays of heat at once melt the icy particles, and immediately acting on the moisture thus created, scald the tender blossom, which drops as if nipped by a malignant blight ; hence it happens, that many a healthy tree, with a promising show of blossoms, fails to produce fruit ; the blossoms and thawed frost sometimes falling together in the course of a morning. The covering of the hoar frost, or congealed dew, is otherwise of itself a remarkable preservative of the vegetable creation from frosty winds." (Pract. Gard. p. 1.) 2394. An exposure in which is a free admittance for the sun and air, is required by Forsyth, who rejects a place surrounded by woods as very improper, because a foul stagnant air is very unfavorable to vegetation ; and it is also observed that blights are much more fre- quent in such situations than in those that are more open and exposed. Such an exposure will generally be to the south (Jig. 417. d, e\ but much depends on the surrounding scenery. For this reason the northern boundary of a garden, where the hot-beds are gene- rally placed, will admit most sun and air, in proportion to the open space, when of a rounded (as in Jig. 417. d, e], rather than an angular form; especially if the plantation (Jig. 418. a), which surrounds the garden gradu- ally decline in height as it approaches the hot-bed ground (6) , on the north, and the sur- rounding walk (c), on the other sides. 2395. If there be any slo]>e in the area of a garden, Mar- shall considers " it should be southward, a point to the east or west not much signifying; but not to the north, if it can be avoided, because crops come in late, and plants do not stand the winter so well in such a situation. A garden with a northern aspect has, however, its advantages, being cooler for some summer pro- ductions, as strawberries, spring- sown cauliflowers, &c. ; there- fore, to have a little ground under cultivation, so situated, is desirable, especially for late suc- cession-crops." (Introd. to Gard. 5th edit. p. 8.) SECT. III. Extent. 2396. The extent of the kitchen-garden must be regulated by that of the place, of the family, and of their style of living. In general, it may be observed, that few country, seats have less than an acre, or more than twelve acres in regular cultivation as kitchen- garden, exclusive of the orchard and flower-garden. From one and a half to five acres 458 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. may be considered as the common quantities enclosed by walls, and the latter size, under proper management, with abundance of manure, is capable of supplying a respectable establishment. Where a farm is cultivated by the proprietor, it is found a desirable prac- tice to have part of the more common kitchen-crops, as cabbages, turnips, peas, potatoes, carrots, &c. grown in the fields ; the flavor of vegetables so grown being greatly superior to that of those raised in a garden by force of manure. Where a farm is not kept in hand, by annually changing the surface of the garden by trenching (2343. ), this effect of enriched grounds is considerably lessened. 2397. To assist in determining the extent of a garden, Marshall observes, that an acre with wall-trees, hot-beds, pots, &c. will furnish employment for one man, who, at some busy times, will need assistance. The size of the garden should, however, be proportioned to the house, and to the number of inhabitants it does, or may contain. This is naturally dictated ; but yet it is better to have too much ground allotted than too little, and there is nothing monstrous in a large garden annexed to a small house. Some families use few, others many vegetables ; and it makes a great difference whether the owner is curious to have a long season of the same production, or is content to have a supply only at the more common times. But to give some rules for the quantity of ground to be laid out, a family of four persons (exclusive of servants) should have a rood of good-working, open ground, and so in proportion. But, if possible, let the garden be rather extensive, according to the family ; for then a useful sprinkling of fruit-trees can be planted in it, which may be expected to do well under the common culture of the ground about them ; a good portion of it also may be allotted for that agreeable fruit the strawberry in all its varieties ; and the very disagreeable circumstance of being at any time short of vegetables will be avoided. It should be considered also that artichokes, asparagus, and a long succession of peas and beans, require a good deal of ground. Hot- beds will also take up much room, if any thing considerable be done in the way of raising cucumbers, melons, &c. (Introd. to Gard. p. 25.) 2398. For a small family, two acres of ground will do ; but if for a great family, it should be six or eight acres. (Justice's Brit. Gard. Direc. p. 1.) 2399. T/ie size of a garden may be from one acre to six or eight within the wall, according to the demand for vegetables in the family. (Forsyth.} SECT. IV. Shelter and Shade. 2400. To combine adequate shelter, with a free exposure to the rising and setting sun, is essentially necessary, and may be reckoned one of the most difficult points in the form- ation of a garden. 2401. The kitchen-garden should be sheltered by plantations; but should by no means be shaded, or be crowded by them. If walled round, it should be open and free on all sides, or at least to the south-east and west, that the walls may be clothed with fruit-trees on both sides. (Nicol, Kal. p. 6.) 2402. The garden should be sheltered from the east, north, and west winds, by hills, rising grounds, high buildings, or plantations of trees, at such a distance on the east and west sides, as not to prevent the sun from shining upon it. (M'P/iail, Gard. Rem. 2dedit. p. 12.) 2403. A garden ought to be sheltered as much as can be from the north and east winds. These points of the compass, Marshall observes, should be guarded against by high and good fences, by a wall of at least ten feet high ; lower walls do not answer so well for fruit- trees, though one of eight may do. A garden should be so situated as to be as much warmer as possible than the general temper of the air is without, or ought to be made warmer by the ring and subdivision fences. This advantage is essential to the expectation we have from a garden locally considered. As to trees planted without the wall, to break the wind, it is not to be expected to reap much good this way, except from something more than a single row ; i. e. a plantation. Yet the fall of leaves by autumnal winds is troublesome ; and a high wall is therefore advisable. Spruce firs have been used in close shorn hedges ; which, as evergreens, are proper enough to plant for a screen in a single row, though not very near to the wall ; but the best evergreens for this purpose are the evergreen oak and the cork-tree. The witch- elm, planted close, grows quick, and has a pretty summer appearance behind a wall ; but is of little use then, as a screen, except to the west ; when still it may shade too much (if planted near) as it mounts high. In a dry hungry soil, the beech also is very proper, and both bear cutting. The great maple, commonly called the sycamore, is handsome, of quick growth, and being fit to stand the rudest blasts, will protect a garden well in a very exposed situation ; the wind to be chiefly guarded against as to strength, in most places, being the westerly. (Introd. to Gard. p. 27.) 2404. To shelter an elevated garden on a steep declivity (Jig. 419. ), it may require to be surrounded on all sides by high woods (71), and even to have groups of evergreens, as pines and hollies (e\ and hedges of trellis or lattice-work (p, ;>), within the garden. The BOOK I. SHELTER AND SHADE. 459 hot-houses (d) and hot-beds (/) may be placed, and more delicate culinary crops (/j) cul- tivated, in an artificial basin or hollow, which will have the advantage of being sheltered both naturally and artificially, and on a steep exposed to the south, will have a powerful influence in accumulating heat in winter from the sun's rays. The south borders of such gardens (I, in), and the walls heated by furnaces (7), will frequently be found to produce earlier crops than gardens placed on level surfaces and in low sheltered situations. 419 2405. Shelter may in part be derived from the natural shape and situation of the ground. Gentle declivities, Neill observes, at the bases of the south or south-west sides of hills, or the sloping banks of winding rivers, with a similar exposure, are therefore very desirable. If plantations exist in the neighbourhood of the house, or of the site intended for the house, the planner of a garden naturally looks to them for his principal shelter ; taking care, however, to keep at a reasonable distance from them, so as to guard against the evil of being shaded. If the plantations be young, and contain beech, elm, oak, and other tall- growing trees, allowance is of course made for the future progress of the trees in height. It is a rule that there should be no tall trees on the south side of a garden, to a very con- siderable distance; for, during winter and early spring, they fling their lengthened shadows into the garden, at a time when every sunbeam is valuable. On the east also, they must be sufficiently removed to admit the early morning rays. The advantage of this is conspicuous in the spring months, when hoar-frost often rests on the tender buds and flowers : if this be gradually dissolved, no harm ensues ; but if the blossom be all at once exposed to the powerful rays of the advancing sun, when he overtops the trees, the sudden transition from cold to heat often proves destructive. On the west, and particu- larly on the north, trees may approach nearer, perhaps within less than a hundred feet, and be more crowded, as from these directions the most violent and the coldest winds assail us. If forest-trees do not previously exist on the territory, screen-plantations must be reared as fast as possible. The sycamore (Acer pseudo-platanus) is of the most rapid growth, making about six feet in a season ; next to it may be ranked the larch, which gains about four feet ; and then follow the spruce and balm of Gilead firs, which grow between three and four feet in the year. (Edin. Encyc. art. Hort.} 2406. A garden should be well sheltered from the north and east, to prevent the blight- ing winds from affecting the trees ; and also from the westerly winds, which are very hurt- 460 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III ful to the gardens in the spring or summer months. If a garden be not naturally sheltered with gently rising hills, which are the best shelter of any, plantations of forest- trees, made at proper distances, so as not to shade it, will be found the best substitute. (Forsyth, Tr. on Fruit Trees, p. 286.) 2407. A garden should be well " guarded ivith wood," on the north-east, south-west, and north-west ; the south and south-east being the only aspects that should be open. This, Switzer says, is of " great import." There is great danger as to the easterly exposition, inasmuch as all blighting winds come from that quarter ; so also the south-west is sub- ject to the violent concussions of those winds that come off from the Atlantic or western ocean. But, it may be observed, the sun acting in an oblique manner, and the winds fluctuating horizontally, the garden may be planted all round with wood, between ten and fifteen yards' distance, provided you keep your trees on the south side to about fifteen feet high, for security from winds, without any danger of depriving it of the benefit of the sun. (Pract. Fruit Card. 2d edit. p. 18.) 2408. Shade as well as shelter are attended to by Abercrombie, who observes, " that competent fences are serviceable in sheltering tender seedlings, and in forming warm borders for early crops and winter standing plants ; while in another direction some part of the line of fence will afford a shady border in summer, which is required by the pecu- liar constitutions of many small annual plants. Where a kitchen-garden encloses two, three, or four acres, it will admit cross walls at proper distances, by which the advantages just mentioned may be multiplied." (Prac. Card. 2d edit. p. 3.) SECT. V. Soil. 2409. The soil of a garden is obviously of the greatest consequence in its culture. It is, however, a subordinate consideration to situation and exposure, for the soil may be changed or improved by art ; but no human efforts can remove the site, or change the exposure of a plot of ground. This subject was much more attended to about a cen- tury ago, in the days of London and Wise, Switzer and Hitt, than it seems to be at present. Gardeners, in general, depending too much on manures, and other adventitious aids, for securing large, though sometimes ill-flavored, culinary crops. Jethro Tull lias some coarse, but to a certain extent just remarks on this subject. As an auxiliary argument in support of his delusive doctrine of rejecting manure in cuhure, he affects to " wonder that gentlemen who are so delicate in other matters should make no scruple to eat vegetables and fruits grown among the vilest filth and ordure." (Treatise on the Horse-hoeing Hus- bandry, 3d edit. p. 30.) 2410. .The best soil for a garden, M'Phail observes, " is a sandy loam, not less than two feet deep, and good earth not of a binding nature in summer, nor retentive of rain in winter; but of such a texture, that it can be worked without difficulty, in any season of the year. It should be remembered, that there are few sorts of fruit-trees, or esculent vegetables, which require less depth of earth to grow in than two feet to bring them to perfection ; and if the earth of the kitchen-garden be three or more feet deep, so much the better; for when the plants are in a state of maturity, if the roots, even of peas, spinage, kidneybeans, lettuce, &c. be minutely traced, they will be found to pene- trate into the earth, in search of food, to the depth of two feet, provided the soil be of a nature that allows them. If it can be done, a garden should be made on land whose bottom is not of a springy wet nature. If this rule can be observed, draining will be unnecessary ; for when land is well prepared for the growth of fruit-trees and esculent vegetables, by trenching, manuring, and digging, it is by these means brought into such a porous temperament, that the rains pass through it without being detained longer than necessary. If the land of a garden be of too strong a nature, it should be well mixed with sand, or scrapings of roads, where stones have been ground to pieces by carriages." (Gard. Rem. p. 12.) 2411. A hazel-colored loam, or a blackish vegetable earth, according to Abercrombie, " may be regarded as good ; or if it be a fat loam mixed with silvery sand, or a moder- ately light mellow loam. A bed of very light sand or gravel is to be rejected, unless the alternative would give you a soil still more difficult to improve. The worst of all soils for a kitchen-garden is a strong clay. Nevertheless, as both clay and chalk have an attraction for fluid and volatile solutions of oil, a limited proportion of those earths contributes to form a rich and generous soil. Chalk may abound in a higher proportion than clay, and sand in a higher proportion than either clay or chalk, without causing barrenness. The soils best adapted for moderating the excesses, and compensating the deficiences of heat and moisture in different seasons, are compositions of sand, pulverised chalk, and finely divided clay, with a proportion of animal or vegetable matter. If the soil be not naturally good to the depth of thirty inches, and thence to three feet, proper earths and composts should be incorporated with it, to make it so, where the tenure does not render the expense unadvisable. It should be done where it is intended to found n BOOK I. SOIL. 461 complete kitchen-garden ; not, indeed, because many esculent plants require more than eighteen inches' depth of good earth, in order to flourish in perfection ; nor that even fruit-trees generally will not thrive for a considerable course of time in a suitable soil, full two feet in depth, although three feet on their account is better; but, in order that the gardener may have it in his power to give rest to alternate portions of the soil, with- out keeping the surface out of crop, by trenching in successive years to different depths, so as to bring any given layer, measuring a spit in thickness, by turns to the bottom, the middle, and the surface, in proportion as the natural soil is unfavorable, it should receive improvement, till it be gradually brought to the desired state. Where some- thing intractable must be taken away, as in the case of a very stony bed, let the ground be trenched, and thp larger stones screened or raked out : ameliorate the residue by such earths, manures, and composts as its defects may require. To give heart to excessively light, sandy, and unstable ground, incorporate with it substantial loam and well rotted dung. To correct a cold stubborn clay , add drift sand, shell marl, sea- weed, warm light earth, and well-rotted dung. To qualify soot for application in a garden, mix a thirty-sixth part with a heap of compost. If the soil has been rendered cold and wet by the passage and lodgment of water, it is requisite to have the ground effectually drained." (Prnct. Gard.\).2.) 2412. The soil that suits general cultivation best is a loam, rather the red than the black, Marshall observes ; " but there are good soils of various colors, and this must be as it happens ; the worst soil is a cold heavy clay, and the next a light sand ; a moderate clay, however, is better than a very light soil, though not so pleasant to work. If the soil is not good, i. e. too poor, too strong, or too light, it is to be carefully improved without delay. Let it first, at least, be thoroughly broken, and cleaned of all rubbish, to a regular level depth at bottom as well as top, so as to give about eighteen inches of working mould, if the good soil will admit of it ; none that is bad should be thrown up for use, but rather moved away. This rule of bottom-levelling is particularly neces- sary when there is clay below, as it will secretly hold up wet, which should not stand in any part of the garden. When a piece of ground is cleared of roots, weeds, stones, &c. it would be of advantage to have the whole thrown into two-feet wide trenches, and lie thus as long as conveniently may be. The ground cannot be too well prepared ; for when this business is not performed to the bottom at first, it is often neglected, and may not be conveniently done afterwards ; so it happens, that barely a spade's depth (or less) is too often thought sufficient to go on with. There is this great advantage of a deep staple, that in the cultivation of it the bottom may be brought to the top every other year, by double-trenching ; and being thus renewed, less dung will do, and sweeter vegetables be grown. Tap-rooted things, as carrots and parsneps, require a good depth of soil." (Introd. to Card. p. 28.) 2413. The soil of a new garden should be two or three feet dee}), according to Forsyth, " but if deeper the better, of a mellow pliable nature, and of a moderate dry quality ; and if the ground should have an uneven surface, by no means attempt to level it, for by that unevenness, and any little difference there may be in the quality, you will have a greater variety of soil adapted to different crops. The best soil for a garden is a rich mellow loam ; and the worst, a stiff heavy clay. A light sand is also a very unfit soil for a garden. Sea-coal ashes, or the cleanings of streets and ditches, will be found very proper to mix with a strong soil ; and if the ground should be cold, a large quantity of coal-ashes, sea-sand, or rotten vegetables should be laid upon it, in order to meliorate and loosen the soil, and render it easy to work. Lime-rubbish, or light sandy earth from fields and commons, will also be found of great service to stiff clayey ground. If the soil be light and warm, rotten neat's dung is the best dressing that you can give it. If horse-dung be ever used, it must be completely rotted, otherwise it will burn up the crop the first hot weather." (Tr. on Fr. Trees, p. 290.) 2414. Different soils are required in ths same garden. This is Nicol's opinion, who has had more experience in the formation of gardens than any of the authors from whom we are quoting ; his remarks " on soils, and how to improve them," merit every attention, and will be duly valued by those who have seen any of the excellent kitchen-gardens he has formed in Fifeshire, Perthshire, and other northern counties. It is a happy circum- stance, he says, " that in many instances we meet with different soils in the same acre." In the same garden they should never be wanting ; and where nature (or natural causes) has been deficient, recourse must be had to art ; inasmuch as the variety of fruits and vegetables to be cultivated require different soils to produce them in perfection. It would be absurd, however, to imagine, that for every particular vegetable there is to be a particular soil prepared. 2415. The varieties of soil in any gar den may, with propriety, be confined to the following : Strong clayey loam, light sandy loam (wh'ich are the two grand objects), a composition of one fourth strong with three fourths light loam, half strong and half light, and one fourth light and three fourths strong. II hesc, by a proper treatment, and with the proper application of manures, may be rendered prouuctive of any of the known and commonly cultivated vegetables in the highest degree of perfection. 462 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 2416. In order to improve a soil, we must be guided much by its nature, so as, if possible, to render ft ser- viceable for general purposes. And hence our duty is to endeavour to hit on that happy medium which suits the generality of esculents, in the formation or improvement of the soil in the kitchen-garden. Such a soil should be sufficiently tenacious to adhere to the roots of plants, though not so much so as to be bind- ing, which would certainly retard their progress and extension in quest of food. Hence a loam of a middle texture, rather inclining to sand, may be considered as the most suitable soil for the purpose here in view, and that on a double account, viz. the greater part of the valuable kinds of kitchen-vegetables delight in such soil, and it is worked at less expense than a stiff' one ; neither in severe droughts is it apt to crack or be parched, nor in hard frosts is it so apt to throw out tender plants or seeds. 2417. If soils be too strong, the tender roots of plants push weakly in them, sicken, canker, and perish ; and if a soil be too light, and if it be poor withal, plants deposited in it will push their roots far, and in vain, in quest of that stability and nutriment which is necessary and essential to their support. So that if the butt of our aim be perfection in the production of wholesome and well matured vegetables, we must put aside careless indifference in the formation of a proper soil, nor trust entirely to the force of dungs, were they even to be had in the greatest plenty ; for dungs, by too free an application, have an effect on the quality of esculents not altogether salutary. Wherefore, that our efforts may be attended with success, let us bestow a moderate and prudent expense in the first outset, on composing or so improving the soil to be appropriated to this purpose, as that, in our best judgment, it may fully answer the intention. 2418. Where the bottom is ivet and the sub-soil of a cankering nature, it may be improved by judicious drain- ing; where the soil is stubborn, by the addition of small gravel, sea-sand, wherein is a considerable quantity of small pebbles and shells, coal-as'hes, lime, gravel, pounded brick-bats, brick-kiln ashes, &c.,and, aboveall, by being carefully laid up in ridges in the winter months, and, indeed, at all times when not in crop, in such a manner as to give the greatest extent of surface for the weather to act upon ; where the soil is a poor sand, or gravel, by the addition of clay, or strong clayey loam, scourings of ditches which run through a clayey sub-soil, pond-mud in a like situation, or scrapings of roads which lie in a clayey district, &c. 2419. Soils that abound with metallic substances, and which generally make them appear of an iron color, are termed fox bent or till These substances are often found to be intimately mixed, or rather consoli- dated with the soil, in considerable masses, which are adhesive and very ponderous. Such soils are the most unfavorable to vegetation of any, and are quite ineligible for the purpose here in view, without being much improved. For this purpose, lime will be found the most serviceable of all things, if judici- ously applied, and the soil be frequently turned over by digging or trenching, so as that the soil and the lime may be intimately mixed together, and that the atmosphere may have full effect upon them ; for without this, the lime will not operate so effectually, nor will the tilly particles of the soil be divided or meliorated so well It may seem unnecessary to observe, that, according to the quantity of irony matter contained in the soil, lime will be required to reduce it. In order to ascertain this quantity, a magnet will be found useful, and one of the masses being calcined, and then reduced to a powder, "the magnet will separate the irony particles from the soil, showing the proportion of iron and of earth. Thus we may fertilise the soil, taking for the extremes in ordinary cases, and supposing the lime of a middling quality, 150 and 400 Winchester bushels an acre ; applying the lime in a quick or powdered state, and properly working the soil, being careful, in the first place, to drain it of superabundant moisture. 2420. Ridging up of soil, as above hinted at, has the happiest effect, especially for stiff soils, and should never be omitted when the ground is not under crop. In dead sandy loams also, and in cankering gravels, it is of incalculable advantage, and greatly meliorates them. For it is a fact proved by experience, that exposing soil to the sun's rays in part, by throwing it into a heap, whereby it is also partly shaded, and trenching it once a month, or in two months, will sooner restore it to fertility than any other process, exclusively of adding fresh matter. And thus, if any ingredient noxious to vegetation abound in the soil, it may be expelled, or be exhaled by the action of the atmosphere, more particularly if the soil undergo a summer and also a winter fallow. In the latter case, however, care should be taken to have the surface encrusted by frost, as often as possible, by turning it, and giving it a new surface each succeed- ing thaw. (Gard. Kalend, p. 19.) 2421. The soil intended for a garden may be known by its productions. " In selecting ground for a garden," Neill observes, " the plants growing naturally on the surface should be noted, as from these a pretty correct opinion may be formed of the qualities of the soil. The sub-soil should also be examined. If this be radically bad, such as an iron till mixed with gravel, no draining, trenching, or manuring will ever prove an effectual remedy ; if, on the contrary, the sub-soil be tolerably good, the surface may be greatly meliorated by these means. In every garden two varieties of soil are wanted, a strong and a light one, or, in other words, a clayey loam and a sandy loam ; different plants requiring these respective kinds. For the general soil, a loam of middling quality, but partaking rather of the sandy than the clayey, is accounted the best." (Ed. Encyc. art. Hort.} 2422. General practice. It appears to be generally agreed on by practical men, that there ought to be between two and a half and four feet of good soil over the whole sur- face of the kitchen-garden. This depth will rarely be found to exist naturally ; or, if it does in some places, it will be deficient in others. The proper heights for the borders and compartments being fixed on, and the whole thoroughly drained, the next thing is to trench the soil to the proper depth from the level or levels of the intended surface, whether these run under or over the present surface, removing all unfavorable sub-soil, either to such hollows within the ring-fence of the garden as require to be filled up to a greater depth than that fixed on for the good soil ; or, what is preferable, placing it without the garden. This done, the next thing is to introduce as much good soil as will raise the surface to the thickness required. The strongness or lightness of this additional soil must depend on the nature of that already there, and on the object in view. In com- plete gardens, it may be desirable to have three qualities of soil, viz. a strong loam or tight loam, and a loam of medium quality ; the latter occupying the borders and about half of the compartments. The soils introduced therefore must be such as, with what is na- turally there, will effect these objects. If, for example, the local soil is every where light or sandy, then one part, say that destined for strong loam, should receive as much of clayey loam as will bring it to the temperament desired ; that for medium loam a lesser portion, with as much light earth as will bring it to the required depth : and if the HOOK I. WATER. 465 natural soil is deemed too light, to that also must be added a portion of what is more cohesive, &c. It may be observed, however, that the general object in selecting, forming, or improving the soil for a kitchen-garden, is to obtain, as Nicol expresses it, " a loam of a middle texture rather inclining to sand," such soil being easy to work, little affected by either droughts, rains, or frosts ; and the greater part of the valuable kinds of kitchen-vegetables delighting in it. All the authors we have quoted above may be said to agree in desiring such a soil for the whole of the kitchen-garden. In peculiar situ- ations, as where villas are built on rocky steeps, and other romantic situations, it may become a matter of great difficulty and expense to bring soil from a distance ; and it may also be found equally difficult to find a bed for it, by the removal of rock, &c. In such cases, all that can be done is to select the most favorable spots (Jig. 420. a, a) ; cultivate them to the utmost, connect them by walks and shrubbery ; and place the economical buildings attached to the garden (b], and hot-houses, &c. (e), in the most commodious situations, and where they will not interfere with general effects. There are many very productive gardens of this description in the north of Scotland, and in the territory of Genoa. 420 SECT. VI, Water. 2423. A copious supply of water is essential to a good kitchen-garden, and, from whatever source it is furnished, should be distributed either in reservoirs or open cisterns, or in pipes, properly protected, over the garden, and in hot-houses. If the supply is from a pond or river, a system of lead or cast-iron pipes may be adopted, and the delivery effected by cocks at proper distances ; but if from wells or springs, the delivery should be into open stone or cast-iron cisterns ; or, in default of these, into tubs or butts sunk in the earth. In Tuscany, where the inhabitants excel in the manufacture of pottery, immense jars of earthenware are frequently adopted ; in the Royal Garden at Paris, sunk barrels ; and cisterns of masonry, lined with cement, are general in the best gardens on the continent. In these gardens, a system of watering is adopted, which, though rendered more necessary there by the climate, than it can possibly be in this country, yet in various respects deserves imitation. 2424. Many kitchen-crops are lost, or produced of very inferior quality for want of wctering. Lettuces and cabbages are often hard and stringy ; turnips and radishes do not swell, onions decay, cauliflowers die off, and, in general, in dry seasons, all the crutiferece become stinted, or covered with insects, even in rich deep soils. Copious waterings in the evenings, during the dry seasons, would produce that fulness and succulency which we find in the vegetables produced in the Low Countries, and in the Marsh Gar- dens at Paris ; and in this country at the beginning and latter end of the season. The vegetables brought to the London market from the Neat's Houses, and other adjoining gardens, where the important article of watering is much more attended to than in private country-gardens, may be adduced as affording proofs of the advantage of the practice. 2425. The watering the foliage of fruit and other trees to destroy or prevent the increase of insects, and of strawberries and fruit-shrubs to swell the fruit, is also of importance ; and though the climate of Scotland is less obnoxious to great droughts, than that of the southern counties, yet we find that excellent horticultural architect, John Hay, adopting a system of watering in various gardens lately formed by him in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh. 2426. The contrivance for watering or washing the foliage of the wall-trees in Dalmeny garden, laid out by this artist, deserves particular notice. Water is supplied to the garden from a reservoir, situated on an eminence, a considerable height above the garden-walls. Around the whole garden, four inches below the surface of the ground, a groove, between two and three inches deep, has been formed in the walls, to receive a three-quarter inch pipe for conducting the water. About fifty feet distant from each other are apertures through the wall, two feet and a half high, and ten inches wide, in which a cock is placed, so that on turning the handle to either side of the wall, the water issues from that side. The nozzles of the cocks have screws on each side, to which is attached at pleasure a leathern pipe, with a brass cock and director ; roses, pierced with holes of different sizes, being fitted to the latter. By this contrivance, all the trees, both inside and outside the wall, can be most effectually watered and washed in a very short space of time, and with very little trouble. One man may go over the whole in two hours. At the same time the borders, and even a considerable part of the compartments, can be watered with the greatest ease when required. The conveniency and utility of this contrivance must at once be perceived by every practical horticulturist. The same plan of introducing water is adopted in a garden which J. Hay planned and executed for Lord V. Duncan, at Lundie-House, near Dundee ; and after the experience of several years, it has been greatly approved of. The water at Lundie is conveyed to the garden from a considerable height, and is thrown from the point of the director with great force, and to a good distance. (Edin. Encyc. art. Hort.) 2427. Water in a garden is absolutely necessary, according to Justice; well-water is far from being proper, but that which is impregnated by the sun's rays is highly condu- 464 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. cive to vegetation. He recommends forming a large pond or basin in the centre of the garden, which shall at the same time contain fish. (Brit. Gard. Direct, p. 2. ) 2428. Gardens should be near a river or brook, that tliey may be well supplied ivith water. From these, Forsyth observes, " if the garden does not lie too high, the water may be conducted to it by drains ; or, which is much better, by pipes, taking care to lay them low enough to receive the water in the driest season, which is the time when it will be most wanted. If there be no running water near the garden, and if the latter lies on a declivity near a public road, I would advise to make a hollow drain, or a cut, from the most convenient part of the road, to receive the water that washes the road in rainy weather, and convey it to a large cistern, or tank, in the upper part of the garden ; this, if the road be mended with limestone or chalk, will prove an excellent manure. The water from the cistern, or from the river, may be conducted to the different compartments by means of pipes, which, having cocks at proper places, the water may be turned upon the different compartments of the garden at pleasure. Or the water may be conveyed in proper channels, and turned on the compartments in the same manner as in watering meadows. These pipes, channels, &c. will be a considerable expense at first ; but they will soon repay it, by saving a grqat deal of time, which would otherwise be spent in pumping and carrying water. The most convenient time for turning the water on is, in general, during the night ; and in dry weather it would then be of the most essential service. If the situation be such that you are obliged to pump the water from deep wells, there should be a large reservoir, in which it should be exposed to the sun and air for some days before it is used ; it may then be turned on as above. If the ground be wet and spewy, it will be proper to make a basin of the most convenient place to re- ceive the water that comes from the drains, and to collect the rain that falls on the walks." (Tr. onFr. Trees.} 2429. Water is the life and soul of a garden. Switzer observes, " it is one of the most essential conveniences of a country-seat, and especially useful to kitchen-crops ; for, indeed, what can be made of any ground without it ? Anima mea sicut terra sine aqua, is a good metaphor to express it, as it really is the soul and life of all vegetation ; and whoever does not make that one of his principal considerations, deserves blame or pity." Describing his design for the garden of Spy Park as to water, the same author obsesses, ** The square basins are not only designed for little stews for fish, but at each corner there are clay and elm pipes, with plugs to them that go under the alley, and commu- nicate themselves with the adjacent divisions or compartments, which will, in an instant, float the same, because the little basins are designed to lie six inches higher than those divisions or compartments ; and then the whole is so contrived by other larger elm pipes, that the said little basins are filled by the canal and other conveniences." 2430. A source of water is considered essential to a garden by most writers. London and Wise, Evelyn, Hitt, and Lawrence are warm in recommending it. M'Phail ob- serves, that a garden to bring the produce of the soil to the greatest perfection, " should be well supplied with water, to water the plants in dry seasons." (Gard. Hem. 2d edit, p. 13.) If water can be introduced, observes Marshall, " and kept clean with verdant banks around it, it would be very useful where a garden is large ; but let it be as near the centre as possible, being the most convenient situation. It should be fed from a spring, and (if it could) be made to drip in the reservoir, because its trickling noise is agreeable music in a garden to most ears." (Introd. to Gard. p. 42.) " If there be no natural stream that can be conducted through a garden," observes Nicol, " water should be conveyed from the nearest river, lake, or pond ; soft water being most desirable for the use of the garden." (Kalcndar, p. 7.) SECT. VII. Form. 2431. In regard to form, almost all the authors above quoted agree in recommending a square (Jig. 421. a) or oblong, as the 421 most convenient for a garden ; but Abercrombie proposes a long octagon, in common language, an oblong with the angles cut off (6) ; by which, he says, a greater portion of the wall in the slips behind will be on an equality with the garden as to aspect. 2432. A geometrical square is recom- mended by Hitt, " set out in such a manner, that each wall may have as much benefit of the sun as possible," that is, with reference to the compass, set out as a rhomboid (c). 2433. A square or oblong form, M'Phail considers as the most convenient. A square with a semicircular projection on the north side (Jig. 417. d), or a parallelogram with a BOOK I. WALLS. 465 northern projection in the form of a semicircle (fig. 417. e\ were fovorfte forms with the late W. Nicol. These opinions, it is to be considered, refer more properly to the space enclosed by walls than to the whole garden, which ought to be considered as com- prehending the entire space included in the ring-fence ; which fence, choice or accidental circumstances may produce in any shape from the circle { fa. 424.) to the most irresular figure. (Jigs. 420. 422.) 2434. The oval, polygonal, and trapezium forms have been adopted for the walls of a garden, in order to procure a more equal distribution of sun and shade ; but the incon- veniences attending the culture and management of the compartments of such gardens are considerable ; nor does it appear an equal distribution of sun is so suitable, as that of having some walls as advantageously exposed as possible for the more delicate fruits ; and others less so for hardier sorts, for retarding fruits, and for growing plants to which shade is congenial in the borders. No figure whatever can add to the quantity of gun's rays received by the whole form, but merely vary their distribution. 2435. Even irre- 422 M gular figures are ad- missible, such figures (Jig. 422.) being surrounded by wood (i), and interspersed with fruit-trees, will form very agreeable * shapes in walking through them ; and while the compart- ments are thrown in- to right-lined figures to facilitate culture, the angles can be occupied with fruit- trees or shrubs, per- manent crops, as strawberries, asparagus, &c. with the hot-houses (e), or other buildings (6), or with ponds (/), and other adjuncts. Some of the walks may be wavy (a), as a direction indicated by the outline of wood, and one main walk (d, d) may be formed) broad and straight, to display the whole. SECT. VIII. Walls. 2436. Watts are built round a garden chiefly for the production of fruits. A kitchen- garden, Nicol observes, considered merely as such, may be as completely fenced and sheltered by hedges as by walls, as indeed they were in former times, and examples of that mode of fencing are still to be met with. But in order to obtain the finer fruits, it be- comes necessary to build walls, or to erect pales and railings. 2437. Placing, proportioning, and construct- 423 ing the walls of a kitchen-garden, is a matter in which the artist may display a degree of taste as well as fitness and propriety. " If these," Nicol continues, " be properly set down, so as to answer the cast of the ground (Jig. 423. ), and be raised to proper heights, according to its extent, the rest is easy, and follows as a matter of course. In this particular branch of gardening, utility and simplicity ought to go hand in hand, other- wise true taste will be wanting. It is not in curves, circles, and ogees, we shall find satis- faction. The walls, if the ground admit of it, should all run in direct lines, corresponding to the slopes on which they are placed (a, 6, c, d) ; they may be built level, or they may be inclined, so as to suit the general cast of the ground ; but the nearer to a level the better they will please. The mind is dissatis- fied and distracted in beholding any building apparently unstable. We can look upon a mast placed oblique, or on a tree growing aslant, with firmness and satisfaction, because we know the one is supported by ropes, and the other by roots ; but on a wall running much off the level, we look with a degree of distrust or of fear. If the north wall can be placed quite level, and also the south wall on a lower level, and so as that the east and west walls shall fall, from north to south, a foot in thirty or in twenty-five ; and if the ground be lengthened from east to west, in the proportion of three to two, the extent be- ing two or three acres, on such a spot may be formed a garden that will not fail to please. Hh 466 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. Next, on a spot of the above, or of similar dimensions, sloping to the south, and not level from east to west, but sloping a few feet, perhaps one in fifty, to the east, in this case the opposite walls should run directly parallel to each other, both with respect to latitude and to inclination, otherwise the eye will be displeased by the distorted appearance of the cop- ing when at the full height. Next, all as here described, and the ground sloping to the south and to the west. And next, a dead level spot, in which case particularly the walls should be of different heights. But ground falling to the north, or much distorted, should be avoided, as being very unfit for erecting walls or other buildings upon, on which a com- plete modern garden cannot be formed without considerable difficulty, and a great addi- tional expense." (Kaknd, p. 142.) 2438. Walls urith a south aspect, as Switzer observes, " have been all along reckoned the best for fruits, though later observation and experience have not confirmed it ; for when the days are something long, and the heat of the sun in its greatest strength, it is late before the sun shines upon them, and it leaves such a position as early in the after- noon. Besides, when it is mid-day, the sun is so much elevated above the horizon, that it shines but faintly and very slopingly upon them, which makes the heat to be much the less, inasmuch as a smaller quantity of rays fall upon such a wall, it being visible, that both before and after noon the sun shines hotter than when it is in its highest meridian. From whence, 'tis natural to infer, that a little inclination, either to the east or west, are the best aspects ; but which of the two will maintain its precedence may be now enquired into. And in this enquiry, I shall venture to affirm, that the east, or rather south-east, are to be preferred to the west or south-west, though they are as much exposed to the sun as east walls are. Though it should be argued that the sun shines stronger in the after- noon than the morning, because it continues to act on air already warmed with the influ- ence of the morning sun, yet, inasmuch as the rays of the sun are more healthy and cheer- ful then than after, and dispel the cold dews and vapors as before, it is more than equi- valent to the extraordinary heat of the afternoon sun, as experience shows, which is generally languid and unhealthy. From whence I infer as before, that the south-east maintains its f ost against either the south or south-west. 'Tis from reasonings of this kind I would venture to establish it as my humble opinion, (and I think I have the suffrage of most eminent planters and gardeners to second me,) that a south wall, inclining about twenty degrees to the east, is preferable to any of the others, inasmuch as the sun shines as early on it as on a full east wall, and never departs from it till about two o'clock in the after- noon ; besides, it is something removed from those destructive winds that come from the west and north." (Pr. Fr. Card. p. 312.) 2439. Equality of aspect. Hitt proposes to have no south wall, but by the position of the four sides of his garden (Jig. 421. c ) endeavors to obtain a comparatively equal dis- tribution of solar heat. The plan he recommends contains two acres, the ground descend- ing from the south-west side. " In respect to the aspect of the walls," he says, "the sun's rays continue no longer upon the north-west wall than three in the afternoon, which, I think, is the most proper aspect for grapes, peaches, nectarines, and all other kinds of fruit that require the most regular heat to bring them to perfection, and soonest to matu- rity, for though the sun leaves this wall so soon in the afternoon, yet in the morning this aspect will be of advantage to the trees and fruits ; for, as apricots, peaches, and nectarines blossom early in the spring, at which time our climate is frequently attended with frosty nights, destructive of both blossoms and fruit, the sun's rays darting in lines at right angles upon the wall at nine o'clock, dissolve the congealed moisture much sooner than if they darted upon it at right angles at noon, which they must consequently do if the wall stands due south. 'Tis true, a south wall will receive more sun by three hours, that is t from about three in the afternoon till near six, (in the vernal equinox,) but that is no great advantage, for before that time of the day the air will be sufficiently warmed. Besides, if the wall is built full south, it will not be so proper for fruit-trees as a south-east aspect ; for in the middle of the day the sun will cause the trees to exhale their juices faster than their roots can absorb them, which will render the fruit smaller and the pulp harder, and worse flavored, than those which receive the heat more regular. The south-east wall re- ceives the sun about nine o'clock, which is a proper situation for some of the best kinds of winter pears, and which they well deserve, for they afford fine juices and rich flavors, when other fruits of the same quality are wanting. Some kinds of grapes, peaches, and nectarines will ripen well against it ; and this has one equal advantage with the south-west wall, viz. of the sun's rays striking obliquely upon it at noon. The north-west aspects of these walls receive but little sun, for he shines not upon them till three in the afternoon, but they will serve for fruits which ripen in summer, as cherries, plums, and some kinds of pears." (Tr. on Fruit Trees, p. 33.) 2440. A full south aspect is recommended by Marshall, for a wall designed for the best fruits ; or, it may be somewhat inclining to the east, by which it will catch the sun's rays at its rise, the cold night dews will be earlier and more gently dissipated, and the scorch- ing rays of the afternoon summer's sun are sooner off. By thus having the walls of a BOOK I. WALLS. 467 garden not directly to the four points, the north wall is greatly advantaged by having more sun. 2441. The best asjwctfor a fruit-wall in Scotland, Nicol observes, " is about one point to the eastward of south, such walls enjoying the benefit of the morning sun, and being turned a little from the violent west and south-west winds. South-east is, for the same reasons, accounted by many a better aspect than south-west." Dr. Walker, on the other hand, with reference to the same country, states, that the six hottest hours of the day are from eleven to five o'clock, and that it is not a wall of a south-east, but of a south-west aspect, which enjoys this heat. (Essays on Nat. Hist. p. 258.) 2442. The height of walls for training fruit-trees generally approved is from ten to twelve feet ; but it is more commonly determined by the size and form of the garden, and the inclination of its surface. The following judicious observations of Nicol are the best which have appeared on this subject. The irregular surfaces on which gardens, are often obliged to be formed in Scotland, require the greatest attention and nicety from the designer, and hence the fulness of his remarks. 2443. With respect to the height of fruit-walls, considered merely as such, the matter might easily be determined. I would say, twelve feet, that height being very convenient for the operations of pruning, watering, gathering the fruit, &c. and admitting of a sufficient expansion of the branches of most trees! But the height of garden- walls should be regulated by the extent, or by the apparent extent, of the ground enclosed by them. I say by the apparent extent, as well as by the real extent, because much depends on the form and cast of the ground, in how much the eye shall be pleased. If it be a square, it will seem less' than it really is ; and if a lengthened parallelogram, larger ; and according to its flatness or its elevation, the eye will, be deceived. 2444. A small pot surrounded by high walls has a bad effect and a gloomy appearance. The walls being' of different heights give relief. In a garden of an acre, being a parallelogram of the best proportion, and gently elevated, the north wall may be raised to the height of fourteen feet; the east and west walls to twelve; and the south wall to ten feet above the ground level. If the ground slope considerably, the breakings in^the respective heights of the walls may be less ; they may be only a foot ; and the relief will' be the same, or nearly the same, to the eye, in ranging along their surfaces. In a garden of greater extent, the walls may be raised to a greater height ; but by no means in proportion, if it extend to several, acres. The extreme height of the north wall of any garden should not exceed eighteen feet ; and containing suppose four acres, the east and west walls should be fifteen, and the south wall only twelve feet high, in order that it may give the necessary relief to the eye. In a garden four hundred feet long and three hundred feet broad, which forms a handsome parallelogram, and contains something above two English acres, if the ground lie on an easy slope, a very eligible height for the north wall is sixteen feet; for the' east and west walls fourteen ; and for the south wall twelve. But if the ground be quite level, or nearly so, the north wall being the same height, the east and west walls should only be thirteen and a half feet, and the south wall eleven feet in height; or the east and west walls may only be thirteen, and the south' wall ten feet high, if it be a dead level. (Kal. p. 145.) 2445. Fruit-walls jive or six feet high, Hitt observes, will do very well for peaches,, cherries, vines, and figs, but he would not advise the planting of plums, apricots, or pears, on such walls, they requiring more room, and to stand longer before they. bear. 2446. Fruit-walls ten feet high are preferred by Forsyth, but he says they may extend to fourteen feet. 2447. Many low walls, or stout ranges of paling, Abercrombie observes, "will pro- duce a greater total of effect in accelerating fruit, than the same expenditure in high, walls." 2448. The situation of the garden-doors in the walls demands attention. We have, already shown the importance of entering the garden from the south, south-east, or south-, west sides ; and this circumstance must not be lost sight of for main entrances. Doors in, the north wall, or north ring-fence, should be considered as exclusively for the operators of the garden. Doors, in short, should be so contrived, as never to invite visitors to the north slip, or so as to get behind the hot-houses. The width of doors depends on the extent of the garden, and whether the melon-ground and compost-ground are within the walls, or in the external area. In general the doors in the ring-fence, and the walk round the outside of the garden, should be such as to admit a one-horse cart for bringing in manure and soils. 2449. The sloping or bevelled walls, recommended by the author of Fruit Walls, improved by inclining them to the Horizon, are disapproved of by Switzer, because, "though, the author's very curious calculation is, perhaps, no whit inconsistent with truth, yet experience has taught (and that in a sloping wall at Belvoir Castle, I think, of the author's al-de-frize at top to prevent the people's getting over : it will also strengthen the paling. By making slips on the outside of the garden-wall, you will have plenty of ground for gooseberries, cur- rants, strawberries, &c. You may allot that part of the slips which lies nearest to the stables (if well sheltered and exposed to the sun) for melon and cucumber beds ; and you can plant both sides of the garden- wall, which will give a great addition to the quantity of wall-fruit, (Tr. on FT. Trees, p. 294.) SECT. X. Placing the Culinary Hot-houses and Melonry. 2475. The situation of the hot-Iiouses of a kitchen-garden is as various as the size and form of gardens. In very extensive establishments, as at Kew, and the Royal Gardens, Kensington, a garden or walled enclosure is entirely devoted for this department, in- cluding also the framing or melonry. In ordinary cases, however, the culinary hot- houses are either placed against the north wall of the garden, or against one or more of the cross walls. Sometimes they are placed in the slip, which is made wider on purpose, either on the east and west sides of the garden, or to the north, when it is situated on a considerable declivity. Their effect, however, is almost always best when situated within the walls of the garden, either attached or on the north or cross walls. In this way they are sources of greater interest to the proprietor, and come more naturally into the general course of promenade : for it must not be forgotten, that the pleasure or satis- faction derived from even culinary hot-houses, does not wholly consist in being put in possession of certain fruits of excellent quality, (for if so, recourse need only be had to public markets,) but in marking the progress of the trees or plants on which these fruits are grown, in all their different stages ; and, as Nicol observes, in being able to say " these are the products of my own garden." 2476. Placing the hot-houses in a range with a directly south aspect, or one inclining to the east, is recommended by Nicol ; and it may be here observed, that what is a desir- able aspect for the north and best walls of a garden, will also be the best for the hot- houses. By placing them in a range, " there will be an evident saving in the division or end lights, besides the saving of trouble and work to those who attend to them. Being properly arranged according to their different lengths, breadths, and heights, very much beauty and variety may be given to the whole appearance." (Kal. p. 272.) 2477. The hot-houses occupy a considerable part of the south wall, Niel observes, ' in many gardens. In the area behind them are sheds for tanners' bark, rich mould, and other requisites ; while there is a cart-access to the doors of the furnaces, and these with the rubbish necessarily attending the operations of forcing, are completely hid from view. In some places all the forcing-houses form a continuous range ; but generally the pine- stove and succession pit, being of different dimensions, are placed separately." (Edin. Encyc. art. Hort.) 2478. Culinary hot-houses should not be mixed with houses for plants of ornament. In some eld ill-arranged places, the greenhouse apd plant-stove, or botanic hot-houses, are united BOOK I. LAYING OUT THE AREA. 473 with those destined for culinary products, and this is very suitable, or is rather a matter of necessity in places on a moderate scale ; but where variety and effect are taken pro- perly into consideration, the ornamental or curious productions of gardening will be kept separate from those whose beauty consists chiefly or entirely in their utility. In this way two distinct and strongly marked characters are produced, instead of scenery of a mixed, and as it were neutralised character. 2479. The situation of the melonry is generally in the slip, and where the range of hot-houses are placed on the north wall, and the ground sloping so as to shorten the shadow thrown by this wall in winter when the sun is low, the melonry is with great propriety placed in what may be called a bay of the slip behind the north wall (Jig. 427. c). This may almost always be the case when the compost-ground and melonry are placed adjoining each other, as the part most liable to be shaded may be devoted to the former. " The reasons," Forsyth observes, " for allotting part of the outside slip next the stable for hot-beds for raising melons and cucumbers, are, first, because there will be no litter to carry in within the walls to dirty the walks ; secondly, the beds will not be seen from the garden, and lastly, the convenience of carrying the dung, by which a great deal of time will be saved in carting and wheeling. It will be necessary, especially in exposed situations, to enclose the melon-ground with either a wall or paling from six to eight feet high. It was formerly a practice to enclose melon-grounds, with reed-fences ; but, although they are tolerably warm, and easily removed from one place to another (being made in separate panels), they are very apt to harbor vermin." ( Tr. on Fr. Tr. p. 295. ) In Dalmeny garden, Neill informs us, the melon-ground is situated on the east side of the garden, the garden-wall being extended on the north of it to the same height as the other walls, and flued like the rest of the walls which have a south aspect. The pine-stoves and pits are placed in this melon-ground. 2480. The mould and compost ground, as above suggested, should generally be com- bined with the melonry, and will be most convenient, if placed between the pits and hot- beds, and the garden-wall on which the range of hot-houses is placed ; and thus, when the melonry is placed in the bay behind the north wall, the compost-ground occupies a space that would otherwise be too much shaded for hot-beds or pits. SECT. XI. Laying out the Area. 428 2481. The area, or space enclosed by the garden- walls (fig. 428. a, 6), is usually formed into com- partments, very common- ly called quarters (rf, rf), and borders, or narrow slips (a), running pa- rallel to the walls (6) and walks (c). The mag- nitude and number, both of compartments and borders, as well as of the walks, depend on the size of the gar- den, and partly also on the taste of the de- signer. Rectangular figures are almost uni- versally preferred for both. Wall-borders are generally formed of the breadth of the height of the accompanying wall ; they may be broader, but do not produce a good effect when narrower. In a garden of an acre within the walls, the walks are never less than six feet broad, the surrounding or wall border from ten to thirteen feet, and the marginal borders from seven to eight feet wide. In the latter, an espalier rail is frequently fixed about five feet from the edging of the wall ; in other cases, the trees are planted along the middle of the border, and trained as dwarfs ; an alley or path, commonly two feet wide (o), separates the borders from the compartments. In the slip may be formed irregular compartments or borders (q\ the gardener's house (g), and the compost and melon ground (/]. The fence on the south side may be an open railing (p], and on the north a wall or close holly-hedge, the whole sun-ounded by a plantation nearer or more distant, according to circumstances. The hot-houses being placed against the north wall (6), behind them are placed the sheds, and on a moderate scale these may contain a working-room (A), fruit and seed-room (e\ tool-houses (A:), and the furnaces (t). To the open space behind (/), for composts and hot-beds, there should always be a carriage entrance (n), for bringing in earth, fuel, dung, &c. 474 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 429 In the centre of the garden may be a fountain or basin of water (ra), and in the gardener's house an upper bedroom to overlook the whole. In smaller gardens (Jig. 429. ) the same general plan is adopted as far as their extent admits. Where ornament is to be combined with use, the standard fruit-trees and shrubs may be planted in borders accompanying the walks (c, c) ; but where economy of ground is the object, the trees and shrubs may be collected together in compart- ments (a, 6), and borders altogether omitted. 2482. In laying out the compartments of a garden, Forsyth observes, " you must be guided, in a great measure, by the form and size of the garden ; but do not lay them out too small, as in that case a great part of the ground will be taken up with walks and bor- ders. The best figure is a square, or oblong, when the garden is of that form ; but if not, they may be laid out in any other figure that is thought to be most convenient." Some of the compartments, in some of our best gardens, Neill observes, are laid out in beds four feet wide, with narrow alleys. So many alleys, no doubt, occupy a deal of rqom ; but advan- tages of conveniency and neatness, in enabling the workmen to clean and gather the crop, without trampling the ground, seem to compen- sate the sacrifice of space. For currant, gooseberry, and raspberry bushes, the compart- ments are, of course, reserved undivided ; and narrow beds are unnecessary in the case of large perennial plants, such as artichokes or rhubarb. 2483. Laying out the borders. Abercrombie recommends the borders next the walls to be made of prepared soil, " from eight to twelve feet wide, and the same description of soil extended under .the walks, in order to allow a liberal width for the roots to spread without impediment. Next to the borders, leave a space for a walk entirely round the garden, from four to six feet wide. Some persons also choose to have a border on the inward side of the walk, for the cultivation of espaliers, and esculents of dwarf growth ; others divide the central parts at once into main compartments or divisions. The walks or alleys must be regulated by convenience of access. Where the ground is extensive, the centre should be traversed by a walk, with parallel borders, from which cross walks may branch, if necessary." (Pr. Gard. p. 4.) The borders under the walls, Forsyth observes, should, in the inside, be from ten to twenty feet wide, according to the size of the garden, to give full liberty to the roots of the trees to spread. There should be a foot-path, about two feet and a half from the wall, for the greater convenience of nailing the trees, gathering the fruit, &c. This walk should be from two, to two feet and a half wide, (to admit a barrow or barrow-engine for watering the trees,) and covered with sand ; or, which is better, coal-ashes, about two or three inches thick, but without any gravel or rubbish below. (Tr. on Fruit Trees, p. 294.) The borders for wall-trees, according to Nicol, should not be less than twelve feet in breadth ; but fifteen or eighteen feet is not too much. That is to say, the soil should be prepared for these breadths, if it be not naturally good, and perfectly answerable for the different kinds of trees to be planted. 2484. Prqmration of fruit-tree borders. It is not enough, Nicol observes, that the upper soil of a border only be improved. The sub-soil must also be attended to, and be laid comfortably dry ; otherwise success in the rearing of fruits will be precarious and doubtful. Draining is the basis of every improvement in horticulture, being the basis of improvement in the soil. In this particular case, of preparing fruit-tree borders, it is indispensable. It is also necessary that the roots of the trees be kept out of the sub- soil, if it be of a cankering quality, as till, or corroding sand. This matter has appeared evident to many, and various means have been taken to prevent them from getting down to a bad substratum, at much trouble and expense. I shall here submit a method, the least expensive and most effectual of any, which has been successfully practised for several years. 2485. Forming an impervious bottom to borders. If the sub-soil be wet and cankering, let the border be cleared out its whole length, to the depth and breadth before- mentioned. Lay the bottom in a sloping manner from the wall to the walk, giving it a fall of six or eight inches. Run a drain along by the conjunction of the border and walk, a few inches lower than the bottom thus formed, which shall be capable of com- pletely draining off both under and surface water. It may be a rubble-drain, or a box- drain, according to necessity. Now, lay over the bottom, thus formed and smooth, two inches of good earth, if clayey so much the better, which pulverise and pass the roller BOOK I, LAYING OUT THE AREA. 475 over ; then an inch of clean pit or river gravel, which also pass the roller over ; another inch of earth, as above, which also roll ; and, lastly, an inch of gravel, also, as above. This should be done with the materials rather in a dry state ; but now moisten the whole moderately with a watering-pot, and roll until the surface acquires a hard shining con- sistency. Keep rolling and watering alternately, till the whole becomes firm and glazed, and till the earth and gravel be intimately mixed and incorporated. Thus may a bed be formed for the roots of fruit-trees, much superior to one of stone or brick, and at an expense greatly less ; of a nature more kindly, and which no root will penetrate. 2486. Prepared soil for borders should be thrown in, having been previously laid up in a ridge, along the outer edge of the border, before the floor thus made get damaged by wet, or other accidents ; and care must be taken that at no future period it be disturbed in digging or trenching the border. 2487. A Jit composition for apples, apricots, cherries, and Jigs is, three fourths hale lightish earth, and one fourth strong loam ; being properly composed, and moderately enriched with cow-dung, or a mixture of cow and hog dung, or of cow and stable dung ; avoiding the latter, however, if the two former can be obtained, for the cooler dungs answer best for fruit-trees. The average depth of the borders for these kinds should be thirty inches. 2488. A very Jit soil for peaches, pears, and plums is, three fourths loam, and one fourth sandy earth, being well mixed, and moderately enriched, as above. The depth for peaches and nectarines may be thirty inches, as above ; but for pears and plums, it should not be less than three feet on the average, that is, two feet nine inches at the walk, and three feet three inches at the wall, or thereby. (Kal. p. 153.) 2489. Where the expense of forming proper soils for fruit-tree borders is not incurred, it is necessary to adapt the kind of trees to the soil. On soils, Neill observes, " naturally very light, gravelly, and sandy, peach and nectarine trees do little good ; it is better to plant apricots, figs, or vines, which agree with such soils, and, when trained against a wall having a good aspect, will, in the southern parts of the island, afford excellent crops of fruit. On such soils, even espalier and dwarf standard apple-trees are short-lived, subject to blight, and produce only stunted fruit. Next to renewing the soil, the best remedy is to engraft and re-engraft frequently, on the best wood of the trees, giving the preference to grafts of those kinds which experience has shown to be the most productive and healthy in that particular place. In shallow soils, some have been in the practice of making troughs or hollows, and filling them with rich earth, for the reception of the trees; but this is not to be approved of ; {he roots of the trees will probably be confined to the trough, and it is possible that water may be retained in it." (Edin. Encyc. art. ffort.) 2490. The number and breadth of walks, Marshall observes, " must, in a great measure, be determined by the quantity of allotted ground, exceeding in these particulars where there is room. But few and wide walks are preferable to many contracted ones. If the garden is small, one good walk all round is sufficient ; and if long and narrow, the cross walks should not be many : six or eight-feet walks are not too wide for a moderate-sized garden." The middle walk, according to Forsyth, "should be about seven feet, which is wide enough to admit a cart ; and the others about three or four feet broad, with a border on each side, five or six feet wide, at least, between the walk and the fruit-trees." "If the garden be very extensive," Neill observes, "the centre is traversed by a broad walk. If it be of the largest dimensions, and possess a cross wall or cross walls, the arrangement of the walks falls to be altered accordingly; a main walk proceeding directly to the door, in the centre of the cross walls." 2491. A walk should always proceed from the main entrance to the main object of the garden. The entrance, as already observed (2388.), should either be in the centre of the south-east or west walls. Where there are hot-houses, it should, if possible, be in the south wall, and from thence a broad walk with suitable borders should proceed direct to the centre of the garden, and across it to the centre of the range of hot-houses. Main walks in square or parallelogram gardens, entering from whatever point, should, in general, proceed to the centre ; but in long octagons or irregular gardens, diagonal walks, though they occasion a little more trouble in culture, have a noble effect. It is almost needless to observe, that no main walk ought ever to terminate abruptly, or look to a mere blank, a defect, or an unsightly object. These and various other points of the greatest consequence as to future effect, must be left to the taste of the designer. 2492. Gravel is almost universally considered the best material for ivalks ; but there are -various substitutes. " Sand," Marshall observes, " may be adopted for walks, and there is a binding sort of it that does very well ; but lay not any of it too thick, as it is the less firm for it. Drift-sand is a good substitute for gravel. Coal-ashes, strewed thinly in the alleys, are better than nothing, as they at least serve to keep the feet dry and clean. If the garden be a strong soil, these ashes (when worn down) should be thrown out of the walks, with a little of the earth, and will prove a good manure for the compartments." (Introd. to Card, p. 35.) A binding sand, Forsyth says, " makes .good walks, and they 476 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. are easily kept ; for when moss or weeds begin to grow, they may be cleaned with a horse-shoe, or scuffled over with a Dutch hoe, in dry weather, and raked a day or two after, by which they will be made always to look neat and clean. I, however, give the preference to sea-coal ashes, which, in my opinion, make the best walks for a kitchen- garden, and they are easier kept than any others, being firm and dry, and cleaner to walk on than sand, especially after frost." 2493. Grass walks may do where gravel is scarce ; but the latter is so clearly preferable, that, except for a little variety in large gardens, where there are many walks, grass walks will hardly be made choice of, as they are troublesome to keep in order ; and if much used are apt to get bare, and out of level, especially when narrow : they are also fre- quently damp to the feet. Chamomile has been used also to form green or carpet walks, planting it in sets about nine or ten inches asunder j which, naturally spreading, the runners are fixed by walking on them, or rolling. 2494. Edgings to walks are essential to the beauty and completeness of a kitchen-garden, though, in some cases, verdant edgings are dispensed with. According to Marshall, the borders should have their outer edges, in contact with the walks, made up firm and even. Where the design or intimate communication with the house requires edgings, box is superior to every thing else. In extensive kitchen-gardens, edgings of vegetables, particularly of box, are dispensed with as inconvenient, and apt to harbor slugs. At the same time the margins of the beds and main walks should be kept even and well defined ; for this purpose, nothing is more neat and lasting, or better fitted to save trouble, than narrow edgings of brick a single course wide. In the interior compartments, parsley may be sown for an edging ; so slips of thyme, winter savory, hyssop, and other aromatic herbs, may be planted ; as long as such herbs flourish, or remain ungathered, they form a verdant edging, in character with the kitchen-garden. (Introd. to Card. p. 5.) Border-edgings, Neill observes, are not in use, excepting for the walks next the walls, and the cross walks in very large gardens ; for these, dwarf-box is almost universally employed. 2495. In laying out the slip or exterior aren of the kitchen-garden, those parts not occu- pied as the melonry or compost-ground are disposed of in two borders : the one for fruit, surrounding the wall, and of suitable breadth and composition as to soil ; the other next the boundary, of such breadth as the width of the slip allows. The walk between these borders should, in gardens of one or more acres, be made of sufficient width to admit a one-horse cart, to make the circuit of the garden so as to bring in manures, soils, fuel, &c. to any of the wall-doors, for the purpose of being wheeled into the inner garden. The outer border is commonly occupied by low fruit-shrubs, or common kitchen-crops ; but in small places, and where the garden is of a mixed character, it is arranged as a shrubbery, and, where Forsyth's advice is taken, the shrubs are mixed with the more hardy fruit-trees. 2496. A reserve and nursery department should always be formed in the slip, at least in gardens where any thing like beauty or perfection is aimed at. The use of this compartment is to preserve or raise plants, some in pots, others in the open ground, to supply vacancies within the walls. Whatever crop is sown or planted in the garden, a small portion of it should, at the same time, be sown or planted in the nursing depart- ment, some in pots, and others in the open ground, by which means, when any blanks occur in the former, they can be filled up from the latter. One part of this department should be devoted to propagating fruit-trees and fruit-shrubs for the same purpose, and also for giving away to poorer neighbors, and for stocking and encouraging cottage and farm gardens. 2497. The best seasons for forming a garden are the spring and summer ; but, at all events, at whatever time the operations are begun, they should be arranged so as to be finished early in autumn to admit of planting the fruit-trees and laying the edges of the walks at that season, or very early in the spring. CHAP. II. Of the Distribution of Fruit-trees in a Kitchen-garden. 2498. To select and arrange a proper collection of fruit-trees, and plant them in their appropriate situations, is the next step in forming a kitchen-garden. This subject naturally comprehends, 1. Wall-trees; 2. Espaliers and dwarf-standards for the borders ; 3. Standards for the compartments ; 4. Fruit-shrubs. As a point of practice common to each of these divisions of fruit-trees, we may mention that of registering their names either in series (1388.) on a plan of the garden, or by reference to numbers attached to the trees, cut in tallies placed by them, stamped in lead and hung on them, or nailed to the BOOK I. ARRANGEMENT OF WALL FRUIT-TREES. 477 wall or espalier-rail, Sec. Forsyth, Abercrombie, and others, agree in recommending the placing the names of the sorts on tablets, with the time of ripening, and fixing them by, or what is better, hanging them on, the lower part of the stem of each tree. With respect to the varieties of fruits recommended in the sections of this chapter, those who consider them as too limited, will find ample choice in the horticultural catalogue, Chap. II. SECT. I. Of the Selection and Arrangement of Wall Fruit-trees. 2499. Fruit-trees adapted for walls may be considered, in regard to the sort of fruit, sort of plant, distance, and planting. 2500. With respect to the sorts of fruit and their distribution on the different aspects of the walls, the first general principle is, that the more delicate species of trees, as the grape, fig, and peach, are planted against the warmest walls ; the next is, that the more delicate va- rieties of the more hardy fruits, as the cherry and pear, are placed against warm walls ; and the last, that such varieties of the hardy fruits as it is desired to ripen very early, find a place there. " The best border and wall," says Abercrombie, " should be allotted to the vine, the peach, nectarine, fig, and apricot : let the vine take the first place for aspect, as it is difficult to bring it to ripen out of doors north of London. Where the peach, nec- tarine, fig, and apricot cannot have a south aspect, the south-east and south-west are the proper alternatives. Some early sorts of the apricot will ripen on an east or west wall. The west is the middling exposure, and by no means on a par with the east. The cherry in general may have an exposure looking to any point of the compass, except full north, yet choice early kinds deserve a south border, nor do they attain the climax of perfection without. The morella cherry, the pear in general, the plum in general, the apple in general, and the mulberry will do on any wall ; but all late fruit is universally improved in proportion to the goodness of the aspect from the west and east through all the intermediate points to the south, and some of the high-flavored French pears require a fine wall to grow here in perfection. The end of a building is a good site for a free- growing pear-tree ; which, if a garden- wall is not uncommonly high, will require a deal of lateral room. A long and high wall is also fittest for a fig-tree. The mulberry, medlar, quince, filbert, currant, gooseberry, and raspberry answer well on espaliers." 2501. The sorts or varieties of fruit that may be procured at the nurseries face so nume- rous, as to puzzle an inexperienced person in making the selection. After all, much is generally, and with propriety, left to the nurserymen, who recommends the sorts most in repute at the time. " I have long made it my business," > says Nicol, "to persuade my employers, in the planting of new gardens and orchards, to limit the varieties of fruit, in the firm conviction that I was acting for their interest ; for certainly the rage for mul- liplying them, and of having a numerous collection, has too much prevailed of late. It w ere better to be contented with a few good kinds that produce well in most seasons, than to plant many sorts (even of those reckoned the finer) for the sake of variety, of which a crop is obtained, perhaps once in three, or in seven years. It is no doubt of very much importance to select and adapt the kinds to the climate, soil, and aspect, and in some cases, a greater variety may be planted with propriety than in others. This matter must be determined by existing circumstances, by the fancy of the proprietor, and by the discretion of the gardener. The following list exhibits a collection, in my opinion, ample enough in any case, though, perhaps, according to better judgment, certain kinds may be substituted for some here named, that may be equally valuable. Certain kinds may also be placed differently with respect to aspect, as may be thought proper, according to the climate and local situation." Those marked with an asterisk (*) Nicol considers the most valuable kinds, and such as should be preferred in the planting of small gar- dens, where the walls are of little extent. *Goldm Pippin, S., S.E., or S.W. Oslin Pippin, E. or W. *Ribston Pippin, Ditto. *Golden Russet, Ditto. Royal Russet, E., W., N. E., or N. W. *Nonparal, S., S. E., or S.W. Hawthorndean, E., W., or N. Yorkshire Greening, Ditto. *Jargonetle, S., E., W. Cressane, S.E., S.,orS.W. Colmar, Ditto. *Beurre" du Roi, - S.,E.,W. Ganseil's Bergamot, E.orW. * Autumn Bergamot, Ditto.. Swiss Bergamot, - Ditto. *Achan, - - - Ditto. Yair, - - - Ditto. St. Germain's, - Ditto. Summer Boncretien, Ditto. *Chaumontelle, S. Cherries. *May-duke, S.,E.,W. Arch-duke, S..E..W. *Black Heart, - Ditto. White Heart, - Ditto. *Harrison's Heart, Ditto. MoreUa, E., W., N. Plums. *Green Gage, S. E., S-, or S.W. Yellow Gage, Ditto. Blue Gage, E.orW- *Fotheringham, Ditto. La Royale, S. E. 01 W. * White Magnum Bonum, E.orW. Apricot*. *Moore Park. E., W., or N. Orange, - Ditto. *Breda, - Ditto. *Brussels, - Ditto. Roman, - Ditto. Masculine, S.,E.,W. *Red C MagdaIen, S. E., S., or S.W. *Royal George, Montauban, - Admirable, - *Teton de Venus Late Purple - S.E.,S.,orS.W. Ditto. . Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. *Elmgs.E.,S.,orS.W. DucdeTello, - Ditto. *Fairchild's early, Ditto. *Murray, - - Ditto. Scarlet, - - Ditto. Temple, - - Ditto. Figt. *Blue, or Black Ischia, S.E., S., or S.W. * White, or Brown Ischia, Ditto. Black Genoa, - - Ditto.' White Genoa, - - Ditto. Other Sort*. The Mulberry is sometimes introduced as a wall-tree, and planted on a western 47S PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PAKT III. 2502. The sorts of plants made use of for planting against walls are dwarfs and riders, and these may be of the age of one year from the graft, or they may be several years trained. Dwarfs are understood to be the permanent trees, and riders merely temporary plants introduced to fill up the upper part of the wall. With both sorts it is the practice to make choice of trees that have been two or more years trained ; or if they have been moved in the nursery every second year, they may be of five or six years' training, in which case they come into immediate bearing. Some gardeners, however, prefer young plants. Marshall says, trees to be planted against walls, should not be older than two years from the graft or bud. " Much disappointment has been the consequence of planting old trained trees, through their being accustomed, perhaps, to a contrary soil, or by damage done the roots in taking the trees up, and thus, instead of saving time, it has frequently been lost, being obliged, after some years, to be replaced with young ones. But if trained trees are to be made use of, let them be planted as early, and with as full roots as possible, and in a right good soil." 2503. Wilk respect to the age of the plants, Nicol observes, "maiden, or one year trained trees, are to be preferred, especially of apples and pears. Even of the stone- fruits, such will succeed best ; though two or three years' trained are often planted. J here allude to the dwarfs. Riders of greater age than dwarfs may be planted, in any case, with propriety ; they being considered temporary, and it being desirable to obtain fruit of them as soon as possible." A safe mode is, to plant partly maiden, and partly trained plants, by which means, those which come early into fruit, should they prove bad sorts, may be replaced by others ; meanwhile, those sorts which are approved of, will afford an early return for the labor and expense incurred. 2504. The distance at which wall-trees should be planted from each other, depends jointly on the sort of tree, and the height of the wall. For a wall nine or ten feet high, Marshall plants apricots, peaches, and nectarines, twenty feet apart. Nicol, for a wall of twelve feet in height, indicates the following distances : Apples, eighteen or twenty feet ; apricots, twenty to twenty-four ; figs, fifteen or eighteen ; cherries, twelve or fifteen ; nectarines and peaches, twelve or fifteen ; pears, twenty-four to thirty ; and plums, eighteen or twenty feet. For low walls, of five or six feet : apples, thirty ; cherries, pears, thirty to thirty-five ; and plums, twenty to twenty-four feet. The distances at which wall-trees ought to be planted, according to Abercrombie, depend on the general growth of the species, connected with these other things : whether the individual plant has been dwarfed by the mode of propagation, or is a free grower; whether the species will bear to be kept in bounds by the knife ; and, lastly, on the height of the wall : thus, a higher wall is a compensation for a reduced distance, and a lower will make it necessary to Increase the intervals. Supposing the wall to be twelve feet high, the following are good average distances for planting the kinds named : Vines, from ten to fifteen feet asunder, or in vacant spaces between other walls where the distance is less, because the vine bears pruning well, and can always be reduced to the prescribed limits. Peach- trees and nectarines, from fifteen to twenty feet. Fig-trees, eighteen to twenty feet, or more, as the bearers are not to be shortened. Apricot-trees, fifteen feet for the dwarf early sorts, eighteen to twenty-four for the free-growers, as the plant does not bear the knife well. Cherry-trees, from fifteen to twenty feet. Pear-trees, twenty feet, if on dwarf stocks ; thirty feet, if on free stocks. Plum-trees, from fifteen to twenty-four feet. Apple-trees, if on dwarf stocks, fifteen feet; if on free stocks, twenty- five or thirty. Mulberry-trees, fifteen or twenty feet. Along the line of the walls only nine feet high, increase the intervals to one fourth as much again ; and of walls six feet high, to one half. 2505. The distance of the stem of the tree from the wall at the ground's surface, should, according to most authors, be nine inches ; cherries, apples, and pears may be somewhat more ; and peaches, nectarines, and vines somewhat less. 2506. The intermediate species between dwarf wall-trees are commonly filled up with riders, or some other temporary fruit-bearing plant. According to Marshall, "the intermediate spaces between peaches, nectarines, and apricots may have a vine, a dwarf- cherry, or currant, or gooseberry tree, of the early sorts, as the smooth green and small red gooseberry, to come in early, and improved in the beauty, size, and flavor of their fruit, by the advantage of situation. But wheresoever grapes can be expected to ripen, there let a young plant or cutting be set, though the space be confined ; for the vine, freely as it shoots, bears the knife well to keep it within bounds. If the wall be high, the cherry or plum may be half-standards or riders, which being after a while kept above, will be more out of the way of the principal trees, though dwarfs may be trained so as not to interfere. Some have planted half-standards of the same .kind of fruit as the dwarfs, but whichever way is used, let the intermediate trees be pruned away below in good time, in order to accommodate the principals freely as they mount and extend. The better way however is, when the wall is tolerably covered, to extirpate the inter- mediate trees, as, when large, they impoverish the border, and too much rob the principal* BOOK I. ESPALIERS AND DWARF-STANDARDS. 479 of nutriment : if taken up well, in season, and pruned properly, they may be planted elsewhere." While the principal wall-trees are making progress, Abercrombie observes, " riders may be introduced between them ; these should be confined to sorts which are the quickest in coming into bearing, for else, as soon as the trees become productive, it will be time to remove them. Against low walls, currants, gooseberries, and raspberries may be placed instead of riders. Plant a wall-tree nine inches from the wall, to give the root some room behind ; detach or shorten the roots pointing towards the wall, so that the parts left on that side may not be cramped." (Pr. Gard. p. 189.) " On walls ten feet in height or upwards, Nicol plants riders between the dwarf or principal trees, in order the sooner to furnish the wall ; but for low walls it is not worth the while, as goose- berries, currants, or raspberries, answer better, and produce fruit more immediately. Riders of all or most of the kinds in the foregoing lists can be had in the nurseries ; but they should consist chiefly of apricots, cherries, nectarines, peaches and plums ; as few kinds of apples or pears would begin to produce crops before it would be necessary to root them out in order to give place to the dwarfs." 2507. With respect to the mode of planting, the roots of each plant should be trimmed, previous to being planted, by pruning off the points of those bruised in the taking up, and moderately thinning them out, if thought too thick, or too much crowded. This is seldom necessary for maiden trees, but it is often so with respect to plants that have stood several years in the nursery, or that have been trained against walls or pales, and have made strong roots. The roots should be, in some measure, rendered proportionate to the tops ; and as the shoots and branches are to be headed down, or to be well shortened and thinned out, it follows that the roots should also be moderately thinned and pruned. In doing this, however, be careful to retain those most promising and best furnished with fibres. The surface level being determined on, prepare the pit so as that the plant may be placed just as deep in the ground as it was before, and not deeper ; spreading out the roots and fibres, and carefully bedding them in the compost prepared for that purpose, as hinted at last month. Fill in the common earth, gently tread it round the stem, keeping it a few inches clear of the foundation, and secure the plant from the bad effects of high winds, by tacking it to the wall. Proceed thus, tree by tree, till all be planted. They require no further care till March, when it will be proper to head them down. (JVz'co/.) Most writers agree in recommending November as the best time to plant on absorbent soils, March for heavy or wet land, and February for medium soils. SECT. II. Of the Selection and Arrangement of Espaliers and Dwarf-standards. 2508. Espaliers or dwarf-standards are planted in the borders of the principal walks in all complete kitchen-gardens. Besides the value of their fruit, they form a sort of counterpart to the trees on the walls, and add much to the general effect of the garden, by increasing the appearance of design ; and much to its beauty in detail by the variety of the blossoms in spring and the fruit in autumn. Some gardeners, however, disapprove of them, or do not consider them of much consequence. " If espaliers are planted," says Marshall, " let them be only fruit of the best sorts, and in spacious gardens, where they may have a good length and height allowed them to grow freely ; and let it be resolved to do the business neatly." M'Phail disapproves of espaliers, as hurtful to crops of vegetables in the kitchen-garden. Forsyth is silent on the subject. Aber- crombie says, " Espaliers may be planted in some of the borders, in a row along the inner edge." Nicol observes, " Espaliers, if well managed, are both ornamental and useful in the garden, affording a deal of fruit, yet taking up little room." " Of late years," Neill observes, " some have proposed to banish espalier-trees altogether, alleging that they injure the kitchen-garden compartments, by depriving them of sun and air. But in point of fact, they exist in the greater number of kitchen-gardens, and are not likely soon to be laid aside. If they are sometimes injurious, by depriving the plants of air, they are at other times very useful, acting as a hedge in protecting the young crops from the violence of strong winds. Espalier-trees generally produce excellent fruit, the sun and air having access to both sides of the tree ; they commonly afford abundant crops, and the fruit is not apt to be shaken by high winds. Further, they tend to hide the crops of culinary vegetables from the eye, and to render the walk of the kitchen-garden as pleasant as an avenue in the shrubbery." Espalier-trees, like wall-trees, may be considered in regard to the kind of espalier-rail, sort of fruit, sort of plant, distance, and planting. 2509. The proper situation for an espalier-rail, according to Nicol, is in the border, by the principal walks, and at three or four feet distant from the walk. They may be placed on each side of the cross walks, if the garden be not very small; but in that case, they would both confine and overshadow the kitchen-crops too much. The railing ought to be plain and neat, four or five feet high, and the upright spars to which the trees are trained, nine inches apart. The posts should be set on blocks of stone, and should be run in with pitch, or, which is a better way, set in blocks of stone, in an iron hose batted into the stone. These blocks, in either case, should be sunk under the surface of the ground. 4 SO PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PAST III. 2510. Espaliers, Abercrombie states, " may be inserted three feet from the edge of the border ; but if the ground under the walks has not been prepared, five feet will be better. The stem or head of a wall-tree or espalier must be planted with a little in- clination to the fence or trellis ; and nailed or tied to prevent the wind from shaking it. Espaliers have the branches trained to an upright superficial trellis, standing detached, and thus bear on both sides. Occupying little room, they drip and shade less than standards, but are more troublesome to manage. While young, they may be rendered in some degree ornamental ; but as the plants get old, the most skilful pruning can hardly keep the espaliers fruitful, or prevent them from looking formal, unless the order of bearing will allow the old wood to be freely cut out. Not having the benefit of re- flected heat from a wall, there is a distinct motive for training them with a short stem, and with the branches laid horizontally, rather than in a fan-like expansion, and with the highest branches at four feet, or not exceeding six from the ground ; for thus they receive a stronger reflection of sun from the earth. At planting, it is easy to set them to the best aspect." 2511. The proper kinds of fruit for espaliers and dwarf-standards, according to Nicol, are included in the following list, in which those marked with an asterisk (*) are deemed the most valuable. For small gardens the apples ought to be grafted on paradise, and the pears on quince stocks. Applet. *Royal codling, kentish ditto, *carlisle ditto, *grey leadington, royal pearmain, *ribston pippin, gogar pippin, *oslin pippin, golden rennet, *royal russet. *J achan argonelle, *summer bergamot, *grey n, *swan egg, *moorfowl egg, yair, *carnock,*warden, scots bergamot, lon- gueville. *May-duke, holman's duke, *black heart, white heart, *morella, *kentish. Plumt. *Green gage, Orleans, *fotheringham, *white magnum bonuni, blue perdrigon, *bullace. The mulberry, quince, medlar, and ser- vice are sometimes introduced as espalier- trees, or dwarf-standards, especially where there is no orchard. 251 2. Dwarf-standards are by some preferred to espalier-trees. Hitt and Switzer approve of them, and Forsyth and Marshall prefer them. Abercrombie approves of dwarfs in common with espaliers, but seems, with M'Phail, to prefer them planted by themselves in the compartments. This we conceive to arise from the peculiar notions that many gar- deners have, that the kitchen-garden ought to be a mere place of culture, without any of that neatness, or of those beauties which would render it a scene fit to be included in the course of walks for recreation. Where different ideas are entertained, and that order, regularity, and neatness are attempted, which is to be found in an eminent degree in the kitchen-gardens of Scotland, espaliers and dwarfs will be valued as forming the chief furniture of the borders. Abercrombie observes, " Dwarf-standards are raised with low stems, of one, two, or three feet in height, and with round heads propor- tionately diminished. These are the earliest bearers compared with other standards, and produce large fruit in great abundance for the size of the tree. In small gardens the same benefits and conveniences which recommend the half-standards are attached to these in a superior degree." Marshall observes, that " dwarf-standards occasion less trouble to keep them in order than espaliers, and are generally more productive ; planted at eight or nine feet distance, pruned and kept in an easy manner, they make a fine appearance, and produce better fruit and in greater quantities, than when they are in espaliers." (Introd. to Card. p. 37.) 2513. The sort of plants, as far as respects age, are chosen on the same principle as in choosing wall -trees ; but such as are grafted on dwarfing stocks are generally preferred : apples on paradise, creeping apple, or doucin stocks ; pears on quince-stocks ; and cherries on the perfumed cherry or small wild cherry stocks. 2514. The distances at which to plant espalier-trees, according to Nicol, are, " for apples, on crab-stocks, thirty ; cherries, twenty ; pears, on free stocks, thirty to thirty-five ; and plums, twenty to twenty-four feet. Pears on quince-stocks are planted from twenty to twenty-five feet asunder. Dwarf standard apple-trees, on paradise-stocks, may be planted very closely, as they occupy but little room \ they do not require more than ten or fifteen feet." SECT. III. Of tall Standard Fruit-trees in a Kitchen-garden. 2515. Though tall standard"Jruit-trees are more generally confined to orchards, yet they were formerly common in the kitchen-garden, and are still occasionally introduced in the circumferential portion, called the outer border of the slip. They cannot, how- ever, be recommended, on account of the extent of their drip and shade, which renders it impossible to grow culinary vegetables to any degree of perfection, either in size or flavor ; and also to the too orchard-like character which they in time give the garden. 2516. According to Marshall, " The fewer standard-trees in a garden the better, as they take up much room, and by their shade prevent the proper growth of vegetables that are any thing near them." .2517. M'Phcdl considers them as hurtful to crops of vegetables. BOOK I. FRUIT-SHRUBS. 481 25 1 8. Abercrombie says, " ful 1 standards are only or chiefly adapted for orchards and other grounds not occupied with esculents as principal crops. In the interior compartments, some full and half standards may be introduced ; being thinly scattered towards the angles of the compartments, not to overspread the ground, nor placed nearer together than forty feet; indeed, many designers of horticultural plantations would restrict the full standards to the orchard and pleasure-ground, as plants cultivated underneath them are apt to suffer from drips." (Pr. Card. p. 5.) 2519. Forsyth recommends their being mixed witli other trees in the shrubberies which surround gardens. 2520. Nicol concurs in this opinion ; and in general prefers standards in the outer border of the slip, or in the orchard. 2521. For the sorts of fruit-trees proper for standards, see Chap. III. on Orchards. SECT. IV. Fruit-shrubs. 2522. By fruit-shrubs are to be understood the gooseberry and currant tribes, rasp- berry, cranberry, &c. They are almost universally planted in the walk borders, at re- gular distances of from six to ten feet. Plantations of them are also formed in the compartments, and in the outer border of the slip. " Some of those useful shrubs, gooseberries and currants," Marshall observes, "should grow in every aspect of the gar- den, in order to have a succession of their fruits as long as may be. Raspberries may be set in plantations, in rows. Though these shrubs are best by themselves, yet here and there, by the walks, a detached bunch may be kept, or here and there one against a warm wall. Currants, gooseberries, and raspberries," he adds, " do well, espaliered, as to a production of early and fine fruit." Abercrombie observes, " Gooseberry and cur- rant bushes may be planted in single rows, in cross rows, or in plantations by them- selves : plant some near the outward edge of the main compartments ; others along the borders where there are no espaliers ; others again in cross rows, to divide large com- partments. Raspberries may occupy other borders and compartments." (Pract. Gard. 5. 189.) Forsyth recommends planting gooseberries " in a compartment by themselves, or round the edges of the compartments, about three feet from the path. Never plant them- under the shade of other trees, as it will injure the flavor of the fruit." " Currants and gooseberries," Nicol observes, " are often planted in lines by the sides of the walks or alleys of the garden ; but in that way, especially if not well managed, they are gene- rally more cumbersome than useful. It is a better method to plant them in compartments by themselves, and to make new plantations every sixth or seventh year, as young plants are found to produce more handsome fruit, and also more plentifully than old ones. The same thing may be said of raspberries, which produce the finest fruit when young ; that is, about the third or fourth year after planting, if properly managed. It is proper to plant some of all the above fruits on a north border, or other shaded situation, in order to prolong the season of them, if that be an object, besides planting them out in compartments, as hinted above. Some may also very properly be planted against vacant places on any of the walls, pales, or espaliers. An Antwerp raspberry in particular, and some of the kinds of gooseberries,' are highly improved in size and flavor, if trained to a south wall. " The cranberry was first introduced as a garden-fruit by Sir Joseph Banks, and is grown to most advantage in bog-earth, kept moist. The margins of ponds, or other reservoirs, in the, slip, are good situations for this plant : but when the dewberry, bilberry, and other fruit-bearing bog-earth plants are introduced, we would recommend a border or other compartment in a shady situation, furnished with bog-earth ; and to which water could be readily applied, either by the watering-pot, engine, or by means of under-ground channels. 2523. With respect to the sorts of fruit-shrubs, the following list is given by Nicol, those' to be preferred being marked with an asterisk (*). Gooseberries, Green. Early, *gascoigne, *walnut, goliah, globe. Gooseberries, Red. * Ironmonger, * nutmeg, * walnut, *large rough, *champaigne, *smooth, *captain, admirable. Gooseberries, Yellow. *Golden drop, upright, *golden knap, *conque: *honeycon Currants. The red, white dutch, black, cham- paigne or grizzly. Raspberries. Gooseberries, White. I The common red, common white, red * Royal george, Orleans, * crystal, antwerp, white antwerp, red cane, and __, matchless. ' twice-bearing, are all good sorts 2524. The sorts of plants are commonly such as have been grown two or three years from the cuttings, or in the case of raspberries, suckers of the preceding year. Older gooseberry and currant trees, where they can be procured, should be preferred, to a cer- tain extent, as they bear immediately, and when they grow old can readily be renewed. Raspberries, from their nature, can never have stems of more than a year in age. 2525. In respect to distance, according to Nicol, " from four to six-feet square, ac- cording to the quality of the soil, may be deemed sufficient ; that is, in good land, six feet ; in middling land, five; and in poor land, four feet. 2526. The mode and season of planting is regulated on general principles. (2071. to 2098.) PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. CHAP. III. Of the Formation and Planting of an Orchard, subsidiary to the Kitchen-garden. 2527. AH orchard, or separate plantation of the hardier fruit-trees is a common ap- pendage to the kitchen-garden, where that department is small, or does not contain an adequate number of fruit-trees to supply the contemplated demand of the family. Some- times this scene adjoins the garden, and forms a part of the slip ; at other times it forms a detached, and, perhaps, distant enclosure, and not unfrequently, in countries where the soil is propitious to fruit-trees, they are distributed in the lawn, or in a scene, or field kept in pasture. Sometimes the same object is effected by mixing fruit-trees in the plant- ations near the garden and house. 2528. As to the situation, exposure, soil, and shelter of orchards, most of the observations submitted as to these properties in kitchen-gardens will equally apply to them ; but there is this difference, that as orchards are not generally surrounded by walls, and not always under the spade, the surface may be much more irregular ; and, in regard to form, it is a matter of no great consequence. Size will of course be regulated by the quantity of produce desired, and nothing can be more simple than the arrangement of the trees which, in regard to position, is almost always that of the quincunx, the distances between the plants being greater or less according to the sorts made choice of. 2529. As to the site of an orchard, Abercrombie observes, " land sloping to the east or south is better than a level ; a sheltered hollow, not liable to floods, is better than an upland with the same aspect, and yet a gentle rising, backed by sufficient shelter, or the base of a hill, is eligible. A good loam, in which the constituents of a good soil predo- minate over those of a hot one, suits most fruit-trees : the sub-soil should be dry, and the depth of mould thirty inches or three feet. Before planting, drain if necessary ; trench to the depth of two feet ; manure according to the defects of the soil ; and give a win- ter and summer fallow ; or cultivate the site for a year or two as a kitchen-garden, so that it may be deeply dug, and receive a good annual dressing." 2530. In a situation much exposed, plant shrubs or wilding fruits, as screens, or as nurses : forest-trees may be planted as an outer screen, but on a distant line, whence their roots will not draw the soil to be occupied with fruit-trees. Where ornamental grounds present a good aspect, as well as prepared shelter, fruit-trees are distributed in them to great advantage. 2531. As to tfie size of an orchard, Forsyth observes, " it may be from one to twenty acres, or more, according to the quantity of fruit wanted, or the quantity of ground that you may have fit for the purpose." 2532. That soil will do for an orchard which produces good crops of corn, grass, or garden-vegetables ; but a loamy soil is to be preferred ; though any of a good quality, not too light or dry, nor wet, heavy, or stubborn, but of a moderately soft and pliant nature, will be found to answer the end. Shingly and gravelly soils disagree very much with fruit-trees, unless there be loam intermixed. They will succeed much better on a chalk bottom. On such a soil, I have seen roots twelve feet deep, and trees thrive well. The soil should be trenched from two to three feet deep. 2533. The sorts of fruits adapted for orchards are the more hardy apples, pears, cherries, and plums ; the medlar, mulberry, quince, walnut, chestnut, filbert, barberry, and some others. According to Forsyth, a complete orchard ought to have, besides apple, pear, plum, and cherry trees, quinces, medlars, mulberries, service-trees, filberts, and barber- ries ; as also walnuts and chestnuts ; the two latter of which are well adapted for sheltering the others from high winds, and should therefore be planted in the bound- aries of the orchard, a little closer than ordinary, for that purpose. In an orchard for raising crops for sale, Abercrombie says, that fruit is the most profitable for which there is the greatest demand. Apples are first in utility ; but pears, cherries, plums, and most other fruits in the subjoined alphabetical list, are acceptable, for dressing in paste, for preserving, or for pickling, as well as in the dessert. According to the extent and nature of the ground, mulberries, medlars, quinces, services, walnuts, chestnuts, and all the sorts which will ripen their produce sufficiently on standards, may be introduced. 2534. The varieties of the common orchard-fru,its recommended by Nicol, are as follows, the sorts marked with an asterisk (*) being preferable : Apples. *Ribston pii>pin, *oslin ditto, *gogar ditto, *kentish ditto, *royal codling, *kentish ditto, * Carlisle ditto, *royal russet, wheeler's ditto, *royal pearmaln, *loan's ditto (good), *gblden rennet, * kentish ditto (good), * grey leading- ton, scarlet ditt , rkshire greening, folk beafing (good), strawberry, *purse- mouth(verygood).^ * Jargonelle, crawford or lammos, *carnock or drummond, *grey achan, *swan egg, *moorfowl egg, *yair, '"'gold- en knap (good), longueville, * summer bergamot, *autumn ditto, *scots ditto, musk robin (good), saffron, *hanging , the pound pear, cauilac leaf (very good), the warden (for baking). Cherriet. * May-duke, *holman' S duke, *black heart, *morella, *kentish, *large geon. *Orleans, *damask (black, good), dnm- son (black, ditto), white perdrigon, *l.lue ditto, blue gage, *white mat^num bonum, red ditto or imperial, white bullace, *black ditto, *drap d'or (yellow, good), *queen cJaude (ditto, ditto). (Kttlewi.il. 179.) BOOK I. FORMATION OF AN ORCHARD. 483 2535. The sorts of plants made choice of for orchards are invariably standards, and half- standards, and commonly such as are not more than one or two years from the graft. Aber- crombie and Nicol prefer " maiden plants, or such as are only two years from the bud or graft, of all the above kinds, to older trees: having boles or stems of three or four feet in length; the apples being worked on crab, and the pears on free stocks." 2536. The ultimate distance at which apple and pear trees should stand in an orchard is, according to the same author, from thirty to forty feet, less or more, according to the quality of the soil ; taking as the medium thirty-six feet. In a poor soil, and a bleak exposure, where the trees may not be expected to grow very freely, thirty feet is sufficient ; whereas in good soil, and in a sheltered situation, forty may not be too much. Cherries and plums may be planted at from twenty-four to thirty-six feet, according to soil and situation, as above ; taking, as a medium, thirty feet for the ultimate distance at which they are to stand clear of one another. But it would be advisable, in the first instance, to plant four trees for one that is intended ultimately to remain ; planting the proper kinds at the above distances first, and then temporary plants between them each way ; which temporary plants should be of the free-growing sorts that begin to bear early, such as the nonsuch and hawthorndean apples, the may-duke cherry, and the Crawford and yair pears ; or any others better known to produce fruit soon after planting. These should be considered, and be treated as temporary plants from the beginning, and must give place to the principal trees as they advance in growth, by being pruned away by degrees, and at last stubbed up entirely. If orchard-trees be planted among shrubbery, &c. they may be planted at any distance, exceeding forty feet, that may be thought proper ; but they should not be planted nearer, otherwise they will too much confine the shrubs. In this case it will not be necessary to plant temporary trees, as the principals will be nursed by the shrubs. In bleak situations, if forest and other hardy trees be planted among the fruit-trees, it may not be necessary to plant so many (if any) temporary fruit-trees ; or these may chiefly consist of the hardier sorts, such as the hawthorndean "apple, the may-duke and morella cherries, and the Scotch geans, which produce fruit the soonest. " In a good soil," Abercrombie observes, " the final distances at which the plants should stand is twenty or twenty-five feet for full standards; of those kinds which reach but a moderate size as trees, and thirty or forty feet for the larger-growing sorts. Temporary plants of such kinds as bear fruit soon may be planted at half the final distances, in order to be pruned down, and at last removed, when the prin- cipals require it" 2537. The mode of planting best adapted for standard-trees is unquestionably that of mudding in, and next that of fixing by water (2096'. 2097.) ; one or other of these methods should be adopted, where success and immediate growth is an object, and should be succeeded by staking, panning, mulching, clothing the stems, and watering. 2538. Staking and protecting. " If the stem of a tree is rocked by the wind, the root is prevented from shooting new fibres ; the ground is also opened, so that in winter frost penetrates, and in summer hot drying winds. Having set up a firm stake to each high standard newly planted, twist a part of a hay band round the tree to prevent it from galling, and with the remainder tie it securely to the stake." (Aber- crombie.} Forsyth and Nicol agree in recommending staking to prevent the trees from being wind- waved. In respect to protection, Nicol observes, " If the orchard be not completely fenced, every care should be taken to guard the plants from hares, by properly bushing them round with thorns ; which I think is the most effectual method, and that least injurious to the trees." 2539. Panning and mulching. Let a small basin or hollow be made round the stem of each tree, a foot or eighteen inches in diameter, and two or three inches deep, according to the extent of its roots. Fill this basin with littery dung, to the thickness of five or six inches, over which sprinkle a little earth just enough to keep it from being blown about. This both nourishes the young fibres, and keeps the ground about them moist in hot weather, if wetted freely once a-week. (Nicol's Kal. 220.) To protect the roots of autumn-planted trees from the frost of the succeeding winter, and from drought in the summer, Aber- crombie directs to " lay mulch about the stem, to the distance of two feet round, and six inches in thick- ness ; or substitute dry litter, or a thin layer of turf in summer." Forsyth says, " if it prove dry the spring after planting, dig up some turf, and lay it round the stem of the young trees with the grassy side down- wards; this will keep the ground moist, and save a deal of watering; if the trees have taken well this need not be repeated, as they will be out of danger the first year. The turf should be laid as far as the roots of the trees extend ; and when it is rotted, it should be dug in, which will be of great service to them." 2540. Clothing the stems of standard-trees by an envelope of moss, or short grass, or litter wound round with shreds of matting, is of great use the first year after planting, to keep the bark moist, and thereby aid the ascent and circulation of the sap in the alburnum. This operation should be performed at or soon after planting, and the clothing may be left on till by decay it drops off' of itself ; it is of singular service in very late planting ; or when, from unforeseen circumstances, summer planting becomes requisite. 2541. Watering. Newly planted orchards must be attended to in respect to watering, which should be re- peated the oftener as the season advances, till the trees strike into the soil. " If the planting is performed early in autumn," Abercrombie observes, " while the weather is yet hot and dry, a little water may be given to assist the roots to strike ; but they ought not to be soaked with water, nor need watering be repeated. At planting late in spring, should the ground be dry, give a moderate watering ; which repeat about once a fortnight during the hot months. Supposing the plantation to have been made in winter, should a very dry spring follow, a few waterings may be necessary until the plants strike." 2542. The best season for planting an orchard is the autumn, as soon as the trees have ripened their wood and dropped their leaves. The work properly executed at this sea- son, the trees will push out fresh fibres the same year, and be ready and able to push out shoots of considerable vigor in spring. When autumn planting is impracticable, the next best is in the beginning of February, or as early as the season will permit. 2543. In a design recently composed, for combining an extensive kitchen-garden ivith a Jlower-garden and orchard (fig. 430.), the last surrounded the two former, and served to shelter them. The kitchen-garden (d, u, u) occupied a parallelogram in the centre ; the flower-garden (q, y) ? with its botanic hot-houses (g, h, i)> a semicircular area at the south end ; the gardener's lodge (6), gardener's house and garden-offices (c), and nursing departments ( p, p), a similar area at the north end ; and the orchard (t, r) sur- rounded the whole. The south and north ends (b, e) were approached by carriage-roads (a, a, a), and the sides by walks (<). The hot-houses were partly in north and south Ii 2 484 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. ranges, glass on all sides, for main crops of grapes and peaches (m, m, k), and partly placed against walls (, n], for more early forcing. The pine-pits and melonry (M, /, lc, n), and the compost-ground (a, M), were within the walls, and approached by carts by a subterraneous road from the concealed part of the orchard (s). The hot- houses, pits, and walls were heated by steam from a central tower (/}, two ponds (r, r) supplied water to a system of pipes, which distributed it over the open garden, and the hot-houses were supplied from a cistern under the glass roof of the tower (/) : a room for eating fruit, or repose (d), occupied a situation which overlooked the whole. The main entrance for the master and his friends was at the southern extremity (<), and that for the head gardener and his operatives at the other end Of die garden. (6) 430 rhis garden may be considered as composed for effect, as well as for use ; and it may be asserted, that the central range of hot-houses, when the grapes and peaches arc BOOK I. CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE SOIL. 485 in full bearing, will, to the spectator within, present a vault of fruit and foliage, such as has not hitherto been displayed in any British garden. 2544. The subject of cyder and perry orchards we consider as belonging more to agriculture than horticulture. (See Encyc. of Agriculture, part iii.) CHAP. IV. Of the general Cultivation and Management of a Kitchen-garden. L 2~A5. The cultivation of a garden includes the performance of all those things that arc requisite, in order to a reasonable and prolific production of the various vegetables and fruits grown therein. By the management of a garden, is to be understood the keeping it in such order, as that it may not fail in those impressions of pleasure it is calculated to afford. A kitchen-garden, as well as a garden professedly ornamental, may and ought to be agreeable to walk in, as well as profitably cultivated. A gardener may be well acquainted with the culture of individual vegetables and fruits, and vet very deficient in the general cultivation and management of his garden. The following sections relate entirely to general practices conducive to these objects, and they deserve to be carefully studied by the young gardener who aspires at any degree of eminence in his art. SECT. I. Culture and Management of the Soil. '2546. The soil, Marshall observes, " must be first attended to, always to keep the fruit-borders in heart, and the compartments in a proper state for use, when called upon to receive either seeds or plants. Ground should never lie long without stirring ; for the soil of a garden should be in a free, sweet, and rich state, by proper digging, &c. or no great things can be done, as to early, handsome, or well flavored productions. It should be free, that the roots of plants may not be impeded in the quest of food ; sweet, that the food may be wholesome ; and rich, that there may be no defect of nutriment. 2547. Trenching the vacant ground in a garden does good to all soils in the autumn and winter seasons, and that in proportion to its strength, being indispensably necessary for clays to separate and ameliorate the parts. The light soils may do by being only rough dug, which is a method that stronger soils will be also benefitted by. The soil would be still farther improved, by re-trenching, or rough-digging, once or twice more in the winter, if the opportunity offers, particularly if strong or stubborn. Let the ridges lie E. and W. except the ground be a slope, when they may correspond. 2548. The trenching of vacant ground, Abercrombie observes, " should be forwarded as much as possible in winter, and early in spring. By repeatedly exposing a new sur- face to the action of the frost, a greater quantity of the soil is ameliorated. In every case where it is intended that the ground shall lie fallow any time, it is advisable, in digging trenches, to turn up the earth roughly in ridges; forming, parallel to each trench, a single ridge of the same width, in order that the soil may be the more effectually mellowed, pulverised, and renovated by the weather. These ridges can be expeditiously levelled, for the reception of seeds and plants ; which is a further improve- ment of the ground.' 2549. To conserve the fertility of kitchen-garden soil, the mode adopted by Nicol and practised by the best Scotch gardeners, is the most scientific of any. Nicol observes, that, as kitchen- vegetables do best on what is termed new land, it is a common complaint among gardeners that their ground, by being, as it were, worn out, will not produce certain kinds of vegetables ; not that it is poor and hungry, or altogether unfitted to the production of them, having formerly produced them in great abundance, but that the surface has become tired of these crops, in the same way as a field sown with the same sort of grain for two or three years in succession, ceases to produce that grain in perfec- tion. The method which he practised with success is as follows : 2550. First, it is necessary to have a depth of soil from twenty-four to thirty-six inches; in which case it is obvious, that whatever the depth of the natural soil is deficient of, twenty-four inches must be made good by carrying in soil from fields of good quality. Then take three crops oft'the first surface, and then trench three spit deep, by which the bottom and top are reversed, and the middle remains in the middle. Take three crops off this surface, and then trench two spit ; by which the top becomes the middle, and the middle the top. And take also three crops off this surface, and then trench three spit ; whereby that which was last the middle, and now top, becomes the bottom ; and that which is now the bottom, and was the surface at first, now becomes surface again, after having rested six years. Proceed in this manner alternately ; the one time trenching two spit deep, and the other three; by which means the sur- face will always be changed, and will rest six years, and produce three. Hence there mil always be new soil in the garden for the production of wholesome vegetables ; and hence also will much less manure be required, than when the soil is shallow, and the same surface con. stantly in crop. He adds, that he would not advise the soil to be more than three feet deep, as the sur- face might be buried too deep from the action of the weather, and influence of tlwr sun. Where the soil is only so deep as to allow of trenching two spit, by trenching every third or fourth year the ground will rest half its time ; and if judiciously managed, and cropped in proper rotation, wholesome vegetables may be Ii 3 486 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. produced on it for many years successively. It is not intended that the whole garden should be trenched over the same season, " one half, or a third part at a time may be more advisable, and also more con- venient." (Kal. p. 16.) SECT. II. Manure. 2551. When manure is allied the ground is not to be glutted with dung; for, as Marshall observes, " a little at a time, well rotted, is sufficient, so that it comes often enough, as opportunity and the nature of the cropping may dictate. It is indeed a sort of rule with gardeners, that ground should be dunged every second year ; but circum- stances may make more or less of it necessary, and rules should never be indiscriminately applied. If dung is pretty well reduced much less will do, and let it not be buried too deep ; but if it is otherwise, lay it low, to be dug upwards another time, when it is more consumed. It is an excellent way of manuring, where the superficial soil is much ex- hausted, to dig slightly, and spread over rotten dung, late in autumn, in the winter, or early in springy and so let it remain, till the ground is wanted, before it is dug in; which should, however, be slightly dug before the manure is put on, or forked in a little after- wards. This method is particularly to be recommended where crops of onions, leeks, and such superficial rooting plants are to be." 2552. Dung used in great quantities, and lying in lumps, harbors worms, grubs, and insects, and makes plants grow too rampant and rank-flavored. Carrots it cankers, and it disagrees with many things ; is apt also to make the ground parch, and burn the crops sown upon it in a hot summer. On these accounts some persons have been induced to dress their gardens only with rich fresh earth ; which, if they do not overcrop, will do very well, being accompanied with good tillage ; which alone is of much use, and is essential to due cultivation. Vegetables are always sweeter the less dung is used, and little need be used when the natural soil is good and deep ; for the earth may be so dug, that what is at the top one year may be at the bottom the next : which is a manoeuvre evidently advantageous, as a good part of the strength of the top soil washes downwards. The method just recommended, of letting dung lie on the surface for a time, is good also, as it abates the rankness of it. Lime sweetens. 2553. The periods for applying manures necessarily depends on the soil and the mode of cropping. If the original soil be poor, it may require aid from dung every year ; but, in general, the compartments in which annuals and biennials are cultivated will want to be thus recruited at least once in two years, when the last autumn crops are off the ground. Beds occupied by perennials cannot sometimes receive any material accession of new earth or compost for a number of years ; and therefore, when the stools are worn out, the repairs of the soil should, in proportion, be substantial, and go deep. Dung is fit to manure beds for receiving many sorts of plants, when it has lain in a heap from three to six months, and is beginning to be well rotted. But for particular pur- poses, it should lie from one to two years. Apply it for annuals, two or three inches thick ; for perennials that are to stand long, six or eight inches thick ; spreading it equally, till the bed into which it is to be dug is covered : then trench it in a moderate spade deep, that it may be within easy reach of the roots of the. plants. In preparing ground for perennial stools, a portion of the dung should be deposited six inches deeper. (Abercrombie. ) 2554. Manures are to be applied either as simples or compounds ; but the latter method Nicol considers the most eligible. He agrees with Jethro Tull in stating, that if they have not undergone a proper fermentation, their effects are, giving a rank and disagree- able flavor to fruits and vegetables; and if an immoderate quantity be applied, of producing a considerable degree of unwholesomeness, and tainting the juices of all plants. A mixture of stable-dung, sea-weed, lime, and vegetable mould, which has lain in a heap for three or four months, and has been two or three times turned during that period, will make an excellent manure for most kinds of garden-land. Also, cow-dung, hog-dung, and sheep-dung, mixed with soot or with wood-ashes. Pigeon-dung and vegetable mould, well mixed, will also make an excellent manure for heavy land ; or even for lighter soils, provided the pigeon-dung be used sparingly. Neats-ditng and hog-dung, slightly fermented, are very fit and rich manures for light hot soils. For those of a dry, absorbent nature, none answer better, or "last longer ; by reason that they retain moisture for a greater "length of time, and also ferment more slowly than other dungs. Pigeon-dung, lime, soot, ashes, &c. should never be applied as simples ; the quantity required being com- paratively small, and the regular distribution of them difficult, without the admixture of other matter. But these should generally be applied to compost of good earth, turf, or sward, or of cow, or other dung of a cool nature ; applying them in quantity according to the cold or the hot nature of the soil to be ma- nured, allowing the compost a sufficient time to incorporate, and mixing it thoroughly. Marl is a good manure for almost any soil : and it may be applied as a simple, with as much propriety as any of the kinds of cattle-dung, or even of vegetable earth. The kind called shell-marl, is much to be preferred, and should be freely applied to strong lands, but more sparingly to light ; the loamy kind being best adapted to light lands. Stable-dung, if used as a simple, should not be applied in too rank a state, nor should it be much fermented. It should generally lie in a heap for four or five weeks ; during which time it should be turned over once or twice. A ton of it in this state is worth three that has been used in the hot-bed, and is a year old. This manure, and indeed dung of any kind, when applied as a simple, should never be carried from the heap to the ground, till it is to be digged in ; as, by exposure to the air, part of its virtues evaporate, and it is the less effectual BOOK I. CROPPING. 487 Sea-wtvd sttould be applied instantly after landing. If used as a simple, is even greater than the above ; as it instantly corrupts, and its juices flow downwards, and are lost. If this manure be used as a compound, the heap in which it is compounded should be more frequently turned on its account; that none of the juices may be lost, but that the other part of the compost may absorb them. Horse-dung, and the dung of sheep, deer, and of rabbits are most eligible for cold wet soils ; and all these, or any of these in compost with lime, will be found beneficial. For such soils also, a compost of coal-ashes, pigeon-dung, and lime; or of wood-ashes, whin-ashes, fern-ashes, and stable-dung; or of deer- dung, rabbit-dung, soot, and burnt sward, will make a good manure. Manures are to be applied in quantity according to their quality. Hence the dung of pigeons should be applied in much smaller proportions than that oi horses, it containing a greater quantity of volatile salts ; and so the ashes of vegetables containing a portion of fixed alkaline salts, being more powerful, are to be applied in still smaller quantity. So also, lime being the most powerful of the calcareous kind, should be applied, in ordinary cases, in much smaller quantity than marl. Vegetable mould may either be used as a simple, or as a compound, and may be applied with equal pro- priety to all soils. None can be hurt by it in any degree, since almost every plant will grow luxuriantly in it alone, without the aid of any soil or manure whatever. It seems to be the ambrosia, and the dunghil 1 drainings the nectar, of vegetable life. The latter, however, if too freely indulged in, is rather of an in- toxicating nature. (Kal.) 2555. Where economy, 'rather than the flavor of culinary crops, is an object, recent dung is unquestionably to be preferred (1156.), and, in fact, is so by most market-gardeners : John Wilmot, an extensive market-gardener at Isleworth, bears testimony to this fact. A given weight of recent stable dung, he says, will not only go farther than the same weight of rotten dung from old hot-beds ; but will serve as a manuring for the succeeding crop, which, with old dung, is not the case. (Hort. Trans. Av. 55.) SECT. III. Cropjring. 2556. A change of crops is founded on the generally acknowledged fact, that each sort of plant draws a somewhat different nourishment ; so that after a full crop of one thing, one of another kind may often be immediately sown. " Nothing tends more to relieve the soil," Abercrombie observes, "than a judicious succession of crops ; for plants of dif- ferent constitutions not only strike to different depths, and in different directions, with their roots, but the terminal fibres or feeders of the roots appear to take up separate and peculiar constituents of the soil, and to be indebted for support to some property imparted by the earth in very different degrees. The duration of the vegetable, its short or pro- tracted existence, is a great cause of diversity of effect as to the quantity of aliment drawn from the soil. Another mark of distinctness in constitution is the character of the root, as it may be fibrous and tender, or fibrous and woody, or bulbous, or tuberous, ex- tended or compact ; another, the form and magnitude of the herb, and the proportion of fibrous or ligneous substance in the stem and branches. A fourth index of a separate nature is the succulency or hardness of the leaves, and the quantity of pulpy or farinaceous matter in the parts of fructification, as the leaves may be the edible part, before the plant is matured ; or the seed-vessels, as in pulse, may hold the produce for the table ; or the esculent part may consist of fruit-enclosing seeds. To apply this practically : we will suppose a strawberry-plantation requires to be re- newed ; and the stools seldom continue fully productive more than three or four years ; instead of introducing young strawberry-plants into the same bed, entirely eradicate the old plantation, and let it be succeeded by a crop of beans, or of some other esculent as different as may be in constitution and habit. In the same manner, let the jiew plant- ation of strawberries follow some light crop which left the ground in a good state, or which allowed it to be trenched and followed for an interval, whether it were an annual or biennial. It is a rule, from which only extraordinary circumstances can warrant a de- parture, never to plant a new set of perennial stools on the ground whence a plantation of the same or a similar species, having worn itself out, has just before been removed. On the contrary, crops which strike deep, and occupy the ground long, should be suc- ceeded by plants which pierce but a little way under the surface, are drawing in the least degree, and soon come off from the short term of their vegetable life." 2557. A studied rotation is advisable, in all cases, according to Nicol ; so as that no crop of the same class may immediately follow another. To facilitate this measure, the kitchen- ground should be divided into a number of portions, and a journal or note-book should be kept, with a reference to their numbers. In this journal, whatever relates to their cropping, manuring, trenching, or fallowing should he recorded, for reference and guidance as to future cropping. Nicol, while practising as head gardener at Raith, Wemyss Castle, and other places, kept a regular journal of this sort ; he published it in his Kitchen Gardener in 1802, and he tells us, in 1816, that it had been approved and adopted by many practical gardeners. (See the model, 2345.) 2558. By planting out currants, gooseberries, and raspberries in compartments, instead of growing them in single lines, particularly if these be properly managed, an opportunity of changing crops might further be afforded ; as these should not stand longer than seven or eight years together, before the plantations are renewed. 2559. Strawberry-plantations, under proper management, should be renewed every four or five years ; and thus likewise might an opportunity of changing crops be afforded. I i 4 488 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. Also, by the renewal of artichoke and asparagus plantations, which should be done every seven or eight years. In managing all the above-named articles on a large scale, new plantations should be made every year, to a certain extent, which would throw a certain proportion of ground regularly into the rotation. 2.560. Esculents might be cultivated in classes, and thus a sort of rotation, though not very complete, might be produced ; and the brassica tribe, the leguminous family, the tuberous or carrot-rooted kinds, the bulbous or onion kinds ; and the lighter crops, as salads and herbs, might succeed each other. 2561. Close crops, as onions, leeks, carrots, &c. are conveniently and neatly cultivated in beds of from four to five feet widths, with alleys of a foot to eighteen inches between them. 2562. Resting garden -ground. Market- gardeners, Nicol observes, who are generally good managers, and must of necessity make the most of their ground, in order to main- tain their families, and be able to pay high rents, have found out the utility of resting their land, and of following a regular rotation in cropping it, at least in the culture of the principal articles, and as far as the nature of the thing will admit. The best man- agers sow out a portion of their ground every season in grass, clover, or barley, which is used as green food for their horses and cows. Very generally the barley is sown along with the clover, merely to nurse and shade it, being cut down and not allowed to ripen. The clover is sometimes dug up after the first season, if land for market-crops be scarce, but more generally it is allowed to lie a second year. By good managers, the ground is never sown down in a hungry state. Land that has been under esculent crops for many years together, and is, perhaps, glutted with manure, may be cleansed, as it is termed, by a scouring crop of oats, wheat, or rye, which, if thought necessary, may be repeated. If trenched to its full depth afterwards, it will again be fit for the production of culinary crops in great perfection. 2563. The seasons proper for furnishing the ground with every particular vegetable should be well attended to, that each may be obtained as early as its nature will permit ; and of the seeds and plants we use, care must be taken to procure the best of the kind, lest after all the trouble of cultivation, disappointment as to vegetation or quality should ensue. The principal time for sowing and planting the articles raised in the kitchen-garden falls in the spring months. It is necessary to lodge some sorts in the ground as early as Ja- nuary ; but February, March, and April are the months in which the principal supplies from summer crops are provided for. From April till September, and even October, many sorts are sown and planted, in smaller portions, for successive crops. Particular hardy esculents are also sown or transplanted principally in autumn, for a supply as well in winter as in spring and early in summer. Other kinds are inserted occasionally as late as November and December, to stand wholly over the winter, in rising growth, for early crops and for main crops the following summer ; such as peas, beans, cabbages, and cauliflowers. To obtain early crops of favorite esculents which are more tender, several kinds are sown and planted in hot-beds in winter and spring. 2564. The quantity sown and planted is to be determined jointly by the demands of the family and the portion of ground that can be spared : but it should be always a rule, to sow and plant more than probably enough for the family, as more may happen to be wanted than expected, and a cross season or other accident may occasion a failure. As exact rules cannot be laid down, the exercise of a little judgment will be necessary, in order to proportion crops alike ; for to have too much of one thing, and too little of another, is disagreeable and discreditable. Respect should be paid to the natural duration of crops, some going off soon, and others being lasting, and that too according to the season they are propagated in. The pea requires the greasiest breadth of surface ; and next to this the cabbage tribe. The spaces for asparagus, artichokes, strawberries, sea-kale, &c. are in some degree fixed from the comparative permanency of these crops. Pot and sweet herbs require the least space, and ascending from these to breadths necessary for the pea and cabbage tribe, the proportions are as various as the kinds to be grown ; and these can only be acquired properly by experience, and observation of what takes place in dif- ferent gardens. 2565. Seeds and plants should be adapted as much as possible to the soil and situation which best suits them ; for in the same garden some difference will be found, not only as to sun and shelter, but the earth ; as some will be richer, some poorer, some deeper, some shallower, and some perhaps heavier, some lighter, in due attention to which, advantage is to reaped. (Marshall.') 2566. The ordering of seeds from the seedsman is generally a matter of some difficulty to the young gardener, and Abercrombie is almost the only author who has endeavored to remove it. The information afforded by his work, entitled The Seed Estimate, will be found in the Horticultural Catalogue ; where under every culinary vegetable raised from seed, will be found the quantity, either stated in weight or measure, requisite for a certain space of ground; and this space generally that which is deemed sufiicieui for a considerable garden. BOOK I. THINNING. 489 SECT. IV. Thinning. 2567. The thinning of seedling crops, Marshall observes, " should be done in time, be- fore the young plants have drawn one another up too much. All plants grow stronger, and ripen their juices better, when the air circulates freely round them, and the sun is not prevented from an immediate influence ; an attention to which should be paid from the first appearance of plants breaking ground. In thinning close crops, as onions, carrots, turnips, &c. be sure that they are not left too near, for instead of reaping a greater produce, there would be a less. When they stand too close, they will make tall and large tops, but are prevented swelling in their roots : better to err on the wide side, for though there are fewer plants, they will be finer and better flavored." 2568. Thinning the leaves of fruit-trees. " The leaves," Abercrombie observes, " have too essential an office as organs of growth to the entire plant, to be lightly parted with ; and where the climate is not deficient in heat, compared with the habitat of the plant, or the portion of the year in which its season for vegetating falls, their shade is more likely to be serviceable than detrimental, even in the last stage of fruiting. Thus, cherries, rasp- berries, strawberries, currants, and other species whose full term of fructification is more than comprehended in our summer, reach perfect maturity, and acquire the color proper to each, though ever so much covered with leaves : whereas for those kinds which ripen with difficulty here, because the direct rays, and most intense reflection of the sun, is scarcely equal to the heat in the shade during the full summer of their native climate, it is proper, when the fruit has nearly attained its full size, and is naturally losing its ab- solute greenness, to remove some of the leaves which shade it too much. Were the leaves thinned sooner, it would prejudice the growth of the fruit ; and should they even now be swept off unsparingly, the growth of the year's shoots might be arrested. The leaves which cover the fruit, whether peaches, grapes, late pears, or other exotics, must be re- moved gradually ; that is, at two or three times in the course of five or six days ; other- wise the unusual full heat of the sun darting upon the fruit, would occasion the rind to crack." 2569. Nicol says, " My practice has been, as the fruit begin to color, to pick off every leaf that may over- hang them ; thus very much enhancing their beauty and flavor. In late seasons, if the leaves of wall- trees hang longer than usual, they may be brushed off, in order to let in the sun and air the better to ripen the wood. This brushing, however, should be cautiously performed, never brushing much at a time. The leaves should not be forced off violently. Some use a common stable -broom for this purpose ; but a better instrument is a hazel, or strong willow withe, or a small smooth cane. The shoots from which the leaves are to be displaced, should be gently stroked upwards, and outward ; but never the reverse way, else there is danger of hurting the buds. Trees exposed to the wind seldom require this care ; but sometimes espa- liers may, and if so, the same course is to be pursued as above." 2570. Thinning stone-fruits. Thinning the over-abundantly set fruit on apricot, nec- tarine, peach, and plum trees, is a necessary duty; as many of these, in good seasons, set more than they can nourish or bring near to perfection. This thinning, however, must be cautiously performed, and by degrees. If the trees have set their fruit very thick in particular parts only, such parts should be moderately thinned out now, and the other parts not yet. But if the fruit be very quickly set all over the tree, let it be generally thinned oft" to half its extent at this time ; deferring the final thinning till the stoning be over; that is, till the shells be quite hard, and the kernel be formed. For most trees, especially those anywise unhealthy, drop many of their fruit in the time of stoning ; so that the thinning had better be performed at two or three different times ; always observ- ing to reserve the fullest, brownest, and best-formed fruit. Stone-fruits must be again looked over in June, and a few more fruit thinned off where too thick ; and the final thinning must take place in July, when the stoning of stone-fruits is over, and previously to their beginning to swell off for ripening. (Nicol.} 2571. With respect to the quantity or number of fruit proper to be left on a'tree, " much," according to Nicol, " must depend on its size and strength, and whether it be full grown, or be yet in training. A full- grown tree, in a healthy state, may be allowed to produce considerably more than one in a weak condition. And if a tree yet in training, that is, one not having filled the space allotted to it, be allowed to ripen all the fruit it may set, its extension will be much retarded in consequence. On the More-park apricot, and the larger kinds of peaches, in a healthy full-bearing state, a fruit to every foot square of the superficial content, or surface of the tree, may be taken as a good medium ; that is to say, a tree covering a space fif- teen feet by twelve, may be allowed to ripen about two hundred fruit. The smaller kinds of apricots and peaches, and of nectarines in general, may be allowed to produce a third part more, if in a healthy state. The larger and better sorts of plums may be thinned in proportion, and according to their sizes ; and may be thinned out to from three to six inches apart, if on the shoots of last year, or so as to hang quite free of one another, if on spurs. I am aware, that many will think thinning to this extent an extraordinary mea- sure ; but I would have such be convinced of the propriety of doing so, by comparison. If they have two trees of a kind, both healthy and well loaded, let the one be thinned as above, and allow the other to pro- duce as it has been wont ; or thin it even to half the extent. It will be found, that the tree fully thinned will produce an equal, if not a greater weight of fruit, and these incomparably more beautiful, and higher in flavor. Observe, the comparison must be made the same season, dse it would not be fair ; as the size and flavor of the fruit might be very different, according to the goodness or badness of the weather in dif- ferent years." 2572. Apples and pears should be moderately thinned, and good account would be found in the practice. This should be done when the fruit is about half grown, or when all ap- 490 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. prehension of its dropping is over. Nothing tends more to keep fruit-trees in good health than regularly to thin their over-abundant crops, and that always before they begin to swell off for ripening ; for if this be delayed till they are nearly full grown, the mischief is, in a great measure, already done, both to the tree and to the fruit left. (Nicol.) SECT. V. Pruning and Training. 2575. Pruning and training being frequently practised together, and in aid of each other, may be advantageously treated of under the same head. 2574. Pruning newly planted trees. Trees planted one year from the graft, or two from budding, must be pruned as though still in the nursery, in order to furnish them with a head. At the end of March, or the beginning of April, as the wood-buds begin to shoot, one of these courses must be taken ; either shorten the shoots of the preceding summer ; or head down the tree to two, three, or four eyes, taking all those shoots off. The latter course is most commonly expedient on the peach-tree, or nectarine, or apricot. If the first shoots happen to be unexceptionably placed for beginning the figure, instead of head- ing down the stem, cut these into two or three eyes. On wall-trees and espaliers, rub off the fore and back wood-buds. 2575. Seasons for pruning newly planted trees. On all trees during the tender stage of infancy, spring is the fittest time of pruning, even for wood, and for proceeding in the formation of a head, as successive sets of new branches are yearly obtained by shortening the last. Something may also be done in summer to promote this object. If between the end of May and the end of June, a pair of shoots have not started as desired, one on each side from a stem headed down, or from the mother branches shortened ; and in lieu of such, one solitary shoot has arisen, or two, both on one side, or not equally proper to be retained, the desired end may yet be attained, and a season saved. Pinch down the soli- tary shoot two or three eyes : this will force out new shoots in the course of summer. In the case of two shoots, one of which is evidently unfit for beginning the head, take off the one rejected without delay, and pinch down the other to two or three eyes. Of two shoots on the same side equal in regard to strength and direction, to preserve the lower on wall-trees and dwarfs is a rule to which an exception can scarcely be imagined. The summer pruning of heads progressively forming, will afterwards fall in with that of esta- blished trees. 2576. Summer pruning of trees in bearing. The buds and shoots to be preserved claim the first attention ; for if the precious germs of future fruit or wood are carelessly de- stroyed, the work of reparation is difficult and tedious : whereas the removal of spray not of service as branches or bearers, though necessary to prevent confusion, and to strengthen the plant, is to be conducted in subservience to the vital object of fertility. For the pre- sent retain all the fruit-buds and fruit-shoots, and as many well placed wood-shoots as will afford a selection for winter pruning : but rub off ill placed and superfluous wood- buds, as they can be certainly discriminated, or after waiting till appearances are no longer doubtful, pinch off the shoots from such wood-buds before they are above three inches long. In some kinds, to avoid the destruction of wood-buds, or the germs of fruit-spurs, the disbudding ought to be postponed until the wood-shoots can be distinguished from spurs, and pinched off without injuring the fruit-buds. The species which alternately produce spurs on the one-year-old shoots, are, the apple, pear, apricot, cherry, and plum. The peach and nectarine rarely emit spurs. While you avoid displacing infant spurs on plants which bear on such, be as careful to discourage the wood-buds and shoots on old spurs, for shoots from these are cumbersome and unprofitable. If any spray that wants displacing has got woody, use the knife, lest the bark of the mother branch be torn. 2577. The mode of bearing, and the duration of the bearers, is the first thing to be adverted to for regu- lating the proportion of new wood to be retained. Thus, in the kinds which bear on spurs, a less quantity of advancing wood is necessary for future supply, according to the time that a bearing branch continues fruitful ; but as the fruit-shoots on some of these kinds are two, three, four, and even five years in coming into bearing, the difficulty of exercising a proper foresight is increased. On the sorts which bear on the shoots of last year, although a great reserve, and constant annual succession are wanted, it is more easy to suit the provision to the expected vacancy. In both classes, the leader to a stem yet under training as a wall-tree is to be carefully preserved : also a surplus number or buds to the right and left must be suffered to sprout, till it can be known whether shoots will spring at the desired places ; and afterwards a selection from these for forming the tree : further, the leading shoot to each side branch should be always left, if the limits admit. Well placed shoots, between the origin and the extremity of a lateral, are to be retained in pairs, until a good leader has sprung, and is sufficiently established to be laid in ; when they are to be cut away close, unless a vacancy requires their permanent cultivation. As the new laterals fit to be pre- served extend, lay them close to the wall in a straight easy direction, at a convenient average distance ; nailing them farther onward as the extremities want support. 2578. Three revisions are included in, a summer's pruning ; one beginning at the end of April, another in July, and the third in September : all which have a preparatory re- spect to the winter pruning. Stone-fruit trees, if much wounded in summer, are apt to gum ; so that if superfluous shoots have not been removed before they get woody, it is best to defer the retrenchment of these to the winter pruning. A weak tree is strength- ened by reducing its spray ; let it, however, be low and compact, rather than naked. To BOOK I. PRUNING AND TRAINING. 491 keep a luxuriant tree full of wood tends to make it less rampant : but a crowded intricacy is to be avoided ; for the air stagnates in a thicket of spray and foliage, while the sun cannot penetrate it : hence the new shoots grow long-jointed, and do not ripen thoroughly ; and the blossom-buds forming on the bearers for the following year will be fewer and less plump. All the shoots rising after midsummer are to be displaced, unless a va- cuity cannot be furnished without reserving some of them ; or unless the excessive luxu- riance of a plant makes it proper to cut it as little as possible, and to let the sap expend itself in numerous channels. The spring shoots laid in are generally to be preserved at full length, as far as the limits will permit, until after the fall of the leaf; because to stop them in summer would cause them to shoot from almost every eye, and fill the wall with spray ; hence, when a vacancy wants several branches to furnish it, it is a good resource to shorten a strong contiguous shoot to three or four eyes. This is the exception to the rule. 2579. Winter pruning of trees in bearing. Now a final selection is to be made from the last year's shoots retained as candidates during the summer. On established trees which have fully ripened their shoots, and of which the young wood is not succulent, and therefore susceptible of injury from frost, there is a wide latitude of time for the capital or winter pruning, extending from the fall of the leaf to the time of the sun's rising, or just before. To prune in autumn strengthens a plant, and will bring the blossom-buds more forward : to cut the wood late in spring, tends to check a plant, and is one of the remedies for excessive luxuriance. At the opening of spring, the blossom- buds can be certainly distinguished, which is a great guide to the judgment in many critical cases ; but on the other hand, if the blossom-buds get much swelled, they are liable to be bruised or knocked off, in the various operations of untacking, cutting, and re-nailing the branches. Supposing\the common course of winter pruning to be divided into three periods autumn, the cold months of winter, and the beginning of spring the plants to be excepted from the first two, are, uniformly the fig, when not in a forcing-house, the vine for the most part, because the autumn is seldom hot and fine sufficiently long to ripen the year's shoots. Some except the peach and nectarine from the middle period, but not from the first ; because they say, that if a severe frost happen immediately to follow the pruning, the points of the unripened shoots, and particularly the wood-bud next to the cut, are generally so much hurt, that there must be a second shortening, farther in than was intended to furnish these shoots with leaders. 2580. The number of good shoots to be retained is limited by the character of the tree, the size to which the fi'uit grows, and the compass to be given to the head. 1'he branches of a wall-tree may be from five to ten inches asunder, according to its strength and t"he size of the fruit. Of fruit-shoots those are the best which are short-jointed, and show a competent number of blossom-buds, and on which the series of blossom-buds commences nearest to the origin of the shoots, especially on that class which must have the bearers annually shortened. Spongy or disproportionately large and gouty shoots are bad alike for wood and fruit ; but good shoots for wood may be above the middle size, if the buds are well defined ; and the best shoots for fruit may incline to slenderness, if not wiry and sapless ; disproportionably large shoots are seldom fruitful. In choosing large supplies for wood, other things being equal, the lowest new branches on the tree, and the last year's laterals nearest to the origin of a branch, are to be preferred. Begin at the bottom and middle of the tree ; keep these furnished without intricacy ; and the ex- tremities will be easily managed. Such shoots as are preserved, whether to come in immediately as bearers, or to furnish naked parts in the figure, or future supplies of wood, are to be treated according to the mode of bearing. Class bearing on distinct branches. On those species which bear at the ends of the branches, or on spurs for several years in succession, the leading shoot of a fruit-branch is always to be retained, on a double account ; and the fruit-branches are not to be shortened where they do not exceed the assigned limits for the tree ; because, if stopped, these would send out strong wood-shoots, where blossom-buds or fruit-spurs had otherwise been produced. 2581. Exceptions to this rule : on young trees under training, to be furnished with a head, shorten the branches until the designed figure is complete ; again, though a tree be established, occasionally shorten a branch, to bring out wood to fill a vacancy. The surplus of the last year's shoots, which would crowd, or disfigure, or too much weaken the tree, or occupy it without promise, are to be cut out clean to the parent branch ; also cut away any old branches which appear decayed, or of which the spurs begin to get barren. Finally, take oft' close the naked barren stumps left at previous amputations. 2582. Class bearing on last year's ivood only. On trees which bear on the last year's wood, there is a necessity for annually shortening alternate divisions of the branches,, in order to provide a supply of new shoots for bearing the next season. We prune the longer branches of a luxuriant plant, and the shorter of a weak plant in an inverted proportion. Were the strong tree much cut in, it would produce only the more wood ; while the weak tree, unless relieved by short pruning, would not long continue to bear. Very strong shoots may be left eighteen inches long, or lose but a fourth of their length ; extremely weak shoots retrench to half their length, whether that be five, six, eight or ten inches ; prune shoots of medium growth to the extent which best consults the double object of leaving as many blossom-buds as may be on the shoot, and of forcing out new wood at a well placed eye. In shortening cut at a leaf or wood-bud that is likely to yield a leading shoot. Leaf-buds are distinguished by being oblong, narrow, and de- pressed ; blossom-buds by being rounder and bolder. If a leaf-bud at a suitable distance is found between twin blossom-buds, so much the better. A leading shoot at the point of a bearing branch draws nourish- ment for the intervening fruit. The thinning of rejected shoots, and decayed or worn-out bearers, is nearly as for the other class. 2583. Mixed class. There is a small anomalous class which bears frequently on spurs of several years' continuance as well as on annual shoots, but chiefly on the latter. Shoots of this class are to have a mixed treatment, preserving the fertile spurs as much as may be. Having finished pruning a wall-tree, lay in the branches and shoots directly ; tacking them in a neat manner to the wall or trellis. (Abercrombie.) 2584. Winter priming to be revised. Revise the pruning when a sufficient time has elapsed to see it with another eye ; or when the expansion of the blossoms decides the 492 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. competition between probationary fruit-shoots which have been laid in too close. In those stone-fruit trees which bear on the last year's shoot, such as the peach and most kinds of the apricot, it is particularly necessary to revise the winter pruning at the time of blossoming ; because, if on any branch the blossoms are observed to have been spoiled either by gum, by blight, or spring frost, that branch is quite useless as a bearer, and unless it has made some shoots which may prove bearers the following year, is to be entirely cut away : but if the blighted branches have made well placed shoots, shorten them to these. (Abercrombie.} 2585. Methods of training. The two principal methods of training wall-trees which are followed in this country, Neill observes, are called the fan and the horizontal modes. In the former, the branches are arranged like the spokes of a fan, or like the hand opened and the fingers spread. In the other way, a principal stem is carried upright, and branches are led from it horizontally on either side. The Dutch style consists in taking a young tree with two branches, and leading these horizontally to the right and left, to the extent, perhaps, of twelve feet each way, and in then training the shoots from these perfectly upright to the top of the walL This is now seldom practised here, excepting, perhaps, with fig-trees, or white currants. In some places, a few of the wall-trees are trained in a stellate form, the stem being led upright for about six feet, and then some branches trained downwards, others laterally, and others upwards. When walls exceed seven feet in height, the best gardeners seem to concur in giving the preference to the fan training, variously modified : in this way they find that a tree can much sooner be brought to fill its allotted space, and the loss of a branch can much more easily be sup- plied at any time. For lower walls, the horizontal method is preferred ; and the same plan is adopted almost universally on espalier-rails. Hitt strongly recommends this mode for most sorts of wall-trees ; and for pears he adopts what is called the screw stem, or training the stem in a serpentine manner, the branches going off horizontally as in the ordinary straight stem. (Edin. Encyc. art. Hort.} Nicol agrees with most ex- perienced gardeners, in preferring Jan training to all other methods ; and it may be ob- served, that this form comes nearer to that mode recommended by Knight, as affording " evidence of a more regular distribution of the sap," than any other mode. It agrees with the excellent general principles of pruning laid down by Quintiney, who first re- duced this branch of gardening to scientific principles and to the practice of the cele- brated growers of peaches at Montreuil, near Paris. 2586. Knight remarks, that when trees are, by any means, deprived of the motion which their branches naturally receive from the winds, the forms in which they are trained operate more powerfully on their permanent health and vigor than is generally imagined. " In this sentiment," says Nicol, " I perfectly agree ; and I may be allowed to add, that I have been engaged in the training of fruit-trees these twenty- five years, and have trained them in a great variety of forms. Some in the Dutch style, running out two branches first, perfectly horizontal, right and left, to the extent of three or four years each way, and from these training shoots perfectly upright, at nine inches apart, to the top of the wall ; some with screwed stems and horizontal branches ; some with upright stems and horizontal branches ; some with stems six feet high, with pendent, upright, and horizontal branches, so as to appear like a star ; and others in the fan manner ; which last, I confess, 1 prefer to all other methods of training wall-trees. I have altered many from the above forms to this both on walls and espaliers." 431 2587. Modes of training to check over vigorous growth are various ; but all of them depend on depressing the shoots either throughout their whole length or operating on the young shoots only. When opportunity admits, or want of space on one side of a wall requires, it is found conducive to moderation of growth and the production of fruit to train the branches of trees over the wall and down the other side. (Jig. 431.) This is found to increase the prolificacy of vigorous growing kinds, as the pear ; and it also succeeds well with the apple, cherry, and vine. 2588. Modes of training to encourage the growth of shoots proceed on the opposite prin- ciple, and while over-luxuriant shoots are depressed, weak ones, which it is deemed proper to encourage, are elevated and brought nearer to the perpendicular. 2589. Priming and training, as applied to edgings and hedges, is performed by clipping or cutting en masse, with the hedge-bill. (1328.) Hedges must 'be cut in autumn when the wood is ripe : sometimes it is done in summer, which is admissible, as far as respects the health of the plants, and consequent durability of the hedge when the lower ends of the shoots are nearly ripe. If this is not the case, the operation is in- jurious. The judicious gardener will weigh the circumstances of the case, and decide accordingly. BOOK I. WATERING. 493 SECT. VI. Weeding, Stirring the Soil, Protecting, Sujyorting, and Shading. 2590. Eradication of weeds. The means of removal, are hoeing and weeding ; and of destruction, exposing them, when hoed or pulled up, to the sun and air ; or, what is in all cases better, taking them at once to the dunghill or compost-yard, to be destroyed by fermentation. These operations require to be performed almost every month in the year ; but more especially in the beginning of summer, when the earth is teeming with vegetable life. Weeding in time, Marshall observes, is a material thing in culture, and the hand is generally more certain than the hoe. 2591. Stirring the ground among crops is nearly as essential as weeding, and is in some degree performed by the operation of hoeing. But the most effectual mode of stirring, and that now adopted by the best gardeners, is by the two-pronged fork or two- pronged hoe. (Jigs. 86. 97.) Every crop, whether planted in rows, or sown broad- cast, ought to be subjected to this operation once or oftener in the course of its progress to maturity. Small crops, where the distances between the plants are not wide, ought to be stirred by a fork of two prongs, or even one prong. A narrow hoe is the usual instrument, but this always tends to harden the ground below, and form a sort of sole, which in many soils is impervious to air or rain. Besides, the operator is generally obliged to tread on and harden the ground stirred. " Breaking the surface," Marshall remarks, " keeps the soil in health ; for when it lies in a hard or bound state, enriching showers run off', and the salubrious air and solar heat cannot enter. Ground," he adds, " should be frequently stirred and raked between crops, and about the borders, to give all a fresh appearance. There is a pleasantness to the eye in new-broken earth, which gives an air of culture, and is always agreeable." This last observation is particularly meant to apply in autumn, that the garden may not become dreary too soon, and so bring on winter before its time. 2592. Earthing up ought to go hand in, hand with stirring in many cases; but rarely in the case of those plants which form their bulbs above the surface, as turnips and onions. This operation supports the stems of some crops, as the bean, cabbage, &c. and encourages the fertility or improves the quality of others, as the potatoe, leek, celery, &c. In winter also it protects them from the frost, and may then be applied to the turnip as no longer in a state of growth. 2593. Protecting, supporting, and shading. These operations are too little attended to, or attempted in a slovenly manner, by many gardeners. The grand subjects of pro- tection are fruit-trees ; and we have already (2206, &c. ) given an enumeration of the various modes to which recourse is had. The simplest, and perhaps the best protection for general purposes, is that of throwing a net, either an old fishing-net or one formed on purpose of woollen yarn, over the whole tree, if a standard, or placing it against it, if trained to a wall, before it begins to blossom, and letting it remain there till the fruit is set. Marshall recommends this mode, justly observing, that after much expense and trouble to preserve blossoms from inclement weather, the business is often done to no purpose, or a bad one. Nicol's opinion is not materially different. Single plants, as the raspberry, are to be supported by sticks or rods, and rows of climbers, by rods, spray, or branches, as peas, kidneybeans, &c. 2594. Shading is but little attended to, excepting in the case of transplantation ; but it is of great importance in the fruiting season to certain plants which naturally grow in shady situations, as the strawberry and raspberry ; and properly applied and accom- panied with watering, tends to swell these fruits and others, as the gooseberry, and heads and roots of certain vegetables in hot weather, as the cauliflower, turnip, onion, radish ; and the whole vegetable, as in the case of lettuce and other salads. The advantages of shading small fruits have been pointed out by Haynes (On the Culture of the Strawberry, Raspberry, and Gooseberry, 8vo. 1812.), and are very strikingly displayed in the gardening of the south of France and Italy. SECT. VII. Watering. 2595. Watering, Marshall observes, " is a thing of some importance in cultivation, though not so much as many make it. It is a moot point, whether more harm than good, is not on the whole done by it. In a large garden it is a Herculean labor to water every thing, and so the temptation generally prevails, either wholly to neglect it, or to do it irregularly or defectively. To water nothing is too much on the dry side ; but watering too much spoils the flavor, and renders esculents less wholesome." It may be observed, that the practice of the market-gardeners near London and Paris, and many private gardeners who practise in the southern counties, is somewhat at variance with the opinion of this experienced and very judicious author. The reason may probably be, that the region of his experience, Northamptonshire, is high and moist. He adds, however, that " strawberries and cauliflowers should generally be watered in a dry sea- son ; strawberries more particularly when in bloom, in order to set the fruit ; and the 494 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. cauliflowers when they show fruit, in order to swell the head : in a light soil this ought unremittingly to be done. In very dry weather seedlings, asparagus, early turnips, carrots, radishes, and small salads, will need an evening watering." He adds, " Water to the bottom and extent of the roots, as much as may be. The wetting only the surface of the ground is of little use, and of some certain harm, as it binds and cracks the earth, and so excludes the benefit of showers, dews, air, and sun, from entering the soil, and benefiting the roots as they otherwise would do. By wetting the surface of the ground, however, in a summer's evening, as it makes a cool atmosphere, a dew is formed, which pervades the leaves, and helps to fill their exhausted vessels." He recommends " water- ing the roots of wall-trees in dry weather effectually; watering wall-trees with an engine in the evening refreshes them much, and helps to rid the trees and wall of insects and filth. Late in the summer, when the nights begin to get cold, it is time to leave off all watering, except things in pots and frames, which should have it then only in the morning. As watering is apt to make ground hidebound and unsightly, let the surface be occasionally stirred and raked, which will make future waterings enter the ground better : when the ground is hard on the top, the water runs away from its proper place, and half the labor is lost. Many things are impatient of being kept wet about the stalks, and therefore watering such plants should be generally at a little distance." 2596. Watering over the leaves of wall-trees and espaliers is essentially necessary, because these trees by their position are deprived in a great degree of the natural showers which would fall on them, if their branches were freely diverged in the open garden. Abercrombie, Forsyth, and Nicol strongly recommend watering the leaves of wall fruit-trees in dry weather every other day in the evening. Forsyth recommends watering infected trees with clear lime- water over the leaves, which he says soon destroys the red spider. Nicol uses water only ; leaves off when the" fruit approaches to maturity ; and after it is gathered, recommences. 2597. Siibstitutes for watering can only be found in contrivances to lessen evaporation from the soil. Mulching is much used for this purpose in all the departments of the gardens of Italy and Spain. Even the Paris nurserymen cover the spaces between their lines of young trees with litter or leaves, as do the orange propagators at Nervi and the market-gardeners at Rome and Naples. In this country similar practices are sometimes tried. Maher, at Arundel Castle, during one very hot and dry summer, " sowed his seeds in drills, and covered the intervals between the drills with tiles, letting the edges of the tiles approach within an inch of the drills, and pressing them close into the earth. The tiles effectually preserved the roots from the scorching rays of the sun, and by preventing the evaporation of the moisture under them, afforded support as well as protection." (Hort. Trans, vol. iv. p. 51.) SECT. VIII. Vermin, Insects, Diseases, and Occidents. 2598. Such vermin as moles, mice, and birds are to be caught by some of the traps or snares before described. (1473. to 1486.) After all the various devices that have been suggested and practised for keeping under the grub, caterpillar, and snail, the most certain is gathering them by hand at their first appearance every season. The grub, wire- worm, and maggot must be sought for by removing the earth from the roots of the plants where it is in action. The caterpillar gathered from the leaves beginning early in the season. The snail picked from the leaves or stalks of plants ; or, in the case of new-sown crops, by strewing the ground with cabbage-leaves, or decaying leaves or haulm of any sort, (the process of decay inducing a degree of sweetness in the vegetable,) the snails will attach themselves to their under surface in the night, and may be picked off in the morning. Where the earth-worm is too abundant, they may be gathered in digging ; or their casts removed, and the ground watered with clear lime-water. Ear- wigs, wood-lice, and similar insects, may be caught in hollow stalks of vegetables, or in ' the beetle-trap. Wasps are best destroyed by suffocating them in their nests ; when this cannot be done, recourse must be had to bottles of honied water, or other common modes. Watering is an effectual mode of destroying the red spider. Fumigation is generally resorted to in the case of the aphis and thrips ; but in the open garden, watering and rubbing, or brushing them off, will effect their destruction. 2599. Diseases in the vegetable kingdom are rather to be prevented than cured. A good soil on a dry sub-soil is the grand foundation of health, both in trees and herbaceous plants ; and, on the supposition of proper culture, the judicious use of the knife to thin out superfluous, diseased, or injured branches, shoots, or leaves, and of the scraper, to re- move mosses and rough bark already cracked and separating, are all that can be done to be depended on. Various unctions, oils, washes, compositions, and plasters, have been tried and recommended for curing the canker, mildew, blight, blotches, barrenness, gum, &c. ; but few or none of them can be depended on. For the mildew, strewing with pow- dered sulphur is considered a specific; for the canker, &c., the most effectual mode of procedure is to correct the faults of the sub-soil and soil, renewing the latter entirely, if necessary ; to cut ou f as far as practicable the diseased or wounded part ; and in the case BOOK I. GATHERING AND PRESERVING VEGETABLES, &c. 495 of barrenness, to cut in or shorten even the healthy wood. Wherever amputation takes place, the wound will heal, if the air is excluded by prepared clay or any adhesive mix- ture, provided always, that the principle of life exists in tolerable vigor in the tree. Every thing, indeed, in plants as in animals, depends on the vis medicatrti naturae. SECT. IX. Gathering and Preserving Vegetables and Fruits, and sending them to a Distance. 2600. Gathering should commence as early and continue as late as possible with all kitchen-crops. At the same time, no vegetable ought to be gathered till it has attained the requisite degree of maturity, nor offered for use when it has begun to decay. What this degree is, often depends on the particular tastes of families, or their domestics : thus cabbages are most esteemed in Edinburgh, when fully headed and blanched ; while, in London, they are preferred open and green, &c. Equal differences in taste as to peas, celery, lettuce, and indeed most other kitchen-crops, might be noticed. The operations of gathering kitchen-crops are either cutting off* the part desired, breaking or pulling it off, as in the case of peas, beans, &c. or pulling or rooting up, as in the case of onions, turnips, potatoes, &c. Each of these operations ought to be performed with due regard to the plant, where that is to remain, as in the case of the pea ; and to the adjoining plants of the same sort, as in the case of pulling turnips, onions, &c. As soon as any plant has furnished its crops or produce, the root and other remains ought to be immedi- ately removed to the dung or compost heap. (See 1977.) 260 1 . Gathering fruits. This operation in the case of the small fruits, as the goose- berry, strawberry, &c. is generally performed by the under-gardeners ; but wall and espalier fruit ought to be gathered by the head gardener. Where the utmost delicacy is desired, the berry-gatherer (Jig. 149.) ought to be adopted for the small fruits, and also for plums, apples, and other fruits on espaliers. For the finer fruits, as the peach, nectarine, &c. the peach -gatherer (Jig. 148.) lined with velvet, ought always to be adopted. 2602. Preserving esculents. The ice-house, as we have repeatedly observed, is found particularly useful for preserving esculent roots, and likewise celery during winter. " Where parsneps and beet-roots are left in the ground over winter," Neill observes, " they must be lifted at the approach of spring, as they become tough and woody whenever there is a tendency to form a flower-stalk. These roots may, therefore, at this season, be placed in the ice-house, and preserved there for a considerable time in excellent order. In the summer season, during hot weather, various kinds of vegetables, as peas, kidneybeans, cucumbers, &c. can be kept fresh in it for several days ; fruits gathered in the morning, which is the most proper time, may be here kept cool, and with all their freshness and flavor, until required for the dessert in the afternoon." (Supp. to Encyc. Brit. art. Hort.) 2603. Packing fruit and vegetables to be sent to a distance frequently forms a part of the gardener's duty. Fruits of the most delicate sorts, it is well known, are sent from Spain and Italy to England, packed in jars with sawdust from woods not resinous or otherwise ill tasted. One large bunch of grapes is suspended from a twig or pin laid across the mouth of the jar, so as it may not touch either the bottom or sides ; sawdust or bran is then strewed in, and when full, the jar is well shaken to cause it to settle : more is then added, till it is quite full, when the supporting twig is taken away, and the earthen cover of the jar closely fitted and sealed, generally with fine stucco. In tin's way grapes may be sent from the most remote parts of Scotland or Ireland to the metropolis. When the distance is less, they may be sent enveloped in fine paper, and packed in moss. For extraordinary large bundles of grapes, the mode adopted by the Jewish spies (Numbers xiii.), and afterwards by Speechly, may be followed ; that of carrying it suspended on a pole or staff resting on men's sholders. The simplest mode for short distances is to wrap each bunch in fine soft paper, and lay them on a bed of moss in a broad flat basket with a proper cover. 604. The more common fruits, cherries, and plums may be packed in thin layers, with paper and moss between each. Peaches, apricots, and the finer plums, may each be wrapped separately in vine or other leaves, or fine paper, and packed in abundance of cotton, flax, fine moss, or dried short grass. Moss, it will be recollected, is apt to communicate its flavor to fine fruits, and so is short grass, 11 not thoroughly dried and sweetened. Cotton best preserves the bloom on peaches and plums. 2605. Common culinary vegetables are seldom sent to a great distance. The great art is to preserve them fresh, for which purpose they ought to be laid loose in a close box, in the manner of botanic specimens ; or closely packed in hampers, so as to exclude the air. The brassica and lettuce tribes, if pulled up by the roots, and as it were replanted in a box of sand with a wicker-work cover, may be sent a journey of two or three weeks without injury, as practised in Russia. Celery, turnips, &c. may be packed in sand ; potatoes and other roots, loose. Legumes and other summer crops generally in moss. SECT. X. Miscellaneous Operations of Culture arid Management. 2606. The miscellaneous operations and duties of the gardener are numerous, and in the foregoing general view of kitchen -garden culture many particulars are necessarily omitted. Among these may be mentioned propagation of various kinds for the renewal 1 of crops, mulching perennials, blanching leaves and stalks, rolling walks, preparing 496 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. composts, regrafting trees to introduce better sorts, or a variety of sorts on one treje, per- forming operations on their roots or stems to render them more fruitful, &c. These and other practices described in Part II. Book IV. of this work must be applied according to the judgment of the practitioner. 2G07. A garden may be managed so as to produce good crops, and yet not so as to be agreeable to the eye. In general it may be observed, that the English gardeners excel in the former, and the Scotch in the latter part of practice. The Dutch and Flemish seem, in some degree to combine both, and this ought to be attempted, and persevered in till perfection is attained, by every British gardener. 2608. The first requisite to good management is a proper establishment of laborers, and resources, as to manure, seeds, repairs, &c. adequate to the extent and character of the garden. The next thing neces- sary is the entire independence of the gardener, as far as respects his province. The constant irksome interference of masters and mistresses, stewards, or others, is justly complained of by every gardener who understands his business. Where the proprietor is as it were head gardener, in that case he ought to make use of mere workmen, or of such gardeners as are not over-ambitious in their profession. In general it may be observed, that gardens so managed are ill managed, and often not well cultivated. 2609. The next requisite is a taste for order and neatness. This taste is generally acquired in youth from the instruction or imitation of parents or masters ; but it may be greatly increased in grown-up persons, when they perceive its advantages, and in head gardeners, when a demand for it is created by their employers. 2610. Industry and steadiness are perhaps in no kind of life more necesssary than in that of a gardener. Whole crops may be easily ruined by a day's neglect ; and not only whole crops, as in the case of ne- glecting cucumber-frames, for example,, but the whole produce of a year, or of several years, as in the case of neglecting a peach-house for one hot day. 2611. Unremitting attention and application. Unless a man is endowed with, and has well cultivated the faculty of attention, he can never excel in any thing. Without an ever-active attention, a gardener, will not see what is out of order, or unsightly in his garden, and of course will not think of correcting it. Many people are so deficient in this respect, that their knowledge is entirely confined to the few objects with which their mode of procuring a living obliges them to be conversant. Something more than this is wanting in a gardener who would be master of his business ; and it must be confessed, to the honor of many gardeners, that they excel in point of general observation and knowledge. 2612. The management of a garden, Marshall observes, consists in attention and application ; the first should be of that wary and provident kind, as not only to do well in the present,' but for the future ; and the application should be of so diligent a nature, as " Never to defer that till to-morrow which may be done to-day."' Procrastination ' is of serious consequence in gardening; and neglect of times and seasons is fruitful of disappointment and complaint. It will often happen, indeed, that a gardener cannot do what he would ; but if he does not do what he can, he will be most justly blamed, and perhaps censured by none more than himself. (Introd. to Gar. p. 59.) CHAP. V. Of the general Management of Orchards. 2613. A private orchard is, sometimes, treated entirely as a kitchen-garden, in which case the foregoing chapter contains the general outline of management. Vege- tables and small fruits, however, are seldom well flavored when grown under the shade and drip of trees, and, therefore, orchards are commonly either but slightly cropped, or laid down in pasture^ after the trees are a few years established. SECT. I. General Culture. 2614. Stirring the soil. " Many orchards would bear much better," Marshall observes, " if the ground were, before winter, dug over every second or third year, and dressed, by digging in some rotten dung, or sprinkling over the whole soot and pigeons' dung, or that of any other poultry ; this will wash in by rains and snows, and do much good. Or, if an orchard were ploughed, or rough dug, every year, immediately after the fall of the leaf, without manuring, it would be very beneficial." 2615. The taking of light, green crops near and among fruit-trees, according to Aber- crombie, tends to keep the ground more effectually stirred and recruited, than if periodical diggings or hoeings were prescribed merely for the sake of the trees, because labor, for which the recompense is not direct, is constantly liable to be neglected. Nevertheless circumspection must be exercised, neither to dig too near, nor too deep among garden-trees, lest the roots should be loosened or injured. Digging the ground, Forsyth observes, provided it be not done so deep as to hurt the roots, by admitting the sun and rain to meliorate the ground, will keep the trees in a healthy flourishing state. When the surface of the ground is wet, and has a little descent, it may be formed into a kind of ridges, by making a furrow, from one to two feet deep, between every two rows, sloping the ground regularly on each side, from a reasonable distance to the bottom of the furrow. These hollows will carry off the water, and render the surface dry and healthy. If pasture, the turf may be first pared off, and afterwards relaid when the furrow is made. (Forsyth on Fr. Trees, p. 305.) Nicol directs the whole ground of an orchard to be dug in the autumn, and laid up in a rough state for the winter, giving it as much surface as possible, in order that the weather may fully act upon and meliorate the soil ; thus fallowing it as far as the case will admit. Observe to dig carefully near to the trees, and so as not to hurt their roots and fibres. If the soil be shallow, and if these lie near the surface, it would be advisable to dig with a fork instead of the spade. (Kal. p. 262.) BOOK I. PRUNING ORCHARD-TREES. 497 2616. Manuring. The natural defects of the soil, the habits of fruit-trees, and the preference of a species for a particular soil or manure, are to be considered. The hotter dungs are not liked by fruit-trees ; and those of the horse and the sheep, if not wanted where they would be beneficial alone, should be mixed with twice as much of the cooler dungs, and three times as much fresh earth or road-drift ; or with twice the bulk of earthy matter, if the cooler dungs are not to be obtained. The residuum of neats' dung, properly reduced by keeping, is a good simple manure for most fruit-trees, and excellent in a compost ; but where the soil is naturally cold, a little ashes of coals, wood, straw, or burnt turf, or a minute proportion of soot, ought to be incorporated with it. Hog-dung is accounted to have a peculiar virtue in invigorating weak trees. Rotted turf, or any vegetable refuse, is a general manure, excellent for all soils not already too rich. One of the best correctives of too rich a soil is drift sand. For an exhausted soil, where a fruit-tree that has been an old profitable occupant is wished to be continued, a dressing of animal matter is a powerful restorative ; such as hog's or bullock's blood, offal from the slaughter-house, refuse of skins and leather, decomposed carrion : also urine diluted with water. The drainings of dung laid on as mulch are highly serviceable. In a soil which does not effervesce with acids, a little lime, dug in a spit deep, is beneficial to fruit-trees. (Abercrombie.} Forsyth says, " Orchards ought to be dunged once in two or three years." Marshall allows of some rotten dung being dug in, or of sprinkling the whole over with soot and pigeon's dung ; he adds, " It is not ad- visable to give trees much dung ; a little lime, only surface-dug, is good." 2617. Cropping. Marshall, Abercrombie, and Forsyth allow of moderate cropping among standard fruit-trees ; but the following observations of Nicol are the most definite on the subject : It is proper to crop the ground among new-planted orchard-trees for a few years, in order to defray the expense of hoeing and cultivating it ; which should be done until the temporary plants are removed, and the whole be sown down in grass. But it is by no means advisable to carry the system of cropping with vegetables to such an excess as is frequently done. If the bare expense of cultivating the ground, and the rent, be paid by such cropping, it should be considered enough. As the trees begin to produce fruit, begin also to relinquish cropping. When by their productions they defray all expenses, crop no longer. I consider these as being wholesome rules, both for the trees and their owners. Rule. " Crop to within two feet of the trees the first year ; a yard the second ; four feet the third ; and so on until finally relinquished ; which of course would be against the eighth year, provided the trees were planted at thirty or forty feet apart with early bearing sorts between. By this time, if the kinds have been well chosen, the temporary trees will be in full bearing, and will forthwith defray every neces- sary expense while they remain, or until the principal trees come into a bearing state, and it become necessary to remove them ; after which, the ground should be sown down in grass. But until then, the ground should be properly cultivated, though not cropped close to the trees j and a moderate quantity of manure should be digged in every second or third season." (Kal. 262.) SECT. II. Pruning Orchard-trees. 2618. In pruning a newly planted orchard or standard tree, the first object is the form- ation of a head. According to Abercrombie, this ought in most kinds to be " circular, compact, and proportioned to the strength of the stem, with the branches well distributed, and sufficiently open in the centre to admit the free circulation of air." In the first spring " after a young standard has been planted, examine the primary branches, to see whether they will be sufficient, with the secondary laterals to be forced out by shortening, to form a good head. The primary branches should be so placed as to balance each other, and be equally distributed round the tree. Thus, three in a triangle ; four at right angles ; five, six, and even seven, shooting at pretty equal distances, might be retained : but it is seldom that more than four well placed offer, which is a good number. These first branches, if there be no secondary laterals, or none well placed, should be shortened down to two or four eyes each ; or reduce a strong shoot to one third of its length, and a weak shoot to two thirds. The second spring, again revise the branches and secondary shoots, and re- serve only so many as are vigorous and well distributed. Afterwards leave the head to form of itself, cutting out superfluous and ill placed shoots, and shortening for the production of new laterals only to fill a vacancy. Luxuriant limbs, which are likely to be disproportionally large, should be rejected as weakly shoots. In the third or fourth year after planting a maiden tree, the foundation of a good head having been obtained by judicious shortening, and the plant sufficiently strengthened, it will become proper to let the tree proceed to bearing with no greater check from the knife than is unavoidable. To this end, the lower branches should not be shortened at all, and the upright leaders very little. But where two shoots cross, let the worst be cut out. Moderate-sized and slender shoots are more fruitful than strong luxuriant wood." 2619. The object of pruning young standard-trees, Nicol observes, " is to form a proper head. Generally speaking, the shoots may be pruned in proportion to their lengths, cutting clean away such as cross one another, and fanning the tree out towards the ex- tremities on all sides ; thereby keeping it equally poised, and fit to resist the effects of high winds. When it is wished to throw a young tree into a bearing state, which should not be thought of, however, sooner than the third or fourth year after planting, the leading branches should be very little shortened, and the lower or side branches not at all ; nor should the knife be used, unless to cut out such shoots as cross one another, as above hinted." 26204 Pruning bearing trees. " After an orchard-tree is come into bearing," Abercrombie observes, " continue at the time of winter pruning, either every year, or every two, three, or four years, as an occasion is perceived, to cut out unproductive K k 498 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. wood, crowded spray, and decayed parts. Also reduce long and outrunning ramblers, and low stragglers, cutting them to some good lateral that grows within limits. Where fruit-spurs are too numerous, then cut the strongest and most unsightly. Also keep the tree pretty open in the middle. If it be necessary to take off large branches from aged trees, use a chisel or saw, and afterwards smooth the wound with a paring-knife. In case old wood is to be cut down to young shoots springing below, to make the separation in summer will be of more advantage to those young shoots, though it is not a common practice, on account of the liability of many stone-fruit bearers to exude gum, when a large branch is lopped in the growing season. Observe to keep the stem clear from all lateral shoots, and eradicate all suckers from the root." 2621. In limning aged trees, that have run into a confusion of shoots and branches, and whose spurs have become clustered and crowded, the saw and the knife may be ex- ercised with freedom ; observing to cut clean away all useless spray, rotten stumps, and the like excrescences. Thin out the spurs to a moderate consistency, so as to let the air circulate freely among the leaves and fruit in the summer season, and to admit the rays of the sun, so as to give the fruit color and flavor. Marshall strongly recommends "thinning the branches of orchard-trees for the same objects," adding, " that it is in general much neglected." He recommends "a little pruning of standards every year; and a general one (rather free) every three or four years, to cut out what is decayed, and some of the older wood, where a successional supply of young may be obtained to succeed, as the best way to keep the trees in vigor, and have the best of fruit ; for that which grows on old wood gets small and austere." The same author judiciously remarks, that trees with heavy fruit, as the apple and pear, should have, if possible, their branches rather upright ; but that light-fruited trees, such as the cherry, will admit of drooping branches. 2622. Tfie season for pruning orchards is generally winter or early in spring not later than February, according to Abercrombie and Nicol. Quintiney says, " A weak tree ought to be pruned directly at the fall of the leaf." And Abercrombie, " To prune in autumn strengthens a plant, and will bring the blossom-buds more forward ; to cut the wood late in spring tends to check a plant, and is one of the remedies for excessive luxuriance." 2623. Treatment of deformed or diseased trees. Where a tree is stinted, or the head ill shaped, from being originally badly pruned, or barren from having overborne itself, or from constitutional weakness, the most expeditious remedy is to head down the plant within three, four, or five eyes (or inches, if an old tree) of the top of the stem, in order to furnish it with a new head. The recovery of a languishing tree, if not too old, will be further promoted by taking it up at the same time, and pruning the roots ; for as, on the one hand, the depriving too luxuriant a tree of part even of its sound healthy roots will moderate its vigor ; so, on the other, to relieve a stinted or sickly tree of cankered or decayed roots, to prune the extremities of sound roots, and especially to shorten the dangling tap-roots of a plant, affected by a bad sub-soil, is in connection with heading down or very short pruning, and the renovation of the soil, and draining, if necessary, of the sub-soil, the most availing remedy that can be tried. (Abercrombie.) 2624. A tree often becomes stinted from an accumulation of moss, which affects the functions of the bark, and renders the tree unfruitful. This evil is to be removed by scraping the stem and branches of old trees with the scraper ; and on young trees a hard brush will effect the purpose. Abercrombie and Nicol agree in recommending the finishing of this operation by washing with soap-suds, or a medicated wash of some of the different sorts for destroying the eggs of insects. In our opinion lime-water, or even water alone, is better than any of these applications. 2625. Wherever the bark is decayed or cracked, Abercrombie and Forsyth direct its removal. Lyon, of Edinburgh, has lately carried this practice to so great a length as even to recommend the removal of a part of the bark on young trees. Practical men, in general, however, confine the operation to the cracked bark which nature seems to attempt throw- ing off; and the effect, in rendering the trees more fruitful and luxuriant, is acknow- ledged by Neill in his Account of Scottish Gardening and Orchards, and by different writers in the London and Edinburgh Horticultural Transactions. 2626. The other diseases to which orchard-trees are subject, are chiefly the canker, gum, mildew, and blight, which, as we have already observed, are rather to be prevented by such culture as will induce a healthy state, than to be remedied by topical applications. Too much lime, Sir H. Davy thinks, may bring on the canker, and if so, the replacing a part of such soil with alluvial or vegetable earth, would be of service. The gum, it is said, may be constitutional, arising from offensive matter in the soil; or local, arising from external injury. In the former case, improve the soil ; in the latter, apply the knife. The mildew, it is observed by Knight and by Abercrombie, " may be easily subdued at its first appearance, by scattering flour of sulphur upon the infected parts." As this disease is now generally considered the growth of parasitical fungi, the above remedy is likely to succeed. For the blight and caterpillars, Forsyth recommends burn- ing of rotten wood, weeds, potatoe haulm, wet straw, &c. on the windward side of the trees when they are in blossom. He also recommends washing the stems and branches of all orchard-trees with a mixture of " fresh cow-dung with urine and soap-suds, as a white-washer would wash the ceiling or walls of a room." The promised advantages are, destruction of insects, and " fine bark ;" he adds, " when you see it necessary take all the outer bark off." BOOK I. GATHERING AND STORING ORCHARD-FRUITS. 499 SECT. III. Of gathering and storing Orchard-fruits. 2627. The gathering of orchard-fruits, and especially apples, from standards, should be performed in such a manner as not to damage the branches, or break oft' the spurs. Too frequently the fruit is allowed to drop, or they are beat and bruised by shaking the tree, and using long poles, &c. Nicol directs that " they should never be allowed to drop of themselves, nor should they be shaken down, but should be pulled by the hand or apple-gatherer. (1347.) This may be thought too troublesome a method; but every body knows that bruised fruit will not keep, nor will it bring a full price. The expense of gathering, therefore, may be more than defrayed, if carefully done, by saving the fruit from blemish." (Kal. 257.) Forsyth says, " As apples shaken or beaten down with a pole never keep in winter, they ought all to he hand-picked by a person standing on steps made on purpose. The step-ladd,er should be light, in two pieces, to disengage the back at pleasure, by drawing the bolt ; and they should have a broad step at top for a man to stand on, and to place a basket by his feet. In the larger baskets or hampers, in which the fruit is to be placed to be wheeled away, lay some short grass mowings, perfectly dry (which ought to be provided in summer, and kept dry), to prevent the fruit from being bruised." 2628. In resided to the time of gathering, Nicol recommends " that pears and apples should not be pulled till their seeds be of a dark brown, or blackish color." The criterion of ripeness, adopted by Forsyth, is their beginning to fall from the tree. He says, " Observe attentively when the apples and pears are ripe ; and do not pick them always at the same regular time of the year, as is the practice with many. A dry season will forward the ripening of fruit, and a wet one retard it ; so that there will sometimes be a month or five weeks difference in the proper time of gathering. The method that I have practised is, to observe when the fruit begins to fall (I do not mean what we call windfalls, or the falling of such as are infested with the caterpillar, &c., but sound fruit) ; I then put my hand under it ; and if it comes off without any force being used, I take it for granted that the fruit is perfectly ripe ; unless the tree be sickly, which is easily known by the leaves or fruit being shrivelled. If the foregoing observations are attended to, the fruit will keep well, and be plump ; and not shrivelled, as is the case with all fruit that is gathered before it is ripe." Marshall says, " Gather pears of the summer sorts, rather before they are ripe, as when thoroughly so they cat mealy, if kept above a day or two ; even when gathered as they ought to be, in a week or less they will begin to go at the core. They should not, however, be gathered while they require much force to pull them off. Autumn pears must also not be full ripe at the time of gathering, though they will keep longer than those of the summer. Winter pears, on the contrary, should hang as long on the trees as they may, so as to escape frost, which would make them flat in flavor, and not keep well. Generally they may hang to the middle of October on full standards, a week longer on dwarfs, and to the end of the month on walls ; but yet not after they are ripe. The art of gathering is to give them a lift, so as to press away the stalk, and if ripe they readily part from the tree. Those that will not come off easy, should hang a little longer ; for when they come hardly off, they will not be so fit to store, and the violence done at the footstalk may injure the bud there formed for the next year's fruit. Let pears be quite dry when pulled, and in handling avoid pinching the fruit, or in any way bruising it, as those which are hurt not only decay themselves, but presently spread infection to those near them : when suspected to be bruised, let them be carefully kept from others, and used first: as gathered lay them gently in shallow baskets." " The jargonelle pear," Forsyth observes, " keeps best on the tree, as if gathered, it rots almost immediately." 2629. With regard to keeping of orchard-fru.its, the old practice, and that recommended by Marshall and Forsyth, commences with sweating. Nicol, and most modern gardeners, omit this process, arid spread the fruit thinly on shelves, or the floor of the fruit-room. As to the keeping of apples, Marshall observes, " those which continue long for use should be suffered to hang late, even to November, if the frost will permit, for they must be well ripened, or they will shrink. Lay them in heaps till they have .sweated a few days, when they must be wiped dry. Let them then lie singly, or at least thinly, for about a fortnight, and be again wiped, and immediately packed in boxes and hampers, lined with double or treble sheets of paper. Place them gently in, and cover them close, so as to keep air out as much as possible. Preserve them from frost through the winter. Never use hay for the purpose. Some of the choicest table sorts of apples may be treated as directed for the best pears." 2630. Sweating and storing ivinter pears. Winter pears, according to Marshall, " should be laid in a dry airy room, at first thinly for a few days,* and then put them in heaps to sweat ; in order to which, a blanket thrown over them will help. The ferment- ation must be watched, and when it seems to have passed the height of sweating, wipe the fruit quite dry gently with fine flannel, or clean soft linen, and store them carefully. The storing is thus : those to be used first, lay by singly on shelves, or on the floor, in a dry southern room, on clean dry moss, or sweet dry straw, so as not to touch one another. Some, or all the rest, having first lain a fortnight singly, and then nicely culled, are to be spread on shelves, or on a dry floor. But the most superior way is, to pack in large earthen, or China or stqne jars, with very dry long moss at the bottom, sides, and also between them, if 'it might be. Press a good coat of moss on the top, and then stop the mouth close with cork, or otherwise, which should be rosined round with about a Kk 2 500 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. twentieth part of bees' wax in it. As the object is effectually to keep out air (the cause of putrefaction), the jars, if earthen, may be set on dry sand, which put also between, round, and over them, to a foot thick on the top. In all close storing, observe, there should be no doubt of the soundness of the fruit. Guard, in time, from frost those that lie open. Jars of fruit must be soon used after unsealing." 2631. Sweating and storing apples and pears as practised by Forsyth. " When the fruit is carried to the fruit-room, lay some of the dry short grass on the floor, in the area of the room ; then take the fruit gently out of the baskets, and lay it in heaps on the top of the grass, keeping each sort in a separate heap ; the heaps may be from two to three feet high, or according to the quantity of fruit that you have. When the heaps are com- pleted, cover the tops at least two inches thick with short grass, in order to sweat them. Let them lie a fortnight, then open the heaps and turn them over, wiping each apple or pear with a dry woollen cloth, which should be frequently dried during the process, observing now to lay in the middle the fruit which before was at the top. Let the heaps now remain eight or ten days, covered as before ; by that time, they will have thrown out the watery crudities which they may have imbibed during a wet season ; then uncover the heaps, and wipe the fruit carefully one by one, as before, picking out every one that is injured, or has the least spot, as unfit for keeping. During the time that the fruit is sweating, the windows should be left open, except in wet and foggy weather, to admit the air to carry off the moisture which perspires from the fruit. The perspiration will some- times be so great, that, on putting your hand into the heap, it will come out as wet as if it had been dipped into a pail of water : when in this state it will be necessary to turn and wipe the fruit." 2632. In laying up fruit, the common practice has been, to lay it on clean wheat-straw ; but I find, by experience, that, when any of the fruit begins to decay, if it be not immediately picked out, the straw, by imbibing the moisture from the decayed fruit, will become tainted, and communicate a disagreeable taste to the sound fruit. " The fruit on shelves," he adds, " should be turned two or three times during the winter ; as delicate and tender fruit, by lying long without turning, is apt to rot on the underside, even if perfectly sound when laid up. Be particularly careful, however, to pick out all the damaged fruit. When the fruit is laid in, put the earliest sorts on the lower shelves, or in the lower drawers, according to their time of coming in, beginning with the nonsuch, golden rennet, and jenneting apples, and bergamot and beurr pears ; thus, by proper management, you may have a constant succession of fruit from one season to the other. Those who keep their fruit in storehouses, for the supply of the London and other markets, as well as those who have not proper fruit-rooms, may keep their apples and pears in baskets or hampers j putting some soft paper in the bottoms and round the edges of the baskets, &c., to keep the fruit from being bruised ; then put in a layer of fruit, and over that another layer of paper ; and so on, a layer of fruit and of paper alternately, till the basket or hamper be full : cover the top with paper three or four times double, to exclude the air and frost as much as possible. Every different sort of fruit should be packed separately ; and it will be proper to fix a label to each basket or hamper, with the name of the fruit that it contains, and the time of its being fit for use." 2633. But the best way of keeping fruit, is to pack it in glazed earthen jars. " The pears or apples must be separately wrapped up in soft paper ; then put a little well-dried bran in the bottom of the jar, and over the bran a layer of fruit ; then a little more bran to fill up the interstices between the fruit, and to cover it ; and so on, a layer of fruit and bran alternately, till the jar be full ; then shake it gently, which will make the fruit arid bran sink a little ; fill up the vacancy at top with more bran, and lay some paper over it, covering the top with a piece of bladder to exclude the air ; then put on the top or cover of the jar, observing that it fits as closely as possible. These jars should be kept in a room where you can have a fire in wet or damp weather." 2634. Nicolas opinion as to the sweating of fruits is thus given : " I consider it an error to sweat apples, as it is termed, previous to storing them, either in the common way, with straw or hay, or as recommended by Forsyth, by the use of short grass. The fruit ever after retains a bad flavor. It should never be laid in heaps at all ; but if quite dry when gathered, should be immediately carried to the fruit-room, and be laid, if not singly, at least thin on the shelves ; the room being properly fitted up with shallow shelves on purpose, being well aired, and having a stove in it, that damp may be dried off" when necessary." He adds, " If the finer fruits are placed on any thing else than a clean shelf, it should be on fine paper. Brown paper gives them a flavor of pitch. The finer large kinds of pears should not be allowed even to touch one another, but should be laid quite single and distinct. Apples, and all pears, should be laid thin ; never tier above tier. Free air should be admitted to the fruit-room always in good weather, for several hours every day ; and in damp weather a fire should be kept in. Be careful at all times to exclude the frost from the fruit, and occasionally to turn it when very mellow." 2635. Gathering and storing nuts. Walnuts are generally beat off the tree with poles ; but it does not appear that any harm would result to the fruit from leaving them to drop, or be shaken off by winds, or in part shaking them off. Sweating may be applicable to them, in order to the more ready separation of the outer or soft skin from the hard shell. This effected, they are to be spread thin till quite dry, when they may be preserved in bins, or boxes, or heaps. 2636. Walnuts for keeping, Forsyth observes, " should be suffered to drop of themselves, and afterwards laid in an open airy place till they are thoroughly dried ; then pack them in jars, boxes or casks, with fine clean sand, that has been well dried in the sun, in an oven, or before the fire, in layers of sand and walnuts alternately ; set them in a dry place, but not where it is too hot. In this manner, I have kept BOOK I. PACKING FRUITS FOR CARRIAGE. 501 them good till the latter end of April. Before you send them to table, wipe the sand clean off; and, if you find that they have become shrivelled, steep them in milk and water for six or eight hours before they are used ; this will make them plump and fine, and cause them to peel easily." 2637. The chestnut is to be treated like the walnut, after the husk is removed, which, in the chestnut, opens of itself. Knight (Hor. Tr. i. p. 247.) preserves chestnuts and walnuts during the whole winter, by covering them with earth as cottagers do potatoes. 2638. Filberts may always be gathered by hand, and should afterwards be treated as recommended for walnuts Forsy th recommends packing nuts, intended for keeping, in jars or boxes of dry sand. 2639. Other fruits. The barberry and cornel, or dog-wood berry, are used immediately, when gathered, as preserves. The medlar is not good till rotten ripe. It is gene- rally gathered in the beginning of November, and placed between two layers of straw, to forward its maturation. " Others," Marshall observes, " put medlars in a box on a three- inch layer of fresh bran, moistened well with soft warm water ; then strew a layer of straw between them, and cover with fruit two inches thick ; which moisten also, but not so wet as before." In a week or ten days after this operation, they will be fit for use. Quinces are gathered in November, when they are generally ripe. After sweating in a heap for a few days, they are to be wiped dry, and placed on the fruit-shelf at some distance from each other. The service, or sorb apple, never ripens on the tree in Eng- land. Where grown, it is gathered late in autumn, in a very austere state, and laid on wheat-straw to decay. It thus becomes eatable in a month. SECT. IV. Of packing Orchard and other Fruits for Carnage. 2640. In packing fruit to be sent to a considerable distance, great care is requisite. It should not, Forsyth observes, be packed in baskets, as they are liable to be bruised among heavy luggage, and the fruit, of course, will be injured. I would, therefore, recommend boxes made of strong deal, of different sizes, according to the quantity of fruit to be packed. The following are the dimensions of the boxes in which we send fruit by the coach to Windsor and Weymouth, for the use of his Majesty and the Royal Family ; viz. : The larger box is two feet long, fourteen inches broad, and the same in depth. The smaller box is one foot nine inches long, one foot broad, and the same depth. These boxes are made of inch-deal, and well secured with three iron clamps at each corner : they have two small iron handles, one at each end, by which they are fastened to the roof of the coach ; in these boxes we send melons, currants, pears, peaches, nectarines, plums and grapes, packed so as always to have the heaviest fruit at bottom. The melons are wrapped up in soft paper : the pears, peaches, nectarines, plums, and grapes are first wrapped up in vine-leaves, and then in paper. The cherries and currants are packed in a flat tin box, one foot four inches long, ten inches broad, and four deep. 2641. In packing, proceed thus : First, put a layer of fine long dry moss in the bottom of the tin box, then a layer of currants or cherries, then another layer of moss, and so on, alternately, fruit and moss, until the box is so full, that, when the lid is hasped down, the fruit may be so firmly packed as to preserve them from friction. Make a layer of fine moss and short, soft, dry grass, well mixed, in the bottom of the deal box ; then pack in the melons with some of the same, packing it tight in between all the rows, and also between the melons in the same row, till you have finished the layer ; choosing the fruit as nearly of size as possible, filling up every interstice with the moss and grass. When the melons are packed, lay a thin layer of moss and grass over them, upon which place the tin box with the currants, packing it firmly all round with moss to prevent it from shaking ; then put a thin layer of moss over the box, and pack the pears firmly (but so as not to bruise them) on that layer, in the same manner as the melons ; and so on with the peaches, nectarines, plums, and lastly, the grapes, filling up the box with moss, that the lid may shut down so tight as to prevent any friction among the fruit. The boxes should have locks, and two keys, which may serve for them all ; each of the persons who pack and unpack the fruit having a key. The moss and grass should always be returned in the boxes, which, with a little addition, will serve the whole season, being shaken up and well aired after each journey, and keeping it sweet and clean. After the wooden box is locked, it will be necessary to cord it firmly. My reason for being so particular on packing of fruit is, that I have known instances of its being totally spoiled in the carriage from im- proper packing. By pursuing the above method, we have never failed ot success ; and if fruit be packed according to the foregoing directions, it may be sent to the farthest parts of the kingdom, by coaches or waggons, with perfect safety. 2642. Miscellaneous points of orchard culture. As in treating of kitchen-garden culture, so here various lesser points of culture and management are omitted, which the judicious gardener will not overlook in practice ; provided he has, or ought to have, the whole art and science of gardening, as it were, stored up in his mind, and ready to apply on every occasion. Among these points maybe named the occasional grafting of orchard-trees, with a view either to introduce new or preferable sorts, or to fill up the head of a tree. Thinning out temporary trees ; introducing young trees in intervals of old orchards to succeed the old ; guarding from thieves ; and a variety of other matters, which circumstances will always suggest to the observing eye and fertile mind of a gardener attached to his profession. Among these things, one of the first conse- quence is attention to order and neatness. 2643. In regard to neatness and order, see 2355. to 2373. ; and with respect to recent improvements, which have not been fully sanctioned by extensive adoption, they have been already enumerated in Part II. Book IV. On the Operations of Gardening. Kk 3 502 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. CHAK VI. Construction of the Culinary Forcing Structures and Hot-houses. 2644. The general principles of design in forcing and hut-house structures have been already laid down (1591. to 1692.); and, therefore, the object, in this chapter, is to detail the most approved practice in regard to the particular construction of such as belong to the culinary and fruit gardens. These are the pinery, vinery, peach-house, cherry-house, fig-house, culinary pits, frames, and mushroom-house. SECT. I. Of the Construction of the Pinery. 2645. The external form of a pinery varies less than that of any other description of hot-house. The necessity, in glass structures, of placing all plants intended to thrive near the glass, and a bed of bark or leaves for plunging pots, being most convenient, when flat or gently sloping, have led, in almost all cases, to a low and rather flat roof, nearly parallel to the bark-bed. This gave rise, many years ago, to the growing of pines in pits, as practised by the Dutch, and generally on the continent, and as recently adopted in this country by most commercial gardeners ; by Nicol, in giving designs for this class of buildings ; and by Baldwin, one of the best pine-growers of the present day. 2646. The pinery of Nicol consists of three pits in a range ; one for crowns and suckers, one for succession, and one for fruiting plants. The fruiting-pit to be placed in the centre, and the other two, right and left ; forming a range of a hundred feet in length ; which would give pine-apples enough for a large family. The fruiting-pit to be forty feet long, and ten feet wide, over walls ; and each of the others to be thirty feet long, and nine feet wide, also over walls. The breast-wall of the whole to be on a line, and to be eighteen inches above ground. The back wall of the centre one to be five feet, and of the others, to be four and a half feet higher than the front. The front and end flues to be separated from the bark-bed by a three inch cavity, and the back flues to be raised above its level. 2647. The furnaces may either be placed in front, or at 432 the back, according to conveniency ; but the strength of the heat should be first exhausted in front, and should return in the back flues. The fruiting-pit would require two small furnaces, in order to diffuse the heat generally, and keep up a proper temperature in winter ; one to be placed at each hand ; and either to play, first in front, and return in the back ; but the flues to be above, and not alongside of one another ; as in the latter way they would take up too much room. The under one to be considered merely as an auxiliary flue, as it would only be wanted occasionally. None of these flues need be more than five or six inches wide, and nine or ten deep. Nor need the furnaces be so large, by a third or fourth part, as those for large forcing-houses ; because there should be proper oil-cloth covers for the whole, as guards against severe wea- ther, which would be a great saving of fuel. The depth of the pits should be regulated so as that the average depth of the bark-beds may be a yard below the level of the front flues ; as to that level the bark will generally settle, although made as high as their surfaces, when new stirred up. If leaves, or a mixture of leaves with dung, are to be used instead of bark, the pits will require to be a foot, or half a yard deeper. 2648. Large pineries should be turned to other purposes, and stick erected as are described above. There cannot be a doubt respecting the satisfaction that would follow, if to have good fruit at an easy rate were the object. I have given designs for no other kinds of new pineries these six years past, but such as these ; with some variations respecting extent, however, in order to suit different purses. 2649. The pinery of JBaldivin consists of two structures, the succession-bed and fruiting-house. 2650. The succession-beds or frame (Jig. 432.), in which the young plants are to remain both winter and summer, should be constructed of timber, seven feet wide, and seven feet three inches high at the back, the front being in the same proportion. The method of preparing the bed is as followfe : " Sink your BOOK I. PINERY. 50.3 434 pit (2) three feet three inches deep, as long as you require, and sufficiently broad to admit of linings on each side (1,3); make a good drain at the bottom of the pit to keep it dry ; then set posts, about the dimensions of six inches square, in the pit, at conve- nient distances (say about the width of the .top lights), and case it round with one inch and a half deal wrought boards abovq the surface, and below with any inferior boards or planks. The dimensions of my succession-beds or frame are thirty-nine feet long, and seven feet wide ; containing two hundred and seventy-three square feet, which will hold three hundred and fifty suckers, from the end of September till the seventh of April."' (Cult, of Anan. p. 11.) 2651. The fruiting-house (Jig. 433.) is a pit with a walk behind; in it the glass should be closely puttied, to keep out the cold air, and to retain the warm, and in the back there should be three lids (6), to admit air , the dimensions of each to be three feet long and one foot deep. The flue makes only one course in the passage behind." (Cull, of Anan. p. 19.) 2652. Alton's pine-pits at Kensington (Jig. 434.) are constructed exactly in Baldwin's manner, with this difference, that the sub-soil at Kensington being moist, they are raised on a small platform (a, b) above the surface, instead of being sunk under it, as Bald- win's are. They have, also, the addition of a gutter in front (c), which, though at first sight it may appear trifling, yet, in practice, is of very material consequence, by keeping the lining dry, and not chilling and interrupting the heat in the very part where it should penetrate to the interior of the pit. Occasionally some plants are fruited in these pits, especially at Kew, but in general they are removed to a low house (Jig. 435.) of a most economical and judicious construction, and calculated both for the growth of pines and vines. This house is fifteen feet wide within walls ; the pit (a) is nine feet wide ; the back path (b) forms a border for the roots of the vines ; the pit is surrounded by a flue (c, rf) ; the curb is two feet three inches from the glass in front (e~), and four feet eight inches from it behind (f) ; the vines are planted in the back border (6), and trained under the roof directly over it and over the back flue ; and others are planted in the front border (g) ; and trained up the rafters. The length of the houses in the royal gardens at Kensington varies from thirty-three to fifty feet ( /zg.436.): 436 435 "-m* each house has two furnaces, one for constant use, and another for giving an extra supply of heat in very severe weather. The first (a) proceeds directly to .the front corner(6), thence along the front to the opposite end (c), then along the back of the pit (rf, e\ passing under the back path, or border, and terminating in a chimney (f) beside the furnace. The other furnace is placed at the opposite end of the house (g) ; has a short flue under the back path, which conducts it to the back course of the principal flue (at d), which it Kk 4 504 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. joins, and the smoke of the two fires moves in the same tunnel (from d to e), and passes out by the same chimney. When this second furnace is not in use, its connection with the flue of the first is cut off' by a damper at the point of junction (d). A very small fire made m this furnace, in severe weather, not only adds to the heat of the house by its own power, but by increasing the draught, or rate of burning, of the fire in the other furnace. In addition to the tire heat, a steam-apparatus has been lately erected, and the tubes conducted round the houses on the tops of the flues (Jig. 436. d, e) ; this is found to give a great command of heat ; and also to admit of filling the house with vapor at pleasure. The height of the house from the ground to the top of the back wall, is only nine feet (Jig. 437.) ; the rafters of the roof are placed about four feet apart, centre from centre ; 437 or about twenty-four sashes are given to every hundred feet ; the front sashes (a) are only eighteen inches high, and slide past each other ; the middle end sash (6) also slides ; the sill of the door (c) and the back path, or border, are on a level with the outer sur- face of the ground, to admit the easy wheeling in of tan, &c. ; the front border (d) is raised considerably above it, on account of the wet bottom ; the back sheds are low and neat ; and the furnaces sunk three feet below the surface ( Jig. 436. h, /*) to give them a better draught ; and this also serves to drain the back border. The houses are placed in pairs, the furnaces for general use at the extreme ends of the range, and the auxiliary ones in the middle, where the steam-boiler is also placed, but worked by a fire apart ; on the whole, no plan of pine-stove that has yet appeared is more simple, neat, economical, and complete than this ; the only objection we have to them, is, that owing to the great thickness of wood employed in the bars of the sashes, they are rather dark and gloomy within ; but this might easily be remedied by the substitution of light iron rafters, with wooden-framed sashes sliding in them, but the bars of the sashes formed of iron. It is true, gloomy as these houses are, the pines thrive in them as well as can be wished ; but probably by having more light, they might thrive so as to surpass all expectation. 2653. The pinery of Knight may be described as a pit forty-five feet long, nine feet nine inches wide, the front parapet eighteen inches, and the back wall nine feet high. The roof is constructed of iron sash-bar, fixed, and the bars curved, so that the versed sine of the segment is about twelve inches. Air is given by horizontal openings immediately under the copings of both walls. More light is admitted into such a pit in March, than into a common flat-roofed pit with wooden sashes in May or June. 438 2654. As an example of a pinery and grapery combined, we refer to a curvilinear structure (Jig. 438. ), erected from our designs, at Langport in Somersetshire. This house 439 BOOK I. PINERY. 505 440 is fifty feet long by sixteen feet wide, contains 370 superficial feet of bark-pit for pine-plants; 1400 superficial feet for training vines ; and space for 500 pots of straw- berries or French beans ; quantities greater in proportion to the glass roof, than have hitherto been obtained in any hot-house of the common form and similar dimensions. This structure is entered by lobbies at each end (fig. 439. l), which communicate with a back passage, having a glass roof and trellis for vines (2) : in the back wall of this passage, and also in the front of the house, are glazed ventilators open- ing outwards (Jig. 440. 3), through which the vines (5) are introduced and withdrawn at pleasure. The pine-pits (7) are raised so as to be as near the glass as is desirable, by vaulting them beneath (6) ; against the front of these pits, shoots of vines are brought down from the roof, and trained (9), and pots are placed over the front flue (8). The vines, close under the roof, are trained on moveable trellis-rods, composed of a centre and two side wires, and placed five feet apart ; these rods are hinged to the front props, and supported in the middle of the roof, and at top, by chains and hooks, and in this way can be raised or lowered at pleasure. This house, since its erection, in 1817, has given the greatest satisfaction, and already pro- duces considerable crops of grapes. 2655. The pine-pit of Scott (Jig. 441.) will fruit 12O plants, with three or four chaldrons of coals. The bed for the plants is fifty feet long, and seven feet six inches wide ; its peculiarities are that there is only a flue in front (Jig. 441. a.), which returns on itself, and requiring no glass over it, is covered with flag-stone (ft), supported by props of brick work (c). Co- vering the flue with flag- stone, Scott considers a great saving ; it is less costly than glass, and as the part that it covers requires no heating, by using it, instead of glass, the lights are reduced to a more 442 506 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. convenient length. If there were no stone, the lights must be in two lengths, and the rafters would necessarily be considerably larger, so that there would be more shade on the centre of the bed, if the flue was within the glass. The back elevation in the lower part is formed of open brick work (d), to admit the heat of a lining of dung, and the wall (e] enclosing this lining is bevelled, so that the dung as it sinks may not shrink and allow the heat to escape in the air. In both back and front walls are ventilators (f), for use in winter and severe weather. There are two fires (Jig. 442. g, g) the pit being constructed in two divisions (h, h), in order to keep up a succession of fruit. A drain (i) frees the whole from subterraneous water. In the use of this pit, the dung is thrown into the cavity be- hind, fresh from the stable : " when the weather is dry," Scott observes, " and a moist heat is required, I turn the dung once a week ; but if the weather be wet, I use the fire, and let the dung lie undisturbed, so that I have either a damp or dry heat at pleasure. I consider that no expense is caused by the use of the dung in this way, because, after being turned two or three times, it answers the same purpose, as it would after having been thrown up in heaps to sweeten it for cucumber or melon beds." (Hort. Trans, v. 221.) This appears to us the best plan of a pine-pit, that has yet appeared. The flue, by being situated in front, will have a perfect command of the air of the house, and the dung be- hind, which should be covered in wet or very dry weather, comes conveniently in aid both of the flue and tan-bed. SECT. II. Of the Construction of the Vinery. 2656. The vinery affords the greatest latitude of construction ; for the fruit-tree the most easily cultivated of all that are grown under glass, is the vine. For a crop which is to be forwarded by the natural influence of the sun, chiefly or alone, almost any form will suffice, provided the plants are trained near the glass. For very early crops, small houses with steep roofs (Jigs. 443, 444.), in order freely to admit the sun in the winter and spring months, are most desirable, and the section (Jig- 443.) of 443 the steep-roofed house used by the Dutch, is not surpassed by any form adopted in this country. It is commonly supposed that pits are the best buildings for early forcing, and as far as respects artificial heat, they are not much inferior to the Dutch vinery ; but as to light, with- out which forced productions are not worth using, they are, from the low angle of their roof, greatly deficient. A house for early forcing (Jig. 444.) may be thirty feet long, eight feet wide ; the glass (a) twelve feet high, placed at an angle of 15 to the perpendicular ; the flue en- tering at one end (/) may pass under the front glass (6), and afterwards make two or three returns in the back wall (rf) ; the vines may be trained on a trellis nearly parallel to the glass, between the flue and the back wall (c), and the shed behind may be fitted up with shelves (articles of a porous nature ; and I have uniformly observed the finest fibres cling to these, and often insinuate themselves through the pores, or embrace the rougher particles. Therefore, if sea-gravel can be obtained, prefer it ; and next, river-gravel ; but avoid earthy pit-gravel, and rather use sharp sand, or a mixture of pounded stone, chips, and brick-bats. The plants being repotted, plunge them in the bark-bed again, quite down to the rims of the pots, keeping them perfectly level. Eight or nine inches from centre to centre will be distance sufficient. When they are all placed, give a little aired water, to settle the earth about their roots. This need not be related till the heat in the bed rise to the pots, after which, as the plants will now begin to grow freely, they must be watered at the root once in four or five days ; and they may have a dewing over head, from the fine rose of a watering-pot, occasion- ally, if the weather be fine." 2750. In May, Nicol again shifts, " but the plants are not to be shaken out at this time, but are to be shifted, balls entire, into pots of about six inches diameter, and eight inches deep. If the roots be any- wise matted at bottom, or at the sides, they must be carefully singled out ; and in potting, be sure that th'ere be no cavity left between the ball and the sides of the new pot. In order the more effectually to prevent which, use a small, blunt-pointed, somewhat wedge-shaped stick, to trindle in the mould with ; observing that it be in a dry state, and be sifted fine ; and also to shake the not well (potting on a bench or table), the better to settle the earth about the ball. Pots of this size should be filled to within half an inch of their brims (the balls being covered about an inch with fresh earth), as the whole will settle about as much, and so leave a full inch for holding water, which is enough. In preparing the plants for potting, observe to twist of!' a few of the bottom leaves, as they always put out fine roots from the lower part of the stem. Also, before letting the plant out of hand, trim oft' the points of any leaves that may have been bruised or anywise injured m the shifting. Keplunge the pots to the brim, as before, observing to keep them quite level, at the distance of fifteen inches from centre to centre of the plants on a medium ; then give a little water, which need not be repeated till the heat rise to the pots." 2751. AV'co/, in November, shifts such others whose roots have filled their jx>ts, and have become any- wise matted. " Kxamine any you suspect to be so, and let them be shifted into pots of the next size im- mediately above those they are in ; keeping the balls entire, and only singling out the netted fibres at bottom. The rest should be trimmed of any dead leaves at bottom of their stems, and should have a little of the old mould taken from off' the surface of the pots ; which, replace with fresh earth ; filling the ]K>ts fuller than usual, as but little water will be required till next shifting time in the spring. The whole should then be replaced in the bark-bed as before, and should be plunged quite to the rims of the pots ; giving a little water to settle the earth about their roots, which need not be repeated till the heat rise in the bed." 2752. Insects and diseases. See this article under General Directions. (SUBSECT. S.') BOOK I. PINERY. SUCCESSION .DEPARTMENT. 521 SUBSECT. 6. Succession Department. 2753. The culture of succession pine-plants necessarily coincides in many particulars with that of nurslings ; but less heat is generally allowed the former in order not to draw them ; and they are allowed plenty of room in the bed, frequently shifted, and abundance of air admitted, in order to make them broad-bottomed and bushy : thus strengthening the heart or root part, in order that it may throw up a strong fruit the second or third year. 2754. Growing succession plants without fire-heat. M'Phail says, " Succession pine- plants grow exceedingly well in pits covered with glazed frames, linings of warm dung being applied to them in cold frosty weather. The north wall of a pit for this purpose had best be only about four feet above the ground ; and if about two feet high of it, the whole length of the wall, beginning just at the surface of the ground four feet below the height of the wall, be built in the form of the outside walls of my cucumber bed, the lining will warm the air in the pit more easily than if the wall were built solid. The linings of dung should not be lower in their foundation than the surface of the tan in the pits in which the plants grow (for it is not the tan that requires to be warmed, but the air among the plants) : and as during the winter the heat of the air in the pit among the plants, exclusive of sun-heat, is not required to be greater than from sixty to sixty-five degrees, strong linings are not wanted : one against the north side, kept up in cold weather nearly as high as the wall, will be sufficient, unless the weather get very cold in- deed, in which case a lining on the south side may be applied. In cold, frosty weather, a covering of hay or straw, or of fern, can be laid on the glass above mats in the night- time." 2755. Most nurserymen and growers of jrines for the London market employ dung-beds of the common kind, keeping up the heat by powerful linings. The same practice is successfully adopted by Miller and Sweet, of Bristol. Baldwin combines the nursing and succession beds, growing both on tan with dung- linings. 2756. Shifting and potting. The middle of March Speechly considers the most eligi- ble time for shifting and potting such nurse-plants as are to be removed to the succession- house. " If the work is done sooner," he says, " it will prevent the plants from striking freely; and if deferred longer, it will check them in their summer growth. " In this shifting, he " always shakes off the whole of the ball of earth, and cuts off all the roots that are of a black color, carefully preserving such only as are white and strong. He then puts the plants into pots eight inches and a half diameter at the top, and seven inches deep, in entirely fresh mould. The bark-bed is renewed, the pots plunged to the rims, the house is kept pretty warm, till the heat of the tan arises ; the plants are then sprinkled over the leaves with water, and watered first once a week and afterwards twice a week, till next shifting in the beginning of August, when they are shifted into fruiting- pots with their balls entire. The size of. these pots is eleven inches and a half at top by ten inches deep." 27 57. Abercrombie observes, that most of the remarks on the nursing-house will apply to the succession, pit. " Sometimes the plants, originated in the nursing-pit in August or September, will be fit to bring into the succession-house in March or April following ; and sometimes not till the anniversary season. Those from late fruiterers, originated in March, will be most established by the end of summer." 2758. Introductory shifting. Where at the first shifting of rooted plants, they are transferred to this department, proceed as in nursing-pit, except in regard to the size of the pots, which should be twenty-four inches, or about seven inches across, and nine deep. When the plants are a year old, and the shifting for culture here is the second or third, begin as before : make arrangements to complete the business in one day. Be prepared with a bed of lively tan, the number of pots, the compost for pines, and some clean sea-gravel or shivers. As each plant is taken from the nursing-pit, tie the leaves together. Turn them out of the old pots singly. Then proceed as follows : Shake off the ball of mould. Strip off a few of the lower leaves. Cut the roots off entirely : fur- ther, if the roots are scanty, or decaying, prune away a small portion of the stem, cutting into the quick. Pot the plants ; plunge them in the tan, not entirely to their rims, till the new heat rising from the bark can be ascertained. Leave about five inches space between each. Keep them under a strong heat ; and forbear to give water, or to admit cold air, till the plants have struck root. 2759. Intermediate shifting. When plants are to remain in the succession-house a year, shift them in the March following their introduction. Let the fresh pots be full eight inches in diameter, and ten inches deep. It is one of the most availing precau- tions against the premature fruiting of pines, to allow rising plants a capacious bed, and free space for the herb to expand. In turning healthy plants, now, out of the old pots, endeavor to preserve the ball of earth entire. But where plants appear to be sickly, to be infested with insects, or to have bad roots, brush away the old earth entirely : then with a long knife trim the longest fibres; and if any part of the main root be unsound, 522 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. cut it away. Strip off some of the lower leaves. Replant in the new pots. Set the plants in the bark-bed, leaving the pots partly out, lest the first heat should be too strong. There should be a distance of seven inches from pot to pot. Water full-rooted plants gently, to settle the mould. Plants divested of roots are not at present to receive water. 2760. Second intermediate shifting. The roots of large plants which were shifted in March should be examined at the end of May, or in June. If they have filled the pots, it will be necessary to shift them into pots of an increased size, so as to admit new com- post to the extent of an inch all round the old ball. The diameter of the cradle at top should be nine inches ; the depth twelve, including an inch of pearly gravel at the bottom. If the roots are matted, carefully disentangle them: prune off old fibres, or not, ac- cording as the root has been spared or retrenched. In all cases, cut away unsound parts of the root, and slip off a few of the oldest leaves. After replanting, distribute the pots eight inches apart over the surface of the bed, without plunging them to their full depth, till the heat of the renewed tan is ascertained. 2761. M'Phail says, " If in March you have any nurse-pines a year old, shift and repot them at this sea- son. Having a bed prepared for them, strong enough to raise a good heat, take the plants and tie their leaves together carefully ; then turn them out one after another, and cut all their roots off close to the stem; and if the stems of them be bare of roots, or appear rotting or black, cut a part of themoft'up to the quick. Rub the mould clean from the stems, divest them of a few of the lower leaves, and pot them in good rich mould, in small pots suitable to the size of the plants, and plunge them in the tan up to their rims. Let all this work be done in one day, if it be convenient Keep a strong heat about them, and give them no air nor water till they have struck root and begin to grow ; but remember, the earth should be moist in which they are potted, for no plants can make shoots without moisture. When large succes- sion plants have been divested of their roots, and potted in the month of March, they will probably by this time have tilled the pots with roots ; if so, they ought to be shifted into pots a "size larger, just "large enough to admit of mould falling easily round their ball. If they were not shifted when the roots begin to get matted, it would check them, and probably make them fruit in August or September. In August or September, the plants are again shifted into pots large enough to admit earth easily round their balls be- tween their roots and the sides of the pots." In these pots, -he lets the plants remain in general till the fruit is over. ( Gard. Rem, 82.) 2762. M'Phail and Speechly agree in remarking, that " some large kinds of pine-apple plants require three seasons to grow before they can bring large-sized fruit, such as the black Antigua, the Jajnaica, the Ripley, &c. ; therefore, in the month of April or May, after they have been planted upwards of a year, it is best to take them out of the pots, and to cut oft' all their roots close to the stem, or leave only a few which are fresh and strong, and then plant them again in good earth in clean pots, and plunge the pots in a tan-bed with a lively heat in it. After this process a stronger heat than usual must be kept in the house, till the plants have made fresh roots and their leaves be perceived to grow, when a little water may be given to them, which, together with a good bottom and top heat, will make them grow finely." 2763. Nicol recommends a general potting of the succession plants in August, when the fruit are all or nearly all cut ; removing the old stocks from which the fruit had been cut to make room for them in the fruiting-pit. " The nurse-plants now become the succession ; the succession the fruiters for next season, and the crowns and suckers produced by the plants whose fruit have been cut, occupy the nursing-pit." (Kal. 410.) The succession plants, before removal into the fruiting-pit, must be shifted into pots of about eleven or twelve inches diameter, and fourteen or fifteen inches deep. The plants should be plunged en- tirely in old tan to within an inch or two of their brims, keeping them quite level, and eighteen or twenty inches centre from centre. Great care must be taken to keep the heat of the bark-bed moderate and steady, lest the plants should start into fruit, which, if they did, they would be next to lost I would rather have a one-year-old than a two-year-old plant show now, as the "loss would evidently be less; but frequently the former will bring a better fruit than the latter in the end of the season. Some o'f the succes- sion plants, potted from the nurse-pit in August, may require repotting in November ; but, in general, not till March, when the plants are to be shaken out of their pots, and replaced in the same or similar pots (seven or eight inches diameter, by nine or ten deep) in fresh mould, placing some gravel at bottom. The plants are then to be replunged (the bark-bed being refreshed, &c. agreeably to the general mode of man- agement laid down in Subsect. 8.) at the distance of fifteen inches from each other. In this state they re- main till May, when they are reshifted with their balls into pots a size larger (nine or ten inches diameter, and twelve deep), and plunged till August, when they are shifted into fruiting-pots (eleven or twelve inches diameter, and fourteen or fifteen deep) and removed to the fruiting-pit as above described. (Kal. 413.) 2764. Griffin shifts his succession plants for the second time, in March, into pots nine inches in dia- meter, by eight inches deep, " turning each singly out of its present pot, with the ball of earth entire around its roots, unless any appear unhealthy or any ways defective, when it is eligible to shake the earth from the roots, and trim off all the parts that appear not alive. He plunges them in the bark (refreshed as at each shifting) eighteen inches from plant to plant in the row, and twenty inches' distance row from row." It is to be observed here, that Griffin's practice, in not divesting the plants entirely of their balls of earth at this shifting, agrees with Baldwin's, but differs from that of all the other authors quoted. Griffin, it is alleged, obtains larger fruit ; and Baldwin, by his practice, fruits the plants a year sooner, that is, in fifteen and eighteen months. 2765. Baldwin takes up the crowns and suckers planted in the tan in September in the succeeding April ; divests them of all their roots, which " must not," he says, " be taken off at any future transplanting," and put into pots of five, six, or seven inches' diameter, according to the size of the plant. About the mid- dle of the following June, when the pots are beginning to be filled with roots, take out the plants with their balls entire, and put them into pots about nine inches in diameter ; replunge them into your bed, and let them remain till the end of September. (Cult, of Anan. p. 15.) 2766. Tlie practice of shaking off" the balls of earth, and cutting off" the lower roots of pines in the second year's spring shifting, has at first sight an unnatural appearance, and vari- ous theorists, and some gardeners, recommend shifting the plants from first to last with their balls entire. On attentively examining the pine-plant, however, it will be found, that, in its mode of rooting, it may be classed with the strawberry, vine, and crowfoot, which throw out fresh roots every year, in part among, but chiefly above the old ones. This done, the old ones become torpid and decay, and to cut them clear away, if it could be done in all plants of this habit, would no doubt be assisting nature, and contribute to the 1300K I. PINERY. SUCCESSION DEPARTMENT. 523 growth of the new roots. At the same time, it is to be observed, that encouraging, in an extraordinary degree, the production of roots, though it will ultimately increase the vigor of the herb and fruit, will retard their progress. 2767. On shifting with the balls entire, Speechly has the following judicious observ- ations, which coincide with those we have above submitted : 2768. First, It is observable, that the pine-plant begins to make its roots at the very bottom of the stem and as the plant increases in size, fresh roots are produced from the stem, still higher and higher ; and the bottom roots die in proportion : so that, if a plant in the greatest vigor be turned out of its pot as soon as the fruit is cut, there will be found at the bottom a part of the stem, several inches in length naked, destitute of roots, and smooth : now, according to the above method, the whole of the roots which the plant produces being permitted to remain on the stem to the last, the old roots decay and turn mouldy, to the great detriment of those afterwards produced. Secondly, The first ball which remains with the plant full two years, by length of time will become hard, cloddy, and exhausted of its nourishment, and must, therefore, prevent the roots afterwards produced from growing with that free- dom and vigor, which they would do in fresher and better mould. Thirdly, The old ball continually re- maining after the frequent shiftings, it will be too large when put into the fruiting- pot, to admit of a suffi- cient quantity of fresh mould to support the plant till its fruit becomes ripe, which is generally a whole year from the last time of shifting. 2769. Temperature. Speechly approves of rather a lower top and bottom heat for pines in the winter season than what some later authors recommend. " There is nothing so prejudicial to the pine-apple plant, (insects and an overheat of the tan excepted,) as forcing them to grow by making large fires, and keeping the hot -house warm at an im- proper season, which is injudiciously done in many hot-houses. It is inconsistent with reason, and against nature, to force a tropical plant in this climate in a cold, dark season, such as generally happens here in the months of November and December ; and plants so treated, will in time show the injury done them ; if large plants for fruiting, they generally show very small fruit-buds with weak stems ; and, if small plants, they seldom make much progress in the beginning of the next summer." "In the hot regions," Abercrombie observes, " to which the pine-apple is indigenous, the growth of the herb and fruit proceeds, at all times of the year, as the new plant may happen to spring, and as the advancement of the herb, and the expansion of the organs of fructification follow at natural intervals. Thus the rising and intermediate pines have, at home, the same heat as fruiting plants. As the force of the climate is always equal to conduct the plant to the next stage, whatever the present may be, nature's plants always show their blossoms opportunely ; and the fruit is swelled to perfection, however different periods of growth in plants of one family fall together. But, under a course of artificial culture, although a similar promiscuous succession may go on, and be cherished to the end of fruiting with- out miscarriage ; yet to let the critical periods of growth fall in winter, without any failure of the crop, or debasement of the fruit, requires so much additional expense and attend- ance, that our cultivators of pines endeavour to keep the main stock of established plants just vegetating in winter, and to bring the time of full expansion in the herb, and as much as may be of the long and trying time of fructification, to coincide with the spring and summer of this climate. The dependence of the plant on artificial excitement is then so much less. Hence, though it is contrary to the free progress of nature, the suc- cession pines are kept under a temperature rather lower than that of the nursing-pit, in order that while the complete developement of the herb is provided for, the plant may not be excited into fruit prematurely in regard to its age, nor unseasonably as to the course of the natural climate during the period which the fruit will take to ripen." 2770. The minimum temperature for succession plants, on which the preservation of a gentle course of growth de- pends, cannot be safely reduced lower than that which is specified under Temperature in Nursing Department. But it is important to carry the maximum, as it respects both fire-heat, and the accumulation of sun-heat in the cham- ber, no higher in this than is fixed for that department, and rather to aim at a maximum from two to five degrees less intense. Thus the double object, of avoiding to excite the plants too strongly, and of giving air at a good oppor- tunity, Will be consulted. (See the Table.) 2771. M'Phailsays, " Let the succession pine-plants have about the same degree of heat to their roots in the tan-bed, and in the air of the house about them, as I have recom- mended for the fruiting plants ; viz. from 80 to 100 at the bottom of the pots, and from 65 to 80 in the atmosphere of the house. Some writers," he says, " recommend that a less heat be given to succession plants than to fruiting ones. I can see no reason for making the difference, nor did I make a practice of doing it, except to young plants in winter, in pits without fire-heat, which at that season could not at all times be kept to that degree of heat which might be done by the influence of fire. When succession plants are kept in a less degree of heat than that necessary for fruiting them, they require a longer time to bring them to a proper size for producing large fruit ; and of course the expense of rearing them is greater than when they are kept in a vigorous growing state. Nothing better suits a pine-apple, nor any fruit- bearing plant, than to keep it in a vigorous growing state, from the time it is planted till it ripen its fruit." (Gard.Kem. 126.) 2772. Nicolsays, " The temperature in January by fire-heat should bo kept as near to 60 as possible, and even in sunshine, should not be allowed to pass 65", lest the plants start into fruit." In May, he iii- Standard for the Thermome'.*, Succession-House, in the MINIMUM. , MAXIMUM. From the From the Climate From Ar- From Climate and Tan tiricial Sunshine andDung- heat. with Fire when ne- Heat. and con- fined Air. cessary. Sept. 65 65 68 75 Oct. 58 62 64 70 Nov. 55 60 62 68 Dec. 55 60 62 65 Jan. 55 60 62 66 Feb. 58 60 65 70 Mar. 60 65 68 70 62 65 68 70 May 64 66 68 72 June 66 66 68 75 July 68 68 68 80 Aug. 70 70 80 524 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. creases the heat to between 65 and 70 in the night. In August, he keeps down the thermometer to 75 or 80" in the day-time. In September, he returns to 65 in the night, and 70 or 72 with air in the day. In October, he descends to 60 mornings and evenings, and 65 in sunshine. 2773. Griffin differs from the above authors in recommending 60 as the heat proper for the pine in every stage, not exceeding five or six degrees over or under. The bottom heat he considers proper, is from 90 to 100 degrees ! ( Tr. on the Pine, p. 60. 66.) 2774. Baldwin does not mention at what temperature he keeps his succession-pit. 2775. Covering at nights. Where succession plants are grown in pits or frames, this is allowed on all hands to be most advantageous, by saving fuel, and preventing the risk of an injurious cooling, which in pits and houses warmed by fire, and unprotected but by the glass, will sometimes happen under the best management. Practical men recommend mats, canvass, litter, &c. laid on the frames ; but a great improvement consists in keep- ing the covering of whatever nature, and especially if of mats or canvass, at not less than six inches on the principle experimentally illustrated by Dr. Wells in his Essay on Dew ; Leslie, in his experiments on concentric cases (Essay on Heat), and derivable from the fact known to scientific men (See Young's Lect.}, that heat follows the same general laws as light 2776. Speedily and Nicol complain of the great breakage of glass, by covering with mats, litter, &c. 2777. Seton adopts portable covers of straw, arranged in the manner of thatch, and which may be com- pared to the panels of reed fences or screens. They are formed on four laths, fixed at the same width as the pit or frame one way, and not more than four feet apart the other. The chief advantage is, that as the water runs off the thatch, the interior remains perfectly dry, so that there is no consumption of heat by the creation of vapor in those parts which are near the glass ; " whereas mats, cloth, loose straw, and other similar coverings become impregnated with moisture every night from dew, rain, or snow, and the evaporation which is thereby constantly generated, and greatly augmented by the contact of the warm glass, causes a vast and continued drain of heat." Another advantage is the facility with which they may be put on and taken off, and the little risk there is of breaking glass during these operations. (Hor't. glass, causes a vast and continued drain of heat." Another advantage is the facility with which they may be put on and ' Trans, iii. 296.) 2778. Air. Speedily considers a due proportion of air as essential to the goodness of pine-plants. The want tf it will cause them to grow with long leaves and weak stems ; and too great a quantity, or air given at improper seasons, will starve the plants, and cause them to grow yellow and sickly. Little air will be wanted in winter ; but letting down the glasses, even for a few minutes in the middle of the day, should never be neglected in fine weather, to let out the foul air. This will cause the plants to grow with broad leaves, and stiff and strong stems, provided they have room in the bed. Air may be admitted all night in the hot season, care being taking that the glasses are left in such a manner as to prevent the rain, in case any falls, from coming on the plants. ( Tr. on the Pine, p. 751) 2779. Abercrombie gives abundance of air in July and August, but with due caution the rest of the year. 2780. M'Pfiail admits more or less air every fine day during spring and autumn, and abundance in the summer months, which is also the practice of Nicol, Griffin, and Weeks. Baldwin seems to admit air rather more sparingly than these gardeners. 2781. Water. Speechly disapproves of ever giving a great quantity of water at one time to the pine-apple plant, in any stage or at any season. Too much causes the mould in the pot to run together and become hard and cloddy ; and, independently of this, glutting a plant with water will rob it of its vigor, and reduce it to a weak state. Hence, though keeping of plants too dry is certainly an error, it is not attended with the same fatal consequences as the contrary practice. Watering the walks and flues, &c. in an evening, in order to raise a kind of artificial dew, is in imitation of what takes place in the West Indies, where no rain falls in the summer for many months together, and the plants are wholly supplied with moisture from the dews. Gentle summer waterings over the top are founded on this principle. " Plants lately shifted into the pots, till their roots get matted, do not require so much water as before their shifting. Plants that are in large-sized pots, in proportion to the size of the plants, do not require so much water as plants that are under-potted. Plants that are in hard-burnt pots, made of strong clay, do not require near so much water as plants in pots less burnt, and made of clay with a good proportion of sand intermixed. The latter are greatly to be preferred. Plants in a vigorous growing state require very frequent and gentle waterings. But plants with fruit and suckers upon them require most of all. When plants are watered over their leaves, it should be sprinkled upon them only till every part is made wet, which may easily be distinguished, as the water immediately changes the color of them to a sad green. As the leaves stand in different directions, the best method is to dash the water upon them backwards and forwards, on every side of the bed. Summer waterings should always be given late in an evening ; but in the spring and autumn, the forenoon is the proper time. Less water should be given in moist than in dry weather, for reasons already given. In winter, when water by accident falls into the centres of the fruiting plants, it should immediately be drawn out, which may easily be effected by the help of a tin pipe of about three feet in length, one end of which should be no bigger than the small end of a tobacco-pipe." Pond or river water, or water collected from the roof of the hot -house, and retained within the house till it has attained its tempera- ture, is to be preferred. (Tr. on the Pine, 81, 82.) BOOK I. PINERY. FRUITING DEPARTMENT. 525 2782. Abercrombie, from March to September, gives most water, " keeping the mould during this season constantly a little moist." In the other months he diminishes the quantity according to the season and circumstances of the temperature, plants, &c. He uses soft water at 75, and gives it through a tube composed of jointed pieces, so that it may be shortened at will, to prevent its falling into the hearts of the plants. He also steams the flues occasionally, and waters with drainings of the dunghill in the growing season. (Pr. G. 627, 628.) 2783. M'Phail says, " Of two evils, it is better to give pine-plants too little water than too much." He gives little in the winter months, but more freely in summer. He sprinkles the leaves occasionally with clean water, not less than 70 degrees warm, and shuts them down in the afternoon with a strong heat in the house. He judges of the temperature of the water by taking a mouthful of it ; and if it feel neither hot nor cold, it is in a good state, being upwards of 85 degrees. (Gard. Rent. 239.) " When you water your pines, recollect that some sorts require less water than others ; the sorts called the queen and the sugar- loaf require rather more water than those called Antigua, black Jamaica, and some others of the large- growing sorts. In July succession pines require frequent waterings. It is a good sign to see plants growing broad-leaved, and the water standing constantly in their hearts in the summer months, nor will it hurt them at any time, if there be a sufficient degree of heat kept in the house. Water them plentifully about once a-week all over their leaves with clean water, from 70 to 85 degrees warm. The quantity of water pines require, depends somewhat on the condition of the tan in which the pots are plunged. If the tan be in a dry state, and a strong heat in it, they will require more water than when it is moist, and a less heat in it ; so that, in giving water, the person who manages them must be able to conclude how often and what quantity of water the plants will need." (Gard. Rem.) 2784. Nicol waters succession plants once in eight or ten days in January, the quantity moderate, and the time the forenoon of good days. He gives a little more in February and March, till August, when " the waterings are to be forthwith regular and moderate, as it is not intended to force the plants into much growth, it being supposed that they are now very healthy and strong." In October he lessens and retracts the waterings, and during winter waters very moderately once in four, five, or six days ; but at the root only. (Kal. 429.) 2785. Griffin waters moderately in winter, and more liberally in the growing season, from March till Oc- tober ; want of water to keep the plants moist being one of the reasons of their premature fruiting. 2786. Baldwin gives no water to the young suckers planted in the tan, from September till April ; but after potting, waters two or three times a week during the summer, according as the temperature may be. 2787. Shading. " Succession pine-plants," Speechly observes, " do not make half the progress in violent hot weather in the middle of summer, that they do later in the season. In order to obviate the above inconveniencies, some persons cover their hot- houses in the middle of the day, when the heat of the sun is violent, with bass mats fastened to a rope, which may be moved up and down with great ease. But a better mode, and which is frequently practised, is, to cover the glasses with a large net, which admits the air to pass freely, and at the same time breaks the rays of the sun, and retards their force, especially if the meshes of the net be not large. But if vines were judi- ciously trained up to the rafters of the hot-house, there would be no need of either of the last-mentioned coverings. The vines should be planted in the front of the hot-house, and not more than one shoot trained to each rafter, part of which should be cut down to the bottom of the rafters every season, by which means the roof of the hot-house may con- stantly be kept thinly covered with young wood, and by having only one shoot to each rafter, the vine-leaves will afford a kindly shade, and never incommode the pines ; for the leaves fall, and the vines are pruned at a season when the hot-house most requires sun." 2788. Abercrombie only shades new-potted plants till they have struck root. He uses thin mats as in the nursing.pit. (Pr. Gr. 629.) 2789. M'Phail uses no screens or covers for shades, but supposes his succession plants grown in houses in which vines are trained under the rafters. 2790. Dressing tlie plants, &c. Most of the authors quoted agree in recommending decayed or casually bruised leaves to be twisted off, if they are at the bottom of the stem ; or such as grow on it carefully trimmed off with the knife. In the season of free excited growth, Abercrombie says, " Midway between the times of shifting, take off about two inches of the upper mould, and replace it by fresh compost." Remove all fungi which grow out of the tan, and in general keep every part of the pinery at all times clean and sweet. 2791. Insects and Diseases. See General Directions. (SuusECT. 8.) SUBSECT. 7. Fruiting Department. 2792. The culture of the fruiting department embraces much of the culture of the nursing and succession pits : but little difference, for example, is made in temperature, air, and watering, till the last stage of the maturation of the fruit. 2793. Abercrombie observes " that the pine-apple can be carried even through the last stage without fire- heat : but the fruiting-house is a department in which the aid of the furnace should least of all be relinquished, unless some very great facilities for employing dung-heat, or some obstacles to the working of a stove, attend the situation." This is frequently practised by nurserymen and market-gardeners, and is quite practicable where abundance of dung for linings can be procured. 2794. Speec/ilysays, " Both the growth and size of the pine depend much on the construction and condition of the stove in which they are cultivated. In many places small stoves of a particular construction (m the which the pines stand very near the glass) are erected solely for the purpose of fruitmg-houses. These, from their being always kept up to a high degree of heat, are by gardeners usually termed matters. When there is such conveniency, it is customary, when any pine-plants show fruit in the large stoves, to remove such plants (especially the most promising) directly into the fruiting-house ; where, trom the high degree of heat kept, they generally swell their fruit astonishingly." 2795 Griffin's house corresponds nearly with the roaster or small house of Speechly ; but Baldwin's seems 526 PRACTICE 01< GARDENING. PART III. in improvement, as being much smaller, losing less room in paths, and being comparatively easily heated. 2796. Shifting and potting. Speechly shifts into fruiting-pots in August (see this article under Succession Depart merit), and afterwards, in the following March, divests the plants of a few of their bottom leaves, renews the mould on the tops of the pots as deep as can be done without injuring the roots, and fills up with fresh compost earth. He says, " It is very injurious to the plants, and greatly retards the swelling of the fruit to remove them after this season." (Tr. on Pine, p. 49.) 2797. Abcrcrombie differs from this author, in shifting in the spring after the plants show fruit : he says. " The main set of plants from the succession-pit will usually be ready for the fruiting-house in the course of August. As to a criterion for removing full-grown pines ; shift them just as the roots have rilled the pot, so as to turn out whole. Late plants may not be in this state till October. The bark-bed, here, must be renewed, as on every occasion of repotting plants : but to guard against an untimely show of fruit, the strength of the new bark must be kept considerably below the extreme limit, and there should be a layer of old bark to the full depth of the pots. For the large sorts, provide pots twelve inches in diameter and fifteen inches in depth. For forward plants also, which you are apprehensive require free space for the root and herb, to prevent them from fruiting too early, provide pots two inches wider and three inches deeper than those out of which they are to be turned; but the additional room in the pots should be no more than you may calculate the roots will fill up by the time at which you propose to have them fruit. On the other hand, if you have any reluctant fruiters, when you transfer them to the fruiting-house, postpone shifting them into new pots, in order that the impletion of the pot by the roots may accelerate their fruiting ; or shift them into pots barely large enough to receive the roots, putting them into mould rendered, by an increased quantity of river-sand and fresh loam, somewhat less rich than the compost for pines in general : whichever of these courses may have been taken, as soon as they show fruit in the spring, shift them into large pots, without disturbing the ball of earth ; and then fill the side of the pot with the best mould. Lay in the bottom of the fresh pots clean shivers, or sea-gravel, to the thickness of two inches, and as much compost as will keep the ball, or root, to be received, level at top with the rim. At the shifting of plants that come from the succession-pit, twist off some of the bottom leaves, as far as the ripened stem is ready to send out new roots. Turn out each plant with the ball of earth entire ; set it in the new pot, fill the vacancy with compost, and raise the mould to the lowest leaves by spreading compost over the ball ; leaving a hollow descent to the depth of the rim to hold water. Plunge the pots in the tan-bed, distributing those in the same range eight inches apart." 2798. Second shifting. " There is in general no second shifting ; but the plants remain in the pots assigned at their coming from the succession-pit till the fruit is ripened. But, 1. In the case mentioned above, there is sometimes a spring shifting. 2. When plants which were regularly shifted, come into fruit early, and it is wished to retard them, you may give them a second shifting in February, or at any time before the fruit has attained half the full diameter ; putting them into pots one size larger, and proceeding, in other respects, as at the introductory shifting. Though this acts as a temporary check, the advantage of fresh mould contributes to swell the fruit. 3. To plants which are sickly, or growing out of shape, the best remedy is, to shift them as soon as this is per- ceived, changing the mould, and pruning away decayed parts of the roots as there may be occasion." (Abercrombie.) 2799. M'PhaU, with Speechly, shifts finally in August or September; gives a dressing in March, and, in general, does not move them again till they have ripened their fruit, unless to give more bottom heat. Sometimes, however, plants intended for fruiting the following year, when shifted late in the autumn into pots which their roots do not fill well before the month of January, do not show fruit till late in the spring or summer months. For this reason it is advisable, when they cannot be shifted early enough in the month of August or beginning of September, so as to fill the pots with roots before the winter come on, to let them remain unshifted till the fruit appear, and the stem of it be grown to its full height, and then shift the plants into larger pots, in the manner before directed, disturbing the roots of the plants as little as can be helped. After the plants are shifted, they must not get much water till the fresh growth of the roots has somewhat exhausted the moisture of the fresh earth put round them. (Gard. Rem.) 2800. Nicol shifts finally in August, and top-dresses in February ; but plants that are unhealthy, feeble, and do not stand firm in their pots, should be shaken out entirely, and be replaced in the same pots ; trimming their roots according as they may need, but retaining all fresh healthy fibres. Any plants that have already started into fruit, should also be shaken out, and be fresh potted, as above; which, by the check they receive, will keep them back to a better season of ripening, and by the force of fresh earth, make them swell their fruit larger than they otherwise would have done. I have thus new-potted plants, even in flower, with very much success, and have swelled the fruit to a size far beyond my expectations ; of which fact any one may easily satisfy himself, by fresh-potting a few plants, and comparing their pro-, gress with others treated in the ordinary way. Let the plants be replunged to the brim as before, keep- ing the pots quite level. If the plants be full-sized, and strong, they will require to be set at about twenty inches apart from centre to centre, on a medium. But they should be sorted ; the smallest placed in front, and the largest at back, as in arranging plants on a stage, that they may have an equal share of sun and light. As soon as replaced in the bark-bed, let them have a little water, to settle the earth about their roots. In May he again top-dresses, " reducing an inch or two of the earth from off the surface, and adding some fresh mould, which will invigorate the plants, cause them to push sur- face radicles, and so keep them the more firm and steady. This needs not be done, however, to plants whose fruit are nearly ripe ; but chiefly to healthy plants new-shown in flower, past the flower, or with the fruit about half grown. And with respect to any that are unhealthy, and whose fruit are less than half grown, do not hesitate to shift them, shaking them out, trimming their roots, and retaining only healthy fibres. This is a very great improvement in the culture of pines, which I formerly practised, have since advised, and have seen followed with much success." (Kal. p. 394.) 2801. Griffin shifts, for the last time, in October, with the balls entire as before, allowing them in the bark- bed about twenty inches from plant to plant, and two feet distance from row to row ; " the first row eighteen inches from the kirb, angling them in rows as you go on." The pots he uses are twelve inches diameter, and ten inches deep. 2802. Baldwin shifts of the last time, in September, into pots " of about fourteen inches diameter, at the top," at first half plunging the pots till the heat diminishes to a safe temperature. He afterwards fills up the interstices with tan, and lets the plants so remain until they are fruited off for the table. (Cult, of Ana*, p. 17.) BOOK I. PINERY. FRUITING DEPARTMENT. 527 2803. Temperatitre. Speedily is not definite on this subject ; but observes generally that nothing is so prejudicial to fruiting plants as making large fires to force them to grow in the winter season; the fruit-buds they send up are small, and the stems weak. (TV. on Pine, p. 41.) Standard Temperature for the Fruiting- Houte, MINIMUM. MAXIMUM. From the From From the Climate and Dung heat. * Climate and Tan, with Fire, From Ar- titirial Heat. Sunshine and con- fined Heated sary. Air. Aug. 66 66 MO Sept. 62 68 75 Oct. GO 62 69 70 Nov. 55 58 M 65 Dec. 55 58 60 65 Whenever the Plants show Fruit, the Mini- mum should be 63 deg. i Jan. 60 63 65 70 75 , Feb. Mur. 63 65 66 67 68 | 70 82 84 April 65 67 r-i 86 May 65 68 88 i June 68 75 iJuly 70 70 75 100 j iAug. 70 70 ~ loo 66 66 y> 98 'bet!' 63 66 70 94 Nov. 63 66 68 S6 'Dec 63 66 68 82 inguid to support the prescribed minimum temperature, until the full dominion of summer supersede ic aid of the furnace altogether." Average Monthly Temperature of M'Phail'g Fruiting-House. 2804. Abercrombie observes, "As long as it would be danger- ous, or at least not desirable, to have the plants show fruit, the temperature should be kept reduced to that of the suc- cession-pit. But a capital elevation, in the course of heat maintained here, must be made for about eight of the last months which the plants will remain in the house; that is, just as it becomes fit to excite them into fruit, and during the whole period of fructification. In the an- nexed Table, it will be observed, that August, September, October, November, December, are set down twice. Against the first series of these months is marked the temperature at which it is proper to aim when the plants have been transferred to the truiting-house in the July preceding, or the current August or September, in order that they may not start into fruit at the beginning or middle of winter. Contrasted with this, the second series respects a distinct pit appropriated to late fruiters ; plants which have been removed from the succession-house some months, and in which the object of culture is nearly finished : however the decline of the natural season pro- ceeds, a high course of heat must be continued, to ripen the fruit on these. As to the maximum of artificial heat for plants already in fruit, the degrees expressed are merely to indicate, that it would be an unnecessary expense to go higher ; but should the natural climate not supply a greater heat, to go five or ten degrees higher, so far from being at- tended with danger, would be beneficial to ripening pines, particularly in allowing air to be given with greater security. So the maximum in the last column is chiefly to be ob- served for the sake of fresh air, which will do more good than a greater heat. He adds : " The fruit, will not swell off fine, if the heat from the flues be too languid to support the aid of the furnace altogether." 2805. M'Phail has given tables of the temperature in his hot-house, or fruiting-pinery, for every day in the year, from which we annex the accompany ing monthly average. In January the thermometer stood at from 63 to 66 degrees in the morning ; from 68 to 85 de- grees at noon ; and from 64 to 74 degrees in the even- ing, and so on. On the tables from which the above is extracted, M'Phail observes, " that the thermometer was hung in the middle of the hot-house, shaded from the direct rays of the sun." He does not offer these tables as exact rules to be followed ; nor deny that the pine-apple can be ripened in a different degree of heat than that described; but he asserts, that such heat and management as he recommends will bring the pine-apple to good maturity. " Had I kept a register of the thermometer another year, and compared it with that which I kept for twelve months, and have herein given, there would have been a difference ; the heat of every day, week, or year, would not have been alike; nor to cultivate the pine.apple, or any other plant, is it necessary that it should be so." 2806. Nicol, in January, keeps the fruiting-pit at the same temperature as the succession department, (from 60 to 65,) lest the plants should start into fruit. In February, he requires a " lively, but not violent bottom heat, in order to start the plants into fruit :" the temperature of the air he raised gradually to 75, not allowing the thermometer to pass 80. From 72 to 75 is his temperature for March and April. In May, June, July, and August, he requires 75 mornings and evenings, and 80 or 85 at noon. In September, after fire-heat becomes necessary, he keeps as nearly to 65 as possible, and in sunshine, by the free admission of air, to about 70 or 72. In October, November and December, he lowers the temperature to 60 mornings and evenings, and 65 P in sunshine. 2807. Griffin, as before observed, endeavors to keep the air of his fruiting and succession houses as near as possible to 60. 2808. Baldwin says, " The fruiting-house, during the winter, should be kept at about 70 ; it may be left in the evening at about 75, and it will be found in the morning at about 65, so that no attendance during the night will be required." (Cult, of Anan. p. 19.) 2809. Covering at nights. Speechly observes, that many small hot-houses arc covered by large sheets of canvass, by the help of a roller and pulleys ; " but where hot-houses are large, this mode of covering cannot so well be adopted ; therefore the most general method is to use light covers of wood, or frames of wood, covered with painted canvass : the covering the whole of the roof of a hot-house in this manner is very troublesome, and attended with great expense ; nor indeed is it absolutely necessary, as I have ob- served above. When either of the above methods are practised, it should be done with discretion. In many places the covers of the hot-houses are sometimes, in a snowy, dark, severe, or rainy season, per- mitted to remain on for many days together, which is very detrimental to the plants, as they will in time draw themselves weak by the continuance of such a practice ; for it is observable, that plants grow much faster in the dark than in the light ; and this is manifest from the progress of plants when first they arise from seed, in the open ground, in the spring of the year, when they do not grow half so much in the day as in the night. But here it must be observed, that the sun and light give maturity to the nightly pro- ?ress of plapts, and the want of them soon causes the plants to grow languid, weak, and, in time, to die. t is also a bad practice to continue to cover hot-houses late in the spring of the year, which is injudici- ously done in many places, even so late as the middle of the month of May ; for as the covers are seldom taken off till after six o'clock in the morning (the hour that laborers come to their work at most places), it makes the hot-house night too long at that season of the year, when generally there are great numbers of the fruit of the pine in blossom ; for it should be remembered that light, as well as warmth, is essen- tially necessary to promote the growth of plants. In large double-pitted hot-houses, the covering of the lower lights may be effected with great ease, and this is found to be of use on a double account ; first, because the pine plants in the front pit, by standing very near the glass, are in the most need of covering in severe weather ; and, secondly, because the front pit is generally used tor succession plants, which require Morn. Noon. Even. Jan. from 63 to GG from 68 to 85 from 61 to 7-1 Feb. from 58 to 6.5 from 68 to 90 from 61 to 70 Mar. from 61 to 71 from 65 to 90 from 62 to 72 April May from from 60 to 78 62 to 73 from from 66 to 96 75 to 94 from from 65 to 73 66 to 75 June from 65 to 75 from 83 to 100 from 68 to 82 July 62 to 75 from 80 to 100 from 68 to 78 Aug. from 60 to 74 from 76 to 100 from 69 to 78 Se,,t. from 62 to 78 from 75 to 100 from 67 to 79 Oct. from 59 to 74 63 to 96 from 60 to 72 Nov. from 57 to 67 from 66 to 85 from 62 to 67 Dec. from 52 to 65 from 55 to 68 from 58 to 65 528 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. to bo shaded, after being shifted in the spring, whenever the weather is warm and clear, as I have before observed in treating upon that head." 2810. In Russia, the pine-stoves are frequently kept covered with boarded shutters day and night for several weeks, and even as long as three months together. As the plants are then as nearly as possible in a dormant state, it does not appear to injure them so much as a native of a more genial climate would imagine. 2811. Air. In March, when the plants are showing fruit, Speedily " admits a great quantity of air into the hot-house, the want of a due proportion of which causes the stems to draw themselves weak, and grow tall, after which the fruit never swells kindly." ( Tr. on Pine, p. 50. ) 2812. Abercrombie says, " Give plenty of air to plants in fruit, without a daily supply of which, they will not swell to a handsome full size, nor acquire the elevated flavor which belongs to the pine-apple when in perfection." (Pr. Card. p. &*2.) 28ia M'Phail admits air whenever it can be done consistently with attention to the temperature. In June, if the nights be cold, and the days cloudy, " you will have occasion for fires, otherwise you will not be able to give air enough, and keep up the temperature." In July and August, abundance of air is given, and some often left at the houses all night 2814. Nicoladmits air at all seasons, in fine sunshine weather, "freely, as the fruit approaches maturity, in order to enhance its flavor." 2815. Griffin gives air to the fruiting-house, " discretionally, in fine, mild, sunny days, from ten till about two o'clock," and more freely in the summer season. 2816. Baldwin gives air " when the weather will permit, winter and summer, from the back and ends, but never from the roof." 2817. Water. Speedily says, " As the fruit and suckers begin to advance in size, the plants will require plenty of water to support them, which may be given them at least twice, and sometimes three times a-week ; but too much should not be given them at one time ; it is better to give them less at a time and oftener. " As soon as the fruit appears full swelled, the watering such plants as produce them should cease ; but it is a general practice (in order to have the fruit as large as can be got,) to continue the watering too long, which causes the fruit to be filled with an insipid, watery, and ill flavored juice. (Tr. on Pine, p. 52.) 2818. Abercrombify between the times of watering plants in fruit, sprinkles the flues, but " suspends watering over the herb till the olossoms are fairly set. Afterwards, while the fruit continues green, it will be beneficial to give water now and then, over the herb, from a fine rose-pan : even departing winter is some restraint upon this ; but after March has commenced, wash the herb perfectly clean every eight days. Use soft water that has been warmed to the temperature of the house ; and, for two or three hours after, have a maximum heat from the flues to exhale superfluous moisture. Moderate humidity and the suitable degree of heat will make the young fruit swell apace. At seasons when the mid-day sun has much power, it is best to water over the leaves as soon as the morning-sun is felt on the house, or two hours before sunset The fruit will not swell off fine, if there be any deficiency in giving water. When the fruit is well swelled, forbear to water over the fruit or leaves ; but it is still necessary to keep the earth about the roots a little moist Nor, when the fruit is pretty large, should water be poured into the crowns so copiously as to stand in them more than one day. The different degrees in which the varieties stand in need of water must not be forgotten. As the pine-apples begin to ripen, put them on short al- lowance of water, for excessive humidity spoils the flavor of the fruit : begin the reduction by decreasing the quantity ; for, in hot weather, frequent small supplies should be given on account of the suckers on the plant, till consideration for the fruit forbid even sparing waterings, lest it should be rendered insipid." 2819. WPhail says, " Let it be remembered, that while the fruit is in blossom, and for some days afterwards, the plants should not be watered all over their leaves, neither should the plants be watered all over their leaves nor fruit after the fruit is fully swelled, nor should the earth, in which the roots are, be after that time kept very moist, for they do not require it, because the plant has nearly performed its office, which it never has to do a second time." To water the fruiting pine-plants in winter; in gloomy weather, when it is best not to water over the leaves, a small-sized watering-pot, with a long tin pipe and a flat nose on the end of it, should be in readiness : the water should beat 80, and never under 70*. In January, they may require to be watered two or three times. The same in February. In March, wash them once or twice over the leaves, till every part be perfectly clean. They may require to be watered three or four times at root. In April and May, water over the leaves with water from 80 to 90, and at bottom perhaps four or five times. x In July, " when any of the fruit are full-swelled, do not water them over the fruit or leaves ; but it is necessary even then to have the earth about their roots moderately moist, otherwise the fruit would flag for want of nourishment It should also be ob- served, that after the fruit is swelled to a pretty good size, water should not be poured into the crowns of the fruit so plentifully as to stand in them above a day or two." In August, when the fruit are ripening, give no water. 2820. Nicol waters seldom in January, and not oftener than once in six or eight days in February. In March, " water may be given oftener than heretofore advised, and also in larger quantities ; generally a moderate watering at root once in three or four days, and a dewing over head occasionally, to refresh the leaves, and keep them clean from dust. From the time the plants are out of flower, and the fruit begins to swell, water must be applied in a very liberal manner once in two or three days, always giving the necessary quantity at root, and then a dewing over head. Watering to this extent, however, if the fruit be not in too forward a state, will seldom be necessary before the end of the month, or till April." In April, " water must be given in a plentiful manner, once in two or three days, in order the better to swell off the fruit. The roots have now much to do in sustaining it, and also the suckers, which will be fast advancing in growth. For this reason, water frequently with dunghill draining^, or with water of dung, soaked on purpose ; and after each watering at root, give a dewing over the leaves, as directed above." In May, June, and July, " from the time the fruit begin to color, however, begin also to lessen the quantity of water ; and towards its being fit for cutting, withhold water entirely, else the flavor will be very much deteriorated I shall here observe, with respect to the different kinds of pines, that the queen and the sugar-loaf sorts require considerably more water than the king or Havannah, and the Antigua. The difference in the manner of watering should be more particularly attended to as the fruit approach to maturity ; as the latter-named kinds are naturally more juicy and watery than the former." In August, the plants that have done fruiting being removed, the succession stock which re- place them are to be watered freely at root, and occasionally dewed over top. In October and Novem- ber, the waterings are gradually lessened : and in December, once in eight, ten, or twelve days, will be sufficient. (Kal) BOOK I. PINERY .-, FRUITING DEPARTMENT. 529 2821. Griffin never waters pUles over the leaves in any stage, nor gives much at root in damp weather. In other respects his practice, agrees with that of Abercrombie and Nicoi 2822. Baldwin waters the ulants in the fruiting-house cautiously till towards February ; but as the spring advances, gives a larger supply. He adds, Never water your plants in the common broad-cast method, over their heads and leaves." (Cult, of Anan. p. 21.) 2823. Treatment tftheplants in fruit. " Sticks," Speechly says, " should be provided to support the fruit before it is grown too large ; and in laying them, care should be taken to leave bandage room sufficient, making allowance for the swelling of the fruit. When the suckers are grown to about a foot in length they should be taken off, and from that time the fruit will swell very fast." (2V. on Pine, p. 51.) Large fruiting plants," he adds, " will sometimes show their fruit in the months of August and September, but these are generally thought of no value, and consequently thrown away. To prevent this, I frequently take such plants out of the hot-house as soon as their fruits begin to appear. I then set them in a shed or out-house for five or six weeks; at the ex- piration of which time I pot them as in the month of March, after shaking off their balls. After this I plunge them into the tan ; and in the month of March following put them into larger-sized pots, with their balls and roots entire. By this means I have sometimes cut tolerably good fruit from such plants in the months of May and June following. Such forward plants generally produce very fine suckers. Whenever the pine-plants are removed after they are grown large, it will be of service, before they are taken out of the tan-bed, to mark the side of the pots which stands next the sun ; for it is observable, that the centres of the plants generally tend that way : so that the plants, when replaced, may stand as they did before they were removed. I do not mean that it is at all neces- sary for the plants to be put into the very identical places in which they stood before, but, in point of position, it will be proper, and the plants will be benefited by being so placed. This may as easily be done as placing them in a random manner, which is the common method." 2824. Abercrombie directs, " to keep the plants growing gently, and to have the pots, in general, com- pletely filled with the roots by the time at which you intend to excite them into blossom. From the midde of February to the 1st of March is a good time to have the main crop in flower j as the prospective season is the finest. About a month before you expect to see fruit, dress the plants by taking away two inches in depth from the top of the mould. Twist off some of the lower leaves. Fill up with fresh compost, round the stem, to the remaining leaves. The bark-bed should be revived at the same time, so as to make it lively; but no new tan should be added, till the time for the fullest heat arrives." 825. M'Phatt says, " It frequently happens that pine-apple plants designed to bear fruit, do not show their fruit early enough in the spring or fore-part of summer, to ripen their fruit before winter, when there is not sunshine enough to give the fruit any flavor. This may happen because the plants have not come to a proper growth, or their roots may have been injured by too violent a bottom heat, or by being over- watered, or they may have been shifted too late, or been put into pots too large for their roots to have filled them before the end of the growing season. To make pine-plants show their fruit at an early time in the spring, some authors have recommended the cutting off some of the roots at the autumn shifting; but long experience has convinced me, that cutting off the roots, or destroying them by any means, instead of making them show fruit, is an effectual mean to prevent them from showing fruit till they have again made long roots. The fruit of the pine-apple is formed probably not less than seven or eight weeks before it appears among the leaves ; and if a plant be divested partially or totally of its roots, its growth is stopped till it has made roots of considerable length, when it will grow quickly. And, if before the roots were de- stroyed, the fruit had been formed in the hidden secret centre of the plant, the fruit will grow and show itself when the leaves of the plant, excepting those on the stem of the fruit, will make no appearance of growing. This, perhaps, may be the reason which induces some persons to think that cutting off' the roots of the plant causeth it to fruit sooner than it would do were the roots suffered to remain. If pine-apple plants, intended for fruiting the following year, be shifted late in the autumn into pots, which their roots do not fill well before the month of January, they probably will not show fruit till late in the spring or summer months." He top-dresses the pots, and trims plants in February, and uses every means to heat water, &c. to keep them in a growing state during that month and March. If more than two or three suckers begin to grow out of the stem, they should be destroyed, unless they are so near the earth as to make roots into it, which will strengthen them without robbing the fruit. " In June, the fruit, when it gets large, should be supported with sticks to prevent it from falling, and to make the crowns grow up- right on the fruit. Were the fruit permitted to lean to one side, the crown in growing would force itself upright, and when the fruit was ripe, the crown would stand crooked on it. If any of the fruit that showed early are ripe, set the plants out of the fruiting-house, and replace them by any that may have shown fruit among the succession plants." If in August you have any plants among your succession pines which have shown fruit, as your fruiting plants are now ripe, set out the pots, and take those in fruit from among your succession plants, to replace them. In November it may be well to have a few plants start into fruit, which may come in at an early and very acceptable season. Some may yet be green or not fully ripe, and should get no more water than what is necessary to keep them from flagging. (G. Rent.} 2826. Nicol, in February, top-dresses and trims such of the plants as have not then shown fruit. " Some kinds of pine-apples put out suckers on the fruit-stalk, at the base of the fruit, which should be rubbed off with the thumb as they appear, because they rob it of nourishment to a certain extent. If the object be to have large fruit, all suckers of the root, and all but two or three of the best of those rising from between the leaves, should be destroyed. Those of the root may easily be twisted off, and the others may be destroyed, or be prevented from growing further, by breaking out their heart-leaves, which is no difficult matter while they are young, being then brittle. But if the increase of the stock be the object, all suckers of the stem should be encouraged, and even some of the best of those from the root." (Kal.) 2827. Time required to fruit the pine. All the authors quoted, excepting Baldwin, and almost all cultivators of the pine-plant, require from two and a half to four years from the planting of the crown or sucker to perfecting its fruit. The general period is from two and a half to three years ; a fruit of the queen pine being gathered in August, 1819, and its crown planted a few days afterwards, will, in the July, August, or Sep- tember, 1822, produce fruit, A strong sucker from the same plant taken off, as is fre- M m 530 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. quontly the case, a month before the fruit ripens, and planted, will, in the end of 1821, or early in the spring of 1822, ripen its fruit. 2828. Baldwin, however, accomplishes this by both crowns and suckers in a shorter period, and appears to have great merit, not only in that, but in growing his succession plants without the aid of fire-heat. The following are his observations on both subjects. " The New Providence, black Antigua, Jamaica, Enville, and the other large sorts of ananas, will require the cultivation of three years to bring them to perfection ; but the old queen and Ripley's new queen may be brought to perfection in fifteen months. To effect this it must be observed, that some of the plants will fruit in February or the beginning of March, and conse- quently that the suckers may be taken off in June, or the beginning of July. Make then a good bed of tan with lining of litter round the outside, to keep in the tan ; make the bed to fit a large melon-frame ; put the suckers into pots of about nine inches diameter, filled with the compost ; plunge them in the bed, prepared in regular order, and throw a mat over them in hot weather, for shade, till they have taken root; let them remain till the end of September, and then shift them into pots of about twelve inches dia- meer, an punge em n e fruiting-house. I have had fine crops of pines raised from these suckers, many of them four pounds each, from plants only fifteen months old. This method, in point both of time and expense, has greatly the advantage of the common plan of raising pines, in three years, by fires ; when the fruit at last is frequently small and ill- flavored." It is a peculiar recommendation of this plan, that the plants reared in frames, without fires, the first year seldom or never run to fruit ; whereas, on the con . trary, where stoves are used, first for the nursery, next for the succession, and lastly for the fruiting house, it is seldom that one third of the plants come to the fruiting-house, because so many of them have run to fruit ; and even those that stand are necessarily dried and stinted, being subject to the attacks of various insects ; not to mention the enormous care and expense attendant upon a three years' cultivation. By this plan, " one third of the coals are sufficient, and less than one half of the usual labor and build- ings." (Cult. ofAnan. p. 28.) 2829. Growing the fruit of an extraordinary size. Speechly and M'Phail say, " In March, to make some of your fruit swell very large, prevent all suckers from growing on the plants. You may destroy them by twisting out their hearts with a sharp-pointed stick, or a piece of iron about eighteen inches long. This, however, should not be made a general practice." 2830. Abercroinbie concurs in this practice, and adds, " A yet further advantage may be given to the swell- ing of the fruit, by having a few of the lower leaves of the plant taken off, and by putting a rim of tin, or any thing else in the form of a hoop, round the top of the pot, sufficient to raise the mould three or four inches. The mould should be of the best quality, and constantly kept in a moderate moist state : this may be done by having the surface kept covered with moistened moss. The roots of the pine-plant, es- pecially those produced from the part of the stem just under the leaves, will then make a surprising pro- gress, and the fruit will be greatly benefited by this expedient." 2831. W. Hogg, who has grown the largest pines next to Baldwin and Buchan, " in March, 1820, had several of different sorts, which had been suckers taken from the parent plants in 1816, and which, under the usual treatment, had become too large to receive proper sustenance while remaining in pots. To provide a fit place for them, he cut a deep trench along the back of the bark-bed, into which he put a quantity of good earth, and then turned the pines out of the pots into it, and filled up round the balls with mould of the same qua- lity,' which he covered lightly with tan. At the time a few only of the plants were showing fruit, but they all (with the exception of one plant of the New Providence) fruited immediately, and extremely well, yielding fruit from 3 Ibs. to 5f IDS. each in weight. The plant of the New Providence continued growing luxuriantly till the following February, when it showed fruit, which was cut in June, and weighed 9 Ib. 4 oz. During the growth of this pine, it was twice nourished by a supply of fresh earth to its roots." (Hort. Trans, iv. 555.) 2832. Cutting ripe pines. " It is easy to know," Speechly observes, " when the pine becomes ripe by its yellow color, yet they do not all change in the same manner, but most generally begin at the lower part of the fruit ; such fruit should not be cut till the upper part also begins to change, which sometimes will be many days after, espe- cially in the sugar-loaf kinds. Sometimes the fruit will first begin to change in the middle, which is a certain indication of its being ripe ; such fruit should be cut imme- diately." 2833. Abercrombie says, " The indications of maturity are, a diffusive fragrance, accompanied by a change in the color of the fruit ; most sorts becoming yellow, or straw-color ; others, dark-green, or yellowish tinged with green. Cut pine-apples before they are dead-ripe, or the spirit of the flavor will be dissipated. Bring away, with the fruit, above five inches of stalk ; and leave the crown adhering to the top." 2834. Nicol, " If pine-apples be not cut soon after they begin to color, that is, just when the fruit is of a greenish-yellow, or straw-color, they fall greatly off in flavor and richness ; and that sharp luscious taste, so much admired, becomes insipid." 2835. Retarding and keeping fruit. " It sometimes happens," Speechly observes, " that great part of a stove of plants will'\how their fruit at or near the same time, and with the same treatment, would consequently become ripe too nearly together. To prevent this, and bring them into a regular succession, when the fruit is nearly ripe, part of the plants may be taken out of the stove, and set in a dry shady place ; as, for instance, the stove-shed, where the pots should be covered with moistened moss, but no water given them ; it must be observed, that every one of the plants must be taken into the hot-house again, and set in the tan-bed for a week or ten days before the fruit is cut, to give it a good flavor. When there is a variety of hot-houses, this caution is not necessary." 2836. Abercrombie says, contrivances for retarding fruit, are sometimes resorted to, that plants which have started too soon into fruit, may have a better season to ripen in ; and sometimes in order that a whole crop may not come in at once. The former may be provided for by shifting early in spring, or at any time before the fruit has attained half the full diameter ; and the latter inconvenience may be thus obviated : " If you perceive the fruit ripening too fast, pr'advancing too nearly together, set as many plants as you intend to retard into a dry airy place, affording both shade and shelter. Give no water as long as you wish to suspend their progress. For the same purpose, others may be set out green ; while the excite- ment of these is lowered, they must be kept in a growing state." 2837. M'Phail observes, " If pines ripen too fast after one another, set the pots out of the house with the fruit on them, into an airy, cool, dry shade, and the fruit will keep a fortnight or longer, if it be set out before it is full ripe. The plants, while in this situation, should have no water given them : and it may be necessary sometimes, in order to have a succession, or constant supply of fruit for a long time, to set some of BOOK I. PINERY. GENERAL CULTURE. SSI them out green, into a cooler place, to keep them back : and when you wish to ripen them, take them into the house, and plunge them in the tan again." 2838 \ Size of the fruit. Three pounds maybe considered the average size of the queen pine-apples brought to market or sent to table, but occasionally they grow much larger, attaining four and five pounds ; and the Providence, with Speechly and Griffin, has weighed seven and nine pounds. Griffin ap- pears to have been particularly successful in growing large fruit. At Kelham, near Nottingham, while gardener to J. C. Girardot, Esq. he cut, m the year 1802, twenty queen pines, which weighed together eignty-seven pounds seven ounces ; in 1803, one weighing five pounds three ounces: in July, 1804, one of the New Providence kind, weighing seven pounds two ounces ; in August, 1804, one of the same kind, weighing nine pounds three ounces ; and in 1805, he cut twenty -two queen pines, which weighed together one hundred and eighteen pounds three ounces. 2839. Baldwin, at a meeting of the Horticultural Society of London, held in October, 1817, presented a queen pine of great beauty and superior flavor. It measured sixteen inches in circumference, seven inches in length, and weighed four pounds. The plant on which it was produced was little more than fifteen months old. \Hort. Tr. iii. 118.) 1822, four New Providence pines were re- ; ; the largest 8 Ibs. 14| oz. ; the next 81bs. .... _____ Trans, v. 20(5.) 2841. On the llth July, 1821, Wm. Buchan, gardener to Lord Cawder, at Stackpool Court, Pembrokeshire produced a pine which weighed 10 Ibs. 8oz. and was lOf inches high, exclusive of the crown and stalk' This was larger than any pine which had been exhibited to the society, and with the exception of a few which have been grown by Baldwin, is the heaviest, as far as has been ascertained that has been fruited in this country. Buchan fruited three other Providence pines, of extraordinary weight in the same season ; one weighed 10 Ibs. 6 oz. ; another 10 Ibs. 2 oz. ; and a third 9 Ibs. 8 oz. making the total weight of the four, 40 Ibs. 8 oz, (Hort. Trans, v. 261.) SUBSECT. 8. General Directions common to the Three Departments of Pine-apple Culture. 2842. That which is general in the culture of the pine-apple chiefly respects the bark-pit, air, water, and insects. 2843. Management of the bark-pit. The first point deserving attention here is the preparation of the tan, after it is brought from the tan-vats ; but this has been already described. (See 1974.) 2844. Formation of the bed. M'Phail says, "Pits for tan need not be made deeper than three feet six inches ; if they be very wide, three feet will do ; and to admit large fruiting pine-plants, the surface of the tan-bed will require to be five or six feet from the glass above it. When a pine-pit is to be filled wholly with new tan, if it be late in the autumn or winter, the tan had best lie in a state of fermentation for some time before the pots be plunged in it. If pine-plants in pots be plunged in wet tan, it is apt to affect their roots, and if the roots be hurt, the plant must suffer." 2845. Abercrombie says, " It is desirable on the first formation of a bed, to mix new and old tan together ; in which case the quantity of new bark to be brought into the pit will depend upon the goodness of the bark and the bottom heat required. As much new tan as will fill two third parts of the bark-pit, with a mix- ture of old, rotten almost to earth, will produce a bottom heat of about 85. When old tan with higher remains of strength is used to modify the new, the same heat may be produced, if the quantity of new be not more than half the capacity of the pit. This is said of a new pit. Alter a bark-bed has been in ac- tion, partial renewals of bark, to keep up the heat, are frequently sufficient in the reduced proportion of one third, one sixth, one twelfth, or less. At intermediate stages between the partial renewals, the bed re- quires only to be excited into a brisker fermentation by forking-up. About five sevenths of the pit from the bottom should be occupied by the new and old tan as a fermenting body of bark : and about two sevenths from the top, or a little more than the depth of the pots, whatever that may be, should consist of old tan incapable of heating so as to burn the roots of the plants ; at least such should be the ordinary distribution of the tan ; but where peculiar circumstances require a speedy augmentation of heat, without displacing the pots, as when fruit is to be swelled off in the last stage, the earthy tan at top may be taken away, and new tan substituted." 2846. M'Phail has found, " that when a tan-pit is about six feet wide, and three feet deep, filled with good new and old tan in nearly equal quantities, it is enough to raise and retain a sufficient heat for the growth of the pine-apple for about half a year, with the addition of as much new tan as will keep it up to its ori- ginal height ; at the expiration of which time, the exhausted part of the tan is to be taken out, and the bed recruited with new bark. When tan gets too dry, pour water into it now and then between the pots ; this will cause a fine moist heat to arise among the plants to help to nourish them, and it will like- wise enable the tan to retain its heat longer than if it were suffered to become dry, for no body of veget- ables will continue to ferment and generate heat after the moisture in them is evaporated." (Gard. ' 2847. Temperature of the bed. The general practice is to keep this from five to ten degrees higher than that of the air of the house in the winter months ; somewhat higher in spring and autumn ; and about the same temperature in summer. M'Phail and Griffin prefer rather a higher degree of bottom heat. One hundred degrees, these authors re- commend, or " about milk-warm, at the bottom of the pots, is heat enough for the roots of the pine-apple plant to grow in ; therefore the depth, whether of tan, leaves of trees, or dung put into the pit, should be proportioned according to the qualities of the materials in regard to raising heat. If the ai in the house be kept up to a proper degree of heat, the roots of the plants will grow in a heat of eighty degrees, so that it is safer to have the pots stand for a time, in such a gentle heat than in a heat of upwards of a hundred ; but let it be remembered, that the heat of the bed, especially from its surface to eight or nine inches downward, is liable to increase and decrease in a uniformity, though not so quickly, with the variations of the heat kept up in the atmosphere of the house. But be this as it may, the heat of the tan at the bottom of the pots when the roots are there, had best not be warmer than about milk-warm, especially in winter, when, if the roots at the bottoms of the pots be destroyed, there is not at that season of the year a kindly natural Mm 2 532 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. warmth In the house to cause young roots to spring from the stems of the plants to draw into them sufficient nourishment to sustain them ; and farther, if the roots of fruiting plants be destroyed in winter, it will probably hinder them from showing fruit in time to ripen, or make them show weak." (Gard. Rem.) 2848. Abercrombie and Nicol agree in the following standard for the different classes of pines, allowing a latitude of from five to eight degrees, below or above : Nursing bark-bed 75 ; Succession bark-bed 72 ; Fruiting bark-bed 82. The standard for the succession-pit is fixed lower than that for the nursing-pit, to guard against the chance of starting the plants into untimely fruit. Abercrombie observes, that when the bottom heat of a bark-pit is as high as 80, with a layer composed of old and new tan at top, that layer will scarcely exceed 65. " Many persons," he adds, " work pine-stoves with a bottom heat five or ten degrees higher than the maximum standard set down for each house above. These, on the one hand, and the theorists, on the other, who censure the application of any bottom heat to exotics as unnatural, both seem to be in extremes. In tropical climates, the earth itself about the roots of plants is frequently so pene- trated with the violent heat of the atmosphere, as to maintain a temperature of 80 degrees, or more, in the shade ; consequently, for the roots of exotics from such climates to be plunged into a bed heated to that degree is not unnatural : still it should be recollected, that the heat of the air there has a proportionate elevation above that of the earth. During our winter, therefore, instead of keeping the roots of pine-plants in a factitious heat of 80, while the artificial temperature of the air is, in some cases, let down to 55 and 60, perhaps a better relation of the bed with the atmosphere would be supported by having the bark-bed at 60*? or 65, and the air of the pit at 70, at least never less than the heat at the roots." 2849. The measurement of bottom heat is effected by keeping trial-sticks in the bed, which M'Phail considers sufficient for any experienced person ; but the most accurate mode is, to plunge the bulb of the thermometer about a foot into the bed, till it reach that depth where the layer of old bark into which the pots are plunged, and the fermenting mass may be supposed to join. This will give the heat at the bottom of the pots. 2850. Renewal of the bark-bed. When the decline of the bed below a given temper- ature requires it to be renewed, take out the pots, tie the leaves carefully with bass, to protect them from being broken, and set them in a place where the plants will receive no check. If the top layer be earthy and decayed, so as to run through the screen, take it entirely off. Let the rest of the old bark be screened, and that which passes through be carried out of the house. Bring in new bark equal to the quantity taken away ; but, be- fore mixing it with the retained portion of the old, separate the least efficient of the old to serve as a top layer. Proceed then to mix the new bark equally with the soundest part of the old, turning over the bed from the bottom with a fork. Tread this part equally. To receive the pots, spread on lightly at top a layer composed three fourths.of old bark, extending at least to the depth of the pots. Dress the surface of the bed full up to the sides of the pit, making it rather higher in the middle. After renewing a bark-bed, if there has been a great proportion of new tan introduced, or if there is any probability that the heat may rise excessively, plunge the pots but one third of their depth into the bark, or set them merely on the surface, till the full heat has risen and been found not in ex- cess ; then plunge them to the rims. 2851. Reviving tan with the fork. If it be not requisite to take off the top, begin at one end of the bed, and dig out as much bark as will allow the remainder to be loosened, and completely forked over, without spilling any into the house. Fork it accordingly ; return the bark taken out, level the top, and replunge the pots to their rims. 2852. Times of renewing and reviving the bark-bed. After the bark-bed has been re- newed by the substitution of new bark for that which is quite wasted, it may be expected to last in good action, with the help of an intermediate forking up, for ten or eleven weeks ; consequently, it will require renewal about five times in the year. As a gradual decline must take place between one renewal and another, the heat can scarcely be kept by any management from fluctuating less than ten degrees ; and therefore, in planning the busi- ness of the year, it is a desirable thing to distribute the times of renewal so that they may just precede those periods when something critical depends on having the bajk-bed at a maximum heat. The principal occasions seem to be these : 2853. The time of the principal annual potting and repotting, when established plants are advanced to the last and intermediate stages, and new plants are brought into the nursing-pit. This will commonly fall in the first week in August ; but let it fall when it will, one of the fundamental reparations of the bed must be adapted to it ; because the plants want a good growing heat to strike them, and the successive clearance of one pit after another affords the easiest opportunity for shifting the bark. 2854. That crisis of autumn when the weather is declining, yet not cold enough to light fires. This hap- pens about the beginning of October, and may commonly follow too close after the entire restitution of the bed to admit of timing the second renewal exactly to it ; the bed may be, however, well forked up, when the season is on the turn. The second renewal will scarcely be demanded by the state of the bed till eleven weeks after the first. As it respects the fruiting-house, it should be particularly sound and complete, to allow of timing the third to a critical period in the culture of the pine. Rather protract the interval be- tween the second and third renewal to three months or more, than precipitate the third, which might start the plants too soon into blossom. In the fruiting-house, accordingly as you calculate that the plants will show fruit at the end of January or later, renew the bed just before, in the proportion of one third, if necessary, so as to have the bed steadily up to 80 when the plants come into flower. 2855. In March. A shifting of the roots into larger pots is frequently requisite for plants in the nursery and succession pits about the middle or end of March. Whenever repotted plants are to be struck, the bed should be prepared for yielding the approved degree of heat. 2856. In May. The same principle prescribes a renewal at the partial repotting, which is commonly made at the end of May. This may be combined with another object: contrive to have the pit in lively action just before you discontinue fire-heat As to forking up merely : if this be done at the end of six weeks BOOK I. PINERY. GENERAL CULTURE. 533 after renewal, there will be four or five weeks to run, while the heat is to be sustained on the old mate- rials, which will be generally found a convenient distribution of this business. In the continued hot weather of tull summer, the fermentation in the bed may decline faster than the strength of the tan is given out, from the mass of tan getting excessively dry. In this case, pour as much water on the surface between the pots, as, in addition to that passing through the pots in common waterings, will restore suffi- cient moisture to the bed. With a small fork, keep the surface of the bark free from fungi or crustv spawn, which are apt to generate there. 2857. Substitutes for tan. Tan is in many places scarce and dear, and in others not to be got; in either case it becomes an object to know the best substitutes, and their manage- ment. Horse-dung alone, as already observed, is used by some-; and, by others, mixed with bark, with ashes, with leaves, sawdust, shavings, clippings of leather, chopped spray, and such other durable substances as can be brought to ferment along with it, and prolong its duration as a fermenting mass, 2858. Nicol, when tanners' bark is difficult to be procured, recommends a mixture of leaves with stable litter, using only a little bark (fifteen or eighteen inches), in which to plunge the pots. But in using leaves" or leaves mixed with litter, they must always be well fermented, and the rank heat extracted out of them before they are made up into a bed for the plants. 2859. Ncifl observes, that flax-dressers' refuse ferments very slowly and regularly, and that used instead of stable-dung, it will keep up a steady heat longer than almost any other substance. 28GO. Oak-leaves. Speech! y used oak-leaves with great success, and gives the follow- ing directions for their preparation : 2861. After being raked into heaps, they should immediately be carried to some place near the hot-house where they must lie to couch. I generally fence them round with charcoal-hurdles, or any thing else to keep them from being blown about the garden in windy weather. In this place we tread them well and water them in case they happen to have been brought in dry. We make the heap six or seven fe'et in thickness, covering it over with old mats, or any thing else, to prevent the upper leaves from being blown away. In a few days the heap will come to a strong heat. For the first year or two that I used these leaves, I did not continue them in the heap longer than ten days or a fortnight ; but in this I discovered a considerable inconvenience, as they settled so much when got into the hot-house, as soon to require a supply. Taught by experience, I now let them- remain in the heap for five or six weeks, by which time they are properly prepared for the hot-house. In getting them into the pine-pits, if they appear dry, we water them again, treading them in layers exceedingly well, till the pits are quite full. We then cover the whole with tan to the thickness of two inches, and tread it well, till the surface become smooth and even. On this we place the pine-pots in the manner they are to stand, beginning with the middle row first, and filling up the spaces between the pots with tan. In like manner we proceed to the next row, till the whole is finished ; and this operation is performed in the same manner as when tan only is used. 2862. Thus prepared, they will retain a constant and regular heat for twelve months without either stirring or turning; and if I may form a judgment from their appearance when taken out, (being always entire and perfect,) it is probable they would continue their heat through a second year; but, as an annual supply of leaves here is easily obtained, such a trial with us is hardly worth the trouble of making. However, as a saving in leaves may be an agreeable object in places where they are less plentiful, I was induced to make the following experiments : In 1777, one of the pine-pits was filled with one part of old, and two parts new leaves well mixed together ; and the next year, 1778, one pit was filled with old and new leaves in equal quantities : in both these experiments, I had the satisfaction to find the pits so filled to retain a heat through each season, equal to the other pits that were filled entirely with new leaves ; and since that time we have always used the whole of the undecaycd leaves mixed along with the new ones. I also have constantly used the leaves after they were taken out of the hot-house in the early-made hot-beds, and always found them to answer quite as well as fresh leaves. I must beg leave to observe, that when the leaves are intended to be used a second time, it will be proper at the taking them out of the pits to remove some few at the top, as also on each side ; because the leaves at the top and outside of the pit approach most to a state of decay. After this the pines will have no occasion to be moved but at the stated times of their management; viz. at the shifting them in their pots, &c. when at each time, a little fresh tan should be added to make up the deficiency arising from the settling of the beds ; but this will be inconsiderable, as the leaves do not settle much after their long couching. During the two first years of my practice, I did not use any tan, but plunged the pine-pots in the leaves, and just covered the surface of the beds when finished, with a little sawdust, to give it a neatness. This method was attended with one inconvenience ; for, by the caking of the leaves, they shrunk from the sides of the pots, whereby they became exposed to the air, and at the same time the heat of the beds was permitted to escape. Many powerful reasons may be given why oak-leaves are preferable to tanners' bark. I believe that oak-leaves are preferable to those of any other sort ; but I have found, by repeated trials, that the leaves of beech, Spanish chestnut, and horn- beam, will answer the purpose very well. It seems, that all leaves of a hard and firm texture are very proper ; but soft leaves that soon decay, such as lime, sycamore, ash, and of fruit-trees in general, are very unfit for this mode of practice. 2863. Superiority of oak-leaves. They always heat regularly; for, during the whole time that I have used them, which is near twenty-five years, I never once knew of their heating with violence ; and this is so frequently the case with tan, that I affirm, and indeed it is well known to- every person convers- ant in the management of the hot-house, that pines suffer more from this one circumstance than from all other accidents put together, insects excepted. When this accident happens near the time of their fruit- ing, the effect is soon seen in the fruit, which always comes ill-shaped and exceedingly small. Sometimes there will be little or no fruit at all ; therefore, gardeners who make use of tan only for their pines, should be most particularly careful to avoid an over-heat at that critical season the time of showing fruit. 2864. The heat of oak-leaves is constant ; whereas tanners' bark generally turns cold in a very short time after its furious heat is gone off. This obliges the gardener to give the tan frequent turnings, in order to promote its heating. These frequent turnings, not to mention the expense, are attended with the worst consequences ; for, by the continual moving of the pots backwards and forwards, the pines are exposed to the extremes of heat and cold, whereby their growth is considerably retarded ; whereas, when leaves are used, the pines will have no occasion to be moved but at the times of potting, &c. The pines have one particular advantage in this undisturbed situation ; their roots grow through the bottoms of the pots and mat amongst the leaves in a surprising manner. From the vigor of the plants, when in this situation, it is highly probable that the leaves, even in this state, afford them an uncommon and agreeable nourishment. 2865. There is a saving in point of expense, which is no inconsiderable object in places where tan cannot be had but from a great distance, as is the case here, the article of carriage amounting to ten shil- lings for each waggon-load. Indeed, this was the principal reason that first induced me to make trial of leaves. Mm 3 534 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 2866. Decayed leaves make good manure ; whereas, rotten tan is experimentally found to be of no value. I have often tried it both on sand and clay, also on wet and dry lands, and never could discover, in any of my experiments, that it deserved the name of a manure ; whereas, decayed leaves are the richest, and of all others, the most suitable for a garden. But this must only be understood of leaves after they have undergone their fermentation, which reduces them to a true vegetable mould, in which we experi- mentally know that the food of plants is contained. This black mould is, of all others, the most proper to mix with compost-earth, and I use it in general for pines, and almost for all plants that grow in pots : for flowers it is most excellent The remainder of this vegetable mould may be employed in manuring the compartments of the kitchen-garden, for which purpose it is highly useful. 2867. Leaves mixed with dung make excellent hot-beds ; and beds compounded in this manner, preserve their heat much longer than when made entirely with dung. In both cases, the application of leaves will be a considerable saving of dung, a circum- stance very agreeable, as it will be the means of preventing the contests frequently observed in large families, between the superintendant of the garden, and the directors of the husbandry. 2868. Steam as a bottom heat, Speechly observes, " seems to stand forward among the modern improvements of gardening." Speechly knew, in 1796, only two instances in which steam was applied as bottom heat ; and, with M'Phail, does not think it will finally answer as a substitute for tan. Instances in which it is adopted, are now much more numerous ; but time sufficient has not elapsed, and the opinions of gardeners are yet too unsettled on its merits to enable us to recommend it for adoption in general practice. For heating the atmosphere of hot-houses, there seems little (or at least much less) doubt of its being preferable to fire-heat. 2869. Gunter, of Earl's Court, tried the application of steam as a bottom heat, by introducing the vapor into a chamber in the bottom of the pit, over which were laid cross bars covered with brush-wood, and, in some places, oak-planks, pierced with holes. On these the mould was placed in which the pines were planted. The quantity of heat imparted to the earth was very great, but, contrary to his expectation, no vapor ascended into the mould, which became excessively dry and husky ; nor was he able, by frequent waterings, to keep it in a state fit for vegetation ; the roots of the plants in it, in spite of every precaution, becoming shrivelled and dry. (Hort. Trans, iv. 408.) 2870. J. Hay, of Edinburgh, gives three examples (Caled. Mem. voL iii.) of steam having been adopted as a bottom heat in Scotland. It is there introduced under vaulted pits, or chambers covered with rafters and slates laid close in mortar, and has been found to succeed. (Different Modes of cultivating the Pine Apple, &c. 174.) 2871. Hot water as a bottom heat. Count Zubow, at St. Petersburg, employed steam to heat a pit or cistern of water, over which, at about three inches' distance, a frame, covered with faggots, was placed, and on this was laid the earth, in which his pines and other exotics were planted without being in pots. The plan is said to have succeeded, and a wholesome temperature to have been obtained and communicated to the mould above the faggots. (Fischer, in Hort. Trans, iii. 430.) 2872. Fire-heat. Recourse must be had to the furnace whenever the temperature of the house, from the natural heat of the season, aided by the bark-pit, falls below 60. At 55 the decline of atmospheric heat will not be got so far as to hurt pines and stove- plants in general; but, if you light no fires till the thermometer fall to 55, it may happen that, before the flues can be brought into full action to affect the house, a sudden retrocession in the natural season may sink the air at once five or six degrees lower then, the tenderest exotics will be in a hazardous situation. It is not advisable to expose a plant that has been lately potted even to the extreme, 55, lest it should be checked in making new roots. To refuse the aid of the furnace till the latest moment will also restrain the gardener from admitting fresh air, in the meantime, so as to have always pure air in the house. The maximum heat to be caused by fire alone in abso- lute winter, is 68. This should be thrown to the middle of days not enlivened by sunshine ; also, to periods when the heat of the bark-bed is from any cause deficient. The medium, 64, for mere fire-heat, should be interposed on preparing to air the house in the forenoon ; and in the evening, between three and eight. 2873. Pit-coal is the best kind of fuel, mixed with cinders of the same, on account of the duration of the fire and regularity of the heat : cinders are lasting in the next de- gree : peat may be resorted to under a deficiency of either of the others ; it will require more attendance : wood blazes off so rapidly, that to maintain and regulate a fumace fed by it is very troublesome. (Pr. G.) 2874. Coal-dust, formed into bricks, with one third of its bulk of clay or pond-mud, has been tried by Knight. With these he found he could sustain a high and regular tem- perature in his pinery with little expense or trouble, and that the burnt clay and ashes were valuable as manure. (Hort. Trans, iv. 156.) 2875. Time of the day for lighting Jires. As soon as fires become necessary, Aber- crombie says, " the attendant on the furnace should set it at work every afternoon, at five, four, or three o'clock, according to the time of year, beginning an hour before sun- set. His last examination of the furnace for the evening should not be earlier than ten o'clock, when as much fuel should be added as will support the proper heat till the morning, while the front of the fire is smothered with ashes to prevent too consuming a draught. He ought to be again at the fire, to refresh it with fuel in the morning, within BOOK 1. PINERY. GENERAL CULTURE. 535 seven hours after leaving it : when the nights are longest, the decline of the fire will thus be repaired three hours before sunrise." 2876. The season for fire-heat falls mostly within the limits of eight months, specified below. Fire-heat is first resorted to in evenings ; and is extended to mornings when the weather is cloudy and damp, or frosty. The lateness or forwardness of the seasons will require occasional deviations from any outline drawn from the practice of a single year : the following outline is given to assist, and not to fetter, the director of the stove : 2877. October. As soon as cold nights or foggy days occur, fires will be wanted in houses where the stand- ard temperature marks a high minimum. The pinery first demands the aid of the furnace, on account of all the plants having been recently potted. Gentle fires made in the evening, to last only for the night, will supply the few degrees of heat in which the natural climate is defective. Artificial heat is not ap- plied to excite the pines to grow in the herb at this time ; but merely to prevent any check to the new roots from cold and damp. If the tan-bed send up a good heat, the use of the stove in the pinery may be deferred till the middle or end of the month. One object is, to keep the temperature up to a given mini- mum ; another, to interfere with 4 fire-heat when the declension in the natural climate is unseasonably abrupt. Thus 62 degrees at the end of September, is more severe than 58 degrees at the end of October. 2878. November. Work regular fires every evening, and occasional fires on cold mornings, and through- out severe days. A violent heat would be pernicious. The maximum to aim at for the day-time, in rigorous frosts, is 65 degrees, independent of any rise in the thermometer from occasional sunshine. 2879. December. Attend punctually to the furnace in the afternoon, late at night, and timely in the morn ing. Between five and nine in the forenoon, never let the course of the fire-heat relax : but if, between nine and three, the sun should shine sufficiently to raise the thermometer to 70 degrees, the furnace may be stopped, and need not work again till three in the afternoon. 2880. January. Recruit and regulate the stove evening and morning. To have the heat defective, or in excess, would be alike prejudicial. 2881. February. The furnace must be carefully attended as the three principal hours of daily regulation come round. Maintain fires all day in rigorous weather. 2882. March. From the returning influence of the sun, and the gentle impulse of the stove, the plants will be excited strongly into growth. To conduct them by an equal progression, the fire-heat should be regu- larly sustained morning and evening, and raised, as noon approaches, to 70, 72, and 75 degrees, in-case the power of the sun alone has not elevated the thermometer, by ten in the morning, at least to 70 degrees. To make the continuation of fire in a hot-house during the day depend merely upon the presence or ab- sence of frost, is to treat a stove like a green-house. According to the climate to be imitated, the tenor of artificial heat ought to bear some analogy to the revolutions of temperature caused by the sun, as it respects both the history of a day, and the rise and acme of a growing season. 2883. April. Continue fires regularly while the sun is down ; and when the weather is chilly and gloomy, work the furnace all day. 2884. May. Goon with the evening fires: have a gentle heat in the early part of the morning, at least till appearances promise a fine warm day. Some managers, to spare fuel, dispense with the stove as soon as the thermometer can be kept, by the shelter of the house and the influence of the bark-bed, from sinking below 60 degrees at the coldest time between sunset and sunrise. But, on the principle laid down in March, the heat ought to be progressive where pines are grown, and, indeed, where any fruit is forced that will repay the cost : in the pinery, then, the minimum for May is 64 degrees at the beginning, and 68 at the close. 2885. June. If the weather be seasonable, no fire-heat will be wanted. But, if it be midsummer, ac- cording to the kalendar, resume fires in unseasonably cold intervals, in order to give sufficient air, without checking plants that have been excited by a higher temperature than that at which the natural climate may happen to be during an anomalous day or two. (Abercrombie.') 2886. Air. The following monthly directions on this subject by Abercrombie cor- respond with the practice of the other authors quoted : 2887. July and August. You can scarcely give air without restraint, even in the day-time, at any other sea- son than the last weeks of July and the course of August. When the nights are warm, leave openings for a gentle interchange with the unconfined atmosphere, so as not to expose the pines to casual rain. A con. slant circulation of pure air will always invigorate growing plants, and heighten the flavor of ripening fruit. In the middle of sultry days, keep down the heat to the maximum under Temperature^ by a very free circulation of air. 2888. In September commences the necessity for caution in admitting air, so as not to lower the temper- ature beyond the minimum for the house. When air is given in reduced quantities, divide it equally to all parts of the pit. The atmosphere at the autumnal is not equally cool as the vernal equinox, because the heat from the past summer is not at once dissipated. The 23d of September will more often correspond with the middle of May than with the 21st of March, as to the influence on the glass of the withdrawing nd returning heat in the natural climate. Proceed in September as in June and May below. 2889. October. To give air without hazard, see Temperature for the house, and the directions in April 2890. November. In calm fine days, give moderate admissions of air from about ten till two. Be careful to shut the sashes, if the atmosphere turn cloudy or excessively cold. 2891. December. In the middle of a clear sunny day, when such occurs, though the air be frosty with it, slide down a light alternately a little way. Meanwhile keep up a maximum heat by the flues ; and shut the glasses by two o'clock, or sooner, if the weather or the thermometer requires. 2892. January. As in December. 2893. February. As in November ; rather freer : in order to which keep good fires. 2894. March. Watch for favorable opportunities to give air. In warm cheerful days, with a little wind, draw open some of the glasses about three hours before twelve, and close again by lour in the afternoon ; or reduce the interval, as the suitable hours may be few. 2895. April. Every fair warm forenoon, as soon as the sun's influence will prevent the house from being chilled, admit fresh air by opening the sashes a little. From nine till noon, gradually widen the aperture for the air. Close again two hours before sunset, or before the thermometer is below 60 degrees, or the higher minimum prescribed by the forced advancement of the plants in particular houses. Whenever the weather is gloomy, raise the fire-heat preparatory to giving air. 2896. May. Fresh air may be admitted, in bright warm mornings, an hour sooner than in April ; and, on fine afternoons, the sashes may be kept open proportionally later, so as the thermometer be watched, and the exceptions after shifting plants, or renewing the bark-bed, be attended to. 2897. June. Give air liberally from seven to six, if the weather has attained a seasonable settled warmth. When the thermometer is down to 66 degrees, shut the glasses for the evening. 2898. Water. The same agreement is observable in Abercrombie's general instruc- Mm 4 536 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. tions for watering. " Use soft water ; in winter, let water that is to be given to plants stand in the house to acquire the same temperature, or warm the water to 75 degrees before applying it." 2899. From November to February, or as long as the deficiency of a strong exhaling heat in the natural cli- mate makes it unsafe to let water fall into the hearts of the plants, give the water through a tube, composed "jointed pieces, so that it may be shortened at will, and having a funnel into which you may pour water. 2900. From March to October it is proper to water over the leaves, excepting in the last stage of fruit and plants ; let the water be warmed to 80 degrees before it is applied, which will contribute to kill several tribes of jointed pieces, so that it may be shortened at will, and having a funnel into which you may pour water. Fr le of insects. 2901. From the middle of October to the end of February the plants will require to be moderately watered only once in eight or ten days. When they have been recently potted, they require less than at other times. Under a continuance of moist and hazy weather, the plants may be kept without water for a lengthened interval, without any privation : in the beginning of October and March, once a-week may be sufficient. During the course of September and April, they may require watering every five days ; August, May, June, and July, every three or four. If, by accident, water fall into the heart of a plant in winter, the best remedy is, to shut the house close, and raise the heat something above the customary standard, that the water may go off in vapor before it can injure the plant. 2902. From the first of March to September is the season of free-excited growth, though this must commence sooner, or be continued later, according to the forwardness or delay of the plant, and the desired time of fruiting. During this season, the mould in the pots should be kept constantly a little moist. Maintain the bark -bed in good action, when you begin to water at the root in an increased degree ; heat the air of the chamber nearly to the maximum, before you at any time dew the herb, and raise it fully afterwards ; for moderate humidity, corrected and exhaled by heat, will make the plants thrive. 2903. From May to August, the time of day for watering must recede more and more from the hour of noon to ten, nine, and eight in the morning ; or to three, four, or five in the afternoon, according to the power of the sun. When July and August happen to be sultry, the pine, as a plant, will flourish the better for a little water once in two or three days : but from pines in fruit withhold water, as the signs of ripe- ness appear. In the height of summer, pour the water over the leaves, and into the centre of the plant. It promotes the health of the herb, to have water standing continually in the heart of the plant, under a well-sustained heat, never fluctuating more than ten degrees below 80. Shut the house close after water- ing, which will cause a dewy exhalation. 2904. Watering with drainings of the dunghill. In the growing season, about mid-day, between the times of shifting the plants, pour every six or eight days a quantity of dung- hill drainings on the mould, which is a compendious way of applying manure. Plants making new stalks and leaves may thus be invigorated ; but after fruit is shown, only pure water should be given even at the root. 2905. Steaming the flues. Having the flues at a maximum heat, sprinkle them occa- sionally with water from a rose-pan. The steam thus raised is congenial to vegetation, and destructive to insects. It is a fine resource when you cannot water over the leaves. ( Abercrombie. ) 2906. Insects. The white scaly coccus, or mealy pine-bug, is the most injurious in- sect to pine-apples. It adheres closely to the leaves ; and, if not removed, will in time consume them, though in appearance it seems almost inanimate. It infests the vine, the orange, and many plants besides the pine ; and lurking in the pots of earth plunged in the bark-bed, insinuating itself into every crevice of the walls and wood-work, is not to be extricated without extreme difficulty. 2907. The brown turtle insect, or brown scaly coccus, or bug, also infests the pine. It is nearly allied in form to the white scale, but is much less injurious in its effects. 2908. The white mealy crimson-tinged insect is also enumerated by Speechly ; and by some is thought to be the same as the white scale, with which it is equally injurious, " wedging itself in between the protu- berances of the fruit in the most surprising manner," so as not to be got out without great difficulty, ren- dering the fruit unsightly, robbing it of its juices, and rendering it deficient in flavor, and ill tasted. ( Tr. on Pine, p. 133.) 2909. Destroying insects. So many different processes have been recommended for destroying these in- sects, that Abercrombie justly observes, " To devise any remedy new in principle would be difficult and altogether superfluous. Of the recipes and specified methods which have fallen into disuse, or were at once rejected by men of business, we shall avoid quoting any merely to say, that this is too simple to be ef- fective, that too elaborate to be of practical use, and a third as fatal to the plants as to the insects. It will be enough to select one or two remedies, which are safe, with a little qualification, and certainly effi- cacious. The ingredients of the first prescription are met with in many recipes : to Nicol belongs the credit of mixing them in the proportion recommended below. We shall previously observe, however, that many experienced growers of pines concur in the opinion, that a chemical preparation is not to be resorted to till the effects of a sound, cleanly course of culture have been tried." 2910. Nicol's recipe. Take soft soap, one pound ; flowers of sulphur, one pound ; tobacco, half a pound ; nux vomica, an ounce ; soft water, four gallons ; boil all these together till the liquor is reduced to three gallons, and set it aside to cool. In this liquor immerse the whole plant, after the roots and leaves are trimmed for potting. Plants in any other state, and which are placed in the bark-bed, may safely be wa- tered over-head with the liquor reduced in strength by the addition of a third part water. As the bug harbors most in the angles of the leaves, there is the better chance that the medicated water will be effec- tual, because it will there remain the longest, and there its sediment will settle. The above is a remedy for every species of the coccus ; and for most insects, on account of its strength and glutinous nature. Its application will make the plants look dirty ; therefore, as soon as the intended effect may be supposed to have followed, whatever remains of the liquor on the leaves should be washed off with clean water. It would be improper to pour a decoction charged with such offensive materials over fruiting plants. Further, this peculiar dose for a tenacious insect is not to be applied indiscriminately to exotics in a general stove, as it might make the more delicate leaves of shrubs drop off! 2911. M'Phail's mode consists in the application of a powerful moist heat. Of this method we have already given an account, and shall only here observe, that it proceeds on the fact experimentally proved, that a degree of heat and moisture, which is speedily fatal to animals, will not immediately destroy or in- jure vegetable life, and this the more especially of plants of such a robust nature as the pine. 2912. Griffin's recipe. To one gallon of soft rain-water, add eight ounces of soft green soap, one ounce of tobacco, and three table-spoonfuls of turpentine ; stir and mix them well together in a -watering-pot, and let them stand for a day or two. When you are going to use this mixture, stir and mix it well again, then strain it through a thin cloth. If the fruit only is infested, dash the mixture over the crown and fruit, BOOK I. COMPENDIUM OF A COURSE OF CULTURE. 537 with a squirt, until all is fairly wet ; and what runs down the stem of the fruit will kill all Hie insects that are amongst the bottom of the leaves. When young plants are infested, take them out of their pots, and shaking all the earth from the roots (tying the leaves of the largest plants together), plunge them into the above mixture, keeping every part covered for the space of five minutes ; then take them out, and set them on a clean place, with their tops declining downwards, for the mixture to drain out of their centre. "When the plants are dry, put them into smaller pots than before, and plunge them into the bark-bed. (Tr. on the Pine, p. 84.) 2913. Baldwin's recipe. Take horse-dung from the stable, the fresher the better, sufficient to make up a hot-bed three feet high to receive a melon-frame three feet deep at the back ; put on the frame and lights immediately, and cover the whole with mats, to bring up the heat. When the bed is at the strong- est heat, take some faggots, open them, and spread the sticks over the surface of the bed on the dung, so as to keep the plants from being scorched; set the plants or suckers, bottom uppermost, on the sticks; shut down your lights quite close, and cover them over well with double mats, to keep in the steam ; let the plants remain in this state one hour, then take out the plants, and wash them in a tub of cold water, previously brought to the side of your bed ; then set them in a dry place, with their tops down- wards, to drain, and afterwards plant them. This treatment is sure to kill every insect. You will observe likewise, that the crowns and suckers in the beds heated by linings of dung without fire-heat, will have all their insects killed, or be kept free of them, if they were clean when planted, by the effluvia of the dung. (Cult. ofAnan.33.) 2914. Miller's recipe. Miller recommends turning the plants out of the pots, and cleaning the roots ; then keeping them immersed for four-and-twenty hours in water in which tobacco-stalks have been in- fused : the bugs are then to be rubbed off with a sponge, and the plants, after being washed in clean water and dripped, are to be repotted. Muirhead, a gardener in the north of Scotland, has described a similar mode (Caled. Hort. Soc. Mem. i. p. 209.), only in the place of tobacco-juice, he directs flowers of sulphur to be mixed with the water. With a bit of bass mat fixed on a small stick, and dipt in water, he displaces as many of the insects as he can see. He then immerses the plants in a tub of water, containing about 1 Ib. of flowers of sulphur to each garden-potful. They remain covered with the water for twenty-four hours, as described by Miller. They are then laid with their tops downward to dry, and are repotted in the usual manner. What share of the cure in either of these ways may be due to the sulphur or to the tobacco- liquor does not clearly appear ; the rubbing off or loosening the insects is evidently important ; and it is not unlikely that immersion in simple water, so long continued, may alone be sufficient to destroy them. Indeed, the experience of one of the best practical gardeners in Scotland (Hay), leads him to conclude, that even moderate moisture is destructive to these insects. During many years, he regularly watered his pine-plants over head with the squirt, during the summer-months: this was done only in the evening ; it never injured the plants ; and the bug never appeared upon them. (Ed. Encyc. art. Hort.) 2915. Knight's suggestion. " Baldwin recommends the steam of hot fermenting horse-dung : I con- clude the destructive agent, in this case, is arnmoniacal gas ; which Sir Humphry Davy informed me he had found to be instantly fatal to every species of insect ; and if so, this might be obtained at a small ex- pense, by pouring a solution of crude muriate of ammonia upon quick-lime ; the stable, or cow-house, would afford an equally efficient, though less delicate, fluid. The ammoniacal gas might, I conceive, be impelled, by means of a pair of bellows, amongst the leaves of the infected plants, in sufficient quantity to destroy animal, without injuring vegetable life : and it is a very interesting question to the gardener, whether his hardy enemy, the red spider, will bear it with impunity." 2916. Cleansing and refitting the house. Every department of the pinery must be kept at all times sweet and clean. At the period of removing sets of plants (or oftener, if necessary) that have completed specific stages, purify the house thoroughly, and have the flues swept, the plaster white-washed, the wood- work and glass washed at all events, and the latter painted, if necessary, all broken glass mended, and every other substantial, or casual reparation effected. If insects are supposed to be harbored in the building, the following wash is to be introduced with a brush into the cracks and joints of the wood- work, and the crevices of the wall : " Of sulphur vivum, take 2 oz. ; soft soap, 4 oz. Make these into a lather, mixed with a gallon of water that has been poured in a boiling state upon a pound of mercury. The mercury will last to medicate fresh quantities of water almost perpetually." (Abercrombie.) SUBSECT. 9. Compendium of a Course of Culture. 2917. The following judicious summary of practice, from the planting of the crown to the cutting of the fruit, is given by Abercrombie. The dates are arbitrary; but specific days or months must be assumed to mark anniversary and other periods. 2918 Nursing-pit Aug. 15. 1813. Crowns and suckers planted. Opt 30 1813" If the plants, from forward growth, require more room, some are removed to another 'VarcVsO 3 . S^uc^ Plants of the same standing are now sometimes distributed to houses where the treatment differs, as the plant is expected to fruit at the end of two or M;S- P1 r ts 1 ? ten f e fi d b to """%? year in this ^^^^ 2 which have consumed one year in the nursing-pit, and a second year in the succession-house, are removed to this department. 2922' \wwea^Sgplants. Succession-pit. March 30. 1814. Plants from the nursing-pit are put into larger pots ; and brought for culture here, as directed under this division. May or June, 1814. Succession pines are sometimes intermediately shifted, without disturbing the ^292? FruMng-house. Aug. 15. 1814. Plants from the succession-pit, having consumed one year in the first and seconl stages, are shifted into the largest-sized pots, to be treated as undei 'this head. Aug. 1. 1815. Having been cultivated as under fruiting-house, the ripe fruit is fit to cut. 538 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. SUBSECT. 10. Recent Improvements in the Culture of the Pine-apple. 2924. The most recent improvements in the culture of the pine-apple consist chiefly of some attempts by Knight and others to grow this fruit, as well without the aid of bottom heat as with it. Knight also employed a much higher degree of solar heat during summer, and much less fire-heat during winter, than is generally done by practical gardeners. Some lesser improvements, such as nourishing the suckers on the parent stem after the fruit is cut, are less recent, and though not mentioned in the popular manuals of gardening, are yet frequently practised by the best cultivators. With respect to growing pine-plants by the heat of dung or tan without fire-heat, there is nothing new or extraordinary in the practice, as may be seen in the foregoing subsections, by the quotations from M'Phail and others. 2925. The Affect of a very high temperature during the day, in bright weather, and of comparatively low temperature during the night, and in cloudy weather, was tried by Knight in 1819. " A fire of sufficient power only to preserve in the house a temperature of about 70, during summer, was employed ; but no air was given, nor its escape facilitated till the thermometer, perfectly shaded, indicated a temperature of 95 ; and then only two of the upper lights, one at each end, were let down about four inches. The heat, of the house was consequently sometimes raised to 110, during the middle of warm and bright days, and it generally varied, in such days, from 90 to 105, declining during the evening to about 80, and to 70 in the night. Late in the evening of every bright and hot day, the plants were copiously sprinkled with water, nearly of the temperature of the external air. The melon, water-melon, Guernsey lily, fig-tree, nectarine, orange and lemon, mango, Avocado pear, Mamme-tree, and several other plants, part of them natives of temperate climates, grew in this hot-house so managed " through the whole summer, without any one of them being drawn, or any way injured, by the very high temperature to which they were occasionally subjected; and from these and other facts," Knight continues, "which have come within my observation, I think myself justified in inferring, that in almost all cases in which the object of the cultivator is to promote the rapid and vigorous growth of his plants, very high temperature, provided it be accompanied by bright sunshine, may be employed with great advantage ; but it is necessary that the glass of his house should.be of good quality, and that his plants be placed near it, and be abundantly sup- plied with sand and water." In the above case liquid-manure was employed. It is added, ^2926. My house contains a few pine-apple plants ; in the treatment of which I have deviated somewhat widely from the common practice; and I think with the best effects, for their growth has been exceed- ingly rapid, and a great many gardeners, who have come to see them, have unanimously pronounced them more perfect than any which they had previously seen. But many of the gardeners think that my mode of management will not succeed in winter, and that my plants will become unhealthy, if they do not perish in that season ; and as some of them have had much experience, and I very little, I wish, at present, to decline saying more relative to the culture of that plant. (Hort. Trans, iii. 465.) The above information, the result of Knight's experiments in 1819, was communicated to the Horticultural Society in the autumn of that year. On the 7th of March following, a paper was read to the Society on the same plants, of which the following is a transcript : 2927. Of those gardeners who doubted whether the plants would stand the winter, it is stated, The same gardeners have since frequently visited my hot-house, and they have unanimously pronounced my plants more healthy and vigorous than any they had previously seen : and they are all, I have good reason to believe, zealous converts to my mode of culture. I had long been much dissatisfied with the manner in which the pine-apple plant is usually treated, and very much disposed to believe the bark-bed, as Kent has stated (Hort. Trans, iii. 288.), " worse than useless," subsequent to the emission of roots by the crowns or suckers. I therefore resolved to make a few experiments upon the culture of that plant ; but as I had not at that period, the beginning of October, any hot-house, I deferred obtaining plants till the following spring. My hot-house was not completed till the second week in June (1819), at which period I began my experiment upon nine plants, which had been but very ill preserved through the preceding winter by the gardener of one of my friends, with very inadequate means, and in a very inhospitable climate. These, at this period, were not larger plants than some which I have subsequently raised from small crowns, (three having been afforded by one fruit,) planted in the middle of August, were in the end of December last ; but they are now beginning to blossom, and in the opinion of every gardener who has seen them, promise fruit of great size and perfection. They are all of the variety known by the name of Ripley's queen pine. 2928. Upon the introduction of my pine-plants into the hot-house, the mode of management, which it is the object of the present communication to describe, commenced. They were put into pots of somewhat more than a foot in diameter, in a compost made of thin green turf, recently taken from a river-side, chopped very small, and pressed closely, whilst wet, into the pots ; a circular piece of the same material, of about an inch in thickness, having been inverted, unbroken, to occupy the bottom of each pot This substance, so applied, I have always found to afford the most efficient means for draining off superfluous water, and subsequently of facilitating the removal of a plant from one pot to another, without loss of roots. The surface of the reduced turf was covered with a layer of vegetable mould obtained from decayed leaves, and of sandy loam, to prevent the growth of the grass roots. The pots were then placed to stand upon brick piers, near the glass ; and the piers being formed of loose bricks (without mortar), were capable of being reduced as the height of the plants increased. The temperature of the house was generally raised in hot and bright days, chiefly by confined solar heat, from 95 to 105 degrees, and some- times to 110 degrees, no air being ever given till the temperature of the house exceeded 95 degrees ; and the escape of heated air was then only in a slight degree permitted. In the night, the temperature of the house generally sunk to 70 degrees, or somewhat lower. At this period, and through the months of July and August, a sufficient quantity of pigeons' dung was steeped in the water, which was given to the pine-plants, to raise its color nearly to that of porter, and with this they were usually supplied twice a-day in very hot weather ; the mould in the pots being kept constantly very damp, or what gardeners would generally call wet. In the evenings, after very hot days, the plants were often sprinkled with clear water, of the temperature of the external air ; but this was never repeated till all the remains of the last sprink- ling had disappeared from the axillae of the leaves. It is, I believe, almost a general custom with gardeners, to give their pine-plants larger pots in autumn, and this mode of practice is approved by Baldwin. (Cult, of Anan. 16.) I nevertheless cannot avoid thinking it wrong; for the plants, at this period, and subsequently, owing to want of light, can generate a small quantity only of new sap ; and con- sequently, the matter which composes the new roots, that the plant will be excited to emit into the fresh mould, must be drawn chiefly from the same reservoir, which is to supply the blossom and fruit : and I have found, that transplanting fruit-trees, in autumn, into larger pots, has rendered their next year's produce of fruit smaller in size, and later in maturity. I therefore would not remove my pine-plants into larger pots, although those in which they grow are considerably too small. As the length of the days diminished, and the plants received less light, their ability to digest food diminished. Less food was in consequence dissolved in the water, which was also given with a more sparing hand ; and as winter ap- proached water only was given, and in email quantities. BOOK I. IMPROVEMENTS IN PINE-APPLE CULTURE. 539 2929. During the months of November and December, the temperature of the house was generally little above 50 degrees, and sometimes as low as 48 degrees, and once so low as 40 degrees. Most gardeners would, I believe, have been alarmed for the safety of their plants at this temperature ; but the pine is a much hardier plant than it is usually supposed to be ; and I exposed one young plant in December to a temperature of 32 degrees, by which it did not appear to sustain any injury. I have also been subsequently informed by one of my friends, Sir Harford Jones, who has had most ample opportunities of observing, that he has frequently seen, in the East, the pine-apple growing in the open air, where the surface of the ground, early in the mornings, showed unequivocal marks of a slight degree of frost 2930. My plants remained nearly torpid, and without growth, during the latter part of November, and in the whole of December ; but they began to grow early in January, although the temperature of the house rarely reached 60 degrees ; and about the 20th of that month, the blossom, or rather the future fruit, of the earliest plant, became visible; and subsequently to that period their growth has appeared very ex- traordinary to gardeners who had never seen pine-plants growing, except in a bark-bed or other hot-bed. I believe this rapidity of growth, in rather low temperature, may be traced to the more excitable state of their roots, owing to their having.passed the winter in a very low temperature comparatively with that of a bark-bed. The plants are now supplied with water in moderate quantities, and holding in solution a less quantity of food than was given them in summer. 2931. In planting suckers, I have, in several instances, left the stems and roots of the old plant remaining attached to them ; and these have made a much more rapid progress than others. One strong sucker was thus planted in a large pot upon the 20th of July (1819), and that is (March 1820) beginning to show fruit. Its stem is thick enough to produce a very large fruit ; but its leaves are short, though broad and numer- ous ; and the gardeners who have seen it, all appear wholly at a loss to conjecture what will be the value of its produce. In other cases, in which I retained the old stems and roots, I selected small and late suckers, and these have afforded me the most perfect plants I have ever seen ; and they do not exhibit any symp- toms of disposition to fruit prematurely. I am, however, still ignorant whether any advantage will be ultimately obtained by this mode of treating the queen pine : but I believe it will be found applicable with much advantage in the culture of those varieties of the pine, which do not usually bear fruit till the plants are three or four years old. 2932. Some remarks are next made upon the facility of managing pines in the manner recommended, and upon the necessary amount of the expense. " My gardener is an extremely simple laborer, he does not know a letter or a figure ; and he never saw a pine-plant growing, till he saw those of which he has the care. If I were absent, he would not know at what period of maturity to cut the fruit ; but in every other respect he knows how to manage the plants as well as I do ; and I could teach any other moderately intelligent and attentive laborer, in one month, to manage them just as well as he can : in short, I do not think the skill ne- cessary to raise a pine-apple, according to the mode of culture I recommend, is as great as that requisite to raise a forced crop of potatoes. The expense of fuel for my hot-house, which is forty feet long, by twelve wide, is rather less than sevenpence a day here, where I am twelve miles distant from coal-pits : and if I possessed the advantages of a curved iron-roof, such as those erected by Loudon, at Bayswater, which would prevent the too rapid escape of heated air in cold weather, I entertain no doubt, that the ex- pense of heating a house forty-five feet long, and ten wide, and capable of holding eighty fruiting pine- plants, exclusive of grapes or other fruits upon the back wall, would not exceed fourpence a-day. A roof of properly curved iron bars, appears to me also to present many other advantages : it may be erected at much less cost, it is much more durable, it requires much less expense to paint it, and it admits greatly more light." (Hart. Trans, iv. 72.) The president has since (in June, 1820) had such a house as he has hinted at erected, and roofed with our bar ; and in a long paper (Hort. Trans, iv. 543.) read in November, 1821, and two others (Hort. Trans, v. 142. 227.) he has given some account of it, and of his experience in pine-apple culture. The first paper is quoted at length in The different modes of cultivating the pine-apple from its first introduction to Europe, to the improvements of T. A. Knight, in 1822, (a work which should be in the hands of every pine grower,) and the following remarks are from that work : 2933. To draw any conclusions in the present stage of Knight's experiments would be premature, and might excite prejudice to anticipate the final result. That the pine-plant will grow and thrive, with- out what is technically called bottom heat, is an obvious truth, since no plant in a state of nature is found growing in soil warmer than that of the superincumbent atmosphere. But to imitate nature, is not always the best mode of culture ; for the more correct the imitation, the less valuable would be the greater part of her products, at least as far as horticulture is concerned. What would our celery, cabbage, and apples be, if their culture were copied from nature ? Though the pine-apple will grow well without bottom heat it may grow with bottom heat still better ; and though the heat of the earth, in its native country, may never exceed that of the surrounding atmosphere, it does not follow that earth heated to a greater degree may not be of service to it, in a state of artificial culture. But admitting for the sake of argument, that the pine-plant could be grown equally well with, as without bottom heat; still it appears to us that the mass of material which furnishes this heat, will always be a most desirable thing to have in a pine-stove, as being a perpetual fund of heat for supplying the atmosphere of the house in case of accident to the flues or steam-apparatus. Besides it appears from nature, as well as from observing what takes place in culture, that the want of a steady temperature and degree of moisture at the roots of plants is more immediately and powerfully injurious to them than atmospheric changes. Earth, especially if rendered porous and sponge-like by culture, receives and gives out air and heat slowly ; and while the temperature of the air of a country, or a hot-house, may vary twenty or thirty degrees in the course of twenty-four hours, the soil at the depth of two inches would hardly be found to have varied one degree. With respect to moisture, every cultivator knows, that in a properly constituted and regularly pulverised soil, whatever quantity of rain may fall on the surface, the soil is never saturated with water, nor, in times of great drought, burnt up with heat. The porous texture of the soil, and sub-soil, being at once favorable for the escape of super- fluous water, and adverse to its evaporation, by never becoming so much heated on the surface, or con- ducting the heat so far downwards as a close compact soil. These properties of the soil relatively to plants can never be completely attained by growing plants in pots, and least of all by growing them in pots sur- rounded by air. In this state, whatever may be the care of the gardener, a continual succession of changes of temperature will take place in the outside of the pot, and the compact material ot which it is composed being a much more rapid conductor of heat than porous earth, it will soon be communicated to the web of roots within. With respect to water, a plant in a pot surrounded by air is equally liable to injury. If the soil be properly constituted, and the pot properly drained, the water passes through the mass as soon as poured on it, and the soil at that moment may be said to be left in a state favorable for vegetation. But as the evaporation from the surface and sides of the pot, and the transpiration of the plant goes on, it be- comes gradually less and less so, and if not soon resupplied, would become dry and shrivelled, and either die from that cause, or be materially injured by the sudden and copious application of water. Thus the roots of a plant in a pot surrounded by air, are liable to be alternately chilled and scorched by cold or heat, and deluged or dried up by superabundance or deficiency of water, and nothing but the perpetual care and attention of the gardener, to lessen the tendencies to these extremes, could at all preserve the plant from destruction. To lessen the attention of the gardener, therefore, to render the plant less dependent on his ser- vices, and, above all, to put a plant in a pot as far as possible on a footing with a plant in the unconfined soil, plunging the pot in a mass of earth, sand, dung, tan, or any such material, appears to us a most judicious part of culture, and one that never can be relinquished in fruit-bearing plants with impunity. Even if no ver can be relinquished j mass in which the poL . _ temperature which would always equal the average temperature of the air ot the house, and the re- heat were to be afforded by the mass in which the pots were plunged, still the preservation of a steady average temperature of the air ot the house, 540 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. tention, by the same means, of the steady degree of moisture, would, in our opinion, be a sufficient argu- ment for plunging pots of vigorous-growing, many-leaved, or fruit-bearing plants. 2934. Had Knight's plan been brought forward by a less eminent horticulturist, it would have claimed but little attention, as the plan of growing pines without bottom heat, is generally considered to have been tried, first by M. Le Cour, and subsequently by various others, and abandoned. In Knight's hands, however, whether it fail or suc- ceed, it is certain of doing good, by the observations it will elicit from the fertile and ingenious mind of so candid and philosophical a horticulturist. (The different Modes, &c. p. 170.) 2935. Estimate of Knight's efforts as to the culture of the pine-apple. Knight's two subsequent papers contain merely incidental observations of little consequence ; but in so far as they go, rather adverse than otherwise, both to the plan of house, as well as the mode of culture. On the whole, it may safely be asserted that no light has been thrown on the culture of the pine-apple by this eminent horticulturist, notwithstanding his assertions respecting the great facility of its culture by the most ignorant laborer ; that the culture in the bark-bed, or other hot-bed, if the pots be plunged into it, is worse than useless (Hort. Trans, iv. 544. ) ; and that every one of a very great number of gardeners who visited the garden, declared himself a zealots convert. (Ib. 545). The truth is, Knight commenced his operations a perfect novice in that depart- ment of gardening ; and it is most curious to observe, from his own accounts, that he has only succeeded in so far as he has approached to the modes in common use. Very large pots were adopted (Hort. Trans. \. 144.), which served as an approach to plunging smaller pots in a mass calculated to preserve a uniform degree of moisture : a house with a fixed roof is found less suitable for ventilation than one with sliding sashes (Hort. Trans, v. 287-8-9.) ; and this circumstance, and that of the iron bars admitting so much light, render the risk of over-heating such, that it was " thought best" to be " provided with a net" to shade in hot weather. In short, notwithstanding the " many converts" among the " practical gardeners," and the confident assertions in the communications to the Horticultural Society, the failure may be considered as not only complete, but as having been attended by nothing useful or new on the subject. It is but rendering justice to practical gardeners to state this freely ; and Knight is too sensible a man to be offended at us for having done so. We, therefore, recommend all those who wish to grow the pine-apple in the first style of excellence, and at a moderate expense, to adopt the pits and houses of Baldwin, Aiton, or Scott ; and to imitate their practice, or that of M'Phail and Griffin. See the useful treatise above (2932. ) referred to for more minute details. 2936. The mode of employing the vigor remaining in the old stock or plant after the fruit is cut, to nourish, for a certain time, the sucker or suckers which may be growing on it, was prac- tised by Speechly ; but scarcely to the extent to which it has been carried lately. This we think, a considerable improvement, if kept within certain limits ; but, if carried too far, what might be gained by the sucker coming earlier into fruit, would be lost by the retardation of its own suckers. 2937. A queen pine, grown by Peter Marsland, of Woodbank, near Stockport, was exhibited to the Horticultural Society, on Nov. 3. 1818. " It weighed three pounds fourteen ounces, measured seven- teen inches in circumference, and was peculiarly well-flavored. The singularity of this pine was its being the produce of a sucker which had been removed from the parent root only six months previous to the time the fruit was cut The plant on which the sucker grew had produced a fruit, which was cut in October, 1817 ; the old stem, with the sucker attached, was allowed to remain in the pine-pit till May, 1818 ; at that time the sucker was broken off, potted, and plunged into a fresh pit ; it soon after showed fruit, which, in the course of four months, attained to the weight and size above stated. P. Marsland is in the practice of producing pines in this way with equal success and expedition. His houses are all heated by steam," (Hort. Trans, iv. 52.) 2938. Specimens of the New Providence, globe, black Antigua, and Enville, were exhibited on the 17th of October, 1819, all which were produced in a similar manner to the above. P. Marsland considers, that " though not of the largest description, yet as far as beauty of form and richness of flavor are concerned, they would not yield to fruit of more protra*ted growth." The success which has attended this gentle- man's mode of " treating the pine, so as to ensure the production of fruit within twelve months from the cutting of their previous produce, has been perfectly satisfactory ;" and the following is his account of it " In November, 1819, as soon as the fruit had been cut from the pine-plants, which were then two years old, all the leaves were stripped off the old stocks, nothing being left but a single sucker on each, and that the strongest on the plant ; they were then placed in a house where the heat was about sixty degrees, and they remained till March, 1820. At this period the suckers were broken off from the old stocks, and planted in pots from eight to twelve inches in diameter, varying according to the size of the sucker. It may be proper, however, to observe, that the length of time which the young sucker is allowed to remain attached to the mother plant, depends in some degree upon the kind of pine : the tardy fruiters, such as the black Antigua, and others, require to be left longer than the queen, and those which fruit readily. After the suckers had been planted, they were removed from the house, where they had remained while on the old stock, to one in which the temperature was raised to seventy-five degrees. Immediately upon their striking root, the largest of the suckers showed fruit, which swelled well, and ripened between August and November, being, on the average, ten months from the time the fruit was cut from the old plant, and seven months from the time the sucker was planted. The fruit so produced, though, as may be expected, not of the largest description, I have invariably found to be richer and higher flavored than that grown on older plants. The suckers of inferior strength will not show fruit in the same season, but in the following they will yield good fruit, and strong suckers for a succeeding year's supply. Those suckers are to be preferred which are produced on plants that have ripened their fruit in November, for those taken from plants whose fruit is cut in August or earlier, are apt to show fruit in January, or BOOK I. CULTURE OF THE VINERY. 541 February, while yet remaining on the mother plant. But whenever this happens, the sucker should be broken off immediately upon being perceived, and planted in a pot so as to form a root of its own to maintain its fruit." (Hort. Trans, iv. 392.) 2939. This experiment shows what can be done ; though it must be obvious that a considerable pan of the saying in time is lost by the small size of the fruit. Baldwin, in our opinion, has hit on the proper use of this mode, the principle of which, as already observed, consists in the employment of the otherwise lost vigor of the old stock. He contrives to produce tolerably sized fruit, and to have such a degree of vigor in his suckers, as that they are able, in their turn, to throw out other vigorous suckers to succeed them In aid of this, he often earths up the old stock, so as to cover the lower end of the sucker : and partially wrenching it off, he, by these means, obtains for it a good stock of roots before he renders it an in- dependent plant. SECT. II. Of the Culture of the Vinery. 2940. On the culture of so important a fruit as the grape, it is not surprising that there- should be a great variety of opinions. Without quoting those of the earlier, and of foreign authors, neither of which are of much value as to the hot-house culture of this plant, we shall give those of the best modern British gardeners ; on the general modes of culture adopted in ordinary vineries ; in regard to particular modes of culture ; as to gathering and preserving the fruit j and as to insects and diseases. SUBSECT. 1. Of the General Culture of the Grape in Vineries. 2941. The culture of the grape in ordinary vineries embraces the subject of soil, sort of grapes, sort of plants, pruning, training, bleeding of the shoot, culture of the borders, time of beginning to force, temperature, air, water, ripening and resting of the wood. 2942. Soil. The kind of compost Speechly made use of for the vine border of the hot- hcuse at Welbeck, was as follows, viz. " One fourth part of garden mould (a strong lo; m) ; one fourth of the swarth or turf, from a pasture where the soil is a sandy loam ; one fourth of the sweepings and scrapings of pavements and hard roads; one eighth of rotten cow and stable-yard dung, mixed ; and one eighth of vegetable mould from reduced and decayed oak-leaves. The swarth or sward should be laid on a heap, till the grass roots are in a state of decay, and then turned over and broken with a spade ; then put it to the other materials, and work the whole well together." (TV. on Vine, p. 25.) Speechly covers his vine border with a coat of gravel two inches thick. 2943. Abercrombie says, " materials and proportions of a good compost are of top-spit sandy loam from an upland pasture, one third part; unexhausted brown loam from a garden, one fourth part ; scrapings of roads, free from clay, and repaired with gravel or slate, one sixth part ; vegetable mould, or old tan reduced to earth, or rotten stable-dung, one eighth part; shell-marl or mild lime, one twelfth part." The borders he recommends to be from three to five feet in depth, and, where practicable, not less than four feet wide in surface within the house, communicating with a border outside the building, of not less than ten feet wide. 2944. M'Phail directs as follows : " To make a suitable border where it is required for the grape-vine, provide a large quantity of earth of a loamy nature ; that from arable land, or from a ridge in which a hedge-row of hazel, maple, elm, &c. have grown many years, and have been grubbed, is good ; or a spit deep from the surface of a common, long pastured ; or from the head or end lands of a corn-field ; either of these will do very well." For forcing early, he adds, " vines do best in a strong deep loam, not destitute of a mixture of sand, and well manured with rotten dung, on a dry bottom of hard clay." 2945. Nicol, after premising that the bottom of the border is to be made perfectly dry by draining and paving, says, " the average depth of the border should not be less than a yard. If four feet, so much the better. It is not easy to say how broad it should be ; but it should not be narrower, outside and inside of the house taken together, than thirty feet. The soil should be thus composed : one half strong hazelly loam, one fourth light sandy earth, an eighth part vegetable mould of decayed tree-leaves, and an eighth part rotten dung ; to which may very properly be added, a moderate quantity of lime, or of shell-marl. These articles should be perfectly decomposed, and intimately mixed, before planting." 2946. Griffin, who has received the medal of the Horticultural Society for his skill in cultivating grapes at Woodhall, in Hertfordshire, forms his vine borders as follows : After being completely drained, the whole bottom is covered with brick, stone, or lime rubbish, about six inches thick, and on this is laid a compost of " half good loamy soil with its turf, one quarter of rich solid old dung, and one quarter of brick and lime rubbish ; the turf well rotted, and the whole well incorporated." (Hort. Trans, vol. iv. p. 100.) 2947. Judd uses half of rich gritty loam from a common ; a quarter of rich old dung ; and a quarter of lime rubbish, tan, and leaf mould, mixed together. These materials were kept separate, and frequently turned during winter, and when afterwards well mixed were not sifted, but laid on a prepared bottom to the depth of three feet. He says he does not use so much dung as is usually done, because, though the vine will bear an extraordinary quantity of manure, yet its growth is thereby retarded, especially when young. He recommends the addition of old tan, from having experienced (with Speechly, Afitchell, and others) that the vine will root in that more freely than in any other substance. (Hort. Trans. vol. iv. p. 4.) 2948. Sort of grapes. In the horticultural catalogue will be found a description of the best sorts of grapes for forcing, or the open wall, from which a selection may be made, according to the taste of the party. 2949. For a mere glass case, in which the fruit is to be ripened by the heat of the sun, the following, which are the hardiest sorts, will succeed best, viz. white muscadine, white sweetwater, black sweetwater, black Hamburgh, large black cluster, black July, miller grape, and black St. Peter's. 2950. For a small house to be forced, or to which fire-heat is to be applied in spring and autumn, the following sorts are what experienced gardeners recommend, as sure bearers and high-flavored grapes : black and red Hamburgh, black and grizzly Frontignac, black prince, white muscat of Alexandria, Sitwel's white sweetwater, and early white Teneriffe. 2951. M'P/iail, for general forcing, recommends, as the best sorts of grape-vines for forcing, the black 542 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. Hamburgh, rod Frontignac, black prince, black muscadel, red Lombanly, royal muscadine, white muscadine, white Frontignac, white muscat, white sweetwater, white muscadel, and white Syrian." (tianl. lion. p. 77.) 2952. Nicol, for general forcing, names twenty-four sorts, as under, marking those he esteems the best with an asterisk (*). While Grape*. I Black Grapes. I Red Grapes. *Sweetwater,*muscaf)> a P art of ld barren wood (e~), and a spur for producing a young shoot the following year (A). In the fourth summer a full crop is produced both in the upper and lower half of the house ; the longer shoot bearing on the upper half of its length, and the shorter on its whole length ; a leading shoot is produced from the short shoot, and another from the spur. In the pruning season of the fourth year, the centre shoot is entirely removed, and re- placed by the side shoot (i), now the whole length of the roof, and this side shoot is in its turn supplanted by the shoot (k) from the spur, while a spur (I) is prepared to suc- ceed it. This constitutes one rotation or period of the system of Mearns, which he has followed since 1806, attended by abundant crops of large-sized bunches ; and he con- siders it may be continued for any length of time. (Hort. Trans, iv. 246.) 2986. In the garden of Marie Leerne, at Ghent, the vines are planted in front, on the outside of the house. Every year a new set of wood is taken into the vinery : the wood produced this year, is trained upright on an exterior trellis, and is next season laid down to a sloping trellis, and made to yield its fruit within the house. The wood which has once been forced is cut entirely out, and, from the same roots, new upright shoots are annually required ; but unfortunately for the success of this plan these shoots do not always ripen. (Hort. Tour. 62.) 2987. Summer jmining. This depends generally on the necessity of admitting light and air to the fruit and young wood ; and particularly on the sort of winter pruning to be adopted. " The gardener, therefore," as Nicol observes, " must have a predesti- nating eye to the following season." " Whatever methods of pruning are used," M'Phail remarks, " the grape-vine, through the whole course of the growing season, requires constant attendance, so as not to suffer the plant to be crowded in any part with superfluous shoots or leaves, and no more fruit ought to be suffered to swell on the plant than it is well able to bring to perfection. The berries also on each bunch should be thinned, so that they may have room to swell, without pressing too hard upon each other." 2988. Abercrombie and WPhaU agree in directing, that " as the shoots of newly planted vines advance, they must be kept regularly fastened to the rafters. Divest them of their wires, and also take off their laterals as they appear. The vines in general may be permitted to run twenty feet, and the most vigorous thirty- five feet, before they are stopped, if the rafters extend so far. Sometimes a vigorous shoot, having ex- tended the width of the house, is conducted either in a returning direction down a contiguous rafter, or laterally along the top of the stove, as may be most convenient. Stop the shoots by pinching off their tops. After they have been stopped, they usually send out laterals from three or four of the upper eyes. If these laterals are at once taken off, the sap will be merely diverted to the lower part of the shoot ; permit them, therefore, to proceed about twelve inches, and then pinch off their tops. These shortened laterals will, in their turn, send out others, which should be stopped at the second joint." 2989. In the second season, " as soon as the shoots are half a span long, the rudiments of the bunches will be perceptible. The bunch is produced on the naked side of the shoot, opposite the leaf-bud. Having ascertained the most promising shoots, divest the vines of supernumerary branches as they rise. Fruitful laterals will sometimes show two or three bunches at each eye ; and this is apt to tempt the pruner to retain too many. On the leading shoot, retain of the best laterals, to the right and left, a number pro- BOOK I. CULTURE OF THE VINERY. 549 portioned to the vigor and age of the plant : one on each side, as near the bottom as it offers, with a second, third, fourth, up to seven, at the distance of three feet, if the plant is in its fourth summer, but only five, at the distance of four feet, if this be the third summer since the plant was struck. Train the shoots reserved on each side the rafter, tying them to the trellis with strands of matting. Leave on each branch two bunches, or a single bunch ; according as the plant is in the fourth or third season from its origin : pinch oft* the others. Afterwards stop the bearing laterals at the second joint above the fruit. Hub off water-shoots from the older wood. Pinch off inferior laterals and tendrils." 2990. Nicol observes that most of the summer pruning of vines may be performed with the fingers, with- out a knife, " the shoots to be displaced being easily rubbed off, and those to be shortened, being brittle, are readily pinched asunder." After selecting the shoots to be trained for the production of a crop next season, and others necessary for filling the trellis from the bottom, which shoots should generally be laid in at the distance of a foot or fifteen inches from each other, rub off all the others that have no clus- ters, and shorten those that have at one joint above the uppermost cluster. For this purpose, go over the plants every three or four days, till all the shoots in fruit have shown their clusters ; at the same time rubbing off any water-shoots that may rise from the old wood. 2991. Train in the shoots to be retained, as they advance ; using strands of fresh matting, and allowing sufficient room in the ties for the swelling of the shoots. Likewise pinch off all laterals and tendrils, every time you go over the plants, as these only tend to confusion, and take greatly from the strength of the clusters. 2992. If there be an under trellis, on which to train the summer shoots, they may, when six or eight feet in length, or when the grapes are swelling, be let down to it, that the fruit may enjoy the full air and light, as it advances towards maturity. Such of these shoots as issue from the bottom, and are to be shortened in the winter pruning to a few eyes, merely for the production of wood to fill the trellis, may be stopped when they have grown to the length of four or five feet. Others that are intended to be cut down to about two yards, and which issue at different heights, may be stopped when they have run three yards or ten feet, less or more, according to their strength. And those intended to be cut at, or near to, the top of the house, should be trained a yard or two down the back wall (a trellis being placed against it purposely) ; or they may be run right or left a few feet on the uppermost wire. 2993. In order to be a good trainer of vines, and be able to provide for a crop the following season, a man must have some forethought, and be capable of making his selections, as the plants shoot, even at this distance of time. He must predetermine how he shall prune, and where he shall cut, at the end of the season ; and so, as it were, fashion the plants to his mind. He has this more effectually in his power, with respect to the vine, than any other fruit-tree, on account of its rapid growth and docility. 2994. The stubs, or short shoots, on which the clusters are placed, will probably push again after being stopped, if the plants be vigorous. If so, stop them again and again ; but after the fruit are half grown, they will seldom spring. Observe to divest the. shoots, in training, of all laterals as they appear, except the uppermost on each ; in order to provide against accidents, as hinted at above, in training the new- planted vines. When these shoots are stopped, as directed above, they will push again. Allow the lateral that pushes to run a few joints, and then shorten it back to one ; and so on, as it pushes, until it stop entirely. When the proper shoot gets ripened nearly to the top, the whole may be cut back to the origi- nally shortened part, or to one joint above it, if there be reason to fear that the uppermost bud of the pro- per shoot will start. 2995. Divest the plants of all damped or decayed leaves, as they appear, as such will sometimes occur in continued hazy weather ; and some may be bruised by the glass, in moving the sashes for the admission of air, or by other accidents. 2996. Hat/ward, in the summer prunings, takes off all collaterals as they arise, and any shoots which, though laid in for fruit, turn out unproductive, that the whole strength of the tree may be properly ap- plied. (Hort. Trans, vol. i. 172.) 2997. Mearns in his summer pruning stops the bearing branches at the bunch, instead of the next joint above it, which is the usual practice ; " for I found that the fruit did equally well, and it divested the branch of an incumbrance, while it allowed a much larger portion of light to come into the house, together with a more free circulation of air among the fruit and young wood. I blind all the eyes on each fruit- spur as soon as they push, except the uppermost, which I retain, to draw up the sap to nourish the fniit : I never suffer them to push above a joint or two before I pinch them back, always cautiously retaining an eye, and am particularly cautious that nothing should happen to injure the leaf that accompanies the bunch, for if that is lost, the fruit of course will come to nothing." (Hort. Trans, iv. 255.) 2998. Thinning the leaves and fruit. " Every one of penetration and discernment," Nicol observes, " will admit the utility of thinning the berries on bunches of grapes, in order that they may have room to swell fully ; and further, that of supporting the shoulders of such clusters of the large-growing kinds as hang loosely, and require to be suspended to the trellis or branches, in order to prevent the bad effects of damp or mouldiness in over-moist seasons. Of these, the Hamburgh, Lombardy, royal mus- cadine, raisin, St. Peter's, Syrian, Tokay, and others, should have their shoulders sus- pended to the trellis, or to the branches, by strands of fresh matting, when the berries are about the size of garden-peas. At the same time, the clusters should be regularly thinned out, with narrow pointed scissors, to the extent of from a fourth to a third part of the berries. The other close-growing kinds, as the Frontignacs, muscats, &c., should likewise be moderately thinned; observing to thin out the small seedless ber- ries only of the muscadine, sweetwater, and flame-colored Tokay. In this manner, handsome bunches and full-swelled berries may be obtained ; but more so, if the clus- ters on over-burdened plants be also moderately thinned away. Indeed, cutting off the clusters, to a certain extent, of plants over-loaded and pushing weak wood, is the only means by which to cause them to produce shoots fit to bear fruit next year ; and this should be duly attended to, so long as the future welfare of the plants is a matter of importance." 2999. Remedies for bleeding. " If the pruning has been timely, the vine is not liable to bleed. When the sap rises before the wound is healed, bleeding ensues, and is not easily stopped. This retards the plant ; and, out of doors, the loss of a few days is, in some seasons, irreparable : but in other respects, the consequences of bleeding are not so disastrous as many seem to apprehend; and a gardener is sometimes surprised by a subsequent crop of uncommon goodness. Innumerable remedies for bleeding have been proposed : the following rank among the best Sear the place, and cover it with Nn 3 550 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. melted wax, or with warm pitch spread upon a piece of bladder, or peel off the outside bark to some distance from the place ; and then press into the pores of the wood a composition of pounded chalk and tar, mixed to the consistence of putty." (Abercrombie. ) 3000. Nicol's remedy. Vines " will bleed in autumn, as well as in spring, though not so copiously at the former season. The best preventative is timeous or early pruning in spring ; and not pruning till the wood is thoroughly ripe in autumn. Plants that have been pruned too late in the spring, and forced too soon afterwards (a great mistake), will bleed, and the best remedy I know of is searing the end of the shoots by a hot poker, or rod of iron, in order to dry it, and then to apply hot wax." 3001. Svaitzer, to stop bleeding, opens a hole at the roots with a spade, and pours in a few pailfuls of cold water, which he says will have a sure and immediate effect. As this must be by chilling the roots and weakening the vital functions, it seems questionable whether the remedy may not be worse than the disease. 3002. Speechly's remedy for bleeding is to peel off or divest that part of the branch adjoining the wound'of all the outside bark ; then with a sponge dry up the moisture, and immediately wrapt round the wounded part a piece of an ox's bladder, spread over with tar, or pitch made warm, in the manner of a plaster. Then tie the whole securely with a strong thread, well rubbed with bees' wax. These must remain for three weeks or a month. (TV. on the Vine, 145.) 3003. Knight's remedy consists of four parts of scraped cheese to be added to one part of calcined oyster- shells, or other pure calcareous earth, and this composition pressed strongly into the pores of the wood. " This done," he says, " the sap will instantly cease to flow." (Hort, Trans, vol. i.) When the vine is in full leaf, it is not liable to bleed when cut ; therefore the largest branches may be cut off during the growing season with perfect safety. 3004. Stirring the soil, and culture of the borders. " The borders," Abercrombie observes, " should be kept at all times clear from weeds. In winter and spring, the surface of an open border should be turned with a three-pronged fork, not digging deep so as to injure the roots. The design is merely to revive the surface. When it is ne- cessary to recruit the soil, dig the exhausted part carefully up, and work in such a com- post as has been described under Soil, or similar. The dung out of a cow-house, per- fectly rotted, is a fine manure for the vine." He adds, " From the time the buds rise till the fruit is set, manure the border once in ten days, with the drainings of the dung- hill, poured over the roots of the plants." 3005. M'Phail recommends digging in rotten dung, and watering with dung-water from the melon-beds, or with that which has run from a dunghill in a state of fermentation. Forking over, and working a little short dung or compost, if thought necessary, is Nicol's preparation for the winter. A week or two pre- viously to commencing to force, say about the middle of January (forcing to begin the first of February), he directs the border to be pointed or forked over carefully ; and let it be watered all over with the drainings of the dunghill ; which repeat at the end of four or five days, and also again at a light interval ; giving as much as will sink down to the deepest-placed roots and fibres. The border on the outside should also be covered, or rather should already have been covered, to a good thickness, with stable-yard dung ; not, however, mere litter, but good fresh dung, the juices of which may be washed down to the benefit of the roots. The intention of this covering is to answer as a manure ; and also to keep severe frost from the roots, from the time the sap is put in motion, till the spring be so far advanced as that the plants shall sustain no injury. Previous to laying on the dung, the border should be pointed or forked over, that the juices may descend the more readily to the roots, and not be washed off. 3006. Speechly covered the vine-border m front of his hot-house with gravel ; the best gardeners do not crop them at all, or only with the most temporary crops of vegetables. 3007. Time of beginning to force. " The growing season of our climate," Aber- crombie remarks, '* does not last long enough to bring out, swell to full size, and per- fectly ripen, the fruit and summer shoots of the vine. Hence, when the artificial ex- citement, applied to this plant, begins just before the natural spring, and is continued till the leaves fall, the plant is beneficially assisted under a deficient climate rather than forced. The best time to begin to force is the first of March, if the object be simply to obtain grapes in perfection moderately early. In proportion as the start is accelerated before this, the habits of a deciduous plant, and the adverse state of the weather, leave a greater number of obstacles and discouraging contingencies to intercept final success. Managers, however, who work a number of houses, and who have to provide, as well as they can, against demands for grapes in early succession, begin to force about the 21st ' of December, and, successively, in other houses, the 1st of January, 1st of February, and so on. Attempts are even made, by bold speculators, to lay forward for a crop in March, by beginning to force in August, and getting the fruit set before November : but such labor and expense is often lost. The period of ripening is not early in pro- portion to the time of beginning : when the course of forcing coincides nearly with the natural growing season, ripe grapes may be cut in five months or less ; when short days compose a third part of the course r in about six months ; when the course includes full half the winter, it will last nearly seven months." 3008. M'Phail, in case grapes be not wanted very early, considers the month of February the best time to begin to force. On the subject of very early forcing, this author remarks : " On the supposition that the earliest crop of grapes was over by the end of June, and the glasses laid aside, or left open on the house day and night, you may, if it is desired to try to have grapes early in the spring, prune your vines in August, and put your house in order ; and if it is necessary to dig in manure about the roots and stems of the vines, let it be done. If your border be dry, give it a good watering ; and if with dung- water, at this time, it will help to enrich it. When this is done, draw on your glasses, and keep the air in the house to a moderate degree of heat, and your vines will afterwards shoot out, and if they are in a fit state for bearing, they will show fruit. If you have not plenty of vines in other houses to succeed these, it would not be advisable to begin to force at this season of the year, for there are several things that might reasonably be urged against the probability of the success of this attempt to ripen grapes early in the spring ; but it may succeed, and therefore, it is worth giving it a trial. By custom, the vines can be brought, as it were naturally, to shoot forth in the autumn, and their fruit may be set tefore the shortest days ; the greatest art will then, after that, be to preserve them through the dead of winter in BOOK I. CULTURE OF THE VINERY. 551 a lively growing state. This can be done only by much attention, in making gentle fires, and admitting an easy circulation of fresh air in the house every favorable opportunity " 3009. Nicol says, Those who have two or three grape-houses, generally begin to force the earliest by the first of the year, and sometimes even in November or December " 3010. In Holland, Speedily observes, "they begin to force the vines in November, in order to have ripe grapes in April, and sometimes they succeed in producing them by the end of March, in pretty good perfection." 3011. Griffin puts on the sashes and commences forcing early in January ; no fire is used the first week ; in the second week a little fire is made every other night ; the third week the heat is kept from 50 to 52o, but n ot allowed to exceed 55 till the vines begin to break ; from that time, until they blow, the heat is kept between 520 and 57 ; and whilst they are in bloom the heat is raised to between 57' and 65. " Air is regularly given plentifully through all these stages, until the bloom appears when the house is kept close, except the sun be very powerful. When the bloom is past attention is paid to thinning the grapes, a regular heat is then kept up, and air in due quantity, as the weather permits, is admitted, observing to give a larger proportion when the heat of the sun is strong, and always shutting up the house early in the afternoon." The crop so treated generally ripens in July. (Hart. Trans, iii. 106.) 3012. Care of outside stems. " At whatever season forcing commences, the stems of vines planted outside the house should be guarded from the stagnating effects of cold, by a bandage of hay, or moss and bass matting, round the bole, and a mulching of dry litter over the root. The excluded stems must be protected in the same way at the com- mencement of the forcing season. While the vines are young, it will also be advisable to cover the outside border, in winter, with strawy dung taken from the outside of old hot-beds." (Abercrombie.) 3013. Griffin keeps the stems of his vines inside the house moist, from the time of beginning to force till the bunches show themselves, by daily watering them with a syringe. This, he says, contributes materially to the production of vigorous shoots. Some gardeners wrap the stems round with moss, which they keep moist for two or three months, for the same purpose. In hard forcing, practices of this sort are particularly necessary. 3014. Temperature. " Begin," Abercrombie says, " at 50 min. 55 max. In a week, raise the minimum to 55, and the maximum to 60. Till the time of budding, the temperature should not exceed 60 from artificial heat, and 64 from collected sun- heat. After the buds are in full motion, it may be raised to 60 min. 64. max. from fire, and 68 from sun-heat. By the time the bloom expands, the lowest effect from the flues should be 66 : the highest may be 72 ; and when the sun's influence is strong, let it be accumulated, by confining the interchange of air to the ventilators, till the heat rise to 80. After the fruit is set, the minimum should be 75, and fresh air co- piously admitted." 3015. M'Phail says, in beginning and continuing to force the vine, " nature should be imitated, by 'in- creasing the heat as the days lengthen ; but it should be remembered, that to ripen the best sorts of grapes, they require as great a heat as the pine-apple does to ripen it in the summer ; for the vine has no artificial heat to its roots." 3016. Nicol's directions, supposing the forcing to commence on the first of February, are as follow : " Make the fires so moderate as that the thermometer may not pass 50, or at most 55, mornings and evenings, until every bud in the house have begun to spring. This is a point of very great importance in the forcing of grapes. If the forcing be commenced with a dash, as some fast-growing gardeners term it, and if a high temperature be kept up from the beginning, the chance is, that a third or fourth part of the buds will not push, and of course there will be a great falling off in the expected crop. After the whole of the shoots and buds are in an evident state of vegetation, the temperature may be gradually raised to 60, 65 Q , and 70, at which it may continue till the bloom begin to open. This rise from 50 to.70Q must not be sudden : it should not be effected in less time than a fortnight ; or, if the plants be not in a very strong state, three weeks, otherwise the shoots will push weakly." After the plants come into bloom, he directs the heat to be raised to 75. M'Phail and Abercrombie allow it to be a little higher " with the sun heat, and if there be air at the house. When the fruits are ripening, the air of the house ought to rise from 75 to 85, with sun-heat and plenty of air." (Pr. Gr.~) 3017. Mearns, in forcing the vine, considers it of the utmost importance to the bold breaking of the buds, and to the strength of the wood, not to force vines hard until the first leaves arrive nearly at their full size. " After that period," he says, " I give them a much less portion of air, suffering the sun to raise the thermometer to 90" 5 or 100 before I give any. There is no danger of drawing the wood after that stage of growth, and if the thermometer sinks at night to 60, the vines will do better in a higher temperature in the day." (Hort. Trans, iv. 254.) 3018. Air. Abercrombie directs this to be given pretty freely by the sashes till the leaves unfold. Before the foliage is fully made out, begin to keep the house close, ad- mitting air only by the ventilators ; and particularly observe to have a sultry, moist cli- mate while the blossom is coming out, and until it is off and the fruit set. While the fruit is swelling and ripening, the plants will want abundance of heat and air." (Pr. Gr. 651.) 3019. M'Phail recommends a little air to be given during a part of the day while the thermometer is above 65, and the sun shines in the winter months, and abundance in the summer season when the heat exceeds 75 or 80. 3020. Nicol, in beginning to force, admits air freely every day, by opening the sashes in the ordinary way, of the ventilators, until the blossom is over, and the fruit begin to set ; or at least until the season become m 3021. When grapes are setting, air need not be admitted so freely as before, grapes being found to set best in a high moist heat. " A moderate circulation by the ventilators will be sufficient for the purpose, except perhaps in clear sunshine ; when it may be necessary to open a few of the sashes at top, in order to let the rare- fied air escape, and keep the temperature within due bounds. Air is to be increased as the season and growth of the plants and fruit advance. When the fruit is ripening, it should be admitted more freely than here- N n 4 jj 2 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. tofore, in order to give the fruit flavor; for on this, and on the withholding of water, as advised above, that matter entire depends." (Kal.) 3022. A dry atmosphere for vines is strongly recommended by Williams (Hort. Trans, i.), because in it " the wood, though of slower growth, is more compact, and the fruit more saccharine. Hence vines grow- ing on the sides of mountains in the south of Europe, and in the dry warm province of La Mancha in Spain, yield richer grapes, and make stronger wine, than when cultivated in the neighboring valleys, where, however, they experience greater warmth, and the fruit arrives sooner at maturity. From the be- ginning of July till the middle of October, he generally leaves several of the upper lights of his vinery open about two or three inches all night" 3023. Watering and steaming. Abercrombie says, vines require a plentiful supply of water from the time the fruit is well set till it begins to color, particularly when the ber- ries become transparent at the last swelling. Withhold water entirely when the grapes approach maturity. 3024. M'Phail says, " If the vines be planted in the inside of the house, care should be taken to keep them sufficiently watered, and in dry weather, in the spring and summer, the border in the outside of the house in which the roots of the vines run, should get plentiful waterings. In order to keep the leaves and fruit clean, let the plants be washed occasionally with clean water, thrown on them by a tin squirt or en- gine, but take care that the decaying paint on the rafters be not washed down on the leaves and fruit, which would stain and hurt them. Should there be any danger of that, it will answer the purpose fully as well by filling the house full of steam now and then, by sprinkling water on the flues when they are warm." Alluding to the first stage of early forcing, the same author observes : " In some houses, the border, or part of the border in which the vine is planted, is in the inside of the house ; where that is the case, let it be watered and sprinkled now and then to keep it in a moist state. Water the flues sometimes when they are hot, which will produce a fine steam, very beneficial to the plants in promoting their growth, and in preventing them from being infested by the red spider. Steam, however, should not be used too copiously. If the border for the vines be in the house, or if there be plenty ?f plants in pots of earth in it, the evapor- ation arising from the moist earth is generally sufficient to moisten the air properly ; and besides, there is a continual draught of external air coming into the house among the plants ; and it is known that the common atmosphere contains moisture at all times, especially in cold weather, when the ground is full of rain from the clouds." In March, the fruit being set and swelling, he says, " Water the borders in the house, and sprinkle them and the flues now and then with sweet clean water. If this be attended to, and air given in fine days, the house will be kept in a sweet state. The vines may sometimes be watered all over; but if this kind of watering is practised, it should be done carefully; for I have seen grapes much hurt with the decaying paint having been driven from the rafters and other parts of the house on them, by the force of the water. If the paths, flues, and borders in the house be sprinkled and watered occa- sionally as I have directed, grape-vines will do without giving them water over their leaves and fruit, at this season of the year ; though I by no means disapprove of washing them well, now and then, all over, leaves and fruit : provided it be done with clean water, and no filth driven on them from any part of the house." From the time that grapes are swelled to a size that you can hardly perceive them to grow larger, till the black sorts begin to change color, and the white ones to appear of a more bright color than at an earlier period of their swelling, let the borders be watered plentifully, and the flues sprinkled now and then with clean water. The border outside the house may, probably, in the summer months, require a good watering now then. (G. Item.) 3025. Nicol, after the commencement of forcing, " has the border duly and freely refreshed with water, generally once in two or three days ; and if occasionally watered with the drainings of the dunghill, it would add much to the vigor of the plants. The branches should be watered once in two days by the en- gine, with a considerable degree of force, in order to keep the plants clean, and prevent the breeding of the red spider and thrips, which are often very troublesome in the grape-house." As vines advance in growth, " they must be liberally supplied with water. The vine, when in a free-growing state, requires more water than is generally imagined ; and many, very many gardeners, half ruin their plants, and very much injure their crops of fruit by withholding this element. I know some who do not give as much water to a vinery in a whole season as it ought to have in a month. But what is the consequence ? Wood as large as wheat- straw, and berries the size of garden-peas !" Increase the supplies of water with the advances of the season and growth of the plants. " As the fruit begin to color and swell off for ripening, the quantity of water, hitherto liberally given, must be lessened by degrees ; and, towards its coming to full maturity, must be entirely withheld, that it be not rendered insipid. The operations of the engine on the foliage must also cease ; but previously, be particularly severe, and be careful to scourge it well, that no vestige of the red spider be left. This is a matter of very great importance, and but too little attended to : and for want of taking this care, I have more than once seen a whole crop of grapes very much spoiled, and the berries ren- dered dirty, nauseous, and bitter." 3026. Ripening the wood. Abercrombie directs, " If the fruit be not off by the middle of August, the continuation of fine dry weather, or of the heat dependent on the natural climate, will hardly be sufficient to ripen the wood ; and therefore, as soon as the external air declines to 68, resume gentle fires, morning and evening, so as to keep the minimum temperature of the house to 70. The maximum need not exceed 75 in sunshine ; for fresh air should circulate at every proper opportunity. Proceed thus until the shoots of the season have ceased to grow, and turn brownish at bottom, and the leaves begin to, fall, indications that the wood is ripe, when the first and last are not caused by a deficiency of heat." He adds, " If the weather continues warm after the fruit is cut, take off the glass frames ; as the shoots will ripen the better under full exposure to it. In October, however, it will be advisable again to put on the frames, as well by shelter to assist the ripening of the wood, if that is not complete, as to protect the house from injury, when rough wintry weather may be expected." 3027. Nicol says, " If the lower part of the shoots be not, by the beginning of August, turning brownish, then it is advisable to apply a little fire-heat, in order to further the growth of the plants, and the perfec- tion of the wood. Some would put this matter off, perhaps another month ; but if the application of fire- heat be at all necessary, less trouble and expense for fuel will attend the process of ripening the shoots in September than in October. Another consideration is, that, as it were, you take up vegetation on the way, and hand her forward to the end of her journey, instead of allowing her to lag behind, and then forcibly push her on against her inclinations ; a matter of the very first consideration and importance in every species of horticulture. Let very moderate fires be made at first, increasing their strength as the season advances, and so as tor keep the temperature, mornings and evenings, at about 70. This should be con- tinued till the growth of the plants begin to stop, and till the part of the leading shoots whereat you would BOOK I. CULTURE OF THE VINERY. 553 cut, that is, about six or eight feet upwards, become brownish. The portions of air, hitherto freely ad. mitted, must be lessened by degrees, as the weather turns cooler ; and so as that, in sunshine, the mercury 460 gine to the latest ; not merely to subdue the enemy at present, but, as far as possible, to prevent his ap- pearance next campaign." 3028. Exposure and resting of the wood. " Some managers," Abercrombie observes, " leave the house quite exposed when the vines have done growing ; and whether it be covered or not, there should be constantly a circulation of air through it. Vines which have been exposed to the weather, or freely to the dry air, in a state of rest, when forced after a proper interval, generally break at almost every eye." The rest proper to a de- ciduous plant cannot be given to vines where the branches are kept subject to the influ- ence of a permanent heat after the leaves are fallen, as in the case of vines grown in pine or other stoves. The top of its stem, with its branches, must therefore be withdrawn from the house immediately after the fall of the leaf, to remain on the outside till it be proper again to force the plant. Abercrombie says, " the branches will require no cover- ing in this climate ;" but many gardeners lay them down, or tie them to stakes, and cover them with litter or mats. 3029. M'Phail says, " Some modern writers on gardening recommend that the glass frames of the grape-house be taken off the vines as soon as the vines are all cut ; and also to take the vine-plants out of hot-houses appropriated to the culture of the pine-apple when the grapes are over. This they tell us is to ripen the wood, and give the plants rest, &c. I do advise that the glass frames of grape-houses be suffered to remain over the vines all the year, excepting in July and August, and that grape-vines in hot-houses for the pine-apple should not be taken out to remain for any length of time at any season of the year. If fruit-trees ripen their fruit well, the wood for bearing the following year will be sufficiently matured; but the plants, whether they be the grape-vine, peach, &c. had best remain in that artificial climate made for them all the year, for though the fruit be over, the wood of the plant requires protection. As well," he adds, " might they expect the cherry-tree to blossom in September and October ; which months are some years warmer than the month of April, when the cherry-tree is in full blow, or that the Christmas- rose may be excited by summer heat to blossom in July or August. It is natural for the grape-vine to produce only one crop in the year ; and when it is accustomed to grow in a hot-house appropriated for the pine-apple, its nature is not changed ; nor will it offer to put forth its bud before January in hot-houses kept to a heat sufficient for growing the pine-apple, when the pine pots are plunged in a bed of warm tan." 3030. Knight, as we have seen (2185.), is highly favorable to putting the vine into a state of repose, as early as possible in the autumn preceding the season in which it is to be forced. 3031. Nicol, after the growing season, and when the wood is ripened, " exposes the house day and night, except in rain." After an autumn pruning, he shuts up the house for ten days or a fortnight, particu- larly if there be any appearance of frost ; admitting air freely through the day. The object in thus keeping the plants from the extremes of heat and cold, is, in or- der that their pores may contract, and their wounds-heal gradually ; as otherwise they are apt to bleed now, and to break out afresh on the application of fire-heat in the spring. When they are judged to be safe, expose the house night and day, as before. (Kal. 428.) 3032. S. Gallon describes a plan of exposing the branches of vines growing in a stove to the external air, without the necessity of suspending the forcing or heat in the stove, or of drawing the stems back through apertures by which they are introduced into the house. This was put in practice at Derby, in the garden of Joseph Strutt, of that town, where it has been in suc- cessful use, for above fifteen years. The foundation wall in front of the house is capped with a stone sill (fig. 460. a); the front upright lights(6)move on centre pins, and can be taken out from their places without disturbing the rafter- plate (c), or the uprights which support the plate ; these lights, when taken out, can be fixed by the lower ends to the inner side of the stone sill, the spaces of the uprights being filled by other pieces, whilst the tops are held by a board (d) longitudinally fixed to the rafter by hinges (ots, boxes, $c. until dung, by Wales. " Having given an account how to procure the spawn, which is the principal point, I shall next proceed to state how mushrooms are to be raised from the spawn with dung. I raise the mushrooms in boxes, hampers, or, in short, in any tiling which will hold the dung and the soil toge- ther. These boxes or vessels are placed in the back sheds of the hot-houses, or in any house whatever, where no damp nor frost can enter. There should be several boxes, a part only being filled at a time, so as to keep a rotation of them, and have mushrooms BOOK I. CULTURE OF THE MUSHROOM. 603 at all times ready for the table. I shall suppose three boxes to be filled at one time. Each box may be three feet long, one and a half broad, and seven inches in depth. Let each box be half filled with horse-dung from the stables (the fresher the better, and if wet, to be dried for three or four days before it be put in the boxes) ; the dung is to be well beat down in the boxes. After the second or third day, if any heat has arisen amongst the dung, it is then a fit time to spawn : break each spawn-brick into three parts as equal as possible ; then lay the pieces, about four inches apart, upon the surface of the dung in the box ; here they are to lie for six days, when it will probably be found, that the side of the spawn next to the dung has begun to run in the dung below ; then add one and a half inch of more fresh dung upon the top of the spawn in the box, and beat it down as formerly. In the course of a fortnight, the box will be ready to receive the mould on the top ; this mould must be two and a half inches deep, well beat down with the back of a spade, and the surface made quite even. But before the box be earthed over, it will be proper to take up a little of the dung, as far down as near the bottom of the box, to see if the spawn has run through the dung ; if not, let the box stand unearthed for some days longer, for, were it to be earthed before the spawn had run through the dung, there would be put a poor crop. In the space of five or six weeks the mushrooms will begin to come up ; if then the mould seems dry, give a gentle wa- tering, the water being slightly heated in any warm place before applied. This water- ing will make the mushrooms start freely, and of a large size. I cut three myself, which weighed 18^ oz. from a box treated as above. The boxes will continue to produce for six weeks, and I have had them productive sometimes for two months, if duly attended to, by giving a little water when dry, for they need neither light nor free air. I have had thirty-two pretty well-sized mushrooms in one cluster. If cut as button-mushrooms, each box will yield from six to twelve Scots pints (24 to 48 Eng. pints), according to the season and other circumstances. The plan now described, I prefer for yielding numbers of mushrooms, and where a great many are required ; but when reared without dung, they are best flavored. They are not then to be distinguished from those which grow naturally in the fields, but comparatively few are in this way produced. I have lately found it very useful to add to every three barrow-loads of horse-dung, one of per- fectly dry cow-dung, beat down to powder as it were, and well mixed among the horse- dung, after the horse-dung has lain under cover for four or five days to dry. The reason I tried the cow-dung dry was, that I still found the horse-dung to have a strong damp, after having lain in the boxes for some time ; but the cow-dung, when beat down to powder, has the effect to dry up this damp, and also to make the horse-dung lie in the box more compactly ; and the more it is pressed down, the finer the spawn will run amongst it." (Wales, in Caled. Hort. Mem.} 3443. Growing mushrooms, in pots, boxes, <$c. without dung. " Take a little straw, and lay it carefully in the bottom of the mushroom-box, about an inch thick, or rather more. Then take some of the spawn-bricks, and break them down, each brick into about ten pieces, and lay the fragments upon the straw, as close to each other as they will lie. Cover them up with mould, three and a half inches deep, and well pressed down. When the surface appears dry, give a little tepid water, as directed for the last way of raising them ; but this method needs about double the quantity of water that the former does, owing to having no moisture in the bottom, while the other has the dung. The mushrooms will begin to start in a month or five weeks, sometimes sooner, sometimes later, according to the heat of the place where the boxes are situated. They do not rise so thick nor of so large a size, nor do they continue to be produced so long, as in the other plan with dung. ' ' ( IFales. ) 3444. Compost or mould/or growing mushrooms in boxes. " Take a quantity of horse- dung from the stable-yard fresh, and for every layer of dung, six inches in depth, lay three inches of fine earth from any light soil ; these alternate layers may be repeated till there be as much as will probably be wanted for the course of a year. After this mix- ture has lain about six months or so, the dung will be sufficiently rotten : it should then be well broken with a spade, and passed through a garden-sieve. Two inches of this compost laid upon the -top of the box, and well pressed down with the back of a spade, will be found to answer. It is to be understood, that the same compost, made of the dung and earth, is used for going on the top of the beds formed with dung, as well as on those without it, observing to have it sifted fine, and well dried, for if it be damp, the spawn would not run freely amongst it." (Oldacre, in Horticultural Transactions, ) 3445. Culture of the mushroom in melon-beds. The following mode has been prac- tised by the Rev. W. Williamson, for several years, with great success. He considers it more economical and generally practicable than the plan of Oldacre. " Having made my melon-bed in the usual manner, when the burning heat is over, and the bed is ready to be earthed to a sufficient thickness, I place spawn on the sides of the hills, and also on the surface of the bed, and then cover the whole with mould, as usual, managing the G04 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. FART III. melons exactly in the same manner as if the spawn were not there, not omitting even to tread it, as I find that a compact loam is more congenial to the growth of the mushroom, than the light rich compost of the cucumber-bed. The heat will soon cause the spawn to run, and extend itself through the dung, to the surface of the ground. In September or October following, when the melon-bine is decaying, the bed is carefully cleaned, the glasses are put on, and kept close ; and when the mould becomes dry, it must be fre- quently watered, but not immoderately, as too much wet would destroy the spawn ; ad- vantage should also be taken of every gentle shower, for the same purpose. The moisture coming up on the dry earth produces a moderate heat, which soon causes the mushrooms to appear in every part of the bed, in such abundance as even to prevent each other's growth. I have frequently, at one time, gathered two bushels from a frame ten feet by six, and have produced individual mushrooms of nearly two pounds' weight. The mould being kept warm by the glasses, and properly watered, the mushrooms will continue to spring till the frost of winter prevents their further growth. I then leave the bed, frame, &c. just as they are, and early in spring, as soon as the frost may be supposed to be over, I take off the frame and glasses, and cover the bed lightly with straw ; when the warm enlivening showers of spring cause the mushrooms to be again produced in every part, till the drought of summer renders it difficult to keep the bed sufficiently moist for their growth. Sometimes I suffer the bed to* remain, in order to produce a crop in the second autumn, but more generally take the bed to pieces, for the sake of the dung, and also for the purpose of procuring and drying the spawn, against the return of spring. When I first thought of raising mushrooms in the manner above "described, I was apprehensive, lest the spawn, by running among the roots of the melons, might injure their growth. I therefore planted it in one light only, but the result convinced me that it did no injury, as, on the only plant in that light I grew a melon, of the black rock kind, weighing eight and three quarters pounds, for the first crop, and another six and a half pounds for the second crop ; both of which ripened well. Since that time I have always placed the spawn over the whole of the bed, and have never failed to produce a good crop of both melons and mushrooms. Should it be thought advisable to have a supply of mushrooms during the depth of winter, I am confident (though I have not tried the experiment,) that they might be obtained, at a trifling expense, by lining the bed with hot dung, and using other precautions to keep out the cold air." (Hort. Trans, v. iii.) ; grow* s latter j until they are in full bearing, then remove the covering to the outside of the lights, to exclude the sun and air as much as possible. In cold weather, if they advance slowly in their growth, the frames may be covered with hot dung, which will greatly encourage them. It must be recollected, that when these beds are made in hot weather, air must be admitted as freely as possible into the frames, during the time of spawning, as directed for the management of this part of the process, in cellars or sheds." 3447. In old hot-beds. A good crop of mushrooms is sometimes obtained without making a bed on purpose, by introducing lumps of spawn along the margin of late cucumber-ridges, just into the top of the mould. This may be done from March to May. ( AbercromUe. ) 3448. In pits. Jeeves has adopted this practice, and thus describes it. " To make my bed, the dung was placed in the bottom of the pit, and rammed tightly down, to about the thickness of eighteen inches ; the dung itself producing sufficient heat to set the spawn running, after it had been introduced in the usual manner. The bed was made up last September, and came into bearing in six weeks ; it has continued to pro- duce regularly to the present time, and requires no more heat than is collected by the effect of the sun on the air within the house, except on frosty nights, when a little fire is put into the flue. The mushrooms come up uniformly over every part of the bed, which is covered very slightly with straw, (not sufficient to exclude the light,) for the purpose of preserving moisture on the surface." 3449. In dark frames. Nicol says, " If you have no mushroom-house, and yet are anxious to have mushrooms in winter, a cover or frame, capable of defending the bed from rain, snow, or frost, may be made at a small expense, thus : first, make a frame of inch-and-half deal, nine or ten inches deep, six feet wide, and of any convenient length, from ten to twenty feet. Then fit a roof to it, three feet in the pitch, made of thin boards, imbricated, which lay over with two or three coats of pitch or paint. The roof part to be fixed down to the wooden frame by hooks and eyes, or by bolts, so as that it may be removed at pleasure, and to have two moveable boards on each side, of about a foot square, to slip for the admission of air. This sort of frame being placed in a dry warm situation, and being insulated by a drain or trench, would completely defend the bed from wet; and by being covered, in severe weather, with straw or mats, from frost. If the ground be not perfectly dry, a sole or floor must be fonned of ashes, gravel, or stone-chips, for the bed ; a thing necessary in any situation which is the least damp, either within or out of doors." BOOK I. CULTURE OF THE MUSHROOM. 05 34/>0. In a cellar. " Mushrooms may likewise be produced in a cellar, or any other vaulted place, with equal success, and not unfrequently to greater advantage as to crop, than in a shed, or other building, that is level with the surface of the earth. The same rules of management are to be observed as directed for the shed. The peculiar advan- tage of a cellar is, that no fire is necessary, and less water, the application of which so frequently proves injurious, is wanted." 3451. On hollow ridges. Hogan says he has devised an easy mode of growing mushrooms under shelter, and tried it one season with great success. " The exterior form of my bed resembles the old ones as built against a wall ; but instead of buildino 1 it solid, it is hollow ; strong stakes are inclined against the wall, at an angle of about 65, on which are placed hurdles to support the bed. By this means a cavity is formed under the stakes, between them and the wall and floor, for the purpose of receiving dung, which being readily changed, an opportunity is thus afforded of keeping up a permanent moist heat in the bed, the absence of which, together with an insufficient depth of mould for the spawn to run in, is the great defect of all other modes of raising mushrooms with which I am acquainted. On this structure fourteen inches of rotten dung and four inches of loamy earth were laid, and beat firm, and the spawning and other processes and results were the same as usual." (Hort. Trans, v. 305.) We fear two things from this mode occasional overheating and overdrying, either of which are as ruinous to the mushroom, as they are to cape-heaths in pots. 3452. The following details of culture are common to each of the above modes of rearing the mushroom : 3453. Season for commencement. Mushroom-beds or boxes may be formed and planted at any time of the year ; but the month of September is the most natural season ; and the time next to be recommended is early in spring. In June, July, and August, the weather is rather too warm ; and in the depth of winter, it is not equally easy to excite and cherish the spawn. (Abercrombie.) Nicol makes up a bed in March to last till September, and another at that time to last through the winter, till the bed to be again made in March comes into bearing. He adds, however, that there is no rule for making up these beds, as it may be done at any day of the year with nearly equal propriety. (Kalendar, p. 50.) 3454. Time of growth. In autumn and spring, common ridges will often begin to produce plentifully in four, five, or six weeks. In summer or winter they are much longer before they become productive. (Abercrombie.) In Wales's method of growing in boxes, they come up in five weeks. Abercrombie says, mushroonubeds have been known to lie donnant for five or six months, and yet afterwards produce abundant crops. Where a bed is cold, Nicol observes, it will be sometimes two or three months of pro- ducing mushrooms. 3455. Symptoms of progress. Nicol says, when you would know whether the spawn has begun to run, thrust your hand a few inches deep into different parts of the bed, and examine what you bring up. If it smells exactly of mushrooms, and has the appearance of bits of thread, then the spawn is in action. " But generally you will be forewarned of the spawn's running, by a previous crop of spurious fungi, which rise more or less abundantly, according to the fineness or grossness of the materials of which the bed is composed. These fungi generally are either what are called pipes or balls ; and sometimes a kind of mushroom, of a very bad sort, thin, flat, with white or pale yellow gills. They have all, however, a nauseous, sickly smell, and may readily be distinguished from the true mushroom, which is thick, hemispherical, with brown or reddish gills." 3456. Duration of a crop. Six months is the ordinary duration of a common bed or ridge, made in the open air or in a flued shed. Oldacre says, his beds will continue to produce for several months. To have a succession, he earths a bed every two or three months. Wales's boxes (3442.) continue to produce for six weeks, and sometimes two months. 3457. Temperature. Nicol says, if the bed be placed in a flued shed, the temperature in winter should be kept steadily to about 55 degrees. This is also Oldacre's temperature. 3458. Wales says, " I have ever found the best adapted and most productive heat to be from 55 to 65 degrees, and the nearer the beds are kept to this heat the greater will be the success." 3459. Air is essentially necessary to the flavor of mushrooms. Oldacre says, air must be admitted in proportion to the heat, otherwise the mushrooms become long in their stems, and weak. The same thing takes place in ridges when the coverings are too thick. 3460. Water. Abercrombie and Nicol agree in recommending no water to be given till the spawn begins to run. 3461. Abercrombie says, " In autumn, the bed will want no water until the first crop is gathered. Then a sprinkling will help to excite a fresh vegetation. In spring, should a drying air long prevail, it may be necessary to moisten the bed a little. In summer, the bed may be now and then exposed to gentle showers, or otherwise watered according to the dryness and heat of the season. In order to give water, without wetting the bed excessively or unequally, scatter a thin layer of short hay over the ridge ; and let a small quantity of water be gently distributed, to all parts alike, from a rose-pan. Leave it to filter through the hay, and cover the bed up with litter. In winter, the substitute for watering must be some warm mulch from a dung-heap, laid over the dry litter ; the moisture evaporating from this will promote the growth of the mushrooms. Excessive moisture is not only apt to destroy the spawn, but it debases the flower of such fungi as can be produced under it. It is also supposed to render the salutary sorts less so, and to make the unwholesome kinds more acrimonious." . 3462. Nicol says, When the spawn is fully formed, give the bed two or three hearty waterings, m order to set it a growing ; for, otherwise, it will lie dormant, and show no symptom of vegetation. Give just as much water (but by no means at once) as will fairly reach to the bottom of all the materials, and afterwards keep the bed in a state neither wet nor dry, but rather inclining to the latter, this being the safe side to err on, as it is more easy to make it damp than to dry it. When a bed. has been, as it were, tired of producing, I have sometimes desisted from watering for several months ; then by examination I have found a new net of spawn formed all over the surface, the threads being deep-rooted, even to the 606 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. bottom. By a hearty watering, as above, a most plentiful and lasting supply has been obtained. The idea of treating my beds so, arose by observation of the manner in which tield-musli rooms are often pro- duced. We frequently see the crop suddenly disappear, and as suddenly appear again, according to the state of the weather, with respect to wet or drought ; arid that too, in the same field." 516a Oldncre waters with extreme caution, using water nearly as warm as new milk, sprinkling very lightly with a syringe, or a small watering-pot. Cold water destroys the bed and the spawn, and thus renders the whole useless. 346*. Some old authors advise to take a few full-grown mushrooms, and breaking them down in the watering-pot, to water the beds with the infusion. This, Neill observes, is plainly nothing else than sowing mush room-seed. 3465. Light. Abercrombie, Nicol, and most gardeners and authors, consider light as quite unnecessary for the production of the mushroom. It is very probable, however, that it contributes in some way to their perfection, since in their natural situation, they enjoy a considerable portion of it. Our opinion is, that it should not be entirely excluded from mushroom-houses or beds on whatever plan they may be constructed. See an interest- ing proof of value of light in Chaptal's Agr. app. a C/rimie, vol. i. p. 180. 3466. Gathering the crop. When the bed is in full production, and the season fine, mushrooms may be gathered two or three times a-week. Turn off the straw covering, and return it carefully at each gathering. (Abercrombie.) " In gathering mushrooms," Nicol observes, " they should always be cut, and never be pulled ; as by pulling, many young ones might be destroyed. There are always a number of these forming or clus- tering about the roots of the old ones, which should not be disturbed. If the spawn be deeply situated in these beds, mushrooms will often form and come to full maturity, en- tirely under ground. They may easily be recognised, however, as they are generally large, and push up small hills above their heads. They ought to be uncovered with care, that the spawn about them may be as little disturbed as possible." Oldacre says, in ga- thering mushrooms, avoid disturbing the small ones, that invariably, with good manage- ment, surround the stems of those which are more early matured. Twist them up very gently in all instances where you can ; and when obliged to cut them, take care to divest the beds of those that are cut, as they would rot and injure those around them. 3467. Poisonous mushrooms. For the characters of the true mushroom (Agaricus campestris), and the other species and varieties, edible and deleterious, see the follow- ing chapter. Their duration is too fugitive to admit of their being much injured by insects. CHAP. VIII. Horticultural Catalogue. Hardy Herbaceous Culinary Vegetables. 3468. The various plants and trees grown in the different departments of horticulture shall now be more particularly enumerated and characterised, and some account given of their history, use, and culture. We shall commence with the hardy herbaceous ve- getables ; and the most suitable arrangement for this class of plants seems to be, that arising from a combined view of their habits, culture, and uses, in domestic economy. Though no such arrangement can be absolutely perfect, from the circumstance of some of the plants being used for different purposes, yet, by bringing together such as present most points of union, something better than a mere alphabetical catalogue is formed, of which the following is the outline : 3469. The cabbage tribe; comprehending the white and red cabbage, cabbage-cole wort, Savoy, Brussels sprouts, borecoles or winter greens, cauliflowers, and broccolis. 3470. Leguminous plants ; comprehending the pea, bean, and kidneybean. 3471. Esculent roots ; comprehending the potatoe, Jerusalem artichoke, turnip, carrot, parsnep, red beet, skirret, scorzonera, salsify, and radish. 3472. Spinaceous plants ; comprehending the garden-spinage, white beet, orache, wild spinage, New Zealand spinage, sorrel, and herb-patience. 3473. Alliaceous plants ; comprehending the onion, leek, chives, garlic, shallot, and rocambole. 3474. Asparaginous plants; comprehending asparagus, sea-kale, artichoke, cardoon, rampion, alisanders, hop, bladder-campion, cotton thistle, and milk-thistle. 3475. Acetarious plants or salads ; comprehending small salads, lettuce, endive, suc- cory, dandelion, celery, mustard, rape, corn-salad, garden-cress, American cress, winter cress, water-cress, brook-lime, scurvy-grass, garden-rocket, burnet, buekshorn plantain, ox-eye daisy, and some of those included in other sections, as the sorrel, tarragon, Indian cress, &c. 3476. Pot-herbs and gamishings ; comprehending parsley, purslane, tarragon, fennel, dill, chervil, horse-radish, Indian cress, marigold, borage, and some others included in other sections. BOOK I. THE CABBAGE TRIBE. 607 3477. Stveet herbs ; comprehending thyme, sage, clary, mint, balm, marjoram, savory, basil, rosemary, lavender, tansy, costmary, and some of those in the preceding section. 3478. Plants used in tarts, confectionary, and domestic medicine; comprehending rhu- barb, gourd, angelica, anise, coriander, caraway, rue, hyssop, chamomile, elecampane, licorice, blessed thistle, wormwood, and some others. 3479. Plants used as preserves and pickles : comprehending love-apple, egg-plant, cap- sicum, caper, samphire, and the red cabbage, Indian cress, radish, kidneybean, marsh marygold, c. included in other sections. 3480. Edible indigenous plants neglected, or not in cultivation ; comprehending the sea- beet, nettle, sea-peas, and a variety of other natives. 3481. Edible British fungi ; comprehending the mushroom, truffle, and morel. 3482. Edible British fuel ; comprehending the dulse, tangle, &c. SECT. I. The Cabbage Tribe. 3483. The cabbage tribe is of all the classes of cultivated culinary vegetables, the most ancient as well as the most extensive. The Brassica oleracea, Tetrad, siliq. Linn., and Cruciferte, Juss. figured in Eng. Bot. t. 637., being extremely liable to sport, or run into varieties and monstrosities, has in the course of time, become the parent of a numer- ous race of culinary productions, so very various in their habit and appearance, that to many it may appear not a little extravagant to refer them to the same origin. Besides the different sorts of white and red cabbage, and Savoys, which form the leaves into a head, there are various sorts of borecoles, which grow with their leaves loose in the natural way, and there are several kinds of cauliflower and broccoli, which form their stalks or flower-buds into ahead. All of these, with the turnip-rooted cabbage and the Brussels sprouts, claim a common origin from the single species of brassica above mentioned. Cabbage of some sort, White, in his History of Selborne, informs us, must have been known to the Saxons ; for they named the month of February Sprout kale. Being a favorite with the Romans, it is probable the Italian cabbage would be introduced at an early period into South Britain. To the inhabitants of the north of Scotland, cabbages were first made known by the soldiers of the enterprising Cromwell, Avhen quartered at Inverness. (Ediii. Encyc. art. Hort.} 3484. The original cabbage-plant grows naturally on the sea-shores in different parts of England, but it has not been observed in Scotland. It is a biennial plant ; the stem- leaves are much waved and variously indented ; the color is sea-green, with occasionally a tinge of purple. Early in the spring, the wild cabbage or colewort, from the sea-coast, is said to be excellent, but it must be boiled in two waters to remove the saltness. The roots may also be eaten, but they are not very tender. (Neill, in Ed. Encyc. and Martyn, in MU. Diet.) 3485. A neiv arrangement of the cultivated species of brassica has been made by Prof. Decandolle (Hort. Trans, vol. I, and in his Reg. Veg.\ but as many of the va- rieties which the brassica oleracea assumes on the continent are little known here, and as some of our varieties are omitted in Prof. Decandolle's enumeration, there does not seem at present any sufficient reason to deviate from the usual British arrangement of this genus. Prof. Decandolle's varieties, or races, of B. oleracea, are B. oleracea sylvestris, or wild cabbag acephala bullata, t 1, open cabbage, or borecole Blistered cabbage, or Savoy B. oleracea capitata, headed or leaved cab caulo-rapa, nurnip cabbage, a botrytis, flowery cabbage, or cauliflower, and broccoli. The colza of the Dutch, he makes a distinct species (B. campestris}, and also the turnip (B. Rapa), the rape (B. Napus], and the summer rape of the Germans (B. prcecox). 3486. The space occupied by this tribe in most kitchen-gardens may be estimated at one eighth part of the open compartments, taking the whole year round ; and in cottage-gardens, the heading cabbages and borecoles generally occupy one half of the whole space. We shall take the varieties in the order of white cabbage, red cabbage, Savoy, Brussels sprouts, borecole, cauliflower, and broccoli. SUBSECT. 1. White Cabbage. Brassica oleracea, var. a. capitata, L. and Dec. Chou pomme, or cabus, Fr. ; Kopfkohl, Ger. ; and Cavolo, Ital. 3487. The common or white garden-cabbage is too well known, and its uses too universal, to require any description. It produces firm, compact heads, glaucous, green, or greenish-yellow externally, but blanched within, and varying in different sorts from three to twelve or fifteen inches' diameter, and from two to fifteen or twenty pounds' weight. 3488. Subvarieties. These are very numerous : the sorts chiefly cultivated are Small early dwarf Early dwarf York Large early York Early dwarf sugarJoaf I arge sugar-loaf Kast Ham Karly Battersea Early Imperial Pentonville. Large round head ; leaves white and fleshy, wrinkled like the Savoy, very delicate and fine : in perfection dur- ing the latter summer months, when other cab bagas are -of strong flavor. Antwerp Russian Early London hollow Large hollow sugar-loaf Large oblong hollow Large round winter (white) Great drum-head flat- Great round Scotch, or white Strasbourg : from which the German sour krout is chiefly made. 608 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 3489. Estimate qf forts. The first five or six sorts arc suitable for the earliest and secondary summer crops ; and the middle-sized and large kinds for the principal summer, autumn, and winter supplies. Thus 1. For the earliest crops, allot some of the small early dwarf York, East Ham, and sugar-loaf, for cabbaging in April, May, and June. 2. Raise more considerable quantities of the middle-sized kinds, par- ticularly the large York, and large sugar-loaf, or the Battersea, Penton, Imperial, Antwerp, Russian, &c. for general summer crops. 3. Choose the larger later sorts for succession, summer, and general autumn cabbages. The large hollow sugar-loaf, oblong hollow, long-sided hollow, and large round winter (white', are excellent for full cabbaging in August, September, and October, till Christmas : or any of the middle- sized varieties may be eligibly sown for latter succession crops in summer and autumn, to cut in light young growth ; also to cultivate for cabbage-coleworts, either with small hearts, or as open greens for family and market supply in autumn, winter, spring, and returning summer. 4. The large round winter cabbage, great drum, Scotch, and American kinds, all reaching a very expanded bulk in autumn and winter, are not usually so well fitted for family consumption as the foregoing, being more commonly adopted for field, culture, to feed cattle in winter, &c. 3490. Propagation. All the kinds are raised from seed annually, of which, according to Abercrombie's seed estimate, " for a seed-bed to raise the early York, and similar varieties, four feet wide by twenty in length, two ounces" will be required. For a seed-bed to raise the large sugar-loaf, and other luxuriant growers, four feet by thirty-six in length, two ounces. Sow at three different seasons, that is, spring, summer, and autumn, and cover from an eighth to a quarter of an inch. Under a deficiency of w inter- standing young plants, for final transplanting in spring, or, in order to have some spring-sown plants as forward as possible, a moderate portion of some best earlv sorts may be sown between the middle of February and the middle of March, in a slight hot-bed or frame, to nurture the plants till the leaves are an inch br two in length. Then prick them into intermediate beds in the open garden, there to gain strength for final transplanting. (Abercrombie.) 3491. Soil and situation. The soil for seedlings hould be light, and, excepting for early sowings, not rich. Where market-gardeners raise great quantities of seedling-cabbages to stand the winter, and to be sold for transplanting in spring, they choose, in general, the poorest and stiffest piece of land they have got, more especially in Scotland, where large autumnal sowings of winter drum-head and round Scotch are annually made, and where the stiffness of the soil gives a peculiar firmness of texture and hardness of constitution to the plants, and prevents their being thrown out of the soil during the thaws which succeed a frosty winter. Transplanted cabbages require a rich mould, rather clayey than sandy ; and, as Neill and Nicol observe, it can scarcely be too much manured, as they are an exhausting crop. Autumnal plant- ations, intended to stand the winter, should have a dry soil, well dug and manured, and of a favorable aspect The cabbage tribe, whether in the sed-bed, or final plantation, ever require an open situation. Under the drip of trees, or in the shade, seedlings are drawn up weak, and grown crops are meagre, worm- eaten and ill-flavored. 3492. Early and main summer crops. The cabbage being a biennial, the largest crops are obtained by sowing the year previous to that in which you expect to reap. Sow, therefore, at the beginning of August, to raise plants to stand over the winter in young open growth, for cabbaging early, and in succession, the following year. A nice atten- tion should be paid to the time for sowing this crop, which is the first or second week in August, being that most conducive to ultimate success, though some sow at the close of July, to have the plants stronger before the approach of winter ; but of a crop so forward, many generally run for seed in the spring ; therefore be careful to make the principal sowing neither sooner than about the fifth, nor later than the twelfth, of that month. For, if sown earlier, many of the plants are apt to run in the spring, as just stated ; and, if sown later, they would not acquire sufficient strength before winter, to enable them to stand severe weather so effectually as those a little advanced in firmer growth. 3493. Sow each sort separately in an open free situation, in beds of rich mellow earth, broad cast, moderately thick, and rake in the seed evenly, lengthwise each bed. Give occasional watering, if dry hot weather; or sometimes shade with mats, in hot sunny days, till the plants come up fully; after which, continue necessary moderate watering, if a dry season, to forward and strengthen the crop. 3494. When the plants have two or three leaves an inch or two broad in September, or beginning of October, lift some considerable portion from the seed-beds, and prick into beds of good earth, about four inches apart, giving water : all these are to remain in the intermediate bed during winter, to gain strength for transplanting in the spring. Those left in the seed-beds will thus have more room to advance equally for transplanting the most forward of the early sorts in the same year, towards the end of October, or in November and December, and the principal supply in the spring, the last fortnight of February, or in March and April. 3495. In transplanting, continue to keep each sort separate, allotting the whole good ground ; and, if dunged, it will be repaid in the crop. Plant some of the dwarf early in rows, from a foot and a half to two feet asunder, to admit of thinning for use in a young cabbaged state : those of the middle-sized, intended for main crops, plant at two feet, or two and a half distant. The large autumnal kinds plant at least from two feet and a half to a yard asunder, giving water at planting in dry warm weather. 3496. In their subsequent growth, if any fail or run to seed, be careful to pull them up directly, and supply the deficiencies with fresh plants. As the crop proceeds, give it two or more timely hoeings, both to cut down all rising weeds, and to loosen the ground between the plants, drawing some earth round the tems, which will strengthen and forward them considerably. 3497. The different sorts will cabbage in succession from April till October. Some may be forwarded in cabbaging by tying the leaves together, moderately close, with osier twigs, or strings of bass. The succeed- ing main crops will not need that assistance, but will head spontaneously in due time. Of the earlier dwarrkinds, some probably will be fit for cutting, in small cabbagy heads, at the close of April or begin . ningof May; and the others in full growth from May till July; and the succeeding main crops in full heads from July till October. 3498. Early spring-sown crop. To succeed the crops of the preceding autumn sowing, it is requisite to sow in the spring, to raise plants for use the same year, partly as young summer cabbages, and partly with full heads, in autumn and winter. For this purpose, sow at the close of February, or in March, and the beginning of April. A few for early summer use may be sown in the third week of February on a slight hot- bed, or on a warm border under glass. In case no plants were raised the preceding autumn, or if the young crop which has stood the winter be much cut by severe weather, there is an additional motive for sowing a competent portion in the spring, of dwarf, middle-sized, and large kinds, according to the above estimate of sorts. Sow the different kinds separately, and in the same method as directed for the crop to stand the winter. Manage the plants in the seed-bed, and prick a proportion into an intermediate bed in the same manner. When of suitable growth for final transplanting, in May, June, or July, (taking opportunity of moist weather, if it occurs,) plant them out in rows traced from one to two feet asunder for the dwarf and midrile-gjzed, and for the larger kinds from two feet and a half to a yard distant Give water at planting. BOOK I. WHITE CABBAGE. 609 In their subsequent growth, give occasional hoeing to kill weeds, and to draw earth round the stems, as advised for the August-sown plants. 3499. Late spring or summer sown crop. For late young summer and autumn cabbages and winter plants, you may sow small portions at any time from May to July, principally of the quick-hearting kinds ; plant out finally in summer and autumn to produce young heads, and small cabbage-hearted coleworts in August, September, October, and thence till midwinter. The large late family cabbages, which make returns for autumn, winter, and early spring, also the largest kinds usually adoptetl for field-culture, are to be excluded from this sowing, as they are only properly raised as part of the principal crops sown in August and early in spring. (Abcrcrmnbic.) 3500. Watering cabbages. During long continued droughts in June and Julv or later rahKitrps .iro apt Watering cabbages. During long continued droughts in June and July or later, cabbages are ; to become stinted in their growth, and covered with aphides. To prevent this apply copious waterings every evening; water so abundantly supplied is supposed to injure the flavor of some plants but it is found to have no effect of that kind on cabbages. 3501. Cabbage-coleworts. The original variety of cabbage called colewort (if ever the plants which passed by that name were a distinct variety) is, or seems to be, lost, and is now succeeded by what are called cabbage-coleworts. These, Abercrombie observes, are valuable family plants, useful in three stages : as young open greens, as greens with closing hearts, and as greens forming a cabbage growth. 3502. Sorts proper for coleworts. Procure seed oi' some middle-sized early variety of the cabbage, quick-hearting, and of close growth ; such as the early and large York, East Ham, and large sugar-loaf. Occasionally, for larger coleworts, you may adopt some Battersea, imperial, Antwerp sorts, or early London hollow; but avoid the larger late kinds of cabbage, which, in a colewort state, are too spreading and open ; the others grow close, Stocky, and full in the heart, and boil most tender and sweet for the table. 3503. Times of sowing. To have a good supply of coleworts for autumn, winter, spring, and returning summer, it is proper to make three or four sowings in summer and autumn : that is, one sowing toward the middle of June, a second about the same time in July, with a third in the last week. These supplementary crops are for transplanting in August, September, and October, and will amount to a con- tinued provision of autumn, winter, and early spring coleworts, from September till March or April. At this time the plants of these sowings will mostly start for seeding. To succeed these, effect a very con- siderable sowing in the beginning from about the third to the sixth of August. Having been transplanted in autumn, the forwardest of the August-raised plants will be fit for gathering in the course of winter, if the weather be mild ; but the principal supply should be set apart for a continuing spring crop to increase in growth from March till June, without running to seed, as would generally be the case, if sown before the time just specified. What are not used in their colewort state in spring, will advance in cabbaging, to be cut either with small hearts, or with middling, or full heads, in the early part of summer and autumn. If it be required to have coleworts in a younger state in summer and autumn, you may sow at the time of raising the spring-sown crop of cabbages. 3504. Sowing, thinning, and transplanting. Sow in some open compartments of light mellow ground, in one or more beds, distributing the seed evenly on the surface ; and rake it regularly into beds length, wise. If the weather be dry, give occasional waterings, both before and after the plants are up. When the young plants have two or three leaves, if thick in the seed-bed, prick out a portion into intermediate beds, to increase in growth three or four weeks. When these and those in the seed-beds have several leaves two or three inches broad, transplant them finally into open compartments of ground, in rows twelve or fifteen inches asunder, by eight or twelve inches in the lines, as it may be intended to gather them in smaller or larger growth. If the weather be dry and warm, a watering at planting would be of much advantage. In their subsequent growth, keep them clear from large weeds by occasional hoeing ; at the same time, loosen the ground about the plants, drawing a little earth to the stems, which will forward and strengthen their growth ; the hoe will also wound and kill many of the slugs which sometimes annoy these plants in their young state, about the end of autumn and beginning of winter. (Abercrombie.) 3505. Taking the cabbage crop. After cutting off* the head, never neglect immediately to pull up the stalk, and carry it off with all the refuse leaves to the compost-heap This practice is enjoined as well to prevent the stem from pushing out shoots, and needlessly exhausting the ground, as to promote neatness and order. It is necessary, however, to make an exception in favor of the practice of some, who, instead of removing the roots and stems of the main summer crop, leave them in the ground deprived of their injured leaves, and with the intervals between the rows stirred and perhaps manured, allow them to stand till spring. Thus treated, they push out in autumn, and in January or February abound in fine cabbage-sprouts, not much inferior to young cabbages. Sometimes this practice is applied to the earliest spring or summer crop in which case the sprout-cabbages come into use the following autumn. 3506. Cabbage-coleworts are gathered when the leaves are as broad as a man's hand. The largest are drawn up by the root, which is generally allowed to remain attached to those taken to public markets, as it retains the sap, and tends to preserve them succulent a longer period, than if they were wounded close to the succulent leaves. 3507. Preserving cabbages. Where this is thought necessary, the plants are laid down on their sides, and the stems covered with earth close to the head, the outer part of the more exposed side of which may be sometimes injured, but the inside remains sound. 3508. To save cabbage-seed. The raising of the seed of the different sorts of cabbage, Neill observes, affords employment to many persons in various parts of England. It is well known that no plants are more liable to be spoiled by cross breeds than the cabbage tribe, unless the plants of any particular variety, when in flower, be kept at a very considerable distance from any other ; also, in flower, bees are extremely apt to carry the pollen of the one to the other, and produce confusion in the progeny. Market- gardeners, and many private individuals, raise seed for their own use. Some of the handsomest cabbages of the different sorts are dug up in autumn, and sunk in the ground to the head ; early next summer a flower-stem appears, which is followed by abundance of seed. A few of the soundest and healthiest cabbage-stalks, furnished with sprouts, answer the same end. When the seed has been well ripened and dried, it will keep for six or eight years. It is mentioned by Bastien, that the seed-growers of Auber- villiers have learned by experience, that seed gathered from the middle flower-stem produces plants which will be fit for use a fortnight earlier than those from the seed of the lateral flower-stems : this may deserve the attention of the watchful gardener, and assist him in regulating his successive crops of the same kind of cabbage. R r 610 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. SUBSECT. 2. lied Cabbage. Brassica oleracea, var. 0. mbra. L. C/tou pomme rouge, Fr. ; Roth Kopfkohl, Gcr. ; and Cavolo rosso, Ital. 3509. The red or purple cabbage is similar in form to the white, but of a purple or brownish-red color. 3510. Use. The red cabbage is chiefly used for pickling ; and the dwarf red variety, Neil I observes, " certainly does make one of the most beautiful pickles that can be pre- sented at table," Both the dwarf and large sorts are sometimes shredded down in winter, in salads, like red beet-root ; and the Germans prepare sour krout from all or any of the varieties. 351 1. Subvarieties. There are three principal varieties of red cabbage, viz. The large red, or red Dutch; with a large, I Thedwarf red; with a small, round, firm, I The Aberdeen red; with an open leafy firm, roundhead, usual!; cultivated in delicate head, less common than the head, chiefly found in cottage gardens market-gardens | other | in the north of Scotland. 351 2. The propagation^ sowing, and culture are in all respects the same as for the white cabbage; excepting that the heads are not used when imperfectly formed, or as cole- worts ; but the plants should, in all cases, be allowed to stand till they have formed close firm heads. Sow in August for a crop to stand the winter, and to come in at the close of next summer, and thence till the end of autumn. Sow early in spring for re- turns in the following winter and spring. SUBSECT. 3. Savoy. Brassica oleracea, var. 7. sabauda, L. ; B. o. var. 7. bullata, Dec. / Chou pomme frise, Fr. 3513. TJie Savoy is distinguished from the other close or hearted cabbages by the ru- gosity of its leaves ; and from the Brussels sprouts, by its cabbaging in large full heads. The Brussels sprouts is considered a subvariety. 3514. Use. The Savoy is in use as a table-vegetable from November till spring, un- less destroyed by frost, in which case, it is succeeded by the borecoles or winter greens. These two classes of the cabbage tribe generally supply the table from November to May. 3515. Subvarieties. These are The green I The yellow Savoy ; and of each of these I The oblong, and Thedwarf, and are The conical, or sugar-loaf headed. I The round 3516. Estimate of sorts. The green Savoy is the least hardy, and must be used first. The London market is generally supplied with it through the month of November, and until the plants are injured by frost The dwarf Savoy is hardier than the preceding, bearing well the attack of the first winter frosts, by which the delicacy of its flavor is materially improved ; and from its small size, it is better adapted to the tables of private familes. Where the whole class is cultivated, this must be considered the second sort in succession. The best plants grow close to the ground, not exceeding a foot in height The yellow Savoy, by its hardiness, enables us to continue the use of Savoys till mid-winter. It does not yield to any of the others in goodness, and by many persons it is preferred, being considered much sweeter. (Hart. Trans. voL ii. p. 309.) 3517. Propagation. The Savoy is always raised from seed, and for a seed-bed four feet and a half by eight feet, half an ounce of seed will be sufficient 3518. Soil and situation. This esculent answers best on a light rich soil : poor or exhausted ground should be manured according to the defects of it. Allot an open compartment in the full air, that the seedlings and advancing plants may grow stocky, and not draw up weak and long stemmed, as they are liable to do in close situations, or narrow borders, under walls. 3519. Times of sowing. A sufficient succession is obtained by three, or at most, four sowings, made from the last week of February till the second week in May ; for planting out, from May till September. A small crop may be sown at the end of February, or the beginning of March, to plant out for early autumn Savoys, to cabbage in August or September. Sow a larger portion in the last fortnight of March for a first considerable autumn and winter crop. Nor omit to sow a full supply in the second or third week of April, for a main crop to be planted out in June, July, and the beginning of August, to attain a full cabbaged growth late in autumn, and to stand partly over the winter. Furthermore, it would be eligible to make a moderate sowing at the beginning, or towards the middle of May, in order to plant out the seedlings in July, August, or September, for smaller heading, to come in towards the spring, and to stand longer before they run ; or, some to use occasionally in winter, as Savoy coleworts. 3520. Culture. The ground should have been previously trenched to a good depth. Four feet is a con- venient width for the beds. Sow broad-cast ; and rake in a quarter of an inch deep. As soon as the plants have two or three leaves, an inch or two in width, if they stand too crowded, thin the seed-beds, by drawing out a quantity regularly ; and prick them into other beds four inches asunder. Should the weather be dry, water those left, as well as those removed. Permit both divisions to remain three, four, or five weeks, to gain a good stocky size for final transplanting. When the plants, both in seed-beds and those pricked out, are advanced with several leaves, two or three inches broad, or more, transplant them finally into the most open compartments of ground, where they will be less annoyed by caterpillars, that they may cabbage with large full heads ; planting them at different times as ground becomes vacant. Remove the most forward in May or June, for early autumn heading in August or September. But plant the principal crops in June or July, and from the beginning to the middle of August ; taking all possible advantage of showery weather. In drawing the plants, observe if any are clubbed or knotty at the root, and cut off the protuberances close. Plant in rows those removed in May, June, or July, two feet and a half, or not less than two feet asunder, by the same distance in the rows ; others late planted in August and September, two feet by eighteen inches. In scarcity of vacant ground, some Savoys may be occa- sionally planted between wide rows of previous standing crops, such as beans, cauliflowers, and early cabbage, that are sufficiently forward to be gathered off by the time the Savoys will want the entire ground. Before and after plantings made in dry weather, watering would be of essential service. As the plants of the different successions advance, keep them from weeds by occasional broad hoeing. At the same time, loosen the surface of the earth, and draw some about the stems of the plants : let this be done twice or oftener, to forward them in a free enlarging growth. They will gradually heart, fully cabbaging in September, October, November, December, Sec. as they are the crops of the forward, or BOOK I. BORECOLE. 11 later sowings : they may be cut for use accordingly, and during the winter. The Savoys left standing will continue good till the middle or end of February, when, or in the course of March, they open and send up seed-stalks. 3521. To save seed. See Cabbage. (3508.) SUBSECT. 4. Brussels Sprouts. Brassica oleracea, a subvariety of var. 7. sabauda, L., and of B. o. var. 7. buUata, Dec. Chou de Bruxelles, or a jet, Fr. 3522. The Brussels sprouts produce an elongated stem, often four feet high, from the alae of the leaves of which sprout out shoots which form small green heads like cabbages in miniature, each being from one to two inches in diameter, and the whole ranged spirally along the stem, the main leaves of which drop off early. The top of the plant resembles that of a Savoy planted late in the season ; it is small, and with a green heart of little value. Van Mons says (Hort. Trans, vol. iii.), " If this vegetable be compared with any other which occupies as little space, lasts as long, and grows as well in situations generally considered unfavorable, such as between rows of potatoes, scarlet runners, or among young trees, it must be esteemed superior in utility to most others." Nicol considers it as deserving more general culture in Scotland ; and Morgan (Hort. Trans, vol. ii.) says, it is an excellent sort of winter green for the table, but not sufficiently hardy to last through the winter in England. 3523. Use. The sprouts are used as winter greens ; and at Brussels they are sometimes served at table with a sauce composed of vinegar, butter, and nutmeg, poured upon them hot after they have been boiled. The top, Van Mons says, is very delicate when dressed, and quite different in flavor from the sprouts. 3524. Culture. The plants are raised from seed, of which an ounce may be requisite for a seed-bed, four feet by ten feet. Van Mons, in the paper already referred to, says, " The seed is sown in spring under a frame, so as to bring the plants forward ; they are then transplanted into an open border with a good aspect." By thus beginning early and sowing successively till late in the season, he says, " we contrive to supply ourselves, in Belgium, with this delicious vegetable, full ten months in the year; that is, from the end of July to the end of May." The plants need not be placed at more than eighteen inches each way, as the head does not spread wide, and the side leaves drop off. In this, as in every other respect, the culture is the same as that of the borecole. 3525. Gathering the crop. Morgan says, the sprouts must have some frost before gathered; but this Van Mons assures us is an erroneous opinion. In Belgium, the small cabbages are not esteemed if of more than half an inch in diameter. It is usual to cut off the top about ten or fifteen days before gathering from the stem. In spring, when the sprouts are disposed to run to flower, their growth is checked by taking up the plants, and laying them in the ground in any shaded spot. 3526. To save seed. Van Mons says, it is usual to save the seeds indiscriminately from plants which have or have not been topped ; but that he intends to save from the tops only, hoping thereby to improve the progeny. Whatever mode be adopted, the grand object is to place the plants where they will be in no danger of receiving the farina of any other of the brassica tribe. SUBSECT. 5. Borecole. Brassica oleracea, var. 5. sabeUica, L. ; B. o. var. )8. acej>hala, Dec. Chou vert, Chou cavalier, or Chou non pomme, Fr.; Kohl, Ger. ; Kale, Sax. ; and Green Kale, Scotch. 3527. The borecole contains several subvarieties, the common characteristic of all which is an open head, sometimes large, of curled or wrinkled leaves, and a peculiar hardy constitution, which enables them to resist the winter, and remain green and fresh during the season. Morgan says, it is impossible to find a plant of more excellence for the table, or more easily cultivated than the common borecole. Sinclair recommends the Woburn perennial kale, which has been grown six years at Woburn Abbey. It shoots up yearly from the stool, like a true perennial plant, scarcely ever flowers, and is considered as producing more than thrice the produce of any other borecole, with a very great saving of manure and labor. It is considered by Sinclair as peculiarly adapted for farm and cottage gardens. 3528. Use. The crown or centre of the plant is cut off so as to include the leaves which do not exceed nine inches in length. It boils well, and is most tender, sweet, and deli- cate, provided it has been duly exposed to frost. 3529. Subvarieties. These are 1. The green borecole, Scotch kale, or Siberian borecole 2. The purple or brown kale 3. The German kale, German greens, or curlies 4. The variegated borecole 5. The thousand-headed cabbage 6. The cfuni de Milan 9. The Jerusalem kale 10. The Buda kale, Russian kale, Prussian kale, and by fome called the Manchester kale 11. The palm-borecole, or chou-palmier 12. The turnip-cabbage, or turnip-borecole, (B. o. Tar. . cad* . .,,, *,. m .. rapa, Dec.) chou-navet, Fr. 7. The Egyptian kale, rabi kale, or kohl robe 13. The Portugal or large-ribbed borecole 8. Ragged Jack I 14. The Woburn perennial kale, with nnely cut leayes. 3530. Estimate of sorts. The three first sorts are the most valuable, and the most generally cultivated : the third sort is almost universally preferred in Britain. The seventh, eighth, and ninth sorts, being dwarf, stemless plants, resist black frosts, and come in for a late supply ; the third, fourth, fifth, and tenth sorts are merely curious plants, and the others are of little merit. 3531. Propagation of the first thirteen species. All the sorts are propagated by seed, which is sold by weight : and for a seed-bed four feet by ten, Abercrombie says, one ounce of seed is necessary. Sow in the last fortnight of March, in April, in the beginning of May, and in August The first week in April for the principal crop of German kale ; and the first week in August for the latest spring crop of Buda kale, and which will be ready to transplant in September. Rr 2 6 12 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART in. 3532. Subsequent culture. " When the plants have leaves one or two inches broad, tike out some from the' seed-bed, and prick into other open beds, six inches apart, giving water : in which let them have four or five weeks' growth. Those left in the seed-bed, as well as these, will all acquire proper strength for final transplanting in May, or thence till August. Taking the opportunity of rain, if possible, plant them in an open compartment, in rows two feet and a half asunder, for the first forward plantings in summer; the others two feet ; allotting the whole similar distances in the rows. Give occasional water, if dry weather, till they have struck root. In their advancing growth, hoe the plants once or twice, to cut down rising weeds, and to draw earth about the bottom of the stems, to encourage their growth in the produc- tion of large full heads in proper season, September, October, c." At the approach of winter, the stems should be earthed up, especially of the taller sorts. When the distances between the plants are such as have been recommended, the hills round each plant will be of such a size and breadth as to cherish the roots of the dwarf varieties, and serve as a protection to the tall sorts in stormy weather. 3533. Gathering. The heart is to be gathered of all the tall sorts, after which, with the exception of the German kale, and the chou de Milan, the stalks should be pulled up, and taken to the compost-heap or dunghill ; but the terms of the two sorts excepted are to be left for the sake of their side shoots or sprouts. Of the dwarf sorts, the heart may either be cut off, for which the Buda kale and coleworts are well suited ; or the leaves gathered when the plant begins to grow, which corresponds with the habits of the Egyptian and Jerusalem kale. 3534. Propagation of the Woburn kale is effected by cuttings of six or seven inches, which readily take root, and may be planted at once where they are finally to remain : the best season is March and April. 3535. Culture of the Woburn kale. " About the beginning of April, or as soon as winter greens are out of season, the steins are cut down near to the ground, within two buds of the roots, the soil is then slightly forked over, and afterwards kept clear of weeds by the hoe. This is all that is required." (Hort. Trans, v. 299.) 3536. Blanching the Buda or Portugal kale. Wedgewood writes to the Horticul- tural Society, " I have been trying an experiment with Buda kale, which has an- swered completely ; this is blanching it as you do sea-kale, by turning a pot over it, and letting it remain covered till it is quite blanched. When cut and dressed in that state it is excellent, and one advantage will be, that the same plant will furnish two cuttings, for the sprouts are more delicate than even the original heart of the plant. I used no dung to force it ; but this might be applied with great advantage ; and I think it would be an excellent substitute for sea -kale." (Hort. Trans, iv. 570.) 3537. To save seed. This can seldom be done of more than one or two sorts in the same garden, on account of the risk of promiscuous impregnation by bees, the wind, &c. As the seed, however, will keep for several years, good specimens of one or two sorts may be selected every year in rotation, and placed in spots distant from each other, in autumn, or early in spring. Trench the root and stem into the ground, at nearly double the distance at which they stood in the plantation. This will allow abundance of air to circulate round the blossoms and seed-pods. They will be ripe in August, when they may be gathered, and threshed out ; and the seed, after being exposed to the dry air m the shade for a few days, put up in bags till wanted for use. ; SUBSKCT. 6. Cauliflower. Brassica oleracea, var. e. botrytis, L. and Dec. Chou- fleur, Fr. ; Blumenkohl, Ger. ; and Cavolijtori, Ital. 3538. The cauliflower is one of the most delicate and curious of the whole of the brassica tribe, the flower-buds forming a close, firm cluster or head, white and delicate, and for the sake of which the plant is cultivated. 3539. Use. " These heads or flowers being boiled, wrapped generally in a clean linen cloth, are served up as a most delicate vegetable dish. Cauliflower is a particular fa- vorite in this country. * Of all the flowers in the garden,' Dr. Johnson used to say, I like the cauliflower.' Its culture, however, had been little attended to till about the close of the 1 7th century ; since that time it has been greatly improved, insomuch that cauli- flower may now fairly be claimed as peculiarly an English product. Till the time of the French Revolution, quantities of English cauliflower were regularly sent to Holland ; and the Low Countries, and even France, depended on us for cauliflower-seed. Even now, English seed is preferred to any other." For the early supply of the London market, very great quantities of cauliflower are fostered under hand-glasses during winter and the first part of spring ; and to behold some acres overspread with such glasses, gives a stranger a forcible idea of the riches and luxury of the metropolis. (Nettl, in Ed. Encyc.} 3540. The subvarieties in cultivation are Early, for the first early crops 1 Red cauliflower; having the stalks of the I teemed more hardy than the others, and Later, or large, for principal early, and head of a reddish or purple color, es- good for an early crop, main crops 3541. Propagation and soil. The cauliflower is raised from seed, of which half an ounce is sufficient for a seed-bed four feet and a half wide, by ten in length. The soil for the seed-bed may be light; but for final transplanting, it can hardly be too rich, the cauliflower, like the vine, being reputed a " rough feeder." Cleanings of streets, stables, cess-pools, &c. ought therefore to be liberally supplied during the growth of the plants, when very large heads are desired. 3542. Times of sowing. " The early and main superior crop, brought to fruit by the longest nursery attendance ; th,e late summer succession crop, raised by the shortest course ; and the Michaelmas crop, obtained at the least expense ; are sown respectively at three different seasons. The principal sowing is made about the end of the third week in August, or a day or two before or after the 21st, to raise plants to stand over the winter, under frames, hand-glasses, or half sheltered in warm borders, for the early and BOOK 1. CAULIFLOWER. 613 main superior crops next summer. A secondary sowing in February or March, for succession and late inferior crops the same year in summer and autumn. A final sowing near the close of May, lor ordinary crops, to yield fruit the following autumn and winter." Ball finds, that if cauliflower-seed is not sown till the last week in August, and that if the seedlings are not transplanted till the middle or near the end of November before the hard weather sets in, no sort of covering is necessary, nor any other protection than that afforded by a wall having a south aspect. " In such a border, and without any covering, young cauliflower-plants have uniformly stood well for many successive winters, and have always proved better and sounder plants for spring planting than such as have had additional shelter. The seedlings protected with glass frames generally grow too gross in the stems, which become partly blackened ; and the plants being thus unhealthy, are not fit for planting out. Late raised seedlings, which spend the winter in the open border, uniformly become the largest and finest table cauliflowers during the summer, though they certainly do not come in quite so early. Cauliflower-plants, it is probable, are often killed with too much attention. Seedlings raised late in autumn seem to be very tenacious of life." (Caled. Hort. Mem. iii. 192.) " A method of producing cauliflower pretty early, and with great certainty, is this : The plants are set in small pots in the winter season, and kept in any convenient part of the floor ot a vinery or other glazed house. In the beginning of March, they are taken out of the pots with the ball of earth attached, and planted in the open ground. If they be here protected against severe frosts with bell-glass covers, they come into head m the course of April, if the weather prove favorable." (Ncill, in Ed. Encyc.} 3543. Strivings to stand the ivinter. " Time of sowing and first culture. For the early and general crops next summer, make a considerable sowing in August, about the eighteenth, and thence to the twenty-fourth day of that month ; or two different sowings between those extremes, at three or four days' interval, to raise young plants to stand the winter under protection ; some being planted out finally the same year in October or November, under hand-glasses ; and the others pricked into frames and warm borders, for planting out finally in the spring, into the open ground, to succeed the hand-glass fruit, or for the general summer crop. Sow in a bed of rich, light, mellow earth. After sowing, give occasional light waterings in dry weather, and shade in hot sunny days, till the plants come up. When these have leaves an inch or an inch and a half broad, in September, prick them into intermediate beds, three or four inches apart ; watering, and occasionally shading from the mid-day sun, till they have taken root ; to remain in such beds to gain strength till October." 3544. Hand-glass division. " Then towards the close of October, transplant a quantity finally into rich ground, which" has been well dunged, under hand glasses, in rows three feet and a half or four feet asunder (with intervening alleys a foot wide), and three feet apart in the row. Set three or four plants centrally under each glass, about four inches apart, with the design of retaining only one or two of the best in the spring. Give a moderate watering at planting, and put on the glasses close till the plants take root, discoverable in a week or ten days by their showing a renewed growth ; then raise the glasses on the warmest side, one or two inches in mild days, to admit free air to the plants. Continue the glasses all winter ; but in all temperate weather, tilt up the south side daily, two or three inches, to give the requi- site admission of free air, in order to strengthen and harden the plants ; and sometimes, in fine, mild, dry days, you may occasionally take the glasses off", especially if the plants appear to draw, or get on too fast in growth, as they are sometimes apt to run into small button heads in their nursery state, unless for future culture; but put on the glasses early towards the evening; and always keep them on at night, and during cold rain, snow, and frost, shutting them closa down in all inclement weather ; and during ri- gorous frosts it would be advisable to give some protection, with long, dry, stable-litter, round the glasses, or to cover with mats, removing the covering when settled mild weather occurs. Thus conforming to the vicissitudes of the season, continue the glasses till the close of April or beginning of May ; giving larger admissions of free air as the warmer season of spring advances : and sometimes in fine mild weather, admit a moderate warm shower of rain. Meanwhile, in March, if all or most of the plants under the glasses have stood the winter, be careful to leave only one or two of the strongest under each glass ; transplanting the superabundant into the open garden, in a compartment of rich mellow earth, improved with rotten dung digged in a spade deep : setting the plants two feet and a half asunder, and giving water. In thinning the plants, be careful to take put those with black shanks: but do not take the trouble to transplant them, for they will prove abortive. At the same time, to assist these remaining under the glasses, draw a little earth about the stem of each. To these continue the glasses till the period men- tioned above, to forward them in full growth for the most early production ; but as they expand in the herb, raise each glass upon three props, three or four inches high, to admit air freely, and to give a larger scope of room above, for the free growth of the plants; or, when further advanced, you may draw a small ledge of earth round the bottom of each glass, both to raise the props higher, for an additional upward space, and to contain water when occasionally given in dry weather. Towards the end of April, or the beginning of May, when the plants will, in a manner, have filled the glasses, remove these from the most forward, but continue the aid of glass as long as practicable, to accelerate the plants into early heading in May. Thus the most early crop will produce a supply of flower-heads for gathering in succession in May and June." 3545. Frame division. " The other plants of the same sowing, designed for wintering in frames, may, in young growth, at the end of September, or beginning of October, be either pricked at once into the winter beds, or be, at that time, removed into a preparatory bed in the open garden, to have a month's growth,'; in order to be transplanted into the frame-beds at the end of October or beginning of November, in rows, crosswise the bed, four by three inches apart. Give a light watering, and put on the lights of the frame close till the plants have taken root; then prop up the lights behind, two or three inches, or draw them off occasionally to the back of the frame in mild, dry days, but keep on when very cold, and in rain, snow, frost, and always at night; and in severe frost cover the glasses and round the frames with dry, long, strawy litter and mats ; but in all mild, dry weather, admit the air fully, as in managing the hand-glasses. Then in March or beginning of April, transplant the whole into the open garden, in rows two feet and a half asunder ; and they will come into full production in July and August." 3546. Half -sheltered portion. " In want of frames or hand-glasses, you may, in October, either priek some plants into a warm south border, close under the fence, three inches apart, to be protected in rigor- ous frosts, with mats, dry litter, or reed pannels ; or you prick some in a bed arched over with hoops, to receive a covering of mats during cold nights, or heavy rain, snow, and frosts, in the day-time in winter. Give the full air in all moderate weather, till March or April : then all to be transplanted finally as 3547. Drummond, of the Cork botanic garden, protects cauliflower-plants during winter by planting them in excavations made in the common soil of the garden, and covered with frames thatched with long straight wheat-straw. He uncovers constantly in mild weather, whether nights or days. (Hort. Trans. 3548. Secondary sowing, or first spring-raised crop. " For late succession summer cauliflowers, to succeed the autumn-raised, early, and main summer crops; or, if none were raised to stand the winter; sow in the spring, February, or beginning of March, in a moderate hot-bed, or, where that cannot be had, in a warm border under a frame or hand-glass ; and when the young plants have leaves an inch broad, prick them into other beds of the same description, three inches apart, to gain strength by three or four weeks* growth, in order to be planted out in the open garden, at the end of April or the beginning of May ; when* they will produce tolerable heads in July or August. Sow also in the open garden during the last fortnight in March, and the first in April fora late succession, with small flower-heads in August and throughout autumn. Plants of the last crop, removed as late as May, for fruiting the same year, should be planted in a shady border." Rr 3 614 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. ."x;^. Second spring-raised crop. " The next and last sowing is for the late autumn and winter crop, commonly called the Michaelmas crop : to be made towards the twenty-fourth of May, in a bed of light earth. Prick out the young plants in June, to remain in the intermediate bed till about the middle of July ; then to be transplanted two feet and a half asunder. Give occasional watering till they have taken good root. They will begin to produce heads in October, but the fruit will be of superior size in Novem- ber and December, if temperate weather follow." 3550. Final cult nre of the three crops. "With respect to the culture of the different crops after being finally transplanted, it is to hoe the ground occasionally, in order to cut down weeds, and as well to loosen the earth, and draw some round the stems of the plants. When the early crops are nearly advanced to full growth, in May and June, one or two good waterings to the roots will contribute to their producing large heads. In the dry weather of meridian summer, water those not in flower twice a-week ; and those in flower, every second day. As the flower-heads show themselves, turn down some of the larger leaves, to defend them from sun and rain, and to preserve them white and close, in perfection." (Abrrcrombie.) 3551. Crop for winter use. Cockburn sows the seeds of early cauliflower in a south border in the be- ginning of July, thins to 12 or 14 inches apart, and in November finds heads produced from ten to thirty inches in circumference. He then removes them with balls, and plants them so as their heads do not touch in earth, in a shed which will keep out ten degrees of heat. All decayed leaves are taken off, and when severe frost occurs, the plants are covered with dry short hay. " By this management," he says, " I have been able to send three dishes of the cauliflowers to table every week during the autumn and winter, and shall be able to continue to do so till February." (Hort. Trans, v. 281.) 3552. Preserving during winter. For this purpose it is usual to pull up the plant entire, and hang it up in a shed or cellar, or to lay the plants in sand in cellars or sheds, covering the flower with the leaves, and being careful to remove every decayed part as it appears. When a shed or cellar is not at hand for this purpose, a mode may be resorted to which has been adopted by Smith, and described by him in the Gated. Hort. Mem., vol. i. p. 129., and which consists in burying the entire plant in a pit about eighteen inches deep, dug along the bottom of a wall. On a dry day he takes up the plant, and wrapping the leaves round the head of the flower, deposits them in the trench, the heads sloping downwards, and the roots extending upwards, so that the roots of the one layer cover the tops of another. Next, he covers up the whole closely with earth, sloping it from the wall, and beating it smooth with the back of the spade, so that rain may run off. In this way he preserves it in a good state from November to January. The best mode, however, of prolonging the cauliflower season, is by raising the plants with balls, and trench-planting them in frames, or the borders of peach or grape houses not in action, taking care to keep the soil dry, and to re- move decaying leaves ; or, where frames are in sufficient quantity, to place a few over the plants as they stand in the compartment. 3553. To save seed. " Mark and leave some of the prime plants of the thoroughly nursed early and main crops in May and June, when the flower-heads are in highest perfection ; as those of late production will not ripen seed effectually. The stools will afford ripe seed in September ; when be careful to watch the chaffinches, green-birds, &c. and to gather the branches as the seed upon them ripens. Lay them elevated from the ground, in some sunny, airy situation, to dry and harden to full maturity : after which let the seed be beaten and rubbed out, cleaned and sifted from the husky parts, spread on a cloth to dry the whole equally; and then put up for sowing the following year." (Abercrombie. ) 3554. Insects. Cauliflower-plants, when first planted out, are frequently infested with flies, or their larvae, to attract which, it is not uncommon to sow a little radish-seed on the cauliflower ground a fortnight before transplanting ; the flies preferring the tender leaves of the radish to those of the cauliflower, the latter are thus suffered to escape. SUBSECT. 7. Broccoli. Brassica oleracea, a subvariety of var. e. botrytis, L. and Dec. Broccoli, Fr. ; Italienische Kohl, Ger. ; and Broccoli, Ital. 3555. The few broccolis that were known in Miller's time are supposod to have pro- ceeded from the cauliflower, which was originally imported from the Isle of Cyprus, about the middle of the 16th century. Miller mentions the white and purple broccoli as coming from Italy ; and it is conjectured, that from these two sorts all the subsequent kinds have arisen, either by accidental or premeditated impregnations. 3556. Use. The same as the cauliflower. 3557. Subvarieties. Neill observes, that " no culinary plant is so liable to sport as broccoli ; so that new kinds, slightly different, are continually coming into notice or favor, and as speedily sinking into neglect." The common characteristic of broccoli, as distinguished from cauliflower, is color in the flower and leaves, and a comparatively hardy constitution to stand the winter. Maher observes (Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 116.), that as all plants of the brassica tribe become less alkalescent, and more palatable in proportion as they approach to a pale or white color, such varieties of broccoli will undoubtedly be preferable to pur- ple ones, if they turn out equally hardy. H. Ronalds, of Brentford, has given (Hort. Trans, vol. iii.) a Description of the different sorts of Broccoli, with an Account of the Method of cultivating them, from which we shall chiefly compose this article. The sorts which follow are placed in the order in which they come in perfection to table. 3558. Purple cape, or autumnal broccoli. This has a close, compact head, of a beautiful purple color ; the leaves are nearly entire, erect, concave, lobed at bottom, and much waved, short, and regularly sur. rounding the head ; the veins and mid-rib are stained with purple, which stain is a test of its being true ; the head is exposed to the view in growing ; in general it is not very large ; as it enlarges, the projecting parts of the flower show a greenish-white, mixed with the purple color. When boiled, the whole flower becomes green. If the season is showery, and this variety is planted in good ground, it comes as large as cauliflower. 3559. Culture of the purple broccoli. Sown about the middle of May, and beginning and end of June, it will produce in regular succession from August to December, or until frost destroy the heads. Sown in July and August, if the winter is mild, it will bring good heads in spring. When sown in the beginning of September, and the plants preserved in frames as cauliflowers, fine heads may be expected in the months of June and July. Thus, by good management, this kind may be in use during the greater part from of the year ; but it is not hardy enough to be depended on for the winter months. The plants grow one foot to one foot and a half high, and should be placed about two feet apart in every direction. 3560. Maker's mode of treating the purple broccoli is as follows : " Three crops are sown annually : the first between the 12th and 18th of April ; a second between the 18th and 24th of May ; the third between the 19th and 25th of August : these successive crops supply the family from September till the end of May. The seeds are scattered exceedingly thin, in a border of very rich light earth. Not a weed is suffered to BOOK I. BROCCOLI. 615 appear, and when the young plants have from eight to ten leaves, which is in about a month, they arc finally planted out, at the distance of two feet every way, in a piece of sandy loam, which has been well prepared for the purpose by digging, and enriching it with a large proportion of very rotten dung, frcqucntiy n.rned over to pick out every sort of grub, or insect deposited in it. The ground is kept constantly clean by hoeing whenever a seed-leaf of any weed springs up, and the loose surface is drawn together into a heap round the stem of each plant. The second crop is treated exactly as the first, but the weaker plants left in the seed-bed are permitted to remain eight or ten days longer to gain more strength. They are then trans- planted into pots of the size called sixtcens, filled with very rich compost, placing them close to each other in the shade, and duly watering the plants, till they begin to grow freely. After this, the pots are plunged in the open ground at two feet distance from each other every way, and about three inches under the general level, leaving a hollow or basin round each plant, to retain any water given to them when neces- sary. By the time the pots are filled with roots, and that autumnal rains render watering unnecessary, the basins are filled up by drawing the earth round each plant, at the same time pressing it firmly down to prevent the wind from shaking them. A few of these plants in pots sometimes show flowers too soon - and to guard them from early frost frost in December and J early frost, a leaf or two is broken clown over them. On the approach of settled anuary, all the pots are taken up and removed to a frame, pit, or shed, where they can be sheltered from the extreme severity of the winter, but have air when it is milder, and by this method a supply is preserved for the table in the hardest winters. To make broccoli succeed in pots I find, by experience, that it should be potted immediately from the seed-bed. If it is transplanted oftener the head or flower is both less in size, and runs much sooner after it forms. For the same reason, I never prick out or transplant the general crops ; and as the temperature of our climate does not suffer vegeta- tion to go on briskly from October to March, by following this method, the heads of flower will remain a long time in a state of rest after they are formed, without bursting, and heads from six to seven inches diameter are the ordinary produce of our plants. The seeds of the third crop are sown in a frame or under hand-glasses, and about the third week in October, the plants become strong enough to remove', as in the two former crops." 3561. Green cape, or autumnal broccoli. This sort differs but little from the preceding, except in coloi and in the heads, as well as the plant, proving in general larger. The leaves are long and narrow, much like those of a cauliflower; they are very little waved, and, consequently, have a general appearance of smoothness ; the veins and mid-rib are green. The head, which has some resemblance to a cauliflower, is of a greenish-white color, and is usually somewhat covered by the leaves. These two sorts are very sportive, running much into each other, and have a strong tendency to degenerate, yet are quite distinct, and when so, very beautiful. The greatest care should be taken in saving the seeds from the plants which are perfectly true. This remark applies generally to all the sorts. 3562. Grange's early cauliflower broccoli. If this sort is sown at three different times, from the beginning of May until the end of June, it will bear its heads in succession from Michaelmas to Christmas, if the weather is not severe. The leaves covering the head, defend it from slight attacks of frost, they have long naked foot-stalks, are wider and shorter than those of the green cape, are lobed at bottom, but not much waved ; the veins and mid-rib are whitish green ; the head is large and quite white. It should be planted at about two feet apart. 3563. Green close-headed winter broccoli. This is a new and good sort, apparently a seedling from the green cape, which it closely succeeds in coming into use. The plants are dwarf; leaves spreading, and moderately indented, they are numerous, much waved and large ; the veins are white ; the flower grows exposed, nearly resembling that of the green cape in appearance, and does not attain a great size. 3564 Culture. The peculiarity of this variety is, that it continues to bear during the whole of the winter, if the weather is mild. A single plantation, from seeds sown in May, Ronalds found to yield heads fit for use, through the months of November, December, January, and February. Plant from one foot and a half to two feet distance. 3565. Early purple broccoli. This is a very excellent kind, of a deep purple color ; if the true sort, it is close-headed at first ; afterwards it branches, but it is apt to come green, and too much branched, especi- ally in rich ground. The plants are from two to three feet high, growing strong and tall ; the leaves are much indented, of a purplish-green color, they spread out wide, but not long, though the stalks are so; the head is quite open from the leaves ; small leaves are sometimes intermixed with the head : the plants produce sprouts of flowers from the ala? of the leaves. 3566. Culture. When sown in April, it begins to produce in November, and continues bearing the heads and sprouts throughout the winter, in mild seasons ; if sown in June, it produces abundance of sprouts in March and April. It should be planted three feet apart in rich ground. 3567. Early white broccoli. The heads of this sort are of a close texture, and of a pure white color. It grows to about three feet in height; with erect, concave, light-green, and nearly entire leaves. 3568. Culture. To obtain heads fine and early, the seed should be sown in February, or beginning of March, on a slight hot-bed. The plants, when about three or four inches high, must be transplanted into beds of light rich earth, three or four inches apart, and defended from the frost and cold nights by a mat covering ; they will be strong enough to plant out at two or three feet distance by the end of April : under this treatment, they will produce beautiful heads in November, and continue to do so until Christmas, if the weather is tolerably mild. This sort, as well as several others, is sometimes cut in con- siderable quantities by the market-gardeners, previous to an expected frost, and kept in sheds or cellars for the supply of the market. 3569. Dwarf brown close-headed broccoli. From its resemblance, I take this to have sprung from the sulphur-colored broccoli, from which, however, it differs, by coming in earlier, as well as in the shape and color of its head ; the leaves are also shorter and broader than those of the sulphur-colored ; they are small, not much waved, dark-green, with white veins ; they grow upright, and do not cover the head at all. Most of the crowns are green on their first appearance, but soon change to large, handsome, brown heads. 3570. Culture. If sown about the middle of April, it is in use through March and April. Two feet distance is sufficient for the plants, when put out. 3571. Tall large-headed purple broccoli. This sort produces large, tall, purple heads, at two and three 3572. Culture. If sown towards the end of March, it will prove a useful kind in March and April. The plants should be three feet asunder, in good ground. 3573. Cream-colored, or Portsmouth broccoli. This is a very noble sort, exceeding all the others in size. It is of a buff or cream color, and has a very compact firm head ; its leaves are large and broad, with white veins ; they spread out widely, but the small centre leaves cover the flower. A head, sent by Oldacre from the garden of Sir Joseph Banks, to the Horticultural Society, on the 5th of May, 1819, measured more than two feet in circumference, although it was quite close. 3574 Culture. Seeds sown in the middle of April will be in perfection during the following February, March, and April. It bears near the ground. The plants should be planted three feet asunder. 3575. Sulphur-colored broccoli. A hardy and valuable sort ; if sown in April, it produces in the following April, and beginning of May, fine, compact, conical, sulphur-colored heads, some of them slightly dotted with purple. The leaves have long foot-stalks, are much indented, and of a bluish-grey color. 3576. Culture. Two feet distance will be sufficient for the plants to grow well. 3577. Spring white, or cauliflower broccoli. This sort grows very robust, with large leaves, flat and narrow, with thick veins ; the leaves encompass and compress the head, so as to render it generally in- visible when fit to cut, which is a great preservative from the frosty mornings common in the spring months. Rr 4 616 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PAKT III. 3578. Culture. Sow in March, and plant out at three feet distance. When in good ground, it will pro- duce very fine heads, perfectly white, throughout the months of April and May of the following year. 3579. Late dwarf close-headed purple broccoli. This is the latest purple broccoli, being in perfection throughout April and the greatest part of May. The plants seldom rise above a foot in height ; the flower at (irst shows small and green, but soon enlarges, and changes to a close, conical, purple head ; the leaves are short and small, dark-green, with white veins, much sinuated, deeplv indented, and forming a regular radius round the flower, giving the whole plant a singular and beautiful appearance. 3580. Culture. The seed should be sown in April, and the plants must stand from one foot and a half to two feet apart 3581. Latest green, or Siberian, or Danish broccoli. This is the latest and hardiest of all the broccolis, for the severest winters will not destroy it. The leaves are much undulated and indented, narrow and long, with a tinge of purple color in the stems. 3582. Culture. If sown towards the end of April, it will produce large, compact, green heads during the whole succeeding May. Two feet distance is sufficient for the plants. 3583. General obsei vntin.s on the culture of broccoli. All the sorts are raised from seed ; and for a bed four i'eet in width by ten feet, Abercrombie says, one ounce of seed is sufficient. 3584. Seed-bed. Ronalds, in the paper above quoted, directs the seed-beds to be pre- pared of rich mould, wull dug, and if dry, watered the evening before sowing. The seeds must be thinly sown, and the beds should be covered with mats or litter till the plants appear, the covering may then be removed, and the plants watered occasionally as the state of the weather requires ; should that continue very dry, the best method is to transplant, when the plants are about two or three inches high, into other beds about four inches asunder. Being several times refreshed by sprinklings of water, they will, in a fortnight or three weeks, be sufficiently strong for a second remove. This mode offers some advantage in giving time to clear off any crops of peas, &c. thereby obtaining ground which could not otherwise be conveniently had at the first season of planting out. The four first sorts on the list, which I consider as congeners, should be only once trans- planted, as the check their removal occasions is apt to produce the heads prematurely, which, in that case, will be small, and indifferent in quality. If the season is showery, it will be needful to cover the beds as soon as sown with netting, to keep off the birds, also to sprinkle the plants when they appear with lime-water, or to strew on them fresh - slacked lime, to destroy the slugs. In this case, when the plants are six or eight inches high, they may be planted at once at the distances recommended for each sort. 3585. Insects and diseases. In old gardens, infested, as is often the case, with an in- sect which in summer insinuates itself into the roots of all the brassica tribe, and causes a disease usually called the club, trenching the ground deep enough to bring up four or six inches of fresh undisturbed loam or earth, will probably bury the insects too deep for mischief, and provide fresh ground for the benefit of the plants. In gardens much exhausted by reiterated cropping, if this mode cannot be adopted, a good quantity of fresh loam from a common or field, dug in, would materially improve the broccoli, and be of lasting use to future crops. Broccoli, in general, succeeds best in a fresh loamy soil, where it comes, I think, more true in kind, and is hardier, without dung ; but if this situation cannot be had, deep digging, with plenty of manure, is the only remaining al- ternative to procure good crops. I believe soap-ashes, dug into the ground in consider- able quantities, to be a good preservative from the club ; and if the roots of the plants, just previously to planting, are dipped and stirred well about in mud of soap-ashes with water, its adherence will, in a great measure, preserve them from attack ; perhaps a mix- ture of stronger ingredients, such as soot, sulphur-vivum, tobacco, c. would be still bet- ter. (Hort. Trans, vol. iii.) 3586. Wood, a writer in the Caledonian Horticultural Memoirs, says he has paid a considerable degree of attention to the culture of broccoli, and has made considerable progress therein. He finds that manuring with a compound of sea-weed and horse-dung produced the largest and finest heads he had seen during a practice of fifty-four years. 3587. Culture without transplanting. M'Lcod grows cape broccoli in a very superior manner without transplanting. In the end of May, after having prepared the ground, he treads it firm, and by the assist- ance of a line, sows his seeds in rows two feet apart, dropping three or four seeds into holes two feet dis- tance from each other in the row. When the seeds vegetate, he destroys all except the strongest, which are protected from the fly, by sprinkling a little soot over the ground ; as the plants advance they are frequently flat-hoed until they bear their flowers ; they are once earthed up, during their growth. A specimen of the broccoli thus grown was exhibited to the Horticultural Society ; the head was compact and handsome, measuring two feet nine inches in circumference, and weighing, when divested of its leaves and stalk, three pounds ; the largest of its leaves was upwards of two feet long. M'Leod adopts the same mode in the cultivation of spring-sown cauliflowers, lettuces, and almost all other vegetables, avoiding transplanting as much as possible. (Hort. Trans, vol. iv. 559.) 3588. Preserving broccoli during Winter. Ronalds observes, that, though broccolis come larger and finer on the spot where they are planted, yet it is prudent to take up a part of the later " sorts in the beginning of November, disturbing the roots as little as possible, and lay them in slopingly, with their heads towards the north, only a few inches above the ground, and about eighteen inches asunder. By this means, the crown of the plant lying low, is soon covered and protected by the snow, which generally falls previously to long and severe frosts ; the plant is also rendered tougher in fibre, and hardier, by the check received in this last removal." 3589. Knight, having practised laying in his broccoli-plants in November in the usual way, found but small heads produced from them in the succeeding spring ; till he tried trenching or laying them in in the month of September, and "so low as that the centre of the stem at the top of each plant was fevel with the surface of the ground." The plants are watered, roots are properly emitted, and the earth drawn BOOK I. INSECTS. 617 round each plant before snow is apprehended. The consequence of this treatment is, that the plants are fresh and vigorous in spring, and produce large heads. (Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 305.) 3590. Nicol takes up the most forward crops of broccoli in the end of October, and lays them on their sides, so as the heads may not touch each other. In a dry soil and open situation, the plants will thus resist the severest winters. 3591. Gathering. In gathering broccoli, five or six inches of the stem are retained along with the head ; and in dressing, the stalks are peeled before boiling. Some of the sorts produce sprouts from the sides of the stems, with small heads, that should be gathered when ready, and are very good when boiled. 3592. To save seed. Wood, already mentioned, selects the largest, best fonned, and finest heads, taking particular care that no foliage appears on the surface of the heads ; these he marks, and in April lays them in by the heels in a compound of cleanings of old ditches, tree-leaves, and dung. When the head begins to open or expand, he cuts out the centre, leaving only four or five of the outside shoots to come to seed. Lifting, lie says, prevents them from producing proud seed, as it is called, or degenerating. The above method produces seed the most genuine of all the others he has tried. The sulphur broccoli he finds the most difficult to procure seed from. (Caled. Hort. Mem. vol. ii. p. 267.) Abercrombie says, broccoli-seeds degenerate in this country, and that the best seed is obtained from Italy. SUBSECT. 8. Of the Insects which infest the Cabbage Tribe. 3593. The whole of the cabbage tribe are liable to the attacks of the larvae of the Ti- 464 pula oleracea, L. on their roots, and of the caterpillars of butterflies (fig. 464.) and moths (Jig. 465.) on their leaves, as well as of aphides, or cabbage-lice, snails, and slugs. There is no re- medy for the first, excepting that of taking up, cleaning, and transplant- ing in fresh soil, in a different part of the garden ; and it is in general easier to plant afresh from the seed- bed. With respect to caterpillars, snails, and slugs, they can only be gathered by hand, and the way to do this effectually is to begin as soon as they appear, employing women or children to look them over daily early in the morning. Poultry, and especially ducks and sea-gulls, are sometimes of use in keeping these and other insects under ; a hen and chickens will devour caterpillars and aphides greedily, but are apt to scratch the soil afterwards, if not timely removed ; turkey fowls are better. Nature has 465 furnished a remarkable insect, which assists man in the destruction of the caterpillar, the Ichneumon mmifestator, L. (Jig. 466.) " The insects of this genus," Samouelle observes, "lay their eggs in the bodies of caterpillars or pupae, which are there hatched ; the larvae, ^ W/N .. 466 have no feet ; they are soft and cylindrical, and feed on the substance of the caterpil- lar, which never turns to a perfect insect, while the larvae of the ichneumon spin them- selves a silky web, and change into a pupa incompleta, and in a few days the fly ap- pears." (Entomologist's Com- panion, 68.) A nte, 2661. 618 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 3594. Preventive device. " If in a patch of ground where cabbages are to be planted some hemp-seed be sown all round the edge, in the spring, the strong smell wiiich that plant gives in vapor, will prevent the butterfly from infesting the cabbages. The Russian peasantry, in those provinces where hemp is cultivated, have their cabbages within those fields, by which they are free from caterpillars." (J". Buscli, in Hart. Trans. vol. iv. 569.) 3595. The principal disease to which the cabbage is liable, is the club in the root. The cause is doubtful, but most probably it proceeds from the puncture of an insect in depositing its eggs. The part swells and becomes a tubercle as large as a gooseberry, and sometimes the size of a hen's egg. When it has attacked plants before transplant- ation, the root on which it appears should be cut off before planting ; in the case of transplanted crops there is no remedy but taking up, cutting off, and re-transplanting. Some in planting apply ashes, lime, &c. at the roots, but nothing of this sort has been found of much advantage. In general, frequent transplanting (as pricking out twice or oftener before making the final plantation) is a palliative, as it promotes fibrous roots, and the club attacks chiefly those which are ramose. SECT. II. Leguminous Plants. 3596. The leguminous esculents are of great antiquity as culinary vegetables ; the British islands are supposed to be less favorable to them, than to most others, all the diadelphous plants of Linnaeus, or leguminosae of Jussieu, thriving best in a dry atmo- sphere, and comparatively arenaceous soil. These, it must be allowed, are more com- mon in other countries than in ours. The space occupied by this tribe in the kitchen- garden, during the spring and summer months, is very considerable ; probably amount- ing to an eighth part of the open compartments, and warm borders ; but towards autumn, as the crops ripen, it is given up to be succeeded by other crops, chiefly of the cabbage and turnip tribes. These, independently of other circumstances, having fibrous or surface- roots, succeed well to the tap-roots of the bean and pea. In cottage gardens, the bean is very profitably grown among cabbages and potatoes ; and the pea and kidneybean may occupy a space to be filled up in October with winter greens. We shall take them in the order of the pea, bean, and kidneybean. SUBSECT. 1. Pea. Pisum sativum, L. (Lam. III. i. 163.) Diad. Decan. L. and Leguminosce, J. Pois, Fr. ; Erbse, Ger. ; and Pisello, Ital. 3597. The pea is a hardy annual, a native of the south of Europe, and cultivated in this country from time immemorial. It was not very common, however, in Elizabeth's time, when, as Fuller informs us, peas were brought from Holland, and were " fit dainties for ladies, they came so far, and cost so dear." It is a climbing plant, with the legumes, or pods, commonly produced in pairs, the seeds contained in which are the part of the plant used. 3598. Tlie use of the pea is familiar in cookery. In one variety, called the sugar-pea (pois des couches, Fr. ?), the inner tough film of the pods is wanting ; and such pods, when young, are frequently boiled with the seeds or peas within them, and eaten in the manner of kidneybeans. This variety is comparatively new, having been introduced about the middle of the 1 7th century. 3599. The varieties of the pea are numerous : the principal are Early Charl ton ; an excellent earl; sort nearly equal to the genuine frame Early golden Charlton Early Nichol's golden Charlton Common Charlton Earlv single-blossomed Reading Hotspur ; long pods Dwarf marrowfat ; large, long pods Tall marrowfat ; most large, long pods Green marrowfat, Patagonian Knight's wrinkled, or marrow ; a white- blossomed, tall, luxuriant grower; the fruit of excellent flavor, cream-colored, and shrivelled when ripe and dried Spanish moratto ; largish Prussian blue ; great bearer Egg; largish White rouncival ; large, fine pods Green rouncival ; ditto Grey rouncival ; ditto Tall sugar ; large, crooked pods Dwarf sugar Crown, or rose ; of tall, strong growth; producing its blossom and fruit in a bunchv tuft at top Leadman's dwarf; a great bearer, but of small pods ; good for a latter crop, or as required for succession Spanish dwarf; of low growth, small pod Early dwarf frame; for forcing Nanterre, or earliest French pea. 3600. Estimate of sorts. " The varieties, besides differing in the color of the blossoms, height of the stalks, and modes of growth, are found to have some material differences in hardiness to stand the winter, time of coming in, and flavor of the fruit. The Charltons are not only very early, but great bearers, and excellent peas for the table ; and are therefore equally well fitted for the early crop, and forward succes- sion crops, and inferior to few even for the main summer crops. The frame-pea may, indeed, be raised without the assistance of heat for a forward crop ; and, if a genuine sort, will fruit a few days sooner than the Charlton : but it grows low, and bears scantily. The Hotspur is hardy and prolific, and makes returns nearly as quick as the Charlton, and about a fortnight before the marrowfat. The sorts already specified, therefore, embrace the best for sowings made from the end of October till the middle of January, and for late crops raised between the middle of June and the beginning of August. The fine flavor of the marrow- fat is well known. A few dwarf marrowfats may be sown in December and January, as mild weather may occur : but the time for sowing full crops of the larger kinds of peas, is from the beginning of February till the end of April. Knight's pea, one of the newest varieties, is very prolific, and retains its fine sweet flavor when full grown. The egg, the moratto, the Prussian blue, and the rouncivals, the large sugar, and the crown, are all very fine eating peas in young growth ; and, like the marrowfat, may be sown freely, according to the demand, from the third week of February, till the close of April, and, in smaller crops, until the middle of June. For late crops, in addition to the early sorts already mentioned, the dwarf sugar, Leadman's dwarf, and Spanish dwarf, are very suitable. The Leadman's dwarf is *nnll delicious pea, a great bearer, and in high request at genteel tables : but an the fruit is long in coming BOOK I. PEA. 6i9 in, it is not advisable to sow it after the third week in June ; rather BOW it in March, April, and May, and then it will be later than the Charltons raised five weeks afterwards. The Charltons and Hotspur, may be sown in May, for late full crops ; in June for a smaller supply : and in July, along with the frames for the last returns." 3601. Times of sowing. " Much that relates to this has been incidentally mentioned in the Estimate of sorts. To try for a crop as early as possible, sow, of the sort preferred as hardy and forward, a small portion on a sheltered south border, or other favorable situation, at the close of October, or rather in the course of November. Follow with another sowing in December, that, if the former should be casually cut off in winter, this coming up later, may have a better chance to stand ; and if both survive the frost, they will succeed each other in fruit in May and June. For more considerable, and less uncertain returns, either in succession to the above, or as first early and intermediate crops, sow larger portions in December or January, if open temperate weather. To provide for main crops, make successive sowing* of the suitable sorts from February till the end of May. It frequently proves, that the fruit from a sowing at the beginning of February, is not a week later than that from a crop raised in November ; nay, the February-sown plants sometimes surpass all that have stood the winter, in forward returns as well as quantity. From the middle of February make successive sowings every three weeks in the course of March, April, and May ; or twice a-month in summer, when a continued succession is to be provided till the latest period. At the close of the sowing season, July and the first week of August, sow a reduced quantity each time ; because the returns will depend on a fine mild autumn following, and whatever fruit is obtained will be small and scanty." 3602. Quantity of seed. Of the small early kinds, one pint will sow a row of twenty yards ; for the larger sorts for main crops, the same measure will sow a row of thirty-three yards. 3605. Process in sowing. " For early sorts, make the drills one inch and a half deep; and let parallel drills be two feet and a half, three, or four feet asunder. Peas that are to grow without sticks require the least room. For summer crops and large sorts, make the drills two inches deep, and four, five, or six feet asunder. As to the distances along the drill, distribute the peas according to their size and the sea- son : the frame, three in the space of an inch ; the Charltons, Hotspur, and dwarf marrowfat, two in an inch ; the Prussian blue and middle-sized sorts, three in two inches; the large marrow-fat and Knight's, a full inch apart ; the moratto, rouncivals, and most larger sorts, an inch and a half apart ; and the Pate- gonian, two inches." 3604. Soil and situation. " The soil should be moderately rich, and the deeper and stronger for the lofty growers. Peas are not assisted, but hurt, by unreduced dung recently turned in. A fresh sandy loam, or road-stuff, and a little decomposed vegetable matter, is the best manure. The soil for the early crops should be very dry, and rendered so where the ground is moist, by mixing sand with the earth of the drills. For early crops, put in from October till the end of January, let the situation be sheltered, and the aspect sunny. Before the end of December, every one or two rows should stand close under a south or south-eastern fence. In January, several parallel rows may be extended under a good aspect farther from the fence. After January, till the end of May, sow in an open situation. For the late crops, return again to a sheltered sunny border." 3605. Subsequent culture. " As the plants rise from half an inch high to two or three inches, begin to draw earth to the stems, doing this when the ground is in a dry state ; and earthing gradually higher as the stems ascend. At the same time, with the hoe loosen the ground between the young plants, and cut down rising weeds. Early crops should be protected during hard frosts by dry straw or otner light litter, laid upon sticks or brushwood ; but remove the covering as soon as the weather turns mild. If in April, May, and the course of summer, continued dry weather occurs, watering will be necessary, especially to plants in blossom and swelling the fruit ; and this trouble will be repaid in the produce. Rows partly cut off may be made up by transplanting. This is best done in March. In dry weather, water, and in hot days, shade, until the plants strike. All peas fruit better for sticking, and continue longer productive, especially the larger sorts. Stick the plants when from six to twelve inches high, as soon as they begin to vine. Provide branchy sticks of such a height as the sort will require : for the frame and Leadman's dwarf, three feet high ; for the Charlton and middle-sized, four or five feet ; for the marrowfat and larger kinds, six or eight feet ; for the rouncival, and for Knight's marrow-pea, nine or ten feet. Place a row of sticks to each line of peas, on the most sunny side, east or south, that the attraction of the sun may incline the plants towards the sticks. Place about half the number on the opposite side, and let both rows stand rather wider at top than at the ground. Some gardeners stop the leading shoot of the most early crop when in blossom ; a device which accelerates the setting and maturity of the fruit." 3606. To forward an early crop. Sow or plant in lines from east to west, and stick a row of spruce-fir branches along the north side of every row, and sloping so as to bend over the plants^ at one foot or eigh- teen inches from the ground. As the plants advance in height, vary the position of the branches, so as they may always protect them from perpendicular cold or rain, and yet leave them open to the full in- fluence of the winter and spring sun. Some cover during nights and in severe weather, with two boards nailed together lengthwise, at right angles, which forms a very secure and easily managed covering, but excludes light. A better plan would be to glaze one of the skies, to lie kept to the south, and to manage such row-glasses (fig. 467.), as they might be called, when over peas, beans, spinage, &c., as hand- glasses are managed when over cauliflower ; that is, to take them off in fine weather, or raise them con- stantly or occasionally by brick-bats, or other props, as the weather and the state of the crop might require. 467 3607. Knight sowed peas in the open air, and peas in pots on the first day of March. In the last week of the month those in pots were transplanted in rows in the open ground ; on the 29th of April the trans- planted plants were fifteen, and the others four inches high, and in June, the former ripened twelve days before the latter, (llort. Trans, v. 341.) Had a single, or even two peas only been planted in each pot, and the plants turned out with their balls entire, the crop, no doubt, would have ripened still earlier. 3608. Management of a late crop. The best variety for this purpose is Knight's marrow-pea, which may be sown at intervals of ten days from the beginning to the end of June. " The ground is dug over in the usual way, and the spaces to be occupied by the future rows of peas are well soaked with water. The mould upon each side is then collected, so as to form ridges seven or eight inches above the previous level of the ground, and these ridges are well watered. The seeds are now sown in single rows along the tops of the ridges. The plants grow vigorously, owing to the depth of soil and abundant moisture. If dry weather at any time set in, water is supplied profusely once a-week. In this way the plants continue green and vigorous, resisting mildew, and yielding fruit till subdued by frost." (Hort. Trans, ii.) 3609. Taking the crop. " The early crops are generally gathered in very young growth, often too young, when the pods are thin and the pease small, for the sake of presenting some at table as soon as possible. In the main crops there is no cause for precipitation : take them as they become pretty plump.. 620 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. while the peas are yet green and tender. Leave some on to grow old ; the young pods will then fill in greater perfection, and the plants will continue longer in bearing." 3610. To save seed. " Either sow approved sorts in the spring, for plants, to stand wholly for seed, to have the pods ripen in full perfection ; or occasionally leave some rows of any main crop ; let all the early podded ripen, and gather the late formed only for the table, as the last gleanings of a crop seldom afford good full seed. For public- supply extensive crops are commonly raised in fields. Let the seed attain full maturity, indicated by the pods changing brown, and the peas hardening : then to be hooked up and prepared for threshing out in due time, cleaned, and housed." 3611. For the method of forcing peas, see Chap. VII. Sect. XII. SUBSECT. 2. Garden-Sean. Vicia Faba, L. JDiad. Dec. L. and Leguminosce, J. Feve de ?narais, Fr. ; Jiohn, Ger. ; and Fava, Ital. 3612. The garden-bean is an annual plant, rising from two to four feet high, with a thick angular stem, the leaves divided, and without tendrils ; the flowers white, with a black spot in the middle of the wing ; seed-pods thick, long, woolly within, and enclosing the large ovate flatted seeds, for the sake of which the plant is cultivated in gardens. It is a native of the east, and particularly of Egypt, but has been known in this country from time immemorial, having, in all probability, been introduced by the Romans. " Crops of beans," Neill observes, " are very ornamental to the kitchen-garden, and render it a pleasant walk, the flowers having a fragrance not unlike those of the orange." 3613. Use. The seeds are the only part used in cookery; and are either put in soups, or sent up in dishes apart. 3614. Varieties. The following are the principal sorts planted in British gardens : Large Kentish Windsor Green nonpareil ; smallish Largest Tavlor's Windsor Mumford ; smallish middling Sandwich ; largish J Dwarf cluster, or fan ; smallest. Toker ; middling large White-blossomed ; sma smallish middling Early small Mazagan Early long-pod Early small Lisbon Large long -pod Larger sword long-pod 3615. Estimate of sorts. " The* Mazagan is one of the hardiest and best flavored of the small and early sorts. Mazagan is a Portuguese settlement on the coast of Africa, near the Straits of Gibraltar ; and it is said that seeds brought from thence afford plants that are more early and more fruitful than those which spring from home-saved seed. The Lisbon is next, in point of earliness and fruitfulness ; some, indeed, consider it as merely the Mazagan ripened in Portugal. The dwarf-fan or cluster-bean is likewise an early variety, but it is planted chiefly for curiosity ; it rises only six or eight inches high ; the branches spread out like a fan, and the pods are produced in small clusters. The Sandwich bean has been long noted for its fruitfulness ; the Toker and the broad Spanish are likewise great bearers. Of all the large kinds, the Windsor bean is preferred for the table. When gathered young, the seeds are sweet and very agreeable ; when the plants are allowed room and time, they produce very large seeds, and in tolerable plenty, though they are not accounted liberal bearers. There are several subvarieties, such as the broad Windsor, Taylor's Windsor, and the Kentish Windsor. The long-podded bean rises about three feet high, anil is a great bearer, the pods being long and narrow, and closely filled with oblong middle-sized seeds. This sort is now very much cultivated, and there are several subordinate varieties of it, as the early, the large, and the sword long-pod. The white-blossomed bean is so called, because the black mark on the wing of the blossom is wanting. The seed is semi-transparent ; when young it has little of the peculiar bean flavor, and is on this account much esteemed ; it is at the same time a copious bearer, and proper for a late crop. It may be mentioned, that Delaunay, in Le ban Jardinier, describes as excellent a new variety cultivated at Paris, which he calls the green bean from China ; it is late, but very productive ; and the fruit remains green even when ripe and dried." 3616. Times of sowing for early and successional crops. " For the earliest crop, plant some Mazagans in October, November, or December, in a warm border, under an exposure to the full sun. Set them in rows two feet or two and a half asunder, about an inch and a half or two inches deep, and two or three inches apart in the rows; or some may also be sown in a single drill, under a south wall." The most successful plan for nurturing a crop over the winter, is to sow the beans thickly together in a bed of light earth, under a warm aspect, for the intermediate object of protecting the infant plants the better from rigorous weather ; and with the view of transplanting them at the approach of spring, or when the size of the plants (two or three inches in height) require it, into warm borders, at the distances at which the plants are to fruit For this object, the width of a garden-frame is a convenient width for the bed, which should slope a little to the south. Sow two inches deep, either in drills, or by drawing off that depth of the earth with a hoe or spade, scattering in the beans at the distance of about a square inch. At the ap- proach of frost, protect the rising plants with a frame, hand-glasses, or the half-shelter of an awning of matting. In February or March, as soon as mild weather offers, transplant them into a warm south bor- der, placing one row close under a protecting-fence as far as that advantage can be given. Ease them out of the seed-bed with their full roots, and with as much mould as will adhere : pull off the old beans at bottom, and prune the end of the tap-root Then plant them at the proper final distances, closing the earth rather high about the stems. Besides the benefit of previous protection, the fruiting of the beans is accelerated about a week by transplanting. Further, if severe frosts kill the early advanced plants, or if it was omitted to sow an early crop at the general season, a quantity may be sown thick in a moderate hot-bed, in January or February, or in large pots placed therein, or in a stove, to raise some plants quickly, for transplanting as above ; previously hardening them by degrees to the full air. In all cases, as the young plants come up, give occasional protection in the severity of winter ; and hoe up a little earth to the stems. Plants which can have no other shelter should be covered lightly with dry haulm or straw ; but such a covering must be carefully removed as often as the weather turns mild. To succeed the above, plant more of the same sort, or some of the early long-pod or small Lisbon, in December or January, when mild weather, for larger supplies, in more open exposures. And in order to obtain either a more full succession, or a first general crop, plant some early and large long-pods, and broad Spanish, at the end of January, if open weather, in some warmest compartment of good mellow ground. Some of the larger sword long-pod, Sandwich, and Toker beans, may also be planted in fuller crops in February, if the weather pennit, both for succession and principal supplies. You may likewise plant any of the preceding kinds, as well as Windsors and other sorts, in full and succession crops in February, March, and April." 3617. For the main summer crops, " adopt principally the Windsor, Sandwich, and Toker, large long-pod, and broad Spanish ; all to be assigned under a free exposure, in the main compartments. The Windsor ranks first in regard to flavor ; but proves, on common soils, not so plentiful a bearer as the other late sorts. Plant also full succession crops, in March and April, and smaller portions in May and June, for late pro- BOOK I. KIDNEYBEAN. G21 duction, especially the long-pod, broad Spanish, and Toker ; also any of the early sorts, which are more successful in late planting, than the larger broad varieties. The white-blossomed bean, though the smallest of the middle-sized, is a very desirable sort to plant as secondary crops, both in the general and late planting seasons, from March till June and July ; being a great bearer, and a tender and sweet eating bean, if gathered young. Any of the other sorts named in the above list may also be planted oc- casionally, to increase the variety. For sowings in June and July, the small or early kinds again become the most proper, as their constitution fits them for standing late as well as early. Thus regular supplies may be provided for in succession, from June till September." (Abercrombie.) 3618. Quantity of seed. For early crops, one pint of seed will be requisite for every eighty feet of row ; for main crops, two quarts for every 240 feet of row ; and for late crops, nearly the same as the early. For the main crops, the quantity cultivated in proportion to that for early or late crops, is gene- rally treble or quadruple, as to the extent of ground : but a less quantity of seed is requisite for the same space. 3619. Method of sowing. " Plant all the sorts in rows, two feet and a half apart, for the smaller, or very early, or very late kinds ; and three feet for the larger : the smaller beans two inches deep, and three inches distant in the row ; the larger three inches deep, and four inches distant in the row." 3620. Transplanting. Speechly constantly transplants his early bean-crops, and considers that this plant may be as easily transplanted as cabbage, or any other vegetable. It is a practice with him to plant beans alternately with potatoes in the same row ; the rows three feet apart, and the potatoes eigh- teen inches apart in the row, so that the beans arc nine inches from the potatoes. The beans are transplanted, by which means they have the start and advantage of the potatoes and weeds, and as they come in early," may be gathered before they can possibly incommode or injure the potatoes. (Practical Hints, &c. p. 17.) 3621. Manual process. " The work of sowing is most generally effected by a dibble, having a thick blunt end, to make a wide aperture for each bean, to admit it clean to the bottom, without any narrow hollow part below : strike the earth fully and regularly into the holes, over the inserted beans. Or the planting may be performed occasionally in drills drawn with a hoe the proper depth and distance as above : place the beans at intervals along the bottom of each drill, and earth them over evenly; which method, though suitable to any kinds, may be more particularly adopted in sowing the early and other small sorts." 3622. Soaking seed in summer. " In planting late crops in June and July, if the weather be dry, it is eligible to give the beans a previous soaking for several hours in soft water ; or, if they are to be sown in drills, water the drills beforehand, then directly put in the beans, and earth them in while the ground remains moist." 3623. Subsequent culture. " As the plants come up, and advance from two to four or six inches high, hoe up some earth to the stems on both sides of each row, cutting down all weeds. Repeat the hoeing as future weeds arise, both to keep the ground about the plants clean, and to loosen the earth to encou- rage their growth. In earthing up, great care must be taken that the eartli do not fall on the centre of the plant so as to bury it ; for this occasions it to rot or fail. After earthing up, stir between the rows with a three-pronged fork. As the different crops come into full blossom, pinch or cut off the tops, in order to promote their fruiting sooner, in a more plentiful production of well filled pods." (Abercrombie.} Nicol says, " Topping is unnecessary for any but the early crops ; being practised to render them more early." Most gardeners, however, are of opinion, that topping improves the crop both in quantity and quality. It might be worth an ingenious young gardener's while to try the effect of ringing at the bot- tom of the stalk, against cutting off the top. 3624. To forward an early crop, see this article under Pea. (3606.) 3625. To produce a very late crop. Neill mentions an expedient sometimes resorted to to produce a late crop. A compartment of beans is fixed on ; and when the flowers appear, the plants are entirely cut over, a few inches from the surface of the ground. New stems spring from the stools, and these produce a very late crop of beans. 3626. Gathering. For table use, gather only such as are tender, the seeds decreasing in delicacy after they attain about half the size which they should possess at maturity. When they become black-eyed, they are tough, and strong tasted, and much inferior for eating. 3627. To save seed. " Either plant some of the approved sorts, in February or March, wholly for that purpose ; or leave some rows of the different crops ungathered, in preference to the gleanings of gathered crops. The pods will ripen in August, becoming brown and dry, and the beans dry and hard : then pulling up the stalks, place them in the sun, to harden the seed thoroughly, after which thresh out each sort separately." (Abercrombie.} 3628. To force the bean, see Chap. VII. Sect. XII. SUBSECT. 3. Kidneybean. Phaseolus, L. Diadel Decan. L. and Leguminosa, J. Haricot, Fr. ; Schminkbohne, Ger. ; and Fagiuolo, Ital. 3629. The common dwarf kidneybean, the haricot of the French, and erroneously termed French bean, is the P. vulgaris, L. (Lob. Ic. 2. p. 59.) It is a tender annual, a native of India, and introduced in 1597, or earlier. Flowers from June to September. The species called the runner is the P. multiflorus, Willd. (Schk. Han. 2. 7. 199. a.) a half hardy annual, and a native of South America, introduced in 1633. It is rather more tender than the other ; produces flowers from July to September. The stem of both species is more or less twining, though little of this propensity is shown in the dwarfish kinds. The leaves are ternate, on long foot-stalks; the flowers on axillary racemes; the corolla generally white, sometimes yellow, red, or purple. The pods are oblong, swelling slightly over the seeds, which are generally kidney-shaped, smooth, and shining, when ripe, varying in color according to the variety, and either white, black, blue, red, or spotted. The fruit of both sorts may be had in perfection from the open garden, by successive crops from June to October. Speechly suggests (Practical Hints on Domestic (Economy, p. 15.), that the culture of the kidneybean might become an object of national or field culture in this country, and be particularly useful in times of scarcity ; " more especially, as on good land it will flourish and grow luxuriantly, even in a dry parching season ; in which respect it differs from most other culinary vegetables." It is an article of field-culture in most warm countries, especially France and America. 3630. Use. The unripe pods are chiefly used in Britain as a legume, for which they 622 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. are in great estimation throughout the year ; being produced by forcing when they can- not be grown in the natural ground. They are also used as a pickle. On the continent, the ripe seeds are much used in cookery ; forming what are called haricots, of different kinds, and entering into some sorts of soups. In the end of the season, when frost is expected, the haulm of the kidneybean crop is gathered and dried like that of the pea in this country, and the ripe beans afterwards threshed out, and preserved for use through the winter. 3631. Varieties of the dwarf species : Early yellow dwarf / Early white I Black-speckled Early red-speckled Battersea white Brown-speckled Early black, or negro | Canterbury white | Dun-colored 3632. Varieties of the ncnner or climbing species: Streaked, or striped Tawny Large white dwarf. Scarlet runner ; the most plentiful and lasting bearer, preferable for the main crop of runner Large white runner ; a variety of the scarlet. The seed and blossom white, but the pods similar to the scarlet kind White Dutch runner ; bears very long smooth pods, but does not continue so long in flower as the two former Canterbury and Battersea small wl runner Variable runner. 3633. Constitution and habits. Both the above classes of kidneybeans, dwarfs, and runners, are tender in their nature, unable to grow freely in the open garden before April or May ; the seed being liable to rot in the ground from the effects of wet, if planted before the beginning of the former month, even rn a dry soil. The plants are also affected by sharp cold, and make but little progress till settled warm wea- ther. However, when sown in the proper season, from April or May through the course of summer, till the beginning of August, they succeed well, making liberal returns of fruit from June or July till October. The dwarfs require no support ; but the runners, ascending eight or ten feet high or more, require tall sticks or poles to climb upon, or lines suspended from a contiguous building or fence. They produce pods their whole length. It deserves notice, that in their voluble habit of growth, the tendrifs turn to the right, or in a direction contrary to the apparent diurnal course of the sun : this aberration from the common habits of plants has been accounted for by supposing that the native climate of the fcarlet runner will be found to lie south of the equator, and that the plant, although removed to the northern hemisphere, is still obedient to the course originally assigned to it, turning in a direction which, in its native climate, would be towards the sun. (Abercrombie.} 3634. Estimate of sorts. The dwarfs bear sowing a little sooner, and make returns quicker than the run- ners. They are, besides, more convenient to cultivate on a large scale; and the smaller pods which they produce, are esteemed by many to have more delicacy of flavor. On these accounts, it is usual to raise the larger supply from the dwarf species. The early yellow, early black, and early red-speckled, are among the most hardy and most forward ; the early white comes in a few days later, but is cf superior flavor. The Canterbury, Battersea, black-speckled, brown-speckled, dun-colored, striped, and tawny, are plentiful lasting bearers. Growers for sale, in general, depend on the Canterbury and Battersea for main crops ; but the others just named are also profitable sorts, and acceptable to the consumer. The dwarf kidneybean continues to produce young pods in abundance, and in perfection only about three weeks or a month. The runners yield a succession of fruit from the same sowing a much longer time than the dwarfs. The scarlet runner ranks first for its prolific property and long continuance in fruit ; the pods are thick, fleshy, tender, and good, if gathered while moderately young. The white variety is equally eligible for a principal crop. The Dutch runner grows as luxuriantly as hops, and is also a great bearer, in fine long pods, but not so lasting as the former. As to the smaller runner kinds : these are rather degenerate varieties of the Can- terbury and Battersea white dwarfs ; casually shooting into runners : they bear, in tolerable abundance, slender neat pods, which are very good and tender eating ; though not so eligible for a principal crop of runners as the scarlets. 3635. Quantity of seed. Half a pint will sow a row eighty feet in length, the beans being placed from two and a half to three inches apart. 3636. Soil. The soil for both species should be light and mellow, inclining to a dry sand for the early sowings, and to a moist loam for the sowings in summer. 3637. Separate culture of dwarfs. About the beginning of April, if the weather be temperate, fair, and settled, make the first sowing, or in a dry south border, or other sheltered compartment with a good aspect, or sow in a single row close under a south fence ; beginning with a small proportion of the most hardy early sorts. It is a good method to follow in a week with a second sowing in case the former should fail. You may sow for a larger crop about the middle, or twentieth of April. For the early crops, make the drills two feet asunder. The common depth is an inch and a half for the smaller-sized beans. Drop the beans in each row at this season pretty close together, as many may fail ; from one to two inches apart. Cover them in evenly the full depth of the drill. For the main crops, you may sow more fully towards the end of April ; and in full crops in May and June ; a portion once every fortnight or three weeks, of the Canterbury and other sorts, approved for a main supply. Draw drills, two feet or two and a half asunder, an inch and a half or two inches deep. Drop the beans therein, three inches apart, and earth iu the full depth of the drills. For supplies in succession, sow in July once or twice ; and make a moderate sowing at the begin- ning of August for a late and last crop. In the drought of high summer, it is advisable to accelerate the germination of the seed, by laying it in damp mould, till it begins to sprout, or by soaking it in soft water for six or eight hours previous to sowing ; and by watering the drills to receive it. Crops sown after the middle of July should be favored in situation, or the time of their bearing will be much shortened by the decline of summer. From this course of sowings, a regular succession of young green pods will be produced from June and July till October. As the plants of the different crops advance in growth, occasionally hoe and stir the ground between the rows. Cut down all weeds as they spring. Draw some earth to the stems of the plants as they rise to height, which will strengthen and forward them considerably. When advanced to full bearing, it is advisable to gather the pods in moderately young or medium growth. 3638. Culture of runners. The runner kidneybeans may be sown in a small portion, towards the end of April, if tolerably warm dry weather; but as these beans are rather more tender than the dwarf sorts, more liable to rot in the ground by wet and cold, especially the scarlets, the beginning or middle of May will be time enough to sow a considerable crop ; and you may sow a full crop about the beginning of June. Allot principally the scarlet and large white runners. Some Dutch runners are very eligible as a se- condary crop. The first crops should have the assistance of a south wall. Intermediate crops may be sown in any open compartment, or against any fence not looking north. The latest sown will continue bearing the longer under a good aspect and shelter. In sowing, draw drills about an inch and a half, or not more than two inches deep. Let parallel rows be at least four feet asunder, to admit in the intervals tall sticks or poles for the plants to climb upon. Place the beans in the drills four inches apart, and earth them in evenly, the depth of the drills. A row contiguous to a fence or building may ascend upon lines. Some may be sown in a single row along a border, or on each side of a walk ; and have the support of a slight trellis of laths and lines ; or they might be arched over with similar materials, to form a shady walk or bower. In a cold wet season, or when requisite to have a few plants more forward than the general crop, some scarlets may be sown in April, either in a slight hot-bed, or in pots, under frames or hand- glasses, to raise and forward the plants till two or three inches high : then, at the end of May, transplant BOOK I. ESCULENT ROOTS. 623 them into the open garden. As the plant* come up, and advance from three to six inches in growth, hoe some earth to the steins, cutting down all weeds. When they begin to send forth runners, place suitable supports to each row ; and conduct the tendrils to the sticks or lines, turning them in a contrary di- rection to the sun. The ascending plants will soon come into flower, podding at the joints in long succession. They are so prolific that the returns from three sowings, in May, June, and July, will last from July till October. 3639. Taking the crop. Gather the pods, both from dwarfs and runners, while they are young, fleshy, brittle, and tender ; for then are they in highest perfection for the table ; and the plants will bear more fully, and last longer in fruit, under a course of clean gathering, not leaving any superabundant pods to grow old. 3640. To save seed. Either sow a portion for that object, or leave rows wholly ungathered of the main crops, or preserve a sufficiency of good pods promiscuously. The beans saved should be the first-fruits of a crop sown at a period which throws the entire course of growth into the finest part of summer. Let them hang on the stalks till they ripen fully in August and September ; then let the haulm be pulled up, and placed in the sun, to dry and harden the seed, which should be afterwards cleared out of the husks, bagged up, and housed. 3641. Forwarding an, early crop. The kidneybean is often partially forced in hot-houses or frames, with a view to its fruiting in the open garden ; and supplies of green pods are also kept up throughout the winter and spring months, by forcing in hot-houses and pits ; for the details of both practices, see 3642. Insects. The pea, bean, and kidneybean are liable to the attacks of various insects, A^O especially the aphides in dry seasons. The Bruchus Pisi (fig. 468.) is particularly destructive to the pea, and its larva (a) is often found in the ripe pod. In gardens, the only mode of keeping ^* them under, is to cut off the part infested, and remove it with the insects attached. When ^vLt/' early crops are newly sown or planted, mice will burrow for and eat the seed, and when it be- efflan. gins to penetrate the soil, it is attacked by snails and slugs, and sometimes by birds. The usual !<$ means of defeating the attacks of these and other enemies, must always be early resorted to by the gardener. SECT. III. Esculent Roots. 3643. The esculent-rooted culinary plants delight in a light, rather sandy, deep, and well stirred soil. It must be dry at bottom ; but a moist atmosphere and moderate tem- perature are greatly favorable to the growth of almost the whole of the plants we have in- cluded in this section. Hence the excellence of the potatoe crop in Ireland, and the size to which turnips, carrots, parsneps, &c. attain in Britain and Holland, compared to what they do in France and Germany. The. space occupied in the kitchen-garden by this class of vegetables is considerable ; but as it is regulated in some degree by the quantity of the more common roots grown in the farm for culinary use, it is less subject to estimation. In most gardens, however, the esculent roots taken together may occupy as much space as the legumes. In cottage gardens, they may be considered as occupying one half of the whole, to be in part succeeded by winter greens. SUBSECT. 1. Potatoe. Solanum tuberosum, L. (Bauh. Prod. 89. t. 89.) Pent. Dig. L. and Solanece, B. P. Pomme de Terre, Fr. ; Cartoffel, Ger. ; and Porno di Terra, ltd. 3644. The potatoe is a perennial plant, well known for the tubers produced by its roots. The stem rises generally from two to three feet in height, with long and weak branches, furnished with leaves interruptedly pinnate. The flowers are white or tinged %vith purple. The fruit is a berry of the size of a plum, green at first, but black when ripe, and con- taining many small, flat, roundish, white seeds. It is supposed to be a native of South America, but Humboldt is very doubtful if that can be proved : he admits, however, that it is naturalised there in some situations. 3645. Sabine and Lambert consider it as satisfactorily proved, that it is to be found both in elevated places in the tropical regions, and in the more temperate districts of the western coasts of South America. (Hort. Trans, v. 250. ; Jour. E. Instit. x. 25.) Some tubers, said to be of the wild potatoe, have been received by the Horticultural Society, and grown by them ; they differ so little from those of the cultivated potatoe, that Sabine con- jectures, " that the original cultivators of this, vegetable did not exercise either much art or patience in the production of their garden-potatoes." (Hort. Trans, v. 257.) 3646. Sir Joseph Banks (Hort. Trans, i. 8.) considers that the potatoe was first brought into Europe from the mountainous parts of South America, in the neighborhood of Quito, where they were called papas, to Spain, in the early part of the sixteenth century. From Spain, where they were called battatas, they appear to have found their way first to Italy, where they received the same name with the truffle, taratoufli. The potatoe was received by Clusius, at Vienna, in 1598, from the governor of Mons, in Hainault, who had procured it the year before from one of the attendants of the Pope's legate, under the name of taratoufli, and learned from him, that it was then in use in Italy. In Germany it received the name of cartoffel, and spread rapidly even in Clusius's time. To England the potatoe found its way by a different route, being brought from Virginia by the colon- ists sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1584, and who returned in July 1586, and " probably," according to Sir Joseph Banks, "brought with them the potatoe." Thomas Herriot, in a report on the country, published in De Bry's Collection of Voyages (vol. i. p. 17.), describes a plant called openaiok, with "roots as large as a walnut, and others much larger ; they grow in damp soil, many hanging together, as if fixed on ropes ; they are good food, either boiled or roasted." 3647. Gerrard, in his Herbal, published in 1597, gives a figure of the potatoe, under 624 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. v TART III. the name of the potatoe of Virginia, whence, lie says, he received the roots ; and this ap- pellation it appears to have retained, in order to distinguish it from the hnttatns, or sweet potatoe (Cimvulmlus battatas), till the year 1640, if not longer. " The sweet potatoe," Sir Joseph Banks observes, " was used in England as a delicacy long before the intro- duction of our potatoes : it* was imported in considerable quantities from Spain and the Canaries, and was supposed to possess the power of restoring decayed vigor. The kissing comfits of FalstaflT, and other confections of similar imaginary qualities, with which our ancestors were duped, were principally made of these and of eringo roots." 3648. Gough, in his edition of Camden's Britannia, says, that the potatoe was first planted by Sir Walter Raleigh on his estate of Youghall, near Cork, and that it was "cherished and cultivated for food" in that country before its value was known in England ; for, though they were soon carried over from Ireland into Lancashire, Gerrard, who had this plant in his garden in 1597, under the name of Ballata Virginiann, recom- mends the roots to be eaten as a delicate dish, not as common food. Parkinson men- tions, that the tubers were sometimes roasted, and steeped in sack and sugar, or baked with marrow and spices, and even preserved and candied by the comfit-makers. 3649. The Royal Society, in 1663, took some measures for encouraging the cultivation of potatoes, with the view of preventing famine. Still, however, although their utility as an article of food was better known, no high character was bestowed on them. In books of gardening, published towards the end of the seventeenth century, a hundred years after their introduction, they are spoken of rather slightingly. " They are much used in Ireland and America as bread," says one author, "and may be propagated with advantage to poor people." " I do not hear that it hath been yet essayed," are the words of another, " whether they may not be propagated in great quantities, for food for swine or other cattle." Even the enlightened Evelyn seems to have entertained a prejudice against them : "Plant potatoes," he says, writing in 1699, "in your worst ground. Take them up in November for winter spending ; there will enough remain for a stock, though ever so exactly gathered. " The famous nurserymen, London and Wise, did not consider the potatoe as worthy of notice in their Complete Gardener, published in 1719; and Bradley, who, about the same time, wrote so extensively on horticultural subjects, speaks of them as inferior to skirrets and radishes. 3650. The use of potatoes, however, gradually spread, as their excellent qualities became better understood. But it was near the middle of the eighteenth century before they were generally known over the country : since that time they have been most extensively cultivated. In 1796, it was found, that in the county of Essex alone, about 1700 acres were planted with potatoes for the supply of the London market. This must form, no doubt, the principal supply ; but many fields of potatoes are to be seen in the other counties bordering on the capital, and many ship-loads are annually imported from a dis- tance. In every county in England, it is now more or less an object of field-culture. The cultivation of potatoes in gardens in Scotland was very little understood till about the year 1740; and it was not practised in fields till about twenty years after that pe- riod. It is stated in the General Report of Scotland (vol. ii. p. 111.), as a well ascer- tained fact, that in the year 1725-6, the few potatoe-plants then existing in gardens about Edinburgh, were left in the same spot of ground from year to year, as recommended by Evelyn ; a few tubers were perhaps removed for use in the autumn, and the parent-plant^ were then well covered with litter to save them from the winter's frost. Since the middle of the eighteenth century, the cultivation of potatoes has made rapid progress in that coun- try ; so that they are now to be seen in almost every cottage garden. The potatoe is now considered as the most useful esculent that is cultivated ; and who, Neill asks, " could, a priori, have expected to have found the most useful plant among the natural family of the Luridts, L., several of which are deleterious, and all of which are forbidding in their aspect." 3651. Use. The tubers of the potatoe, from having no peculiarity of taste, and con- sisting chiefly of starch, approach nearer to the nature of the flower, or farina of grain, than any vegetable root production ; and for this reason it is the most universally liked, and can be used longer in constant succession by the same individual without becoming unpalatable, than any other vegetable, the seeds of the grasses excepted. " So generally is it relished, and so nutritious is it, accounted," Neill observes, " that on many tables it now appears almost every day in tne year. It is commonly eaten plainly boiled, and in this way it is excellent. When potatoes have been long kept, or in the spring months, the best parts of each tuber are selected, and mashed before going to table. Potatoes are also baked, roasted, and fried. With the flour of potatoes, puddings are made nearly equal in flavor to those of millet ; with a moderate proportion of wheat-flour, bread of excellent quality may be formed of it ; and potatoe starch, independently of its use in the laundry, is considered an equally delicate food as sago or arrow-root." As starch and sugar are so nearly the same, that the former is easily converted into the latter, hence the potatoe yields a powerful spirit by distillation, and a strong wine by the fermentive process. 3652. Varieties. These are very numerous, not only from the facility of procuring new BOOK I. POTATOE. 625 sorts by raising from seed; but because any variety cultivated for a few years in the same soil and situation, as in the same garden or farm, acquires a peculiarity of cha- racter or habit, which distinguishes it from the same variety in a different soil and situ- ation. The varieties in general cultivation may be distinguished in regard to precocity ', tar dity, form, size, color, and quality. 3653. Precocity. The earliest varieties are Hog's early frame ; a small watery pota- toe, fit only for very early forcing Royal dwarf; a mealy potatoe, much grown at Perth Early Manchester ; waxy and red Common early frame j waxy Foxe's yellow seedling ; similar, but rather larger, waxy American early; much esteemed at Edinburgh Early dwarf; waxy Early ash-leaved; dry Early champion ; large M'Cree'8 early; dry. 3654. No blossoms are produced by any of the above sorts : they are roundish in form, small-sized, white, and not of the best quality. 3655. Tardity. The latest sorts are The round purple } The speckled purple, or tartan; commonly grown In The oblong purple I mossy soils in Scotland. 3656. The form of potatoes is either round, oblong, or kidney-shaped. 3657. Of the round, the most esteemed are The champion ; late and early varieties I Round red ; middle-sized, smooth The oxnoble ; very large, and of a peculiar flavor Round rough red ; ax Lancashire. not generally esteemed 3658. The oblong are The American red ; long and not thick I tatoe ; ovate, with small full eyes, The Irish red, or pink ; oblong and en- I much grown in Cheshire and Lan- tirely red, with hollow eyes I cashire, mealy and agreeably flavored. The bright-red, blood-red, or apple-po- | The red-nosed oval ; often confounded with the red kidney The oblong red ; varied with white The oblong white 3659. The kidney-shaped are The common white kidney; of a peculiar flavor esteemed by many | The red kidney ; reckoned somewhat more hardy. 3660. In size, the early sorts are the least, and the oxnoble and late champions the largest. 3661. In color, the early sorts are in general white, the oblong sorts red, and the latest sorts purple. 3662. In quality, potatoes are either watery, as the very early sorts ; waxy, as the American and Irish reds ; or mealy, as the ash-leaved early, the champion, the kidney, &c. 3663. The following list is recommended by the principal London seedsmen at the present time : For forcing in frames, or for the first crop in the open garden. Fox'g seedling | Early manley | Early mule | Broughton dwarf. For general cultivation in the open garden or field. Early kidney ; good flavor, and very early, keeps well | Nonsuch; early, prolific | Early shaw ; good early sort for general use. For main crops, arranged in the order of their ripening. Karly champion; very generally cul vated, prolific, and mealy Red-nose kidney Large kidney Bread-fruit; originated about 1810, pro- lific, white, and mealy Lancashire pink-eye ; Black skin ; mealy, white, and good e ; good , white, i Red apple; mealy, keeps the longest of any. 3664. In general, every town and district has its peculiar and favorite varieties, early as well as late, so that, excepting as to the best early kinds, and the best for a general crop in all soils, any list, however extended, could be of little use. Dr. Hunter, in his Georgical Essays, has supposed the duration of a variety to be fourteen years ; and Knight (Hort. Trans, vol. i. ) concurs with him in opinion. There are some excellent sorts of party-colored potatoes in Scotland, which degenerate when removed from one district to another ; and most of the Scotch and Irish varieties degenerate in England. The best mode, therefore, to order potatoes for seed is to give a general description of the size, color, form, and quality wanted, and whether for an early or late crop. 3665. Propagation. The potatoe may be propagated from seed, cuttings or layers of the green shoots, sprouts from the eyes of the tubers, or portions of the tubers containing a bud or eye. The object of the first method is, to procure new or improved varieties ; of the second, little more than curiosity, or to mul- tiply as quickly as possible a rare sort ; and of the third, to save the tubers for food. The method by por- tions of the tubers is the best, and that almost universally practised for the general purposes, both of field and garden culture. 3666. By seed. Gather some of the ripest apples in September or October, take out and preserve the seed till spring, and then sow it thinly in small drills. When the plants are up two or three inches, thin, them to five or six inches' distance, and suffer them to grow to the end of October, when the roots will furnish a supply of small potatoes, which must then be taken up, and a portion of the best reserved for planting next spring in the usual way. Plant these, and let them have the ensuing summer's full growth till October, at which time the tubers will be of a proper size to determine their properties. Having con- sidered not merely the flavor of each new variety, but the size, shape, and color, the comparative fertility and healthiness, earliness or lateness, reject or retain it for permanent culture accordingly. (Abercrombie.) 3667. To produce seeds on early potatoes. The earliest varieties of potatoes, it has been already re- marked, do not produce flowers or seed. Knight, desirous of saving seed from one of these sorts, took a very ingenious method of inducing the plants to produce flowers. " I suspected the cause," he says, of the constant failure of the early potatoe to produce seeds, to be the preternaturally early formation of the tuberous root; which draws off for its support that portion of the sap which, in other plants of the same species, affords nutriment to the blossoms and seeds : and experiment soon satisfied me that my con- jectures were perfectly well founded. I took several methods of placing the plants to grow, in such a situation, as enabled me readily to prevent the formation of tuberous roots ; but the following appearing the best, it is unnecessary to trouble the Society with an account of any other. Having fixed strpng stakes S s 626 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. in the ground, I raised the mould in a heap round the bases of them, and in contact with the stakes : on their south sides I planted the potatoes from which I wished to obtain seeds. When the young plants were about four inches high, they were secured to the stakes with shreds and nails, and the mould was then washed away, by a strong current of water, from the bases of their stems, so that the fibrous roots only of the plants entered into the soil. The fibrous roots of this plant are perfectly distinct organs from the run- ners, which give existence, and subsequently convey nutriment to the tuberous roots ; and as the runners spring from the stems only of the plants, which are, in the mode of culture I have described, placed wholly out of the soil, the formation of tuberous roots is easily prevented; and whenever this is done, numerous blossoms will soon appear, and almost every blossom will afford fruit and seeds." Knight, con- sidering that the above facts, which are more fully explained in the Philosophical Transactions for 1806, were sufficient to prove, that the same fluid or sap gives existence alike to the tuber, and the blossom, and seeds, and that, whenever a plant of the potatoe affords either seeds or blossoms, a diminution of the crop of tubers, or an increased expenditure of the riches of the soil, must necessarily take place, succeeded in producing varieties of sufficiently luxuriant growth, and large produce for general culture which never produced blossoms. (Hort. Trans, vol. i. 188.) 3668. By cuttings, or the layers of the stalks, or suckers. Make cuttings of the young stalks or branches, of five or six inches in length, in May or June; attending to the general directions for forming cuttings. Choose, if possible, showery weather; or strike them under a hand-glass, or in a half empty pot covered with a pane of glass, as in striking cucumber-cuttings. 3669. Layers. In June or July, when the potatoe-stalks are advanced one or two feet long, choose such plants as stand somewhat detached, and lay down the shoots on the ground with or without cutting, in the common mode of layering. Coyer them with earth about three inches, leaving the points of the shoots exposed. These shoots will emit roots at every leaf, and produce full-grown potatoes the same year, attain- ing perfection in autumn. 3670. Suckers. Remove in June, off-set sucker shoots, with a few roots to each ; plant them carefully, and they will produce a late crop like the layers. 3671. By sprouts or shoots from the tubers. In default of genuine early sorts ; or, to save the tubers for use in seasons of scarcity, the sprouts which are generally found on store-potatoes in spring, and picked off and thrown away as useless, will, when carefully planted in loose well prepared soil, yield a crop ; and this crop will be fit for use a little sooner than one produced from cuttings or sections of the same tubers, in which the buds are not advanced. Almost every thing, however, depends on the fine tilth, and good state of the ground. 3672. By portions of the tubers. This is the only method fit for general purposes. In making the sets or sections, reject the extreme or watery end of the tuber, as apt to run too much to haulm, and having the eyes small, and in a cluster ; reject also the root or dry end, as more likely to be tardy in growth, and pro- duce the curl. Then divide the middle of the potatoe, so as to have not more than one good eye in each set Where the potatoe scoop is used, take care to apply it so as the eye or bud may be in the centre of each set, which this instrument produces, of a semi-globular form. The larger the portion of tuber left to each eye, so much the greater will be the progress of the young plant. The scoop is only to be used in seasons of scarcity, when the portion of tuber saved by it may be used for soups for the poor, or for feeding cattle. The best scoop is that described and figured in Supp. Encyc. Brit. art. Agr. 3673. Size of the sets. Knight has found that for a late crop small sets may be used, because the plants of late varieties always acquire a considerable age before they begin to generate tubers ; but for an early crop he recommends the largest tubers, and he has found that these not only uniformly afford very strong plants, but also such as readily recover when injured by frost : for being fed by a copious reservoir beneath the soil, a reproduction of vigorous stems and foliage soon takes place, when those first produced are destroyed by frost, or other cause. He adds, " when the planter is anxious to obtain a crop within the least possible time, he will find the position in which the tubers are placed to vegetate by no means a point of indiffer- ence ; for these being shoots or branches, which have grown thick instead of elongating, retain the dis- position of branches to propel their sap to their leading buds, or points most distant from the stems of the plants, of which they once formed parts. If the tubers be placed with their leading buds upwards, a few very strong and very early shoots will spring from them ; but if their position be reversed, many weaker and later shoots will be produced ; and not only the earliness, but the quality of the produce, in size, will be much affected." (Hort. Trans, iv. 448.) 3674. Quantity of sets. In respect to proportioning the quantity of sets to the space to be planted, Abercrombie directs, " For a plot of the early and secondary crops, eight feet wide by sixteen in length ; planted in rows fifteen inches asunder by nine inches in the row, a quarter of a peck of roots or cuttings. For full-timed sorts and main crops, a compartment, twelve feet wide by thirty-two in length, planted in rows two feet distant by twelve inches in the row, half a peck of roots or cuttings will be required." 3675. Soil and manure. The best soil for the potatoe is a light, fresh, unmixed loam, where they can be grown without manure. Here they have always the best flavor. In a wet soil, they grow sickly, and produce watery tubers, infected with worms and other vermin. To a poor soil, dung must be applied ; littery dung will produce the earliest and largest crop ; but mellow dung, rotten leaves, or vegetable earth, will least affect the flavor of the tubers. 3676. Season for planting. " The last fortnight of March, and first fortnight of April, is the most proper time for planting the main crops ; a little earlier or later, as the spring may be forward or late, the ground dry or wet. Occasional plantings may be made in May, or even the beginning of June." (Aber- crombie.) 3677. Methods of planting. The sets of whatever kind, or the plants forwarded in pots, to be turned out with their balls entire for producing an early crop in the open air, should always be inserted in regular rows ; the object of which is to admit with greater facility the stirring the earth between, and the earthing up of the plants. The rows may be fifteen inches apart for the small early sorts ; and for the larger, twenty inches or two feet, according to the poorness or richness of the soil. In the lines traced, make holes for the sets at eight, twelve, or fifteen inches' distance, letting their depth not be less than three, nor exceed five inches. 3678. Planting on a level surface will answer on a light soil. In small gardens, the planting may be per- formed by a common large dibble with a blunt end. For planting considerable crops, a strong larger dibble, about a yard long, is used, with a cross handle at top for both hands, the lower end being generally shod with iron, and having a short cross iron shoulder about four or five inches from the bottom, as a guide to make the holes of an equal depth ; one person striking the holes, and a boy directly dropping a set into each hole. Strike the earth in upon them fully with a dibble, hoe, or rake, either as each row is planted, or when the whole planting is finished. Sometimes the process is to ooen a small hole with the spade, and to drop in a set, which set is covered in by the opening of the next hole. 3679. On strong heavy land, the planting ought to be on raised beds with alleys, or in drills on the crown of parallel ridges. The beds may either be raised by previous digging, throwing on good earth till the terrace rise to the desired height, or in the different method described below. To plant in drills, trace them at the medium distance above specified : form them to the proper depth with a narrow spade or large hoe : in these place the sets a foot or fifteen inches apart, and earth over. To avoid the inconveniences of BOOK I. POTATOE. 627 low wettish ground, whether it be arable or grass land, or a cultivated garden, potatoes are planted in raised beds four feet wide, with alleys half that width between. The beds are thus raised : Without dig- ging the surface, lay some long loose litter upon the intended beds. Upon this litter place the sets about a foot apart; and upon the sets apply more litter, equally distributed over the whole: then digging the alleys, turn the earth thereof upon the beds five or six inches deep ; or, if grass, turn the sward downward, level- ling in the top-spit to the same depth. The plants will produce very good crops. 3680. Subsequent culture. " From the March or April planting, the stems generally rise fully in May. After the plants have appeared, give an effectual hoeing on dry days, cutting up all the weeds, and stir the ground about the rising stalks of the plants. When advanced from six to twelve inches high, hoe up some earth to the bottom of the stems, to strengthen their growth, and promote the increase below : continue occasional hoeing to eradicate weeds, till the plants cover the ground, when but little further care will be required. Permit the stalks to run in full growth, and by no means cut down, as is sometimes practised ; the leaves being the organs for transmitting the beneficial influence of the sun and air to the roots, which is most necessary to the free and perfect growth of the tubers." (Abercrombie.) 3681. Pinching off the blossoms. It is now generally admitted, that a certain advantage, in point of pro- duce, is obtained bypinching offthe blossoms as they appear on the plants. The fact has been repeatedly proved, and satisfactorily accounted for by Knight, who imagines, that it may add an ounce in weight to the tubers of each plant, or considerably above a ton per acre. (Hort. Trans, vol. i. 190.) 3682 Taking the crop. " Clusters of roots in the early planted crop will sometimes by June or July be ad- vanced to a sufficient size for present eating, though still small. Only a small portion should be taken up at a time, as wanted for immediate use, as they will not keep good above a day or two. In August and Septem- ber, however, they will be grown to a tolerably good size, and may betaken up in larger supplies, though in quantities for keeping a length of time. Permit the main winter crops to continue in growth til towards the end of October or beginning of November, when the stalks will begin to decay an indication that the potatoes are fully grown : then wholly dig them up, and house for winter and spring. Let them then be taken up, before any severe frost sets in ; having, for large crops, a proper potatoe-fork of three or four short flat tines, fixed on a spade-handle. Cut down the haulm close, and clear off forward : then fork up the potatoes, turning them clean out of the ground, large and small ; and collect every forking into baskets." 3683. Housing and preserving the crop. Abercrombie recommends " housing potatoes in a close, dry, subterranean apartment, laid thickly together, and covered well with straw so as to exclude damps and frost." There they are to be looked over occasionally, and any that decay picked out. In spring, when they begin to shoot, turn them over, and break off the sprouts or shoots from each tuber, perfectly close, in order to retard their future shooting as much as possible. Potatoes so stored, will continue good all the winter and spring, till May and June. 3384. Pying (as it is called in some places) is a good method of preserving potatoes in winter. They are piled on the surface of the ground, in a ridged form, of a width and length at pleasure, according to the quantity, but commonly about five or six feet wide. This is done by digging a spit of earth, and laying it round the edge, a foot wide (if turf the better), filling the space up with straw, and then laying on a course of potatoes, dig earth from the outside, and lay upon the first earth. Put straw a few inches along the inside edge, then put in more potatoes, and so on, keeping a good coat of straw all the way up between the potatoes and the mould, which should be about six inches thick all over ; beat it close together, and the form it lies in, with the trench all round, will preserve the potatoes dry ; and the sharpest frost will hardly affect them ; in a severe time of which, the whole may be covered thickly with straw. In the spring, look over the stock, and break off the shoots of those designed for the table, and repeat this business to preserve the pota- toes the longer good. 3685. Curl disease. The disease called curl, has in many places proved extremely troublesome and injurious. It has given rise to much discussion, and to detail all the various opinions would be a useless task. It may, however, be remarked, that the expe- riments of Dickson (Caled. Hort. Mem. i. 55.) show, that one cause is the vegetable powers in the tuber planted, having been exhausted by over-ripening. That excellent horticulturist observed, in 1808 and 1809, that cuts taken from the waxy, wet, or least ripened end of a long flat potatoe, that is, the end nearest the roots, produced healthy plants ; while those from the dry and best ripened end, farthest from the roots, either did not vegetate at all, or produced curled plants. This view is supported by the observations of a very good practical gardener, Daniel Crichton, at Minto, who, from many years' ex- perience, found (Id. p. 440.) that tubers preserved as much as possible in the wet and immature state, and not exposed to the air, were not subject to curl. And Knight (Hort. Trans. 1814), has clearly shown the beneficial results of using, as seed-stock, po- tatoes whicli have grown late, or been imperfectly ripened in the preceding year. Dickson lays down some rules, attention to which, he thinks, would prevent the many disappoint- ments occasioned by the curl. He recommends, 1. The procuring of a sound healthy seed-stock of tubers for planting from a high part of the country, where the tubers are never over-ripened : 2. The planting of such potatoes as are intended to supply seed- stock for the ensuing season, at least a fortnight later than those planted for a crop, and to take them up whenever the stems become of a yellow-green color, at which time the cuticle of the tubers may be easily rubbed off between the finger and thumb : 3. The preventing those plants that are destined to yield seed-stock for the ensuing year, from producing flowers or berries, by cutting off the flower-buds ; an operation easily per- formed by children, at a trifling expense. Shirreff (Caled. Hort. Mem. vol. i. p. 60., and in the farmer's Magazine) controverts Dickson 's opinion, and accounts for the curj disease as the effects of old age, on the hypothesis that plants like animals will not live beyond certain periods, &c. The essay is ingenious, but totally speculative. Young, who has paid much attention to the subject, has brought forward a variety of facts to show- that the " curl on the young stem rising weakly arises chiefly from the two causes men- tioned by Dickson and Crichton, over-ripe tubers, or the employment of seed-stock that has been improperly kept during winter, that is, kept exposed to the light and air instead of being covered with earth or sand, or straw, so as to preserve their juices." (Caled. Hort. Mem. iii. 278.) The same view, it may be remarked, had occurred to Dr. Hunter. A Ss 2 628 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. fact ascertained by Knight deserves to be particularly noticed : it is this ; that by plant- ing late in the season, perhaps in June, or even in July, an exhausted good variety may in a great measure be restored ; that is, the tubers resulting from the late planting, when again planted at the ordinary season, produce the kind in its pristine vigor, and of its for- mer size. 3686. Crichton, who has made a variety of experiments on the effects of exposure to the air in hampers and open floors, and on exclusion of the air by covering with earth (Caled. Mem. vol. i. 44O.), concludes, " That the curl in the potatoe may often be occa- sioned by the way the potatoes are treated that are intended for seed. I have observed, that wherever the seed-stock is carefully pitted, and not exposed to the air in the spring, the crop has seldom any curl ; but where the seed-stock is put into barns and out-houses for months together, such crop seldom escapes turning out, in a great measure, curled ; and if but few curl the first year, if they are planted again, it is more than probable the half of them will curl next season." 3687. For forcing potatoes, see Ch. VII. Sect. XL SUBSECT. 2. Jerusalem Artichoke. Helianthus tuberosus, L. (Jac. Vind. 2. t. 161.) Syng. Polyg. Frust. L. and Corymbifera?, J. Poire de Terre, Fr. ; Erde Apfel, Ger. ; and Girasole, Ital. 3688. T/ie Jerusalem artichoke is a hardy perennial, a native of Brazil, and introduced in 1617. It has the habit of a common sun-flower, but grows much taller, often rising ten or twelve feet high. The season of its flowering is September and October ; but though its roots endure our hardest winters, the plant seldom flowers with us, and it never ripens its seed. The roots are creeping, and are furnished with many red tubers, clus- tered together, perhaps from thirty to fifty to a plant. Before potatoes were known, this plant was much esteemed. The epithet Jerusalem is a mere corruption of the Italian word Girasole (from girare, to turn, and soZ), or sun-flower ; the name Artichoke is bestowed from the resemblance in flavor which the tubers have to the bottoms of artichokes. 3689. Use. The roots are esteemed a wholesome, nutritious food, and are eaten boiled, mashed with butter, or baked in pies, and have an excellent flavor. Planted in rows, from east to west, the upright herb of the plant affords a salutary shade to such culinary vegetables as require it, in the midsummer months, as lettuce, turnips, strawber- ries, &c. 3690. Propagation. It is raised by planting, either some small offset tubers of the main roots, or middling- sized roots cut into pieces for sets, which is more eligible. Preserve one or two full eyes to each cutting. 3691. Quantity of sets. For a row 120 feet in length, the sets being inserted two feet apart, half a peck, or sixty roots, will be sufficient. (Abercrombie.) 3692. Culture. It will grow in any spare ordinary part of the garden ; but to obtain fine large roots, give it an open compartment of pretty good mellow ground. The season for planting is February, March, or be- ginning of April. Having digged the compartment, plant them, either by dibble, in rows two feet and a half asunder, about eighteen inches in the lines, and three or four inches deep ; or, in drills by a hoe, the same depth and distances. The plants will come up in April and May. In their advancing growth, hoe and cut down all weeds, drawing a little earth to the bottom of the stems. The root will multiply into a progeny of tubers, in a cluster, in each plant, increasing in size till September and October : you may then cut away the stems, and dig up the produce as wanting. Or, in November, when they are wholly done growing, it will be proper to take up a quantity, and lay in dry sand under cover, to be ready as wanting, in frosty weather, when the others are frozen up in the ground, or affected by the frost As the roots of this plant are very prolific, the smallest piece of a tuber will grow. In taking up the produce, you should therefore clear all out as well as possible ; as any remaining part will come up the following year disorderly, and pester the ground ; and would thus continue rising for many years, but not eligible to cultivate for a good crop. Therefore, to an- swer a demand, make a fresh plantation every year. (Abercrombie.') SUBSECT. 3. Turnip. Brassica Rapa,' L. and Dec. (Eng. Sot. 2176.) Tetrad. Siliq. L. and Crucifera, J. Navet, Fr. ; Steckrube, Ger. ; and Navone, Ital. 3693. The turnip is a biennial plant, growing in a wild state in some parts of Eng- land ; but better known as an inhabitant of the garden and the farm. In its wild state, the root-leaves are large, of a deep-green color, very rough, jagged, and gashed ; in the second season it sends up a flower-stalk, with leaves embracing the stem, smooth, glau- cous, oblong, and pointed. 3694. Use. The use of the root, boiled and mashed as a dish, in broths, soups, and stews, or entire, is familiar over all Europe. The top-shoots, from such as have stood the winter, are gathered whilst tender, and dressed as spring greens or spinage. The seed is also sometimes sown as small salading. " The navet, or French turnip, is considered a distinct species, and is the B. Napus, L. and B. N. var. /3. esculenta,Dec., or edible rape. It is a different plant from the navet of Decandolle, which he calls B. campestris, var. 7. napo-brassica." Of the true navet or French turnip cultivated in England, Dickson observes (Hort. Trans, vol. i.), " that it enriches all the foreign soups. Stewed in gravy, it forms a most excellent dish, and being white, and of the shape of a carrot, when mixed alternately with those roots upon a dish, it is very ornamental. In France, as well as in Germany, few great dinners are served up without it in one shape or other." In using it, there is no necessity to cut away the outer skin or rind, in which, indeed, the flavor BOOK I, TURNIP. chiefly resides ; scraping it will be quite sufficient. Justice observes, that it is neither fit to be eaten boiled alone nor raw ; but that two or three of them in seasoning will give a higher flavor than a dozen of other turnips. (British Gardener's Director, p. 159.) 3695. Varieties. Those in general cultivation are the Early white Dutch Early stone Common round white Large round white Yellow Dutch Aberdeen yellow Maltese golden ; an excellent and beauti- ful root Green-topped large round white; skin of the crown ereen Red-topped large white Tankard ; large oblong French (B. Naput, var. etculenta), navet de Meaux, Fr. ; small oblong Small round French, petit Berlin, Fr., teltarv, Ger. Swedish (B.campestris,\st. napo-brasiica, Dec.), Navet de Suede, Fr.; targe round, and a very hardy plant, more valued for field-culture than in gardens for the table. ns neary on a par w a, an, no sown o come n wt t, should at least succeed it, as a mer and autumn crop. In large grounds, portions of the large white green-topped, and the large -topped, may be sown for autumn and winter ; but the surest plant for winter consumption is w Dutch ; although constituted to stand intense frost unhurt, it has a fine flavor, and is very nu- 3696. Estimate of sorts. The first three sorts are the fittest for early, first succession, and main summer crops for the table. The early white Dutch is proper both for the most early and first succession crops, as is also the early stone. The common round white is highly eligible for the main crop ; and the large round white stands nearly on a par with that, and, if not sown to come in with it, should at least succeed it, as a late summer and autumn crop. white red- the yellow Dutch ; altoug consttuted to stand intense frost unhurt, it has a fine flavor, and is very nu- tritive. Small portions of any of the other sorts may be cultivated in secondary crops for variety, or to answer a particular demand. The French, or navet, is of excellent flavor. It was anciently used throughout the south of Europe, and was more cultivated in this country a century ago than it is now. It is still in high repute in France, Germany, and Holland. It is grown in the sandy fields round Berlin, and also near Altona, from whence it is sometimes imported to the London market. Before the war the queen of Geo. II I. had regular supplies sent to England from Mecklenburgh. The Swedish, for its large size and hardy nature, is extensively cultivated in fields for cattle : it is also occasionally raised in gardens for the table, to use in winter and spring like the yellow Dutch. 3697. Seed estimate. For a seed-bed four feet and a half by twenty-four, the plants to remain and be thinned to seven inches' distance, half an ounce. 3698. Time of sowing. This root can be obtained most part of the year, by sowing every month in spring and summer. Make first, a small sowing in the last fortnight of March, or the first days of April, for early turnips in May and June ; but, as these soon fly up to seed the same season, adopt a larger early sowing about the middle of April. The first main sowing should follow at the beginning, or towards the end of May, for roots to draw young about the end of June, and in full growth in July and August. Sow full crops in June and July, to provide the main supplies of autumn and winter turnips. Make a final smaller sowing in the second or third week of August, for late young crops, or to stand for the close of winter and opening of spring : the turnips of this sowing continue longer than those of the previous sowings before they run in the spring. As the crops standing over winter shoot up to seed-stalks in February, March, or April, the root becomes hard, stringy, and unfit for the table. Make the sowings a day or two before or after the prescribed times for the opportunity of showery weather ; or, if done at a dry time, give a gentle watering. 3699. Soil and situation. The turnip grows best in a light moderately rich soil, broken fine by good tilth. Sand or gravel, with a mixture of loam, produces the sweetest-flavored roots. In heavy excessively rich land, the plant sometimes appears to flourish as well ; but it will be found to have a rank taste, and to run more speedily to flower. A poor, or exhausted soil, ought to be recruited with a proportion of manure suited to the defect of the staple earth. Dung, when requisite, should have been laid on the preceding autumn ; for when fresh, it affords a nidus for the turnip-fly. Let the early crop have a warm aspect, and the lightest driest soil. Sow the crops raised after the first of May in the most open exposure. 3700. Process in sowing, and precautions against the fly. Let the ground be well broken by regular dig- ging, and neatly levelled to receive the seed. Procure bright well-dried seed. At a season when the turnip-fly is not apprehended, the seed may be put into the ground without any preparation, either alone or mixed with a little sand ; but in the hot weather of summer, it is advisable to use some cheap and effec- tual preventive of the fly. It appears from a trial of Knight, at the suggestion of Sir Humphrey Davy, that lime slacked with urine, and mixed with a treble quantity of soot, if sprinkled in with the seed at the time of sowing, will protect the seeds and germs from the ravages of this pernicious insect ; but this anti- dote cannot be conveniently applied unless the sowing be in drills. A yet simpler remedy, found by Mean to be perfectly successful, is, to steep the seed in sulphur-water, putting an ounce of sulphur to a pint of water, which will be sufficient for soaking about three pounds of seed. (Abercrombie.) 3701. Arcii. Gorrie, a Scottish gardener of merit, tried steeping the seed in sulphur, sowing soot, ashes, and sea-sand, along the drills, all without effect. At last, he tried dusting the rows, when the plants were in the seed-leaf, with quick-lime, and found that effectual in preventing the depredations of the fly. " A bushel of quicklime," he says, " is sufficient to dust over an acre of drilled turnips ; and a boy may soon be taught to lay it on almost as fast as he could walk along the drills. If the seminal leaves are powdered in the slightest degree, it is sufficient ; but should rain wash the lime off before the turnips are in the rough- leaf, it may be necessary to repeat the operation if the fly begin to make its appearance." (Cal. Hort. 3702 Mixing equal parts of old seed with new, and then dividing the mixture, and steeping one half of it twenty-four hours in water, has often been tried with effect, and especially by fanners. By this means, four different times of vegetation are procured, and consequently four chances of escaping the fly. Radish- seed is also frequently mixed with that of the turnip, and the fly preferring the former, the latter is allowed 3703. Neill says, " one of the easiest remedies, is to sow thick, and thus ensure a sufficiency of plants both for the fly and the crop." But the most effectual preventive on a large scale is found in sowing late, where that can be done ; the fly in its beetle state having fed on other herbage, and disappeared before the turnip comes into leaf. 3704. Abercrombie directs to " sow broad-cast, allowing half an ounce of seed for every 100 square feet, unless some particular purpose will be answered by drilling. In the former method, scatter the seed regu- garly and thinly : in dry weather, tread or roll it in lightly and evenly ; but after heavy showers, merely beat it gently down ; rake in fine. Let drills be an inch deep, and twelve or fifteen inches asunder. In the heat of summer it is of great importance to wait for rain, if the ground be too extensive to be properly watered ; for the fermentation caused by copious rain and heat gives an extraordinary quick vegetation to 1, which in a few days will be in the rough leaf, and out of all danger from the fly. This insect is the seed, tut; Seta, WHICH ill a lew uaja WIJLJ uc ui Mic luugn muy iivi wuv \JM. ** <- ^- ~~- weakened or killed by drenching showers, and does no injury to the turnip when much ram falls. It is de. sirable to have the last sowing finished by the twentieth of August." 3705 Reparation of a destroyed sowing. When a crop is destroyed by the fly, the necessary reparation x> immediately to dig or stir the ground, and make another sowing; watering soon, and occasionally after- wards, unless rain falls, 3706. Subsequent culture. " As soon as the plants have rough leaves about an inch broad, hoe and thin them to six or eight square inches' distance, cutting up all weeds. As the turnips increase in the root, a part may be drawn young by progressive thinnings, so as to leave those designed to reach a full size ulti- mately ten or twelve square inches. Water garden-crops sometimes in hot weather. One great advantage Ss 3 630 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. attending the cultivation of the navet is, that it requires no manure whatever ; any soil that is poor and light, especially if sandy, suits it, where it seldom exceeds the size of one's thumb or middle finger ; in ricli manured earth, it grows much larger, but is not so sweet or good in quality." (Justice and Dickson.) 3707. Taking the crop and preserving it by housing. "In the successive crops, begin to draw as above in a thinning order, that such others as are coming forward may have room to enlarge in succession ; by which means a regular supply will be procured till March or April of the second season ; specific sorts being sufficiently hardy to continue good throughout our ordinary winters. But of the winter crops for the table, draw a portion occasionally in November, December, or whenever there is an appearance of the frost setting in severe. Cut the tops off close, and house the roots in some lower shed or cellar, laid in sand, ready for use while the ground is frozen." Instead of cutting the top and roots close off, some prefer leaving about an inch of the top, and the whole of the root ; and, when the bulbs are kept in a sufficiently cool store, this seems preferable, as more likely to retain the sap. (Abercrombie.} 3708. Turnip-tops. These are to be gathered from among the earliest spring-produced leaves, either from the crown, or flower-stalk. They are equally good from any of the varieties, and less acrid from those of the Swedish. Sometimes very late sowings are made in September and October, which never bulb, but which are preserved entirely for thin produce, as greens in spring. 3709. Field-turnips. Where a family can be supplied from the field, the roots will always be found of a better flavor than those produced in the garden ; and the same remark applies to all the brassica tribe, excepting the cauliflower and broccoli, and to potatoes and most tuberous roots. 3710. To save seed- " Either leave, in the spring, some of the best sound roots of the winter-standing crop, or leave, in May or June, a part of the spring-sown crop of the same year : or, to be more certain of good kinds, transplant, in November or February, a quantity of full-grown well-shaped roots of the autumn or winter crop, into large, deepish drills, two feet asunder ; inserting the bottom fibre into the nether ground, and the main root fully to the bottom of the drill ; and earth well over. The plants will shoot in large branchy stalks in summer, and ripen seed in July or August." (Abercrombie.) It is preferable, however, to procure turnip-seed, as indeed that of most other vegetables, from the regular seedsmen ; as the seed-farmers have oppor- tunities of keeping the sorts distinct, which cannot be had within the precincts of a walled garden. 3711. Insects and diseases. (See Process in Sowing, supra.) The club or anbury is the principal disease to which turnips in gardens are liable, for which we know of no palli- ative but good culture, as turnips cannot be transplanted like the cabbage tribe. (See SECT. I. SUBSECT. 8.) SUBSECT. 4. Carrot. Daucus carota, L. (Eng. Bot. t. 1174.) Pent. Dig. L. and Umbelliferts, J. Garotte, Fr. ; Gelbe Rube, Ger. ; and Carota, Ital. 3712. The carrot is a hardy biennial, and common in many parts of Britain, in sandy soils, and by road-sides. It is known in many places by the name of bird's nest, from the appearance of the umbel when the seeds are ripening. The leaves are pinnatifid and much cut : the plant rises to the height of two feet, and produces white flowers in June and July, succeeded by rough, hispid seeds, which ripen in August. The root of the plant, in its wild state, is small, dry, sticky, of a white color, and strong-flavored ; but the root of the cultivated variety is large, succulent, and of a red-yellow, or pale straw-color. 3713. Use. It is used in soups and stews, and as a vegetable dish. Parkinson informs us, -that in his day, ladies wore carrot-leaves in place of feathers. In winter, an elegant chimney ornament is sometimes formed, by cutting off' a section from the head or thick end of a carrot containing the bud, and placing it in a shallow vessel with water. Young and delicate leaves unfold themselves, forming a radiated tuft, of a very hand- some appearance, and heightened by contrast with the season of the year. 3714. The varieties of the carrot in common cultivation are Large red, or field carrot; grows to a Orange carrot; large, long root, of an I small early crop. Also for shallow large size, and is chiefly cultivated I orange color; best sort for the main I soils in fields and in farmers' gardens for I crop I Late horn ; same characteristics ; but coloring butter I Early horn ; short, smaller root ; for a ' suited for a late crop. 3715. Christie enumerates the following varieties, as having been grown in the garden of the Horticultural Society, some of which are foreign sorts newly introduced : Horn carrott. Early red, common early, long horn I red, purple ; and the altringham, or superb, originally Long carrott. White yellow, long yellow, long orange, long | from Cheshire. (Hart. Trant. vol. iv. p. 388.) 3716. Soil. The carrot requires a light mellow soil, mixed with sand, which should be dug or trenched one or two spades deep, breaking well all the lumpy parts, so as to form a porous bed, and an even sur- face. The orange and red sorts, on account of their longer roots, require a soil proportionally deeper than the horn. 3717. Seed estimate, and sawing. The seeds have numerous forked hairs on their borders, by which they adhere together, and therefore should, previously to sowing, be rubbed between the hands, and mixed with dry sand, in order to separate them as much as possible. They are also very light, and there- fore a calm day must be chosen for sowing ; and the seeds should be disseminated equally, and trodden in before raking. Previously to sowing, if convenient, the seed should be proven, by sowing a few in a pot. and placing it in a hot-bed or hot-house, as it is more frequently bad than most garden-seeds. For a bed four and a half feet by thirty, one ounce will be requisite, and the same for one hundred and fifty feet of drill-row. 3718. Times of sowing. To have early summer carrots, sow on a warm border in the beginning of February ; or, to have them still more forward, sow in a moderate hot-bed, giving copious admissions of air. In the open garden, " begin with the early horn in the last fortnight of February, or first week of March, as dry, fine, and open weather may occur. The first-sown beds should be assigned a favorable situation, and covered for a time with haulm. Follow with the orange in the first fortnight of March, BOOK I. PARSNEP. 6S1 and make successive sowings thence till the 20th of April, for main crops. Add smaller sowings twice in May, for plants to draw young late in summer: also sow a few at the commencement of July for a later succession of young carrots in summer and autumn. Lastly, in the beginning of August, two separate small sowings may be made, for plants to stand the winter, and afford young roots early in spring, March and April." 3719. Culture. " When the plants are up two or three inches hi growth, in May and June, they will require thinning and clearing from weeds, either by hand or small hoeing. Thin from three to five inches' distance such as are designed for drawing in young and middling growth. But the main crop, intended for larger and full-sized roots, thin to six or eight inches' distance. Keep the whole clean from weeds in their advancing young growth. Some of small and middling growth will be fit for drawing in June and July ; large sizeable roots, in August and September ; and those of full growth, by the end of October." (Abercrombte.) 3720. Preserving during winter. " Carrots are taken up at the approach of winter, cleaned, and stored among sand. They may be built very firm, by laying them heads and tails alternately, and packing with sand. In this way, if frost be excluded from the store-house, they keep perfectly well till March or April of the following year. Some persons insist that the tops should be entirely cut off at the time of storing, so as effectually to prevent their growing ; while others wish to preserve the capability of veget- ation, though certainly not to encourage the tendency to grow." v3721. To save seed. Plant some largest best roots in October, November, or the last fortnight of February, two feet apart ; insert them a few inches over the crowns. They will yield ripe seed in autumn, of which gather only from the principal umbel, which is likely not only to afford the ripest and largest seed, but the most vigorous plants. A considerable quantity of carrot-seed for the supply of the London seedmen is raised near Weathersfield, in Essex ; and much is imported from Holland. 3722. Insects. Carrots, when they come up, are apt to be attacked by insects like the turnips ; the most approved remedies for which are thick sowing, in order to afford both a supply for the insects and the crop ; and late sowing, especially in light soils, thus per- mitting the grubs to attain their fly state before the seed comes up. SUBSECT. 5. Parsnep. Pastinaca sativa, L. (Flor. Dan. t. 1206.) Pent. Dig. L. and Umbelliferce, J. Panais, Fr. ; Pastinake, Ger. ; and Pastinaca, Ital. 3723. The parsnep is a biennial British plant, common in calcareous soils by road-sides near London. The wild variety is figured in English Botany, t. 556. The garden- parsnep has smooth leaves, of a light or yellowish-green color, in which it differs from the wild plant, the leaves of which are hairy and dark -green ; the roots also have a milder taste : it does not, however, differ so much from the native plant, as 1 the cultivated does from the native carrot. 3724. Use. The parsnep has long been an inmate of the garden, and was formerly much used. In Catholic times, it was a favorite Lent root, being eaten with salted fish". " In the north of Scotland," Neill observes, " parsneps are often beat up with potatoes and a little butter ;" of this excellent mess the children of the peasantry are very fond, and they do not fail to thrive upon it. In the north of Ireland, a pleasant table beverage is prepared from the roots, brewed along with hops. Parsnep wine is also made in some places ; and an excellent ardent spirit, distilled after a similar preparatory process, to that bestowed on potatoes destined for that purpose. 3725. Varieties. There is only one variety in general cultivation in Britain ; but the French possess three, the Coquaine, the Lisbonaise, and the Siam. The Coouaine, Dr. Maculloch informs" us (Caled. Hart. Mem, vol. i. p. 408.), is much cultivated in Guernsey and Jer- sey. The roots run sometimes four feet deep, and are rarely so small in circum- ference as six inches, having been known to reach sixteen. The leaves of this variety grow to a considerable height, and proceed from the whole crown of the root The Lisbonaise does not extend to so great a depth as the cojuaine ; but the root is equally good in quality, and what is lost in length is gained in thickness. The leaves are small and short, and only proceed from the centre of the crown The Siam has a root of a yellowish color, not very large, but tender, and more rich in taste than the other varieties. 3726. Soil. The soil most proper for the parsnep should be light, free from stones, , and deep. It should be dug or trenched before sowing at least two spits deep ; and the manure should either be perfectly decomposed, or, if recent, deposited at the bottom of the trench. ' 3727. Seed estimate, and sawing. Sow in the end of February, or in March, but not later than April ; ' and for a bed five feet by twenty, the plants to remain thinned to eight inches' distance, half an ounce of seed is the usual proportion. Having prepared either beds, four or five feet wide, or one continued plot, sow broad-cast, moderately thin, and rake the seed well into the ground. 3728. Culture. When the plants are about one, two, or three inches high, in May or June, let them be thinned and cleared from weeds, either by hand, or by small hoeing j thinning them from eight or twelve inches' distance. Keep them afterwards clean from weeds till the leaves cover the ground, after which no further culture will be required. The roots will be pretty large by the end of September, from which time a few may be drawn for present use : but the parsnep is far best at full maturity, about the close of October, indicated by the decay of the leaf. The root will remain good for use till April and May following. 3729. Preserving during winter. The parsnep is not so liable as the carrot to be hurt by frost, if left in the ground. But it would be proper, in the beginning of November, when the leaves decay, to dig up a portion of the roots, and to cut the tops off close, laying them in sand, under cover, ready for use in hard frosty weather. The rest will keep good in ground till they begin to shoot in the spring : then, in February or March, dig them upj cut the tops off; and, preserved in sand, the root will remain till about the end of April. 3730. To save seed. " Transplant some of the best roots in February, two feet asunder, inserted over the crowns ; they will shoot up in strong stalks, and produce large umbels of seed, ripening in autumn." (Abercrombie.} Ss 4 032 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. SUBSECT. 6. Red Beet. Beta vulgaris, L. (Schk. Han. i. t. 56.) Pent. Dig. L. and Chenopodece, B. P. Betterave, Fr. ; Rothe Rube, Ger. ; and Barba Biettola, Ital. 37S1. The red beet is a biennial plant, rising with large, oblong, thick, and succulent leaves, generally of a reddish or purple color ; the roots often three or four inches in dia- meter, of a foot or more in length, and of a deep-red color. It produces greenish flowers in August. The red beet is a native of the sea-coast of the south of Europe ; it was cultivated in this country by Tradescant, the younger, in 1656, and then called beet rave (or beet-radish), from the French name betterave. 3732. Use. The roots are boiled and sliced, and eaten cold, either by themselves, or in salads ; they also form a beautiful garnish, and are very much used as a pickle. Some consider the green-leaved variety as more tender in the roots than the red-leaved sort ; other prefer those with a few small dark-red leaves. From one variety, having a red skin, but white flesh, sugar is prepared in some parts of France and the Netherlands ; but this manufacture, introduced under Buonaparte's reign, is now almost entirely given up in favor of West India produce. The roots, dried and ground, are sometimes used as " a supplement to coffee," and dried in an oven in thin slices : they are also used in comfitures. (N. Cours d? Agricultur, art. Bette.) 3733. Varieties. These are numerous, but the principal are Th. of the roots, which are very strong, are cut away ; and the root is put in cold water, on the fire, not in water previously boiling." 3999. Varieties. These are The common upright Italian The large hollow upright The solid-stalked upright The large red-stalked upright The turnip-rooted, or celeriac, the & ri-rave, of the French, and the knott- cellerie, of the Germans. This is hardier than the other kinds, and will continue longer in spring. It is grown to P. large size in the neighborhood of Hamburgh, and sometimes imported for the London market. 4000. Estimate of sorts. The first three sorts are preferable for general culture. The red variety is rather coarse for salads, but it is hardy to stand the winter, and well aflapted for soups and stews. The turnip-rooted is cultivated on account of its root, which is fit for use in September and October, and may be preserved in sand through the winter. 4001 . Propagation. All the sorts are raised from seed ; and half an ounce is reckoned sufficient for a seed-bed four feet and a half wide by ten feet in length, of the upright sorts ; but for celeriac, a quarter of an ounce will be enough for a bed four feet square. 4002. Soil. Celery delights in a soil rather moist, rich in vegetable mould, but not rank from new unrotted dung. 4003. Times of solving. The most forward crop is slightly forced : any of the varieties may be sown in the spring, in the open garden, at two or three different times, from the 21st of March till the first week in May; but the principal sowing should be made in the first fortnight of April. 4004. Early crop. "For early summer and autumn celery: sow a small portion towards the end of February, in a moderate hot-bed. When the young plants are about two inches high, prick out some into a warm border, two or three inches apart, or rather into a second slight hot-bed, if before the 21st of March, as well to protect the plants as to expedite their growth for final planting. As soon as the leaves are six inches high, in May or June, transplant them into trenches for blanching, as directed below for the main crops, but as these early-sown plants will not continue long in full growth, before many of them will pipe or run, you should plant only a moderate crop, for a temporary supply : when they are advanced in the trenches from eight to twelve inches in growth, begin to earth them up several inches on both sides each row ; continue earthing up by degrees as they rise higher, till they are whitened from six to twelve inches in length ; when they may be digged up as wanted." 4005. Main crops. " To raise the main crops for summer, autumn, and winter, make a considerable sowing at the commencement of April. Sow in beds of light mellow earth, and rake in the seed lightly and regularly. In very dry weather, give moderate watering both before and after the plants come up. When they are two, three, or four inches high, thin the seed-bed, and prick out a quantity at successive times into inter- mediate beds, three or four inches asunder. Water those removed, and till they have struck." 4006. Judd sows about the middle of January in a warm situation, on very rich ground, protecting it by mats at night. When the plants are from two to three inches high, he pricks out into a nursery-bed, immersing the plants, as he draws them, in water, so as they may remain moist while out of ground. The plants remain in the nursery-bed till they become " very strong." (Hort. Trans, vol. ii.) 4007. Walker, a gardener, near Manchester, grows the red celery ; sows for the early crop about the 1st of March, and for the late crop about the 1st of April " The seed-bed is formed of fresh, dark, loamy soil, mixed with old rotten dung, half and half, and placed on a hot-bed. The nursery or " transplanting bed is formed with old hot-bed dung, very well broken, laid six or seven inches thick, on a piece of ground which has lain some time undisturbed, or has been made hard by compression. The situation should be sunny. The plants are set six inches apart in the dung, without soil, and covered with hand-glasses. They are watered well when planted, and frequently afterwards. By hardening the soil under the dung in which the plants are set, the root is formed into a brush of fibres ; and by thus pre- venting the pushing of a tap-root, the plant never runs to seed before the following spring." (Caled. Hort. Mem. voL ii.) 4008. Transplanting into trendies. " When either the plants left in the seed-bed, or those removed, are from six to twelve inches high, or when the latter have acquired a stocky growth, by four or five weeks' nurture in the intermediate bed, transplant them into trenches for blanching. For this purpose allot an open compartment. Mark out the trenches a foot wide, and from three feet to three and a half distance ; dig out each trench lengthwise, a spade in width, and a light spit deep, that is, six or eight inches. Lay the excavated earth smoothly in the intervals, making the edges of the trenches equally full and straight ; also loosen the bottom moderately, in a level order, to receive the plants. Before inserting them, it would essentially strengthen the soil to apply some good rotten dung in each trench two or three inches thick, and let it be digged in at the bottom regularly, a moderate depth. Then having lifted the plants, just trim any long straggling tops of the leaves and fibres of the roots ; also slip off side shoots ; plant a single row along the bottom of each trench, four or five inches apart. Give a good watering directly ; and occasionally after, if the weather be dry, till the plants take root and show a renewed growth. Continue planting out a monthly succes- sion in June, July, August, and September ; thus providing for a supply from July and August of the present summer throughout the course of autumn and winter, till May in the following spring." 4009. Judd prepares his ground for transplanting, by trenching it two spades deep, mixing with it in the operation a good dressing of well reduced dung from the old forcing-beds. He says, " I give it a second trenching, that the dung may be the better incoqwrated with the mould, and then leave it in as rough a state as possible, till my plants are ready to be put out. In the ground thus prepared, 1 form trenches twenty inches wide, and six inches deep, at six feet distance from each other, measuring from the centre BOOK I. CELERY. 6.59 of each trench. Before planting, I reduce the depth of the trenches to three inches, by digging in suf- ficient dung to fill them so much up. At the time of planting, if the weather be dry, the trenches are well watered in the morning, and the plants are put in, six inches apart, in the row, in the evening, care being taken by the mode above mentioned, to keep the fibres quite wet whilst out of ground ; as they are drawn from the nursery-bed, the plants are dressed for planting, and then laid regularly in the garden-pan. The trenches in which my rows of celery are planted, being so very shallow, the roots of the plants grow nearly on a level with the surface of the ground : this I consider particularly advantageous ; for as con- siderable cavities are necessarily formed on each side when the moulding takes place, all injury from stag- nant water or excess of moisture is prevented. The trenches, when planted, are watered as may be required." He adds, " that he prepares his ground for celery during the winter, and avoids putting much of a crop in the space between the trenches, especially one that grows tall, as he finds celery does best, when it grows as open as possible." 4010. Walker makes his trenches at four feet distance, and eighteen inches wide, twelve deep, and filled nine inches with a compost of fresh strong soil, and well rotted dung ; three fourths dung, and one fourth soil. Old hot-bed dung-is the best. The plants should be taken up with as much dung as will conveniently adhere to the roots, and the side shoots are removed from the stems ; they are then set with the hand at nine or ten inches apart in the centre of each trench ; it is necessary to water well until they are ready to be earthed up, but not afterwards. 4011. Landing up. As the plants in the trenches rise from ten to fifteen inches high, Abercrombie begins to land up for blanching, observing " to trim in the earth gently, when first raised to the stems, with a hoe or spade, but mostly the latter. When the plants are of more advanced growth, earth them up equally on both sides each row, three, four, or five inches, according to the strength and height of the different crops. Repeat this once a week or fortnight, till by degrees they are landed up from twelve inches to two feet, in order to blanch them of some considerable length. Continue thus landing up the different crops from July till February. As the autumnal and main winter crops attain full growth, give them a final landing up near the tops, which will increase the length of the blanched part, and also protect the latter crops more effectually during the winter." 4012. Judd, in landing up celery, does " not think it well to load the plants with too much mould^t first ; the two first mouldings, therefore, are done very sparingly, and only with the common draw-hoe, forming a ridge on each side of the row, and leaving the plants in a hollow, to receive the full benefit of the rain and waterings. When the plants are strong enough to bear six inches height of mould, the moulding is done with the spade, taking care to leave basis enough to support the mass of mould which will ultimately be used in the ridge, and still keeping for some time the plants in a hollow, as before directed. The process of moulding is continued through the autumn, gradually diminishing the breadth of the top, until at last it is drawn to as sharp a ridge as possible to stand the winter. In the operation of moulding it is necessary, in order to prevent the earth from falling into the heart of the plant, to keep the outer leaves as close together as possible ; for this purpose, before I begin the moulding, I take long strands of bass matting, tied together till of sufficient length to answer for an entire row ; and I fasten this string to the first plant in the row, then pass it to the next plant, giving it one twist round the leaves, and so on, till I reach the other end, where it is again fastened ; when the moulding is finished, the string is easily unravelled, by beginning to untwist it at the end where it was last fastened." 4013. Walker " having removed the lateral shoots, the leaves of each plant being held together with one hand, the soil, pulverised, is drawn round with the other, taking care not to earth up too high at once, nor too close. The heart should always be left quite free. This may be repeated about once a fortnight, until the plants are ready for use." 4114. Late crop. " For late spring celery to stand till the end of May in the returning spring, without running considerably, it is expedient to make a small late sowing at the commencement of May. The plants when six weeks old may be pricked on interme- diate beds in rows, six inches by three asunder ; to remain till September or October ; then transplant them into moderate trenches ; as they advance in growth, earth them up a little in winter ; and, finally, in the spring, in February or March." 4015. Occasional shelter. " On the approach of frost, take up a part of the crop, and lay it by under dry sand for winter use. To preserve the plants left in the bed, lay some long dry litter over the tops; which remove in every interval of mild weather." It is a common complaint that very fine-looking celery is often found to be rotten at the base of the leaf-stalks ; the fact being, that when celery is full grown and the blanching com- pleted, it begins to decay, and will not keep good in the ground for more than a month at most. Some, therefore, take up and preserve in dry sand ; but in that situation it soon becomes tough and dry. The best mode seems to be that of forming successive plantations." 4016. Taking the crop. " It is best to begin at one end of a row, and dig clean down to the roots, which then loosen with a spade, that they may be drawn up entire without breaking the stalks." 4017. Cultivation of celeriac. The times of sowing are the same as for the other sorts. Celeriac requires a rich well manured soil, and, according to an account communicated by Lord Stanhope to Sabine (Hort. Trans, iii.), the plants are raised on a hot-bed under glass, and transplanted when two or three inches high to another hot-bed, and set one inch and a half apart. " In the beginning or middle of June they are transplanted into a flat bed in the open air, at the distance of fifteen inches from each other, and not in trenches like other celery. They must be abundantly watered as soon as they are set out, and the watering must be repeated every other day, or, if the weather should be warm, every day. As they increase in size, they will require a greater quantity of water, and they must be occasionally hoed. The roots will be fit for use in September or October." In a note to this paper, Sabine states, that he has been informed, that Uu 2 660 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. the plan of giving excess of water is peculiar, and that the vigorous growth of the plant is more dependent on richness of soil than on any other cause. Abercrombie directs to earth up the bulbs four or five inches, to blanch them when they are full grown. 4018. To save seed. " Either leave some established plants in the spring where grow- ing ; or in February or March dig up a competent number, cut down the top leaves, and set the plants in the ground, full two feet asunder. They will produce seed in autumn." 4019. Walker grows only red celery ; and in preparing plants for seed, chooses the most solid, of the reddest color, and the smallest size. When taken out of the transplantinp-bed, the lateral shoots being removed, they should be planted in a dry warm situation, where the seed will ripen well. SUBJECT. 6. Mustard. Sinapis, L. Tetradynamia Sttiquosa, L. and Crudferce, J. Seneve, Fr. ; Senf, Ger. ; and Senapa, Ital. 4020. Of mustard there are two species in cultivation, the black and the white ; an- nuals, and natives of Britain. 4021. The white mustard is the Sinapis alba, L. (Eng. Hot. t. 1677.) It grows na- turally in corn-fields, and flowers in June and July. The leaves are pinnatifid, the pod round and rough, and abruptly terminated. The seed is yellow, and, as well as the flowers, is larger than those of the black species. 4022. Use. This species is cultivated chiefly as a small salad, and is used like cresses while in the seed ; when these are newly expanded, they are mild and tender ; but when the plants have advanced into the rough leaves, they eat rank and disagreeable. 4023. Culture. For spring and summer consumption, sow once a week, or fortnight, in dry warm situ- ations, in February and March ; and afterwards in any other compartment. " In summer, sow in shady borders, if it be hot sunny weather; or have the bed shaded. Generally sow in shallow flat drills, from three to six inches apart ; scatter the seed thick and regular, and cover in thinly with the earth, about a quarter of an inch. To furnish gatherings in winter, or early in spring, sow in frames or under hand- glasses ; and when the weather is frosty or very cold, in hot-beds and stoves, as directed for cress." 4024. To save seed. Either sow a portion in March or April, to stand for that purpose ; or, for small supplies, leave some rows of the spring sowing, grown too large for salads j they will ripen seed in autumn. 4025. The black mustard is the S. nigra, L. (Eng. Bot. 969.) the s&weot of the French. It is frequent in corn-fields. It is altogether a larger plant than the white, with much darker leaves, and their divisions blunter. The flowers are small, the pods smooth, and lying close to the stem. 4026. Use. Black mustard is chiefly cultivated in fields for the mill, and for medicinal purposes. It is sometimes, however, sown in gardens, and the tender leaves used as greens early in spring. The seed- leaves, in common with those of the cress, radish, rape, &c. are sometimes used as a salad ingredient ; but the grand purpose for which the plant is cultivated is for seeds, which, ground, produce the well known condiment. If the seeds, Dr. Cullen observes, betaken fresh from the plant, and ground, the powder has little pungency, but is very bitter ; by steeping in vinegar, however, the essential oil is evolved, and the powder becomes extremely pungent In moistening mustard-powder for the table, it may be re- marked, that it makes the best appearance when rich milk is used ; but the mixture in this case does not keep good for more than two days. The seeds of both the black and white mustard are often used in an entire state medicinally. 4027. Culture for the mill. " To raise seed for flower of mustard, and other officinal occasions sow, either in March or April, generally the black sort, or occasionally the white, in any open compartment : or make large sowings in fields, where designed for public supply. Sow moderately thick, either in drills from six to twelve inches asunder, or broad-cast, and rake or harrow in the seed. When the plants are two or three inches in the growth, hoe, or thin them moderately, where too thick, and clear them from weeds. They will soon run up in stalks ; and in July or August return a crop of seed, ripe for gather- ing." (Abercrombie.) SUBSECT. 7. Rape. Brassica Napus, L. var. oleifera, Dec. (Eng. Sot. t. 2146.) Tetrad. Siliij. L. and Crucifertz, J. Navetle, Fr. ; Rejiskohl, Ger. ; and Napo sal- vatico, Ital. 4028. The rape is a biennial plant, a native of Britain, and distinguished by its glau- cous root-leaves, and yellow flowers, which appear in April. 4029. Use. Rape is cultivated in gardens as a small salad herb, to be gathered young in the seed-leaves, and used in cresses and mustard. Like these, it has a warm flavor, and is recommended as a stomachic. The plant is also much used in agriculture. 4030. Culture for small salading. Sow at the same time with cresses, mustard, &c. in winter and spring ; or at any season when small salading is required. Sow in drills or beds, and follow the culture directed for White Mustard. 4031. To save seed. Transplant two or three plants any time during the summer, and they will flower and seed the second year abundantly. SUBSECT. 8. Corn-Salad, or Lamb-Lettuce. Valeriana Locusta, L. ; Fedia olitoria, Willd. (Eng. Sot. 811.) Triandria Monogyn. L. and Dipsacea, J. Mache, Fr. ; Ackcrsalat, Ger. ; and Valerianello, Ital. 4032. The corn-salad is a diminutive annual plant, common in corn-fields or sandy soils. The leaves are long and narrow, of a pale glaucous hue, the lower ones rather succulent. The flowers are very small, pale -bluish, and collected into a close little corymb ; they appear in the open fields in April. When cultivated, it rises a foot high, BOOK I. GARDEN-CRESS, AMERICAN CRESS. 661 and. flowers in March. Gerrard tells us, that foreigners using it while in England, led to its being cultivated in our gardens. 4033. Use. It is used in salads through winter and early spring ; both as a substitute for common lettuce in those seasons, and to increase the variety of small salads. For these purposes it has long been a favorite plant in France, under the denomination of mdche, doucette, salade de chanoine, and poule grasse. 4034. Propagation. It is raised from seed, of which a quarter of an ounce is sufficient for a bed four feet by five. 4035. Times of sowing. " To answer the common demand, two or at most three sowings will be suffi- cient, viz. a principal sowing at the beginning or towards the middle of August ; a secondary sowing early in September, to furnish together crops in winter and early spring; and a smaller sowing in spring, the close of February or course of March, if the plants are required in continuation throughout that season though they are apt to get rank-tasted in warm dry weather. If wanted throughout summer, sow once a month, and cut the crop quite young." 4036. Culture. " Sow in any bed of common mellow earth, broad-cast, and rake in the seed. When the plants are up, thin them two or three inches asunder, that they may have room to acquire some small stocky growth for gathering." 4037. To save seed. " Leave some plants in spring; they will produce seed in July or August." (Abercrombie.} SUBSECT. 9. Garden-Cress. Lepidium sativum, L. (Zom. Ic. 16.) Tetrad. Silic. L. and Cruciferce, J. Cresson, Fr. ; Gemdne Kresse, Ger. ; and Crescione, Ital. 4038. The garden-cress is a hardy annual plant, cultivated since 1548 ; but its native country is unknown. The cultivated plant rises with numerous small lon- leaves, curled or plain ; from which proceeds a stalk from fifteen to twenty inches high, fur- nished with white flowers, which blossom in June and July. The whole plant partakes strongly of the pungent smell and acrid taste which distinguish the Crutiferce. 4039. Use. It is cultivated in gardens for the young leaves, which are used in salads, and have a peculiarly warm and grateful relish. It ranks among gardeners as the prin- cipal of the small salads. 4040. Varieties. These are The common cultivated plain-leafed ; principally I Curled-leaved ; equally good as a | and preferable as a garnish Broad-leaved ; less cultivated for salad- ing, but grown for tearing tur- keys, &c. 4041. Propagation. All the varieties are raised from seed, of which one ounce or one eighth of a pint will suffice for a bed four feet by four feet. 4042. Times of sowing and site of the crop. " Cress should be raised three or four times every month, as it may be in demand, to have crops delicately young in constant succession. For culture in the open garden, begin in the first, second, or third week in March, as a forward spring may bring mild weather or otherwise : allot some warm situation for the early spring sowings ; and if the weather take a cold turn, either put on a spare frame, or cover with matting between sunset and sunrise. When spring is confirmed, sow in any open compartment. At the beginning of summer, the same ; but, in hot dry weather, either sow in a shady border, or if the situation be open, shade with mats in the middle of the day. For autumn sowings, when cold weather is approaching, allot some warm borders, and give occa- sional protection. When crops are in demand throughout winter, either sow in a moderate hot-bed, or in cradles to be placed in a stove ; pans filled with rotten tan are to be preferred to pots or boxes with mould. From the last fortnight of October till the first of March, it will be mostly fruitless to sow in the open garden ; but a terrace, sloping south under a frame, may be used at the decline of the year and most early part of spring, as the intermediate step between the open garden and hot-bcd, if more within the means at command. During this interval, some market-gardeners sow it just within the glasses which cover larger plants." The cress is often raised on porous earthen-ware vessels, of a conical form, having small gutters on the sides, for retaining the seeds. These are called pyramids, are somewhat ornamental in winter, and afford repeated gatherings. 4043. Process in sowing and subsequent culture. " Having allotted a fine mellow soil to receive the seed, dig the surface, and rake it finally preparatory to sowing, which mostly perform in small, flat, shallow drills, four, five, or six inches asunder. Sow the seed very thick, and earth over very lightly, or but just thinly cover. Give occasional waterings in warm dry seasons." 4044. Taking the crop. " To gather cress in perfection, cut them while moderately young, either clean to the root, or only the tops of advanced plants. They will shoot again for future gathering, but the leaves will be hotter, and not so mild and tender as those of younger plants." 4045. To save seed. " Either sow a portion in the spring for that purpose ; or leave some rows of any overgrown old crop in April and May. The plants will yield seed in autumn." SUBSECT. 10. American Cress. Erysimum jyrcecox, Smith. (Eng. Sot. t. 1129.) Telradynamia Sttiquosa, L. and Crucifera, J. Cresson d? 'Ametique, Fr. ; and Artieri- kanisher JCresse, Ger. 4046. The .American cress is a native of Britain, and found in watery places ; and was formerly considered as a variety of the common winter cress (E. Barbarea] ; but, as observed by Neill, it is only biennial ; while the common winter cress is perennial. It has smaller leaves, more frequently sinuated ; the lower are lyre-shaped, and those on the stalk pinnatifid. It is often called black American cress, and sometimes French cress. 4047. Use. It is generally liked ss a winter cress and early spring salad, resembling in flavor the common winter cress, but rather more bitter. It is in demand in some families throughout the year. 4048. Culture. It is raised from seed, which is sold by weight, and for every ten feet of drill, a quarter of an ounce will be requisite. " Sow in a bed of light dry earth, rather in drills nine inches apart, than broad-cast. For winter and spring use, make a cowing in the last fortnight of August, or beginning of September, on a warm sheltered border. If wanted throughout summer, sow every six weeks from March to August, giving a sunny or shady situation according to the advancement of the season. Water occa- Uu 3 662 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART 1 1 1. ionally in dry hot weather. At the approach of winter, shelter the plants, by laying a few light twig* among them so as not to interfere with their growth ; and upon these, a covering of fern, reeds, or dry litter. The plants being cut, or the outside leaves stripped off, shoot again for another gathering." 4049. To save seed. " Let a few choice plants, raised in spring, run ; and they will ripen seed before the decline of summer." (Abercrombie.} SUBSECT. 11. Winter Cress. Barbarea intlgaris, H. K. (Eng. Bot. 443.); Erysi- mum Barbarea, L. and Smith. Tetrad. Siliy. L. and Cruciferce, J. Barbare, Fr. ; Winter Kresse, Ger. ; and Erba di Santa Barbarea, Ital. 4050. The winter cress is a well-known perennial plant, common in moist shady situations. The lower leaves are lyre-shaped, and the upper obovate and indented. The flower-stalk rises about a foot high, and produces yellow flowers from April to August. The whole plant is bitter and somewhat aromatic. Neill observes, " Some still con- sider the American cress of gardeners as a variety of this ; but after cultivating both for several years, we have found those to be right who regard them as distinct." A double variety of Barbarea is well known in the flower-border as the yellow rocket of gar- deners. 4051. Use and culture. The same as the American cress. SUBSECT. 12. Water-Cress. Nasturtium afficinale, H. K. (Eng. Bot. t. 855.); Sisym- brium Nasturtium, L. Tetrad. SUiq. L. and Cruciferce, J. Cresson de Fontaine, Fr. ; Briinnenkresse, Ger. ; and Cressione di Sargent i, Ital. 4052. Water-cress is a creeping amphibious perennial, growing in wet ditches and slow running streams. The stems are spreading, declining or floating, if in water. The leaves are alternate, pinnate, and somewhat lyre-shaped. The flowers are white in a corymb, soon lengthened out into a spike in June and July. The plant, when growing in a rapid current, has its leaves lengthened ; and in this state, Martyn remarks, is some- times mistaken for the water-parsnep (Sium nodiftorum, L.), which commonly grows with it, and is deleterious. 4053. The cultivation of the water-cress is said to have been first attempted in 1808, by Bradbury, at Northfleet-Spring-Head, near Gravesend. This cultivator now grows five acres at West Hyde, "near Rickmansworth : he sends the cress in hampers, each containing eight dozen bunches, to the London markets every day throughout the year, excepting Sundays, and in consequence of this and other supplies from artificial sources, the wholesale price of the article is reduced one half. There are now several culti- vators of water-cress at Hackney, Bayswater, Uxbridge, and other places. Water-cresses are also culti- vated near Paris. (Neill, in Hort. Tour, 490.) 4054. Use. It forms an excellent spring salad either alone or with brook-lime or scurvy-grass. It is a popular favorite in spring in most places ; and is eaten fasting, or with bread and butter, by those who have faith in its antiscorbutic virtues. The juice is decocted with that of scurvy-grass and Seville oranges, and forms the popular remedy called spring juices. 4055. Varieties. Bradbury considers that there are three, the green-leaved, the small brown-leaved, and the large brown-leaved. The green-leaved is the easiest cultivated, the small brown-leaved the hardiest, and the large brown the best tor cultivation in deep water, and that preferred by this cultivator. 4056. Culture. The most suitable description of water is a clear stream, and not more than an inch and half deep, running over sand or gravel ; the least favorable, deep still water on a muddy bottom. It is highly advantageous to make the plantations in newly risen spring-water, as the plants not only thrive better in it, but in consequence of its being rarely frozen, they generally continue in vegetation, and in a good state for gathering through the whole winter season. The plants are disposed in rows parallel with the course of the stream. In shallow water the distance between the rows is not more than eighteen inches, but in deep water it is as much as from five to seven feet. When the plants begin to grow in water one inch and a half deep, they soon check the current so as to raise the water to the height of three inches about the plants, which is considered the most favorable circumstance in which they can be placed. Where the plants are not in rows, the water is impeded in its course, and the plants are choaked up with weeds and the different matters which float down the stream ; and when the cress is grown in deep water, the roots are easily drawn out of the soil in gathering. The cress will not grow freely in a muddy bottom, nor will it taste well when there is mud about the roots ; which should be carefully removed, and replaced by gravel or chalk. It is absolutely necessary to have a constant current, as where there is any obstruction'to the stream or flow of water, the plants cease to thrive. After the plants have been cut about three times, they begin to stock, and then the oftener they are cut the better ; in summer it is necessary to keep them very closely cut; and in water of a proper depth, and with a good soil, each bed supplies a gathering once a-week. In winter the water should be rather deeper than in summer (four or five inches) ; to obtain this, the plants are left with more head, that the water may thus be impeded. 4057. Replanting. The most expensive part of the cultivation is the necessity of cleaning out and re- planting the beds twice a-year ; as the mud quickly collects about the roots, and the duck-weed and other plants become intermixed with, and choak up the cress ; it is almost impossible to pick it in a fit state for market after the plantation has been made five or six months. The mode of replanting is to remove all the roots of plants, beginning at the stream head, and then clear the bed of the stream from mud and rub- bish, which, however, it should be remarked, make excellent garden manure. From the crop of plants thus taken out, the youngest, and those with most roots, are selected ; these are placed on the gravel in rows at the requisite distance, with a stone on each plant, to keep it in its place. The times of renewing the beds are in May and Jane, and from September to November. The planting is done in succession, so that the crops may come regularly into cutting. Those planted in May are fit to cut in August, and those planted in November are ready to gather in the spring. 4058. Culture in water-beds. Some market-gardeners who can command a small stream of water, grow the water-cress in beds sunk about a foot in a retentive soil, with a very gentle slope from one end to the other. Along the bottom of this bed, which may be of any convenient breadth and length, chalk or gravel is deposited, and the plants are inserted about six inches' distance every way. Then, according to the slope and length of the bed, dams are made six inches high across it, at intervals ; so that when these dams are full, the water may rise not less than three inches on all the planU included in each. The water being BOOK I. SCURVY-GRASS, BURNETi 663 turned on will circulate from dam to dam ; and the plants, if not allowed to run to flower, will 'afford abundance of young tops in all but the winter months. A stream of water, no-larger than what will fill a pipe of one inch bore, will, if not absorbed by the soil, suffice to irrigate in this way an eighth of an acre. As some of the plants are apt to rot off in winter, the plantation should be laid dry two or three times a- year, and all weeds and decayed parts removed, and vacancies filled up. Cress grown in this way, however, is far inferior to that grown in a living stream flowing over gravel or chalk. 4059. Taking the crop. The shoots are cut for market, not broken off, which is the usual mode of ga- thering the wild cress, and which latter practice is found to be very injurious to the plants in the beds. (Hort. Trans, iv. 540.) SUBSECT. 13. Brook-lime. Veronica beccabunga, L. (Eng. Sot. 655.) Diandria Monogynia, L. and Scrophularinae, B. P. Beccabongue, Fr. ; Bachbunge, Ger. ; and Beccabungia, Ital. 4060. The brook-lime is a perennial plant, a native of Britain, and common in rivu- lets and wet ditches. It has a trailing or procumbent stem, furnished with smooth, dark- green, elliptical leaves, from the axillae of which proceed bunches of blue flowers in July. 4061. Use. The young tops and leaves are used as a salad, like the water-cress, with which it is often mixed, being milder, more succulent, and only slightly bitterish in taste, In Scotland the sprigs of brook-lime are brought to market under the name of water- purpie, and sold along with wall-cresses (well, or water-cresses). 4062. Culture. The same as for the water-cress. SUBSECT. 14. Garden-rocket. Brassica Eruca, L. (Sclik. Hand. 2. t. 186.) Tetrad. SUiq-. L. and Crudferce. J. Roquette cultivee, Fr. ; Raukette, Ger. ; and Ruca, Ital. 4063. The garden-rocket is an annual plant, a native of Austria, and known in this country in 1 573. The stem rises two feet high, is upright and branchy, and furnished with smooth, pulpy, cut and toothed leaves. When in flower in July, it has a strong pe- culiar smell, almost fetid. This plant is now neglected in Britain, but is still in use in several places on the continent. 4064. Use. The leaves and tender stalks are used as salad ingredients, and form an agreeable addition to cresses and mustard early in spring. 4065. Culture. Sow in a warm border early in February, and again in March and April for successive crops. Thin the plants after they have produced the first rough leaf to three or four inches asunder, and keep them clear of weeds. If a supply is desired throughout the year, monthly sowings may be made; and in autumn, under frames. 4066. To save seed. Allow a few of the strongest plants of the spring sowing to come into flower ; they will produce abundance of seeds in August. SUBSECT. 15. Scurvy-grass. Cochlearia officinalis. L. (Eng. Bot. 550.) Tetra- dynamia Siliculosa, L. and Cruciferce, J. Cranson officinal, Fr. ; Loffelkraut, Ger. ; and Coclearia, Ital. 4067. The scurvy-grass is a biennial plant, indigenous to most of our sea-shores, and, like the sea-pink (Statice), growing also on inland mountains. The root-leaves are round ; those of the stem sinuated ; the whole plant is low and spreading, seldom rising above a foot. The flowers are white, and appear in April and May. 4068. Use. The smaller leaves are occasionally used like the water-cress, and some- times eaten between slices of bread and butter. The plant is also occasionally used me- dicinally. 4069. Varieties. A thick-leaved variety, called the Dutch scurvy-grass, is cultivated in some gardens. 4070. Culture. The plant may either be propagated from seed, or by dividing the roots. It delights in a sandy soil and a moist atmosphere, which it finds alike by the sea-shore and on lofty mountains. It will grow however, almost any where, and is often found firmly established on old walls and ruins, sowing itself^ and thus remaining many years. When to be raised from seed, sow about July. Plants from a spring sowing seldom prosper. Abercrombie says, " Sow in drills eight inches apart ; and when the plants are up, thin them to six inches' distance ; these thinned out, may be transplanted into new beds. In the following spring, the succulent leaves will be fit for use. 4071. To save seed. Leave some plants in flower in May, and they will ripen abundance of seed in July. SUBSECT. 16. Burnet. Poterium Sanguisorba, L. (Eng. Bot. t. 860.) Monoec. Po- lyan. L. and Rosaceee, J. Petite Pimprenelle, Fr. ; Pimpernelle, Ger. ; and Pim- pinella, Ital. 4072. The burnet is a hardy perennial plant, indigenous in Britain, and found in dry upland calcareous soils. The leaves are pinnated, and form a tuft next to the root ; but are alternate on the stem : the leaflets are partly round-shaped, partly pointed, and much serrated on the edges. The stem rises fifteen inches high, and the flowers form small greenish heads tinged with purple in July. 4073. Use. Burnet-leaves are sometimes put into salads, and occasionally into soups, and they form a favorite herb for cool tankards. When slightly bruised, they smell like cucumber, and they have a somewhat warm taste. They continue green through the winter, when many other salad-plants are cut off, or in a state unfit for use. It was for- merly in much greater repute than at present. Uu 4 664 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 4074. Propagation and culture. The plant may be raised from seed ; of which half an ounce will suffice for a bed three feet by four. It may either be sown in spring or early in autumn. It may also be very readily propagated by parting the roots early in spring. When the plants are of two or three inches growth, transplant into rows, or a bed, at six inches plant from plant Cut down all flower-stalks not intended for seed. SUBSECT. 17. Wood-Sorrel. Oxalis acetosella, L. (Eng. Sot. 762.) Decan. Pentag. L. and Geraniaceee, J. Oseillc, Fr. ; Saueramjfer, Ger. ; and Acetosa, Ital. 4075. The wood-sorrel is an indigenous perennial plant, found in woods, and by hedge-sides, and in moist, shady situations. It has a scaly, bulbous, articulate root, and ternate, obcordate, hairy leaves. The flowers rise from the root singly, are of a pale flesh color, and appear in April and May. 4076. Use. The leaves form a very grateful addition to salading, and communicate an agreeable relish to dishes of mashed greens. 4077. Culture. The plant is readily propagated by dividing the roots, and may be planted in a moist shady situation in bog earth. Here, by preventing the plants from coming into flower, and cropping the herb of a part of the plantation two or three times in the season, a supply of fresh young leaves may be obtained from April to October. SUBSECT. 18. Small Salads. 4078. By small salads gardeners and cooks understand the small herbs, or very young plants, which are used in the seed-leaves ; such as cress, mustard, radish, and rape ; also the lamb-lettuce. Others, such as sorrel, are either pot-herbs or salad-herbs. Some- times the white cabbage, lettuce, endive, and succory, are also sown, to be cut in the seed-leaf. The small salads are occasionally used by themselves, when there is a de- ficiency of the greater salad-plants, the lettuce, endive, celery, &c. But when both kinds can be had, they are in general combined. 4079. Culture. Sow very thick in drills, or on beds of very finely pulverised soil, watering in dry wea- ther to accelerate germination and the succulency of the plants. Early in spring sow under glass, or in a warm sheltered situation, and in winter in pots and boxes to be placed in some of the forcing-houses, or in the stove ; or sow in the borders of the forcing-houses, or in hot-beds or pits, &c. Observe, that a sup- ply is wanted in most families throughout the year. 4080. Gathering. Cut off' the seed-leaves and about half their foot-stalks, as soon as the former are ex- panded ; some prefer letting small salading grow till one or two of the proper leaves appear, in which case it is of a stronger flavor. SECT. VIII. Pot-herbs and Garnishings. 4081. Pot-lterbs and gamiskings require but a very small portion of the kitchen-garden, perhaps not above two or three poles, even in the largest, and with the exception of parsley, marygold, and Indian cress, they are rarely found in those of the cottager. SUBSECT. 1. Parsley. Apium Petroselinum, L- Pent. Trig. L. and Umbelliferfc, J. Persil, Fr. ; Petersilie, Ger. ; and Petroselino, Ital. 4082. The parsley is a hardy biennial, a native of Sardinia, and introduced in 1548. It is so common as to be naturalised in several places both of England and Scotland. The root-leaves are compound, and much curled in some varieties. The flowers arc pale-yellow, and appear in June ; they have usually one leaflet at the origin of the uni- versal umbel ; and an involucre of from six to eight short folioles, fine almost as hairs, to the partial umbel. " It may be right to notice, that the poisonous plant called fool's parsley (jEthusa, Cynapiuni), a common weed in rich garden-soils, has sometimes been mistaken for common parsley. They are very easily distinguished : the leaves of fool's parsley are of a darker green, of a different shape, and, instead of the peculiar parsley smell, have, when bruised, a disagreeable odor. When the flower-stem of the fool's parsley appears, the plant is at once distinguished by what is vulgarly called its beard, three long pendent leaflets of the involucrum. The timid may shun all risk of mistake by cultivating only the curled variety. This last, it may be remarked, makes the prettiest garnish." (NeiU, in Ed. Encyc.} 4083. Use. The leaves of the two first varieties are used as pot-herbs at all seasons of the year ; also as a garnish. The third kind is esteemed for its large white carrot- shaped root, drawn in autumn and winter, like parsneps, for the table ; and occasionally to be used in medicine, being considered a remedy for the gravel. 4084. Varieties. These are The common plain-leaved ; seldom cultivated I The broad-leaved, or large-rooted Hamburgh ; The curled thick-leaved ; most esteemed | cultivated for its carrot -shaped root. 4085. Culture of the pot-herb kinds. " One sowing in spring will mostly furnish, young leaves all the year ; though to answer a constant demand, many persons make successive sowings from February to May. Some also sow early in autumn for young parsley in winter and spring ; but such a supply is bet- ter provided by cutting down established p'lants. Sow in a single drill, along the edge of any compart- ment, or occasionally in rows nine or twelve inches asunder. Draw small drills, something less than an inch deep; in which drop the seed moderately thick, and cover a little above half an inch. The plants will come up in three or four weeks, and when two or three inches high, may be gathered as wanted, all the summer, winter, and following spring, till May, when they will go to seed. Have always a young crop sown timely in the spring, to succeed the declining old plants. In gathering pot-herb parsley, cut close and regular. In summer, when- the plants grow rank, yielding more leaves than can be used, cut them in close to the bottom, and they will shoot up stocky in a regular close growth. Observe also to do BOOK I. PURSLANE, TARRAGON, FENNEL. 665 the same in autumn, about the end of September, that the plants may form heads of fresh young leaves before winter. On the approach of frosty weather, protect them with haulm or reed panels, laid upon branches of birch or other light supports." 4086. Culture of Hamburgh parsley. " To obtain large' roots, allot a compartment where the soil is deep, and has been well digged. Any common mould will suit, if dry and not too rich. Sow in Fe- bruary, March, or early in April, in one'or more beds ^either in drills nine inches asunder, or broad-cast, and rake in. The plants should be thinned to nine inches' distance, to give room for proper growth in the roots ; for use in August, September, October, and thence till the following spring. On the approach of frost, take up some roots, and preserve them in sand. A sowing may be made in the third week in June, where young roots are wanted in winter." 4087. To save seed. " Permit some old plants to run to stalks in May ; they will produce plenty of seed, ripening in July or August." (Abercrombie.) SUBSECT. 2. Purslane- Portulaca oleracea, L. (Plant, grass, 123.) Dodec. Monog. L. and PortulacefB, J. Pourpier, Fr. ; Portulak, Ger. ; and Porcellana, Ital. 4088. The purslane is an annual plant, a native of South America, and introduced in 1652. It has a round, smooth, rather procumbent stem, and diffused branches; the leaves somewhat wedge-shaped and fleshy; the flowers, yellow and sessile, appear in June and July. 4089. Use, The young snoots and succulent leaves are esteemed cooling, and are used in spring and summer as an ingredient in salads, and as pot-herbs and pickles. The plant was formerly much more in request than at present. 4090. Varieties. There are two varieties of the P. oleracea cultivated, the green and the golden. The latter is by some considered as a distinct species (P. sativd). It has rather larger leaves, and is less succulent than the P. oleracea. 4091. Culture. Both sorts are raised from seed, and for a bed four feet by four feet, sown either broad- cast or in drills, nine inches apart, one eighth of an ounce will suffice. " Each variety is somewhat ten- der ; the green, which is usually preferred, is perhaps rather the hardiest. An early crop may be sown in February or March, on a moderate hot-bed : the plants will require the ia of a gentle heat till the middle of May; when the seed may be sown in a warm border. If a continued succession is required, sow every month during summer, till August, or while the plant can be raised ; generally in small drills, from three to six inches asunder. The plants will soon come up : they should remain where sown. In very dry hot weather, water thrice a week. The shoots may be gathered for use when they are from two to five inches in height, and are well furnished with leaves. Cut them oft' low, and the bottom part will soon sprout out again." 4092. To save seed. " Leave some of the first open-border plants to run ; they will give ripe seed in autumn." (Abercrombie.) SUBSECT. 3. Tarragon. Artemisia Dracunculus, L. (Blackw. t. 116.) Syng. Polyg. Super. L. and Corymbiferte, J. L'JZstragon, Fr. ; Dragun, Ger. ; and Dragon- cello, Ital. 4093. The tarragon is a perennial plant, a native of Siberia, but cultivated in our gar- dens from the time of Gerrard, in 1548. Its branched stem rises a foot and a half high, and has narrow leaves, green on both sides. The smell of the plant is fragrant, and its taste aromatic. 4094. Use. The leaves and tender tips are used as an ingredient in pickles. A simple infusion of the plant in vinegar makes a pleasant fish sauce. In France it is em- ployed, on account of its agreeable pungency, to correct the coldness of salad-herbs ; it is also put in soups, and other compositions. 4095. Culture. " Avoid planting tarragon in a wet tenacious soil ; as in that case the root is apt to perish in a severe winter. This herb may be propagated in the spring, by seed ; or, more expeditiously, by offset bottom slips, or sections of the root and top, planted in spring or autumn : also plentifully in summer, from June to August, by slips or cuttings of the spring stalks or branch shoots. The germs are to be planted in beds or borders from six to nine inches apart, and properly watered. They will quickly increase in a branchy head, for use the same year, to gather green, as wanted ; and a portion may be dried and housed for winter. When the stems are running up for flower, if seed is not wanted to be saved, cut them down ; which will force up fresh young shoots. It would be proper, towards the end of autumn, to transplant some full plants close under a south fence, to preserve them more effectually in winter, and cause an earlier production of young tops in spring." 4096. To obtain green tarragon in winter. " Plant some stocky roots in a hot-bed, or in pots placed jn a hot-house." (Abercrombie.) SUBSECT/ 4. Fennel. Anethum Fceniculum, L. (Eng. Sot. t. 1208.) Pent. Trig. L. and Umbellifera;, J. L'Aneth, Fr. ; Dillkraut, Ger. ; and Aneto, Ital. 4097. The fennel is a perennial plant, naturalised in England, and found in chalky soils. The plant rises with finely cut leaves, and capillary leaflets, on a smooth, dark- green, branched, tubular stalk, to the height of five or six feet. On the summit are pro- duced umbels of gold-colored flowers, in July and August. The whole plant is aro- matic, and has long been an inmate of the garden. 4098. Use. The tender stalks of common fennel are used in salads ; the leaves boiled, enter into many fish sauces ; and raw, are garnishes for several dishes. The blanched stalks of the variety called jinochio are eaten with oil, vinegar, and pepper, as a cold salad, and they are likewise sometimes put into soups. 4099. The varieties sue The common, or sweet Dark-green-leaved Dwarf, or finochio. This variety is characterised by a tendency in the stalk to swell to a considerable thickness. This thickened part is blanched by earthing up, and is then very tender. " Owing to the peculiar nature of this variety," NeHl observes, ""it is more tender than the common fennel, and often perishes.in the course of the winter. Misled by this cir- cumstance, several horticultural writers describe it as an an- nual species, under tiie appellation A. segetitm." 666 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 4100. Propagation. They are all raised from seed, of which half an ounce is sufficient for a seed-bed four feet by six feet Sometimes also, they are raised from offsets from the old plants, where only a few are wanted. " Sow in the spring in light earth, either in drills from six to twelve inches apart, or "broad- cast and raked in. When the plants are three or four inches high, thin or transplant a quantity fifteen inches asunder. As the roots of old plants divide into side offsets, these may be slipped off in spring, summer, or autumn, and planted a foot apart They will produce immediate leaves for present supply, and in continuance ; or for an immediate larger supply of leaves, you may procure some established full roots, and plant as above ; let them be well watered." 4101. Subsequent culture. " The same plants remain several years by the root : but as fennel sends up strong stems for seed in summer, these, or a part of them, should be cut down, to encourage a production of young leaves below, in succession. It is apt to spread more than is desirable, if suffered to seed. The swelling stems of the finochio variety, when of some tolerable substance, should be earthed up on each side live or six inches to blanch them white and tender. This will be effected in ten days or a fortnight ; and by successive sowings, or cutting down plants during summer, successive crops of blanched stalks may be had from June to December." 4102. To save seed. Permit some of the best stalks to shoot j they will produce large umbels of seed in autumn. (Abercrombie.} SUBSECT. 5. DM. Anethum graveolens, L. (Blackw. t. 545.) Pent. Trig. L. and Umbelliferce, J. L'Aneth, Fr. ; Dill. Ger. ; Aneto, Ital. 4103. T/ie dill is a hardy biennial plant, a native of Spain, and introduced in 1570. The plant is of upright growth, somewhat similar to fennel, but smaller. It has finely divided leaves, and a slender single stem, bearing an umbel of flowers at top, which ap- pear in June and July. The whole plant is powerfully aromatic. 4104. Use. The leaves are used to heighten the relish of some vegetable pickles, particularly cucumbers ; and also occasionally in soups and sauces. The whole herb is also used in medical preparations. 4105. Culture. It is raised from seed, of which half an ounce is sufficient for a bed three feet by four feet. " Sow annually in February, March, or April, or occasionally in autumn, as soon as the seed is ripe, to come up stronger in the spring, in any open compartment ; either in drills, six or twelve inches apart ; or broad-cast thinly, and raked in evenly. The plants should remain where raised ; and may be thinned moderately, should they rise too thick. They will shoot up in stalks, with leaves and seed-um- bels in summer and autumn, for use in proper season." 4106. To save seed. " Leave some plants where raised: they will furnish plenty of seed in autumn. Or, from self-sown seeds, many plants rise spontaneously in the spring." (Abercrombie.) SUBSECT. 6. Cliervil. Scandix Cerefolium, L. ; Chcerophyttum sativum of Persoon*5 Synopsis Plantarum. (Eng. Hot. 1268.) Pentand. Dig. L. and Umbelliferce, J, Cerfeuil, Fr. ; Gartenkerbel, Ger. ; and Cerfoglio, Ital. (Jig. 471.) 4107. The chervil is an annual plant, a native of various parts of the continent of Europe, and sometimes observed naturalised in our gardens in England. The plant rises from a foot to near two feet high ; the leaves are of a very delicate texture, three times divided, and the flowers, of a whitish color, appear in June. There is a variety cultivated in the Paris gar- dens with beautifully frizzled leaves. 4108. Use. The tender leaves are used in soups and salads ; but are much less in demand now than formerly. 4109. Culture. It is propagated from seed ; and for a bed four feet by four, a quarter of an ounce is sufficient " Sow a bed or two in August and September, as well to come in use at the end of the same autumn, as to stand for winter and spring. If a continued succession be re- quired in spring and summer, begin to sow again in the last fortnight of February, and sow a portion every month till August, or twice a month in the midst of summer ; as the plants of the spring and summer sow- ings soon run up for seed. Sow the seed in shallow drills, from six to nine inches apart, and earth in lightly : or sow occasionally broad-cast, and rake in evenly, just covering the seed. The plants are to remain where sown. When the leaves are two, three, or four inches in growth, they are proper for gathering. Cut them off close, they will shoot up again, and may be gathered in succession, though the plants of the spring and summer sowing soon spindle up into seed-stalks, ceasing to produce young leaves, which are the useful parts." 4110. To save seed. " Leave some plants in the spring : they will shoot to stalks, and give ripe seed in July or August." (Abercrombie.) SUBSECT. 7. Horse-radish. Cochlearia Armoracia, L. (Eng. Bot. 2223.) Tetrad. Silic, L. and Cruciferce, J. Cranson, or Le Grand Raifort, Fr. ; Merrettig, Ger. ; and Ramolaccio, Ital. 4111. The horse-radish is a perennial plant, growing naturally in marshy places, and by the sides of ditches, in some parts of England. The leaves are very large, oblong, sometimes smooth, and at other times notched at the edges ; on the stem they are some- times deeply pinnatifid ; the flowers are white, and appear in loose panicles in May and June. It has been long cultivated in gardens, and forms one of the most profitable articles raised bv the market-gardener. 471 BOOK I. INDIAN CRESS. 667 4112. Use. The root scraped into shreds is a well known accompaniment of English roast beef. It is also used in winter salads, in sauces, and sometimes eaten raw. 1113. Propagation and culture. The following excellent instructions are by Knight : " Horse-radish thrives best in deep, soft, sandy, loam, that is not very dry in summer, nor inundated in winter : the situation must be open. During winter, trench the ground three feet deep, and in the following Fe- bruary procure your sets, in the choice of which take the strongest crowns or leading buds from old plants, cutting them about two inches long. Mark out the ground in four-feet beds and one-foot alleys : then take from the first bed nine inches of the top soil, laying it upon the adjoining bed : after which take out an opening at one end of the bed, in the common way of trenching, fifteen inches deep from the present surface; then level the bottom, upon which plant a row of sets across the bed, at nine inches apart each way, with their crowns upright ; afterwards dig the next trench the same width and depth, turning the earth into the first trench over the row of sets : thus proceeding trench after trench, to the end Where more than the produce of one bed is required for the supply of the family for twelve months, the third bed is next to be planted, which treat as directed for the first, only observing to lay the earth on the fourth, and so on for any number of beds. Upon every alternate bed, which is not planted a dwarf annual crop may be grown. The plants must be kept clear from weeds during summer : and as soon as the leaves decay in autumn, let them be carefully raked off with a wooden-toothed rake in the fol- lowing February, eighteen inches of the earth of the unplanted bed must be laid as light' as possible and equally over the beds that are planted ; then trench and plant the vacant beds exactly in the same manner as before directed. The following autumn, the first planted horse-radish may be taken up by opening a trench at one end of the bed to the bottom of the roots, so that the sticks or roots of horse- radish may be taken up entire and sound, which for size and quality will be such as have not generally been seen. The following February the one-year-old crop will require additional earth as before di- rected, which must of course be taken from those beds which are now vacant, which, when done if the ground appears poor, or unlikely to produce another vigorous crop, they must have a coat of manure " (Hort. Trans, i. 207.) 4114. Judd has also written on the culture of horse-radish (Hort. Trans, v. 302.), and his practice, though very different from Knight's is also excellent, and perhaps preferable. Knight takes strong buds from old plants, while Judd takes about three inches of the top part of each stick or root, and then cuts clean off about a quarter of an inch of this piece under the crown, so as to leave no appearance of a green bud. Judd trenches only two feet deep, and if he applies manure, puts it in the very bottom of the trench ; " for if not so done, the horse-radish, which always puts out some side roots, would send out such large side roots from the main root, in search of the dung lying contiguous, as materially to injure the crop. In planting, holes are made eighteen inches apart every way, and sixteen or eighteen inches deep. The root- cuttings are let down to the bottom of the holes, which are afterwards filled up with fine sifted cinder-dust and the surface of the bed is then raked over. The season of planting is the middle of March." The essen- tial difference between Knight's plan and Judd's is, that the former produces his root from the root-end of the cutting downwards, and the latter from the bud-end upwards : hence the one plants near the surface, and the other near the bottom of the trench. Judd's mode seems more certain of producing one entire strong root than Knight's. 4115. Preserving. Horse-radish, if dug up in autumn, may be preserved through the winter in sheds or cellars, among sand or dry earth. SUBSECT. 8. Indian Cress, or Nasturtium. Tropceolum majus, L. (Sot. Mag. 23.) Octan. Monog- L. and Geraniacece, J. Capucine, Fr. ; Kapuzinerblume, Ger. ; and Fiar Cappucino, Ital. 4116. The Indian cress is a hardy annual, a native of Peru, introduced in 1686. The stalks, if supported, will rise eight or ten feet high ; the leaves are peltate, or have their petiole fixed to the centre of the leaf ; the flowers are very showy, of a brilliant orange color, and continue in succession from July till destroyed by frost. In its native country, it endures several seasons ; but here, being unable to sustain our winter, it is treated as an annual plant, and requires to be sown every year. 4117. Use. The flowers and young leaves are frequently eaten in salads ; they have a warm taste, like the common cress, thence the name of nasturtium. The flowers are also used as a garnish to dishes, in which they form a brilliant contrast with the flowers of borage. The berries are gathered green and pickled, in which state they form an excellent substitute for capers. 4118. Varieties: There is a variety with double flowers, which is propagated by cuttings, and requires to be treated as a green-house plant. The flowers are preferable for garnishing. The Tropceolum minus, a native of Peru, and introduced in 1596, nearly a cen- tury before the other, is also sometimes cultivated for culinary purposes ; but is of weakly growth, and by no means equal to the common in produce. There is also a variety of this species with double flowers, propagated by cuttings, and preserved through the winter under glass ; but, like the double variety of T. majut, it is more orna- mental than useful. 4119. Culture. The single varieties of both sorts are raised from seed, of which one ounce will sow twenty-five feet of drill. The plants will thrive in almost any soil, but a light fresh loam is best, as less likely to make the plants grow rank and luxuriant, and produce few berries, which one that is rich is apt to do. Care must be taken to select good sound seed, berries of the last year, for those of greater age will not grow at all, or not freely and regularly. " Sow in March or April, or not later than the beginning of May, in one small crop, of one, two, or three rows, for a moderate family. Either allot the large sort a situation in a single row, near a vacant fence, trellis, or wall, on which the runners may be trained ; or divide an open compartment into rows, three or four feet asunder, to admit sticks for their support Form drills an inch and half deep ; in which deposit the seeds two or three inches apart, and earth them over evenly. When the plants begin to advance in runners, let them be trained to a fence or trellis. It is- generally necessary, at first, to conduct the main runners, but they will afterwards climb unassisted." 4120. Taking the crop. " For pickling let the berries just attain their full size, but pluck them while green, plump, and tender." 4121. To save seed. " Permit a sufficiency of the berries to remain till mature. In August and Sep- tember, gather them as they ripen ; spread them to dry and harden j then put them up for sowing next year." (Abercrombie.) 668 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. SUBSECT. 9. Marigold, or Pot-marigold. Calendula officinalis, L. Syng. Polyg. Xe- cess. L. and Corymbiferte, J. Souci du Jardin, Fr. ; Ringelblume, Ger. ; and Fiorrancio, Ital. 4122. T/ie pot-marigold is an annual plant, a native of France and Spain, and known in this country since 1573. It has a short divaricated stem, dividing into numerous branches, from one to two feet in height, and furnished with blunt lanceolate leaves. The yellow flowers proceed from the ends of the branches, and last from June till killed by the frost. It is one of the oldest and best known inhabitants of our gardens. " Its flowers," Gerrard observes, " having been formerly in much repute as comforters of the heart." Though little faith is now placed in its virtues, it still keeps its place in most cottage gardens, both in England and Scotland, though rarely applied to any culinary purpose. 4123. Use. Marshal observes, that " the flower is a valuable ingredient in broths and soups, however much it may have got into disuse." The dried flowers are also used in domestic medicine. 4 1 24. The varieties are The single orange-flowered ; most aromatic and proper for keeping I The childing or proliferous ; sends out small flowers from the The single lemon-flowered ; rather less aromatic I margins of the calyx of the large central flowers, culti- The double flowered of both varieties I vated chiefly for ornament. 4125. Culture. Sow in February, March, or April, and for a seed-bed four feet by four feet, sown in drills a foot asunder, a quarter of an ounce will suffice ; " or you may deposit, the seed in- autumn (Sep- tember), to have it come up forwarder in the spring, though the spring sowing will come up in very good time. Sow on a light dry soil, either in drills a foot asunder, or broad-cast ; and rake in the seed. When the plants are up two or three inches in growth, thin them to about twelve or fifteen inches asunder, or they may be transplanted with that interval. They will grow freely in either method, and come into flower the following May or June, and continue flowering in plentiful succession throughout summer and autumn ; to be cut for use as wanted. A store for winter should be gathered when in full flower, spread trf dry out of the sun, and afterwards put up in paper bags." 4126. To save seed. " The flowers, as far as they are left to run, will in autumn produce a competency." (Abercrombie.) SUBSECT. 10. Borage. Borago officinalis, L. (Eng. Bot. 36.) Pent.'Monog. L. and Boraginece, B. P. Bourrache, Fr. ; Borragen, Ger. ; and Borragine, Ital. 4127. The borage is an annual, and sometimes a biennial plant, with the lower leaves oblong, alternate, and spread on the ground ; the flower-stem rises nearly two feet high ; and, with the leaves, is rough with white bristly hairs. The light-blue flowers make a beautiful appearance, and are produced for several months in succession, beginning with May. It is a native, or naturalised in several parts of Britain. 4128. Use. The young leaves and tender tops are used occasionally as salads, and to furnish a boiled dish in summer and autumn. The plant was formerly in high estimation as a cordial herb for driving away sorrow ; but " very light surely," says Sir J. E. Smith, " were those sorrows that would be so driven away." The spikes of the flowers form an ingredient in negus and cool tankards, and the blossoms are occasionally employed as a garnish. The juice of the plant affords nitre, and the withered stalks have been observed to burn like match-paper. 4129. Course of culture. It is raised from seed, and for a bed four feet and a half by six feet, one ounce is requisite. " Sow every year in the spring, any time in February or March, till May, &c. for summer supply ; and in any of the summer months, for young borage in autumn, as the plants of the spring and early summer sowings soon run up to stalks in the same year ; and in July or August and September, to furnish young leafy plants for winter and following spring. A small crop of each sowing will be sufficient for the supply of a family. This herb loves a dry soil Sow either broad-cast, and raked in, or in small drills six to twelve inches asunder. Where the plants rise too close, thin them to that distance. Although this herb will grow when transplanted, it prospers best when it remains where sown. Where the young leafy tops and flower-spikes are in demand, permit the stem to run up." 4130. To save seed. " Leave some of the plants which first run : they will produce plenty of seed in autumn : and from self-sown seeds many young plants will come up spontaneously." (Abercrombie.) SECT. IX. Sweet Herbs. 4131. Of siveet herbs, one or two kinds, as the lavender, peppermint, and some other mints, are extensively cultivated by market-gardeners for the druggists ; but a very few square yards of the private kitchen-garden will suffice to cultivate as much of each as is ever wanted by any family. The sage, thyme, mint, and tansy, appear in single plants in the border of the cottager's garden. SUBSECT. 1. Thyme. Thymus vulgaris, L. Didy. Gymnos. L. and Labiates, J. Thym, Fr. ; Thimian, Ger. ; and Timo, Ital. 4132. Of thyme there are two species cultivated for culinary purposes, the common and the lemon thyme. 4133. Common or garden thyme is the Thymus vulgaris, L. ; a low evergreen under- shrub, a native of Spain and Italy, and cultivated in this country since 1548, and pro- bably long before. It seldom rises above a foot high, has smaller flowers than the common wild thyme, and is moje delicate in its flavor. There are two varieties, the broad and the narrow leaved, besides the variegated, grown for ornament. Book I. SAGE, CLARY. 669 4134. Lemon thyme is the T. dtriodorus, P. S. ; a very low evergreen shrub, trailing and seldom rising above four or six inches in height. It is readily distinguished from the former, and from wild thyme, of which it has generally been considered as a variety, by its strong smell of lemons, as the trivial name imports. 4135. Use. The young leaves and tops are used in soups, stuffings, and sauces. For these purposes, the broad-leaved common is generally preferred ; but the flavor of the yellow is much liked in peculiar dishes. 4136. Culture. " To raise the plant from seed is the general and most eligible method. It is occasion- ally multiplied by parting the roots of stocky close plants, and by slips of the young shoots." 4137. By seed. " Sow in March or April in a bed or border of light fine earth, either broad-cast scat- tered thin, and raked in lightly, which is the general course, or in small shallow drills, six inches asunder : the young plants may either remain, or be transplanted in the summer, when two or three inches high. A portion may be drilled, for an edging to a border. Give occasional light waterings in dry warm weather, both before and after the plants are up. As soon as they are from three to five inches in growth, in June or July, taking the opportunity of rain, thin some out, and plant six inches asunder, and water at planting. Others may be planted in a single row to form an edging to a border, either set close to form at once a full edging, or as far as three inches apart. Seedlings thus treated will come in for use the same year. Those who raise considerable supplies of thyme for the markets, usually sow large portions thickly in beds, to remain till of useful growth ; then to be drawn off root and top to- gether, at different seasons, as wanted ; it is then tied in small bunches for market. Some persons also transplant considerable portions in spring and summer, to six, ten, or twelve inches' distance, to form a stocky full growth, to be drawn oflfin large bushy plants." 4138. By offsets. " Thyme is also propagated by slips of the branchy shoots in the spring, or early in autumn ; but more effectually by sections of the stool, top and root together, or by removing rooted branches. To make branches quickly root, loosen the mould about any established bushy plants, in spring or summer, and lay some fresh earth a small depth upon the spreading shoots : they will all be well rooted the same year for planting off. Plant in light rich earth : shade and water till rooted. In autumn, to provide against the effects of frost on exotic evergreens, dry and house a store for winter; either cutting the tops, or drawing entire plants." 4139. To save seed. " It is produced abundantly, and ripens in summer and autumn. Gather the seed- spikes, spread them upon a cloth to dry ; rub out clean, and put the seeds up for sowing the following year." (Abercrombie.) SUBSECT. 2. Sage. Salvia officinalis. L. (Ger. Herb. 623. f. 1.) Dian. Monog.'L. and Labiates, B. P. Sauge, Fr. ; Salbey, Ger. ; and Salvia, Ital. 4140. The sage is an evergreen under-shrub, a native of the south of Europe, and mentioned by Gerrard, in 1597, as an inhabitant of our gardens. It rises about two feet high, with wrinkled, green, cinereous leaves, white, or tinged with white or dusky purple. The flowers are terminal, in long spikes, of a blue color, and appear in June and July. 4141. Use. The leaves are used in stuffings and sauces for many kinds of lus- cious and strong meats ; as well as to improve the flavor of various articles of cookery. The decoction called sage-tea is usually made from one variety, the small-leaved green, or sage of virtue ; but any of the others are equally fit for this purpose. 4142. Varieties. These are The common, or red | The green 1 The small -leaded green, or sage of virtue | The broad-leaved, or balsamic. 4143. Estimate of sorts. " The red is the principal sort in culinary use, having the most agreeable and fullest flavor : the green is next in estimation with the cook : but the small-leaved is generally preferred to those to eat as a raw herb, and for decoctions ; while the broad-leaved balsamic species is the most ef- ficacious in a medical way, and is also a tea-herb. However, any of the sorts may be occasionally used 4144. Culture. " All the varieties may be propagated by slips or cuttings of the young shoots, taken from March to June ; but most successfully in May and June, by detaching the young shoots of the same year. The outward shoots are to be'preferred ; slip or cut them off five or six inches long, stripping off the under leaves, and preserving the top leaves entire : plant them in a shady border, six inches asunder, inserting them quite down to the top leaves, and water them. They will soon take root freely, especially the young shoots planted in May and June. In the advancing growth, if they spindle up in flower-stalks, pinch or cut that part down, that the plants may shoot out full and stocky from the bottom in close bushy growth for use the same year. In gathering sage for use, cut or slip off the young side and top shoots neatly : and be careful not to stub too close, especially towards winter, and during that season. In July and the rest of summer, it is usual to gather some of young top growth to dry for winter. Keep the plants in regular bushy heads by cutting away disorderly growths, and the decayed flower-stalks in autumn. regular bushy heads by cutting away disorderly growths, and the decayed flower-stalks in au ep them clear from weeds ; and sometimes loosen the earth between and about the plants, with j Keept a hoe. garden-trowel, or small spade,' in spring and autumn. Make a fresh plantation once in two, three, or four years, or as may be necessary by the plants becoming naked, stubby, and dwindling. (Abercrombie.) SUBSECT. 3. Clary. Salvia Sclarea, L. (FL Grf these fruits are so numerous, and each described as having so many good qualities, that the inexperienced selector may well be puzzled in making a choice, even from the comparatively limited lists which we have prepared for the following sections. When to all the names in these lists, and those of the nursery- men, we add the numerous new names annually brought forward by the Horticultural Societies of this country and of France, the difficulty of selection seems insuperably in- creased. The experienced and well informed gardener will be able to find out his way in this labyrinth ; but what are others to do? We would say, as a prudent mode, con- sult the selections recommended by eminent practical men ; as Abercrombie, M'Phail, Forsyth, Nicol, Macdonald, &c. which we have given in this chapter^ and also in those on planting the kitchen-garden and orchard. (2498. and 2527.) There are probably not half so many distinct sorts, as there are names in use ; and of that half, most likely two thirds are not worth cultivating. Of most of the sorts originated from seed, sufficient time has not elapsed to judge of their merits ; they are all described as good ; but un- questionably many of them are worth little in comparison with the best old sorts. Some of the new cherries and peaches might be adduced as examples ; and the Poonah grape, lately imported from the East Indies, and stated to be " a valuable addition to our gardens" ( Hort. Trans, iv. 517.), has been in the country (in the Brompton Nursery, for example), for an unknown length of time, under a different name. It is one of the worst descriptions of raisin grapes, with a small elliptical berry, having little flesh, juice, or flavor. We make these remarks not to discourage from originating or importing new fruits ; nor to dissuade from choosing new sorts ; but to guard the inexperienced against being led away by names and appearances. The Horticultural Society are doing much to illus- trate the subject of fruits, and in a few years they will no doubt settle a nomenclature, and determine the merits of all the fruits now in Europe, or perhaps the world. \ SECT. I. Kernel- Fruits. 4368. The jrrincipal hardy kernel-fruits are the apple and pear, too well known for their important uses to require any eulogium. In this section are also included the quince, medlar, and service. SUBSECT. 1. Apple. Pyrus Malus, L. (Eng. Sot. 179.) /cos. Di-Pentag. L. and Rosacetc, J. Pomme, Fr. ; Apfel, Ger. ; and Porno or Melo, Ital. 4369. The apple is a spreading tree with the branches more horizontal than in the pear- tree ; the leaves ovate ; the flowers in terminating umbels, produced from the wood of the former year ; but more generally from very short shoots or spurs from wood of two years' growth. The fruit is roundish, umbilicate at the base, and of an acid flavor. In its wild state, it is termed the crab, and is then armed with thorns, with smaller leaves, flowers, and fruit, and the pulp of the latter extremely acid. It is a native of most countries of Europe in its wild state ; and the improved varieties form an important branch of culture in Britain, France, Germany, and America, for the kitchen, the table, and for the manufacture of cider. From whence we at first received the cultivated apple is unknown ; but in all probability it was introduced by the Romans, to whom twenty-two varieties were known in Pliny's time (52.), and afterwards the stock of varieties greatly increased at the Norman conquest. According to Stow, carp and pepins were brought into England by Mascal, who wrote on fruit-trees in 1572. The apple-tree is supposed by some to attain a great age. Haller men- tions some trees in Herefordshire that attained a thousand years, and were highly prolific ; but Knight considers two hundred years as the ordinary duration of a healthy tree, grafted on a crab-stock, and planted in a strong tenacious soil. Speechly (Hints, 58.) mentions a tree in an orchard at Burton-Joyce, near Nottingham, of about sixty years old, with branches extending from seven to nine yards round the bole, which, in 1792, produced upwards of 100 pecks of apples. Of all the different fruits which are produced in Britain, none can be brought to so high a degree of perfection, with so little trouble ; and of no other are there so many excellent varieties in general cultivation, calculated for almost every soil, situation, and climate, which our island affords. Very good apples are grown in the Highlands and Orkneys, and even in the Shetland Isles, (Caled. Hort. Mem. vol. ii.) as well as in Devonshire and Cornwall; some sorts are ripe in the be- BOOK I. APPLE. 689 ginning of July, and others, which ripen later, will keep till June. Unlike other fruits, those which ripen latest are the best. 4370. Use. For pies, tarts, sauces, and the dessert, the use of the apple is familiar to every one. Duduit, of Mazeres, has found that one-third of boiled apple-pulp, baked with two thirds of flour, having been properly fermented with yeast for twelve hours, makes a very excellent bread, full of eyes, and ex- tremely palatable and light. (New Month. Mag. June 1821.) The fermented juice forms cider, a substitute both for grape-wine and malt liquor. In confectionary, it is used for comfits, conipotes, marmalades, jellies, pastes, tarts, &c. In medicine, verjuice, or the juice of crabs, is used for spraifis, and as an astrin- gent and repellent : and, with a proper addition of sugar, Withering thinks a very grateful liquor might be made with it, little inferior to Rhenish wine. Lightfoot affirms that the crab mixed with cultivated apples, or even alone, if thoroughly ripe, will make a sound, masculine wine. The apple, when ripe, is laxative; the juice is excellent in dysentery: boiled or roasted apples fortify a weak stomach. Scopoli recovered from a weakness of the stomach and indigestion from using them ; and they are equally effica- cious in> putrid and malignant fevers with the juice of lemons or currants. In perfumery, the pulp of apples, beat up with lard, forms pomatum : and Bosc observes (N. Cours d' Agriculture, &c. in loco), that the prolonged stratification of apples with elder-flowers, in a close vessel, gives the former an odor of musk extremely agreeable. In dyeing, the bark produces a yellow color ; and, in general economy, the wood of the tree is used for turning, and various purposes, where hardness, compactness, and variegation of color, are objects. 4371. Criterion of a good apple. Apples for the table are characterised by a firm juicy pulp, elevated poig- nant flavor, regular form, and beautiful coloring ; those, for kitchen use, by the property of falling, as it is technically termed, or forming in general a pulpy mass of equal consistency, when baked or boiled, and by a large size. Some sorts of apples have the property of falling when green, as the Keswick, Carlisle, Haw- thornden, and other codlins ; and some only after being ripe, as the russet tribes. Those which have this property when green, are particularly valuable for affording sauces to geese early in the season, and for succeeding the gooseberry in tarts. For cider, an apple must possess a considerable degree of astringency, with or without firmness of pulp, or richness of juice. The best kinds, Knight observes, are often tough, dry, and fibrous ; and the Siberian Harvey, which he recommends as one of the very best cider-apples, is unfit either for culinary purposes or the table. Knight has found that the specific gravity of the juice of any apple recently expressed, indicates, with very considerable accuracy, the strength of the future cider. Considering the various uses of the apple, we agree with Speechly in regarding it as a fruit " of more use and benefit to the public in general, than all the other fruits, the produce of this island, united." 4372. Varieties. Tusser, in 1573, mentions in his list of fruits, "apples of all sorts." Parkinson, in 1629, enumerates fifty-seven sorts. Evelyn, about thirty years afterwards, says (Pomona, pref.), " It was through the plain industry of one Harris, a fruiterer to Henry VIII., that the fields and environs of about thirty towns in Kent only, were planted with fruit from Flanders, to the universal benefit and general im- provement of the county." Gibson (Churches of Dove and Homelacy.} mentions that Lord Scudamore, ambassador to the court of France, in the time of Charles I., collected in Normandy scions of cider-apple- trees, and when he returned to England, encouraged the grafting them throughout the county of Here- ford. Hartlib, in 1650, speaks of " one who had two hundred sorts of apples," and " verily believes there are nearly 500 sorts in this island." Ray, in 1688, selected from the information of the most skilful gar- deners about London, a list of 78 sorts. Succeeding writers have been enabled greatly to increase the list, partly from the almost continual accession of sorts received from the continent during intervals of peace, but principally from the great numbers raised from seeds. A variety of apple, like those of most other plants, is supposed by some to have only a limited duration; and hence on taking a retrospective view of the lists of sorts, given by Parkinson, Evelyn, and other authors, many of them are not now to be found, or are so degenerated or diseased, as no longer to deserve the attention of the planter. " The moil," Knight ob- serves, " and its successful rival, the red-streak, with the musts and golden-pippin, are in the last stage of decay, and the stire and foxwhelp are hastening rapidly after them." After making a great variety of ex- periments for several years, and after many attempts to propagate every old variety of the apple, this au- thor observes (Tr. on Apple and Pear, 15.), " I think I am justified in the conclusion, that all plants of this species, however propagated from the same stock, partake in some degree of the same life, and will attend the progress of that life, in the habits of its youth, its maturity, and its decay ; though they will not be any way affected by any incidental injuries the parent tree may sustain after they are detached from it." 4373. Knight next directed his attention to raising new varieties from seeds, and has, by crossing one sort with another, and by having constantly several thousands of seedlings rearing, from which, as they show fruit, to select the best sorts, succeeded in producing several new varieties of apples, much esteemed for the table and the press. Of several of these sorts, and how obtained, accounts will be found in the work above quoted, and in the Horticultural Transactions, and a compend of their history and properties will be found in our table (next page). Several eminent horticulturists, in different districts, are now en- gaged in a similar manner; and there can be little doubt a valuable accession will, in a few years, be made to this class of fruits. Some, however, as Williamson (Hort. Trans, iii. 291.) and Speechly (Hints, 188.), consider that the deterioration of the apple and other fruits may be owing to the climate, and that the re- turn of genial summers would restore to us from old trees as good fruit as heretofore. Such also is our opinion, and Knight's doctrine appears to us contrary to general analogy in vegetable life. It is unquestionably true that all varieties have a tendency to degenerate into the primitive character of the species ; but to us it appears equally true, that any variety may be perpetuated with all its excellencies by proper culture, and more especially varieties of trees. However unsuccessful Knight may have been hi con- tinuing the moil, redstreak, and golden pippin, we cannot alter our conviction, that by grafting from these sorts they may be continued, such as they are, or were when the scions were taken from the trees, to the end of time. As to plants propagated by extension, " partaking in some degree of the same period of life as the parent," we cannot admit the idea as at all probable. Vines, olives, poplars, and willows have been propagated by extension for ages, and are still, as far as can be ascertained, as vigorous as they were in the time of Noah or Pliny. 4374. A numerous list of varieties may be considered as puzzling to inexperienced persons who have to select for a garden or an orchard. Sabine (Hort. Trans, iii. 263.) justly observes, that the stock of apples requires reduction rather than increase ; and adds, that one of the chief objects to which the attention of the Horticultural Society is at present directed, is to make a judicious selection. 4375. A great variety of apple-trees in a bearing state may be seen in different nurseries both in Britain and Ireland, but especially near London; from these in the autumn, the fruit may be tasted from the trees, and either young plants newly worked, or plants in a state of bearing, fixed on and marked, to be taken up at the proper season. The advantages of this mode, especially to such as possess but a small gar- den, are too obvious to require comment. 4376. No well arrange/! catalogue of apples has yet been published, because, in general, only a limited number of sorts fall under the eye and experience of one individual. Such a work seems more likely to be accomplished by public bodies, and is worthy of their attention. In the mean time, we present the best arrangement in our power of sorts readily procured from British nurseries, including tnost of the newly originated varieties, of which accounts have been published, and grafts distributed, among the com- mercial gardeners. Yy 690 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. !? i| I iHi SS-3-3& is c g v -s f.JS^S- 2 ^ I* rr I if it s fll rt > C .c _ *i IS il :s ia \t in i eaa^^gf.hx^a>s^g;x^>5a^^^>a H tlMi |1 IlM Jfiifffi *M|ly iji.-i mil i 33300 S lllll llaallH 5c!ss5J55 1 1 i* li I (J3J= ^rf5X 3 PI IIIIHl mil i mijiiMtm i i yiliiiinlpl|i ; ^|||f^g-|lSsiII BOOK I. APPLE. 691 Yy 2 692 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 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Mill I r 11 1 1 1 HI 11 1 iJ 11 siil-o nil ii IH IP ii 1 1 Sill ill si a I g gi ia gg g g .2 c > it fi- ll I III HIM! >. "3 ToTa-a "3 "3 "3 B fc. I I 1 12 S3 B a jfe > co Kcer; KCC oo 45 > S SSSS^ S2S s . 5-S 555 6 I!!!! f6566 66 &&&& l?& *&& II 65 66 i! !! tut. bill U I ^_ ii i ^ij ii ^ i BBA J^ S' ' S , If It -I J" ' IL'I ^s S iiii i "^ c P |_ in :i 5 15II = S; 3 S 6 |.2 .^.,^1 II- fc t! ^^ ^^^ k |, g y j| il HI I II || 1 1 1 1 Ofetfi < ttto >3(S W K ? >< ggsg. SS SS S S5 rd Cheney's green, Baxter's pe; which keep till the end of June 4411. For summer table use, till the apple season returns, as the Dredge's fame, oaken peg, carnation, &c. which keep till the I Nonpareil, Yorkshire greening, Norfolk colman, which keep endVjune | till the end of July. 4412. Other sources of choice. Another source of choice, under each of the above heads, may respect the soil, situation, and climate of the garden, or orchard, in which they are to be planted, or the character, whether of dwarfs, espaliers, or wall-trees, which they are to assume there. The winter and spring table apples may require a south wall in one district, while in another they may attain equal maturity as standards or espaliers. Where there is ample room, a selection of large sorts, as the Alexander and Baltimore apples, or of such as are the most beautifully colored, as the violet, carnation, &c. may be made to gratify the eye ; where room is wanting, useful sorts and great bearers are to be preferred, as the golden and ribstone pippin, summer pearmain, codlings, grey russet, summer and winter colvilles, &c. In general, small-sized fruit, as the Harveys and Granges, are to be preferred for standards, as less likely to break down the branches of the trees, or be shaken down by winds ; middling sorts for walls and dwarfs, and the largest of all for espaliers. In respect to a soil liable to produce canker, sorts raised from cuttings may be desirable, as the Burknott and codling tribe ; and where an occupier of a garden has only a short interest therein, such as irthorndean, Apius's ^reference. On me buiiuaij, Y ndt a. i'iuin.uiii/u 13 nmuc un iiccnuiu property, or with a view to posterity, new varieties on crab or free stocks, should always be chosen, as the Grange, Ingestrie, Harvey, &c. Some excellent sorts will grow and produce crops every where, as the Hawthorndean, codling, and Ribston pippin; the latter of which, Nicol says, will grow at John o' Groat's house, and may be planted in Cornwall ; others are shy bearers in cold situations, as the Newtown pippin of America, and most of the newly imported French sorts. 4413. Choice of plants and planting. This depends in some degree on the object in view, the richness of the soil, and the shelter ; young trees are more likely to succeed in exposed sites and poor soils, but the apple will bear transplanting at a greater age than any other fruit-tree. It may be planted in any open weather from November till February. 4414. Soil and site for permanent jrfanting. Any common soil, neither extremely sandy, gravelly, nor clayey, on a dry sub-soil, and with a free exposure, will suit this tree. On wet, hilly sub-soils, it will do no good, but after being planted a few years will become cankered, and get covered with moss. Where fruit-trees must be planted on such soils, they should first be rendered as dry as possible by under-draining ; next, provision made for carrying off the rain-water by surface gutters ; and, lastly, the ground should not be trenched above a foot deep, and the trees planted rather in hillocks of earth, above the surface, than in pits dug into it. There is no point of more importance than shallow trenching and shallow planting in cold wet soils, in which deep pits and deep pulverisation only serve to aggravate their natural evils of moisture and cold. (Sang, in Caled. Hort. Mem. iv. 14O.) 4415. Knight observes, that " the apple-tree attains its largest stature in a deep strong loam or marly clay ; but it will thrive in all rich soils, which are neither very sandy nor wet at bottom. It succeeds best," he adds, " in situations which are neither high nor remarkably low. In the former its blossoms are fre- quently injured by cold winds, and in the latter by spring frosts, particularly when the trees are planted in the lowest part of a confined valley. A south, or south-east aspect is generally preferred, on account of the turbulence of the west, and the coldness of north winds ; but orchards succeed well in all aspects ; and where the violence of the west wind is broken by an intervening rise of ground, a south-west aspect will be found equal to any." 4416. Abercrombie says, " all the sorts of apple-tree may be planted in any good common soil, with a free exposure, whether that of a garden, orchard, or field ; so that the ground be neither very low nor ex- cessively wet, nor subject to inundation in winter. Avoid, as far as possible, very strong clayey and gra- velly soils." 4417. Mode of bearing. " In all the varieties of the common apple, the mode of bearing is upon small terminal and lateral spurs, or short robust shoots, from half an inch to two niches long, which spring from the younger branches of two or more years' growth, appearing first at the extremity, and extending gra- dually down the side : the same bearing-branches and fruit-spurs continue many years fruitful " (Aber- crombie.) 4418. Pruning. " As, from the mode of bearing, apple-trees do not admit of short- ening in the general bearers, it should only be practised occasionally : first, where any extend out of limits, or grow irregular and deformed ; and secondly, a good shoot con- tiguous to a vacant space is shortened to a few eyes, to obtain an additional supply of young wood from the lower buds of the shoot for filling up the vacancy. But to shorten without such a motive, is not merely the cutting away of the first and the principal bear- ing part of the branches, but also occasions their putting forth many strong useless wood- shoots where fruit-spurs would otherwise arise ; and both effects greatly tend to retard the trees in bearing ; whereas the fertile branches being cultivated to their natural length, shoot moderately, and have fruit-spurs quite to the extremity." (Abercrombie.') 4419. Espaliers and wall-trees require a summer and winter pruning. 4420. The summer pruning. Train in the young shoots of the same year, which are likely to be wanted in the figure, and retrench them where ill placed or too numerous ; forks the trees continue bearing many years on the game branches, they only require occasional supplies of young wood ; therefore, begin in May or June to pinch off or cut out close all fore-right, ill placed, and superfluous shoots ; retaining only some of the promising laterals in the more vacant parts, with a leader to each branch ; train in these between the mother branches, at their full length, all summer ; or, where any vacancy occurs, some strong conti- BOOK I. APPLE. 701 guous shoot may be shortened in June to a few eyes, to furnish several laterals the same season. Keep the shoots in all parts closely trained, both to preserve the regularity of the espalier, and to admit the air and sun to the advancing fruit. 4421. The winter pruning may be performed from November till the beginning of April. This compre- hends the regulation of the wood-branches, the bearers, and of the young shoots. First, examine the new shoots trained in the preceding summer ; and if too abundant, retain only a competency of well placed and promising laterals, to furnish vacant parts, with a leading shoot to each parent branch. Continue these mostly at full length, as far as there is room. Cut out close the superabundant and irregular young shoots ; and where any of the elder branches appear unfruitful, cankery, or decayed, cut them either clean out, or prune short to some good lateral, as may seem expedient. Also prune into order any branches which are very irregular, or too extended. Carefully preserve all the eligible natural fruit-spurs ; but re- move all unfruitful stumps and snags, and large projecting rugged spurs ; cutting close to the old wood. As each espalier is pruned, let the old and new branches be laid in at convenient distances, according to the size of the fruit, four, five, or six inches asunder, and neatly tied or nailed to the wall or trellis. (Abercrombie.) 4422. Training espaliers. The following mode, as described by Mearns, is the most general, and by using stakes, which do not answer so well for any other species of espalier-tree as for apples, is also the most eco- nomical : In the first stage of training, the stakes require to stand as close together as twelve or fourteen inches, and to be arranged in regular order to the full height of five feet, with a rail slightly fastened on the top of them for neatness sake, as well as to steady them. If stakes of small ash, Spanish chestnut, or the like, from coppices or thinnings of young plantations, be used, they will last for three or four years, provided they are from one inch and a half to two inches in diameter, at a foot from the bottom. They need not be extended further in the first instance than the distance to be considered probable the trees may reach in three years' growth ; at that period, or the following season, they will all require to be renewed, and the new ones may be placed on each side, to the extent that the trees maybe thought to require while these stakes last, finishing the top as before, with a rail. As the trees extend their horizontal branches, and acquire substance, the two stakes on each side of the one that supports the centre leader of the tree, can be spared, and removed to any of the extremities where wanted. And as the tree extends further, and ac- quires more substance, every other stake will be found sufficient ; and the centre stake can be spared also, after the leader has reached its destined height, and is of a sufficient substance to support itself erect. When such a form of training is completed, and the branches of sufficient magnitude, about six, eight, or twelve stakes will be sufficient for the support of the horizontal branches, even when they have the burden of a full crop of fruit. At any other time, about six stakes to each tree will be all that are necessary. 4423. In selecting trees for the usual horizontal training, look out for those which have three fine shoots. Or it is better to plant them one year where they are to remain to get their roots well established, and then to head them down to within eight or nine inches of the ground, and to encourage three shoots from the top of each stool' (fig. 483. a), so that the first and lowermost horizontal shoots may be tied down within ten inches of the ground. 4424. In the pruning season cut down the middle shoot of the three, reserving what is left as an upright leader, its length being about twelve inches from the base of the other two, and train these in a horizontal position (A), fixing the middle shoot, which was cut down perpendicularly to the stake it is planted against. But if it is against a wall or pales, it may be better to zigzag the upright leader, for the more regular dis- tribution of the sap, and when that is intended, the leader should be left a little longer, to allow of its being bent. In espalier training this zigzagging is not so readily done, nor is it necessary where the trees are not intended to rise high. It is always necessary, in the course of training the young wood across the stakes, in summer, to have large osier, or similar rods, to tie them to, in order to guide the shoots of the year in a proper direction. The proper ties are small osier twigs. 4425. The following summer encourage three other shoots in the same way as the season before (c), then cut off the middle shoot at ten, twelve, or fifteen inches above the base of the other two, and train these last as in the former season (d) ; and so continue training, year after year, till the trees have reached their destined height. (Mearns, in Hort. Trans, v. -16.) An improvement on this mode consists in cutting down the leading shoot during summer, in the manner practised by Harrison, of Wortley Hall, as described in the succeeding paragraphs. 4426. Training against a wall. The horizontal mode is unquestionably to be preferred for so vigorous a growing tree as the apple ; and Harrison's mode of conducting the process (Tr. on Fruit- Trees, 1823. ch. xx.) appears to us much the best. The pe- culiarity of his method is, that instead of training the leading shoot in a serpentine or zigzag manner with Hitt or Mearns, to make it send out side shoots, he adopts the much more simple and effectual mode of cutting down the current year's shoots in June ; by which means he gains annually a year, as side shoots are produced on the young wood of that year, as well as on last year's wood which it sprang from. 4427. The tree being a maiden plant is the first year headed down to seven buds. Every bud pushing, two of the shoots, the third and fourth, counting upwards, must be rubbed off when they are three inches in length ; the uppermost shoot must be trained straight up the wall for a leading stem, and the remaining four horizontally along the wall. The leading shoot having attained about fifteen inches in length, cut it down to eleven inches. From the shoots that will thus be produced select three, one to be trained as a leader, and two as side branches. Proceeding in this way for seven years, the tree will have reached the top of a wall twelve feet high. With weak trees, or trees in very cold late situations, this practice will not be advisable, as the wood produced would be too weak, or would not ripen ; but in all ordinary situations, it is obviously a superior mode to any that has been hitherto described in books. In pruning the spurs of apple and other trees, Harrison differs from many gardeners in keeping them short, never allowing one spur to have more than three or four fruit-buds, and in cutting off the spurs entirely, or cutting them down for renewal every fourth or fifth year. Every practical gardener, desirous of excelling in the training and spurring of fruit-trees, ought to possess Harrison's treatise. 4428. Heading down apple-trees that are much cankered, is strongly recommended by Forsyth, who gives an example of one (Jig. 484.), after it had been headed down four years, which bore plenty of fine fruit. The point at which it was headed down (a) was within eighteen inches of the soil ; and under it, on the stump, were two large wounds (6) 702 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. and (c), made by cutting out the cankery part, and which being covered with the com- position were soon nearly filled up with sound wood. Very little pruning is at first given to trees so cut, but afterwards a regular succession of bearing wood is kept up by re- moving such as have borne for three or four years. Thus, one branch (d), which has done bearing, is cut off, and succeeded by another (f\ and when that is tired also, it is cut off, and replaced by a third (e), and so on. 4429. Grafting old apple-trees pf different sorts with superior varieties, is an obvious and long-tried im- provement. In this case, if the tree is a standard, it is only headed down to standard height ; in old sub- jects, most commonly the branches only are cut over within a foot or two of the trunk, and then grafted in the crown or cleft manner. 4430. Injuries, insects, &c. The mistletoe (Viscum album} is frequently, through negligence, suffered to injure trees in orchards, and different species of mosses and lichens those in gardens. " Moss," Knight observes, " appears to constitute a symptomatic, rather than a primary, disease in fruit-trees : it is often brought on by a damp or uncultivated soil, by the age of the variety of fruit, and by the want of air and light in closely planted unpruned orchards. In these cases it can only be destroyed by removing the cause to which it owes its existence." 4431. Blights. Whatever deranges and destroys the organisation of the blossom, and prevents the set- ting of the fruit, is in general termed a blight ; whether produced by insects, parasitical plants, or an excess of heat or cold, drought, or moisture. One of the most injurious insects with which the apple- tree has been visited for the last twenty years, is the Aphis lanigera, L., the Eriosoma mali of Leach ; woolly aphis, apple-bug, or American blight. " The eriosomata," Leach observes, " form what are called improperly galls on the stalks of trees, near their joints and knobs, which are in fact excrescences, caused by the efforts of nature, to repair the damage done to the old trees by the perforation of those in- sects whose bodies are covered with down." (Sam. Ent.) Salisbury has given an engraving of the erio- soma (fig. 485.) as he found it appear under a magnifying glass, when attacking the roots (a) and the branches (6), as well as a still more highly magnified figure of one of the bugs without wings (c) and winged (d). The latter he considers likely to be the male insect. Thoroughly cleaning with a brush and 485 BOOK I. PEAR. 703 water, together with amputation when it has been some time at work, is the only means of destroying this insect ; but even this will not do, unless resorted to at an early stage of its progress. The caterpillars of many species of butterfly ana moth, and the larva: of various other genera of the hemiptera and lepidop- tera, &c. as Scarab&us, Curculi, &c. attack the apple-tree in common with other fruit-trees ; and on a large scale it is difficult, if not impracticable, to avoid their injurious effects. Burning straw or other materials under the trees has been long recommended ; but the principal thing to be relied on, hi our opinion, is regimen ; that is, judicious sub-soil and surface soil, culture, and pruning. 4432. Other points of culture have been already given. See Chap. II. and III. and for gathering and storing the crops, see Chap. IV. Sect. X. and Chap. V. Sect. III. SUBSECT. 2. Pear. Pyrus Communis, L. (Eng. Sot. 1784.) Icos. Di-Pentag. L. and Rosacea:, J. Poirier, Fr. ; JBirnbaum, Ger ; and Pero, Ital. 4433. The pear-tree, in its wild state, is a thorny tree, with upright branches, tending to the pyramidal form, in which it differs materially from the apple-tree. The twigs or spray hang down ; the leaves are elliptical, obtuse, serrate ; the flowers in terminating vil- lose corymbs, produced from wood of the preceding year, or from buds gradually formed on that of several years' growth, on the extremities of very short protruding shoots called, technically, spurs. It is found in a wild state in England, and abund- antly in France and Germany, as well as other parts of Europe, not excepting Russia, as far north as lat. 51. It grows in almost any soil. The cultivated tree differs from the apple, not only in having a tendency to the pyramidal form, but also in being more apt to send out tap-roots ; in being, as a seedling plant, longer (generally from fifteen to eighteen years) of coming into bearing ; and when on its own root, or grafted on a wild pear-stock, of being much longer lived. In a dry soil it will exist for centuries, and still keep its health, productiveness, and vigor. " The period at which the teinton squash first sprang from the seed, Knight observes, probably, cannot now be at all ascertained ; but I suspect, from its present diseased and worn-out state, that it ex- isted at least as early as the beginning of the sixteenth century : for another kind, the barland, which was much cultivated in the early part of the seventeenth century, still re- tains a large -share of health and vigor; and the identical trees which supplied the inhabitants of Herefordshire in the seventeenth century with liquor, are likely to do the same good office to those of the nineteenth." Our remarks on the history of the apple will apply almost without exception to the pear. The Romans, in Pliny's time, possessed thirty-six varieties, and the fruit is still more valued, both in Italy and France, than the apple. 4434. Use. As a dessert fruit the pear is much esteemed, and generally preferred to the apple. It is also used for baking, compotes, marmalade, &c. Pared and dried in the oven, the fruit will keep several years, either with or without sugar. This mode of preparing the pear is about as common in France as the making of apple-pies is in this country ; and what is favorable to the practice is, that bad eating sorts answer best for drying. Bosc (Nouveau Cours d'Agric. in loco) describes two methods of drying pears for preservation ; and adds, that he has tried them after three years' keeping, and found them still very good. Perry, the poire of the French, is made from the fermented juice, in the manner of cider, and the best sorts are said by Withering to be little inferior to wine. The wood of the pear-tree is light, smooth, and compact, and is used by turners, and to make joiners' tools, picture-frames to be dyed black, &c. The leaves will pro- duce a yellow dye, and may be used to give a green to blue cloths. 4435. Criterion of a good pear. Dessert pears are characterised by a sugary aromatic juice, with the pulp soft and sub-liquid, or melting, as in the beurre's, or butter-pears ; or of a firm and crisp consistence, or breaking, as in the winter bergamots. Kitchen pears should be of large size, with the flesh firm, neither breaking nor melting, and ra- ther austere than sweet, as the wardens. Perry pears may be either large or small ; but the more austere the taste, the better will be the liquor. Excellent perry is made from the wild pear. 4436. Varieties. Tusser, in 1573, in his list of fruits, mentions " peeres of all sorts." Parkinson enumerates sixty-four varieties ; Mortimer, in 1708, has many sorts; and Miller has selected eighty sorts, and described them from Tournefort. In France, the varieties of the pear are much more numerous than even the varieties of the apple. The catalogue of the Luxemburg nursery at Paris contains 189 select sorts. The British nursery lists at the present time contain from two to three hundred names, among which, it may be observed, the number of good sorts are fewer in proportion than in the apple lists. In the present very imperfect state of the nomenclature of fruits, all we can do is to make a selection from names which have some descriptive particulars attached. We shall arrange them into dessert, kitchen, and perry pears, and each tribe shall be set down in the order of their ripening. , sis, B 1 *$ S jr raa ..... . -Jfii- illli.-l-.-5i. ...:. . -.Jim. i ij.rft,,. i... in K7 -H fl.JvHf-, X 73 > > 6 5 itJSJlf! i. i J; i. .. ...Ill II !!! Illr I" i"| |1 1 MI-] rfxJ >3 **_<*>>_ cc J___ S ^ ,j_ - .53 ^ lii ;; ,c oceans 2S22 ssss- e c sLfLg c c (Le, il , " S III i Ilillllllll II t'Jlll ill I II 1'; i d a *c^< 2 ill] M = .1. mi ,.!. 1 P.P.CB(3fiBCflBB B CBa BBBB B C"f 5 C C ' 55555555555 5 555 5555" 5 5^ 5 ^ I in mi | |i | a O.CB 55 B B fl 55 ! 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In the former case, the same principles of selection or crossing are to be followed which we have stated in treating of raising seedling apple-trees, between which and the pear-tree, the chief difference is, that the latter requires a longer period, nearly double, to come into bearing, and that the proportion of good sorts to bad, so originated, is but very small. Professor Van Mons, proprietor of the Peplniere de la Fidelite, at Brussels, has upwards of 800 approved sorts of new pears, raised from seed by himself and M. Duquesne, of Mons, in the course of fifteen or sixteen years, and selected from, probably, 8000 new seedling fruits. Van Mons observed to Neill, that " he seldom failed in procuring valuable apples from the seed ; for those which were not adapted to the garden as dessert fruit, were pro- bably suited for the orchard, and fit for baking or cider-making. With pears the case was different, many proving so bad as to be unfit for any purpose." (Horticul. Tour, Sec, 309.) Whenever a seedling indicates, by the blunt shape, thickness, and woolliness of its leaves, or by the softness of its bark and fulness of its buds, the promise of future good qualities, as a fruit-bearing tree, Van Mons takes a graft from it, and places it on a well established stock : the value of its fruit is thus much sooner ascer- tained. (Horticul. Tour, Sec. 310.) At Brussels, seedlings yield fruit in four or five years, in Britain seldom before seven or ten years have elapsed. The fruit of the first year of bearing is always inferior to that of the second and third years. If a pear or an apple possess a white and heavy pulp, with juice of rather pungent acidity, it may be expected in the second, third, and subsequent years, greatly to improve in size and flavor. New varieties of pears, and indeed, of all fruits, are more likely to be obtained trom the seeds of new than of old sorts. (Horticul. Tour, &c. 308, 309.) 4440. In raising pears for stock, the seeds from perry-makers are generally made use of ; but the most proper are those from the wild pear, as likely to produce plants more hardy and durable. There is, how- ever, less difference between free pear-stocks, for those raised from the cultivated fruit, and wild pear- stocks, than there is between free apple and crab-stocks. The seeds being procured, may be sown, and afterwards treated as directed for seedling crab, or apple-tree stocks. 4441. Grafting and budding. The most common stocks for grafting the pear are the common pear and wilding ; but as the apple is dwarfed, and brought more early into a bearing state by grafting on the pa- radise or creeper, so is the pear by grafting on .the quince Or whitethorn. The pear will also succeed very well on the whitebeam, medlar, service, or apple ; but the wilding and quince are in most general use. Pears on free stocks grow luxuriantly in good soil on a dry bottom ; those on wildings grow less rapidly, but are deemed more durable, and they will thrive on the poorest soil, if a hardy variety, and not over- pruned.- ." On the quince," Miller observes, " breaking pears are rendered gritty and stony ; hut the melt- ing sorts are much improved : trees on these stocks may be planted in a moist soil with more success than trlose on wildings or thorns." On the thorn, pears come very early into bearing, continue prolific, and, in respect to soil, will thrive well on a strong clay, which is unsuitable both to those on quinces and wild- ings ; but they are supposed to have an unfavorable influence on the fruit, in rendering it smaller and quince-stock for clayey and light soils, and the free stock for chalky and siliceous soils. (Horticul. Trans. iv. 566.) The free and wilding pear-stocks are to be planted in nursery rows, at the same distance as re- commended for free and wilding apples ; and the quince and thorn at the same distance as .the paradise and creeper apples j in other respects, the management is the same as for the apple. 4442. Choice of sorts. (See Ch. II. and III. on Planting the Orchard and Kitchen-Gar* den.} The following is a list of table-pears for use in succession, from July to July again, as furnished for the table of the Duke of Buccleugh from the Dalkeith gar- den. The letters mark the aspect of the walls against which they are trained. (W.) Jargonelle Longueville Summer bergamot Orange bergamot (W.) Summer boncretien ( W.) Autumn bergamot (W.) Gansel's bergamot (S. and W.) Green sugar (W.) Early primitive \S.\ Muirfowl egg ^S.)Greyachan j ( W.} Grey beum? (W.) Green chisel (W.) Winter boncretien (W.) St. Germain ( W.) Swan's egg (W.)Cressane I (W.) Cbaumontelle (W.) Brown beurre" | (W.) Colmar. (MacdMtald, in Sir John Sinclair's Gen. Rep. of Scotland, iv. 433.) 4443. Choice of plants. Abercrombie takes trees at one year from the graft, and thence to the sixth year, or older. Forsyth says, " I would advise those who intend to plant pear-trees, instead of choosing young ones, to look out for the oldest that they can find in the nursery, and with strong stems." 4444. Soil and site. " A dry, deep loam," Abercrombie observes, " is accounted the best soil for the pear-tree when the stock is of its own species ; on a quince-stock it wants a moist soil, withdlit which it will not prosper. Gravel is a good sub-soil, where the incumbent mould is suitable. Cold clay is a bad sub-soil : to prevent fruit-trees from striking into it, slates may be laid just under the roots. For wan- trees, the soil should be made good to the depth of three feet ; for orchard-trees, eighteen inches may do. Pear-trees, on their own stocks, will thrive on land where apples will not even live ; supposing the plants to be hardy varieties, little removed from wildings, and to have room to grow freely as standards. To the more choice of the early autumn and prime winter pears, assign south, east, or west walls. Knight and M'Phail recommend a strong, deep, loamy soil, and the latter a high wall for training the better sorts." 4445. Planting finally is performed any time, in mild weather, from October to March ; standards are *T**^. jr(.u>ltt.tllg jittULiy 10 ^iciiuiiiicu any nine, 111 * wcauuci, iiwAi w,i, L M4V .. , placed from twenty-five to forty feet apart every way ; half standards, from twenty to thirty ; and dwarf standards, in borders from fifteen to twenty feet from stem to stem. Wall and espalier trees are planted from fifteen to thirty feet apart, according as they may have been planted on pear or quince-stocks. 4446. Mode of bearing, as in the apple-tree. " The pear-tree," M'Phail says, " does not produce blos- soms on the former year's wood, as several other sorts of trees do. Its blossom-buds are formed upon spurs growing out of wood not younger than one-year old, and consequently, projecting spurs all over the tree must be left for that purpose." " In some pears," Knight observes, " the fruit grows only on the inside of those branches which are exposed to the sun and air ; in others it occupies every part of the tree." 4447. Pruning and training standards. " Permit these to extend on all sides freely. Several years may elapse before any cross-placed, very irregular, or crowded branches, dead and worn-out bearers, require pruning, which give in winter or spring. Keep the head moderately open in the middle." " Pruning," Knight observes, " is not often wanted in the culture of the pear-tree, which is rarely much encumbered with superfluous branches ; but in some kinds, whose form of growth resembles the apple-tree, it will sometimes be found beneficial." Z z 2 708 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 4448. Pruning and training wall-trees. As a wall-tree or espalier, the pear is always trained in the horizontal manner on account of its luxuriant growth. Harrison trains most pear-trees in this way, and proceeds exactly as he does in training the apple-tree. (4427 ) But, " when it occurs that a tree trained after this method still continues un- fruitful for several years after planting, the branches must be trained in a pendulous manner, and more or less so, according to the luxuriancy of the tree, but always com- mence the training in the horizontal method, and afterwards change the direction of the branches as required." (2V. on Fruit Trees, 144.) The ordinary distance at which he trains the side shoots is nine or ten inches, but the jargonelle he lays in at twelve inches, so as to have room for laying in side shoots from the spurs, for one or more years. This he finds checks the luxuriancy of the tree, and keeps it in full bearing. ( Tr. on Fruit Trees, 159.) 4449. Forsytli, in training a young pear-tree, shortens the leading shoot in March, and when the shoots it produces are very strong, he says, " I cut the leading shoot twice in one season ; by this method I get two sets of side shoots in one year, which en- ables me the sooner to cover the wall. The second cutting is performed about the mid- dle of June. " ( Tr. on Fruit Trees, 1 93. ) 4450. Established wall-trees and espaliers will require a summer and winter pruning, and the following are Abercrombie's directions : 4451. Summer pruning. While the spray is young and soft, but not until the wood-shoots can be dis- tinguished from spurs, rub off the fore-right, the disorderly, spongy, and superfluous shoots of the year, rather than let them grow woody, so as to require the knife. Ketain some of the most promising, weH placed, lateral, and terminal shoots, always keeping a leader to each main branch, where the space will permit. Leave the greater number on young trees not fully supplied with branches. Train in these at their full length, all summer, in order to have a choice of young wood in the winter pruning. Occa- sionally on old trees, or others, where any considerable vacancy occurs, some principal contiguous shoot may be shortened in June to a few eyes, fora supply of several new shoots the same season. The winter pruning may be performed any time from the beginning of November until the begin- ning of April. If on young trees, or others, a further increase of branches is necessary to till up either the prescribed space, or any casual vacuity, retain some principal shoots of last summer, to be trained for that purpose. As, however, many young shoots will have arisen on the wood-branches and bearers, of which a great part are redundant and disorderly, but which have received some regulation in the summer pruning, we must now cut these out close to the mother branches, while we are preserving the best in the more open parts. Examine the parent branches, and if any are very irregular, or defective in growth, either cut them out close, or prune them to some eligible lateral to supply the place ; or if any branches be over-extended, they may be pruned in to such a lateral, or to a good fruit-bud. Cut out the least regular of the too crowded ; also any casually declined bearers ; with decayed, cankery, and dead wood. The retained supply of laterals and terminals should be laid as much at length as the limits allow, in order to furnish a more abundant quantity of fruit-buds. During both courses of pruning, be particularly care- ful to preserve all the orderly fruit-spurs emitted at the sides and ends of the bearers : if, however, any large, rugged, projecting spurs, and woody barren stumps or snags occur, cut them clean away close to the branches, which will render the bearers more productive of fruit-buds, and regular in appearance. As each tree is pruned, nail or tie the branches and shoots to the wall or trellis. If afterwards, in conse- quence of either pruning out improper or decayed wood, or of former insufficient training, there are any material vacuities or irregularities in the arrangement, un-nail the misplaced and contiguous branches, and lay them in order. 4452. Knight's mode of training the pear-tree is as follows : " A young pear-stock, which had two lateral branches upon each side, and was about six feet high, was planted against a wall early in. the spring of 1810 ; and it was grafted in each of its lateral branches, two of which sprang out of the stem, about four feet from the ground, and the other at its summit in the following year. The shoots these grafts produced, when about a foot long, were trained downwards, the undermost nearly perpendicu- larly, and the uppermost just below the horizontal line, placing them at such distances that the leaves of one shoot did not at all shade those of another. In the next year, the same mode of training was conti- nued, and in the year following I obtained an abundant crop of fruit An old St. Germain pear-tree, of the spurious kind, had been trained in the fan-form, against a north-west wall in my garden, and the central branches, as usually happens in old trees thus trained, had long reached the top of the wall, and had become wholly unproductive. The other branches afforded but very little fruit, and that never acquiring maturity, was consequently of no value ; so that it was necessary to change the variety, as well as to render the tree productive. To attain these purposes, every branch which did not want at least twenty degrees of being perpendicular, was taken out at its base ; and the spurs upon every other branch, which I intended to retain, were taken off closely with the saw and chisel. Into these branches, at their sub- divisions, grafts were inserted at different distances from the root, and some so near the extremities of the branches, that the tree extended as widely in the autumn, after it was grafted, as it did in the pre- ceding year. The grafts were also so disposed, that every part of the space the tree previously covered, was equally well supplied with young wood. As soon, in the succeeding summer, as the young shoots had attained sufficient length, they were trained almost perpendicularly downwards, between the larger branches and the wall to which they were nailed. The most perpendicular remaining branch, upon each side, was grafted about four feet below the top of the wall, which is twelve feet high ; and the young shoots, which the grafts upon these afforded, were trained inwards, and bent down to occupy the space from which the old central branches had been taken away ; and therefore very little vacant space any where remained in the end of the first autumn. A few blossoms, but not any fruit, were produced by several of the grafts in the succeeding spring ; but in the following year, and subsequently, I have had abundant crops, equally dispersed over every part of the tree." 4453. Heading down and pruning old pear-trees. " The method of pruning pear- trees," Forsyth observes, " is very different from that practised for apple-trees in ge- neral. The constant practice has been to have great spurs, as big as a man's arm, standing out from the walls, from a foot to eighteen inches or upwards." The constant cutting of these spurs, he says, brings on the canker, and the fruit produced is small, spotted, and kernelly. Forsyth's practice with such trees was to cut them down, and renew the soil at their roots, and he refers to beurr^ pear (Jig. 486.), restored from an inch and a half of bark, which, in 1796, bore four hundred and fifty fine large pears, &c. BOOJ; I. PEAR. 709 4454. Harrison, and various other gardeners, adopt the mode of keeping only short spurs, by which much larger fruit is produced. According to this plan, each spur ( fig. 487. a) bears only once, when it is cut out, and succeeded by an embryo-bud (rf) ait its base. This bud at the end of the first season, is no more than a leaf-bud (c) ; but at the end of the se- c cond summer, it has be- come a blossom-bud (6), and bears the third sum- mer (a). Some useful ob- servations on the manage- ment of pear-trees, in correspondence with Har- j rison's practice, will be found in different parts of the Caledonian Hort. Me- moirs, vol. i. 4455. Forsyth says, " The constant practice has been to leave great spurs as big as a man's arm, stand, ing out from the walls, from one foot to eighteen inches and upwards. The constant pruning of these brings on the canker ; and by the spurs standing out so far from t'he wall, the blossom and fruit are liable to be much injured by the frost and blighting winds, and thus the sap will not have a free circu- lation all over the tree. The sap will always find its way first to the extremities of the shoots ; and the spurs will only receive it in a small proportion, as it returns from the ends of the branches." (Tr. on Fruit Trees, 187.) 4456. Setting the fruit. In a very curious paper on this subject, by the Rev. G. Swayne, he informs us of a pear-tree, which had for twenty years never borne fruit, but which he induced to bear by cutting off all the blossoms -of each corymbus of flowers, excepting the lower three, on the same principle as gardeners top beans. This succeeded to a certain extent on one tree, but not on another ; the selected blos- soms of the other he rendered fruitful by cross-impregnation. He says, " I fancied likewise that the pointal was fit for impregnation before the anthers were ripe, and even before the petals expanded ; and from the peculiarly slender and delicate make of the latter, as it struck me, I supposed, that it ceased to be in a proper state as soon as it became exposed to the sun and air ; I therefore concluded, that there might possibly be a chance of obtain ing fruit, by depriving the blossoms of their petals before they ex- panded, and enclosing with each floret in this state, within a paper envelope (as is my mode of effecting artificial impregnation), a riper blossom, viz. one that had just began to diffuse Us farina, either one of its own, or, preferably, of some other variety of pear." (Hort. Trans, v. 210.) He tied up twenty-seven envelopes on the 27th of March, and took off the papers on the 15th of April ; a number succeeded, and produced ripe fruit, specimens of which were sent to the Horticultural Society, and found unusually large and handsome. The Rev. Experimenter concludes his paper, by observing, " whether the result of the above-detailed experiments be such as to authorise an expectation that artificial assistance in vegetable fecundation, will hereafter become of so much importance to gardeners, in the instance just alluded to, as in those at present recognised, of the cucumber, the melon, the early bean, and the hautbois straw- berry, must be left to futurity to ascertain." (Hort. Trans, v. 212.) 4457. Harrison appears to have adopted a similar practice, he says, " It is very general to see healthy pear-trees, which produce an abundance of bloom but set a very small proportion of fruit ; this is more particularly the case with the tenderest kinds. The reason of such barrenness is in some cases from the stamina being destitute of farina, and in others from the farina having been dispersed before the pistil- lum had arrived at a proper state for its reception. To remedy such defects, I adopt the following prac- tice. As soon as the florets have expanded and the pistillum is in a proper state of maturity, I impreg- nate six upon each corymb of blossom. The florets which I choose for this operation are those situated nearest the origin of the spur, for when pears set naturally, it is very generally such florets. The time I choose for this operation is calm dry days, and if possible when the sun is not very hot upon the trees. Immediately after performance, I give each tree about eighteen gallons of manure water, or soft pond water, at the roots. The trees should never be washed over the tops for a considerable time after this impregnation has been effected." (Tr. on Fruit Trees.} 4458. Insects, diseases, &c. The pear-tree is liable to the attacks of the same insects Zz 3 710 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. as the apple-tree ; and the fruit of the summer kinds, when ripe, is liable to be eaten by birds, wasps, &c. which must be kept oft' by shooting, hanging bottles of water, and other usual preventives. For other points of culture, and gathering and storing, see Chap. II., Chap. IV. Sect. IX., and Chap. V. Sect. III. SUBSECT. 3. Quince. Pyrus Cydonia, L. ; Cydonia Vulgaris, W. en. /cos. Di-Pen- tag. L. and Rosaceee, J. Coignassier, Fr. ; Quittenbaum, Ger. ; and C'otogno, Ital. 4459. The quince-tree is of low growth, much branched, and generally crooked and distorted. The leaves are roundish or ovate, entire, above dusky-green, underneath whitish, on short petioles. The flowers are large, white, or pale-red, and appear in May and June ; the fruit, a pome, varying in shape in the different varieties, globular, ob- long, or ovate ; it has a peculiar and rather disagreeable smell and austere taste. It is a native of Austria and other parts of Europe; is mentioned by Tusser, in 1753; but has never been very generally cultivated. 4460. Use. The fruit is not eaten raw ; but stewed, or in pies or tarts, along with apples, is much esteemed. In confectionary, it forms an excellent marmalade and syrup. Whan apples are flat, and have lost their flavor, Forsyth' observes, a quince or two, in a pie or pudding, will add a quickness to them. In medicine, the expressed juice, repeat- edly taken in small quantities, is said to be cooling, astringent, and stomachic, &c. A mucilage prepared from the seeds was formerly much in use, but is now supplanted by the simple gums. In nursery-gardening, the plants are much used as stocks for the 4461. Varieties. Miller enumerates with obovate leaves, more j j ithers, and there- fore the most valuable. It is rather a shy bearer, but is highly esteemed for marmalade, as the pulp has the property of assuming a fine purple tint in the course of being prepared. The mild or eatable quince; less austere and astringent than the others. The oblong, or pear-quince; with oblong ovate leaves, and an oblong fruit lengthened at the base. The apple-quince; with ovate leaves and a rounder fruit. The Portugal quince (Lang. Pom. t. 73.) ; 1 4462. Propagation. Generally by layers, but also by cuttings, and approved sorts may be per{>etuated by grafting. In propagating for stocks, nothing more is necessary than removing the lower shoots from the larger, so as to preserve a clean stem as high as the graft ; but for fruit-bearing trees, it is necessary to train the stem to a rod, till it has attained four or five feet in height, and can support itself upright. 4463. Soil and site. The quince prefers a soft moist soil, and rather shady, or, at least, sheltered situ- ation. It is seldom planted but as a standard in the orchard, and a very few trees are sufficient for any family. 4464. The time of planting, the mode of bearing, and all the other particulars of culture, are the same as for the apple and pear. SUBSECT. 4. Medlar. Mespilus Germanica, L. (Eng.Bot. 1523.) /cos. Di-Pentag. L. and Rosaceee, J. Nejlier> Fr. ; Mispelbaum, Ger. ; and Nespolo, Ital. 4465. The medlar is a small or middle-sized branching tree ; the branches woolly, and covered with an ash-colored bark, and, in a wild state, armed with stiff spines. Leaves oval-lanceolate, serrate, towards the point somewhat woolly, on very short channelled petioles. Flowers produced on small natural spurs, at the ends and sides of the branches. Bracte as long as the corolla ; calyxes terminating, fleshy ; petals, white ; fruit, a tur- binated berry, crowned with five calycine leaflets ; pulp thick, mixed with callose gra- nules, and containing five gibbous wrinkled stones. The tree flowers in June and July, and the fruit is ripe in November. It is a native of the south of Europe ; but appears to be naturalised in some parts of England, where it has been sown in copses by binds. 4466. Use. The fruit is eaten raw in a state of incipient decay ; its taste and flavor are peculiar, and by some much esteemed. 4467. Varieties. Those in common cultivation are The Dutch medlar (Porn. Franc. 2. p. 45. t.2, 3.); a crooked, deformed, low tree with very large leaves, entire, and downy on the under side. The flowers and fruit are very large ; the latter approaching to the shape of an apple. The Nottingham medlar; with fruit of a quicker and more poignant taste. The wild medlar; a smaller tree, with smaller leaves, flowers, and fruit than any of the former sorts, and the fruit is pear-shaped. 4468. Propagation. By seeds, by layers, and cuttings, or by grafting on seedlings of their own species, or on any other species of mespilus, or of cydonia, or cratagus. Miller observes, that if the stones are taken out of the fruit as soon as it is ripe, and immediately planted, they will come up next spring, and make good plants in two years. He prefers raising from seed to grafting on the crata-gus. Forsyth says, " Those who wish to keep the sorts true, should propagate them by grafting on their own stocks." The plant is rather difficult to strike by cuttings. 4469. Soil. The soil in which the medlar thrives best is a loamy rich earth, rather moist than dry ; but not on a wet bottom. 4470. Final planting. The medlar, like the quince, is usually grown as a standard or espalier ; the former may be planted from twenty to thirty, and the latter from fifteen to twenty feet apart. 4471. Mode of bearing. On small spurs at the ends and sides of the branches. 4472. Pruning. Forsyth recommends the same sort of treatment as for the quince. Cut out all the dead and cankery wood, and keep the tree thin of branches when it is desired to have large fruit. Care is requisite to train standards with tall stems. Espaliers will require a summer and winter pruning, as ia the apple-tree. For other details of culture, see the Apple and Pear. BOOK I. STONE-FRUITS. 711 SUBSECT. 5. True-Service. Sorbus JDomestica, L. (Pyrus Domeslica, Eng. Hot. 350.) Icosan. Di-Pentag. L. and Rosace< ? ???><>. fafaS,> . n ... 1,1 i! .; -lit 1 II 3 " O. 6 - p,C 2 I 11 '"! II 1 !! ! ! lit I! H S II I "| . ! i !!! ' I Hill S g 5 -- W O .-) S O? SggS 2 S 6" 5g fi 6 5 55-S5 6 gSfi65-S 5555 r i r r i i ipt i 1 1 1 rinr ^ a = < "-B s r 3 ' - ! i s ' . ill li II I ''-III f ../. til if f!| I l & 1 i 1 1 I |lfi i : * 111*! ill i llnlil I wriao 1 I ' . 1 1 I i s -i i 11 i i i I ' i s l II 1 II 151 ' 1 1 B lication of cold water to a frozen joint or limb, which is injured by the sudden application of warmth." Harrison discovered this method by the following accident : " In planting some cabbage-plants, among the rows of some kidneybeans, very early in the morning, after a frosty night, in spring, before the sun was high enough to come upon the frosted beans, he spilt some of the water upon them which he used in planting the cabbage-plants ; and to his surprise, he found that the beans began immediately to recover." 4510. Ripening peaches on leafless branches. Whenever the part of the bearing branch, which extends beyond the fruit, is without foliage, the fruit itself rarely acquires matu- rity, and never its proper flavor and excellence. This Knight conjectured to be owing to the want of the returning sap which would have been furnished by the leaves ; and he proved it experimentally, by inarching a small branch immediately above the fruit. The fruit, in consequence, acquired the highest degree of maturity and perfection. (Hort. Trans, ii. 25.) 4511. Insects, diseases, &c. The leaves of the peach-tree are \ / 491 very liable to the attacks of the acarus, its greatest enemy, and also to be devoured by the Cliermes (Jig. 491. a), Aphis (Jig. 491. b), and even a much smaller insect, the Thrips (Jig. 492.), 492 which, in its natural size (c) is hardly perceptible with the naked eye. These are to be kept under by the usual means of watering over the leaves, and fumigation with tobacco-smoke. The honey-dew, mildew, gum, and canker, are chiefly to be kept under by regimen : dusting with sulphur has c been found to destroy the mildew (Robertson, in Hort. Trans, v. 184.), but the only certain way of removing it is by a renewal of the soil, which will commonly be found old mould long in use and too rich ; and by abundance of air. J. Kirk. (Caled. Hort. Mem. iv. 159.) has tried renewing the soil for fifty years, and always found it an effectual remedy. 4512. Black spots or blotches are very apt to appear and spread on the young wood of the peach-tree, and these Kinment proved to be produced by over-rich soil. He says, " Some time in the beginning of winter, 1811, I collected together a rich compost-heap (No. 1.), consisting of one third light loam, one sixth strong clay, one twelfth lime, one sixth hot-bed dung, one sixth vegetable mould, and one twelfth pigeon-dung. At the same time, I collected another heap (No. 2.), much less rich, consisting of one half light loam, one fourth strong clay, one eighth earth from scourings of ditches, one sixteenth lime, and one sixteenth hot-bed dung. These heaps I turned over occasionally, in order that they might be well meliorated by the frosts. About the middle of March, 1812, I planted the trees, and applied to the roots of a few of them the rich compost of No. 1. ; but the greatest number of them were planted with the compost No. 2. About the latter end of June, I examined the young trees all over : the shoots that they had made were nearly all of the same size ; but I was no way disappointed when I found those I had planted with the rich mould, sadly infested with black spots ; while those planted with No. 2. re- mained whole and sound. There being only the few which were planted with No. 1. infested with the black spots. With my knife I cut the blemishes entirely out ; and about the latter end of September I found the wounds completely whole. Early in the spring, 1813, I cleared off the rich mould entirely from their roots, and supplied the vacancy with No. 2. ; and at the end of last season I had the happiness to see them succeed to the utmost of my wishes, free of black spots." (Caled. Hort. Mem. ii. 79, 80.) 4513. The wasp (Vespa vulgaris), the large fly (Musca vomitorid), the ant (Formica vulgaris), and especially the earwig (Forficula auricularia), are enemies to the ripe peach. The three first may be ex- cluded by nets, or enticed by honied bottles, and the last caught by the beetle-trap, reeds, or bean-stalks, laid in behind the leaves, and examined every morning. 4514. The Montreuil peach-growers water to wash off the aphides ; pick off wrinkled, blotched, and mildewed leaves, and cut out canker and gum, and cover the wound with onguent de St. Fiacre, i. e. cow- dung and loam, " much in the same way," Neill observes, " as is practised in Scotland." 4515. Gathering. Use the peach-gatherer, and gather one day or two before the fruit is to be used, and before it be dead-ripe, laying it on clean paper in a dry airy part of the fruit-room. See Chap. IV. Sec. III. and Chap. V. Sect X. 4516. Forcing, and the use of hot-walls. The peach-tree forces well under glass, (See Chap. VII. Sect. III.) and its ripening may be accelerated in the open air, when planted against a hot-wall, by the application of gentle fires in cold moist weather, in August and September. This will ripen the fruit and wood, but attempts to accelerate the Uossoms early in spring are very dangerous, as without the protection .of glass they are almost certain of being cut off. SUBSECT. 2. Nectarine. Amygdalus Persica, var. Nectarina, L. Peche lisse, Fr. 4517. The nectarine is distinguished from the peach by its smooth and rather firmer and more plump fruit. In other respects the general description of the peach equally applies to the nectarine, both, as before observed, being by the continental gardeners considered as one fruit. Forsyth says, " The fruit is called nectarine from nectar, the poetical drink of the gods." Some botanists, considering it as a distinct species, dis- tinguish it by the trivial name of nuci-persica, from the similitude of the green fruit in smoothness, color, size, and form to the walnut (nux) covered with its outer green shell. 4518. The varieties are enumerated in the following table : Free Stones arranged in the order of their ripening. Elrnge; first cultivated at'Hoiton, by Gurle, in 1680; (Hook. P. L. & For. 3.) medium size; dark-red and pale-yel- low color ; ripens about the middle of August; and is soft and melting Temple's (Lang. P. t. 30. and For. 8.); medium size; pale-red and yellowish Fairchitd's early (For. 1.); small size; round figure; beautiful red color; ripens in the middle of August; flavor good Peterborough, Late Green, Vermash (For. 10.) Scarlet (For. 4.); small size; fine scar- let and pale-red color; ripens in the end" of August Violet, Violet Hative (Hook. P. t. 15. For. 11.); medium size; purple and pale color ; vinous flavor Murry (Foi red and middle of 'September ^Vhite, Flanders (Honk. P. t. 30. For. p. .OS.) ; ripens in the beginning of September. nrry (For. 7.); medium size; dingy j.green ; ripens in the HOOK I. APRICOT. 719 Cling-stoncs arranged in the order qf their ripening. Late Newinpton (Lang.P.t.W.For. 2.); red and yellow color; ripens in the middle of September; excellent rich juice Brugnon, Italian (Lang. P. t. 29. For. 5.); deep-red and pale-y color; ripens the beginning of tember; rich flavor Sep- Red Roman, Brugnor. Musqu(5 (Duh. n. 26. For. G.) ; large size; dark-red and yellow color ; ripens in Septem- ber ; replete with rich juice Golden (Lang. p. t. 29. Fur. 9.) ; medium size ; soft red and yellow color ; ripens in the beginning of October; poignant rich flavor Early Pavie (For. 57.) Late Genoa (For. 57.) . Early Newington (For. 57.); above medium size ; ripens the end of Au- gust ; deep-red color ; pulp super-ex- cellent; and, according to Miller, one of the best flavored of nectarines, or of any known fruit in the world Roger's seedling. (For. 77.) 4519. Selection of sorts. Forsyth recommends for a small garden Fairchild's early | Elruge | Scarlet | Newington | Red Roman | Temple's. 4520. Those in the Dalkeith garden are as follows ; such as are marked (-JT.) being planted against a hot-wall : (H.) Red Roman I (H.) Elruge I (H.) Temple I Fairchild's I (H.) Clermont (H.) Dutilly's I (H.)Brugnon | \H.) Murry | (H.) Scarlet 1 V 4521. Insects. " On account of the smoothness of the skin of the nectarine," For- syth says, " it suffers much more from the wood-louse (Oniscus asettus\ ear- wigs, &c. than the peach ; it will, therefore, be necessary to hang up a greater number of bundles of bean-stalks about these than about any other fruit-trees. Wasps are also very destruc- tive to nectarines, and the trees are very liable to be infested with the red spider." Culture, &c. This is in all respects the same as the peach. SUBSECT. 3. Apricot. Prunus Armeniaca, L. ; Armeniaca Vulgaris, P. S. (Lam. III. t. 431.) /cos. Di-Pentag. L. and Rosaceee, J. Mains Armeniaca of the Ancients. Abricot, Fr. ; Abricosenbaum, Ger. ; and Albicocco, Ital. 4522. The apricot is a low tree, of rather crooked growth, with broad roundish- pointed leaves, glandular, serrated, and the petiole commonly tinged with red. Linnaeus remarks, that the vernant leaves are convoluted, that is, not folded flat together, like those of the cherry, but rolling upwards, more or less. The leaves of many apricot-trees have a disposition to this at all times. The flowers are sessile, of a white color, tinged with dusky-red ; fruit round, yellow within and without, firmer than plums and most peaches, enclosing a smooth compressed stone, like that of the plum. The flowers ap- pear in April, on the shoots of the preceding year, and on' spurs of two or more years' growth, and the fruit ripens in September. From its trivial name, it is generally sup- posed to have originated in Armenia, but Regnier and Sickler assign it a parallel be- tween the Niger and the Atlas ; and Pallas states it to be a native of the whole of the Caucasus, the mountains there, to the top, being covered with it. Thunberg describes it as a very large, spreading, branchy tree in Japan. Grossier says that it covers the bar- ren mountains to the west of Pekin, that the Chinese have a great many varieties of the tree, double-blossomed, which they plant on little mounts for ornament, and dwarfs in pots for their apartments. It appears from Turner's Herbal, that the apricot was culti- vated here in 1562 ; and in Hakluyt's Remembrancer, 1582, it is affirmed, that the apricot was procured out of Italy by Wolfe, a French priest, gardener to Henry VIII. The fruit seems to have been known in Italy in the time of Dioscorides, under the name of Preecocin, probably, as Regnier supposes, from the Arabic, Berkoch ; whence the Tuscan, Bacoche or Albicocco ; and the English, Apricock : or, as Professor Martyn observes, a tree, when first introduced, might have been called a prcecox, or early fruit ; and gar- deners taking the article a for the first syllable of the word, might easily have corrupted it to apricocks. The orthography seerns to have been finally changed to apricot about the end of the last century; as Justice, in 1764, writes apricock ; and Kyle, of Moredun in 1782, apricot. 4523. Use. The fruit is used in a raw state at the dessert, and is esteemed next to the peach ; it is also made into marmalades, jellies, and preserved. Grossier says, that lo- zenges are made by the Chinese, from the clarified juice, which, dissolved in water, yield a cool refreshing beverage : oil may be extracted from the nut, and the young shoots yield a fine golden cinnamon-color to wool. 4524. Varieties. Parkinson, in 1629, enumerates six ; Rea, 1720, seven; the Lux- emburg catalogue, in 1800, fifteen ; and the British catalogues enumerate about the same number. Masculine, Early Red Masculine; an old variety, mentioned by Parkinson in 1629 (Duh. n. t. 1. & For. 1.) ; small size ;' roundish form ; greenish- red color ; ripens in the end of July ; the pulp tender, with a tart taste j the tree a good bearer, and the fruit esteemed for its earliness and tart taste Orange; mentioned by Rea in 1702 (For. 2.); large size; deep-yellow color ; ripens in the end of August ; the pulp dry and insipid ; fitter for tarts than for the table; excellent for APgterT'mentioned by Rea in 1702 . (For. 3.) ; flatted oval form ; straw- color ; ripens in the middle of August; the pulp juicy and high-flavored ; and, according to Miller, earlier than the orange Roman; mentioned by Rea in 1702 (Lang. P. t. 15. and For. 4.) large size; round form; deep-yellow color ; ripens in the middle of August ; the pulp not very juicy Turkey; mentioned by Rea in 1702 (Lang. P. t. 15. and For. 5.) ; large size ; globular form ; very deep yellow color; ripens in the end of August; the pulp firm and dry Breda; brought from Africa to Breda, and thence to England in 1702 (For. 6.) ; large size ; round form ; deep-yellow color; ripens In the end of August; the pulp soft and juicy; the tree a great bearer ; an excellent fruit, especially if grown on stand- ards, to which this sort is particularly adapted Brussels ; mentioned by Rea as brought from Brussels in 1702 (Pom. Autt. t. 57. and For. 7.); medium size; inclining to an oval form ; red, with dark spots, and greenish-yellow color; ripens in the end of August ; the pulp not liable to be mealy, or doughy; brisk flavor ; the tree a great bearer ; and held in great esteem on account 720 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. of Ks bearing to well in standards, or large dwarf* Moor Park ; Anson's, Temple's, Dun- more's Breda, and Peach Apricot; brought from the Netherlands by Sir Tho* More, say in 1700 (Hook. P. t. 9. and For. 8.) ; ripens in the end of August; fine fruit; according to Nicol, preferable to all other apri- PeTch Apricot; Apricot of Nancy; brought from Paris by the Duke of Northumberland, in 1767 (Duh. n. 10. and For. 9.) ; very large size ; ot August ; the fruit 4. t. 3. and For. Angoumols (Duh. Blotched-leaved (Pom. Franc, i. 34. and For. p. 5.) Breda, Graver's (For. p. 5.) Great (For. p. 5.) Holland \Dnh. 5. t. 4. and Far. p. 5.) Orange, rloyal Persian Portugal (Duh. 6. t. 5. and For. p. 5.) Provence (Duh. 6. t.4.) Transparent Violet. ripens in the end < is the finest and largest of all the apricots, and differs from the Moor Park chiefly in the leaves Black Peach; introduced by Sir Joseph Banks in 1800 (Pom. Franc, i. 36. and For. 10.); black-skinned ; ripens in the beginning of August ; and of good flavor Alberge (Pom. Franc, i. 39. and For. p. 5.) ; the only variety whose seeds produce the same fruit as the parent 4525. Choice of sorts. Those grown in the Dalkeith gardens are Moor Park | Breda, early | Masculine, early | Brussels, early | Orange, early. 4526. Propagation. New varieties are procured from the seed as in the peach, and approved sorts are perpetuated by budding, generally on muscle or plum stocks. The Brussels and Breda, when intended for standards, are budded on the St. Julian plum, which produces a strong clean stem ; but for the rest, any stock will do, provided it be free and thriving. Knight (Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 19.) recommends bud- ding the Moor Park on au apricot-stock, which he has found prevents the trees of this sort from becoming diseased and debilitated, which they generally do on plum-stocks. Budding apricots is generally per- formed early in the season, from the middle of June to the end of July. For dwarfs, the bud is inserted six or eight inches from the ground ; and the sorts are sometimes twice budded, or one variety budded on another, which is said to keep the trees in a more dwarf state. For riders or standards, they are budded on plum-stocks four or five feet high. Miller prefers half standards, budded about three or four feet from the ground ; the trees so produced, being less liable to suffer from high winds. 4527. Choice of the plants. Abercrombie prefers trees of two or three years' growth from the bud, and fit for immediate bearing. Forsyth makes choice of those plants which have the strongest and cleanest stems : and if he can such as have been headed down, of two or three years' growth, as they will bear and fill the walls much sooner than those which have not been so treated. He says, " make choice of trees with one stem ; or, if they have two, one of them should be cut off; for by planting those with two stems, the middle of the tree is left naked, and, of course, one third of the wall remains uncovered." 4528. Season of planting. Abercrombie says, the best season is from the fall of the leaf until February or March. Forsyth says, the best time is in August, when the leaf begins to fall. 4529. Final planting. The Breda and Brussels are occasionally planted as standards or espaliers in warm situations ; and in these states, in fine seasons, produce more highly flavored fruit than on walls. The other varieties are generally planted on walls, which, Miller and Forsyth say, should have an east or west aspect ; for, if they are planted full south, the great heat causes them to be mealy before they are eatable. The borders should not be less than six or eight feet wide, and two or two and a half feet deep. The soil a light rich loam, perfectly dry below. Forsyth says, " the borders may be three feet deep." " Standard apri- cots," Abercrombie observes, " do not come into bearing under a considerable number of years, some- times ten or twelve ; but then the fruit, in a congenial situation, is abundant and of the finest flavor. So, when the prevailing fault of a particular sort is mealiness, and yet it cannot be expected to ripen on even a dwarf standard, the medium course of training the plant to a trellis almost touching a south wall, will im- prove the flavor." 4530. Mode of training. The fan method is very generally adopted with this tree: Forsyth prefers the horizontal manner, and Harrison also trains horizontally, but " so as to let the branches have an elevation to their extremities of 20 degrees, varied, however, according to the luxuriancy or weakness of the tree." With young trees he proceeds to fill the wall by heading down, twice a year, in the same manner as with the apple and pear. The result produces a tree (Jig. 493.) not essentially different from Forsyth's engraving. (2V. on Fr. 2V. chap, xxiv.) 493 4531. Mode of bearing. The varieties of the apricot, in general, bear chiefly upon the young shoots of last year, and casually upon small spurs rising on the two or three BOOK U ALMOND. 721 year-old fruit-branches. The Moor Park bears chiefly on the last yearVshoots, and on close spurs formed on the two-year-old wood. The bearing shoots emit the blossom-buds immediately from the eyes along the sides ; and the buds have a round and swelling ap- pearance. 4532. Pruning wall-trees. The general culture of the wall-apricots comprehends a summer and winter course of regulation by pruning and training. 4533. Summer pruning. Begin the summer pruning in May or early in June, and continue it occasion- ally in July, August, &c This pruning is principally to regulate the young shoots, of the same year. In the first place, take oft close all the lore-right shoots, and others that are ill placed or irregular, or too luxuriant in growth; taking care to retain a competent supply of choice, well placed, moderately growing side shoots, with a good leader to each mother branch. Continue these mostly at their full length all summer, regularly trained in close to the wall, to procure a sufficiency to choose from in the general win- ter pruning, for new bearers next year. If the summer regulation commence early, while the shoots are quite young, and, as it were, herbaceous, one, two, three, or four inches long, those improper to retain may be detached with the finger and thumb; but when of firmer growth, they must be removed with the knife. If any very strong shoot rise in any casually vacant part, it may be topped in June, which will cause it to produce several laterals the same year of more moderate growth, eligible for training in to sup- ply the vacancy. 4534. Thinning the fruit. Sometimes the fruit are much too numerous, often growing in clusters ; in which case, thin them in May and the beginning of June, in their young green state ; leaving the most promising fruit singly, at three or four inches' distance, or from about two to six on the respective shoots according to their strength. The apricots so thinned off, and the first principal green fruit, are esteemed very fine for tarts. 4535. Winter pruning. This may be performed either at the fall of the leaf, or in mild intervals from that time until the beginning of March. When it is deferred until the buds begin to swell, the pro- mising shoots can be better distinguished. It comprehends a general regulation both of the last year's shoots and the older branches. A general supply of the most regular-placed young shoots must be every where retained, for successional bearers the ensuing year. Cut put some of the most naked part of the two last years' bearers, and naked old branches not furnis'hed with competent supplies of young wood, or with fruit-spurs, either to their origin, or to some well directed lateral, as most expedient, to make room for training a general supply of the new bearers retained ; and cut away all decayed wood and old stumps. Generally observe, in this pruning, to retain one leading shoot at the end of each branch ; either a natur- ally placed terminal, or one formed by cutting, where a vacuity is to be furnished, into a proper leader. Let the shoots retained for bearers be moderately shortened : strong shoots reduce in the least proportion, cut- ting off one fourth or less of their length ; from weak shoots take away a third, and sometimes half. This shortening will conduce to the production of a competency of lateral shoots the ensuing summer, from the lower and middle-placed eyes ; whereas, without it, the new shoots would proceed mostly from the top, and leave the under part of the mother branches naked, and the lower and middle parts of the tree unfurnished with proper supplies of bearing wood. Never prune below all the blossom-buds, except to provide wood, in which case cut nearer to the origin of the branch. As, in these trees, small fruit-spurs, an inch or two long, often appear on some of the two or three years' branches furnished with blossom-buds; these spurs should generally be retained for bearing ; but when any project fore-right far from the wall, cut them in accord- ingly ; for spurs projecting above three inches, though they may set their fruit, seldom ripen it, unless the season and situation are both favorable. The thick clusters of spurs which are apt to form on aged trees, ought also to be thinned. As each tree is pruned, nail it, laying in the branches and shoots from three to six inches' distance, straight and close to the wall. 4536. Pruning espaliers. As directed for wall-trees. 4537- Pruning standards. Half standards will require only occasional pruning to regulate any branches which are too numerous, too extended, or cross-placed ; and to remove any casually unfruitful parts and dead wood. At the same time, the regular branches, forming the head of the tree, should not be generally shortened, but permitted to advance in free growth. (Abercrombie.) 4538. Renovating old decaying trees. Forsyth had the greatest success in this de- partment of fruit-tree culture, by cutting down to within a foot or eighteen inches, or more, of the ground, and then renewing the soil of the border. He says " it has been the general practice to train apricot-trees on walls in the fan form, which occasions the sap to rise too freely to the top, leaving the lower part almost naked ; so that scarcely one quarter of the wall is covered with bearing wood." His remedy for this evil is to " cut down the whole of the tree, as near to the place where it was budded as possible ; remembering always to cut it to an eye or joint. If there should be any young shoots on the lower part of the tree, it will be proper to leave them, training them horizontally, which will check the flow of the sap, and thereby render them much more fruitful." (2V. on Fr. Tr. ch. i.) Harrison says, " Apricots are very susceptible of injury from pruning away any strong branches." Instead of heading down old peach, apricot, or plum, or even cherry trees, he generally prefers rooting them out and planting young ones. 4539. Gathering. The fruit is apt to become mealy, if left on the tree till over ripe ; it should be gathered with the peach -gatherer while moderately firm. 4540. Insects, diseases, &c. As the fruit ripens early, it is very liable to be attacked by wasps and large flies, which should be kept off by a net, stretched a foot or more apart from the wall or trellis. The other insects, and the diseases of this tree, are the same as in the peach-tree; but it is not nearly so obnoxious to their attacks, probably owing to the comparatively hard nature of its bark and wood, and coriaceous leaves. 4644. The apricot does not force well; but a few are sometimes tried in pots, and placed in the peach- house. See Chap. VII. Sect. III. SUBSECT. 4. Almond. Amygdalus, L. Icos. Monog. L. and Rosaceee, J. (Plenck. Ic. t. 385.) Amandier, Fr. ; Mandelbaum, Ger. ; and Mandorlo, Ital. 4542. The common or sweet almond is the A. communis, L. ; and the bitter almond is- the A. amara, L. (JBlackw. t. 195.) Both will grow to the height of twenty feet, with spreading branches. The leaves resemble those of the peach, but the lower serratures are 3 A 722 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PA&T III. glandular, which has given rise to the conjecture that glandular-leaved peaches have sprung more immediately from the almond than such as are without glands, as is generally the case with nectarines. The flowers vary in their color from the line blush of the apple- blossom to a snowy whiteness. The chief obvious distinction is in the fruit, which is flatter, with a coriaceous covering, instead of the rich pulp of the peach and nectarine, opening spontaneously when the kernel is ripe. It is a native of Barbary, China, and most eastern countries. The tuberes of Pliny, Knight considers as swollen almonds, and the same with the amandier pecker, or almond-peach, described by Du Hamel : having raised a similar variety from dusting the stigma of the almond with the pollen of the peach, which produced a tolerably good fruit. (Hort. Tram. iii. 4.) The almond is men- tioned by Turner in 1548, and, though scarcely worth cultivating in England as a fruit- tree for profit, yet it is a very satisfactory thing to produce almonds of one's own growing at the dessert. The tree forms an important article in the general culture of many parts of France, Italy, and Spain. In a forward spring the blossoms often appear in Fe- bruary, but in this case frost generally destroys them, and they bear little or no fruit ; whereas, when the trees do not flower till March, they seldom fail to produce fruit in abundance. 4543. Use. The kernel of the stone is the only part used, which is tender, and of a fine flavor. The sweet almond and other varieties are brought to the dessert in a green or imperfectly ripe, and also in a ripe or dried state. They are much used in cookery, confectionary, perfumery, and medicine. " Sweet almonds used in food," Professor Martyn observes, " are difficult of digestion ; and afford very little nourishment, unless extremely well comminuted. As medicine, they blunt acrimonious humors ; and some- times give instant relief in the heartburn." 4544. Varieties and species in cultivation. Miller enumerates three species, Du Hamel seven ; the number of sorts at present grown in the nurseries are as follows : Tender- shelled, Sultane (Dull. n.2. and For. 1.); small size Sweet, Common Sweet (Dtth. n. ,5. and For. 2.); ilarge size; bitter al- monds sometimes found on the same tree Bitter, Common Bitter (Pom. Franc. i. 67. and For. 3.); large size; sweet almonds sometimes found on the same tree Sweet Jordan (Amyg. dtdciiof Miller) (Pom. Franc, i. 67. and For. 4.) ; ten- der shell, and large sweet kernel; leaves broad, short, and crenate Hard-shelled (For. 5.) Dwarf (Duh. n. 8. and For. 6.) Peach Almond, Amandier Pecher (Duh. n. 2. t. 4. and Hart. Trans. Z t. 1.) ; produces some fruits ; pulpy and of tolerable good flavor; and others mere almonds; some partake of both na- tures Pistachio, Amande Pistache (Miller,*.); very small size. 4545. Selection of sorts. The tender-shelled is in the greatest esteem ; and next, the sweet and Jordan. 4546. Propagation. The almond is propagated, like the peach, by seed, for varieties, or for stocks ; and by budding on its own or on plum stocks, for continuing varieties. Plum-stocks are preferred for strong moist soils, and peach or almond stocks for dry situations. 4547. Final planting. It is generally planted as standards in shrubberies, and these will sometimes in good seasons ripen their fruit ; but when fruit is the object, it should be trained against a west or east wall, like the peach. 4548. Mode of bearing and pruning. The almond-tree bears chiefly on the young wood of the previous year, like the apricot and peach ; and in part upon small spurs on the two-year-old, three-year-old, and older branches : it is therefore pruned like these trees. 4549. Gathering and preserving the crop. A part may be gathered when nearly ripe daily for some weeks before gathering the whole crop. This operation generally falls to be performed in September, when a part may be laid in the fruit-room, and a part thoroughly dried and bedded in sand in the fruit-cellar, for keeping through the winter. SUBSECT. 5. Plum. Prunus domestica, L. (Eng. Sot. 1783.) Icos. Di-Pentag. L. and RosacetB, J. Prune, Fr. ; Pflaumenbaum, Ger. ; and Prugno, Ital. 4550. The plum-tree rises fifteen feet in height, branching into a moderately spreading head ; the leaves are ovate, serrated, and on short petioles. ^Petals white, drupe an oblong spheroid, shell long, ovate, and compressed. The natural color of the plum is generally considered to be black ; but the varieties in cultivation are of yellow, red, blue, and green colors, and of different forms and flavors. It is a native, or naturalised in Britain, being frequently found in hedges ; but its original country is supposed to be Asia, in Europe : and, according to Pliny, it was brought from Syria into Greece ; and thence into Italy. 4551. Use. The best varieties are esteemed a delicious dessert fruit; and the others are used in pies, tarts, conserves, and sweetmeats. A wholesome wine is also occasionally made from them, with or without other fruits and ingredients. " Plums," Professor Martyn observes, " when sufficiently ripe, and taken in moderate quantity, are not un- wholesome ; but in an immature state, they are more liable to produce colicky pains, diarrhoea, or cholera, than any other fruit of this class. Considered medicinally, they are emollient, cooling, and laxative, especially the French prunes, which are peculiarly useful in costive habits. The wood of the plum is used in turnery, cabinet work, and in making musical instruments." 4552. Varieties. Tusser enumerates ten ; Parkinson, sixty ; Miller, only thirty sorts. In the Luxemburg catalogue are sixty-eight ; nearly a hundred names are to be found in the catalogues of our nurserymen, of which those in the following table are deemed the best. BOOK I. PLUM. 723 p H? W S s I? l! If S -1 if i |!| ,j 1} i ji i,? f1 ^S $3. 73 g| "of-f * -'S'nS.ja.^s ^.luyjC ! ill ill s< ! a s. 4? " 8 ?J S ! !! 1- s- sill M ! II. I o oo 3 ccoao u o oo o t "l;i:,'i! ,t "" 1~l ~. I 1 _o_o_ ">M titt" 1 *^- ~ ~ " ~ w v - " -. ~ 35 33srar-3< SS &jrS'S < 5^o^ &* & >-! o! . . . . S . =ill3i3 E|SS ' I pj SSJ'g'l j^ f i ( t'EA ^ afer^fafefefafafe^fefefefefe o ^^ x s w if 11 1! ! I III i -!>T-^ 'S'S'S'S ~P1~ ill!! ai^iJi IJiil 3|gl I S* ?1 *0? ,!Mi! ^81888 _:=H_h&< _ 11 11 _^;a_c s .. in 38, S3 I! Hs" _SS E fr! p -i Il'l I e" 1= | |N a a c g>* ^ *, S fi ^ ^ g> ^ 33 2 ii s ? ^!S ^ qg SS S< < 8 li <;^ MM J .3 111 l-s i 3 |i 325 ^a sg <; !! 1 1 1 I ii ji C35 r llll P. o;^ ^-= ~l II li 555 5 5 f 5 5 55 555H HI || I | | || |||| ___ - ~ :_ .- :_ _ bbbS 5 55 5 I II 1 11 lift lit! 5.0 J2 S 00 o^J o 00 i c-5 !i!i!! f: Jollljisi i s rvq ^.-jQ gfC 5gj=p ^j A ill BOOK I. CHERRY. 727 4578. Selection of sorts. Forsyth recommends, for a small garden The may-duke I The arch-duke I The Harrison's heart I The Turkey heart The morello I 1 he black heart | The graHion I The Remington duke cherry. 4579. Those in the Dalkeith garden are I The black heart I The amber heart | The white heart | The morello ; a!l against walls. 4580. Miller says, the best sorts for an orchard are the common red or Kentish, the duke, and the lukeward ; all of which are plentiful bearers. 4581. Propagation. Varieties rjf the cherry arc continued by grafting or budding on stocks of the black or wild red cherries, which arc strong shooters, and of a longer duration than any of the garden kinds. The hearts, which are all ill bearers, are sometimes grafted on bird-cherry stocks, which are said to have the same effect on the cherry, that the paradise-stock has on the apple, that of dwarfing the tree and rendering it more prolific. Some graft on the morello for the same purpose, but. the most effectual dwarf- iiig stock is the mahaleb. Dubreuil of Rouen recommends the wild cherry for clayey and light soils, and the mahaleb for soils of a light, sandy, or chalky nature. The stones of the cultivated cherry arc commonly, but improperly, substituted for those of the wild sort, as being more easily procured. New varieties are procured by propagating from seed, and some valuable fruits will be found in the table, so raised by Knight. ""The cherry," this gentleman observes (Hort. Trans, ii. 138.), " sports more extensively in variety, when propagated from seeds, than any other fruit which I have hitherto subjected to experiment : and this species of fruit is therefore probably capable of acquiring a higher state of perfection than it has ever yet attained. New varieties are also much wanted ; for the trees of the best old kinds arc every where in a state of decay in the cherry orchards; and I am quite confident, that neither healthy nor pro- ductive trees will ever be obtained from grafts or buds of the old and expended varieties of this or any other species of fruit-tree." Cherry-stones, whether for stocks or new varieties, are sown in light sandy earth in autumn ; or are preserved" in sand till spring, and then sowed. They will come up the same season, and should not be removed till the second autumn after sowing. They may then be planted out in rows three feet apart, and the plants one foot asunder in the row. The succeeding summer they will be fit to bud, if intended for dwarfs ; but if for standards, they will require to stand one or more seasons, generally till four years old. They should be budded or grafted near six feet from the ground ; the usual way is to bud in summer, and graft those which do not succeed the following spring. 4582. Soil. The cherry delights in a dry sandy soil and elevated situation ; but some sorts, as the may- duke, will thrive in all soils and aspects, and all the varieties may be planted in any common mellow garden or orchard ground. In Kent, the tree prospers in a deep loam incumbent on rock. Miller says, the soil which cherries thrive best in, is a fresh hazel loam; if it be a dry gravel, they will not live many years, and will be perpetually blighted in the spring. 4583. Site. To obtain fruit early, some sorts, as the may-duke, are planted against walls ; but all (be varieties will do well as dwarfs or espaliers in general situations, and most of them as standards. The may-duke, Nicol observes, does well as a standard ; but against a south wall the fruit becomes considerably larger, and contrary to what happens in other fruits, it seems to acquire a higher flavor. The morello is much improved in flavor when planted against a wall of good aspect. Abercrombie says, " Allot to the finest of the early kinds south walls for fruit in May and June ; train others against west and east walls, for supplies in succession ; and some on north walls for the latest ripeners, particularly the morello, which, so situated, will continue in perfection till September and October : but it is also proper to plant some trees of this sort on south walls, to have the fruit ripen earlier, with improved flavor." 4584. Final planting. " Plant full standards from twenty to thirty feet apart ; small standards, fifteen, eighteen, or twenty feet. The proper season for planting is from the middle or end of October, or any time in November or December, if open weather, till February or March." Miller says, never plant standard or rider cherry-trees over other fruits ; for there is no sort of fruit that will prosper well under the drip of cherries. He allows forty feet square for standards in orchards for the same reason. 4585. Mode of bearing. " Cherry-trees in general produce the fruit upon small spurs or studs, from half an inch to two inches in length, which proceed from the sides and ends of the two-year, three-year, and older branches ; and as new spurs continue shooting from the extreme parts, it is a maxim in pruning both standards and wall-trees, not to shorten the bearing branches where there is room for their regular extension. The morello is in some degree an exception." 4586. Mode of training. Forsyth and Harrison train in the horizontal manner, and prac- tise shortening the leading shoots as in the plum, apple, &c. For the morello Harrison adopts the horizontal or .half-fan method, " the horizontal method when the tree grows very vigorous, and the half-fan method when weaker." (Tr. on Fr. Tr. ch. xxiii.) 4587. Pruning cherry-trees in general. Standards. Give only occasional pruning, to reform or remove any casual irregularity from cross-placed or very crowded branches ; and take away all cankery and decayed wood 4588. Wall-trees. " A summer pruning, to commence in May or June, is necessary to regulate the shoots of the same year. Disbud the superfluous and fore-right shoots ; or if they have been suffered to spring, pinch or cut them off, with such as are disorderly. Retain a competent supply of some of the best well-placed side and terminal shoots, to remain for selection at the winter pruning. Nail or lay in the reserve close to the wall, at their full length, and so train them all summer. The winter pruning may be performed at the fall of the leaf, or at any time in moderate weather till February or March. It comprises a regulation both of the old and young wood. Carefully preserve the sound productive branches and bearers in tneir full expansion ; and reduce or remove such only as are irregular in growth, too crowded, unfruitful, decayed, -or cankery. Any branches extending out of bounds, prune in to some good lateral shoot or fruit-bud. According to the time the bearers have already lasted, look to some promising shoots, for successors to those which may first wear out. To fill immediate vacancies, retain select shoots of last year, and the year before, with uniformly a leader to the advancing branch where there is room, and with lateral shoots in any open or unproductive space near the origin of the branch, to be trained as bearers between the main branches. Some cut superfluous fruit-shoots clean away; others leave a sprinkling of short stubs, cut very short if fore-right. The new laterals and terminals are to be trained m at full length, as far as room will permit. They will come into bearing the first and second year. In pruning cherry-trees in general, be careful to preserve the small clustering fruit-spurs, except where in wall-trees any old spurs project considerably, and assume a rugged disorderly appearance; cut such clean C \5SQPruning the morello. " The morello cherry bears principally on the shoots of last year, the fruit proceeding immediately from the eyes of the shoots ; and bears but casually, and in a small degree on close spurs formed on the two-year-old wood, and scarcely ever on wood of the third year. Therefore, both in the summer and winter pruning, leave a supply of last year's shoots, on all the branches, from the origin 3 A 4 T28 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. to the extremity of the tree, for next year's bearers ; cutting out past bearers to rnae room. It is pialn that the morelfo ought to have no stubs left with a view to spurs, and all fore-right shoots ought to be disbudded while young. To leave a convenient space for young wood, train the present bearers six inches apart ; lay in between each of these one young snoot for bearing next year, which will make the promis- cuous distance three inches." 4590. Underwood (Caled. Mem. i. 427.) has often observed, when the branches of cherry-trees are laid in too near to one another, or are crossed by branches of the same kind, or by plum-tree branches, as is sometimes the case, that although there be abundance of blossom, yet there is no crop, even in good seasons. On examining the blossom, produced on such crowded shoots, he found, that in fifty flowers, there were not above two styles, of course no fruit could be expected. By not laying in the branches so close, and by removing all superfluous summer shoots, more light and air was admitted, and he had, in consequence, plentiful crops. 4591. Renovating old or decayed trees. Proceed as in renovating the plum. 4592. Protection from birds. " As cherries, in a ripening state, are frequently attacked by birds, it is advisable to have choice wall-trees or espaliers defended with large nets in due time. Old fishing-nets may also be spread over the branches of dwarf standards. To protect other standard trees, let scarecrows and clap-boards be put up in terrorcm." 4593. Gathering the fruit. Use the hand, taking hold of the fruit-stalk, in gathering from the wall, and the cherry-gatherer, in gathering, from distant branches of high standards. 4594. Insects, diseases, &c. \\ all cherry-trees are often infested with the red spider, but standards are generally not much injured by insects. Naismith says, " our cherry-trees, both in the open air, and on the natural walls, particularly the tops of the young shoots, are much attacked with a small black insect, provincially called the black beetle. The remedy I have found most effectual for their destruction, is, a mixture of pitch, with one sixteenth part of powdered orpiment, one sixteenth part of sulphur, dissolved over a slow fire in an earthen pipkin, until they be well incorporated ; when cold, divide it into small pieces, about the size of a hen's egg, and burn it under the trees with damp straw, directing the smoke as much as possible where the insects are most numerous. In an hour afterwards (if the state of the fruit will admit) give the trees a good washing with the garden-engine, which generally clears off the half- dead beetles, and prevents the spreading of the red spider." (Caled. Mem. ii. 90.) SECT. III. Berries. 4595. Of the cultivated berries the gooseberry is the most useful species in Britain, in which it is grown in far greater perfection than in any other country ; next to the goose- berry is the currant, valuable as affording wine ; besides these are included the mulberry, raspberry, strawberry, barberry, and elderberry. SUBSECT. 1. Slack, or Garden Mulberry. Moms nigra, L. (Blackw. t. 126.) Moncecia Tetrandria, L. and Urticece, J. Murier, Fr. ; Maulbeerbaum, Ger. ; and Moro, Ital. 4596. The black mulberry is a middle-sized tree, with a whitish bark, and broad, sub- quinquelobate, bluntish, and rugged leaves. It has generally male flowers or catkins, on the same tree with the fruit, which is a turbinate berry. Young trees from seed, Professor Martyn and Knight observe, often show nothing but male flowers for several years, and yet afterwards produce also female flowers, and become fruitful. The fruit of seedling- trees, it is said, is the largest and best flavored. The black mulberry is a native of Persia, and it is supposed was brought to Europe by the Romans, as Pliny mentions two varie- ties. It will not live in the open air in several parts of Sweden, and is treated as a wall- tree in the north of Germany. It is mentioned by Tusser, in 1573, and was cultivated by Gerrard, in 1596. In some of the old kitchen-gardens near London, there are trees of a very great age, which are very healthy and fruitful. Bradley says, that most of these were planted in the time of James the First, who attempted unsuccessfully to set up a silk manufacture in England ; but the species on the leaves of which silk-worms are fed, is the white mulberry (Moms alba}, whose fruit is not of any value. Forsyth men- tions " four large mulberry- trees as still standing on the site of an old kitchen-garden, now part of the pleasure-ground at Sion House, which the late Duke of Northumberland used to say were about three hundred years old." The mulberry is remarkable for putting out its leaves late, so that when they appear, which is generally in May, with the leaves of the common ash-tree, the gardener may take it for granted that all danger from frost is over. There is a curious tree formed by two stems proceeding from a fallen trunk on the site of the garden of the Abbey of St. Augustine at Canterbury, which must at least be 300 years old, probably much older. (Neill, in Hort. Tour, &c. p. 13.) 4597. Use. The fruit is brought to the dessert, and recommends itself by its highly aromatic flavor, and abundant subacid juice. It is very wholesome, cooling, and rather laxative. Like the strawberry, it does not undergo the acetous fermentation, and there- fore may be safely eaten by gouty and rheumatic persons. An agreeable wine is made from the juice ; a syrup is obtained from the unripe berries, which is used as a gargle in cases of sore throat ; and the bark of the tree is a vermifuge. 4598. Varieties. Only one variety of the black is mentioned by Miller, with palmate leaves and smaller fruit. 4599. Propagation. By seed, layers, cuttings, or grafting. The first is the least advisable mode, unless for stocks to inarch upon, because, though some affirm the fruit of seedlings to be the largest, yet the plant* are very long of coming into bearing. 4600. By layers. " These will generally take root sufficiently the first year to bear separating from the parent tree, and should then be planted in a nursery, and trained up with single stems. In four years they will be fit to plant out where they are to remain. They should be planted at a proper distance to admit the BOOK I. BLACK, OR GARDEN MULBERRY. 729 sun and air, as the fruit, when the trees are too close, is very apt to turn mouldy ; they should also be sheltered from the east, north, and west winds." Knight lays parts of the bearing branches of old trees, in pots raised to these branches upon poles. Wood of any age will do, and the plants afford fruit the second or third year. 4601. By cuttings. In raising mulberries from cuttings, choose the former year's shoots, having one joint of the two years' old wood. Plant them in autumn, if fine weather, or in the month of March, in rows nine inches apart, and at the distance of two inches in the rows, leaving only two or three buds above ground : mulch the ground with leaves or dung well rotted, to keep it moist, and the plants will require little water, ing. If they succeed well, they may, next season, be transplanted into a nursery, and treated as directed for layers. These young trees, while they remain in the nursery, should be transplanted every three or four years. Miller says, mulberry cuttings will also strike well if planted on a hot-bed in spring. 4602. Knight failed in raising cuttings on a hot-bed in spring, but was very successful by the following process. He cut vigorous shoots from the trees in November, and formed them into cuttings of about five inches long, each consisting of about two parts of two years' old wood, and one part of yearling wood. They were intended to be put in pots, and the bottom of each cutting was cut so much aslope, that its sur- face might be nearly parallel with that of the bottom of the pot in which it was to be placed. " The cuttings were then placed in the common ground, under a south wall, and so deeply immersed in it, that one bud only remained visible above its surface ; and in this situation they remained till April. At this period the buds were much swollen, and the upper ends of the cuttings appeared similar to those of branches which had been shortened in the preceding autumn, and become incapable of transmitting any portion of the ascend- ing fluid. The bark at the lower ends had also begun to emit those processes, which usually precede the production of roots. The cuttings were now removed to the pots, to which they had been previously fitted, and placed in a moderate hot-bed, a single bud only of each cutting remaining visible above the mould, and that being partially covered ; and in this situation they vegetated with so much vigor, and emitted roots so abundantly, that I do not think one cutting in a hundred would fail with proper atten- tion. The mould I employed was the alluvial and somewhat sandy loam of a meadow, which was sparingly supplied with water ; and the plants, till they had become sufficiently rooted, were shaded during bright weather." 4603. In Spain and India, as Townsend and Tenant inform us, the white or silk-worm mulberry is al- ways propagated by cuttings, three or four being planted together, so as to grow up into a- bush. 4604. By suckers. Mulberry-trees, as well as most others so propagated, are longer of coming into bear- ing, than those raised in any other way but by seed. The plants of this tree, raised from bearing branches, have entire heart-shaped leaves, but those obtained from suckers or seeds present deeply divided or half- winged leaves. 4605. By grafting. Knight having planted some young mulberry-trees in pots, raised them to the bear- ing branches of old trees, and grafted them by approach. The young grafts bore fruit the third year, and continued annually productive. This tree succeeds very ill by the common mode of independent grafting. (Hort. Trans, i.60.) 4606. Soil. The tree, Miller observes, delights in a rich light earth, and where there is depth of soil, as in most of the old kitchen-gardens about London. In a very stiff soil, or on shallow ground, whether of clay, chalk, or gravel ; the trunk and branches are commonly covered with moss, and the little fruit pro- duced is small, ill tasted, and ripens late. Abercrombie says, the mulberry thrives well in a deep sandy loam, and will succeed in any fertile mellow ground, having a free situation in the full sun. 4607. Site. The mulberry is generally grown as a standard or half standard, sometimes as espaliers, dwarfs, or wall-trees. A single young plant does not afford much fruit; but one full-grown and healthy, will afford more than is sufficient for the supply of a large family. Miller recommends planting in a situation defended from the strong south nd north-west winds, in order to preserve the fruit from being blown off; but at the same time to keep them at such a distance from trees or buildings, as not to keep off the sun, for where the fruit has not the benefit of his rays to dissipate the morning dews early, it will turn mouldy and rot upon the trees. The nurseries, and especially those at Paris, afford large standard trees of five or six years' growth, which come into bearing the year after removal. Those are in general to be made choice of in preference to raising the tree from cuttings, or inarching. In orchards they may be planted thirty or thirty-five feet from other trees, and twenty feet apart on walls or espaliers ; dwarfs may be planted fifteen feet apart, and in each case temporary fruit-trees may be introduced between. 4608. Forsyth recommends planting mulberries in grass orchards and pleasure-grounds, because as the finest of the fruit, when ripe, frequently drops, it can be picked up without receiving any injury. Another reason for planting these trees on lawns or in orchards is, that, when full-grown, they are too large for a kitchen-garden. Abercrombie adds, " so nice is the criterion of perfect ripeness, that berries falling with- out damage are superior to those gathered. Besides, a grass surface harmonises best with trees of magni- tude, and increases the beauty of a rural scene." 4609. Williams experienced, that the fruit might be much improved in size and flavor by training the trees against a south or west wall. " The standard mulberry," he says, " receives great injury by being planted on grass-plots with the view of preserving the fruit when it falls spontaneously. No tree perhaps receives more benefit from the spade and the dunghill than the mulberry ; it ought, therefore, to be fre- quently dug about the roots, and occasionally assisted with manure. The ground under the tree should be kept free from weeds throughout the summer, particularly when the fruit is ripening, as the reflected light and heat from the bare surface of the soil is thus increased ; more especially if the end branches are kept Eruned, so as not to bower over too near to, and shade, the ground. The fruit is also very fine if the tree i trained as an espalier, within the reflection of a south wall or other building. If a wooden trellis were constructed with the same inclination as the roof of a forcing-house, fronting the south, and raised about six feet from the ground, leaving the soil with the same inclination as the trellis, a tree trained on it would receive the solar influence to great advantage, and would probably ripen its fruit much better than a standard." (Hort. Trans, ii. 92.) 4610. Knight concurs with Williams as to the advantages of planting the tree against a south wall in cold situations, adding, that " it affords an exception to all, or almost all, other fruits, to which the wall gives increased bulk and beauty, at the expense of richness and flavor." (Hort. Trans, iii. 66.) 4611. Mode of bearing. " The mulberry produces its fruit chiefly on little shoots of the same year, which arise on last year's wood, and on spurs from the two-year-old wood ; in both stages, mostly at the end of the shoots and branches." 4612. Pruning. Miller and Forsyth agree in saying there is no occasion to prune standards farther than to thin out irregular crossing branches, and never to shorten the young wood, on which the fruit is produced. 730 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 4613. Pruning wall-trees and espaliers. " Cut so as to bring in a partial succession of new wood every year, and a complete succession once in two years: taking the old barren wood out, as may be necessary. In the winter pruning, lay in the reserved branches and shoots at six or seven inches' distance." 4614. Williams observes, that the trained mulberry requires some nicety in pruning, otherwise it will not bear fruit. " The following method has succeeded in my garden for several years past. All the an- nual shoots, except the fore-right, are neatly trained to the wall, and these last n.ust be left to grow till towards midsummer, and then be shortened about one third of their growth to admit light to the leaves beneath. By the end of August the fore-right shoots will have advanced again, so as to obstruct the light, and they must then be shortened nearer to the wall than before. In the month of March, or beginning of April, the ends of the terminal shoots should be pruned away down to the first strong bud that does not stand fore-right, and the front shoots which were pruned in August, must also be shortened down to two or three eyes. If trained after this method, the tree will afford fruit the third year ; when the manage- ment of the fore-right shoots must be somewhat different. These should now be shortened at the end of the month of June or beginning of July, so as to leave one leaf only beyond the fruit, the terminal shoots being nailed to the wall as before, and left without any summer pruning ; the fore-rights will not advance any further, as their nutriment will go inio the fruit, which, when quite ripe, becomes perfectly black, very large, and highly saccharine." 4615. Knight remarks (Hort. Tr. iii. 63.), that the mode recommended by Williams may suit the ex- tremely fertile soil and climate of Pitmaston. " But in cold situations (and it is chiefly in such that the mulberry-tree will be found to deserve a place on the south wall,) little fruit will be produced, and that will ripen but ill, unless the bearing wood be brought closely into contact with the wall; and the great width of the leaves, and vigorous habit of the tree, present some difficulties to the cultivator, when this mode of training and pruning is adopted. It will be found necessary to diminish the luxuriant growth of the tree, and at the same time to increase its disposition to bear fruit. Such effects may, however, be readily produced by several different means ; by destroying a small portion of the bark, in a'line extending round the trunk or large branches, or ringing, by tight and long-continued ligatures, or by training the bearing branches almost perpendicularly downwards. I have adopted the last-mentioned method, because it greatly increases the disposition in the tree to bear fruit, without injuring its general health, and be- cause it occasions a proper degree of vigor to be every where almost equally distributed." 4616. Season for pruning. " As the blossom-buds of the mulberry-tree cannot be readily distinguished from others in the winter, the best period for pruning is when the blossoms first become visible in the spring. Pinch off every barren shoot which is not wanted to cover the wall, and stop every bearing shoot, under similar circumstances, at the third or fourth leaf. Williams has correctly stated, that the bud immediately below the point, at which a bearing or other branch is pinched off', usually affords fruit in the following year." (Knight, in Hort. Trans, iii. 63.) The mulberry succeeds better than any other tree when trained downwards (fig. 494.), either horizontally and drodping (a), or in the stellate manner (6). 494 4617. Renovating old mulberry-trees. Miller, Forsyth, and Knight, agree that this may be done witli trees of almost any age, by removing part of the branches ; or by completely heading down, and renewing the soil by fresh mould enriched by dung. 4618. Taking the crop. " The most forward berries attain maturity about the end of August ; and there is a succession of ripening fruit on the same tree for about a month or six weeks ; the ripening ber- ries gradually change from a reddish to a black color, and should be gathered accordingly for immediate use ; this delicate fruit will not keep good off the tree above a day or two." Coke and Knight have had mulberries from wall and espalier trees in gathering from July to the end of October. (Hort. Trans. vol. iii. 394.) 4619. Forcing the mulberry. Knight observes, that " the mulberry is a much finer fruit when ripened under glass, in the north of Herefordshire, than in the open air; and in the still colder parts of England it is probably the only means by which it can be ripened at all. The culture of this fruit, by me, under glass, has been confined to plants growing in pots ; but I am not acquainted with any species of fruit-tree which, under such circumstances, produces more abundantly, or which requires less care. Its blossoms set equally well in different degrees of heat, and the same continued temperature which will ripen the earlier varieties of the grape in the end of July, will afford perfectly ripe mulberries early in June ; and a tree of the latter species, when fully loaded with fruit, presents at least as agreeable an object to the eye as many plants which are cultivated as ornaments only. It is not subject, under common care, to any disease or injury, except the attacks of the red spider ; and as the foliage and growing fruit of the mul- berry-tree are not at all injured by being wetted every evening with clear water, the red spider can never prove a very formidable enemy." (Hort. Trans, ii.) SUBSECT. 2. Barberry. Berberis vulgaris, L. (Eng. Sot. 49.) Hexan. Dig. L. and Berberidets, J. Epine Vinette, Fr. ; Berberitzen, Ger. ; and Berbero, Ital. 4620. Tlie barberry is a branchy prickly shrub, rising to the height of eight or ten feet, with ash-colored bark, yellow inside. The flowers appear in pendulous racemes towards the ends of the branches ; the corolla, yellow; the berries at first green, but of a fine red when ripe. The flowers appear in May with a cowslip odor ; and the fruit, which is of an acid flavor, ripens in September. It is a native of the eastern countries, and also of most parts of Europe, and is found in woods, coppices, and hedges in England, especially in a chalky soil. It is generally supposed that the Puccinia, a fungus which closes up the epi- dermis of the leaves of corn crops, and appears on their surface like rust, is generated by the JEcidium berberides, an insect which inhabits the barberry. (Sir J. Banks on Blight, &c. ) 4621. Use. The fruit is used for preserving, candying, and pickling, as well as for garnishing dishes ; the plant is also an ornamental shrub, both when in flower and in fruit. BOOK I. ELDER, GOOSEBERRY. 731 4622. Varieties. Those most esteemed for their fruit are the following, viz. Red barberry without stones ; which has an agreeable flavor when full ripe. It is only found without stones when the plant has attained considerable age, and is on a poor soil. White barberry. (Poit. rf Turp. Fr. Black sweet; which is the tenderest of them, and should be planted in a warm situation. Common red with stones. (Duham. i p. 1.V2. rf tab.) This is planted more for ornament than use, on account of it* beautiful red berries. Purple-fruited. (Poit. rt Turi>. Fr. t. .59. 4623. Propagation. " All the varieties are propagated commonly by suckers, also by cuttings and layers of the young branches, and occasionally by grafting; the common red sort is also raised by seed : each of which methods of propagation may be performed in the spring ; that by suckers and layers may be effected also in autumn." 4624. Soil and final planting. The barberry prefers a light dry soil. One or two plants may be planted in a complete orchard, and trained as standards ; but where the shrubbery is the site, it may be allowed to grow as a bush or shrub. " According to the nature of the ground, plant either at any time from au- tumn to spring, or only in the spring ; the plants may be already furnished with a head pretty well ad- vanced, if thought proper ; allow them square distances of frrm fifteen to thirty feet." 4625. Mode of bearing and pruning. " The barberry produces its fruit at the sides of the branches in small loose bunches : it bears both on young and old wood, chiefly toward the extremities. The branches should not be shortened, except the design be to force out new wood ; permit the head to extend freely ; and give only occasional pruning, to keep it in a pretty round form, open in the middle cutting out weak, luxuriant, crossing, superfluous, and decayed branches ; reduce also long ramblers, and trim up low stragglers, also lateral shoots on the stem, and eradicate all root -suckers." 4626. Taking the crop. li As a proportion of the berries ripen in the course of September, they will afford occasional gatherings for present use ; and as they will be wholly ripe in October, all that are wanted for domestic supply should be then pulled ; always pick them in bunches." (Abercrombie.} SUBSECT. 3. Elder. Sambucus nigra,~L. (Eng. JBot. 476.) Pent. Trig. L. and'Cajni- folece, J. Bureau, Fr. ; Hollunderbaum, Ger. ; and Sambuco, ItaL 4627. The common elder is a bushy tree of twelve or sixteen feet in height, much branched, and covered with a smooth grey bark, becoming rough on old stems. The leaves are unequally pinnate. The flowers appear in terminating cymes, and are suc- ceeded by globular blackish-purple berries, mawkishly sweet. It flowers in May, and the berries ripen in July. The whole plant has a narcotic smell, and it is not prudent, we are told, to sleep under its shade. It is a native of Britain, and many other parts of Europe, and of Africa, Japan, &c. It is common in damp woods and hedges, and is sometimes introduced in cottage gardens and plantations for the fruit, and in forest plantations, exposed to the sea air, as a nurse plant. 4628. Use. The fruit is in demand in many places, but especially in London and the principal English towns, for making elder wine of the expressed juice ; a powerful, warming, and enlivening article for the cottager. The tree, professor Martyn observes, is a whole magazine of physic to rustic practitioners, nor is it quite neglected by more regular ones. An excellent healing ointment is made of the green inner bark, which is also purgative in moderate, and diuretic in small doses. A decoction of the flowers pro- motes expectoration and perspiration, and they give a peculiar flavor to vinegar. The flowers are reported to be fatal to turkeys, and the berries to poultry in general. No quadruped will eat the leaves of this tree ; notwithstanding it has its own phalxna and aphis. The wood is used by the turner and mathematical instrument maker; and is made into skewers for butchers, tops, angling rods, and needles for weaving nets. 4629. Varieties. Miller mentions several, but those cultivated for their fruit are chiefly the white and black. The scarlet and green berried may also be used like the black, and are very ornamental trees in the shrubbery. ' 4630. Site and soil. " As the tree will grow any where, either in open or shady situations, it may be planted in any out-ground or waste spot, in single standards or in rows, to assist in forming boundary fences. Trees planted in the hedge order, if suffered to grow up untrimmed, will produce abundance of berries for use." 4631. Propagation and rearing. " The elder is raised by cuttings of the young shoots in the spring, and by seed in the autumn. Select for cuttings some strong young shoots of last summer, cut into lengths of one foot, and thence to three feet or more : these may be planted either where it is intended the plants should remain, or in a nursery for a year's growth. Insert them from six to fifteen inches into the ground, according to their length ; they will soon strike root ; and will shoot strongly at top the same year. Train those designed for standards with a single stem from three to five feet high ; and those for hedges, with branches out from the bottom. To raise this tree from seed : sow in autumn, October, or November, or later in mild weather, or soon in the spring, either for a hedge, in drills, where the plants are to remain ; or in a bed or border for planting out when of one or two years' growth." 4632. Final planting. " Standards may be planted from ten to twenty feet apart. They should be al- lowed to shoot out above to form a branchy head, nearly in their natural order : in which they will soon become plentiful bearers. For hedge-planting, insert cuttings or year-old plants into the sides or tops of banks or ditches, or other suitable boundary lines, a foot asunder. Permit them to branch out from the bottom ; and where they are designed for full fruiting, merely cut in the sides a little regular below, leaving them to run up above in branchy growth, for producing" large crops of berries." 4633. Taking the crop. " The berries ripen in perfection for the purpose of making wine, about the middle and end of September, and in October, and should then be gathered in bundles." (Abercrombie.) SUBSECT. 4. Gooseberry. Ribes Grossularia, and R. Uva-crispa, L. ( Eng. Bot. 1292. 2057.) Pent. Monog. L. and Cacti, J. Groseitte a maquereau, Fr. ; Stachel- beerstrauch, Ger. ; and Uva-spino, Ital. 4634. The gooseberry in Piedmont, where it is found wild, and the berries eatable, but astringent and neglected, is called griselle. Some derive our name gooseberry from gorseberry, or the resemblance of the bush to gorse ; others, as Professor Martyn, from its being used as a sauce with young or green geese. Gerrard says, it is called feaberry (feverberry) in Cheshire, and it has the same name in Lancashire and Yorkshire. In 732 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. Norfolk this term is abbreviated to feabes, or, as they pronounce it, fapes. Carberry is another British name for this fruit. The gooseberry-bush is a low, branching, prickly shrub, with trilobate sub-pubescent leaves, one-flowered nodding peduncles, and pen- dulous berries, hairy or smooth. It is a native of several parts of Europe, and abounds in the Vallais in copsewoods, where it produces a small, green, hairy, high-flavored fruit. In England it is naturalised in various places on old walls, ruins, and in the woods and hedges about Darlington. It is cultivated in greater perfection in Lancashire than in any other part of Britain ; and next to Lancashire, the climate and treatment of the Lothians seem to suit this fruit. In Spain and Italy the fruit is scarcely known. In France it is neglected and little esteemed. In some parts of Germany and Holland the moderate temperature and humidity of climate seems to suit the fruit ; but in no country is its size and beauty to be compared with that produced in Lancashire, or from the Lancashire varieties cultivated with care in the more temperate and humid districts of Britain. Neill observes, that when foreigners witness our Lancashire gooseberries, they are ready to consider them as forming quite a different kind of fruit. Happily this wholesome and useful fruit is to be found in almost every cottage garden in Britain ; and it ought to be considered a part of every gardener's duty to encourage the introduc- tion of its most useful varieties in these humble enclosures. In Lancashire, and some parts of the adjoining counties, almost every cottager who has a garden, cultivates the gooseberry, with a view to prizes given at what are called gooseberry-prize meetings ; of these there is annually published an account, with the names and weight of the success- ful sorts, in what is called the Manchester Gooseberry- Book. The prizes vary from 10s. to 5 or 10. The second, third, to the sixth and tenth degrees of merit, receiving often proportionate prizes. There are meetings held in spring to " make up," as the term is, the sorts, the persons, and the conditions of exhibition ; and in August to weigh and taste the fruit, and determine the prizes. In the gooseberry-book for 1819 is an account of 136 meetings; the largest berry produced was the top-sawyer seedling, a red fruit, weighing 26 dwts. 17 grs. Forty -six red, thirty-three yellow, forty-seven green, and forty-one white sorts were exhibited, and fourteen new-named seedlings, which had been distinguished at former meetings, stated as " going out," or about to be sold to propagators. 4635. Use. The fruit was formerly in little esteem ; but it has received so much improvement, that it is now considered very valuable for tarts, pies, sauces, and creams, before being ripe, and when at maturity it forms a rich dessert fruit for three months ; and is preserved in sugar for the same purpose, and in water for the kitchen. Unripe goose- berries can be preserved in bottles of water against winter ; the bottles are filled with berries close corked and well sealed ; they are then placed in a cool cellar till wanted. By plunging the bottles, after being corked, into boiling water for a few minutes, (heating them gradually to prevent cracking,) the berries are said to keep better. (NeUl.) 4636. Varieties. The gooseberry is mentioned by Turner in 1573. Parkinson enumerates eight va- rieties : the small, great, and long common, three red, one blue, and one green. Ray mentions only the pearl-gooseberry ; but Kea has the blue, several sorts of yellow, the white Holland, and the green. Miller only says, there are several varieties obtained from seed, most of them named from the persons who raised them ; but as there are frequently new ones obtained, it is needless to enumerate them. The present lists of London nurserymen contain from 80 to 100 names ; but those of some of the Lancashire growers above 300. Forsyth, in 1800, mentions ten sorts as common ; and adds a list of forty-three new sorts grown in Manchester. The following may be considered established varieties, and such as merit cultivation : Red. Old ironmonger Early black Damson, or dark red Large rough red Red walnut Warrington Smooth red Hairy red Ked champagne Nutmeg Captain Wflmofs early red. Gascoigne walnut Green G Green w White Smith Green globe Green gage. Great amber Globe amber Great mogul Hairy globe Golden drop Honeycomb Sulphur Ycllorv. ellow champagne Golden knap Royal sovereign Tawny. CTystal veined Large c White- Royal George White Dutch White walnut. 4637. Selection of sorts. " It must be admitted," Neill observes, " that although the large gooseberries make a fine appearance on the table, they are often deficient in flavor when compared with some of smaller size. Many of them have very thick strong skins, and are not eatable unless thoroughly ri- pened. Some of the large sort, however, are of very good quality, such as the red cnampagne and the green walnut Among these also Wilmpt's early red deserves further notice. It was raised by Wilmot, at Islewprth, in 1804, and has been cultivated by him very extensively on account of its valuable proper- ties ; being early ripe, of excellent flavor, and extremely productive. It usually ripens from the middle to the end of June. For culinary use in the month of May it is larger and better than most others, the skin not being tough, but the whole berry melting to a fine consistence." Forsyth very judiciously re- commends cultivating the early and late sorts, in order to prolong the season of this fruit. In Lancashire, the Warrington or Manchester red, which is an improved variety of the old ironmonger, is esteemed the best dessert fruit ; and the shoots growing upright, the shrub occupies less horizontal space than most varieties. The walnut red they consider the best sort for preserving. The best mode to obtain a com- plete collection is to send to a Lancashire nurseryman, stating whether the object desired be an assort- ment of large showy sorts, a numerous variety, or a selection of the most useful sorts : but all the sorts worth having as dessert or kitchen fruit, are in the London and Edinburgh nurseries. 4638. Projmgation. The gooseberry may be propagated by all the modes applicable to trees or shubs ; even by pieces of the roots ; but the mode by cuttings is usually adopted for continuing varieties, and that by seeds for procuring them. BOOK I. GOOSEBERRY. 733 4639. By seeds. As far as we know, the scientific mode of impregnating one variety with another has not been applied to this fruit. In general, the seed of some choice variety thoroughly ripe is taken and sown in autumn or early in spring, in beds or pots of rich light mellow earth : when the plants are a year old they are planted out in nursery rows, to be cultivated and trained there a year or two ; in ge- neral they will bear the third year. 4640. By cuttings. Miller says, the best season for planting gooseberry-cuttings is in autumn, just before their leaves begin to fall. The cuttings should be taken from bearing shoots, rather than those gourmands which issue from the main stem. Cut them to such a length as the strength and ripeness of the wood will bear, and cut off all the buds excepting three, or at most four at top, and train the plants with a single stem of nine inches, or a foot high, from the top of which the branches should radiate up- wards at an angle of 40, or better if 45, Haynes advises taking off cuttings in July, when the fruit is on the tree, in order to make sure of the sorts. He says, by immediate planting, watering, and shading, as good plants are produced as from ripe wood-cuttings. (TV. on the Gooseberry, &c. p. 92.) 4641. Soil and site. Any good garden-soil, on a dry bottom and well manured, will suit the gooseberry. That which is soft and moist produces the largest fruit. The situation should not be under the drip of trees over-much shaded or confined, otherwise the fruit will be small, ill flavored, and the plants apt to mildew. Forsyth says, goose- berries should be dunged every year, or at least have a good coat of dung once in two years. Haynes recommends a mixture of peat and loam well manured, and a shaded situation. The last he proposes to effect by planting among his compartments of goose- berries, rows of Jerusalem artichokes in the direction of east and west. 4642. Final planting. " The season for planting gooseberries is any time during open weather from October till March. When trees are procured from the public nurseries choose such as are of some ad- vanced size, about three years' growth, with pretty full heads, for immediate plentiful bearers. Let the general supply be in standard bushes, and planted principally in the kitchen-garden, in single rows, along the boundary edges of the main compartments, or outward borders, from six to eight feet apart ; or some may be planted in cross rows, to subdivide extensive compartments. When the object is to raise large quantities of fruit, plantations are made in continued parallel rows, eight or ten feet asunder, by six feet in the row. It would be eligible to plant a few choice sorts against south and other sunny walls or pa- ling, for earlier and larger fruit; and on north walls, to ripen late in succession." (Abercrombie.) 4643. Forsyth says, " The market-gardeners about London plant them in rows, from eight to ten feet apart from row to row, and six feet from plant to plant in the rows. In small gardens 1 would re- commend planting them in a compartment by themselves, at the distance of six feet between the rows, and four feet from plant to plant ; or you may plant them round the edges of the compartments, about three feet from the path ; you will then have the ground clear for cropping, and a man, by setting one foot on the border, can gather the gooseberries without injuring the crop." 4644. Neill says, " In some places gooseberry-trees, on the sides of the borders, are trained to a single tall stem, which is tied to a stake : this, though six or eight feet high, occasions scarcely any shade on the border, and it does not occupy much room, nor exclude air ; while, at the same time, the stem be- comes close hung with berries, and makes a pleasant appearance in that state." (Ed. Enc. art. Hort. 161.) 4645. Maker observes (Hort. Trans, ii. 146.), that as " the crop of ripe fruit is often injured, by having the largest and earliest berries prematurely gathered, whilst green, for tarts, a sufficient number of trees of such varieties as are the earliest, should be planted in a separate compartment of the garden, and de- voted exclusively to the use of the kitchen, for tarts and sauce." 4646. Mode of bearing. " The gooseberry produces its fruit not only on the shoots of last summer, and on shoots two or three years old, but also on spurs or snags arising from the elder branches along the sides ; but the former afford the largest fruit. The shoots retained for bearers should therefore be left at full length, or nearly so." (Aber.) 4647. Pruning. " The bushes will require a regulating pruning twice in the year." 4648. Summer pruning. "Where any bushes are crowded with cross and water shoots, of the same year, shading the fruit from the sun, and preventing the access of air, thin the heart of the plant and other tufted parts moderately, pinching off or cutting out close what spray is removed ; but do not touch the summer shoots in general." Maher says, " it will greatly contribute to the perfection of the fruit, if the very small berries are taken away with "a pair of scissors about the middle or end of May ; and these small berries will be found quite as good for sauce or gooseberry-cream as the larger." 4649. Winter pruning. " You may proceed to the winter pruning any time from November until the end of February, or until the buds are so swelled that farther delay would endanger their being rubbed off in the operation. Cut out the cross shoots and water-shoots of the preceding summer, and the su- perfluous among crowded branches. Prune long ramblers and low stragglers to some well placed lateral or eye; or if an under-straggler spring very low, cut it away. -Of last year's shoots retain a suffi- ciency of the best well placed laterals and terminals, in vacant parts, to form successional bearers, and to supply the places of unfruitful and decayed old wood, which, as you proceed, should be removed. Mostly retain a leading shoot at the end of a principal branch, leaving it either naturally terminal, or where the branch would thus be too extended, pruning to some competent lateral within bounds. The superfluous young laterals on the good main branches, instead of being taken offclean, may be cut into little stubs of one or two eyes ; which will send out fruit-buds and spurs. Of the supply reserved for new bearers, a small number will probably require shortening, where too extended, or curvated incom- modiously ; leave these from eight to twelve inches in length, according to strength and situation ; those of moderate extent and regular growth will require very little shortening, and many none at all. Ob- serve, too close cutting, or general shortening, occasions a great superfluity of wood in summer : for the multiplied laterals thus forced from the eyes of the shortened branches increase to a thicket, so as to re- tard the growth and prevent the full ripening of the fruit : on which account it is an important part of pruning to keep the middle of the head open and clear, and to let the occasional shortening of the shoots be sparing and moderate. Between the bearing branches keep a regulated distance of at least six inches at the extremities, which will render them fertile bearers of good fruit. Some persons, not pruning the gooseberry-tree on right principles, are apt to leave the shoots excessively close and tufted, while they shorten the whole promiscuously ; others sometimes clip them with garden-shears to close round heads ; in consequence of being pruned in these methods, the bushes shoot crowdedly, full of young wood in summer, from which the fruit is always very small, and does not ripen freely with full flavor." 4650. Forsyth says, " Many of the Lancashire sorts are apt to grow horizontally, and the branches frequently trail on the ground, which renders them liable to be broken by high winds, especially when they are loaded with fruit. In that case I would recommend two or three hoops to be put round them, to which the branches may be tied, to support them, and prevent their being broken by the wind." 4651. Jeeves has tried training gooseberries on an arched trellis, in the manner of a berceau, or arbor- walk. For this purpose, he plants in rows, five feet and a half apart, and the plants three feet distance iii the row. He chooses the strongest-growing kinds, and trains four branches, at nine inches' distance 734 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. from each plant, till they meet at top. The advantages of this plan are, beauty of appearance, fruit not splashed by rain, easily gathered, and the ground more readily cultivated. (Hort. Trans, vol. iv. p. 194.) -fci.'ii.'. Takirig the crop. " From gooseberries being useful for different purposes, both in a green and in a mature state, and from the compass of time afforded by early and late sorts, they are in season and great request four or five months in summer, from April till September. The early sorts, on south walls, come in for gathering in small green berries, for tarts, &c. in April or early in May, and attain maturity in June. From common standard bushes an abundant supply is yielded in May and June of gooseberries in a green state ; and in proportion as part is reserved to ripen, a succession, in full size and maturity, is ob- tained in June, July, and August. Some late kinds, either planted in shady situations, or shielded with mats from the sun in their ripening state, continue good on the tree till September." 4653. Prolonging of the crop. In addition to planting late sorts in shady situations, the bushes, whether standards or trained, may be matted over when the fruit is ripe, and in this way some of the reds, as the Warrington, and the thick-skinned yellow sorts, as the Mogul, will keep on the trees till Christmas. 4654. Suckling. By preparing a very rich soil, and by watering, and the use of liquid manure, shading, and thinning, the large fruit of the prize cultivator is produced. Not content with watering at root and over the top, the Lancashire connoisseur, when he is growing for exhibition, places a small saucer of water immediately under each gooseberry, only three or four of which he leaves on a tree. This is technically called suckling. He also pinches off a great part of the young wood, so as to throw all the strength he can into the fruit 4655. Accelerating maturity. Hunt tried ringing on half a gooseberry-bush, which half produced ripe fruit a week sooner than the other, and twice the usual size. (Hort. Trans, iv. 565.) 4656. Insects, diseases, &c. The caterpillars of saw-flies (Tenthredirddae, Leach) (Jig. 495.), of butterflies (Papitt&, L.), and of moths (Pha- leence, L.) are well known and serious enemies to goose- 495 berries. The larvae of the TenthredinidtB have from sixteen to twenty-eight feet ; a round head ; and when touched, they roll themselves together. They feed on the leaves of the gooseberry, apple, and most fruit-trees, as well as roses, and other shrubs and plants. When full- grown, they make sometimes in the earth, and sometimes between the leaves of the plant on which they feed, a net- work case, which, when complete, is strong and gummy, and in that change to a pupa incompleta, which for the most part remains during the winter in the earth. The per- fect fly emerges early in the ensuing spring ; its serrated sting is used by the female in the manner of a saw, to make incisions in the twigs or stems of plants, where it deposits its eggs. The Caledonian Horticultural Society having " requested information respecting the best method of preventing or destroying the caterpillar on gooseberries," received various communications on the subject, and the following are extracts from such as they deemed fit for publication : 4657. Gibbs describes the large black, tho green, and the white caterpillars, with his methods of de- stroying them. During the winter months, the large black kind may be observed lying in clusters on the under parts, and in the crevices of the bushes ; and even at this season (Feb.) I find them in that state. In the course of eight or ten days, however, if the weather be favorable, they will creep up in the day-time, feed on the buds, and return to their nest during the night. Whenever leaves appear upon the bushes they feed upon them till they arrive at maturity, which is generally in the month of June ; after which they creep down upon the under sides of the branches, where they lodge till the crust or shell is formed over them. In July they become moths, and lay their eggs on the under sides of the leaves, and of the bark. The produce of these eggs, coming into life during the month of September, feed on the leaves so long as they are green, and afterwards gather together in clusters on the under side of the branches, and in crevices of the bark, where they remain all the winter, as already said. Winter is the most proper time for attacking this sort with success, as their destruction is most effectually, accomplished by the simple operation of pouring a quantity of boiling hot water upon them from a watering pan, while no injury is thereby done to the bushes. 4658. The green sort are at present (Feb.) in the shelly state, lying about an inch under ground. In April they come out small flies, and immediately lay their eggs on the veins and under sides of the leaves. These eggs produce young caterpillars in May, which feed on the leaves till June or July, when they cast a blackish kind of skin, and afterwards crawl down from the bushes into the_ earth, where a crust or shell grows over hitherto fo the winter season, penetrate to the surface : 2dly, in April, when the flies make their appearance, to pick off all the leaves on which any eggs are observable ; this is a tedious operation, but may be done by children. If any of the enemy should escape both these operations, they will be discernible as soon as they come to life, by their eating holes through the leaves, and may then easily be destroyed, without the least injury to the bushes or fruit. 4659. The white kind, otherwise called borers, are not so numerous as the other kinds, though very de- structive ; they bore the berry, 'and cause it to drop off; they preserve themselves during the winter sea- son, in the chrysalis state, about an inch under ground, and become flies nearly at the same time with the last mentioned kind ; they lay their eggs on the blossoms, and these eggs produce young caterpillars in May, which feed on the berries till they are full-grown, and then creep down into the earth, where they remain for the winter in the shelly state. (Caled. Mem. voL i.) 4660. Macmurray, in autumn, pours a little cow-urine around the stem of each bush, as much as suffices merely to moisten the ground. The bushes which were treated in this manner remained free of cater- pillars for two years ; while those that were neglected, or intentionally passed over, in the same compart- ment, were totally destroyed by the depredations of the insects. A layer of sea- weed laid on in autumn, and dug in in spring, had the same effect for one year. (Caled. Mem. voL i. 95.) 4661. R. Elliot says, " Take six pounds of black-currant leaves, and as many of elder-leaves, and boil them in twelve gallons of soft water ; then take fourteen pounds of hot lime, and put it in twelve gallons of water ; mix them all together ; then wash the infested bushes with the hand-engine ; after that is done, take a little hot lime and lay at the root of each bush or tree that has been washed, which completes the operation. By these means you will completely destroy the caterpillars, without hurting the foliage of the bush or tree in the least. A dull day is to be preferred to any other for washing. When the foliage is all off the bushes and trees, wash them over with the hand-engine, to clean them of decayed leaves ; for this purpose, any sort of water will do ; then stir up the surface of the earth all round the roots of the bushes and trees, and lay a little hot lime about them to destroy the eggs. This I have never found to fail of success since my first trial, six years ago. The above-mentioned proportion of leaves, lime, and water, BOOK I. BLACK CURRANT. 735 will serve for two acres of ground or more, covered with trees and bushes in the ordinary manner, and will cost very little money indeed. The same pro{x>rtion is to be observed in making a wash for the rest of the trees or bushes." 4662. Machray procured some tobacco and soft or black soap, and boiled a quarter of a pound of tobacco with one pound of soft soap in about eighteen Scots pints of water, and kept stirring the liquid while boiling with a whisk, in order to dissolve the soap ; this liquor, when milkwarm, or so cool as not to hurt the foliage, he applied to the bushes with a hand-squirt in the evening, and in the morning found all the ground under the bushes covered over with dead caterpillars. This practice he continued for six years, always when he saw any symptoms of the approach of caterpillars. 4663. Tweedie, in the course of any of the winter months, pares all the earth from under the bushes to the depth of about three inches, into a flat ridge betwixt the rows ; and on the first dry day following, either treads, beats, or rolls these ridges, and trenches the whole down one and a half or two spades deep, observing to tread the foul earth into the bottom of the trench. 4664. Forsytes method is as follows : " Take some sifted quick-lime and lay it under the bushes ; but do not at first let any of it touch the branches or leaves ; then shake each bush suddenly and smartly, and the caterpillars will fall into the lime ; if the bush be not shaken suddenly, the caterpillars, on being a little disturbed, will take so firm a hold as not easily to be shaken off: After this is done, sift some of the lime over the bushes ; this will drive down those which may have lodged on the branches. The caterpil- lars ought to be swept up next day, and the bushes well washed with clear lime-water mixed with urine ; this will destroy any caterpillars that may still remain, and also the aphides, if there are any on the bushes." 4665. Sweet first syringes the plants, and then powders them with quick-lime by hand, so that every leaf both above and below is covered with it. This he found destroyed not only gooseberry caterpillars, but the black fly on the peach-tree. (Hprt. Trans, v. 76.) 4666. Harrison considers, that in the winter season, " the eggs of the insects are deposited in crevices and joints of the tree, also in the ground." In the pruning season, he burns the prunings, and washes the trees with a mixture of quick-lime and water, and then casts in powdered lime among the branches ; or, instead of this, he washes the trees with twelve gallons of water, half a pound of tobacco, and six ounces of black pepper boiled together for half an hour, and used when cold. In the following spring, " just before the trees come into bloom," he sprinkles them with lime-water, and throws on them powdered lime, spreading some at the roots of the tree. Soon after the berries are set, he smokes the trees with straw fires. When summer flies visit the trees, he picks off the leaves on which their eggs are deposited. " This," he says, " is readily done, and very effectual." If they increase very rapidly, he uses lime-water as in spring. (Tr. on Fr. Tr. 348.) 4667. Our opinion is, that no reliance is to be placed in powdered hot lime alone, for destroying either the insects or their eggs. Hot water, applied in Gibbs's manner ; lime-water, or water and powder of lime, in the manner of Elliot and Sweet ; and digging down, as performed by Tweedie, may be of real service : but the only effectual plan seems to be that of previously hand-picking ; which, however tedious it may seem, will often be found a more economical mode than any of the above. Hand-picking, with the spring- generated kinds, should commence as soon as the eggs are observed on the under sides of the leaves, of a, white color, and not thicker than hairs ; the whole leaf may be picked off, or the eggs brushed or sponged off: with the winter kinds it ought to commence as soon as they leave their nidus in the soil or bark and appear on the leaves. 4668. Preventive treatment. Sprinkling gooseberry and currant bushes with tar-water, prevents the fly or moth from settling on the plant to lay its eggs ; this must be done early in the spring, for if done after the fruit is set, it will taste of tar. (J. Busch, in Hort. Trans, iv. 568.) 4669. Forcing. The gooseberry may be forced in pots or boxes placed in pits, or in the peach-house or vinery. Hay plants in pots in November, removes to the peach-house in January, and has ripe fruit in the end of April, which he sends to table growing on the plants. (Hort. Trans, iv. 415.) SUBSECT. 5. Slack Currant. Eibes Nigrum, L. (Eng. Bot. 1291.) Pentand. Monog. L. and Cacti, J. Groseille d fruit noir, or Poivrier, Fr. 4670. The black currant is an humble shrub, with smooth shoots, strong-smelling tri- lobate leaves and hairy racemes, with a solitary one-flowered peduncle at the base of the raceme. The flowers appear in April, of a greenish-white, and the fruit ripens in June and July, and changes from a green to a black color. It is a native of most parts of Eu- rope, especially the more northern parts. It abounds in the woods in the north of Rus- sia ; and in the subalpine regions of Siberia, where the branches and berries are very large and sapid. In Britain, it is found in wet hedges, on the banks of rivers, in alder swamps, and sometimes in woods. 4671. Use. The fruit, which has a peculiar flavor, and disliked by some, is seldom brought to the dessert ; but it is eaten in puddings and tarts, and made into jellies, and wines. The Russians put the berries into brandy, and the Irish into whiskey, in the same way as the English put cherries ; the Russians also ferment the juice with honey, and so form a strong and palatable wine. Many cottagers, who cannot afford to mix green tea with common bohea, substitute one or two dried leaves of black currant, the flavor pro- duced by which few are so acute as to distinguish from that of a mixture of green and black tea. There are no varieties of the black currant. 4672. Propagation. By cuttings. See Gooseberry. 4673. Soil and site. A moist soft soil and shady situation, such as is afforded by borders of north ex- posure is preferable. Miller says, " The fruit is always best when the plants are placed in an open situ- ation, and light loamy soil." 4674. Final planting. As only a few plants are in general required for private gardens, these maybe placed at the distances recommended for gooseberries, in the margin of a shady border, or against a wall of a north exposure. Neill says, it produces most fruit as a standard, but the largest berries when trained to a wall. 4675. Mode of bearing. The black currant bears chiefly on the shoots of the preceding year, and also from snags or spurs, which, however, are less abundant, and of smaller size in the black currant than in the gooseberry or red currant. 4676. Pruning. Attend to the general directions giving for pruning gooseberries, observing to depend less on spurs than on the preceding year's wood, cutting out the old as it becomes naked and barren, to make room for the new. 4677. Insects and diseases. The black currant is seldom attacked by insects ; though, like the elder- tree, it has its own variegated caterpillars, which sometimes reduce it to a state of complete nudity. (4657.) 4768. Gathering the fruit. See Red Currant. 4679. Forcing. The black currant may be forced in pots like the gooseberry. In Russia this is often done for the sake of the fragrance of the leaves. 736 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. SUBSBCT. 6. Red Currant. Eibes Rubrum, L. (Eng. Bot. 1289) Pentandria Mono- gynia, L. and Cacti, J. Groseille a grappes d* outre mer, Fr. ; Johannisbeere, Ger. ; and Uveita, Ital. 4680. The red currant is a low shrub, with smooth branches, doubly serrate, pubes- cent leaves, yellowish -green flowers on pendulous racemes, which appear in May, and the fruit ripens in June and July. The berries of this shrub, in its wild state, are red ; cultivation has produced white and pale-red berried varieties. It is a native of the northern parts of Europe, and found in hedges and woods in England. Professor Martyn obsefves, that " the currant does not seem to have been known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, as the southern nations of Europe have not even an appropriate name to it at this day. The old French name groseilles d' outre mer; and the Dutch, beskins overzee, proclaim their having been strangers imported. Our English name of currant is evidently from the similitude of the fruit, to that of the uva corinthiaca, the small grape of Zante, or the common grocers' corinths, or currants. The red currant has been long cultivated in Britain, and very much improved in the size of the bunch and berry. 4631. Use. The fruit is acceptable at the dessert, being of an agreeable acid taste. It is much used for jellies, jams, and wines. Forsyth says, it is the most useful of all the small fruit, either for the table and kitchen, or for preserving, making wine, c. ; and continues longer in succession than any other. According to Withering, the juice forms an agreeable acid to punch ; and Professor Martyn says it was a common bever- age in Paris in 1763. Its medicinal qualities are similar to those of other subacid fruits, allaying thirst, lessening an increased secretion of the bile, and correcting a putrid and scorbutic state of the fluids. 4682. Varieties. These are Common red or wild currant I Champagne large red I Large new white Dutch I Large pale-red Dutch Large red Champagne pale red (Hook P. L. t. 36.) Gooseberry-leaved. Lon clustered red | White Dutch | White crystal 4683. Propagation and nursery culture. The same as in the gooseberry. With a view to obtaining im- proved varieties from seed, that indefatigable horticulturalist, Knight, procured cuttings, in the year 1810, of the finest varieties of the red and the white currant, which he planted in pots of very rich mould and placed under a south wall, to which the trees were subsequently trained. At the end of three years, within which period the pots had been as often changed, the trees were first suffered to produce blossoms. These were, with the exception of a very small number, removed from the white currant trees, as soon as their buds unfolded ; and those which remained were deprived of their stamens, whilst immature, and subsequently fertilised by the pollen of the red variety. The seeds thus obtained were sowed in pots, as soon as the fruit had become perfectly mature, and were subjected, early in the follow- ing spring, to the artificial heat of a forcing-house ; by which means, and by proper subsequent atten- tion, the plants grew more than a foot in height in the first season. At two years old, in the year 1816, several of the plants, and, in 1817, the greater part of them, produced fruit of great variety of character^ and merits; but out of about two hundred varieties, only three red and two white appeared to possess greater merits than their parents. (Hort. Trans, iii. 88.) " 4684. Soil and site. All the sorts are very hardy, will grow freely, and bear plentifully almost any where, alike in open and shady situations, by which the fruit may be obtained early, in June and July, and prolonged for several months in succession till October. As to soil, the currant generally does well in any common garden-ground, well tilled and recruited ; it bears the greater crop in a strong loam, or improved clay, somewhat moist ; the earlier in a sandy light mould, which is not poor. Previous to planting, the ground should be dug two feet deep. 4685. Final planting. " The season for planting on a dry soil is any time in open weather, from the fall of the leaf till February or March. Plants expected to bear the following summer are best moved in October, unless the ground be wet in winter. Allot a competent supply of standard bushes, to be planted chiefly in the kitchen-garden, in a single row round the main compartments, or in the outward borders, or some in cross rows, to divide extensive compartments. Plant them from five to ten feet distant in the row. To raise large supplies, full plantations are formed in parallel rows, with intervals between the rows of eight or ten feet, and between the trees in each row of six feet. Where convenient, have also some choice sorts trained against walls or palings, of different aspects, to obtain early and late fruit in perfection : some against a south exposure, for early production ; others on east, west, and north walls, for intermediate suc- cession and late fruit. Plant them at six, eight, or ten feet distance ; letting them occasionally fill up the vacant spaces between other wall-trees. The branches should be allowed to advance from near the bot- tom, and be trained in a nearly horizontal direction from three to six inches asunder. Before nailing them, cut out superabundant and irregular growths, retaining a competency of regular shoots for orderly training, among which, if any are of very considerable length, prune them to moderate extent. Some may likewise be trained as espaliers, in a detached row, in the borders or divisions of the compartments. The trees so trained may either be left to grow without support, or be tied occasionally to stakes, and the branches thus will not overspread the ground. Being kept moderately thin and regular, they will bear fine large fruit, and make an agreeable appearance." 4686. Mode of bearing. Currant-trees, in general, bear the fruit both on the young wood of one, two, and three years' growth ; and on the older branches, from small spurs, and snags along the sides, which continue several years fruitful, but the fruit produced on the last year's shoot is always finest, especially when the old mother bearers have borne more than four years. 4687. Pruning. The chief part of the future culture is seasonable pruning. After the plants are fur- nished with full heads, they produce many superfluous and disorderly shoots every summer, crowding the general bearers, so as 'to require retrenchment and regulation, both in the young growths of the year and older wood The season, for the capital pruning is winter ; but a preparatory part is performed in summer, to thin the superfluous shoots of the year where too crowded, excluding the sun and air from the fruit First, as to standards : 4 o 2" II III Jill J J l I .a ^ ' ^ 2i"i !.[* jll.lillli gVg ^EnHH^c '? sn i! s i ^l ! fl j fillil-l HPfi^p^K W K >-s O >-^>-W n I it i ill! KI i-4 cc S cc x w W^ ^^ *^H^ >- | ||1" SI II . . Llfl s > - s _ _^ ., 3 !!!!! O c<*; cc P S a. 5 1 I! Sf el ^4 >s 2 s S s;S; iiiiii i si ii 2 - : ^ oj . . p; g I --I II 1 ^ c 5 ^ . s! PH i PJSi? I Qt|!3^i c ^ ^"Cs i 11! n ill i- li te g S y mean* of their tendrils upon sticks ; trie leaves are small, and the plant altogether oc- cupies but little room. BOOK I. EXOTIC FRUITS. 765 Long green Turkey ; sometimes sown for the late crop. Late cucumbers, how- ever, are much less cultivated than the early varieties ; most gardeners being of opinion, that those kinds which are best for the early crops are also best for the late. Napal ; fruit very large, usually weighs upwards of twelve pounds' weight, ' girth twenty-four inches, and in length seventeen inches ; flavor pleasant and esteemed for stewing. Sent to the Horticultural Society from Calcutta by Dr. Wallick. (Hort.Traiu. iv. 136.) Flanagan's. Near two feet long and of superior crisimess and flavor. (Hart. Traits, iv. 560.) Fluted cucumber. A Chinese variety. (Hort. Tram. v. 56.) Smooth green Roman ; an early sort ; the fruit becomes large and long, and is quite smooth ; the plants grow very strong, and require a good deal of room. White Turkey ; the stalks and leaves are larger than in the other varieties; the fruit also is very long, sometimes from ten to fifteen or even twenty inches ; it is quite straight, and has a smooth skin destitute of prickles ; it is produced sparingly, and late in the season. 4876. Culture. The culture of the cucumber, as a table esculent, is chiefly carried on by artificial heat or protection, and is therefore treated of under the Forcing Department , Chap. VII. Sect. VI I. For pickling, it is chiefly cultivated in the open ground, by what is termed drilling, and which forms the only branch of the culture of this vegetable reserved for this article. To have a crop in the natural ground, the seed is sown in warm compartments of rich earth, towards the end of May, or beginning of June, when the weather is settled, warm, and dry. The plants should mostly remain where sown, to produce late fruit towards the end of July, or more generally in August and September, small for picklers, and in larger growth for ordinary consumption. Sow a portion in a warm border, and the main crop in an open com- partment. Dig the ground neatly even. Trace lines with intervals of five or six feet ; and in the lines mark stations three and a half feet distant ; then, with a trowel at each of these spots, form shallow cir- cular saucer-form cavities in the surface, ten or twelve inches wide, and about an inch deep in the middle. Sow in the middle of each cavity eight or ten seeds, half an inch deep. When the plants are come upj and begin to put forth the first rough leaves in the centre, thin them to three or four of the strongest in each hole. Earth these up a little, between and close round the stems, pressing them a little asunder ; and give them some water, to settle the earth below and above. In their advancing growth, train out the leading runners. Supply them with requisite waterings, in dry weather, two or three times a week, or sometimes every day in very dry hot weather, in July, August, or September. At this season, water early in a morning, or late in the afternoon, towards evening. 4877. Gathering. " The crop comes in sometimes towards the end of July, but more generally not before August in full production ; continuing till about the middle or end of September, when the plants decline. Be careful to gather the fruit in a prime state, both for pickling and other purposes. They must be quite young for pickling, not exceeding two or three inches in length." (Abercrombie.) SECT. II. Exotic Fruits, well known, but neglected as such. 4878. Among neglected exotic fruits we include the orange tribe, one of the most beau- tiful, and also, a very useful class of fruits. The culture of oranges and lemons for the table is not at present common in England ; but, in our opinion, it might be pursued with much enjoyment to the amateur, since, independently of the gratification of seeing fruit of one's own growth at the dessert, no object of the fruit-tree kind can be more splendid than a large healthy orange-tree covered with fruit. The pomegranate seems also to merit culture, both for its singular beauty while on the tree, and the addition it would make to the dessert. SUBSECT. 1. Orange Tribe. Citrus, L. PotyadeL Polyan. L. and Aurantice, J. 4879. Of tt;e genus citrus there are five species or leading sorts, of which the fruit are used ; all natives of Asia, viz. the common orange, the lemon, the citron, the lime, and the shaddock. The common character of the plants bearing these fruits is that of low evergreen trees, with ovate or oval-lanceolate, entire or serrated, leaves. On the un- grafted trees are often axillary spines. The flowers appear in peduncles, axillary or terminating, and one or many flowered. The fruits are large berries, round or oblong, and generally of a yellow color. The species seem best distinguished by the petiole, which, in the orange and shaddock, is winged ; in the citron, lemon, and lime, naked. The form of the fruit, although not quite constant, may also serve for a distinction. In the orange and shaddock, it is spherical, or rather an oblate spheroid, with a red or orange-colored rind ; in the lime, spherical, with a pale rind ; in the lemon, oblong, rough, with a nipple-like pro- tuberance at the end ; in the citron, oblong, with a very thick rind. The flowers of the citron and lemon have ten stamens, and those of the orange more. Professor Martyn observes, that it is very difficult to determine what is a variety, and what is a species in this genus. The trees in the eastern countries, where they are natives, vary in the size and shape of the fruit and leaves ; and many of those considered varieties in Europe, preserve their differences in their native woods. He has no doubt that any one who would pursue this subject in the native countries of these fruits, would detect varieties connecting all those generally considered as species. This opinion appears highly probable when we ex- amine the catalogues of the continental writers on this fruit ; who, in general, finding it difficult to make botanical distinctions, are obliged to rest satisfied with popular descrip- tions. In Nouveau Cours, &c. art. Granger, those cultivated in France, and in Dr. Sickler's work, and that of Gallesio, those of Italy, are sd described. 4880. Dr. Sickler, who spent several years in Italy, and paid great attention to the kinds and culture of the orange, published in 1815, Der Vollkommen Orangerie- Gart- ner (The Complete Orange- Gardener}, in which he describes above seventy sorts of citrus, including all the species above men- tioned. He arranges the whole in two classes, and these classes into divisions and subdivisions, without regard to their botanic distinctions or species, thus: 4 sorts. Oranges... Cedrates or! Citrons J ' f Round-shaped lemons 6 ditto. I Pear-shaped ditto If ditto. Lemons .... \ Cylindrical ditto 4 ditto. Gourd-shaped ditto 12 ditto. [Wax lemons ..; 5 ditto. Cedrate lemons or cidronates 6 ditto. Lumies or f Lumies 5 ditto. Lomes (.Apple lumies 3 ditto. Limes 4 ditto. Bitter oranges G ditto. Sour oranges 6 ditto. Sweet oranges 12 ditto. 766 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. The names and some descriptive traits of these seventy-four sorts of citrus will be found in A Short Delineation of Dr. Sickler's Treatise, by Dr. Noehden, in the Hort. Trans, vol. iii. App. 4881. Gallesio (Traite du Genus Citrus, &c. Savonna, 1818.) has given a synoptic tree ( t fig. 509.), in which he has introduced ramifications which display an arrangement of the forty principal sorts cultivated in Italy. 509 Citrus aurantium,\sinensis nobUis et decumana, 4882. The most splendid work on oranges which has yet appeared is the Historre Naturette des (hangers, by Risso, of Nice, and Poiteau, of Versailles. (Paris, fol. 1818.) Here 169 sorts are described, and 105 of them figured, and their French and Italian culture given at great length. They are arranged as sweet oranges, of which they describe 43 sorts ; bitter and sour oranges, 32 sorts ; bergamots, 5 sorts ; limes, 8 sorts ; thaddocks, 6 sorts; lumes, 12 sorts; lemons, 46 sorts; citrons, 17 sorts. 4883. All the species of citrus endure the open air at Nice, Genoa, and Naples ; but at Florence and Milan, and often at Rome, they require protection during the winter, and are generally placed in conservatories and sheds. The largest conservatory in Italy is that of Prince Antonio Borghese, at Rome, which contains seventy select sorts of agnimi. The largest trees are at Sorenta, Teracina, Gaeta, and Naples ; but the most regular and garden-like culture of the orange, -is in the orange-orchards at Nervi, Mo- naco, and other places in the neighborhood of Genoa. At Nervi are also the orange- nurseries which may be said to supply all Europe with trees ; they are, in general, wretchedly cultivated, and the stocks inoculated in the most unscientific manner ; but the fine climate, strong clayey soil, and abundant manurings, supply in a great degree the nicer practices of gardening. There the names of varieties vary as much as those of gooseberries do in England ; but from upwards of one hundred names, not above forty distinct sorts can be procured. Good plants of the Maltese and other varieties of orange may be procured from Malta ; and some sorts also from Lisbon. From the nurseries BOOK 1. ORANGE TRIBE. 767 at Paris about thirty sorts may be obtained, much smaller plants than those from the other places named, but more scientifically grafted or inoculated. At Vallet's nursery at Rouen, is a collection of very large plants of the common kinds. The catalogues of London nurserymen enumerate above thirty varieties of orange, twelve of lemon, and several varieties of the other species ; the plants are generally inoculated, and small, and are more calculated for pots than for planting in the soil for producing fruit. As being most useful for the British horticulturist, we shall place under each species the names of the varieties which may be procured in England. 4884. The common orange is the Citrus Aurantium, L. ; the orange of the French ; pomeranzc of the Germans ; and aran- cio of the Italians, ( Jig. 510.) It is a middle-sized evergreen tree, with a greenish-brown bark ; and in its wild state, with prickly branches. The fruit is nearly round, from two to three inches in diameter, and of a gold color. It is a native of India and China, but now cultivated in most countries of Europe; in the open air in Italy and Spain ; and in conservatories or green- houses in Britain and the north of Europe. The orange is sup- posed to have been introduced into Italy in the fourteenth cen- tury, above a thousand years after the citron. In England, the tree has been cultivated since lf>29. Parkinson, writing at that time, says, " it hath abiden with some extraordinary looking and tending, when neither citron nor lemon trees could be preserved any length of time." 4885. The orange-trees of Beddington, in Surrey, introduced from Italy by a knight of the noble family of the Carews {Gib- son's edit, of Camb. Brit.}, were the first that were brought into England ; they were planted in the open ground, placed under a moveable cover during the winter months, and they had been growing there before 1595. It has been said, that these trees were raised by Sir Francis Carew, from seeds brought to Eng- land by Sir Walter Raleigh : but as such tre'es would not have readily borne fruit, Professor Martyn thinks it much more likely that they were plants brought from Italy. Bradley says, they always bore fruit in great plenty arid per- fection ; that they grew on the outside of a wall, not nailed against it, but at full liberty to spread ; they were fourteen feet high, the girt of the stem twenty-nine inches, and the spreading of the branches one way nine feet, and twelve feet another. These trees, Evelyn informs us, were neglected in his time dur- ing the minority of their owner, and finally entirely killed by the great frost in 1139-40. 4886. During the latter end of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth centuries, the orange-tree was a very fasliionable article of growth in conservatories, when there were but few exotics of other sorts kept there. The plants were procured from Genoa, with stems generally from four to six feet in height ; they were planted in large boxes, and were set out during summer to decorate the walks near the house in the manner still practised at Versailles and the Tuilleries. About the middle of the eighteenth century, when a taste for botany and forcing exotic fruits became general, that for superb orange-trees began to decline ; many of these large trees have decayed through neglect; and those which are now to be found in the greater number of green-houses, are generally dwarf plants bearing few fruit, and those of small size. In some places, however, are still to be found large and flourishing trees. Those at Smorgony in Glamorganshire, are the largest in Britain ; they are planted in the floor of an immense conservatory, and bear abundantly. It is said that the plants were procured from a wreck on the coast in that quarter, in the time of Henry VII. 4887. At Nuneham, near Oxford, are some very fine trees, planted under a moveable case, sheltered by a north wall. In summer, the case is removed, and the ground turfed over, so that the whole resembles a native orange-grove. At Wormleybury, Hertfordshire, and Shipley Hall, in Derbyshire, are very fine large orange and lemon trees grown in borders and in boxes. (Hort. Trans, vol. ii. 295. and iv. 306.) 4888. -At the Wilderness, Kent, (Marquis Camden's,) are three trees in boxes, not surpassed by any trees so grown in Europe. C. Bingham, at Isleworth, possesses a very fine collection ; and various others might be enumerated. 4889. At Woodhall, near Hamilton, trees of all the species of citrus are trained against the back wall of forcing-houses, in the manner of peaches, and produce large crops of fruit. 4890. In the south of Devonshire, and particularly at Saltcombe, one of the warmest spots in England, may be seen, in a few gardens, orange-trees that have withstood the winter in the open air upwards of a hundred years. The fruit is .as large and fine as any from Portugal. Trees raised from seed, and inoculated on the spot, are found to bear the cold better than trees imported. 4891. Use. As a dessert-fruit, the orange is well known. The varieties imported, which are most esteemed for this purpose, are the China, Portugal, and Maltese. It is also used in confectionary, both ripe, and when green and not larger than a pea: it forms various liquors and conserves, either alone or with sugars, wines, or spirits ; and either the pulp or skin, or both, are used for these purposes. In cook- ing, it is used to aromatise a number of disnes. The juice of the Seville orange is used in medicine, in febrile and in- flammatory disorders ; and that of the other sorts possesses the same qualities in a lesser degree. The acid of oranges, Dr. Cullen says, unites with the bile, takes off its bitterness, and may prove useful in obviating disorders arising from its redundancy and acridity. In perfumery, the orange is used to form various perfumes and pomades : and the flower dis- tilled, produces orange-water, used in cooking, medicine, and as a perfume. 4892. Varieties. These are very numerous in the eastern countries, and even in Italy and France. About forty sorts are cultivated in the neighborhood of Paris, and about thirty in the London nurseries, of which we shall give a list. The two principal varieties are the sweet or China orange, the orange douce of the French, and porto-gallo or poma de smoof'the Italians; and the bitter or Seville, the bigarade of the French, and arancio volgaro of the Italians. The Maltese orange, distinguised by its red pulp, is also a noted and much-esteemed sort. The box-leaved, willow-leaved, and some others, are cultivated more as curious varieties than for their fruit. 768 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. TART III, Monstrous Myrtle-leaved large Mvrtie small Narrow-leaved Oval-fruited Pale-leaved Seville or bitter orange, (./itf. 511.) chiefly used for making marmalade Spike-flowered Striped curled-leaTed Striped gold Striped silver Striped tricolor Striped willow-leaved Sweet-skinned Sweet China Tanjierano Thick-leaved AVmow-feaved Clove, or mandarin, (C. Ko- bili,,H. K.) (Bvt.Rep. 608. and 21 1 .), distinguished from the common orange by its curious form, and by the pulp adhering so loosely to the rind as to be separable from it by the slightest effort, and leaving in many places a considerable opening be- tween them. It is the most delicate of the orange tribe, whence its name by the Chi- nese of mandarin, or noble orange. Probably only a va- riety, though named as a spe- cies. Common orange Bloody-fruite- Broad-leaved Bergamot large Bergamot small Cluster-fruited Curled-leaved Double-flowered Fine-leaved Laurel-leaved Lisbon Maltese Bloody Maltese 4893. T/ie Citron is the C. Medica, L. (Gtzr. fru. 2. t. 121. f. 2.) ; the citron of the French ; the citronier of the Germans; and cedrate of the Italians, (Jig. 512.) In its wild state the tree grows to the height of about eight feet, erect and prickly, with long reclining branches. The leaves are ovate, oblong, alternate, subserrate, smooth, pale green. The fruit or berry is half a foot in length, ovate, with a protuberance at the tip. There are two rinds, the outer thin, with innumerable miliary glands, full of a most fragrant oil ; the inner thick, white, and fungous. The citron was introduced into Europe from Media, under the name of malus medica, and was first cul- tivated in Italy by Palladius in the second century. The date of its introduction into England is not exactly known; it would probably be coeval with that of the lemon, which was cultivated in the botanic garden at Ox- ford in 1648. The fairest fruit, Miller states, was in the Duke of Argyle's garden at Whitton, where the trees were trained against a south wall, through which there were flues for warming the air in winter, and glass covers put over them, when the weather began to be cold. Thus the fruit was as large and as perfectly ripe, as it is in Italy or Spain. In Italy citrons and lemons are generally trained on walls or espaliers, because, being considerably more tender than the orange, they require, at least in the north of Italy, some protection in winter ; the fruit does not ripen regularly at one time, like that of the orange, but comes successionally to maturity almost every month in the year. 4894. Use. The fruit is seldom brought to the dessert in a raw state, but it forms excellent preserves and sweetmeats, to furnish the table when other fruits are scarce. The juice, with sugar and water, forms lemonade, a most refreshing, salubrious, and universally esteemed beverage. Its use in punch and negus is well known. It is much used in medicine, and also in perfumery and dyeing. 4895. Varieties. Dr. Sickler enumerates only about a dozen citrons and citronates as grown in Italy. The French nurseries have nearly twenty names in their lists. In England the six following are cultivated for sale : Theflat^fruited The round-fruited The thick-leaved. I The rough-fruited I The grape-fruited Barbadoes 1 I The forbidden-fruited | (Hort. Trans, vol. iii. p. 338.) 1 4896. The lemon is the C. Medica, var. Limon, W. (Blackw. 362.) ; the limon of the French ; limonier of the Germans ; and limone of the Italians. (Jig. 513.) The distinction between the lemon and citron is very trifling. The fruit is less knobbed at the extremities, is rather longer, and more irregular, and the skin is thinner than in the citron ; the wood is more knotty, and the bark rougher. Cultivated in the Oxford garden in 1648. 4897. The uses of the lemon are the same as those of the citron. 4898. Varieties. Dr. Sickler enumerates twenty-eight as grown in Italy. The French, according to Ville Herv, have eleven sorts ; in the London nurseries are cultivated the twelve following : Common Broad-leaved Chinese Imperial Pear-shaped, or Lime (Jig. 514.) Rough-fruited Smooth-leaved Striped gold Striped silver Striped three-cclored Upright \\>rted fruited. ORANGE TRIBE. 769 4899. The lime is the Citrus Adda, ROJC. (Brawn's Jam 308.) by some esteemed a variety of tlie C. Medica ; the lime of the French, Italians, and Germans, (j.g.515.) The sour lemon, or lime, grows to the height of about eight feet with a crooked trunk, and many diffused branches, with prickles. The leaves are ovate, lanceolate, almost quite entire. Berry an inch and a half in diameter, almost glo- bular, with a protuberance at the top ; the surface regular shining, greenish-yellow, with a very odorous rind, en- closing a very acid juice. It is a native of Asia, but has long been common in the West Indies, where it is grown both for its fruit and for fences. 5900. The uses of the lime are the same as those of the le-mon, to which, in the West Indies, it is preferred ; the juice being reckoned more wholesome, and the acid more agreeable to the palate. 5901. Varieties. By the catalogue in Nouveait Cours, &c. the French have two sorts of lime ; and according to Dr Sickler, the Italians have four varieties. The following five kinds are grown in the London nurseries : S 4 | The Chinese spreading. 5902.' The shaddock is the C. decumana, W. (Rump. am. 2. t. 24. f. 2.) ; the orange pampelmouse of the French ; and the arancio massimo of the Italians, (fig. 516.) The tree is above the middle size, with spreading prickly branches. The leaves are ovate, subacute, seldom obtuse ; the petioles are cordate, winged ; the wings as broad as the leaves. The berry spheroidal, frequently retuse at each end, of an even surface, and greenish-yellow color ; pulp, red or white ; juice, sweet or acid ; rind, white, thick, fungous, and bitter. Thunbcrg says, the fruit in Japan grows to the size of a child's head, and Dr. Sickler states its weight as fourteen pounds, and its diameter as from seven to eight inches. It is a native of China and Japan, and was brought to the West Indies by Captain Shaddock, from whom, it has derived its name. From the West Indies it was sent to England, and cultivated by Miller in 1739. 5903. Use. The shaddock is certainly the least useful of the species enumerated, and is cultivated chiefly for show. It has the handsomest leaf of the whole tribe, and the fruit is larger than the orange. Where several sorts of oranges are pre- sented at the dessert, it makes a striking addition to the variety. The juice is of a subacid sweetness, and excellent for quench- ing thirst; and the fruit, from the thickness of its skin, will keep longer in sea voyages than any of the other species of citrus. 5904. Varieties. The Italians, according to Dr. Sickler, have one ; and the French, according to the Nouveau Cours, &c. four sorts. The following four are grown in the English nurseries : The common shaddock | The rough-fruited | The largest-fruited ! The West India. 5905. Propagation of the citrus tribe. All the sorts may be propagated by seeds, cut- tings, layers, and grafting, or inoculation. 5906. By seed. The object of raising plants from seed is either to obtain new varieties or stocks for grafting. To attempt raising new varieties ir Britain will in general be found a tedious process, as the trees do not even in Italy show fruit for six or eight years or more ; and there is now in the botanic garden at Toulon, a large handsome tree, of twenty-five years' growth, which had not in 1819 blossomed. However, if new varieties are attempted, select the largest and best-formed ripe fruit of the kind to be raised, extract the seeds, dry them, and sow and nurse as hereafter directed for raising stocks. Where trees are to be raised for stocks to bud oranges, Miller advises to procure citron-seeds, as stocks from these are preferable to any other for quickness of growth ; and also that they will take buds of either orange, lemon, or citron. Next to these are the Seville orange seeds ; and the best of either sort are to be had from rotten fruits. Prepare in spring a good hot-bed of dung or tan, and when it is in moderate temper sow the seeds in pots of light earth ; plunge them, give water frequently, and raise the glasses in the heat of the day. In three weeks the seeds will come up, and in a month's time be fit to transplant into single pots. Then renew the bed, and fill pots of five inches in diameter half full of good fresh earth, mixed with very rotten cow-dung : shake out the seedlings, and plant one in each pot, filling it up with the same earth, and replunge as before. Give a good watering at the roots, and repeat this often, as the orange tribe in a hot-bed require a good supply of water. Shade in the day-time, when the sun is power- ful, and give air so as not to draw the plants. By this method, with due care, the plants will be two feet high by July, when they must be hardened by degrees, by raising the glasses very high, and afterwards, in fine days, taking them entirely off, shading the plants from the sun with mats or other screens. To- wards the end of September, house them in a dry part of the green-house, near the glass, where they will not be liable to damp off. During winter refresh them with water, and in April now and then wash their stems and leaves, to clear them from any filth they may have contracted. Place them again in a moderate hot-bed, and harden them by the beginning of June, that they may be in a right order to bud in August. 5907. Budding. Make choice of cuttings from trees, that are healthy and fruitful, observing that the shoots are round ; the buds of these being much better and easier to part from the wood than of such shoots as are flat or angular. After performing the operation, remove the plants into the green-house, or under glass frames, to defend them from wet, turning the buds from the sun ; but let them have as much free air as possible, and refresh them often with water. In a month it will be observable which has taken, then untie them, and let them remain in the green-house all the winter. In spring cut off the stocks about three inches above the buds, and place them in a moderate hot-bed, giving afr and water, and shading as before. By the end of July they will have made shoots of two feet or more ; then harden them before the cold sets in, that they may the better stand the winter. In the first winter after their shooting, you must keep them very warm, for by forcing them in the bark-bed they will be somewhat tenderer ; but it is very necessary to raise them to their height in one season, that their stems may be straight, for in trees which are two or more years growing to their heading height, the stems are always crooked. In the succeeding years their management will be the same as for full-grown trees. 5908. The Italian jrrocess of raising and budding. 3 D In the orange-nurseries at Nervi, 770 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. the seeds of the citron or orange, as it may happen, are sown in beds in the open ground in February or March, and in September planted out in compartments, in rows generally about eighteen inches wide, and the plants six or eight inches in the row. They are placed thus close to draw them up with clean straight stems. There they remain generally four years, and in April or May of the fifth year they are taken up, their roots cut within four or six inches of the tap-root, which is also shortened to six or eight inches, according to the size of the tree. The stem, if it has any side shoots, is pruned clean, and sawn off horizontally, at such a height as that the section is from half an inch to an inch in diameter. (Jig. 517. a) The general heights are one foot, which forms the lowest-growing plants ; eighteen inches for trees to be sold in Italy; from two to four feet for trees to be sent abroad ; and five or six feet for extraordinary orders. These last are not so common ; as the stocks require six or eight years' growth, and some care to attain that height with clean stems, and a diameter of .three quarters of an inch. The plants thus pruned are budded, sometimes when out of ground, and sometiiTies after planting. One bud is inserted on each side of the stock (a), within an inch of the section. In a month buds and roots begin to push, and in Decem- ber or January following these plants are in fit state for taking up for exportation. After being taken up, the roots, now well furnished with fibres, are enveloped in a ball of stiff clay ; this is covered with moss carefully tied on, and in this way they are laid in boxes, or in casks, and sent not only to most parts of Europe, but to North and South America. The chief defect in this system is the naked horizontal section at the top of the stem (a), which, not being smoothed with the knife and covered with clay or any other protection, to cause the bark to grow over it, indurates and cracks with the drought ; retains moisture and decays, so that in almost all trees that have been budded in this way, a dead stump or a rotten hole, may be observed during the whole period of their existence. This evil is often lessened by covering with a cap of lead or a patch of wax ; but it might readily be obviated by peeling off a piece of bark from one side of the part of the stock to be sawn off (rf), letting it remain attached to the lower part or stem ; and after removing the head, bringing it down close over the section, inserting its end under the bark in the opposite side, somewhat in the man- ner of saddle-grafting ; or the manner employed by surgeons in amputating a limb (e) might be adopted. A similar object might probably be effected by removing a wedge-shaped section from the top of the stock (/), and then compressing its sides, so as to present a wedge-shaped termination covered with bark (g). But the gardeners at Nervi are too indolent and obstinate to hear of any thing new, and will persist in their present plan till the credit of Genoa for orange-trees is gone, or till some strong necessity urges them to improvement. 5909. The Maltese, aware of the defects in Italian trees, make a sloping section (6), paring it clean, and budding on one side only ; the consequence of which is, that the section becomes covered with bark, and, which it never does in the Italian method, as sound and healthy as any part of the stem. The French graft and inoculate in a very neat manner (c), and indeed their orange-trees, though small, are much handsomer than the Italian ones. 5910. By grafting. This mode is occasionally resorted to in Italy, and is that most generally adopted in the nurseries at Paris. The stocks, when of two years' growth, and not much thicker than the scion, are cut over within six inches of the ground, and then grafted in the whip manner. The trees continue small, but have clean stems of from one to three feet, and generally make handsome plants, prolific in flowers and fruit, of a small size. Grafting, both by the whip manner and by approach, is frequently practised in England, in nearly the same circumstances of age, size, and effect, as practised in France. A variety of the whip-manner is described by Cushing, in which the top of the stock is left on, but the scion is cut off as in grafting. " Form the scion as for the common whip-graft, and then, without taking off the head of the stock, cut from the clearest part of its stem an equal splice as smoothly as possible ; do not tongue the scion, but tie it on neatly and firmly with matting and clay, in the manner of a graft : plunge them in a hot-bed, and cover with a cap-glass till the scion begins to grow, and then cut away the top of the stock, and remove the matting by degrees." (Exotic Card. 103.) 5911. Whip-grafting in the common way has lately been successfully performed, even with fruit or flowers on the scion, by Nairn, who gives the following account of the process : " Let the operator select as many orange or lemon stocks as he wishes to work, and place them on a moderate hot-bed for a fort- night, by which time the sap will have risen sufficiently to move the bark ; the stocks must then be cut off, about two inches above the surface of the pot, and an incision made with a sharp knife, similar to what is done for budding, separating the bark from the wood on each side. Let the scion be cut thin, in a sloping direction, and thrust between the bark and wood, and then bound tight with woollen yarn ; but very great care must be taken, in binding, to prevent the bark from slipping round the stock, which, without attention, it is very apt to do. After it is properly and neatly bound, put a little loam or clay BOOK 1. ORANGE TRIBE. 771 close round the stock, to the surface of the pot, tlipn, with a glass of a proper form (Jig. 518.), to prevent the damp from dripping on the scion, cover the whole, and press it firmly into the mould, to prevent the air or steam from getting to the plant the glass must not be taken off, unless you find any of the leaves dami>- .x^'T^fe*. 518 ing, and then only till this is remedied, when it must be immediately re- turned. The stocks must next be placed on a brisk hot -bed of dung, and in about six weeks, the glasses may be taken oft; and the clay and binding removed ; but it will be necessary to bind on a little damp moss, in lieu of the clay, and to keep the glasses on in the heat of ihe day, taking them off at night; when, in about three weeks or a month, they will be fit to be put into the green-house, where they will be found to be one of the greatest ornaments it can receive. I should recommend the mandarin orange for the first trial, as the fruit is more firmlv fixed than that of any of th'e other sorts. I have, by the above method, had seven oranges on a plant, in a pot, commonly called a small sixty, which I conceive to be both curious and handsome." (Hort. Trans, iii.) L 5912. Henderson's mode of grafting is well adapted for proving successful." " Take two-year-old wood, cut into lengths of about seven inches. If the stock is much thicker than the graft (fig. 519. a), cut a piece out of the stock of a triangular figure, about an inch and two eighths in length, regulating the depth according to the . , thickness of the graft, and keeping it square at \\ \ I -^ / the bottom. Displace two leaves at the bottom of the graft, for the convenience of getting it put on, cut the graft right across under one eye, where a leaf has been taken off: dress the graft to fit the receptacle made in the stock, observing to keep the lower end of the graft equal in thickness as above ; always let three or tour leaves remain untouched on the graft. After the graft is fitted in the stock, tie it up with bass matting, and put clay around it. If the grafts and stocks are nearly of the same thickness (6), cut the stock, at right angles, nearly half through. Cut off' the piece, keeping it equal at top and bottom : cut the lower end of the graft right across under an _/ eye (a), and with a knife prepare the graft to fit the ' stock. When the grafted plants are tied up and clayed, set them at the back of the vinery or peach-house, observing to keep them away from the flues, as fire-heat is hurtful to them at first : cover them with hand-glasses, or, if a frame can be spared, it is still better. Shade them every day, but take the mats off at night ; continue the shading till they begin to grow, when they may be exposed to the light. If any stock happens to be so tall and thick that it cannot be placed under a hand-glass or frame, put two or three grafts on it, set in any convenient place in the house, and shade it with mats ; it will succeed perfectly in this way, the grafts lose none of the old leaves ; and, in five or six months, they will make three or four young shoots six or eight inches long ; these, with the leaves that were on the grafts when put on, form a well-clothed little plant." 5913. By cuttings. This method, though little practised on the continent, where the object is large trees and fine fruit, is frequently adopted by the British gardener, whose object is generally small handsome plants. Two methods are adopt- ed ; the first is to take young succulent wood as soon as it has done growing, and the lower end has become somewhat mature. These cuttings, prepared properly (5914.) are inserted with a small dibber in pots of light sandy loam, with two or three inches of gravel or broken pots at bottom. They are then covered close with a crystal bell, and plunged in a gentle heat, and shaded. The glasses are taken off only to wipe them when damp, and to remove any decaying leaves. In two months such cuttings either strike or rot off. The second method is in spring to take the shoots of last year ; to prepare and plant them as above ; but after covering them with glasses to plunge them in a cold frame, where they remain in a state of apparent inaction for three or four months, when they either form a cal- lous excrescence at the lower end of the cutting and push at top, or die off. After preserving them in a low temperature through the winter, they are placed the succeeding spring in a gentle hot bed, where they will push freely, and make tolerable plants. The success of either mode may be facilitated by taking care to place the cuttings so as their ends may touch the bottom of the pot, or the potsherd or gravel with which that is covered. The advantages of so placing cuttings is generally known to gardeners, and has been noticed by Hawkins in the Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 12. 5914. Henderson considers cuttings as the quickest mode of getting plants, and has practised it for thirty-seven years past on the orange tribe, and his directions are as follow : " Take the strongest young shoots, and also a quantity of the two-year-old shoots ; these may be cut into lengths from nine inches to eighteen inches. Take the leaves off the lower part of each cutting to the extent of about five inches, al- lowing the leaves above that to remain untouched : then cut right across, under an eye ; and make a small incision in an angular direction on the bottom of the cutting. When the cuttings are thus prepared, take a pot, and fill it with sand ; size the cuttings, so that the short ones may be all together, and those that are taller in a different pot. Then, with a small dibble, plant them about five inches deep in the sand, and give them a good watering overhead, to settle the sand about them. Let them stand a day or two in a shady place, and if a frame be ready with bottom heat, plunge the pots to the brim. Shade them well with a double mat, which may remain till they have struck root ; when rooted, take the sand and cuttings out of the pot, and plant them into single pots, in the proper compost (see 5922.) Plunge the pots with Hie young plants again into a frame, and shade them for four or five weeks, or till they are taken with the pots ; when they may be gradually exposed to the light. From various experiments, I found that pieces of two- year-old wood struck quite well ; and in place, therefore, of putting in cuttings six or eight inches long, I have taken off cuttings from ten inches to two feet long, and struck them 3 D 2 772 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. with equal success. Although I at first began to put in cuttings only in the month of August, I now put them in at any time of the year, except when the plants are making young wood. By giving them a gentle bottom heat, and covering them with a hand-glass, they will generally strike roots in seven weeks or two months. The citron is most easily struck, and is the freest grower. I therefore frequently strike pieces eighteen inches long ; and as soon as they are put into single pots, and taken with the pots, they are grafted with other sorts, which grow freely. I am not particular as to the time either of striking cuttings or of grafting." (Caled. Hort. Mem. iii. 308.) 5915. By layers. This mode is occasionally practised both on the continent and in England. At Monza, near Milan, there is a very fine collection of lemon-trees in boxes, trained as espaliers, which were so raised. The trees are five feet high, and each box has a portion of trellis attached to it of that height, and ten or twelve feet long, which is wholly covered with branches. Where laying is adopted, the plants may either be laid down on their sides, and laid as stools, or pots may be raised and supported under the branches to be propagated from. These branches, or their shoots of one or two years' growth, may then be cut or ringed, and bent into the pot, or down through the hole in the bottom, and treated in the usual manner, taking care to supply water with the greatest regularity. Shoots layered in March will be fit to separate from the stools as mother plants in the September following. In general, it may be observed, that the citron tribe, like other fruit-bearing plants raised from cuttings or layers, though they may prove very prolific trees, yet seldom grow with that vigor, and produce such large fruit, as those propagated by budding or grafting on seedling stocks. 5916. Soil. At Genoa and Florence they are grown in a strong yellow clay, which is richly manured , and this soil is considered by the first Italian gardeners, as best suited to their natures. At Rome and Milan the natural soil is lighter ; but a strong soil is adopted generally for all the agrumi, and particularly in the garden of his Holiness the Pope. At Naples, where the trees are always planted in the open ground, the soil is lighter and of volcanic origin. A strong soil, in imitation of that of Nervi, is recom- mended and adopted by the Dutch. (See fan Osten. Nicd, Hcsjieridcs, &c.) 5917. The French gardeners, according to Bosc (in A T . Coursd'Ag. in loco.), in preparing a compost for the orange-tree, endeavor to compensate for quantity by quality ; because the pots or boxes in which the plants are placed ought always to be as small as possible, relatively to the size of the tree. The fol- lowing is the composition recommended : To a fresh loam which contains a third of clay, a third of sand, and a third of vegetable matter, and which has lain a long time in a heap, add an equal bulk of half-rotten cow-dung. The following year turn it over twice. The succeeding year mix it with nearly one half its bulk of decomposed horse-dung. **urn it over twice or three times, and the winter before using, add a twelfth part of sheep-dung, a twentieth of pigeon-dung, and a twentieth of dried ordure. 5918. Miller says, the best compost for orange-trees is two thirds of fresh earth from a good pasture, and one third part of "neat's dung. These should be mixed together at least twelvemonths before using, turning it over every month to mix it well and to rot the sward. Pass it through a rough screen before using. 5919. M'Phail and Abercrombie recommend " three eighth parts of cow-dung, which has been kept three or four years ; a fourth part of vegetable mould from tree-leaves ; one sixth part of fine rich loam ; and one twelfth part of road-grit ; to this may be added one eighth part of sheep-dung." (G. littn. 242. Pr. Card 574.) 5920. Mean has tried the following mixture (Hort. Trans, ii. 295.), and with which he has " every rea- son to be satisfied. Well-prepared rotten leaves, two to three years old, one half; rotten cow-dung, two, three, and four years old, one fourth ; mellow loam, one fourth ; with a small quantity of sand or road-grit added to the compost, which ought not to be sifted too fine." 5921. Ayres, who grows excellent table fruit of the citrus, at Shipley, uses ten parts of strong turf-loam, seven of pigeon-dung, seven of garbage from the dog-kennel or butcher's yard, seven of sheep-dung, seven of good rotten horse-dung, and ten of old vegetable mould, mixed and prepared a twelvemonth before using. (Hort. Trans, iv. 310.) i 5922. Henderson, of Wood Hall, a most successful cultivator of the genus citrus, gives the following di- rections as to soil : " Take one part of light-brown mould from a piece of ground that has not been cropped nor manured for many years ; one part of peat-earth, such as is used for growing heaths ; two parts of river-sand, or pit-sand if it be free from mineral substances ; and one part of rotted hot-bed dung ; with one part of rotted leaves of trees. Mix them all well together, so as to form a compost-soil of uniform quality." (Caled. Hort. Mem. iii. 502.) 5923. Temperature. The standard temperature for the citrus tribe is 48 ; but in the growing season they require at least ten degrees of additional heat to force them to produce luxuriant shoots The air of the house in which the plants are kept, whether in boxes of in the ground, should never be allowed tc fall under 40, for though the orange, likathe pine-apple, will endure a severe degree of cold for a few hours without injury, yet, as Mean has observed, the leaves once injured the trees will require three years to recover their appearance. Ayres never suffers his orangery to be heated above 50 by lire-heat, until the end of February ; when the trees show blossom, it is increased to 55, but never allowed to exceed 60 by sun-heat, the excess of which he checks by the admission of air till the early part of June, when he " begins to force the trees, by keeping the heat in the house up as near as possible to 75. For I do not consider (he adds) that either citrons, oranges, lemons, or limes, can be grown fine and good with less heat." (Hort. Trans, iv. 811.) The orange, Humboldt observes (De Distrib. Plant. 158.), which requires an average temperature of 64 degrees, will bear a very great degree of cold if continued only for a short time. This is proved by an observation of Dr. Sickler, who says, " It is remarkable how much cold and snow the common lemons and oranges will bear at Rome, provided they are planted in a sheltered situ- ation, not much exposed to the sun. Thus I saw in the two winters of 1805 and 1806, under my windows, on Monte Pincio, three standard orange-trees in the open ground, heavily covered with snow for more than a week. The green leaves, but still more the golden fruits, nearly ripe, looked singular but beautiful amidst the snow ; neither fruits nor trees had suffered, being in a sheltered place, while many branches and leaves of other trees of this kind, which were exposed to the sun, turned black and died, rendering the whole tree sickly." (folk. Oran. Gart. 9.) It appears that the snow had been thawed from off these trees gradually, and more by the temperature of the atmosphere than by the direct rays of the sun, or a current of heated air. This resulted from their sheltered and partially shaded situation ; and, as Dr. Noehden has remarked (Hort. Trans, iii. 43.), it proves the truth of the observation of Knight, that it is more the sudden transition from cold to heat, and the contrary, than the degree of either, which destroys vegetables. Whenever orange-trees or any tender exotics have been touched during night by frost, they should either be immediately shaded by mats from the next day's sun, or thawed by water at not more than 32 or 33 degrees of temperature. In the northern regions the same treatment is successfully applied to animals. (See Hort. Trans, iii. 42. and 144.) 5924 Water. Orange-trees, like other evergreens which delight in a strong soil, are not naturally fond of water ; but in this country those in boxes are often much injured for a want of a due supply of this r terial ; for the earth becoming indurated, the water wets only the surface, and runs over and escapes by __ sides of the pot or box ; so that while the mass of earth below is dry, the surface has a sane moist ap- pearance. Mean says, " When I think from the appearance of a plant, that the water does not freely enter by the middle or sides of the box, a sharp iron rod, about three feet long, is made use of to penetrate to the bottom of the earth, and to form a channel for the water, too little or too much of which is equally injurious to orange-trees." Knight (Hort. Trans, ii. 229.) watered an orange-tree with very strong liquid manure, and found it grow with equal comparative vigor to the vine and mulberry Ayres, after the fruit is set, waters with water, in which, at the rate of three barrows of fresh cow-dung, without litter, two bar- rowg of fresh sheep's droppings, and two pecks of quick lime have been added to evry hogshead ; when BOOK I. ORANGE TRIBE. 773 used, the water is about the consistence of cream. (Hm-t. Trans, v. 310.) The French water once after shifting with a very strong lessive; they also mulch with recent cow and horse droppings, renewing these once a-month or oftener during summer, that there may be always abundance of soluble matter for the water to convey to their roots. (Nouveau Cours, &c. art. Orange.) M'Phail mentions a casein which very large orange-trees in the border of a conservatory looked sickly ; when, on digging deep into the borders to examine the cause, he found the earth quite dry, and by afterwards continuing to water them regu- larly he recovered them. (G. Item. 242.) 5925. Air. During the winter season, Miller observes, orange-trees require a large share of air when the weather is favorable ; for nothing is more injurious to these trees than stifling them. The prevention of damp, Mean observes, is as essential to the perfection of the plants as the exclusion of cold. Where these trees are kept in old-fashioned opaque-roofed green-houses, these cautions as to air and damp deserve parti- cular attention. Ayres says, the more air orange-trees have during the blossoming season, the more cer- tain will they be of setting the fruit. 5926. Light. Many gardeners are of opinion that the orange tribe do not require so much light as other exotics, which may have arisen from the gloomy conservatories in which they used to be formerly kept during winter ; for certainly to look at the orange-houses at Versailles and Kew, one would not con- clude light to be a very essential requisite. But though these trees, like other evergreens, when in a state of inaction, will live with less light than evergreens or deciduous plants in a growing state, they always suffer for the want of it, which is indicated by the paleness of the leaves in spring, and by their falling off when set out in the open air and fully exposed to the influence of day. Whoever intends to grow the orange in any degree of perfection, should adopt houses, if not with glass on all sides, at least with glass fronts and roofs. When the plants are placed in the naked ground as standards, glass on all sides is highly desirable ; for otherwise their leaves and shoots will all be turned to the south, and the north side of each tree will in a short time become naked and unsightly. 5927. Manner (if growing the trees. All the species may either be grown as dwarfs in moderate-sized pots or boxes ; as standards with stems from two to six feet high in large boxes ; as standards planted in the naked ground ; and either as dwarfs or standards planted and trained against a wall or trellis under glass. The two first modes are more adapted for ornament than producing crops of large fruit ; for all the art of the gardener will never make plants grow as vigorously in boxes as in the free ground. Standards planted in the free ground or floor of the conservatory, combine both elegance and utility; as in a house properly constructed, they will make handsome heads, and produce abundant crops of fruit. The last mode, or that of planting against walls or trellises, is much the most certain way of having large crops. Every part of the plant above ground can thus b"e brought near the glass and equally exposed to the sun's influence and that of the air and heat : they can be more readily pruned, and correctly trained, watered, and washed ; and they occupy less room in proportion to the produce. The trees at Wood Hall, in West Lothian, some of those at Shipley, and at some places in Devonshire, are trained in this way. In a very few favorable situations in the South of England, as at Gerston and W T oodville, in Devonshire, they are trained against walls in the open garden. 5928. Plans for orange- houses. These must naturally depend on the mode of growing. For plants in moderate-sized pots and. boxes, a common green-house is the obvious habitation ; for, being plants of orna- ment, they require merely the treatment of that department. The conservatories in Italy have generally opaque roofs, but some of the more enlightened nobles of Lombardy have lately erected splendid construc- tions with glass roofs, in which they combine the culture of the citron tribe with other, large-growing exotice. ( fig. 520.) 520 5929. For Trees' in targe boxes, a proportionably large and lofty house is requisite ; it may be opaque on the north side with a glass roof, front, and ends, of any convenient or desired length, width, and height. For one of moderate size, the height at the back wall may be fifteen feet, at front ten feet, and the width of the house fifteen feet The floor may be either perfectly level, and the boxes placed on it, the lar- gest behind, so as their tops may form a slope to the front glass, as in the conservatory of Prince Borghese, 521 U-i II J_L __ at Rome ; or if the trees are young, a stage may be erected for a few years, in order to raise the pi the light : but if the trees arc of a considerable size, the best way is to have square pits in the floor gular distances, somewhat larger than each box, and in these to sink the boxes, covering them with 3 D 3 ants to at rc- 774 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. mould, sand, or moss nearly to the level of the pavement, so that each tree so placed and dressed, will ap- pear as if planted in a small compartment of earth. Such is the plan of the large conservatory in the royal gardens at Monza. The walk, unless where a stage is adopted, should be in the front of the house, with corresponding doors in each end ; but where the trees are young, and placed on a stage like green-house plants, the walk should be in front, as in no other situation could the eye of the spectator meet the foliage of the plants. Where the walk is in the middle, and a double row of trees on each side as at Monza, the effect in winter is truly magnificent and gratifying. 5930. Where the trees are to be planted as standards in the borders or floor of the house, it is essentially requisite to the health and beauty of the plants that the building be glazed on all sides, (fig. 521.) Showers might be supplied in Loddige's manner ; heat by steam or flues (fig. 522. ) and in winter, the beds (b) might be covered with turf, strewed with daisies, violets, and primroses ; these .would come early into flower, and if the turf were kept very short about the roots of the flowering plants, and the trees in excellent condition, only those who have seen the first-rate, regularly planted, standard orange-groves of Nervi could form an idea of the effect, which, by contrast with the external winter, would be felt as lux- urious and as anticipating real spring. 5931. Where orange-trees are to be trained against the .back wall or a trellis, under the glass, the forms adopted for common peach-houses or vineries are perfectly suitable ; but as by training close under the glass, as is done with vines, much of the beauty of the foliage would be lost, training on a trellis a few feet distant, with a path between it and the glass, is preferable. 5932. Plans for tubs, pots, and boxes. Unglazed pots of earthenware are preferable to glazed stone ware or China pots ; the form need not be different from that in common use, and the size must depend on that of the plants. At Florence, where the largest and best garden-pots in Europe are made, the rim and part of the outside of pots destined for oranges and ornamental plants, are often decorated with festoons of flowers or fruit, and lions' heads, or other ornaments ; which some potters near London have begun to imitate. 5933. Ti/fomay be of any size, and in these and in boxes, trees thrive better than in pots. One advan- tage of tubs is, that by unhooping them, the staves are instantly removed, and the roots examined and dressed, and by having a copper at hand they are immediately replaced ; thus saving much of the trouble necessarily incurred in shifting plants in pots or boxes. 5934. Boxes. All boxes which are larger than the largest-sized pots, should be contrived to take to nieces, in order to examine the roots, or to shift into larger boxes. Square boxes held together by an iron hoop, and taking to pieces on the principle of tubs, are most convenient for trees which do not require more than five or ten cubic feet of earth ; and such as are used at the Tuilleries and by Mean (figs. 177 to 179.) answer very well for plants requiring from ten to sixty cubic feet. Those of Mean contain sixty-four cubic feet of compost. 5935. Proportioning the site of boxes to that of the plants. The general opinion, of gardeners is in favor of small pots or boxes ; and where the object is dwarf plants, or merely to preserve the trees without much increasing their size or regarding their fruit, they are the most proper. But where the object is luxuriance of growth and fruit, it does appear to us that the pots or boxes cannot be too large ; unless, as Van Osten observes, it is meant to be asserted that plants grow larger in pots than in the free ground. It is, however, expedient to plant at first in small boxes, and remove into larger ones by degrees. The largest boxes in use in Holland and France are four feet square, which serve for trees with stems from six to eight feet high, with globular heads of six feet in diameter, and above a century old. Henderson has " always found that the citrus tribe, and plants in general, grow best in pots or boxes, regarded as rather small in propor- tion to the size of the plants." (Caled. Mem. iii. 303.) 5936. Choice of sorts. Where the object is more ornament than fruit for the dessert, a selection may be made from the varieties of each species at pleasure ; where the object is fruit for the dessert, the following sorts are to be preferred : the common, bloody- fruited, Bergamot, Maltese, sweet China, Seville, and Mandarin oranges ; the com- mon lemon, citron, and lime, and one or two plants of the shaddock. These include all the essential varieties of the orange tribe as far as respects fruit ; variations in the leaves and mode of growth. 5937. Choice of plants. For moderate-sized trees to be treated like green-house plants, such as are raised in this country or in the Parisian nurseries are preferable ; but where the object is large handsome trees in boxes, standards in the free soil, or trained trees, then plants from Genoa or Malta are decidedly preferable ; indeed, no plants fitting for the purpose of standards could be elsewhere procured. Miller is of this opinion, observing, that " by much the quicker way of furnishing a green-house with large trees, is to make choice of such as are brought over every year in chests from Italy ; for those which are raised from seeds in England will not grow so larje in their stems under eighteen or twenty years, as those are when brought over ; and although their heads are small when we receive them, yet in three years, with good management, they will obtain large heads, and produce fruit." When the plants are purchased in London, at the Italian warehouses, without names, the greater number will be found to be of the shaddock and citron kinds ; as the Italian gardeners find these sorts make stronger shoots and more showy plants, and therefore send a less number of the less luxuriant but more useful varieties. But the best way is to send an order, through a British merchant who has a correspondent at Genoa, for named sorts, ordering so many of each class, either from the table of Dr. Sickler (4880.) or the synopsis of Gal- lesio. (fig. 4881.) 5938. Management in pots and boxes. The management of dwarf English or French plants in moderate- sized pots or boxes, for the green-house stage, consists in common green-house treatment. Being potted in the proper soil, the roots are to be annually examined before the growing season in spring, and when matted or diseased, trimmed off and repotted, or shifted into larger pots at discretion. Henderson says, " The general management of the orange-trees from the middle of March till the 1st of October, may be discussed in a few words. I give the trees a good watering all over the leaves once a-week with the en- gine, excepting when they are in flower. Till the end of May this watering is given about 11 o'clock in the forenoon. After the end of May, I give them a good dashing over the leaves twice a-week with the en- gine, and now I do it in the evening. In very hot weather I repeat the engine-watering thrice a-week. BOOK I. ORANGE TRIBE. 775 I never set the orange-trees out of doors during summer ; for, from thirty-eight years' experience, I find it is much against them, in the climate of Scotland. In hot weather I keep them in the back of the vinery, under the shade of the vines, or behind the stage of tiie grecn-house. Orange-trees delight to be in the shade in sunny weather ; they here grow freely, and keep a fine dark-green color. From the fre- quent waterings over the leaves in summer, the pots require less water, but they must be carefully attended to, and when the plants are making their young shoots, the pots or tubs require a good supply of water. From October to March, I give them a gentle sprinkling over the leaves once in two or three weeks, but only in fresh weather, taking the opportunity of a mild day, when there is a little sun, and always in the forenoon." (Caled. Hort. Mem. iii. 303.) 5939. For the management for Italian plants, destined to grow large trees and produce crops of fruit in boxes or tubs, the treatment requires to be more particularly detailed. 5940. The following are Millers directions : Having furnished yourself with a parcel of trees, prepare a moderate hot-bed of tanner's bark, in length and breadth according to the number of trees to be forced, then put your trees into a tub of water upright, about half way of the stems, leaving the head and upper part of the stem out of water, the better to draw and imbibe the moisture. In this situation they may re- main two or three days, according to their plumpness when you received them; then take them out and clean their roots from all filth, cutting off all broken or bruised roots, and all the small fibres which are quite dried by being so long out of the earth, and scrub the stems with a hard hair brush, cleaning them afterwards with a cloth ; then cut off the branches about six inches from the stem, and having prepared a quantity of good fresh earth, mixed with very rotten neat's dung, plant your trees therein," observing never to put them into large pots ; for if they are but big enough to contain their roots it is sufficient at first planting. Wrap the stems round with hay-bands from bottom to top to prevent the sun from drying their bark : plunge the pots in the bark-bed, watering well to settle earth to their roots, frequently re- peating the same all over their heads and stems, being very careful not to over-water them before they have made good roots, and shade from the sun in the middle of the day. If they have grown kindly they will have made strong shoots by the beginning of June ; at which time stop them to obtain lateral branches to furnish their heads ; harden them to admit the,ir removal into the open ground in July ; house them about the end of September; and, during winter, water frequently but moderately, guarding against frost. In the following spring clean the stems and leaves of the plants, top-dress the earth, and mulch, with rotten cow-dung, round the edges of the pots, taking care that none touch the stems. Remove to a sheltered situation in the open air by the end of May. As the trees advance, stop strong irre- gular-growing shoots in the summer season, to force out lateral branches, to fill the head, and render it regular and free from weak trifling branches. The trees will require to be shifted and new-potted, every other year, in April. In performing the operation, having drawn the trees out of the pots, cut off all the roots round the outside of the ball of earth, and take away all mouldy roots ; then with a sharp iron in- strument, get as much of the old earth from between the roots as possible ; then set the root of the tree into a large tub of water, for about a quarter of an hour, to soak the under part of the ball of earth, then clean the stems. Repot the trees, and water, letting them remain in the house till they have taken root. 5941. The operation of shifting, when the plants become very large, is much facilitated by adopt- ing boxes which admit of being taken to pieces, as already described ; the balls of earth can thus be slid from one box to the other instead of being lifted out of the box. Where the boxes do not separate, the tree and ball must be lifted out by fixing one end of a rope to the stem of the tree, and passing the other over a pully suspended from a triangle. This mode is recommended by Van Osten, while some French au- thors recommend a carriage -lever and rope. The tree and ball of earth are thus, by either mode, suspended in the air, the latter is examined, the roots pruned, &c. ; and this done, the same or a larger box is placed directly below the ball, with a proper quantity of compost at the bottom, and into this the tree is lowered, and the sides filled with earth, &c. The worst thing attending this mode is the liability of injuring the bark of the stem by the noose of the suspending rope. 5942. Henderson shifts oranges only once in two years, and frequently after a longer interval. " I never shift any plant till the pot is very full of roots. In shifting the oranges, I always take as much of the exhausted mould away as I can ; and, on account of the light and free nature of the compost used, it comes easily from among the roots. The best season for this operation is about the beginning of March. Having turned the plants out of the pots or tubs, pick as much of the old exhausted mould from the ball as you can, without injuring the roots. They should be shifted into the pots or tubs only one size larger, and some of the plants will perhaps do better if replaced into the same pots again. Let the pots be all clean washed and dried before any plants be again put into them. Put a piece of crockery or broken pot over the hole in the bottom of the pit, with the convex side down ; then cover the bottom, above the piece laid over the hole, three quarters of an inch thick, with char made from pit-coal, broken small, about the size of peas. This both forms a drain, and prevents the entrance of worms. On the top of the charred cinders place a layer of dried moss (hypnum], which prevents the compost mould from getting down amongst the char, and lets the water pass off freely from the roots of the plants. The bottoms of the pots being prepared in this way, put in a little of the compost ; then introduce the roots of the plant into the pot, and fill it up with the compost, ob- serving to keep a little of the mould betwixt the side of the pot and the roots. The plants may be set partly into the peach-house or the vinery, and some into the green-house, which will give a longer succession of their flowers. The orange-trees that are placed in the vinery or peach-house, if there be any fire-heat used at the time, must be watered as soon as put in ; but those put into the green-house where there is little heat, may stand a day without getting any. After that space they may get a moderate watering ; and this may be repeated once a-week till the weather become warm, when they will require it oftener. Those placed in the vinery or peach-house will require watering very frequently, according to the degree of heat kept in the house." (Caled. Hort. Mem. iii. 304.) 5943. Renovating old trees in pots or boxes. Where orange-trees have been ill ma- naged, and their heads become ragged and decayed, Miller directs to restore them by cutting off the greatest part of their heads by March ; drawing them out of the pots or tubs, and shaking off the earth from their roots ; then cutting away all small fibres and mouldy roots ; and next soaking and cleaning their roots, stems, and branches, planting them in good earth, plunging them in a hot-bed, and treating them as directed for trees received from abroad. 5944. Management of the citron tribe as standards. Prepare foreign plants as directed above, and instead of planting in pots, plant in the border or floor. This must have been laid dry by proper drains, and if on a wet sub-soil, floored, to prevent the roots from penetrating into it. On this, lay the sort of earth, or com- post, most approved of, to the thickness of three or four feet ; care having been taken in constructing the house, that afi the walls (excepting the north wall, if the house be opaque on that side), flues, paths, &c. be supported on pillars or piers, so as the compost may extend under them, and ten or twelve feet without the house, according to circumstances. Plant the trees either in squares, or better in quincunx, allowing six or eight feet between the trees, which will give thirty-six or sixty-four square feet to each plant. This distance will suffice for several years, and afterwards every other tree can be taken out. After planting, 3 D 4 776 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. which should be finished in April, water at the root, and morning and evening sprinkle a little over the tops to assist in causing them to break freely. Apply fires, and keep the house close night and day, with a moist heat of from 55 to 60 till the plants have made shoots of three or four inches ; then begin to give a little air, gradually increasing it, but still keeping up the heat till the growth of the shoots is completed, when the sashes should be taken off to harden and color the shoots and leaves. It will be necessary to attend to the above directions annually, for three or four years, in the growing seasop, in order to procure as much wood in a short time as possible. Keeping the heads open and regular, with the common routine culture, is all that is necessary at other seasons. 5945. On walls and espaliers. Prepare the plants and the border as before, and plant about ten or twelve feet distance, allowing a larger space for the citron, lemon, and shaddock, than for the common orange, as the former grow faster and more luxuriantly. In the growing season, observe the directions already given, continiung them annually. The fan manner of training is that generally adopted. 5946. Pruning. The French pay great attention to this part of the culture of the orange tribe ; and, in- deed, display greater art in pruning every sort of tree, than the British. They have their winter taille, and their ebourgeonnement, or summer pruning, of the orange-tree, as of the peach and vine. Those at Ver- sailles and the Tuilleries are looked over every year, and receive a very elaborate pruning every sixth or eighth year. The object of this pruning is to keep the head proportioned to the capacity of the" box con- taining the roots. The heads of these trees, notwithstanding the annual prunings, become too large and show indications of suffering for want of nourishment every sixth or eighth year. The shoots are then shortened to within an inch or two of the old wood, and the tree, thus almost completely deprived of leaves, does not produce blossoms during the two next years : it pushes, however, vigorous shoots, which are trained to form a bushy well furnished head of the same shape and size as before. Such has been the practice of the late M. Pethon, who was head gardener at Versailles for forty years. The form of the heads of the trees at Versailles is that of a cylinder, spreading out at top, of which the height is greater than the breadth ; those in other places are o'vate, globular, or mushroom -shaped, and some are even square and triangular. (See Fan. Osten. c. xi.) The blossoms of the orange-trees in the royal gardens of France, and in most gardens of Holland and the Netherlands are carefullv picked off as they appear ; as well to prevent the tree from being exhausted by bearing fruit, as for the use of the flow'ers in perfumery. Those of the Tuilleries, Neill informs us (Hort. Tour.\ are farmed at the rate of 200/. a-year ; and those of Versailles are let annually, in lots, and produce 125/. a-year, or upwards. In Holland the flowers are commonly the perquisite of the gardener. Thus the beauty of the continental orange-trees is far inferior to those of Italy or Britain, which are covered with fine large fruit. 5947. The pruning which orange-trees receive in England, does not differ, in general, from that given to any green-house tree or shrub ; and the consequence is, handsome bushes or trees, with the blossoms and fruit on the surface of the foliage. But when the orange-tree is cultivated for fruit, whether as standards or against walls, the branches ought to be kept thin, like those of other fruit-trees, so as to admit the sun, air, and water, freely to every part, and thus have the blossoms and fruit regularly distributed from the centre to the extremities. This is readily effected where the trees are flat-trained, which, where fruit is the object, is a great argument in favor of that mode of culture. 5948. In pruning, with a view to fruit, it must be considered, that the most useful blossoms of most sorts of citrus are produced in the form of terminating peduncles, on the wood of the current year ; and hence, the grand object of the pruner ought to be to encourage the production of young wood in every part of the tree ; by cutting out naked wood, and shortening vigorous shoots where wood is wanting. A powerful co- operating measure is the exposition of all the parts of the tree to the light and air, which, as already observed, is only to be done in standards, by keening the trees open, or by flat training. There are also blossoms produced by various sorts of citrus, in tufts, directly from the axilla? of the leaves of the wood of the preceding year : these expand earlier than the others, but generally drop off in plants kept under cover. Ayres cuts away the old and least-promising branches, in February, to make room for younger and more productive wood, and shortens very strong branches to keep the trees in proper shape. -After the : ruit is set, it ought to be thinned, seldom leaving more than one on a peduncle. In France they thin the flowers, which, by that means, they are enabled to use for distillation. The thinned fruit is used in con- fectionary. Mean observes, " In regard to the necessity of thinning the fruit, lest the trees should exhaust themselves, it appears to me to depend on the state of the trees : if they are flourishing, I never observed that it was at all required, either here or at Bromley Hill, where the orange-trees belonging to the Right Honorable Charles Long are very fine, and loaded with peculiarly large fruit." Ayres thins when the fruit are about the size of green-gage plums, and never leaves two fruit together. Will standard trees, pruned with a view to fruit, be equally beautiful with the compact geometrical-headed trees of Parrs, and the old conservatories of this country ? Those who prefer a full-bottomed periwig to a natural disposition of the hair will not think so. The two beauties, or effects, are of different kinds; the latter has utility to re- commend it ; the former, associations of the pomp and formal grandeur of past times. Quintiney, and other French authors, direct the wounds or sections made in pruning orange-trees, to be covered with a composition to exclude the air ; which deserves to be attended to, as the growth of the bark is otherwise very slow over wounds in these trees. 5949. Manure. About Genoa, the best cultivated orange-groves are manured annually. In France and this country, the best practitioners stir the surface and apply a top-dressing of rich compost when the trees begin to grow, generally in April or May. Ayres top-dresses in June. 5950. Gathering the fruit. In the Italian gardens, and those at Hieres in France, where the fruit of the orange is raised for sale, it is gathered every year, generally in May. If not then gathered, it will hang on the tree for one or two years longer ; but when the young fruit is green and swelling, the old ripe be- comes somewhat shrivelled, and if then gathered is found almost void of juice. But as the new fruit begins to arrive at maturity, the juice begins to return to the old fruit ; so that both old and new crops are in perfection together the following May. In this way, at Genoa, the orange is sometimes allowed to re- main on the tree three years, and being then gathered, has a peculiar subacid sweetness and flavor, and is sold at a very high price to connoisseurs at Milan, Turin, and other places. The lemon differs from the orange in that it ripens irregularly, and drops off' when ripe. It is therefore gathered at almost every season. The orange-tree, kept in conservatories, generally requires fifteen months to ripen its fruit, and hence, both green and ripe fruit are together on the tree. Some authors assert, that the leaves remain on the same period with the fruit ; but Quintiney says, " on a vigorous plant they will remain three or four years." In Britain they often remain three years on moderately strong plants without fruit In gather- ing for the table in this country, the fruit should not be pulled with the hand, but carefully cut off with a few leaves attached, and, thus garnished, sent to the dessert. By allowing them to hang two years, the trees will at all times have green and yellow fruit, which, in connexion with their shining green leaves and fragrant blossoms, forms, early in spring, in such a house as we have hinted at (5929. and fig. 521.), one of the most splendid of horticultural scenes. 5951. Insects and diseases. The chief insects injurious to the citrus tribe, are the coccus and red spider ; both to be removed or destroyed by water applied with the engine, brush, or sponge. Mean, early in March, when he top-dresses his plants, applies a copious washing with the engine ; then shuts up the house close for three or four hours, which produces a strong heat, as high as 70, which effects the destruction of the red spider ; while the stems and leaves are wiped with a wet sponge to remove ether insects and dirt. (Hort. Trans, ii. 296.) Henderson destroys the aphis by fumigation ; the red spider by sprinkling and dashing with water ; the coccus, by laying on the leaves with a b^ush some black soap dissolved in water, or by water- ing and dusting the leaves with sulphur; and the only remaining insect which infests the orange, the thrips, he destroys with water. (Calcd. Hort. Mem. 315.) BOOK T. POMEGRANATE, OLIVE. 777 SUBSECT. 2. and Rosacece, J Pomegranate. Punica Granatum, L. (Bot. Mag. 634.) Icos. Monog. L. Grenadier, Fr. ; Granatenbaum, Ger. ; and Melagrano, Ital. 5952. The pomegranate is a low deciduous tree, rising fifteen or twenty feet high, thickly cloathed with twiggy branches, some of which are armed with sharp thorns. The leaves are long and narrow, of a light shining green with red veins. The flowers are pro- duced at the ends of the branches, in the shoots of the same year, single or three or four together ; frequently one of the largest terminates the branch, and immediately under that are two or three smaller buds, which continue a succession of flowers for some months, generally from June to September. The calyx is very thick and fleshy, and of a fine red color ; the petals are scarlet. The fruit is a berry covered with a hard coriaceous rind, and beautifully crowned with the tube of the calyx, which is sharply toothed, and remains even after the fruit is ripe, contributing greatly to its singular and beautiful appearance. The fruit ripens in October, and, in a green-house, will hang on the trees till the spring or summer following. It is a native of most parts of the south of Europe and of China. In Languedoc, and some parts of Italy, it is used as a hedge plant. It was cultivated in England in 1596, by Gerrard ; but though it grows very well in the open air, it seldom ripens its fruit so as to render them worth any thing. It used formerly to be kept in boxes, and housed like the orange-tree, which is still the practice near Paris and in the Netherlands. Some of the orange and pomegranate trees in the orangery at Versailles, Itisso informs us, are believed to be between two and three hundred years old. 5953. Use. The fruit having an acid pulp is very refreshing, and is eaten like the orange ; its singular and beautiful appearance contributes to the variety of the dessert. It is used medicinally in fevers and inflammatory disorders ; being powerfully acid and astringent. 5954. Varieties. The Paris nurseries propagate the following sorts : those marked thus (*) may be had in the London nurseries. The wild, or very acid-fruited The suhacid-fruited, or cultivated* The sweet-fruited Large-flowered single red and white The semi-double, and double red and white* The yellow-flowered* The variegated-flowered The proliferous ; in which a shoot proceeds from the middle of the hower. 5955. Propagation. The single-flowering sorts may be raised from seed, and all the varieties by cuttings, suckers, or layers, or by inoculation or grafting on the wild sort. The last is considered much the best mode where fruit is the object; and the next best is by layers, but the common mode is by suckers, which these plants send up abundantly. Inoculated plants, both of the single and double sorts, may be procured from Genoa ; and this is the most desirable plan where the plant is to be cultivated for its fruit. 5956. Culture. The directions given for raising and cultivating the orange-tree may be considered as equally applicable to the pomegranate, which, with the olive, was formerly the common companion of these trees in conservatories. Miller has observed, " that both the single and double pomegranate are hardy enough to resist our most severe winters in the open air ; and that if planted against walls, the former will often produce fruit, which ripen tolerably well in warm seasons, but ripening late, are seldom well tasted." Where it is to be grown for fruit, therefore, either the standard or flat trained mode, under glass, as recommended for oranges, should be adopted. A few trees may be introduced along with those of the citrus tribe. Soil. Miller recommends a strong rich soil, in which he says, " they flower much better, and produce more fruit than if planted on dry poor ground." In regard both to soil and mode of growth, the pome- granate bears a close resemblance to the hawthorn. 5957. Pruning and training. As already mentioned, the flowers of this tree always proceed from the extremity of the branches produced the same year, hence all weak branches of the former year should be cut out, and the stronger shortened, in order to obtain new shoots in every part of the tree. When the trees are trained against a wall, the shoots having small leaves, may be laid in four or five inches asunder. The -season for the winter pruning, Miller says, is about Michaelmas ; for if left till spring before they are pruned, they seldom put out their shoots so early. In summer they require no other dressing than pinch- ing off fore-right and over vigorous shoots, as it is the middling only which are fruitful. In a warm situ- ation Miller obtained a great quantity of fruit from trained trees ; which, though not very well flavored, were of full magnitude, and made a very handsome appearance on the trees. The double and other varieties, cultivated for the sake of their flowers, should be primed, whether in boxes or against walls, on the same principle. SUBSECT. 3. Olive. Olea Europcea, L. (Fl. Grate, i. t. 3.) Diand. Monog. L. and Oleinai, B. P. Olive, Fr. ; Oehlbaum, Ger. ; and Uliva, Ital. 5958. The olive is a low branchy evergreen tree, rising from twenty to thirty feet, with stiff, narrow, bluish-green leaves. The flowers are produced in small axillary bunches from wood of the former year, and appear in June, July, and August. The fruit is a berried drupe of an oblong spheroidal form, hardish thick flesh, of a yellowish-green color, but turning black when ripe. The tree is supposed to be originally from Greece ; but it is now naturalised in the south of France, Italy, and Spain, where it has been exten- sively cultivated for an unknown length of time, for the oil expressed from its fruit. The tree attains an incredible age. Near Terni, in the vale of the cascade of Marmora, is a plantation above two miles in extent, of very old trees, and supposed to be the same plants mentioned by Pliny, as growing there in the first century. It appears to have been cultivated in the botanic garden of Oxford, in 1648, and is generally treated as a green-house plant. With protection from severe frost, Miller says, " it may be main- 778 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. tained against a wall in the latitude of London." In Devonshire, some trees have stood the open air for many years ; but the fruit does not arrive at maturity. Some trees planted against a warm wall at Camden House, near Kensington, succeeded so as in 1719 to produce fruit fit for pickling. 5959. Use. At the dessert, and frequently, also, during dinner, unripe olives appear as a pickle ; which, though to those who taste it for the first time, it appears somewhat harsh, yet it soon becomes extremely grateful ; and is said to promote digestion and create an appetite. Pickled olives are prepared by steeping in an alkaline lessive, to extract a part of their bitter ; they are next washed in pure water, and afterwards pre- served in salt and water, to which an aromatic, as fennel, &c. is sometimes added. The ripe olive, pressed and washed with hot water, furnishes, when skimmed, the well known condiment and corrective, salad-oil, employed both in food and medicine. It may be considered as the butter of Italy and Spain. 5960. Varieties. In the olive-countries these are nearly as numerous as the sorts of the grape and fig. The French (N. Cours, &c. in loco) describe between thirty and forty sorts. The following are grown in English nurseries : The common | Large-leaved | Broad-leaved | Iron-colored | Twisted-leaved | Box-leaved. 5961. Propagation. By seeds, cuttings, layers, suckers, and inoculation. The last mode is adopted where the culture of the olive is conducted with care ; but the olivettes, or olive-plantations, are generally furnished from suckers, which arise abundantly from the roots of old trees. In England, as a green-house plant, it is raised from cuttings ; but where it is intended to grow a few trees in the forcing-department, for the sake of their fruit, we would recommend procuring strong plants from Genoa ; these will produce fruit in three or four years, but the others not for an unknown length of time. 59G2. Culture. Some plants used formerly to be received by the Italian merchants along with their imports of orange-trees, and were planted, like them, in pots or boxes ; but in order to grow the tree for fruit, the modes to be adopted are either planting as standards in the area, or training on a wall, as recom- mended for the orange and pomegranate. If a house is not devoted to this fruit, one might be appropri- ated for it and the pomegranate ; giving each their respective soils, and recollecting that the olive will not bear a very high degree of heat. 5963. Soil. The olive will grow luxuriantly in a strong clayey richly manured soil, but will not prove nearly so prolific as in a dry, calcareous, schistous, sandy, or rocky situation ; which ought to be imitated in some degree in the composition prepared for the area or border of the olive-house. 5964. Temperature. That suitable for the orange will agree with the olive ; but it cannot bear so high a degree of heat as that plant, never being found in Africa south of Atlas, nor in the East or West Indies. It is also easily affected by cold, but not more so than the orange. 5965. Pruning. The object here is to have a regular distribution of wood of the former year, from the axils of the leaves of which, the flowers spring out. When shoots of three or more years are shortened for this purpose, they do not produce blossoms ; but wood of the preceding or current year may be short- ened, and the shoots proceeding from them will produce blossoms in due course. Ringing, to induce fruitfulness, was practised on the olive so early as the seventeenth century. (Bosc, in N. Cours, &c. art. Olivier.} SUBSECT. 4. ' Indian Fig, or Prickly Pear. Cactus ojmntia, L. (Knor. Thes. 1. t. F. .) Jco*. Monog. L. and Cacti, J. Raqnette, Fr. 5966. The genus cactus consists of succulent plants, permanent in duration, singular and various in structure, generally without leaves, and having the stem or branches jointed, and for the most part armed with spines and bristles. The joints or branches of the C. ojnintia are ovate, compressed, and have very small cadaverous leaves coming out in knots on their surface, and accompanied by four short bristly spines. The branches spread near to, or trail on the ground. The flowers come out on the upper edges of the branches in June and July. The fruit is in the form of a fig or pear, with clusters of small spines on the skin, which encloses a fleshy pulp of a red or purple color, and agreeable subacid flavor. It is a native of Virginia and Barbary, but is now natural- ised in the south of Italy, being found on the rocks at Terracina and Gaeta. It was cultivated in England by Gerrard, in 1596, in the open air, but without bearing fruit. It was cultivated in the stove by Justice at Crichton near Edinburgh, in 1 750, and ripened its fruit. Miller says, " it will live abroad in England in a warm situation and dry soil ; but in severe winters will be destroyed if not protected from frost." 5967. Use. The fruit is sent to the dessert in the West Indies ; and might add to the variety of exotic fruits in this country. Braddick observes (Hort. Trans, ii. '239.), that in countries where the fruit abounds, it is considered very wholesome, and though the taste of it is not agreeable to all persons till after they have eaten of it several times, yet they soon become veiy fond of it. 5968. Sorts. There are several species of that division of the genus cactus, called prickly pears or figs, which produce edible fruit in their native countries, as the great Indian fig, or upright prickly pear, (C. funa) (Plant, grass 138.); oblong Indian fig (C.ficus Indicd) (Reicfi, vol. ii. 470.); Barbadoes goose- berry (C. pereskia] (Dill. elt. t. 227. f. 294.) : the C. opuntia is deemed the most hardy, and by consequence the easiest to fruit in Britain ; but there can be no doubt that the other sorts might also be brought to ma- ture their fruit with very little expense or trouble. They are at present kept in dry-stoves for the sake of variety. 5969. Propagation and culture. All the above sorts may be propagated from seed or cuttings ; the latter mode is most common. Cut off the branches at the joints, in July, or after the plants have done flowering, and let them dry for a fortnight, that the wounded part may be healed over ; then plant in small pots, and plunge in the bark-bed, or in a moderate hot-bed, watering sparingly, giving air to avoid damps, and shading from the midday sun. 5970. Soil. Miller recommends the following : one third of light fresh earth from a pasture ; a third Bootf I. EXOTIC FRUITS LITTLE KNOWN. 79 part of eea-sand ; and the other part, one half rotten tan, and half lime rubbish. These are to be mixed and laid in a heap, three or four months before using, turning it over once a month ; then pass it through a rough screen, but do not sift it fine ; reserving some of the small stones and rubbish to lay at the bottom of the pots, in order to keep an open passage for the moisture to drain off The Barbadoes gooseberry requires less lime-rubbish and more of vegetable earth. 5971. Temperature. All the sorts, excepting the prickly pear, require the temperature of a dry-stove in winter, and an increased degree of heat, say 80 or 90 in summer, when it is intended they should produce fruit. They may either be planted in large boxes, filled with the soil above described, with a portion of vegetable mould added ; or in borders, to be trained on a wall or trellis near the light. In either case, by supplying them liberally in summer, whilst in a growing state, with heat at bottom and top, air, light, and some moisture, they will thrive abundantly, and produce fruit certainly not of exquisite flavor, but agreeable and singular, and worthy of being added to the British dessert. 5912. Culture of the prickly pear in the open air. Braddick having eaten, with pleasure, of this fruit in Virginia, was desirous of cultivating it here. He recollected that the plant in its wild state delighted in a dry soil, amongst rocks, near the skirts of the sunny sides of the forests ; and having heard thaf it would stand the open air in this country, he planted it in the compost described below, placed in a shel- tered situation open to the sun. " The first plant that I turned out has lived in the open ground of this country for six or seven years, during which period it has endured one exceeding hard winter, and several trying springs ; and in all, except the two first years, it has never failed to ripen its fruit and seeds, so that it may be now considered decidedly acclimated. The compost used by me for growing the Cactus opuntia is the following : one half is carbonate of lime, for which lime-rubbish from old buildings will answer ; the remaining half consists of equal portions of London clay and peat-earth, hav- ing the acid neutralised by barilla : these are intimately Wended and sifted. One square yard of this compost I conceive to be sufficient for one plant, which must be placed in the middle of a small artificial hillock, raised eighteen inches above the surface of the ground, which ground should be rendered per- fectly dry, if not naturally so, by under-draining. Neither the leaves, flowers, nor fruit should ever be suffered to touch the ground, but they should, as constantly as they are produced, be kept from the earth by placing stones, pebbles, flints, or bricks under them, in imitation of artificial rock-work." (Hort. Trans. 238.) 5973. The torch-thistle, or upright cereus, of which there are four species which bear edible fruit, and the strawberry-pear (C. triangularis), the poire de chardon of the French, may also be cultivated as fruit-bearing stove plants, in the same way as recommended for the Indian fig. SECT. III. Exotic Fruits little known, some of lohich merit Cultivation for their Excellence or Rarity. 5974. The introduction and cultivation of new exotic fruits may be considered as a very rational and entertaining object, for such as have the means, the time, and a taste for gardening. It seems to deserve the particular attention of retired persons of solitary habits, aged or inactive, by presenting an end to be attained ; it may serve as a gentle stimulus to such as, from indolence or bilious complaints, are apt to sink into a state of torpid unenjoyed existence. A few of the plants, which we shall here enumerate, have been cultivated so as to produce fruit in this country, as the granadilla, lee-chee, loquat, banana, &c. ; most of the others have hitherto served only to increase the variety of our stove or green-house plants. 5975. The akee-tree is the BHghia Sapida, H. K. (Ann. Sot.2. t. 16, 17.) Oct. Monog. L. and Sapindi, J. (.%.523.) It is a tree rising from twenty to twenty-five feet in height, with numerous branches, and alternate pinnate leaves, like those of the common ash. The flowers are small, white, on axillary racemes. The fruit is a pome, reddish or yellow ; about the size of a goose's egg, with a pulp of a grateful subacid flavor ; and in the West Indies esteemed very wholesome and nourishing. It is a native of Guinea, and was introduced in Jamaica in 1778, and from thence brought to this country in 1793. 5976. Propagation and culture. It may be propagated from seeds, cuttings, or layers ; but as the former mode would prolong the period of culture for fruit, and the two latter produce but weak plants, the better plan would be to order a few trees to be inoculated in Jamaica, and then sent over in tubs ; these might be treated as directed for orange- trees (5939.), and then planted in a border of rich earth, submitted to a Jamaica climate, and flat-trained near the glass. By such treatment, there can be no doubt the akee- tree would in a few years produce fruit as readily as the orange. 5977. The alligator, or avocado pear, is the Lauras Per. sea, L. (Pluk. Aim. t. 267. f. 1.) Ennean. Monog. L. and Laurince, B. P. It is a stove tree which, in the West In- dies, grows to the height of thirty feet or upwards, with a trunk as large as that of our common apple-tree. The leaves are like those of laurel, of a deep-green- The flowers are produced towards the extremities of the branches. The fruit is the size of one of our biggest pears, and is held in great esteem in the West Indies ; the pulp is of a pretty firm consistence, and has a delicate rich flavor j it gains upon the palate of most persons, and becomes soon agreeable even to those who cannot like it at first ; but it is so rich and mild, that most people make use of some spice or pungent substance, to give it a poignancy ; and for this purpose some make use of wine, some of lime-juice, but most of pepper and salt. Miller, from whom the above account is extracted, cultivated it in 1739. 5978. Propagation and culture. Miller gives directions for raising the tree from seeds, which, he says, may be brought over in dry sand from the countries where it is cultivated. There is nothing uncommon in the process of raising, which is conducted in a hot-bed or pit ; and when the plants have made their summer shoots, they are removed to the stove during winter. But where it is intended to cultivate this tree for its fruit, a better way would be to send to the Botanic Garden of St. Vincent's, and request 780 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. a few stocks to be inoculated from bearing trees. These being properly cased and packed, would arrive as safe as orange-trees usually do ; might be treated like them when unpacked ; and planted in a border of strong rich soil, to be trained on a trellis or wall near the glass. After the plants were established, horizontal training and ringing, accompanied by a Jamaica temperature, would soon produce fruit. 5979. The anchovy-pear is the Grias cauliflora, L. (Sloan. Hist. 2. t. 217. f. 1. 2.) Polyan. Monog. L. and Guttijerecies of cactus. Most of these fruits are cultivated both in the West India Islands and on the American continent, and plants of all of them may be had from the London nurseries 6020. From South America numerous fruits may be introduced : from Guiana, the tapaculo (Carica microcnrpa ?), the pinaou (Anona punctata], the pinaioua (A. longifolia), the marmalade-box of Stedman (Surinam, vol. ii. p. 330.) ; from Brazil, Peru, &c. the achocon (Leonia glycycarpa], the queule or keule (Gomortega nitida], and others of less note. 6021. From Asia the first fruits in the world have been obtained, and others are yet to introduce. From the Indian Archipelago, thelanseh (Lansium domesticum], a fruit considered as next to the mangosteen anddurion, the rose-water jambu (Eugenia aquea), and other species ; the blimbing_ (Avcrrhoa Carambola], the chcremi (A. acida], the rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum), the tomi-tomi (Flacourtia inermis'), the Xanthochymus dulcis, Sundoricum indicum, and some others. From the continent of India, the maredoo, or elephant-apple (Mgle Marmelos), the yellanga (Feronia elephantum], the latti am (Wil- lughbcia cdulis), the iwaia mamady (Xanthochymus pictorius}, the caraunda (Carissa Carandas), the launzan (Buchanania latifolia], and others. From China and Japan many new sorts of pears and peaches, it is supposed, may be obtained, and probably also apples and other European fruits ; the Poma- ceae and Prunacea? occupying the place in higher latitudes which the Myrtaceae, Guttiferae and Tere- bintacese do in countries nearer the equator. From the Society Islands, the Otaheite apple (Spondias cytherea], Sec. Though we think it probable that few or none of these, grown in this country, would be BOOK I. EXOTIC ESCULENTS. 785 found to equal our best peaches, pears and plums, or even gooseberries and strawberries ; yet we cannot but wish to see this or the contrary proved by the wealthy and curious horticulturist SECT. IV.. Exotic Esculents, not hitherto cultivated as such. 6022. Of exotic esculents, some, as the yam and sweet potatoe, are worthy of being ex- perimented on with a view to their naturalisation as articles of food ; and even as fur- nishing a variety of esculent root, they deserve to be grown and sent to table, where there is a complete or extensive garden establishment. 6023. The West Indian yam (the inhame of the Portu- guese, and igname of the French,) is the name applied to several species, with their numerous varieties of the genus Dioscorea, L. Dicec. Hexan. L and Dioscorcce, J. They are climbing, perennial, herbaceous plants, with tuberous roots, and axillary flowers in spikes or racemes. The name yam is more particularly applied to the D. sativa. (Rheed. Mai. 8. t. 51.) (fig. 535.) This plant has tender stalks, climbing to the height of eighteen or twenty feet, and furnished with smooth-nerved roundish leaves. From the base of the leaves arise spikes of small flowers of no beauty. The root is flat, brownish, a foot broad, and nearly palmated like those of some of the orchidea?. It is a native of, and cultivated exten- sively in, Africa and the East and West Indies, and was in- troduced here from the latter country in 1733. The roots are mealy, easy of digestion, palatable, and not inferior to any roots now in use, either for delicacy of flavor or nutriment. They are eateninstead of bread, either roasted on the cinders or boiled ; the flower is also made into bread and puddings. 6024. The D. alata, (Rheed. Mai. 7. t. 38.) or wingfdyam, is in equal, if not more universal cultivation than the former species. Its roots are frequently three feet long, and weigh thirty pounds. Of both these species there are numerous varieties, differing in the size and form of their roots. 6025. Propagation and culture. They may be-propagated like the common potatoe, and cultivated in nearly the same manner as the forced potatoes. Brown (Hist, of Jam.) affirms, "that the roots must be cut so as to leave a little of the skin to each piece, for by that alone they germinate ; the roots having no apparent buds or eyes, but casting out their weakly stems from every part of the surface alike. They are planted commonly in August, and are ripe in November or December following." 6026. The Spanish, or sweet potatoe, is the Convol- vulus Batatas, L. (Rheed. Mai. 1. t. 50.) Pent. Monog. L. and Convolvulacece, B. P. (fig.536.) It is a herbaceous perennial, with a round stem, hispid, prostrate, creeping, of a whitish-green, putting out scattered, oblong, acuminated tubers, purple or pale on the outsides. The leaves are angular, on long petioles ; the flowers purple, on upright peduncles. ! It is a native of both the Indies, and was introdu- ced here, and cultivated by Gerrard in 1597. He calls the roots potatus, potades, or potatoes, and says, that they are by some named skinets of Peru. They flourished in his garden till winter, when they perished and rotted. Batatas were then sold at the exchange in London, and are still annually imported into England from Spain and Portugal. They were, as already observed (3647.), the common potatoes of our old English writers ; the Solanum tuberosum being then little known. The tubers of the batatas are sweet, sapid, and nourishing They are very commonly cultivated in all the tropical climates, where they cat not only the roots but the young leaves and tender shoots boiled. There are several varieties, if not distinct species, differing in the size, figure, and taste of the roots. 6027. Propagation and culture. In warm climates this plant is cultivated in the same manner as our potatoe, but requires much more room, for the trailing stalks extend four or five feet every way, sending out large tubers, forty or fifty to a plant. In the national garden at Paris, the plants are raised in a hot- bed, and about the middle of May, transplanted in the open ground, where they are earthed up, and other- wise treated like the potatoe. In warm seasons they produce a tolerable crop, and we have been informed by Professor Thouin, that he hopes, after several years, at least so far to acclimate the plant as to fit it for field-culture in the south of France. Lelieur, who grows it in the same manner, also strongly recommends its culture. Both consider it as much lighter food than the common potatoe, and equally nourishing. In England, Miller observes, the roots must be planted on a hot-bed in the spring, and if the plants are kept covered in bad weather with glasses, they will produce flowers and many small tubers from the joints; but if they are exposed to the open air, they seldom make much progress. This, however, ought not to dis- courage the curious or patriotic horticulturist, either in his at- tempts to raise the roots for the table, or to acclimate the plant. 6028. The caper (Capparis spinosa, L. Polyan. Monog. L. and Capparideee, J.) (fg. 537.) is a trail- ing shrub, a native of the south of Italy and Sicily, where it abounds on rocks, ruins, and old walls : it has been long cultivated in France, and was intro- duced in this country in 1596, as a stove plant; but there is reasonto believe it maybe naturalised. It is cul- tivated, Neill observes, in the neighborhood of Paris, with no other protection than that of being trained against a low wall, and the shoots in winter laid down and covered with litter or fern, like those of the fig. 3 E 537 786 ' PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. In the garden at Camden House, Kensington, a caper-tree stood alive in the open air for near a century : it had a south-east aspect, and was well sheltered from the north ; it had no covering, and was generally much injured by the frost ; but the roots of this plant being particularly strong and vivacious, it made strong shoots, and produced flower-buds every year. It is probable, therefore, that a plantation, so situated, if covered every autumn with litter, mats, or ferns, would succeed. Such a plantation, not trained on walls, but planted in an open compartment, would, like those near Toulon, in France, have the general appearance of a plantation of brambles, and might be yearly covered with very little trouble. Neill suggests, that a hardy variety might possibly In- obtained by repeatedly raising from seed, at first in Guernsey or Jersey, and the plant thus gradually inured to this country. The part used is the flower-bud, which forms a well known pickle , and an article of considerable commerce from Sicily, and otlier islands in the Mediterranean. 6029. Propagation and culture. It may either be raised from seed, cuttings, or pieces of the root. The authors of the Cours complet d 1 Agriculture prefer the mode by cuttings, and direct them to be cut a foot long, and planted in autumn. The autumn following, they will be fit to remove to a general plantation. They describe two modes of cul- ture ; one, that of planting in walls, where no farther care is wanting, but that of gathering the buds ; and the other, that of planting in quincunx in open compartments, like other fruit-shrubs ; the latter mode is greatlyto be preferred. 6030. The salsilla, or edible alstrocmeria. Alstrccmeria Salsilla, B. M. (Bot. Mag. 1613.) ; and S. edulis. (Hort. Trans. voL ii.) Hex. Monog. L. and AsphodeletE, B. P. This is a herbaceous plant of great beauty, a native of Peru, and introduced in 1806. It is cultivated in the West Indies, where its roots are eaten like the potatoe. It was flowered here in 1811, in the Comte de Vande's garden at Bayswater. It requires the temperature of the stove, and may be culti- vated in a hot-bed like the early potatoe. 6031. The bread-root. Psoralea esculenta, Ph. (Pursh. Amer. t 22.) Diadelph. Decan. L. and Leguminoste, J. It is a perennial herbaceous plant, a native of Missouri, and in- troduced here in 1811. It will grow in the open air, but re- quires the protection of a frame to produce abundant crops of roots, which are used like those of the potatoe in the countries where it is a nativa 6032. The pi-tsi t or water-chestnut of the Chinese. Scirpus tuberosus, Rox. (Rox. iii. 26.) Triand. Monog. L. and Cyperacete, B. P. (fig. 538.) It is a stoloniferous rush, without leaves, excepting a slender short sheath or two at the base of each culm. On the stolones grow tubers which are in high estimation among all ranks of the Chinese, not only as a pot-root, but as a medicine. It is eaten either boiled or raw. 6033. Cultivation. " The maa-tai, pu-tsai, or pi-tsi, of Abbe 1 Grosier, grows in tanks ; these are ma- nured for its reception about the end of March. Thus a tank being drained of its watery small pits are dug in its bottom ; these are filled with human manure, and exposed to the sun for a fortnight ; their con- tents are next intimately blended with the slimy bottom of the tank, and the slips or roots of the plant deposited therein ; the water is now returned to the tank, and the new crop of tubers comes to perfection by the first of September." (Rox. Corom.} 6034. The earth-almond, or rush-nut, (Cyperus esculentus, L. Trian. Monog. L. and Cyperacets, J. Souchet comestible, Fr. and Zizole di Terra, Ital.) is a fibrous-rooted grass, with small round tubers hanging from the fibres, about the size of peas, which taste like chestnuts or almonds. It is a native of Italy and Montpelier, and is cultivated in some parts of the south of Europe and Germany for food. The tubers are planted in spring, and taken up in October, and preserved for winter use in the manner of potatoes. It might probably be cultivated in this country in dry warm situations, or in a frame. (Bon Jardinier.) 6035. The eatable hibiscus. Hibiscus esculentus, L. Monadelph. Pdlyan. L. and Malvacece, J. Gom- baud or Gombo, Fr. This is a stove annual, a native of the West Indies, and introduced in 1692. A soft herbaceous stalk rises from three to five feet high, with crenate leaves, and axillary, pale sulphur-colored flowers, succeeded by capsules. These, in the West Indies and the south of France, are put green into soups, or eaten with butter. In the south of France it is cultivated in the open air for this purpose ; and at Paris it is treated as we do the capsicum and love-apple. A similar treatment would, no doubt, suc- ceed in this country. 6036. The arracacha, of the order of Umbelltferee, J., is a South American plant, said to resemble the Apium in habit ; probably Apium Americanum, D., possibly Ligusticum nova sp. The main roots divide into four or five others, which grow to the size of cows' horns. These are used in the manner of potatoes by the inhabitants of Santa F6 and the Caraccas. They are light, starchy, and easy of digestion. The plant is said to thrive best in the elevated regions of mountains, where the medium heat does not exceed 58Q or 6Qo. (Annals of Bot. i. 400.) The name of this plant has not yet been determined, but, through the exertions of the Horticultural Society, it has recently been introduced to England, and will soon be subjected to examination and improvement 6037. Other exotic esculents. To the above we might add, the Dahlia, recommended to be grown for its tubers by Thtebaut-de-Berneaud. The Dolichos Soja, a stove annual, the seeds of which form, or ought to form, the chief ingredient in the fish-sauce of that name. The earth-nut of South America (Arachis hypogtea], a stove annual, raised in a few places near Paris, on hot-beds, and then transplanted in the open ajr. The Convolvulus reptans, a shrubby stove plant, grown in China, in trenches filled with water, and used as a spinaceous or oleraceous plant. The Basclla nigra, and other species, stove biennials, used for the same purpose: the European and Chinese water-calhops (Trapa natans and bicornis], both green- house annuals, but fruited by Lambert in the stove. (Hort. Trans, iv. .063.) The T. natans is grown in the ponds in Holland, according to Professor Martyn, and the nuts arc used there as chestnuts both by men and hogs ; and Neill informs us that the canal at Versailles is covered with the plant, and that the fruit is sometimes served up at table. These, and a variety of others, the curious cultivator will find notked in botanical works and books of travels, and will enjoy greater satisfaction in discovering them himself than in finding them here ready named for his experimental enquiries. BOOK I. MONTHLY HORTICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. ?H7 CHAP. XL Horticultural Productions trfiich may be exjiected frvni a first-rate Kitchen-garden managed in tlie best Style. 6038. The sources of edible enjoyment afforded by a first-rate kitchen- garden are nu- merous and varied ; and consequently a proprietor, who spares no expense on this de- partment, ought to be informed of what he has a right to expect, subject, however, to the drawbacks of bad situations, uncertain seasons, and unforeseen accidents. Many garden- ers object to tables of this kind, as leading to unreasonable expectations, disappoint- ments, and quarrels, and as, in short, enlightening too much their employers. On this we shall only observe, that the more a proprietor requires, the more he must conform to the conditions on which alone these products are to be expected. As to the subject of enlightening masters, much might be said in its favor, and nothing founded in right rea- son against it. It is only by a knowledge of gardening that a master can distinguish a bad gardener from a good one ; and only from this appreciation that a good gardener can be properly valued and rewarded. Community of knowledge must be better than no community at all. A man who employs a gardener as he does a tailor, merely to supply his wants, may look on him as a very convenient machine, and useful to have about his premises ; but where a knowledge and taste for gardening exists in the em- ployer, one point of union is formed between him and his servant, which must be pro- ductive of a certain degree of humanity, if not of mutual respect and consideration. It is only bad gardeners, therefore, that have to fear the dissemination of knowledge among their masters. In a work of this nature, however, in which the object is more to give the opinion of others than our own, we subjoin what M'Phail observes on the subject, which may be reckoned the opinion of most men of his order. " The book called Every Man his own Gardener," he says, " gives a list of what fruits, &c. gentlemen may expect from their gardens in every month of the year ; such a list not only of fruits, but of flow- ers and esculent vegetables, which nature, assisted by artificial means, is incompetent to produce in every month of the year in any country, in any degree of latitude under the sun ; hence, from lists of this kind being given in books said to be written by practi- cal gardeners, ariseth strife between masters and mistresses and their servant-gardeners." (Card. Item. Pref. xxviii.) 40, Hardy fntits from the open garden, orchard, or . i. Apples, pears, quinces, medlars, services from the 1 n. Some plums and morello cherries, carefully prew SECT. I. January. The Productions arranged in the Order in which they have been treated in the preceding Chapters. 6039. Culinary vegetables from the open garden or garden-stores, Strasburgh cabbage, savoys, borecoles, Brussels sprouts. Kid- neybeans for harricots, and Prussian and other peas. Potatoes, Jerusalem artichokes, turnip, carrot, parsnep, red beet, skirret, icorzonera, and salsify, from the root-stores and seed-room. Spinage in mild seasons ; also sorrel and white beet. Onions, leeks, garlic, shallot, and rocambole. Sea-kale from the covered beds. Lettuce, endive, celery, American and winter cress. Pars- ley, if protected, horse-radish, and dried fcnnel.clill, chervil, &c. Thyme, sage, rosemary, lavender, from the open garden, and dried marjoram, savory, mint, basil, &c. from the herb-room. Rhubarb-stalks from covered roots ; anise, coriander and cara- way-seeds, chamomile, elecampane, blessed thistle, &c. dried. Red cabbage and samphire. Wild rocket, wild spinage, sauce- alone, and sorrel, if a mild winter. Mushrooms from covered ridges. Sea-belt, or sweet fucus, dried. rrui't'- plums and morello cherries, carefully preserved Some think-skinned fooseberries, currants, and grapes, preserved on the trees. Soine dried fruits of the same sorts on branches hung un in the fruit- room. Almonds, wal- nuts, chestnuts, filberts from the fruit-room. Sloes from the bushes, wild services, hips, haws, and sometimes a few cloud- berries. 6041. Culinary vegetables and fruits from the forcing depart- merit. Kidneybeans. Potatoes. Sea-kale. Small salads. Parsley. Fennel. Rhubarb. Mushrooms. Pines, winter me- lons, grapes, strawberries, cucumbers occasionally. Oranges, olives, and pomegranates. Malay apple, loquats, and lee-chees. Varus and Spanish potatoes. SECT. II. February. 6042. Culinary vegetables 'ft from the open garden or garden-stores. cabbage, savoys, borecoles, Brussels scorzonera, and salsify. Spinage, if'a mild -winter. Onions, garlic, shallot, and rocambole. Sea-kale from covered beds. Lettuce, endive, .celery. American and winter cress. sprouts, and, if a mild winter, cabbage-coleworts, broccolis. Haricots, beans, and soup-peas from the seed-room. Potatoes, Jerusalem artichokes, turtip, carrot,_parsnep, red-beet, ^kirret, leeks, garlic, shallot, an beds. Lettuce, endive, . .,- Parsley, if protected, horse-radish, and dried fennel, dill, chervil, &c. Thyme, sage, rosemary, and lavender, from the open garden ; dried marjoram, basil, &c. from the herb-room. Rhubarb-stalks from covered roots, anise, coriander and cara- way-seeds, from the seed-room ; chamomile, &c. from the herb-room. Red cabbage, samphire. Nettle and thistle tops ; towards the end, sorrel-leaves, and if a mild winter, sauce- alone. Mushrooms from covered ridges. Sea-belt preserved, and occasionally badder-locks. 6043. Hardy fruitt from the open garden, orchard, or fruit- room. A pples, pears, quinces, medlars, services from the fruit- room. Some plums from branches hung up in the fruit-room. Dried grapes and currants from branches hung up in the fruit- room. Almonds, wainuis, chestnuts, f.ibsr'.s from N? fruit- Sloes frasp. dried branches hung up in the fruit-room. 6044. men/, salads. pine occasionally ; grap'es, cucumbers, strawberries. Oranges, lemons, olives, pomegranates. Pishamin-nuts, lee-cuses. Yams and Spanish potatoes. m. oioes iro^r aneu uraiicjiis* nung up 111 me iruii-rooin. 044. Culinary productions and fruitt from the forcing dci.art- it. Kidneybeans. Potatoes. Sea-kale, asparai^is. Small ids. Parsley, mint, chervil. Rhubarb. Mushrooms. A SECT. III. March. 6045. Culinary vegetables from the open garden, tr garden- stores. Brussels sprouts, borecoles of sorts, especially the early greens, and Breda kale, broccolis. Haricot-beans and soup-peas, from the seed-room. Potatoes, Jerusalem artichokes, turnip, carrot, red-beet, parsnip, skirret, scorzonera, and salsify. Spinage occasionally, if mild. Onions from the root-room ; Welch onions, ciboules from the garden; garlic, shallot, rocambole from the root-room. Sea-kale from covered beds. Lettuce, endive, celery. American and winter cress ; also water-cress, burnet arid others. Parsley, horse-radish, and dried fennel, dill, chervil, &c. Thyme, sage, rosemary from the open garden ; and dried marjoram, basil, mint, savory, &c. from the herb-room. Rhubarb-stalks from covered roots ; anise, coriander, caraway, and other seeds, chamomile, blessed thistle, and other dried herbs. Samphire. Nettle-tops, dandelion- 3 E leaves, bladder-campion-tops, water-cresses, brook-lime, sauce- alone. Mushrooms from covered ridges. Common and red dulse, sea- belt, and pepper-dulse. 6046. Hardy fruits from the open garden, orchard, or fruit- room. Apples, pears, quinces, medlars, services from the fruit- room. Some dried grapes. Almonds, walnuts, chestnuts, filberts from the fruit-room. 6047. Culinary productions and fruits from the forcing depart- ment. Kidneybeans. Potatoes, radishes. Sea-kale, asparagus. Small salads, onions. Parsley, mint, chervil, sweet marjoram. Rhubarb. Mushrooms. A pine occasionally ; grapes, cucum- bers, strawberries. Oranges, shaddocks, lemons, olives, pre- served pomegranates. Loquats, pishamin-nuts, lee-chees, &c. Yams and Spanish potatoes. 788 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. SECT. IV. April. 6048. Culinary vegetables from the open garden, or garden-stores. Brussels sprouts, borecoles, broccoli, coleworts. Haricot-beans, and soup-peas from the seed-room. Potatoes, Jerusalem arti- choke, yellow turnip, carrot, red beet, parsnep, skirret, scorzo- nera, and salsify. Spinage, orache, wild spinage, sorrel, fat hen, herb-patience. Bulbed and young onions ciboules, and Welsh onions ;'garlic, shallots, rocambole, &c. from thestores. Sea-kale and asparagus at the end of the month ; hop-tops, campion-tops, aud thistle-tops throughout the month. Lettuce, endive, celery, American and winter cress ; burnet, water-cress, and other sal- ads. Parsley, purslane, tarragon from the garden ; horse-radish and dried herbs, from the herb-room. Thyme, sage, mint, rose- mary, lavender, tansy, from the open garden. The others of this class from the herb-room. Rhubarb-stalks from covered plants ; angelica, elecampane, and thistle-stalks from the garden. The seeds and dried herbs of this class from thestores. Samphire and buds of marsh-marigold. Nettle, campion, thistle, bryony, burdock, ox-tongue, sauce-alone, and other tops; chickweed, wild rocket, sea-belt, and other leaves. Mush- rooms from covered ridges. Dulse, tangle, and other fuci, in a fresh state; sea-belt preserved ; and floating fucus pickled. 6049. Hardy frtriis from the oven garden, orchard, or fruit- roam. Apples, pears, services, from the fruit-cellar. Some dried grapes from the fruit-room. Almonds, walnuts, chestnuts, filberts, from the fruit-room or cellar. 6050. Culinary prediction* ami fruits from the farcing depart- ment. Kidneybeans, peas. Potatoes, carrots, radishes. Sea- kale, asparagus. Small salads, lettuce, onions. Parsley, pur- slane, mint, &c. Rhubarb. Mushrooms. A pine occasionally ; grapes, cherries, peaches, cucumbers, melons, strawberries. Oranges, lemons, limes, pomegranates. Loquats, puhatuin-nuts and dried lee-chees, and long-yens. Yams and Spanish potatoes. SECT. V. May. 6061. Culinary vegetables from the open garden, or garden, stores. Early cabbages, cauliflowers, broccolis, and coleworts. Haricot beans, and soup-peas from the seed-room, and some- times, though rarely, young peas, towards the end of the month, from a warm border. Potatoes and Jerusalem artichokes from pits, or cold cellars ; turnip, carrot, and red beet from cellars or the open ground, if not destroyed by the frost; young ra- dishes. Spinage, orache, wild spinage, sorrel, and herb-pa- tience in perfection. Housed onions, and winter leeks; young onions, ciboules, and chives, garlic and shallot from cold rooms. Asparagus and sea-kale in perfection. Lettuce, endive, celery, succory, young radishes, and all the salads in perfection ; winter radish, lamb-lettuce. Parsley, purslane, horse-radish, tarragon, and all this class, either fresh or from the herb-room. Thyme, sage, mint, tansy, costmarv, &c. from the open garden; the others from the herb-room. Rhubarb-stalks, blanched, or otherwise, from the earthed-up or uncovered plants, angelica- stalks, anise, and other seeds, and the dried herbs, as before, from the herb-room. Samphire, and buds of Charlick,fathen, chickweed, sea-orache, ih- marigold. ladies' -smock and orpine, as salads ; speedwell and vernal grass, as tea -plants. Morels from their native habitats; garden - mushrooms from covered ridges in the open garden. Dulse, tangle, and the other sorts of fuci, in a fresh state, and floating fucus for pickling. 60 i>l. Hardy fruits from the open garden, orchard, orfnrit- room. Apples, pears, from the fruit-cellar. Dried grapes from the fruit- room. Almonds, walnuts, chestnuts, filberts, from thi- fruit-cellar. 6053. Culinary productions and fruits from the forcing depart- ment. Kidneyl>eans, peas, beans. Potatoes, carrots, radishe>- Sea-kale, asparagus. Small salads. Chervil, purslane, &c. Mushrooms. A pine occasionally ; grapes, peaches, melons, c-icumbers, cherries, figs, apples, pears, gooseberries, and strawberries. Lemons, shaddocks, oranges, pomegranates. SECT. VI. June. 6054. Culinary vegetables from the open garden, or garden-ttont. Cabbages and cauliflowers in perfection. Kidneybeans, peas, and common beans. Old potatoes from watered pits; new potatoes, turnips, carrots, and radishes. Spinage, orache, and sorrel, in perfection. Young onions and chives; rocambole and garlic from the root-room. Asparagus and sea-kale in perfection till the middle of the month. Small salads, lettuce, Iamb-lettuce, radishes. Parsley, purslane, tarragon, horse- radish, fennel, dill, marygold, &c. Thyme, sage, mint, savory, basil, &c. from the garden, and the others from theherb-room. Rhubarb-stalks, angelica. Samphire, .three sorts. Charlick, chickweed, fat hen, orache, and willow-herb, as pot-herbs ; orpine, ladies'-smock, &c. as salads; sweet cicely as a garnish; sea-bindweed as a pickle, and butter tfort as rennet ; ficaria - roots as saloop. Morels from their native habitaU ; and thi garden- mushroom from covered ridges. Dulse, tangle, and the other sorts of edible fuci. 6055. Hardy fruits from the open garden, orchard, or fruit- room Apples, pears, from the fruit-cellar. Some cherries towards the middle of the month. Gooseberries, currants, strawberries, and raspberries, towards the end of the month. Almonds, walnuts, chestnuts, filberts from the fruit-cellar. Some snowberries and tree-currants. 6056. Culinary vegetables and fruitt from the forcing depart- , oranges, lemons'. metit. Mushrooms. Pines, grapes, peaches, nectarines,~figs, cherries, c. melons, cucumbers. Shaddocks, c SECT. VII. July. 6057. Culinary production! front the open garden, or garden- store*. Cabbages and cauliflowers in perfection. Peas, beans, sugar-pea, and kidneybeans. New potatoes, turnips, carrots, radishes. Spinage, orache, sorrel, and white beet. Onions bulbed and ciboules, for salading. Artichokes, alisanders, rarapion. Small salads, lettuce, radishes- Parsley, purslane, Indian cress, marigold, borage, fennel, &c. Thyme, sage, mint, balm ; and all the others from the open garden, and also from the herb-room. Angelica-stalks, gourds; the aromatic seeds from the seed-room, and the herbs either from the herb- room, or open garden. Caper, Indian cress, radish-pods, kidney- beans, and pickling cucumbers. The pot-herbs and salads as in June, the seeds of some sorts of vetches, as legumes ; the cow-parsnep for Its different uses, and butterwort ; the roots of ficaria. Morels from their native habitats ; garden-mushrooms from covered ridges. Dulse, tangle, &c. as in June. 6058. Hardy fruits from the open garden, orchard, orfntU- room. Junea'ting, margaret, and codlin apples; James and other pears from the trees. Some peaches, nectarines, and apricots ; also cherries. Gooseberries, currants, strawberries, raspberries. Almonds, walnuts, chestnuts, filberts, from tha fruit-cellar. Bird-cherries, tree-currants. 6059. Culinary productions and fruits from the forcing depart- ment. Mushrooms, pines, grapes, peaches, nectarines, figs, cherries, apples, melons, cucumbers, &c. Lemons. SECT. VIII. August. 6060. Culinary vegetables from the even garden, or garden- ttorts. Cabbages, cauliflowers, broccoli. Peas, beans, sugar- pea, kidneybean. Potatoes, turnips, carrots, radishes, Jerusa- lem artichoke, red beet. Spinage, white beet-chard, orache, sorrel. Onions, bulb or small, shallots garlic, and rocambole, from the garden. Artichoke, cardoon, rampion. Small salads; lettuce, endive, radishes, &c. Parsley, purslane, Indian cress, marigold, borage, fennel, &c. Thyme, sage, mint, balm, and all the others, green or dried. New seeds of caraway, anise, Sec. ; new hyssop, chamomile, and other herbs ; gourds. Love- apple, egg-plant, capsicum, Indian cress, radish-tops, kidney- bean, and pickling cucumbers. Most of the pot-herbs and salads of June; the roots of arrow-head, silver-weed, ficaria, and earth-nut roots ; heath-tops and cow-parsnep. Mush- rooms and champignons from pastures, and the open garden : truffle from commons. All the sorts of fuci in their greatest perfection for the table or pickling. 6061. Hardy fruits frinn the open garden, orchard, and fruit- room. Apples, pears. Peaches, nectarines, apricots, plums, cherries. Gooseberries, currants, strawberries, raspberries. Nuts, if desired, from the fruit-cellar ; almonds, and some wal- nuts and filberts from the trees towards the end of the month. Tree-currants, roan-berries. 6062. Culinary productions and fruits from the forcing depart- ment Mushrooms. Pines, grapes, jeaches, figs, melons, cu- cumbers. Indian figs, strawberry-pears. Alligator, granadiUas, guavas, pears. New yams and Spanish potatoes. SECT. IX. September, 6063. Culinary vegetables from the open garden, or garden-stores. Cauliflowers, cabbages, broccolis. Teas, beans, and kidney, beans. Potatoes, turnips, carrots, parsneps, skirret, and all the roots. Spinage, beet-chard, orache, and sorrel. Onions, shal- garlic, rocambole, and leeks. Artichokes, cardoons, lots, rampions. Small salads, endive, lettuce, celery, tarragon. . , Parsley, horse-radish, Indian cress, marigold, fennel, chervils, &c. Thyme, sage, mint, and all the class, dried or green. Gourds and pumpkins; the aromatic seeds from the seed- room ; and the herbs from the garden or herb-room. Love- apple, capsicum, egg-plant, samphire, red cabbage, kidney- bean, &c. pickling cucumbers. Sea-peas and various legumes of the vetcn kind, dropwort, Solomon's seal, saloop, and other roots ; heath-tops and cow -parsneps. Mushrooms and cham- SECT. X 6066 Culinary vegetables from lite open garden, or garden-stores . Cabbages, cauliflowers, broccolis. Peas and kidneybeans, if the weather is dry Potatoes, turnips, carrots, radishes, Jerusalem artichokes, red beet, skirret, salsify, scorzonera. Spinage, beet- pignons from their native habitats, or from the open garden. Dulse, and all the sorts of edible fuci, in perfection. 6064. Hardy fruits from the open garden, orchard, or fruit- room. Apples, pears, quinces, medlars. Peaches, nectarines, apricots, plums, cherries. Grapes, gooseberries, currants, strawberries, raspberries. Almonds, walnuts, filberts. Wild services, cloudberries, bilberries, cranberries, brambles, hip!., haws, &c. 6065. Culinary productions and fruits from the forcing depart- ment. Mushrooms. Pines, grapes, melons, cucumbers, figs. Pomegranates, Indian figs, torch-thistles, and strawberry, pears. Akees, alligator, and anchovy pears, guavas, and granadiUas, some mangoes. Yams and Spanish potatoes. October. chard, sorrel. Onions, leeks, garlic, shallots, and rocambole. Artichokes, cardoons, rampion, celery. Small salads, endive, succory, lettuce, winter-cress, bumet. Parsley, horseradish, Indian cress, marigold, fennel. Thyme, sage, "mint, and all of BOOK II. FLORICULTURE. 789 this class preen or dried. Gourds and pumpkins, aromatic needs, and dried herbs, as In September. Love-apple, capsicum, egg- plant, red cabbage, kidnejbean. Meadow-sweet, and the other edible roots, and heath for brewing. All the sorts of edible fuci. 6067. Hardy fruitt from the open garden, orchard, or fruit-room. Apples, pears, quinces, medlars, services. Some peaches, nec- tarines, apricots, plums, and protected or covered morello cher- ries. Grapes and strawberries, raspberries, and protected or covered gooseberries and currants. Almonds from the frult- rcxHii ; and walnuts, chestnuts, and filberts from the trees. Wild MTvii-<-s, cloudberries. braml>le-bt>rries, and cranberries. 6068. Culinary produciuwa and fruitt fnim the forcing depart- ment. Mushrooms. Pines, grajies, melons, cucumbers, tigs. Pomegranates, olives, Indian rigs; torch-lhistles and straw- berry-pears. Akees, alligator, and anchovy pears; guavas, granadillas, durions, mangoes, and mangosteen. Yams and Spanish potatoes. SECT. XI. November. 6069. Culinary vegetable! fmm the open garden, or garden-itoret. Cabbages, cauliflowers, protected by frames ; broccolis, Brussels sprouts, savoys,' borecoles. Dried kidneybeans and peas, from the seed-room. Potatoes, turnips, carrots, winter radish, Jeru- salem artichoke, red best, skirret, salsify, scorzonera. Spinage beet-chard, sorrel. Onions, ieeks, garlic, shallot, rocambole. Cardoons, rampions, celery. Endive, lettuce, winter cress, burnet. Parsley, horse-radish, fennel, and dried chervil, &c. Thyme, sage, and rosemary, the others chiefly from the herb- room. Caraway, anise, and other aromatic seeds from the seed-room ; the family herbs from the herb-room. Red cab- bage. The edible roots, as in October. .Sea-belt, badder-locks, and other species of fuci. 6070. Hardy fruits from the open garden, orchard, or fruit-room. Apples, pears, quinces, medlars. Some plums, and protected cherries from the trees. Grapes from the trees, and protected gooseberries, currants. Almonds from the fruit-room, and walnuts, chestnuts, filberts. Wild services, cloudberries, bilber- ries, cranterries, hips, and haws. 6071. Culinary, productions and frvitt from the farting depart- ment. Mushrooms. Pines, grapes, melons, cucumbers, fig!,. Oranges, lemons, pomegranates, olives. Akees, guavas, grana- dillas, bananas, durions, mangoes, and mangoeteens. Yams, &c. SECT. XII. December. 6072. Culinary vegetable! from the open gnrden, or gardtn-etorcs. Strasburgh cabbages, cauliflowers, where preser verf or protected, broccolis, savoys, Brussels sprouts, borecole. Dried kidney, beans for haricots ; and soup-peas from the seed-room. Pota- toes, turnips, carrots, winter radish, Jerusalem artichokes, red beet, skirret, salsify, and scorzonera, from the open garden or root-room. Beet-chard, where protected. Onions, leeks, gar- lic, shallots, and rocambole. Cardoons, celery. Endive, let- tuce, winter ami American cress. Parsley, horse-radish, dried herbs. Thyme, sage, rosemary, lavender, &c. green, the other dried. The anise and other aromatic seeds from the seed- room; and the herbs of this class from the herb-room. Red cabbage. Edible roots from the stores or pits. Preserved sea- l>elt, and when the weather admiu of Rathering, other edible fuci ; the floating fueus in pickle. 6073. Hardy fruits from the open garden, orchard, or fruit- room. Apples, pears, quinces, medlars, services. Some pro- tected plums and cherries from branches hung in the fruit- room. Grapes from the trees, or from branches hung in the fruit- room. Alnionds, walnuts, chestnuts, fillx'rts, from the fruit- room. Sloes, from the bushes, wild services, hips, haws, cran- berries.and cloudberries. 6074. Culiminf jmxluctioii* and fruitt from the forcing depart, ment. Kidneybeans. Potatoes. Sea-kale. Small salads. Chervil, fennel, &c. Rhubarb. Mushrooms. Pines, grapes, melons, &c. winter melons, cucumbers, figs. Oranges, le- mons, pomegranates, olives. Akees, guavai. flurions, mangoes, mangosteens, rose-apples, pishamins, lee-chees, &c< Yam* auti sweet potatoes. BOOK II. FLORICULTURE. 6075. Floriculture we consider as comprehending whatever relates to the culture and arrangement of vegetables, grown chiefly on account of their flowers, or as objects of taste or curiosity. The culture of flowers was long carried on with that of culinary vegetables, in the borders of the kitchen-garden, or in parterres or groups of beds, which commonly connected the culinary compartments with the house. In places of moderate extent, this mixed style is still continued ; but in residences which aim at any degree of distinction, the space within the walled garden is confined to the production of objects of domestic utility, while the culture of plants of ornament is displayed in the flower-garden and the shrubbery. These, under the general term of pleasure-ground, encircle the house in small seats, and on a larger scale embrace it in one or more sides ; the remaining part being under the character of park-scenery. Many of the most interesting plants belong- ing to this branch of culture are natives of warm climates, and require the protection of glass and artificial heat. On a limited scale, such plants are grown in the culinary-forcing- houses, or in green-houses, or botanic stoves, connected with the others in the kitchen-gar- den. In complete residences, however, the culture of exotics forms a distinct department of ornamental horticulture, and the hot-houses requisite for this purpose are placed in the flower-garden, or variously arranged within the precincts of the pleasure-ground. In both departments, separation is attended with the usual advantages resulting from a divi- sion of skill, labor, and effect. Floriculture is obviously of limited interest and utility, compared to horticulture ; much less has accordingly been written on it, and our view of modern practice will, therefore, be proportionately brief. The order adopted, is the formation, planting, and general culture of the flower-garden ; the formation, planting, and general culture of the shrubbery ; the" design and general culture of the floricul- tural hot-houses ; the catalogue of plants and trees used in ornamental horticulture ; and, lastly, the monthly table of floricultural productions. CHAP. I. Of the Formation of the Flower-garden. 6076. The situation of the flower-garden, as of every department of floriculture, should be near the house, for ready access at all times, and especially during winter and spring, 3 E 3 790 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III when the beauties of this scene are felt with peculiar force. " The flower-garden," Neill observes, " should form an ornamental appendage to the mansion, and be easily accessible in all kinds of weather. There is no objection to its being seen from the windows of the house : on the contrary, this is sometimes considered as desirable." Nico., as we have seen (2382.), approves of having the various gardens of a place combined, and placing them at no great distance from the house ; and Repton strongly recommends this practice. 6077. Abercrombie eaye, " While the kitchen-garden i concealed by buildings or plantations, the flower, garden and pleasure-ground should stand conspicuously attached to the family residence. When the horticultural establishment includes a conservatory, it is proper to have it in sight, and connected with the ornamented grounds ; because the style of such a building, the plants within, and the scene without, under a tasteful arrangement, harmonise in character and effect The botanic-garden, the range of stoves, and all the departments, a visit to which renders a walk about the grounds pleasing and inter- esting, should be at hand." 6078. The author of the Florist's Manual confines her observations to the " construction of that humble flower-garden," which she calls " the common or mingled flower-garden." " This," she says, " should be situated so as to form an ornamental appendage to the house, and where the plan of ground will admit, placed before windows exposed to a southern or south-east aspect ; and although to this position there may appear the objection of the flowers turning their petals to the sun, and consequently from the win- dows, this predilection in the tribe of Flora for the rays of that bright luminary, will produce the same effect in whatever place our flowers maybe situated, when in the vicinity of a building, as they invariably expose the front of their corols to the lights from which both the petals of flowers, and the leaves 'of plants are believed to derive material essential to their existence." She adds, " when apart from the house, the mingled flower-garden may be introduced with great advantage, if situated so as to form a portion of the pleasure-ground : in this case it should not be distinct from the house, but so contrived as to terminate one of the walks of the home shrubberies." (Flor. Man. p. 10. 15.) 6079. To place the flower-garden south-east or south-west of the house, and between it and the kitchen- garden, is in general a desirable circumstance. In a design for a villa farm (fig. 539.), supposing the en- trance-front of the house (a\ to face the north-west, then the farm-offices (5), horse-pond (c), &c. may be placed to the north-east ; the kitchen-yard (rf) and livery-stable-yard (e] to the south-west : against these may be placed the exotic hot-houses, looking to the flower-garden (/), and beyond this the American garden (g), and lastly, the kitchen-garden (h), and walk through the farm (ft. If concealed approaches to the farm and stable-offices (c, n,) and from the kitchen-garden to the kitchen (A, c, . Water. This material, in some form or other, is as essential to the flower as to the kitchen garden. Besides the use of the element in common culture, a pond or basin affords an opportunity of growing some of the more showy aquatics, while jets, dropping-fountains, and other forms of displaying water, serve to decorate and give in- terest to the scene. Besides choice aquatics, the ponds or basins of flower-gardens may be stocked with the gold-fish (Cyprinus auratus), and will serve as a hybernaculum for that elegant and interesting animal the tree-frog (Rana arborea], so amusing in the gar- de,ns of the south of fiermany. 6087. The form of a small garden (Jig. 541.) will be found most pleasing when some regular figure is adopted, as a circle, oval, octagon, crescent, &c. : but where the extent is so great as not readily to be caught by a single glance of the eye, an irregular shape is generally more convenient, and it may be thrown into agreeable figures, or component scenes, by the intro- duction of shrubs so as to subdivide the space. " Either a square or an oblong ground-plan," Aber- s crombie observes, "is eligible; and although th'e shape must be often adapted to local circumstances, yet, when a garden is so circumscribed that the eye at once embraces the whole, it is desirable that it should be of some regular figure." 6088. Kicol says, "a variety of forms may be indulged in, without incurring censure ; provided the figures be graceful, and not in any one place too complicated. An oval is a figure that generally pleases, on account of the continuity of its out- lines; next, if extensive, a circle. Next, perhaps, a segment in form of a half-iiioon, or the larger segment of an oval. But hearts, diamonds, triangles, or squares, if small, seldom please. A simple parallelogram, divided into beds running lengthwise, or the larger segment of an oval, with beds running parallel to its outer margin, will always please." Neill concurs in this opinion. 6089. The author of Hints on the Formation of Gardens, c. says, " a symmetrical form is best adapted to such parterres as are small and may be comprehended in one view ; and an irregular shape to such as are of a considerable size, and contain trees, shrubs, statues, vases, seats, and buildings." 6090. Boundary fence, or screen. Parterres on a small scale may be enclosed by an evergreen hedge of holly, box, laurel, privet, juniper, laurustinus, or Irish whin ( Ulex europaeus, var. a.) ; but irregular figures, especially if of some extent, can only be sur- rounded by a shrubbery, such as we have already hinted at (6082. ) as forming a proper shelter for flower-gardens. 6091. Abcrcrombie says, " for the enclosure, a wall or close paling is, on two accounts, to be preferred on the north side ; both to serve as a screen, and to afford a warm internal face for training rare trees. When one of those is not adopted, recourse may be had to a fence of white thorn and holly," &c. (Pract. Gard. 339.) 6092. Rustic fences formed of shoots of the oak, hazel, or larch, may often be intro- duced with good effect both as interior and surrounding barriers. (Jig. 542.) 6O93. Laifitig out the area. This is the most difficult part of the business, and is not to be excelled in without a considerable degree of taste and experience. Jn laying out BOOK II. FORMATION OF THE FLOWER-GARDEN. 793 the area of the kitchen-garden, its destination being utility, affords in all cases a safe and fixed guide ; but the flower-garden is a matter of fancy and taste, and where these are wavering and unsettled, the work will be found to go on at random. As flower- gardens are objects of pleasure, that principle which must serve as a guide in laying them out, must be taste. Now, in flower-gardens, as in other objects, there are different kinds of tastes ; these embodied are called styles or characters ; and the great art of the designer is, having fixed on a style, to follow it out unmixed with other styles, or with any de- viation which would interfere with the kind of taste or impression which that style is cal- culated to produce. Style, therefore, is the leading principle in laying out flower-gardens, as utility is in laying out the culinary-garden. As subjects of fancy and taste, the styles of flower-gardens are various. The modern style is a collection of irregular groups and masses, placed about the house as a medium, uniting it with the open lawn. The ancient geometric style, in place of irregular groups, employed symmetrical forms ; in France, adding statues and fountains ; in Holland, cut trees and grassy slopes ; and in Italy, stone walls, walled terraces, and flights of steps. In some situations, these characteristics of parterres may with propriety be added to, or used instead of the modern sort, especially in flat situations, such as are enclosed by high walls in towns, or where the principal building or object is in a style of architecture which will not render these appendages incongruous. There are other characters of gardens, such as Chinese, which are not widely different from the modern ; the Indian, which consists chiefly of walks under shade, in squares of grass, &c. ; the Turkish, which abounds in shady retreats, boudoirs of roses and aromatic herbs ; and the Spanish, which is distinguished by trellis-work and fountains : but these gardens are not generally adapted to this climate, though from con- templating and selecting what is beautiful or suitable in each, a style of decoration for the immediate vicinity of mansions might be composed, greatly preferable to any thing now in use. 6094. Abercrombie, Nicol, and most practical gardeners, seem not to understand the subject of style, and their rules amount to little more than that of subdividing the area by paths in different directions. The former author says." If a piece of ground be set apart for the cultivation of flowers, in what style should it be laid out ? This may vary with the quantity of surface, and the object of the cultivator. In the first place, carry a border round the garden, nowhere narrower than three or four feet, unless it may be proper to contract its breadth under the windows of the house; or unless there be a green hedge, on any side, rooted in the level of the garden, which might be expected either to draw the earth, or to encroach on the small plants, in which case flowering shrubs in little slips of mould would do better than dwarf-stemmed flowers. In contact with the surrounding border, may be either a grass-plot or a gravel-walk. The latter is most convenient for approach at all seasons. If the ground be at all dilated, handsome walks, crossing or leading to the centre, will be also requisite : let the principal walks be five or six feet in breadth, 'i 'he interior of the garden is usually laid out in oblong beds, three or four feet wide, with intervening alleys, two feet wide, or from that down to twelve inches, when it is intended to abstract as little space as possible from the cultivation of the flowers ; or, the same end may be obtained liy circular or oval beds, with smaller compartments between, of such a form as will leave the alleys of one regular width." (Tract. Gard. 340.) 6095. According to Nicol, the laying out of flower-gardens is a " matter very much of fancy. Too many gravelled alleys offend the eye, especially if they be much twisted, or run across; as it comprehends the whole at once. Their breadths should be'proportioned to that of the beds ; nor should they be much 544 794 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. sunk ; seldom more than an inch ; otherwise they have a bad eflbct. and look rather like furrows than alleys. They may be edged with box, with daises, with violets, gentianella, or thrift, according to fancy. But the edging, whatever it be, should be kept low, thin, and neat. It should seldom be allowed to rise two inches high, or spread two inches wide. A linear box-edging always pleases, if kept quite close and connected." (Kal. 458.) 6096. The author of the Florist's Manual, though she confines her directions to one style, has much more correct ideas on the subject than our practical authors. " It is more difficult," she says, " than may at first appear, to plan, even upon a small scale, such a piece of ground, nor, perhaps, would any but an experienced scientific eye be aware of the difficulties to be encountered in the disposal of a few shaped bor- ders interspersed with turf ; the nicety consists in arranging the different parts so as to form a connected glow of color, to effect which it will be necessary to place the borders in such a manner that when viewed from the windows of the house, or from the principal entrance into the garden, one border shall not inter- cept the beauties of another, nor in avoiding that error, produce one still greater, that of vacancies be- twixt the borders forming small avenues, by which the whole is separated into broken parts, and the ge- neral effect lost Another point to be attended to, is the just proportion of green turf, which, without nice observation, will be too much or too little for the color with which it is blended ; and, lastly, the breadth of the flower-borders should not be greater than what will place the roots within reach of the gardener's arm without the necessity of treading upon the soil, the mark of footsteps being a deformity wherever it appears amongst flowers." (Flor. Man, 13.) 6097. The materials which form the surface offiower-gardens (figs. 543, 544.) are gravel (a), turf (b), and dug borders (c), patches (d), or compartments (<), and water (/) ; but a variety of other objects and mate- rials may be introduced as receptacles for plants, or on the surfaces of walks ; as grotesque roots, rocks, flints, spar, shells, scoriae in conglomerated lumps, 545 sand and gravel of different colors ; besides works of ._ art introduced as decorations, or tonsile perform- ** ances, when the old French style (fig. 546.) is imitated. 6098. Rock-works. The author of the Florist's Manual observes, on this subject, that " frag- ments of stone may be made use of, planted with such roots as flourish among rocks, and to which it might not be difficult to give a natural ap- pearance, so far as by bringing forward to the view the utility of these stones in the culture of the vege- tables growing thereon. The present fashion of in- troducing into flower-gardens this kind of rock-work requires the hand of taste to assimilate it to our flower- borders, the massive fabric of the rock being liable to render the lighter assemblage of the borders di- minutive and meagre : on this point, caution only can be given, the execution must be left to the ele- gant eye of taste, which, thus warned, will quickly perceive such deformity. I must venture to disap- prove the extended manner in which this vegetable rock- work is sometimes introduced, not having been able to reconcile my eye, even in gardens planned and cultivated with every advantage which elegant ingenuity can give them, to the unnatural appear- ance of artificial crags of rock and other stones in- terspersed with delicate plants, to the culture of i which the fertile and sheltered border is evidently necessary, being decided that nothing of the kind should be admitted into the simple parterre that is not manifestly of use to the growth of some of the species therein exhibited. In pleasure-ground* or flower-gardens on an extensive scale, where we meet with fountains and statuary, the greater kinds of ve- getable rock-work might probably be well intro- duced ; but to such a magnificent display of art I feel my taste and knowledge wholly incompetent." (Flor. Man. 15.) " Where neither expense nor trouble," the same author adds, " oppose their prohibitory barrier, many of the vegetable tribe may be cultivated to greater perfection, if we appropriate different gar- dens to the growth of different species, as, although it is essential to the completion of our garden fro intro- duce, on account of their scent and beauty, some of the more hardy species of the flowers termed annuals, in that situation room cannot be afforded them sufficient to their production in that full luxuriancy which they will exhibit when not crowded and overshadowed by herbaceous vegetables ; and hence becomes de- sirable that which maybe called the annual flower-garden, into which no other kind of flower is admitted besides that fugacious order, and under which is contained so great a variety of beauty and elegance, as one well calculated to form a garden, vying in brilliancy with the finest collection of hardy perennials. Also, the plants comprised under the bulbous division of vegetables, although equally essential to the perfection of the mingled flower-garden, lose much of their peculiar beauty when not cultivated by themselves, and will well repay the trouble of an assiduous care to give to each species the soil and aspect best suited to its nature. Two kinds of garden may be formed from the extensive and beautiful variety of bulbous-rooted flowers ; the first, wherein they should be planted in distinct compartments, each kind having a border ap- propriated to itself, thus forming, in the Eastern taste, not only the 'garden of hyacinths,' but a garden of each species of bulb which is capable of being brought to perfection without the fostering shelter of a con- servatory. The second bulbous garden might be formed from a collection of the almost infinite variety of this lovely tribe, the intermixture of which might produce the most beautiful effect, and a succession of bloom to continue throughout the early months of summer. A similar extension of pleasure might be derived from a similar division of all kinds of flowers, and here the taste fbr borders planted with distinct tribes may be properly exercised, and, as most of the kinds of bulbs best suited to tin's disposition have finished their bloom before the usual time at which annuals disclose their beauties, the annual and the bulbous gardens might be so united, that, at the period when the bloom of the latter has disappeared, the opening buds of the former might supply its place, and continue the gaiety of the borders." 6099. The green-house or conservatory is generally placed in the flower-garden, provided these structures are not appended to the house. In laying out the area, a fit situation must be allotted for this department of floriculture, and the principles of guidance laid down in treating of the situation of the culinary hot -houses (2475.) require here also to be applied. Some recommended the distribution of the botanic hot-houses throughout BOOK II. FORMATION OF THE FLOWER-GARDEN. 795 546 the flower-garden or pleasure-ground ; but we are decidedly of opinion, that much the best effect is produced when they are connected together in one scene. By the other mode they may form objects agreeable enough to look at externally ; but to derive the full effect of their internal beau ties, it appears to us that they must be examin- ed in succession and without interruption. No arrangement can be better, in our opi- nion, than to connect the whole of the bo- tanic hot-houses with the mansion as an in- troductory scene to the flower-garden. This was Repton's favorite mode, of which, among other examples, he has left that of Ashridge Park. (fg. 546.) Here, to the original lawn and pleasure-ground (1), he made an addition in the same style (2) v uniting by walks the following interesting scenes. The botanic stoves and paved terrace (3) ; broad-sanctuary and holy- well (4) ; pomarium and winter walk (5) ; the monk's garden (6) ; arboretum of exotic trees (7) ; magnolia and American garden (8) ; embroidered parterre (9) ; grotto and garden for rock-plants (10) ; cabinet de verdure (11); mount garden (12) ; rosa- rium and fountain (13) ; connecting and interior walks (14) ; open terrace and exterior walks (15). 6100. In particular situations, as where the prospect and space arc both confined, the plant hot-houses may embrace the house or the court-yard on two or more sides. In a case of this kind, which occurred in our practice (fig. 547.), a large conservatory (a) and aquarium (b) were connected with the library (*) : from the conservatory, a green-house (c) led to an aviary (d}, and this was connected with a house tor standard peach-trees, with vines as climbers (e), by two plant-stoves (e and/). The furnaces were placed in the court-yard (/), and attended from the stable-yard (A), without interfering with the house (i), or the flower-garden (m\ The elevation of such a range (fig. 548.) does not pretend to architectural or pictu- resque beauty ; but it is such as is best suited for the culture of plants ; and from the peculiarity of the situation it is seen from no point beyond the limits of a very moderate-sized flower-garden. 6101. According to Ncill, a green-house, conservatory, and stove should form prominent objects in the different parts of the flower-garden. The author of the Florist's Manual recommends a spring-conser- vatory, annexed to the house, consisting of borders sheltered by glass, and heated only to the degree that will produce a temperature, under which all the flowers that would naturally bloom betwixt the months of February and May might be collected, and thence be enabled to expand their beauties with vigor. (Flor. Man. D. 23. > 796 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. TART III. 548 6102. According to Nicol, " the most proper situation for the green-house and conservatory, in an exten- sive and well laid out place, is certainly in the shrubbery or flower-garden ; and not, as they are very generally to be found, in the kitchen-garden, combined with the forcing-houses. In smaller places, no doubt, they must be situated so as to suit other conveniences; and we often find them connected with the dwelling-house. In this latter way they may be very convenient, especially in the winter season, and may answer for keeping many of the hardy kinds of exotics ; but it is seldom they can be so placed and con- structed, on account of their connection with the building, as to suit the culture of the finer sorts, and bring them to a flowering state. Such may rather be termed green-rooms, as being connected with the house." (Kal. 539.) 6103. Abercrombie says, " A green-house may be made a very ornamental object as a structure ; Its situation is, therefore, usually in a conspicuous part of the pleasure-ground, contiguous to the family resi- dence. The front of the building should stand directly to the south, and the ends have an dpen aspect to the east and west" (Pract. Gard. 557.) 6104. Flower-nursery, and pits for forcing flowers. To every complete flower-garden and shrubbery, a piece of ground should be set apart in a convenient and concealed situ- ation, as a reserve-ground, or nursery of flowering plants and shrubs. The situation should, if practicable, be behind and near to the range of hot-houses, and it may at the same time include the pits for forcing flowers, and the hot-bed department of the flower-garden. * Here plants may be originated from seed, cuttings, pipings, and a pro- per stock kept up, partly in beds and partly in pots, for more easy removal, to supply blanks, and in the more select scenes, to replace such as have done flowering. No flower-garden can be kept in complete order without a nursery of this description ; nor could the management of some sorts of florists' flowers, as the auricula, during the latter part of summer and winter, the carnation, &c. be well carried on without it. Here they may be grown, and, when in bloom, exhibited in proper stages in the main garden. 6105. Walks. In most styles of parterres these are formed of gravel ; but in the mo- dern sort (Jig. 549 ), which consist of turf, varied by wavy dug beds (1 and 2), and surrounded by shrubbery, they 549 are sometimes dispensed with. Such a flower-garden is recom- mended by the author of the Flor- ist's Manual, as suitable for the " midst of pleasure-ground," and the beds " peculiarly adapted to the advantageous exhibition of flowers." The general length of the beds she recommends to be from twenty-three to twenty-five feet, and the width in the broad- est part, about four feet ; the grass to be five or six feet wide between the beds, that it may be conveniently mown and rolled ; all the beds a good deal raised, and a tree (3) placed at the en- trance (4) of light and rather pendulous foliage, and pruned to form a high stem. " If the space of grass between the borders appear too great, it may be lessened by baskets of ever-blowing roses, carnations, or any other plants ; and these baskets may be formed by circular beds, surrounded by cast-iron, made to resemble the open edges of a basket, and painted of a very dark-green color." (p. 6.) 6106. In extensive and irregular parterres, one gravel-walk, accompanied by broad margins of turf, to serve as walks by such as prefer that material, should be so contrived as to form a tour for the display of the whole garden. There should also be other secondary interesting walks of the same width, of gravel and smaller walks for displaying particular details. The main walk, however, ought to be easily dis- tinguishable from the others by its broad margins of fine turf. In general the gravel is of uniform breadth throughout the whole length of the walk ; but in that sort of French parterres which they call parterres of embroidery (fig. 550.), the breadth of the gravelled. part (a) varies like that of the turf. Such figures, when correctly executed, carefully planted, judiciously intermixed with basket-work, shells, party-colored gravels, &c. and kept in perfect order, are highly ornamental ; but very few gardeners enter into the spirit of this department of their art The French and Dutch have long greatly excelled us in the formation of small gardens, and the display of flowers ; and whoever wishes BOOK II. PLANTING THE FLOWER-GARDEN. 797 to succeed in this department ought to visit Amsterdam, Antwerp, Brussels, and Paris ; and consult the old French Le Blond, &c. works of Mallet, Boyceau, 6107. Edgings. In parterres where turf is not used as a ground or basis out of which to cut the beds and walks, the gravel of the latter is disparted from the dug ground of the former by edg- ings or rows of low-growing plants, as in the kitchen-garden. Various plants have been used for this purpose ; but, as Neill observes, the best for extensive use is the dwarfish Dutch box, kept low and free from blanks. Abercrombie says, " Thrift is the neatest small ever- green next to box. In other parts, the daisy, pink, London-pride, primrose, \\ violet, and periwinkle, may be employ- 1 ' ed as edgings. The strawberry, with the jj runners cut in close during summer, will also have a good effect ; the wood- strawberry is suitable under the spread- ing shade of trees. Lastly, the limits between the gravel-walks and the dug- work may sometimes be marked by running verges of grass kept close and neat. v Whatever edgings are employed, they should be formed previous to lay- ing the gravel. 6108. Basket-edgings. Small groups' near the eye, and whether on grass or j gravel, may be very neatly enclosed by a worked fence of basket-willows from six inches to a foot high. These wicker-work frames may be used with or without ver- dant edgings ; they give a finished and enriched appearance to highly polished scenery ; enhance the value of what is within, and help to keep off small dogs, children, &c. .-.!"-,. Abercrombie scarcely approves of them. He says, " Where round or oval parterres stand on a ground of lawn, it is a prevailing fashion to surround them with what are termed baskets. These are commonly made either of wood or cast-iron ; those of the latter material of course are durable ; and the others, if painted, and removed under shelter in winter, will last ten or twelve years. Novelty is all attractive ; and when men have walked as far as they can in the path of nature for principles of embellishment, for the sake of novelty they will walk back again. A bed of flowers and shrubs within a basket looks very much like a large bouquet. What is artificial, should have some use. Where cattle are to be kept off, a basket is service- able." (Pr. Card. 454.) 6109. To assist in the invention of figures for flower- gardens, the simple but ingenious contrivance (fig. 651.) invented by Professor Bradley may be made use of. It consists of two plates of looking-glass, of any convenient size, furnished with wooden backs, so as to admit of their 551 linged (a). One part of a circular figure being then drawn on paper (b, c), the frame the width of the figure (i,c, rf), and placed on edge so as to include it, when the form nultiplied by the looking-glass as to complete the circle. The kaleidoscope may also 1 being hinged opened the v be so multiplied by c r to, of which this instrument of Bradley's is supposed to be the origin or prototype. (b, c), the frames are to be 11 then Iso be resorted CHAP. II. Of Planting the Flower-garden, 6110. The manner of planting tlie herbaceous plants and shrub* in a flower-garden de- pends jointly on the style and extent of the scene. With a view to planting, they may be 798 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. divided into three classes, which classes are independently altogether of the style in vfhich they are laid out. The first class is the general or mingled Jlower-garden, In which is dis- played a mixture of flowers with or without flowering-shrubs according to its size. The object in this class is to mix the plants, as that every part of the garden may present a gay assemblage of flowers of different colors during the whole season. The second class is the select flower- garden, in which the object is limited to the cultivation of particular kinds of plants ; as, florists' flowers, American plants, annuals, bulbs, &c. Sometimes two or more classes are included in one garden, as bulbs and annuals ; but, in general, the best effect is produced by limiting the object to one class only. The third class is the changeable Jlower-garden, in which all the plants are kept in pots, and reared in a flower-nursery or reserve-ground. As soon as they begin to flower, they are plunged in the borders of the flower-garden, and, whenever they show symptoms of decay, removed, to be replaced by others from the same source. This is obviously the most complete mode of any for a dis- play of flowers, as the beauties of both the general and particular gardens may be combined without presenting blanks, or losing the fine effect of assemblages of varieties of the same species ; as of hyacinth, pink, dahlia, chrysanthemum, &c. The fourth class is the botanic Jlower-garden, in which the plants are arranged with reference to botanical study, or at least not in any way that has for its main object a rich display of blossoms. On each of these gardens, or manners of arranging plants grown for their beauty or curiosity, we shall offer some remarks. 6111. The mingled Jlower-garden, or border, is by far the most common; it is what every gardener attempts at in planting his flower-borders, and the aim of the greater num- ber of such as form parterres, or separate scenes for the culture of flowers, seldom goes further. The object here is to display a gay assemblage of colors during the season of flowers, without much regard to variety of form or diversity of character in these flowers, or the plants that produce them. The great art, therefore, in this kind of flower-border, is to employ such plants as produce large heads, or masses of flowers ; to plant an equal number of every color, and such a variety in regard to time of flowering as may afford some of every color in flower from February to October. This object does not require a great variety so much as a judicious selection ; for, supposing the number four to include all the colors of flowers, and one sort to continue in bloom a month, then for nine months of the year, viz. from February to October inclusive, only thirty-six sorts will be requi- site to commence, as it were, the pattern of the border. Much more may be effected by a few sorts than by a great number, for the greater the number of sorts introduced in the pattern above thirty-six, supposing it correct that one sort continues in bloom a month, the greater the blank spaces that must remain between the plants in bloom. A moderate number of select sorts, or of what are called border-flowers, and that number selected equally from the different colors, and the sorts in bloom in the nine months of blooming season, is what demands the exclusive attention of whoever would plant a mingled bor- der, or flower-garden. It has been frequently observed that flower-gardens have been on the decline for the last half century ; and the cause of this appears to have been the influx of new plants during that period, by which gardeners have been induced without due con- sideration to be more solicitous about rarity and variety, than well disposed colors and quantity. The same error, and from the same cause, has prevailed, during the above pe- riod, in the planting of shrubberies and tree-plantations. 6112. Abercrotnbie, Nicol, and other practical gardeners, seem to have no distinct ideas on the subject of arranging flowers in flower-gardens ; but the authors of Hints on laying out Gardens, and of the Florist's Manual, have viewed the subject in its proper light. Neill also has some judicious observations on the sub- ject He says, " the plants are arranged in mingled flower-borders, partly according to their size, apd partly according to color. The tallest are planted in the back part, those of middling size occupy the centre, and those of humble growth are placed in front. The beauty of a flower-border, when in bloom, depends very much on the tasteful disposition of the plants in regard to color. By intermingling plants which flower in succession, the beauty of the border may be prolonged for some weeks. In a botanic-garden the same plant cannot with propriety be repeated in the same border ; but in the common flower-garden a plant, if deemed ornamental, may be often repeated with the best effect ; nothing can be finer, for example, than to see many plants of double scarlet lychnis, double sweet-william, or double purple jacobea." (Ed. Encyc. art. Hort.} 6113. The author of Hints, &c. remarks " that the beauty of parterres depends more on the materials with which they are planted than on their form ; and that the prevailing error consists in crowding them with all sorts of trees and plants at random, or filling them entirely with rare species, which will ever want one principal source of beauty health." In the Florist's Manual it is observed, that " the fashionable novice, who has stored her borders from the catalogue of some celebrated name with variety of rare species ; who has procured innumerable rose-trees, chiefly consisting of old and common sorts, brought into notice by new nomenclature ; who has set apart a portion of ground for American plants, and duly placed them in bog soil, with their names painted on large-headed pegs, becomes disappointed when, instead of the brilliant glow of her more humble neighbor's parterre, she finds her own distin- guished only by paucity of color, and fruitless expenditure. Variety of species, bog borders, and largely lettered pegs, are all good in their way, but they will not produce a gay flower-garden ; and the simple cause of the general failure in this particular is the prevalent solicitude for rarity and variety, in prefer- ence to well blended quantity ; as, without the frequent repetition of the same plant, it will be in vain to attempt a brilliant flower-garden, and, as in the judicious mixture of every common color, the art of procuring it consists. Hence, the foundation thus laid, the solicitude of those who wish to com- plete the superstructure must not be for rare species, but for new color, so that the commonest primula which presents a fresh shade of red, blue, yellow, &c. ought to be esteemed more valuable than the most rare American plant which does not bring a similar advantage. In the formation of that assemblage of BOOK II. PLANTING THE FLOWER-GARDEN. 799 flowers, which may be distinguished by the term of ' The Mingled Flower Garden,' It Is essential that the separate parts should, in their appearance, constitute a WHOLE ; and this apj>earance is not incom- patible with any form into which the ground may be thrown, if attention be given to the manner of planting. In some gardens this appearance of a whole is entirely destroyed by the injudicious taste of setting apart distinct borders for pinks, hepaticas, primulas, or any other "favorite kinds of flowers ; also for different species of bulbs, as anemones, ranunculuses, hyacinths, &c. ; these distinct borders, although beautiful in themselves, break that whole which should always be presented to the eye by the mingled flower-garden, as single beds, containing one species only, form a blank before that species produces its flowers, and a mass of decaying leaves when the glow of their petals is no more. The reverse of this mode of planting is essential to the perfection of the mingled flower-garden, in each border of which there should be, at least, two of every species ; but the precise number must be regulated by the force of color displayed by the plant, and the size and the relative position of the borders. It will be only neces- sary to observe that, to whatever view the garden presents itself, the eye should not be checked by the failure, in any part of it, of the prevalent colors of the season." (p. 5.) 6114. Hogg, who may be considered an unprejudiced observer of the different tastes in disposing of flowers, has the following remarks : " We are apt to ridicule the Dutchman, as well as the imitators of him here at home, who divide their gardens into small beds, or compartments, planting each with sepa- rate and distinct flowers : we ridicule the plan, because it exhibits too great a sameness and formality ; like unto the nasegay that is composed of one sort of flowers only, however sweet and beautiful they may be, they lose the power to please, because they want variety. It must undoubtedly be acknowledged, that a parterre, no matter in what form, whether circular or square, elliptical or oblong, where all the shrubs, plants, and flowers in it, like the flowers of a tastefully arranged bouquet, are variously disposed in neat and regulated order, according to their height and color, is a delightful spectacle, and worthy of general imitation. Yet still in some particular cases I am disposed to copy the Dutchman, and I would have my bed of hyacinths distinct, my tulips distinct, my anemonies, my ranunculuses, my pinks, my carnations distinct, and even my beds of hollyhocks, double blue violets, and dwarf-larkspurs distinct, to say nothing of hedge-rows of different sorts of roses. Independent of the less trouble you have in cul- tivating them when kept separate, you have beauty in masses, and you have likewise their fragrance and perfume so concentrated, that they are not lost in air, but powerfully inhaled -when you approach them. Mrs. Siddons, the celebrated tragic actress, is a great admirer of this mode of planting, and fond of contemplating this ' beauty in masses.' She adopted this style of gardening at her late residence on the Harrow-road. Her favorite flower was the viola amo?na, the common purple heart's-ease, and this she set with unsparing profusion all around her garden. Her garden was remarkable in another respect, and might with great propriety be styled a garden of evergreens, which, together with a few deciduous shrubs, were of the most sombre, sable, and gloomy cast, such as box-trees, fir, privet, phillyrea, arbor vita?, holly, cypress, the red cedar, laurel, Irish ivy, bay-tree, arbutus, spurge-laurel, &c. The only part of the year in which it could be viewed with any degree of satisfaction was the winter, as giving rise to a pleasing association of ideas in beholding these retain their green verdure and clothing, at a time when the rest of the surrounding trees were stript naked and bare." (Tr. on Flowers, 69.) 6115. To give an example of the manner of planting a bed or border in the mingled style, suppose the various colors of flowers-to be all included under the four common colors, red, white, blue, and yellow; that for the time of blowing, we allow February and March as one division, March and April as a second, May and June as a third, July as a fourth, August as a fifth, and September and October as the sixth and last. Then suppose the border, or bed admits of four rows in width ; the lowest plants to be placed next the walk, or the eye of the spectator, and the tallest at the back in regular gradation. Mark out the border in rows length-ways and across, so as each plant may stand in the angle of a square, whose side is, say eighteen inches. Then begin at the first row (fig. 552. a), and fix on the order in which the plants are to be placed as respects their time of flowering. To distribute the plants in flower at one time as equally as possible over the border, the order of 1, 6, 3, 5, 2, 4, will, it is believed, be found the best. Next, fix as to the order of colors ; and here it is of little consequence what order is fixed on, provided that order be maintained throughout the border : say that we adopt the order of red white, blue, and yellow ; then the first row to be of the lowest plants will stand thus : Ir. Giv. 3b. by. 2r. 4w. : that is, a red flower to come into bloom in February and March ; next to it, a white flower to come into bloom in September and October ; next, a blue flower to come into bloom in May and June ; then a yellow flower to come into bloom in August ; then a red flower to come into bloom in April and May ; and lastly, a white flower to come into bloom in July. The second, third, and fourth rows, (b, c, d] are to be arranged in the same way, observing, however, not begin with the same month and color for the sake of more effectually iningling the times of flowering and color of the flowers. Where roses or other shrubs are to be intro- duced, a plant must be omitted, which, however, should not be allowed to derange the order of the rest. 552 a ................................ ir 6m 56 by Zr 4n> U 6y Sr brn 26 4t/ Ir 6w 36 Sy Zr 4r Ir 6m 36 b .......................... Ir 6n> 36 by Ir 4w U 6y ZT 5n> 26 4y Ir 6n> 56 Sy Zr 4w 16 y 3r bn, 26 c ................ Ir 6n> 36 5y Zr 4m 16 6,y 3r 5w 26 4t/ Ir 6ro 36 by Zr 4n> 16 6y Zr tv 26 4y Ir 6n; 56 Sy Zr 4w 16 6y 5r Sn> 26 4y Ir 6n> 56 Sy Zr 4m 16 6y Sr 5m 26 4.y Ir 6w 54 6w 36 5y Zr 4n> 16 6y Zr 5w 36 4y Ir 6tv 36 Sy Zr 4m 16 6y 3r 5rv U 40 Ir 6nr 36 Sy Zr 4w 16 6y Zr 5m 26 4y Ir 6ry 36 Sy Zr 4n> 16 6y 5r 5n> Ir 6n> 36 by Zr in 16 6y Zr 5w 26 4,y Ir Gtu 36 Sy Zr 4m 16 6y Ir .6w 36 Sy Zr 4 16 6y Zr bra 26 4.y Ir 6n, 36 Sy Zr Aw 6116 If a double border, with a walk on each side (fig. 552. a to A) a bed-group, or compartment on a lawn to be viewed on all sides, is to be planted, then it is only necessary to fix on the number of rows, and to keep the lowest plants in the margin and the tallest in the centre, adhering in the rows to the order of time, and of colors given above, or to any order that may be fixed on, and inserting shrubs in lieu of plants where it may be deemed advisable. 6117. Flowers in borders should ahvays be planted in rmvs, or in some regular form and that this ap- pearance should be assiduously kept up by trimming off all irregular side-shoots and stragghng stalks, and reducing the bulk of plants which grow too fast. Every approach to Regularity and a wild, con- fused, crowded, or natural-like appearance, must be avoided in gardens avowedly artificial. 6118. With four colors, four sis, and six times of coming into flower, a mingled border may be com- menced with ninety-six sorts ; and the pattern may be repeated like the border of any work of art adm- finitum; but it is also evident, that it may include any number of species, provided these have the de- sired requisites of height, color, arid time of flowering ; the second and every successive repetition of the pattern being made up of different, and not before-introduced species but still of the he.ghts, colors and times of flowering required for the first example of the pattern. The safest way, however, as we have 800 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. already observed, is to adopt but a moderate number of species, and those of the showy sorts that have numerous varieties, and are of hardy vigorous growth. A suitable list for this purpose" is given in the floricultural catalogue, under the head of Border Flowers, and the reader may increase it at pleasure from the Protlromus of Page. 6119. The select flower-garden being limited to one kind, or class, of plants, is com- paratively simple as far as respects planting. It may be devoted to florists' flowers, as the hyacinth, tulip, pink, auricula, &c. ; to select flowers, as the dahlia, paeony, chry- santhemum, &c. ; to annuals, hardy, half hardy, and tender ; to American or bog-earth shrubs and plants ; to any one natural order, as the bulbous-rooted tribe ; or to spring, summer, or autumn flowers, &c. 6120. Florists' flowers andselect flowers are planted in beds or compartments of carefully prepared soil, and the arrangement in the beds is generally conducted on the principle of mixing the colors and shades of color as much as possible. As the plants being of the same species generally grow of the same height, and come into flower at the same time, no particular attention is requisite in these respects. (See Hya- cinth and Auricula, in the catalogue.) 6121. A parterre of annuals, as the different sorts generally come into flower about the same time, may either be arranged according to their colors and heights jointly ; or, as there are numerous varieties oV some sorts, as of larkspur, chrysanthemum, lupin, &c., each species with its varieties may be sown in groups or beds, by itself; and the general principle by which to determine the sorts which are to join each other, may either be color and height, or natural character. If the latter, then the table exhibiting the genera, arranged according to the Jussieuean classification (589.), will be found a convenient guide. 6122. An American garden combines shrubs and even low trees. These may be arranged in the mixed method, according to color, height, and time of flowering, the trees and shrubs alone, and the plants alone, or both combined : but the most suitable way is to follow the natural orders, attending, at the same time, to keep the higher sorts farthest from the walk or side from which the group or border is to be chiefly viewed. This arrangement has an excellent effect in an American shrubbery, where the low species of heaths and other bog under-shrubs which are introduced, supply the place of herbaceous plants. 6123. A garden exclusively devoted to bulbous-rooted flowers, admits of being very perfectly arranged after the natural method. No orders run into other so naturally as, and none present a more harmonious assemblage both of foliage and flowers than, the Phanerogameas. (589.) The planting of such a garden would require very little nicety beyond introducing the .proper genera and species in succession, taking care to keep the. taller bulbs, as lilium, fritillaria, &c. in the interior of the groups or beds. 6124. Gardens of spring, summer, or autumn flowers may be planted on any of the principles that have been mentioned. 6125. The changeable flower-garden. The essential principle of this garden consists in the power of changing its productions at pleasure, so that whenever any plant, or group of plants, begin to decay, they can be removed and their places supplied by others coming into bloom. To admit of this a large reserve- nursery is requisite, in which the plants must be kept in pots, and removed and plunged in the borders as wanted. The Chinese, Sir W. Chambers informs us (Dissert, on Orient. Gard. 96.), excel in this mode of gardening ; and we have been informed by a traveller who has resided some time at Canton, that he has known a mandarin (or noble) have- the whole furniture and style of his parterre changed in a single night, so as next morning to present not only a different description of flowers, shrubs, and dwarf trees, but a different arrangement of the beds and compartments. Something of the same kind is practised in the gardens of the Tuilleries in Paris ; in some of the Imperial gardens at Petersburg, and in the vice- royal gardens at Monza. Gardens of this description admit of a very perfect arrangement of the flowers, whether in the mingled manner, in select groups, or according to the natural method. It is only with such resources that a flower-gardener can " paint his way," as Sir W. Chambers says the Chinese artists do, " not scattering their flowers indiscriminately about their borders, but disposing of them with great circumspection along the skirts of the plantations, or other places where flowers are to be introduced. They reject all that are of a straggling growth, of harsh colors, and poor foliage, choosing only such as are of some duration, grow either large or in clusters, are of beautiful forms, well leaved, and of tints that harmonise with the greens that surround them. They avoid all sudden transitions, both with regard to dimension and color, rising gradually from the smallest flowers to the hollyhocks, paeonies, sun-flowers, carnation-poppies, and others of the boldest growth ; and varying their tints, by easy gradations, from white, straw-color, purple, and incarnate, to the dtepest blues, and most brilliant crimsons and scarlets. They frequently blend several roots together, whose leaves and flowers unite, and compose one rich har- monious mass ; such as the white and purple candytuft, larkspurs, and mallows of various colors, .double poppies, lupins, primroses, pinks, and carnations ; with many more of which the forms and colors accord with each other ; and the same method they use with flowering shrubs, blending white, red, and varie- gated roses together, purple and white lilacs, yellow and white jessamine, altheas of various sorts, and as many others as they can with any propriety unite. By these mixtures they increase considerably the variety and beauty of their compositions. In their large plantations the flowers generally grow in the natural ground; but in flower-gardens, and all other parts that are highly kept, they are in pots, buried in the ground, which, as fast as the bloom goes off, are removed, and others are brought to supply their places ; so that there is a constant succession for almost every month in the year ; and the flowers are never seen but in the height of their beauty." (Dis. on Orient. Gard. 96.) 6126. The botanic flower-garden being intended to display something of the extent and variety of the vegetable kingdom, as well as its resemblances and differences, should obviously be arranged according to some system or method of study. In modern times, the choice is almost limited to the artificial system of Linnaeus, and the natural method of Jussieu, though Adanson has given above fifty-six different methods by which plants may be arranged. (Fam. des Plants.} The latter has much the best effect in a garden, and corresponds better with culture. The former, though most convenient for the young student, yet by bringing plants together that have few or no obvious relations, it destroys that harmony which is so gratifying in viewing natural families. Whatever method is adopted, the plants may either be placed in regular rows, or each order may be grouped apart, and surrounded by turf or gravel. For a private botanic garden, the mode of grouping on turf is much the most elegant, and it has this advantage, that as the species belonging to the group are increased, it can be enlarged by appropriating a part of the turf, and any group containing few species may be filled up with repetitions for effect. The groups may be of the most irregular outlines, and those which are to contain trees may be raised or lowered in surface, according as the species may be natives of hills or BOOK II. PLANTING THE FLOWER-GARDEN. 801 valleys, and the trees and plants so dispersed as that the former shall not conceal the latter, nor present a compact lumpish appearance at the edges, or in the outline against the sky. Rock-work may be introduced in groups where there are many alpines to be grown ; and bogs, ponds, and springs imitated in others destined for aquatics, &c. as far as consistent with botanical purposes. A gravel-walk may be so contrived as to form a tour of all the groups (Jig. 553.), displaying them on both sides; in the centre, or in any fitting part of the scene, the botanic hot-houses may be placed ; and the whole might be 554 surrounded with a sloping phalanx of evergreen plants, shrubs, and trees. The plants in such a garden should generally be neatly, but inconspicuously named, or, at all events, numbered ; but naming is greatly to be preferred, as saving trouble to the spectator, and more inviting to the novice desirous of knowledge. It is hardly necessary to observe that the above modes, or others that we have mentioned, of planting a flower-garden, are alike applicable to every form or style of laying out the garden or parterre, and that they do not interfere with any mode of enclosing or surrounding it, or of edging the walks. G127. Decorations. It is usual to employ different objects of art as decorations to flower-gardens, and the practice is founded in reason, since the works of nature and of art lend force to each other by their contrast. We have, in a former part ( 1 805. to 1 846. ), enumerated the principal garden-decorations. Those more especially applicable to the flower-garden are the fountain in various forms ; the open and covered, or rustic seat (Jig. 555.) ; the statue (Jig. 554. ) in all its va- rieties of therm, bust, single figure and group, and in the various materials of stone, metal, or ver- dure ; the arbor, and a variety of others. Even the apiary and aviary, or, at least, here and there a beehive, or a cage suspended 3 F 555 802 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. from a tree, will form very appropriate ornaments. Sometimes inoffensive birds, as the sea- gull, may be introduced to run at large ; gold-fish are very appropriate in the aquarium ; and an animal which affords great amusement by its cry and song in the flower-gardens of the south of Germany, the tree-frog (Rana arborea}, would be an acquisition in this country. In some families there is a taste for minerals or antiquities ; and here, besides larger spe- cimens distributed in the garden, a building (fig. 556.) may be introduced, combining a mineral cabinet (a), an aviary (6), and the botanic hot-houses (c). 6128. Where the old French style (figs. 545. 550.) is (, imitated, a profusion of marble and vegetable sculp- it tures, verdant arcades, colonnades, arbors, &c. are in character ; but in the more simple and modern forms (figs. 540, 541. 543..) a few stools, sofa-chairs, a pavilion- seat (fig. 338.), a sun-dial, fountain, some urns, and a few good statues, will, in most cases, be sufficient. In the distribution of even these few decorations much judgment is requisite to avoid exciting ridicule by fall- ' ing into the vapid, the flippant, or some other species of deformity. (See Schimmelpenninck on Beauty, &c.) 6129. Time of planting herbaceous plants. This is, in general, autumn and spring ; but any perennial plant may be safely removed after it has done flowering or produced seed. With respect to biennials and annuals, they may be planted at almost any season before they have begun to throw up flower-stems. Biennials, however, are generally sown early in autumn in the flower-garden nursery, and transplanted either late in the same season or early in the following spring, to where they are to flower. Annuals are commonly sown in spring, where they are finally to remain. The culture of herbaceous flowers of the more valued sorts is exceedingly varied, and will be found under each species or class in the Flower-garden Catalogue. For the preparation of the soil and the manner of per- forming the operation, see these articles in (Chap. IV.) Planting the Shrubbery. CHAP. III. Of Forming the Shrubbery. 6130. By a shrubbery, or shrub-garden, we understand a scene for the display of shrubs valued for their beauty or fragrance, combining such trees as are considered chiefly orna- mental, and some herbaceous flowers. The form or plan of the modern shrubbery is ge- nerally a winding border, or strip of irregular width, accompanied by a walk, near to which it commences with the herbaceous plants and lowest shrubs, and as it falls back, the shrubs rise in gradation and terminate in the ornamental trees, also similarly gradu- ated. Sometimes a border of shrubbery accompanies the walk on both sides ; at other times only on one side, while the other side is, in some cases, a border for culinary vege- tables surrounding the kitchen-garden, but most generally it is an accompanying breadth of turf, varied by occasional groups of trees and plants, or decorations, and with the bor- der, forms what is called pleasure-ground. 6131. The sort of shrubbery formed under the geometric style of gardening (fig. 557.) was more compact ; it was called a basque, thicket or wood, and contained various compartments of turf or gravel branching from the walks, and very generally a labyrinth. The species of shrubs in those times being very limited, the object was more walks for recreation, shelter, shade, and verdure, than a display of flowering shrubs. What was wanting in natural beauty and variety, however, was made up by the art of the gardener in cutting such trees and shrubs as he had, into curious shapes. Shrubberies are often made for the sake of obtaining an agreeable walk to some particular place or scene, as the kitchen-garden, farm, wood, &c. ; and sometimes in order to lead the spectator to different points, where views or distant prospects may be obtained. The most desirable shrubbery is one where both these objects are combined ; and the least so, where the walk leads to no particular object, is shut up on both sides, and has no beauties to depend on but those of the shrubs. Hence Sir W. Chambers complains of walks enculde sac, and Knight of " the shrub- bery's insipid scenes,"&c. (Tr. on Country Res. i. 352.) The shrubbery, however, judiciously laid out and planted, will always be a scene of considerable beauty and use about a country-seat. It is" one of the princi- pal resources for a home- walk for exercise ; and as Repton has observed, a tolerable walk, even round one's own field, is more interesting than a better one where we have no interest. " We are greatly indebted to shrubs," Nicol observes, " for much of the pleasure and delight we enjoy in our gardens. Though they produce no eatable fruits, nor afford us any sort of nourishment, yet they are particularly conducive to our comfort. In winter, they shelter us in our walks ; in summer, they shade us from the sun. They affbrd a great variety of flowers, a varied foliage, and are standard ornaments that give us no great trouble. They are particularly useful in the character of screens, whether against the weather, or to hide disagreeable ob- jects, in which case they may be planted nearer to the house than forest-trees. When planted in masses at a distance, they become agreeable objects, and often improve the scenery of a place. The shrubbery is often a matter of utility as well as of ornament, in whicn case it gives the highest satisfaction. When formed for the purposes of shutting out the offices or the kitchen-garden from the view of the house ; for sheltering the latter or the garden, or for connecting the house with the garden and the orchard, tK shrubbery becomes useful and interesting," 6132. In respect to situation, it is essential that the shrubbery should commence either BOOK II. FORMING THE SHRUBBERY. 803 immediately at the house, or be joined to it by the flower-garden ; a secondary requisite is, that however far, or in whatever direction it be continued, the walk be so contrived as to prevent the necessity of going to and returning from the principal points to which it leads over the same ground : but as this is a matter which must be arranged in the general disposition or laying out of the residence, it need not be here entered on. 6133. Ttie extent of the modern shrubbery must depend more on the extent of that place of which it is a part than on any other principle, and it is, or ought to be, so blended with the flower-garden lawn, as scarcely to admit of its quantity being estimated apart. Where the proportion of pleasure-ground, which may be judiciously apportioned to a residence, depends so much on the ground's surface, and on the character or style of the whole seat, nothing definite can be laid down in the way of rules. The walks in the pleasure-ground should generally exceed a mile or two for the sake of recreation ; but what proportion of these should be in open lawn, and what in flower-garden, or along the margin of a shrub- bery, is too vague a question to receive any useful answer. Local circumstances and the character to be created must determine every thing. It may be mentioned as a charac- teristic distinction between the ancient and modem shrubbery, that the former was of limited extent, compact form, situated near the house, and that the length of walk was made up by repetition of parallel and cross walks. The whole of these had little distant prospect, and were generally more sheltered and shaded than is suitable for our climate ; whereas, in the modern shrubbery, the length is made up by stretching out the walk to a distance ; and air and ventilation, as well as views and prospects, are obtained by its being planted chiefly on one side. Such shelter and shade as is deemed requisite for the walk is obtained by the introduction of scattered trees along its open margin. 6134. Soil. " Shrubs, in general," Nicol observes, "thrive very well in ordinary garden-land, and better in light than in heavy soils. Most shrubs, likewise, do well in ground a foot in depth ; but it is always advisable to trench to the full depth of the soil, previous to planting, if that were even two feet. Manure is seldom bestowed on shrubs, and if the soil be not far below mediocrity, it is seldom necessary, provided the ground be otherwise well prepared, and be meliorated by trenching or digging. In the case of plant- ing screens, where it is desirable to have them effectual as soon as possible, or in planting favorite shrubs in particular situations, every justice should be done to the soil in prepar- ing and enriching it, either with manure or by the addition of fresh earth. Those who are curious in collections of certain shrubs, prepare or choose certain soils for them. Evergreens, for the most part, thrive well in loam of a middling texture ; but some kinds do better in mossy humid earth, as the azalea and rhododendron. Deciduous shrubs, in general, thrive well in light loams or sandy soils ; but certain kinds flower better in rich mellow earth, as the moss-rose and the robinia." 6135. Walks. " The conducting of walks," Nicol says, " through the shrubbery, is a matter both of conveniency and of taste : of conveniency, when the shrubbery is merely a passage from one place to another, or a narrow screen to the garden. In the former case, the walk should be simple and direct : in the latter case it may be circuitous ; and if there be any variety in the ground, it ought to lead to particular points of view. The walks, however, should seldom cross one another ; they should rather take off at oblique angles ; nor should one run parallel to another within view. It is proper to show off the shrubs, but too many walks perplex. Their breadths may be various. If short, they should be narrow ; if long, and if a considerable reach be caught at once, they should be broad. A medium may be taken at five feet, the extremes being three and eight. They may be of turf or of gravel ; but the latter is always most wholesome, and most agreeable in winter." In the ancient style, where the shrubbery, or umbrageous scene (Jig. 557. a), often enclosed the flower-garden (i), both being situated in front of the house (c), the walks (rf) were laid out in arbitrary geometrical shapes, crowded and nu- merous, to afford sufficient space for recreation, and varied by niches (e), boudoirs (f), salons (g~) , and other open parts to give variety. 6136. Fence. Local circumstances must, in almost every case, determine the sort of exterior or boundary-fence most proper for the shrubbery or pleasure-ground ; the inte- rior, or that on the open side, should, in almost every case, be one of the inconspicuous kind ; either light iron-railings, moveable hurdles of wood or iron, or the sunk-fence. Where the shrubbery is not a boundary plantation, a light fence may include it on both sides ; but so much depends on locality and other arrangements, that the subject cannot be profitably discussed separately from that of laying out the entire residence. Under the geometric style, the business of fencing the shrubbery or woody scene, was very sim- ple, the whole being generally surrounded by a high wall. " Fences of all kinds," Abercrombie observes, " are rather necessary and useful as instruments of shelter and security than to be chosen as materials of ornament. Whether the view terminates on the fence, or is directed beyond it, the effect on the scene, at best, is negative : thus, a fence is sometimes made higher than its proper use requires, merely to shut out something more unsightly ; and, in judiciously employing that capital invention, the sunk-fence or 3 F 2 804 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. 557 PART III. m ha-ha, the advantage, though great, is purely negative ; some prospect worth retaining at considerable cost is not obstructed." 6137. Reserve-ground for the shrubbery. A plot of ground should be set apart for the propagation and culture of the more tender shrubs, to supply deaths or accidents in the front of the shrub-border. This reserve-nursery will be most conveniently situated when joined to that of the flower-garden; but it may also be taken from the interior of any wide part of the plantation where it will not be seen. Here roses, mezereons, American shrubs, honeysuckles, and a variety of the more ornamental and tender sorts should always be in readiness, partly in pots and partly in nursery lines, to remove to the principal scene, either to add to its usual beauty, or to compensate for accidental defects. To the same ground may be added a space for accumulating leaves, spray, and other refuse of the shrubbery, to ferment and produce manure for the nursery in the same way as is done in the compost-grounds of the kitchen and flower garden. CHAP. IV. Of Planting tfie Shrubbery. 6138. On planting tJie shrubbery the same general remarks, submitted as introductory to planting the flower-garden, are applicable ; and shrubs may be arranged in as many different manners as flowers. Trees, however, are permanent and conspicuous objects, and consequently produce an effect during winter, when the greater number of herba- ceous plants are scarcely visible. This is more especially the case with that class called evergreens, which, according as they are employed or omitted, produce the greatest dif- ference in the winter aspect of the shrubbery. We shall here describe four leading modes for the arrangement of the shrubbery, distinguishing them by the names of the mingled or common, the select or grouped manner, and the systematic or methodical style of planting. Before proceeding farther it is requisite to observe, that the proportion of evergreen trees to deciduous trees in cultivation in this country, is as 1 to 12 ; of ever- green shrubs to deciduous shrubs, exclusive of climbers and creepers but including roses, as 4 to 8 ; that the time of the flowering of trees and shrubs is from March to August inclusive, and that the colors of the flowers are the same as in herbaceous plants. These data will serve as guides for the selection of species and varieties for the different modes of arrangement, but more especially for the mingled manner. 6139. To dispose shrubs and trees in the mingled manner, proceed as under. The width of the space to be covered with trees, shrubs, and flowers being given, first mark it out in rows lengthways. The first BOOK II. PLANTING THE SHRUBBERY. 805 row may be two feet from the margin of the turf or the edge of the walk ; the second, three feet from the first ; the third, four feet from the second ; and so on to the back of the plantation. Suppose the width to admit of ten rows (fig. 558. a to A), then the six rows next the walk will occupy a space of twenty- seven feet, which may be devoted to shrubs, and the remaining three rows will occupy a space of thirty- seven feet, and may be planted with trees. Then beginning with the first row, which is destined for the lowest class of shrubs, arrange them according to the times of their flowering, which will, as in arranging herbaceous plants, be most conveniently done at six times: viz. 1, March ; 2, April, &c. to 6, August; and they will stand as in the flower-border in the order of 1, 6, 3, 5, 2, 4, and with the colors in the same manner (). The second row (b) is to be arranged in the same manner ; and as trees, though nearly of the same size when planted, yet attain finally very different degrees of bulk, provision must be made for the plants in each row to expand year after year, till they attain their full growth. This we propose to do by planting two plants of a sort in the second row (b}, three in the third, and so on (as indicated in the figure), till in the last or tenth row (), there will be ten plants of a sort in a line together. It is to be observed, that a deciduous and an evergreen sort (marked d, e, in the figure) are to be planted alternately, in order to ensure an equal mixture in respect to verdure j and that the colors (denoted by r, w, b, y, in the figure) are mixed as in the mingled border, to ensure a general display of mixed blossoms. The se- cond or third year such of the plants are to be thinned out as crowd the others, reserving, however, as final plants, one of each sort, (say E for the evergreens, and D for the deciduous sorts), so placed in re- spect to the plants in the other rows, as that the whole, when finally thinned out, may stand in quincunx. The largest trees will then occupy about 100 square feet each ; and each of the shrubs in the front row about a square yard : there will be the same number of deciduous plants as evergreens ; some shrubs of all the four colors in blow throughout the whole season, and a verdant aspect in summer as well as winter. 558 *. . role nils wl role role role role nle role nle b6d b6d b6d Kd b6d b6d b6d b6d b6d b6d t/3e yZe E D E rfid r6d rdd r6d r6d r6d r6d r6d r6d ft'3e rv3e wZe w3e n>3e w3e ro3 ro3e D E bZe 63 63 63e 63 We 63e 63e t/5d y5d y5d 'y5d y5d ybd y5d y5d rZe r'ic rZe r2e rfe r2e ED E K .... .. ro2d w2d ro2d w2d n'id ro2d ro2d Me b4e Me Me Me Me Me yld yld yld yld D ED f, T 4e He r4e He He He rold rold m\d ne ybe ybe y5e D E rf m \ e n \ e role role Kd Kd b6d b6d j/3e j,3e t/3e ySe r5d r5d r5d rbd n|e ro2e ro2e ro2e lAd Md e.... ... r5d rbd rbd ro2e ro2e w2e Md Md Md yle yle yle r6d r6d r6d ro3e ro3e n-3e Md D E D E 6 Me 64e yld yld r6e r6e ro3d ro3d Me Me j/2d jftd r4e He rold rold 66e 6G .^d EI)E D E D -* 63d y5e r2d ro4e 61d y6e r3d ro5e 62- DED E DED ED 3 F 3 id 1 rofe KU y5e rtd ro4e bid j/6e r3d ro5e 62d t,4e rid ro6e Wd ySe rU ro4e ild j/f,e r3d T>R n^RTiRTiRD EDED EDED B D X 9 806 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 6140. Tlie distance between the rows of trees (ten feet) may in some cases be an objection, for a year or two at first ; but this, we consider, will be more than counterbalanced by the opportunity afforded of cul- tivating the ground between them, and by the air and light admitted to their side shoots, which will the sooner fit them for producing blossoms. All formality of appearance will soon be done away by the irre- gular growth of the plants, and by the thinnings which must take place in, at the latest, three years after planting. If any, however, object to the appearance of rows, they may be obliterated, by introducing some plants in the intervals of the same sort as those in the lines adjoining ; but in doing this, care must be taken never to lose sight of the shrub or tree which is finally to remain, as it is of importance to this plan, (which is not natural or picturesque planting), that the regular disposition of the whole be preserved, as well with a view to the gradation of height as to the mixture of color in the fiower, and of permanent and deciduous foliage. The herbaceous plants only remain to be added. These are to be inserted one row in front of the first row of shrubs (o), and three or more rows (p, q, r, s) in the intervening spaces between the next rows. The plants are to form a quincunx with the shrubs ; and the same arrangement as to height, color, and time of flowering, adopted as in the mingled border. Such a shrubbery may be commenced with (2 X 6) twelve sorts of evergreen, and the same number of deciduous trees ; with (6 x 6) thirty-six sorts of shrubs, half the number deciduous, and half evergreen ; and with (5 x 6) thirty sorts of herbaceous plants. It may then be continued either by repeating the pattern with the same sorts, or by other sorts ; or principally by the same sorts, with some others occasionally. If a show of flowers is valued, the sorts employed must be comparatively few, as the flowers of the greater number of trees and shrubs are of dull colors, or little conspicuous. The evergreen trees, in a popular sense, can hardly be said to have any flower ; but still a number of them must be introduced in the back rows, to blend with horse- chestnuts, limes, acacias, wild cherries, wild pears, &c. &c. 6141. The select or grouped manner of planting a shrubbery (Jig. 559.) is analogous to the select manner of planting a flower-garden. Here one genus, species, or even variety, is planted by itself in considerable numbers, so as to produce a powerful effect. Thus the pine tribe, as trees, may be alone planted in one part of the shrubbery, and the holly, in its numerous varieties, as shrubs. After an extent of several yards, or hundreds of yards, have been occupied with these two genera, a third and fourth, say the evergreen fir tribe and the yew, may succeed, being gradually blended with them, and so on. A similar grouping is observed in the herbaceous plants inserted in the front of the plant- ation ; and the arrangement of the whole as to height, is the same as in the mingled shrubbery. 6142. The chief difficulty in this manner of planting is so to select the sorts that are to succeed each other, so to blend one group or kind with those adjoining, and at the same time maintaining the requisite gradation from the front to the back of the plant- ation, as to preserve to the spectator in walking along, the appearance of a whole. When this is successfully accomplished, and on a large scale, no kind of shrubbery can be more beautiful in summer ; but in winter it will present parts wholly without evergreens, and it will only be rich in flowers in some parts ; as for example, where the roses, spireae, mespileee, &c. are introduced. By proper contrivance, however, the evergreens, the showy flowering deciduous kinds, and the less showy deciduous sorts may form three divisions, and the two former can be kept nearest the mansion. The best guides as to the sorts proper to adjoin each other, are the general form and mode of growth ; and next, the color and foliation. In these particulars the transition should always be gra- dual. Thus, among the trees, the pines, cedars, firs, and yew, form a regular gradation, and the shrubs which may be placed near them are the arbor vitae, juniper, whin, &c. To place groups of weeping-willow or elm adjoining the pines, and to select roses and lilacs as shrubs, would produce a harsh and incongruous effect. There is obviously much less natural affinity between herbaceous plants and shrubs than between shrubs and trees ; but the groups of the herbaceous plants must harmonise among themselves on the same general principles as the trees ; thus pink-looking plants (caryophyttece), should not be succeeded by coarse broad-leaved sorts (boraginete), but rather by more delicate kinds, as grasses or primula?, &c. There may sometimes also be a certain species of relation between the herbaceous plants and shrubs ; thus the bulbous-rooted kinds, and small early flowers, as violets, primulae, will be more fitly planted among evergreens and early-flowering deciduous shrubs than among late deciduous kinds. BOOK II. PLANTING THE SHRUBBERY. 807 6143. Various other modes of select-planting shrubberies may be adopted ; such as collecting together all such shrubs, trees, and flowers as flower at the same time, or have the same color of flower, or foliage, or the same odors, or the same general shape, or the same natural habitation, as of marshes, mountains, &c., or the same country, as America, Switzerland, Sweden, &c. But the intelligent gardener who has attended to what has been already advanced, can hardly require farther instructions to form such plant- ations. We would suggest, as worth trial, where there was ample space, the mode of arranging by odors ; the ancients are said to have paid particular attention to this in mixing their trees. (Falconer, &c. and see 37.) Every one must have experienced a difference in this respect between walking in a pine-forest, a plantation of balsam-poplars, a birch-copse, and beside sweet-briar and juniper hedges. An arrangement of this kind, depending on the smell of the buds and leaves, rather than of the flower, would have its effect the greater part of the year, especially after showers 6144. Systematic or , methodical planting in shrubberies consists, as in flower -planting, in adopting the Linnaean or Jussieuean arrangement as a foundation, and combining at the same time a due attention to gradation of heights. This mode, executed on a grand scale, would unquestionably be the most interesting of all, even to general observers ; but on a small scale it could not be so universally pleasing as the mingled manner, or the mode by select grouping. The uninstructed mind might be surprised and puzzled by such an assemblage ; but not perceiving the relations which constitute its excellence, they would be less pleased than by a profusion of ordinary beauties ; by a great show of gay flowers and foliage. Dr. Darwin is said to have blended picturesque beauty with scientific arrangement in a dingle at Litchfield, where he disposed of a large collection of trees and plants in the Linnaean manner. The same thing may be attempted on any de- scription of surface, and with any form of ground-plan, provided turf be introduced, and care be taken to elongate the groups containing trees in such a way as to preserve a suf- ficient degree of woodiness throughout, both for shelter, shade, and picturesque effect. In this way we have arranged a spot (Jig. 560.) of little more than an acre and a half, 560 so as to ordinary observers, to be nothing more than a house surrounded by pleasure- ground, but to the botanist and painter, to be a scientific and picturesque scene. This spot combines a villa and offices (a), a kitchen-garden (ft), reserve-garden and melon- ground (c), botanic ground for herbaceous plants (rf), rock-work (e\ rosarium (/), aquarium ( g), American ground (li) ; besides a variety of other subordinate scenes, a scattered orchard (i), and the shrubbery (k), arranged in irregular, elongated groups on lawn, in the manner mentioned. But much the most interesting mode of arrangement would be that of Jussieu, by which a small villa of two or three acres might be raised, as far as gardening is concerned, to the ne plus ultra of interest and beauty. To aid in the formation of such scenes the tables (588, 589.) exhibiting the genera contained in each Linnsean or Jussieuean order, and also the number of species distributed according to their places in the garden, will be found of the greatest use. 6145. Chinese arrangement. It is only since the great influx of trees and shrubs from America, during the latter half of the last century, that the idea of arranging shrubs found a place in the writings on gardening. Sir W. Chambers seems to have been the first who suggested it in his account (whether correct or not, is of little consequence to our present purpose), of the practice of the Chinese gardeners. The Chinese, he says, 3 F 4 808 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. in their plantations, do not, as is the practice of some European gardeners, plant indis- criminately every thing that comes in their way ; nor do they ignorantly imagine, that the whole perfection of plantations consists in the variety of the trees and shrubs of which they are composed : on the contrary, their practice is guided by many rules founded on reason and long observation, from which they seldom or never deviate. Many trees, shrubs, and flowers, they say, thrive best in low moist situations ; many on hills and mountains : some require a rich soil ; but others will grow on clay, in sand, or even upon rocks ; and in the water : to some a sunny exposition is necessary ; but for others, the shade is preferable. There are plants which thrive best in exposed situations ; but, in general, shelter is requisite. The skilful gardener, to whom study and experience have taught these qualities, carefully attends to them in his operations ; knowing that thereon depend the health and growth of his plants ; and, consequently, the beauty of his plantations. 6146. The perfection of trees for ornamental gardening consists in their size, in the beauty and variety of their forms, the color and smoothness of their bark, the quantity, shape, and rich verdure of their foliage, with its early appearance in the spring, and long duration in the autumn ; likewise in the quick- ness of their growth j and their hardiness to endure the extremities of heat, cold, drought, or moisture ; in their making no litter, during the spring or summer, by the fall of the blossom ; and in the strength of their branches, to resist, unhurt, the violence of tempests. 6147. The perfection of shrubs consists not only in most of the above-mentioned particulars, but also in the beauty, durability, or long succession of their blossom ; and in their fair appearance before the bloom, and after it is gone. We are sensible, say they, that no plant is possessed of all good qualities ; but choose such as have the fewest faults ; and avoid all the exotics that vegetate with difficulty in our climate ; for though they may be rare, they cannot be beautiful, being always in a sickly state. 6148. The excessive variety of which some European gardeners are so fond in their plantations, the Chinese artists blame ; observing, that a great diversity of colors, foliage, and direction of branches, must create confusion, and destroy all the masses upon which effect and grandeur depend: they observe too, that it is unnatural ; for, as in nature most plants sow their own seeds, whole forests are generally com- posed of the same sort of trees. They admit, however, of a moderate variety ; but are by no means pro- miscuous in the choice of their plants ; attending, with great care, to the color, form, and foliage of each ; and only mixing together such as harmonise and assemble agreeably. They observe, that some trees are only proper for thickets ; others, only fit to be employed singly : and others, equally adapted to both these situations. The mountain cedar, the spruce and silver firs and all others whose branches hare a hori- zontal direction, they hold improper for thickets : because they indent into each other ; and likewise cut disagreeably upon the plants which back them. They never mix these horizontal-branched trees with the cypress, the oriental arbor vita, the bamboo, or other upright ones ; nor with the larch, the weeping willow, the birch, the laburnum, or any of a pendent nature ; observing, that the intersection of their branches forms a very unpicturesque kind of network : neither do they employ together the catalpa and the acacia, the yew and the willow, the plane and the sumach, nor any of such heterogeneous sorts ; but, on the contrary, they assemble in their large woods, the oak, the elm, the beech, the tupelo, the sycamore, maple, and plane, the chestnut, the walnut, the arbele, the lime, and all those whose luxuriant foliage hides the direction of their branches ; and growing in globular masses, assemble well together j forming, by the harmonious combination of their tints, one grand group of rich verdure. 6149. In their smaller plantations, they employ trees of a smaller growth, but of the same concordant sorts ; bordering them with Persian lilacs, guelder-roses, syringas, coronillas of various sorts, flowering raspberries, yellow jessamine, hypericum, the spiraea frutex, altheas, roses, and other flowering shrubs peculiar to China : and wherever the ground is bare, they cover it with white, blue, purple, and variegated periwinkle, the convolvulus minor, dwarf stocks, violets, primroses, and different kinds of creeping flowers ; and with strawberries, tutsan, and ivy which climbs up and covers the stems of the trees. 6150. In their shrubberies they follow, as much as possible, the same rules ; observing farther, to plant in some of them all such shrubs as flourish at one time ; and in some, such as succeed each other : of which different methods the first is much the most brilliant ; but its duration is short ; and the appearance of the shrubbery is generally shabby, as soon as the bloom is off: they therefore seldom use it, but for scenes that are to be enjoyed at certain periods ; preferring the last, on other occasions, as being of long duration, and less unpleasing after the flowers are gone. (Dissert, on Orient. Gard.) 6151. British practice. Soon after Sir William Chambers's work appeared that of Wheatley, which contains some excellent remarks on the subject (Obs. on Gard. sect.xii. xiii. xiv.), and subsequently Uvedale Price's -excellent .Essays on the Picturesque, vol. i. In 1804 we endeavored to enforce the principle, not only in planting trees, but in arranging herbaceous plants, and the plants in botanic hot-houses. (Obs. on Planting and Landscape Gard. 8vo.) All these efforts were at first treated as visionary by Marshal, Nicol, and other planters and gardeners. But Nicol, in the last editions of his works, allows there may be some merit in grouping ; and Sang, his editor, highly approves of following nature in the arrangement of trees. (Planter's Kalend.} 6152. Nicol says, " the proper disposition of shrubs, where many are to be planted, is a matter of con- siderable importance to the future welfare of the whole, and that whether they be mixed, or be grouped ; that is to say, whether deciduous or evergreen shrubs be indiscriminately mixed, as is often done, or the evergreens be planted distinctly by themselves. The arrangement of shrubs is a matter, no doubt, very much of fancy. In some parts they may be mixed ; in others grouped ; but, in general, there ought to be plenty of evergreens planted, in order that the whole may be the more cheerful in winter. Generally speaking, however, the method of mixing all kinds of shrubs indiscriminately, prevails too much in modern shrubberies. Much more character and distinctness may be given, by judiciously grouping them, than by following the common methods of planting." 6153. Abercrombie, or rather his posthumous editor, seems undecided in his observations on this subject. In one place he says, " in the distribution of plants over grounds dedicated to elegance, there are two rival systems, each of w'hich has its practical followers and theoretical vindicators. One proposes the indiscri- minate mixture of many different species ; the other deliberately groups those only which have some marks of affinity. It is still a question, which order of planting is countenanced by the practice of nature in self-sown vegetables ; and which will confer on a garden the stronger claims to character and beauty ?" He elsewhere observes, that " the different natures of herbaceous flowers, shrubs, and trees stand in the way of every attempt to govern their distribution or assemblage by a common principle." In planting trees, however, he subjoins, " theprinciple of unity may be consulted, without losing sight of the advan- tage of variety," &c. (Pr. Gard, 477.) BOOK II. PLANTING THE SHRUBBERY. 809 561 6154. Fruit-trees in shrubberies. " In shrubberies of considerable extent, fruit-trees may be interspersed at fifteen or twenty yards' distance, by which means a good deal of fruit may be obtained, and very much beauty added to the shrubbery. In spring the blossoms of apples, cherries, and pears are beautiful ; in autumn their fruits and the foliage of cherries in particular, give a lustre and variety that highly brightens the ap- pearance of other plants, especially of evergreens." ( Villa Card. Direct. 16.) This mode, Sir W. Chambers tells us, is practised, by the Chinese when the patron is poor ; that is, their shrubbery is composed of fruit-trees, and shrubs, and forms a sort of ornamental orchard. This we consider an advisable mode for an economical farm- residence ; but the general introduction of fruit-trees, in even mingled shrubberies, un- less of the species in their wild state, as crabs, wildings of pears, cherries, quinces, rasp- berries, &c. we consider as likely to destroy the character of the scene. It must be recollected too, that grafted trees, especially the apple and cherry, seldom grow so freely and produce such vigorous and natural-like heads as plants raised from seed ; they are, therefore, soon overtopped by the others, or where they are placed among trees tlrat do not grow higher than themselves, they seldom fail of producing deformed stunted heads. 6155. Forsyth, Abercrombie, and others, recommend their introduction, as it ap- pears to us, without due regard to any other object than the fruit they will pro- duce, and the fugacious beauty of their blossoms ; but their unaccommodating form, and their influence as to character in ornamental plantations, we consider as sufficient arguments against the prac- tice in general cases. 6156. Decorations in shrubberies. Those of the shrubbery should in general be of a more useful and imposing character than such as are adopted in the flower-garden. The green-house and aviary are sometimes introduced, but not, as we think, with propriety, owing to the unsuit- ableness of the scene for the requisite culture and attention. Open and co- vered seats are necessary, or, at least, useful decor- ations, and may occur here and there in the course of the walk, in various styles of decoration, from the rough bench to the rustic hut (Jig. 561.) and Gre- cian temple. (Jig. 562.) Great care, however, must be taken not to crowd these nor any other species of decorations. Buildings be- ing more conspicuous than either statues, urns, or in- scriptions, require to be introduced more sparingly, and with greater caution. In garden or ornamented scenery they should seldom obtrude themselves by their mag- nitude or glaring color ; and rarely be erected but for some obvious purpose of utility. 6157. Covered seats and shelters are intro- duced of many forms, and under a great variety of names, such as root-houses, heath- houses, moss-houses, huts, shelters, (Jig. 563. ) bowers, caverns, caves, grottoes, temples, mosques, &c. besides plain covered seats either of wood or stone. The imitation of temples or mosques, as they must be on a small scale, is generally quite ridiculous. The propriety of introducing the others depends entirely upon the character of the scene. Light bowers formed of lattice-work, and covered with climbers, are in general most suitable to parterres ; plain covered seats suit the general walks of the shrubbery. Most of the others may be introduced in romantic, singular, wild, or melancholy places. 562 563 810 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 565 564 566 6158. Statues, whether of classical or geographical interest (jigs. 564. and 565.), urns, in- scriptions, busts, monuments, &c. are materials which should be introduced with caution. None of the others require so much taste and judg- ment to manage them with propriety. The introduc- tion of statues, except among works of the most artificial kind, such as fine architecture, is seldom or never allowable ; for when they obtrude themselves among natural beauties, they always disturb the train of ideas which ought to be excited in the mind, and generally counteract the character of the scenery. In the same way, busts, urns, monuments, &c. in flower- , gardens, are most generally misplaced. The obvious intention of these appendages is to recall to mind the virtues, qualities, or actions of those for whom they were erected : now this requires time, seclusion, and undisturbed attention, which must either render all the flowers and other decorations of the ornamental garden of no effect ; or, if they have effect, it can only be to interrupt the train of ideas excited by the other. As the garden, and the productions of nature, are what are intended to interest the spectator, it is plain that the others should not be introduced. This reasoning, while on the one hand it shows the absurdity of such a practice, on the other, directs that urns, monuments, &c. should only be placed in solitary unfrequented places, where the mind is naturally led to contemplate, and where the remembrance of the virtues of great men, or the worth of relations now no more, afford proper subjects for contemplation. But even in places apparently solitary, or secluded, these have been introduced in so affected or improper a manner, as to furnish reason for the greatest caution in future. (Tr. on Country Res.) 6159. A cottage, when the walk of a shrubbery is of great extent, may some- times be advantageously introduced in a distant part of it, with an occupant, for the purpose of keeping one apartment in order as a place of repose. Such a cot- teg 6 (.fig' 566.) may be designed in any style, according to the taste of the owner, and may serve a variety of useful pur- poses. In the gardens laid out under the direction of the Queen of Geo. III. at Frogmore, and in the walks of what are called the slopes at Windsor, are some good examples of rustic seats, and orna- mented shrubbery cottages. 6160. On tlie subject of planting both ^flower-gardens and shrubberies we may remark, with the author of the Florist's Manual, that it is considered in much too unimportant a light, both by gardeners and their em- ployers. The business is almost every where performed at random, instead of being conducted with a specific object in view. To remedy this evil, gardeners should first make a correct plan of the border, parterre, or plot, of whatever kind it may be, that is to be planted ; and then having determined the mode of arrangement most proper, and selected the names of plants to effect it, from the proper catalogues, the situation of every plant and its name should be determined on the plan. This done, all these points should be correctly transferred to the ground, and a pin or stake inserted at each, num- bered in correspondence with a list of the sorts. The plants being procured, should then be distributed and planted according to these stakes and numbers ; and the stakes should be allowed to remain for a year or two, to make certain as to the sort to be re- placed there, in the case of death or accident. If ever this branch of gardening should attain a high degree of perfection in Britain, it will probably be deemed as necessary to call in a professor to direct the arrangement of flowers and shrubs in parterres and shrub- beries, as it is now to require his aid in arranging the ground-plan. BOOK II. ORNAMENTAL HOT-HOUSES. 511 CHAP. V. Of the Hot-houses used in Ornamental Horticulture. 6161. The hot-houses of floriculture are the frame, glass case, green-house, Granger)', conservatory, dry-stove, the bark or moist stove, in the flower-garden, or pleasure-ground ; and the pit and hot-bed in the reserve-garden. In the construction of all of these the great object is, or ought to be, the admission of light and the power of applying artificial heat with the least labor and expense. In culinary forcing-houses, it is requisite to at- tend to the angle of the glass roof, so as to obtain most of the sun's influence at the time the fruit within is to be ripened ; but in the hot-houses of the flower-garden or pleasure- ground, the construction ought to be such as to admit as much light as possible in win- ter ; for then in the stoves a heat is kept up by art, which is not to be found in any natural climate connected with so little light as is then afforded in our latitude. Hence, as a general principle it may be affirmed, that the roofs of all plant or botanic hot- houses should be steep rather than flat, and, perhaps, the angle of 45 may be fixed on as the fittest average. It was adopted by Miller, both in culinary and ornamental hot- houses, and is fitter for general purposes than any other. 6162. The frame used in ornamental horticulture is generally of the same form as those of the kitchen-garden. For alpine plants this form succeeds perfectly, but for frame-shrubs, the ends and front should be deeper than usual, and glazed half their depth, to admit the sun to the surface of the adjoining pots. Frames for the taller bulbous-rooted flowers, should either be glazed in front and at both ends, or if opaque in those parts, should be placed on a steep surface for the same general object. Frames of every description should have a gutter or spout in front, to carry off the rain-water which falls on the sashes. 6163. The glass case maybe variously constructed from detached sashes; it is used to protect standard trees or shrubs, and sometimes to place against walls or espaliers, (see/-. 326.) 6164. The green-house may be designed in any form, and placed in almost any situa- tion as far as respects aspect. Even a house looking due north, if glazed on three sides of the roof, will preserve plants in a healthy vigorous state. A detached green-house, even in the old style, may be rendered an agreeable object in a pleasure-ground, of which, as an example, we may refer to one (Jig. 567.) erected by Todd, for 568 E. Liebenrood, Esq. near Reading ; but the curvilinear principle applied to this class of structures, admits of every combination of form, and without militating against the ad- mission of light and air. Though we are decidedly of opinion, however, that as iron roofs on the curvilinear principle become known, the clumsy shed-like wooden or mixed roofs now in use will be erected only in nursery and market-gardens ; yet we are not to be understood as exclusively recommending our own plans, and we, therefore, de- scribe that of Todd, whose book contains a number of examples, erected in different parts of the country, and in the best manner of the old style. " This house ( fg. 567, ) has a span roof, and the centre lights, which are balanced by weights, made in imitation of acorns, suspended from the ridge of the roof, are made to slide, to admit air from the roof. The front and ends are formed with folding case- ments, hung so as to be taken away at pleasure ; and between each is a pilaster of treillage-work. A cast- iron column at each ex- tremity of the upper part of the roof, is placed for the purpose of keeping it from spreading, as such roofs ge- nerally do, unless held to- gether by a transverse tie, which has a less pleasant appearance than a column. A 812 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. single fire heats this house ; the flue goes under the floor round the front and ends, rises and continues above the floor along the back wall, and terminates in a chimney in the centre. Over the stock-hole is placed a cistern, which is supplied from the roof, and occasionally from a pump adjoining, with water, which is conveyed into the green-house by a lead pipe." (Plans for Green-houses, &c. p. 11.) 6165. The most suitable description of green-house or conservatory for tlie Jloirer- garden is that^with span roof (Jig. 568.), because such a house has no visible hinder parts," back sheds, stock-holes, or other points of ugliness, with which it is difficult to avoid associating all the shed, or lean-to forms of glazed buildings with back walls. Several elegant houses of this description have been erected by Messrs. Bailey. An example occurs in the Regent's Park, at the villa of W. H. Cooper, Esq. ; another at Walthamstowe, in the grounds of P. Kendal, Esq. ; and several more are mentioned in the table already given (1587.), or are in course of erection. 6166. In the interior of the green-house the principal object demanding attention is the stage, or platform for the plants. In a double-roofed house, surrounded by a path, the stage generally consists of shelves, rising from the path to the middle of the bouse (Jig. 567. a and 5) ; but in a house with a single roof (Jig. 569.) it generally rises from the front path to the back, and in both cases the slope of the stage is generally the same or somewhat less than the slope ! f^s. 569 of the roof. In the green-houses destined for very large or tall-growing plants, as camellias, and many of the New Holland plants, no stage is requisite ; and in such as are destined for small plants, as heaths and geraniums, the first step of the stage, when there is a path between it and the front glass, should be raised at least two feet and a half high, and it may then be continued parallel to the roof. The object of this arrangement is to bring the plants near the glass, so as they may obtain the benefit of the light in a state as little de- composed as possible. Flues in green-houses are frequently carried above ground, which is inelegant and too much in the style of the common forcing-house. They may in almost every case be conducted under the paths or stage, and by keeping them de- tached so as air may circulate round them, as much heat will be given out as by the common mode. In general one fire will be sufficient to warm from 4000 to 5000 cubic feet of air, of the temperature requisite for green-house plants, (see 1662.) In some cases trellis-rods are placed at regular distances under the roofs of green-houses, for the pur- pose of training vines ; but this practice is incompatible with a high degree of culture and beauty in the green-house plants, on account of the light it excludes ; besides, it interferes with character. If any creepers or climbers are to be trained under the roofs, they should be of the ornamental kind; but it is generally best to train them to upright rods at the back part of the house, or rods forming intersecting arches over the back paths, or against the back wall ; for by either of these modes they exclude less light, better display their foliage and flowers, and less recal the idea of the forcing- house. 6167. Abercrombie and Nicol give descriptions of green-houses, such as they approve ; the former is rather indefinite in his remarks ; but the latter has given the best instructions that have yet appeared, as far as respects the old forms and mode of treating and ventilating. 6168. According to Abercrombie, " The green-house may be made a very ornamental object as a structure. The front of the building should stand directly to the south, and the ends have an open aspect to the east and west The extent of the green-house may vary, according to the largeness of the collection to be cul- tivated : when most contracted it should considerably exceed the breadth and height, in order to have handsome proportions. As to the breadth, were it more than twenty feet, those plants most remote from the windows would be troublesome to manage, as they must stand on very high stages to be reached by the sun ; between twelve and twenty feet will be found the most commodious latitude. The front, including a low parapet wall and a row of windows, or upright glasses, may be eight or ten feet high, measured from the interior floor. It will be proper to lay the floor at least twelve inches above the level of the ground, and in damp situations two feet The back is the only part at which an entire wall should be carried up to the roof; the precise height of this wall depends upon that of the glass front and the breadth of the house ; the proportions of these three must be so accommodated as to give the proper slope to the roof." (Pract. Gard.) 6169. According to Nicol, " In the construction of green-houses, fancy may be indulged, and a greater scope may be allowed to taste, than in the construction of forcing-houses. These are generally confined to one object, the production of certain fruits in perfection ; which renders the observance of forms and dimensions in their construction more necessary than in that of the green-house, where a variety of plants of different habits are to be cultivated. Nevertheless, in order that these plants may generally thrive, there are certain rules to be observed, and errors to be guarded against, which I shall briefly point out Green-houses with upright fronts, and with perpendicular lights only, whether the columns that separate them be of wood or of masonry, are the most objectionable ; as the plants in such are always drawn up weak, and are distorted by continually stretching towards the light. Neither dp they enjoy the genial effects of the sun, except in the winter months, when his rays, though feeble, strike horizontally on the windows, and for a few hours in the middle of the day perhaps, shine on the low plants, and those placed most forward. If such houses be very wide, they are the most objectionable on that account ; as, in that case, the plants placed near to the back of the stage are never visited by the rays of the sun, and enjoy but little light to what they may require. But such green-houses may be, and indeed have been, much im- proved, by taking off their leaden or slated roofs, and by substituting roofs consisting of wooden framing and glass, for the admission of sunshine and perpendicular light. But still they are so far defective, as that, by their great height, the plants are much more drawn than they ought to be, or would be, in a BOOK II. ORNAMENTAL HOT-HOUSES. 813 lower and better-constructed house. Houses that are open on the front only, although they have sloping lights on the roof, are next to be objected to ; as the plants in such are necessarily more drawn and dis- torted than if the ends were also glazed. If such be not placed among other buildings, so as that they can- not be altered, they might be very much improved by pulling down the close ends, and by substituting glazed lights ; which, if they be of a moderate height, would render them next best to such houses as are described below." 6170. A complete green-house, being quite detached from other buildings, should be glazed on all sides. " It may be a circular, oval, hexagonal, octagonal ; or with two straight sides, and circular ends, which I think the best form of any ; the next best, an octagon, whose sides are not equal, but with two opposite longer sides, and six shorter sides ; three and three opposite, forming, as one might say, an angular oval ; the ends being angular, instead of round. In either of these last-mentioned forms, the stages and plants may, at least in my mind, be more tastefully arranged, than in any other. Granting either of these cases, the house should be about thirty-six or forty feet long, eighteen or twenty feet wide, and ten, or at most twelve feet high, above a given level line for its floor. The parapet all round to be a foot or fifteen inches high, and the upright glasses placed on it, four, or four and a half feet at most. For it is of im- portance, for the sake of the finer kinds of plants, and in order to have all kinds grow bushy, and flower while young and small (in which state they are certainly most attractive and pleasing), to keep the roof- glasses as low as possible ; just allowing sufficient head-room to the tallest person when walking in the alleys. The furnace and stock-hole may be placed at either end, or at either side, as may be most con- venient ; and they should be sunk under ground, and be concealed. The flue to be constructed, to run parallel to, and be separated from the parapet by a three-inch cavity ; its surface being level with the top of the parapet, and being crib-trellised for heaths, Botany Bay, and other rare plants. A walk thirty or thirty-six inches broad, to be conducted all round next the flue ; within which to be placed the stages for the more common, and the taller plants ; being raised in the middle, and falling to either side and end ; corresponding with the glasses, though of course not so steep. A row of columns should be placed in the centre, in order to support the ridge of the roof; to which climbing plants might be trained in various forms, and might be hung in festoons from column to column at top, or otherwise, as may be dictated by fancy. The front of the stage all round should be raised about eighteen or twenty inches above the walk, in order to raise the whole of the plants placed on it sufficiently near to the glass ; thus forming the walk into a deep alley ; the person walking in it having a narrow border of the finer and smaller plants on the one hand, and a bank of the more common and larger kinds on the other ; than which, when the plants are healthy and thriving, few scenes can be more pleasing. The aspect of such a house should be towards the south ; that is to say, it should stretch from east to west, or as nearly so as circumstances will permit. It may have an entrance on the south side, or pne at either end, as shall be most convenient and suitable to its connection with the walks of the shrubbery or parterre in which it is placed. If a green-house must necessarily be attached to a wall or other building, it might be constructed very much as above ; with this difference, having one of the ends, as it were, cut off; in which case, it should be placed with its cir- cular end south, or towards that point, and the sides pointing east and west. This I should consider as the second best-constructed green-house, and in which, excepting in the above-described house, the plants would enjoy the fullest share of sun and light. In either of these houses, and in plant hot-houses of every description, a sufficient number of the upright and sloping sashes should be made moveable, for the ad- mission and regular circulation of air in the better seasons of the year ; and ventilators should be placed at regular distances all round, for the purpose of airing and ventilating them in the winter months, or at times when it may not be safe to open the lights. Such a house as either of these, would form a very complete receptacle for a handsome and pretty extensive collection." (Kal. and Villa Gard. Direct.) 6171. The orangery is the green-house of the last century, the object of which was to preserve large plants of exotic evergreens during winter, such as the orange tribe, myrtles, sweet bays, pomegranates, and a few others. Geraniums, heaths, fuchsias, and other delicate plants requiring much light, were then unknown. The orangery was generally placed near to or adjoining the house, and its elevation corresponded in architectural design with that of the mansion. From this last circumstance has arisen a prejudice highly unfavorable to the culture of ornamental exotcis, namely, that every plant-habitation attached to a mansion should be an architectural object, and consist of windows between stone piers or columns, with a regular cornice and entablature. By this mode of design, these buildings are rendered so gloomy as never to present a vigorous vegetation, and vivid glowing colors within ; and as they are thus unfit for the purpose for which they are intended, it does not appear to us, as we have already observed at length (1590.), that they can possibly be in good taste. Perhaps the only way of reconciling the adoption of such apartments with good sense, is to consider them 814 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. as lounges or promenade scenes for recreation in unfavorable weather, or for use during f6tes, in either of which cases they may be decorated with a few scattered tubs of orange- trees, camellias, or other evergreen coriaceous-leaved plants from a proper green- house, and which will not be much injured by a temporary residence in such places, which, as Nicol has observed, " often look more like tombs or places of worship, than compartments for the reception of plants ; and, we may add, that the more modern sort look like a combination of shop-fronts, of which that at Claremont is a notable example. " Sometimes structures of this sort are erected to conceal some local deformity, of which, as an instance, we may refer to that (Jig. 570.) erected by Todd, for J. Elliot, Esq., at Pimlico. " This building was constructed for the purpose of preventing the pros- pect of some offices from the dwelling-house. The architectural ornaments, and the roof, not being of glass, are points in the construction not generally to be recommended ; but, as it was built for the purpose above mentioned, the objections were overruled. There are three circular stages to this house, which are made to take out at pleasure. The ceiling forms part of a circle, and the floor is paved with Yorkshire stone. It is fifty feet long, and thirteen feet six inches wide, and heated by one fire, the flue from which makes the circuit of the house under the floor." (Plaits of Green- Houses &c. p. 10.) 6172. Of the orangery considered as a house for growing the orange tribe) as a dessert- fruit, we have already treated. (5930.) 6173. 4 recent and very considerable improvement in the construction of green-houses and orangeries consists in forming the shelves and stages of thin plates of stone, instead of boards ; and very frequently the flag-stones are hollowed out, so as to leave a raised margin of half an inch or more, for the purpose of retaining moisture, preventing dripping, and raising, when the air of the house is warm, a general steam or dew. This may be considered, on the whole, as a real improvement, a proof of which is the readiness with which it has been adopted by nurserymen and practical gardeners. A substitute consists in raising marginal slips of boards to wooden shelves, and covering the board with a thin layer of gravel or scoria. 6174. The conservatory is a term generally applied by gardeners to plant-houses, in which the plants are grown in a bed or border without the use of pots. They are some- times placed in the pleasure-ground along with the other hot-houses ; but more frequently attached to the mansion. The principles of their construction is in all respects the same as for the green-house, with the single difference of a pit or bed of earth being substituted for the stage, and a narrow border instead of surrounding flues. The power of admit- ting abundance of air, both by the sides and roof, is highly requisite both for the green- house and conservatory ; but for the latter, it is desirable, in almost every case, that the roof, and even the glazed sides, should be removable in summer. When the construction of the conservatory does not admit of this, the plants in a few years become etiolated, and naked below, and are no longer objects of beauty ; but when the whole superstructure, excepting the north side, is removed during summer, the influence of the rains, winds, dews, and the direct rays of the sun, produce a bushiness of form, closeness of foliage, and a vividness of color, not attainable by any other means. We are decidedly of opi- nion, therefore, that a conservatory of any of the common forms, unless it were one de- voted entirely to palms, ferns, scitamineas, or other similarly growing plants, should always be so constructed as to admit of taking off the sashes of the roof and the front ; and if it were a detached structure in the flower-garden, we should prefer a plan that would admit of the removal of every thing excepting the flues and the plants. There is an old conservatory of this sort in the flower-garden at Nuneham Courtenay, planted with orange-trees ; and when the roof is removed, the flues, border, and bed are covered with turf, so that the trees appear as if planted in the open garden. The trees have stood there for upwards of half a century, are vigorous, and bear annually abundance of fruit. On the other hand, there are'two conservatories at Knowle, with roofs fixed, or partially opening, which have riot been erected more than four years, and in which the plants are already etiolated, and the lower branches dying off. When a conservatory is glazed on all sides, it should, if possible, be placed south and north, in order that the plants on both sides of the pit should equally benefit from the sun; when placed against a wall > the glazed side may front any quarter except the north. But as the removal and re- placing of the roof of such immense conservatories as are sometimes attached to man- BOOK II. ORNAMENTAL HOT-HOUSES. 815 sions (Jig. 571.), is attended with considerable expense, risk of breakage, and what is of still more consequence, risk to the plants, if they happen to be uncovered too soon in spring, or left too long uncovered in autumn, we would recommend the polyprosopic roof (1610. and Jig. 261.) as by far the most perfectMescription of a hot-house roof that has yet been devised. With such a roof, the plants within may, at any time, in a few minutes, be as completely exposed to air, rain, dew, and sun, if these exist without, as if the roof were removed ; and again, in a few minutes, they may be completely shut up. The improver who shall erect an extensive conservatory of this kind (Jig. 571. a), and apply to it the regulating apparatus of Kewley (Jig. 217.), will find himself in possession of the most unique and complete plant-structure in the world. 6175. The conservatory in comparatively humble and economical residences (Jig. 572.), may consist of a number of rectangular sashes, connected and supported by means of light iron rafters. Jn the beginning of summer, the sashes may be removed and applied to the ripening of peaches, vines, or figs against walls, or laid over excavations in the form of pits, containing melons, cucumbers, &c. The light iron frame-work may either be removed, or remain, and be disguised by annual creepers, or by vines of the narrow-leaved sorts. Sometimes a cistern is placed in the conservatory for growing aquatics, and containing a few gold-fish ; but as there are very few exotic aquatics which will thrive in the temperature of the green-house, this is seldom requisite, unless as a decoration, and for the use of the water in culture, and the appearance of the fishes. The tempera- ture of conservatories being the same as of green-houses, the same proportion may exist between the flues and volume of air to be heated. 6176. The dry-stove is chiefly devoted to the culture of succulents. In design it need not differ from the green-house, unless, perhaps, in the stage (Jig. 573. a) being 573 placed somewhat nearer to the roof. The name and character of this structure is derived from the higher degree of heat generally kept in it, and from the air being less moist than in the bark-stove, where more water is used, and consequently more vapor generated. The volume of air to be heated by one fire in the dry-stove, should not exceed two thirds of that to be heated in a green-house or conservatory, similarly con- structed and situated. 816 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. FART III. 6177. The bark or moist stove differs from the last only in having a pit (Jig. 573. 4) for bark or other fermenting matter instead of a stage. This pit may be from two and a half to four feet deep, according as bark or leaves are to be used, the latter material requiring the greatest depth. It is commonly surrounded by a thin brick wall, but, in elegant structures, planks of stone, or plates of slate or cast-iron, are to be preferred, as a higher finish, and occupying less space. The roof, when necessary, may be supported from the iron columns from the LJ^^ ,574 middle of the pit. (Jig- 574. a) Shelves may be placed against the back wall (6), and occasionally a narrow-leaved creeper run up the roof (c). Such is the common interior arrangement of a botanic stove, as may be exemplified in that designed by Alton, and erected by Todd, in the royal garden at Frogmore. (Jig. 573.) We may add, that houses of this description are generally placed east and west against walls, on account of the shelter thereby ob- tained during winter, when a high degree of heat is kept up within, while the cold is excessive without. There are exceptions, however, in the plant-stoves of the more recent public botanic gardens, especially those of Dublin and Liverpool, which are placed with their ends to the south, and in the immense palm-house erected by Messrs. Loddiges, which stands east and west, and is glazed on all sides. In private flower-gardens the hot-houses frequently consist of a range (Jig. 575. ) containing 575 a green-house (a) at one end, a dry-stove (b) at the other, and a stove (c) in the centre. By this disposition the stove is easier kept up to the required temperature, though it loses the full influence of the light at the ends. In general, a stove requires double the num- ber of fires required to a green-house of the same size. 6178. There is a peculiarity in the construction of plant -stoves which deserves particularly to be noticed ; namely, that fewer openings for the admission of air are requisite than in any other hot-house, excepting the pine-stove. One reason of this is, that the degree of heat which must at all times be kept up in the enclosed atmosphere, is so much greater than that of the open air, that the difference in the specific gravity of the two fluids, when permitted to mingle by opening two or three sashes, produces a more active circul- ation, and sooner approaches to an equilibrium of temperature : another is, that however numerous the openings in the hot-house roof may be, they could seldom be made use of without reducing the house to too low a temperature ; and a third and last is, that the plants being mostly kept in pots, and many of them, as the palms, being of slow growth, they are not so apt to etiolate as those of the green -house and conservatory. Hence it is, that the roof of a botanic stove may generally be erected at less cost than that of a green-house or conservatory ; but particularly where iron is employed, and the curvilinear principle adopted. 6179. Houses of magnificent forms, and almost as light within as in the open day, might thus be constructed for the growth of palms, scitamineae, bamboos, and other tropical trees to be planted in the ground, as in the conservatory. These might also be detached in the flower-garden (as Jigs. 10. and 20. in Sketches for Curvilinear Hot-houses), or they might form an appropriate appendage to a palace in the oriental style. (Jig. 576.) Indeed, there is hardly any limit to the extent to which this sort of light roof might be carried ; several acres, even a whole country residence, where the extent was moderate, might be covered in this way, by the use of hollow cast-iron columns as props, which might serve also as conduits for the water which fell on the roof. Internal showers might be produced in Loddiges' manner ; or the roof might be of the polyprosopic kind, and opened at pleasure to admit the natural rain. Any required temperature might be kept up by the use of concealed tubes of steam, and regulated by the apparatus of Kewley. Ventilation also would be effected by the same machine. The plan of such a roof might either be flat ridges running north and south (Jig. 577. a), or octagonal or hexagonal cones (6), with BOOK II. ORNAMENTAL HOT-HOUSES, 817 a supporting column at each angle, raised to the height of a hundred or a hun- dred and fifty feet from the ground, to admit of the tallest oriental trees, and the undisturbed flight of appropriate birds a- mong their branches. A variety of oriental birds, and monkeys, and other animals, might be introduc- ed ; and in ponds, a stream made to run by machinery , and also in salt lakes, fishes, polypi, corals, and other pro- ductions of fresh or sea water might be cultivated or kept. The great majority of readers will no doubt consider these ideas as sufficiently extravagant ; but there is no limit to human improvement, and few things afford a greater proof of it than the comforts and luxuries man receives from the use of glass a material, as Cuvier observes (Magazin Encylo}>dique, 1816), manufactured from seemingly the most useless debris of our globe, and an insig- nificant plant (salicornea) found on sea-shores. In northern countries civilised man could not exist without glass : and if coal is not discovered in these countries, say in Russia, it may at some future period become a question whether, instead of separate fires and stoves, double windows, &c. the most economical mode of procuring a proper temper- ature will not be by at once to cover whole towns with immense teguments of glass, and heating by steam or otherwise, the enclosed air common to all the inhabitants ; or where glass was considered too expensive, whole villages might be covered with a roof of boards, and lighted night and day in the winter season by gas previously obtained from the fuel used to produce the steam : or the gas might be employed for heating, either by the generation of steam, or passing the air heated by the flame through metallic tubes. 6180. Tftf aquarium. The greater number of exotic aquatics being stove plants, a cistern of water for their culture is commonly placed in the bark-stove, generally at one end of the pit, and so as to be as near thie light as possible. The E)uke of Marlborough, however, and some others, have erected houses on purpose for this beautiful class of plants, substituting a large cistern for the bark-pit. The aquarium, at White Knights, (fig. 578.) built by Todd, " is constructed with a span roof of glass ; the sides and ends are also of glass, as low down as the top of the flue. A cistern occupies the interior of the house, having a walk round it ; it is lined with lead, and filled with a mixture of mud and water, proper for the reception and growth of such plants as require aqueous nourishment. A flue goes round, directly under the bottom of the cistern, for the purpose of keeping the water of a certain temperature. Another flue goe round the house above ground, and terminates in a chimney at the north-west corner. The bottom of the cistern, to re- ' ceive the lead, is formed with slates, supported by transverse bars of cast-iron ; a bottom of wood would have been more convenient for laying the lead upon, but as the ftues are so near the bottom of the cistern, danger of fire was apprehended. The cistern is supplied with water by means of a pump placed at a con- venient distance for that purpose." (Plans for Green-Houses, &c. p. 17.) This aquarium suits very well for such aquatics as grow to some height above the water ; but for those whose leaves float on its surface, as is the case with the most numerous and beautiful genus of this class (Nymph&a), it is too far from the light. A more perfect plan would be, to have the cistern close under the front glass, and to have that glass rather flat, say at an angle of 15 ; or two cisterns might be formed, one in the back part of the 579 818 PRACTICE OF GARDENING, PART III, house for tall plants, and the other in front for floating foliage, with a broad path between. But the most elegant plan would be, to have a circular house, glass on all sides (fig. 579.), to have a cistern in the centre for river-plants, and a surrounding cistern for those which grow in stagnant water. To imitate the effect of the motion of water in the central cistern, the mould or pots in which the plants grow might be placed on a bottom (a), apart from that of the cistern (6), and this bottom being on the end of an upright shaft, might, by the aid of proper machinery in a vault below (c), be kept in perpetual circular motion. Those plants, which grow naturally in rapid streams, might be planted or placed on the circumference of the bottom (d), and those requiring less agitation towards its centre (e). If reversed motion was required to imitate tides (where marine aquatics were cultivated), nothing could be easier than by the sort of wheel used in the patent mangle to produce it to any extent ; or by another still more simple plan known to every engineer, it might be changed seldomer, say only once or twice in twenty-four hours. If a rapid and tortuous motion was required, then let the bottom on which the plants are placed, be furnished with small circular wheels (/) placed on its margin, working on pivots, and furnished on their edges with teeth like a spur wheel. Then let there be a cor- responding row of teeth fixed to the inside of the wall or side of the cistern, into which they are to work like a wheel and pinion. By this means, pots of plants set on the small wheels, will have a compound motion, one round the centre of the small wheels, and another round that of the large bottom, something of the nature of planetary motion, but more like that of the waltz dance. It is almost needless to add, that exotic aquatic fowls and fishes might be kept in such an aquarium, and either of the sea or fresh- water rivers, according as salt water or fresh was used. It may be thought by some that the machinery would be intricate and troublesome ; but the power requisite is so very small, that it might easily be ob- tained by machinery on the principle of the wind-up jack, such as was used by Deacon in his ventilating Eolians. (Hem. on Hot-k. 68.) This kind of mechanism very seldom goes out of order, or requires repairs, and would require no other attention than being wound up twice in twenty-four hours, and oiled oc- casionally. The same vault that contained it might serve for the furnace or boiler for heating the house. 6181. Wind. If instead of water in a circular cistern with its bottom so constructed, we suppose air, then the same arrangement would serve for producing artificial wind to plants, the beneficial effects of which in producing bushiness and strength of stem are well known. The motion thus given would pro- bably be extremely useful for young plants in close damp weather in winter, by preventing some sorts from getting mouldy and damping off, and by moderating the growth, and preventing the etiolation of others. For this purpose the machine might be considered as a kind of hospital, and the plants being in pots, might be set on either the large or small wheels, and kept there in motion for a longer or shorter period, according to circumstances. 6182. The substitution of fire-heat for that produced by the fermentation of vegetable substances, is a re- cent innovation in the construction of plant-stoves. This has been done by heating the air of a vault or chamber below the pit, with smoke or steam, either by circulating these fluids in flues or tubes in the chamber, or by simply filling the vault with them. In some cases, also, flues or steam-pipes have been conducted through the tan with a view to prolong its heat The mode by heating an air-chamber below the pit was carried into execution by us so long ago as 1804, at Glenfuir (TV. on Hot-h. p. 249.) ; and more recently upon a larger scale, for the purpose of growing pines, at Underley Park. (Tr. on Coun. Res. p. 295. pi. 11. fig. 3.) A plan very similar to the last has been adopted by Kent (ilort. Trans, ii. 389. and iii. 287.), who at first plunged the pots in a bed of sawdust over the vault, thinking thereby to avoid the worms and insects that generate in decaying tan. He found, however, that when the sawdust became rotten, worms generated in it as freely as in any thing else, and has therefore given up the practice of plunging altogether, setting the pots on a thin layer of coarse sand placed over the pavement, which forms the roof of the hot air chamber. Thus situated, the plants are not apt to run through the bottoms, and over the tops of the pots, as is the case when they are plunged, which always occasions a serious check to the plants, whenever they are removed or required to be shifted. After above a year's trial, he says, " I think I can with cer- tainty pronounce that plunging is not only unnecessary, but really worse than useless to plants, except where they have been injured and require to be drawn." A very obvious extension of this principle was the disuse of bottom heat altogether, and the substitution of a platform of brick or pavement, or merely a bed of scoria or gravel for the bark-pit. This has been done extensively by Messrs. Loddiges, Kent, the Cointe de Vande, and various others, with perfect success as far as respects large plants ; but most stove-plants require to be originated and brought forward till they are one or two feet high in bottom heat. By keeping up a considerable atmospheric temperature, and by frequent waterings over the leaves, that sort of moist heat is produced which seems most congenial to vegetation, and it may, we think, be assumed as experimentally proved, that where such heat is produced in plant-stoves the bark-pit is unnecessary for all general purposes. " If we reflect for a moment," says Kent, " that in tropical countries, the stem, branches, and leaves receive a greater degree of heat from the atmosphere than the roots can possibly do ; it appears extraordinary that a system of management so directly opposite to nature should have ever been adopted, or that it should have been so long practised. If a quantity of earth was to be raised from the root of any tropical shrub, growing in its native situation, there is no doubt its heat would be below the temperature of the air, therefore the roots of the plants in a stove ought not at any rate, to receive more warmth than their other parts." (Hort. Trans, iii. 288.) 6183. A jrrojxigation-house is a requisite appendage wherever a general collection of exotic plants is maintained; and the proper situation for it is in the reserve-garden. Such a house, like the houses used by nurserymen, does not require to be so light as fruit- ing or flowering houses ; it may be little more than a large pit with the roof very flat (say from 12 to 15), in order that all the plants may be near the glass ; it should contain a bark-pit, raised to within eighteen inches of the glass in front, and 2^ feet behind, a broad stone shelf in front, and two or more shelves in the back of the house, close under the roof, that is, over the path and flue. All shelves in hot-houses, it may be observed, whether of stone or timber, ought to have narrow ledgments along their edges, not less than an inch deep, by which the water which escapes through the bottoms of the pots is not only prevented from dropping, but retained to generate a salutary coolness and mois- ture. The fire-place should be formed at one end of the front (say the south-east corner), and the flue conducted along the front from about nine inches or a foot from the parapet, and so along the opposite end and back wall, till it terminates at the extremity of the lat- ter, or the north-east corner. The door may be formed in the back part of the end in which the furnace is placed, and the path which surrounds the pit, should be made suffi- ciently low to admit of head-room. This plan may in some cases be doubled ; that is, a similar arrangement of flues, &c. may be erected alongside the other, that is, the nortli side, with a moveable boarded partition between them. The house fronting the north may be used for striking cuttings, or raising seedlings, and that fronting the south, for BOOK II. ORNAMENTAL HOT-HOUSES. 819 nursing the plants so raised, till they are fit for removal to the principal green-houses and stoves. The partition is made to remove, in order to admit or exclude the sun's rays to the back -house in spring or autumn at pleasure. 6184. We have already stated that we consider steam the best vehicle for heating hot- houses of. every kind, especially where there are several connected together. Thus where all the hot-houses of a residence are con- nected with the mansion, both the latter and the former, with drying rooms, hot water or vapor-baths, steaming apparatus for horse- food, poultry-houses (under particular cir- cumstances), and various other appendages might be heated as well as the hot-houses. The spare steam might be employed as the first power to machinery, to raise water, to drive a mangle, &c. and a gas apparatus might be added, to admit of lighting up the whole. Repton has given a plan well adapted for this purpose. (Jig. 580.) At one end of this design an aviary (1) is surrounded by a conservatory (2), and joined to a glass passage for flowers (3), which leads successively through an orangery (4), lobby (5), music-room (6), library (7), print and picture-room (8), breakfast-room (9), anti-room (10), din- ing-room (11), hall. (12), and peach and green-house (13). " The whole length of this range is three hundred feet. Even single stoves or green-houses may be more agreeably heated in this way than by smoke-flues, which are" very generally attended by a bad smell, and vapors of carbonic acid and hydrogen. A very neat ex- ample of this kind (Jig. 581.) is given by Hayward. (Hort. Trans, iv. 434.) " It is erected in a small conserva- tory, the boiler (A) contains about thirty gallons, and the pipes (B, B) are three inches in diameter, and so laid as to have thick planks resting on props (a, 6, c) placed over them, to form the pathway round the house. Chambers are formed round the pipes, communicating with the external air, by surrounding them with larger pipes (c, c) ; and by means of small pipes (D, D) as much heated fresh air can be ad- mitted into the house through dif- ferent apertures (E, E) as can be wished." By laying the pipes with a declination of a few inches from their departure from the boiler till their return to it, the water of condensation is returned through a valve (A D), which is a very considerable advantage ; but this valve is much better placed in a close box outside the boiler, (an improvement made by Messrs. Bailey,) as admitting thereby of examin- ing it with ease when out of repair. The air-cock (F), safety-valve (o), steam-gauge (H), and water-gage in Hayward's boiler, do not differ from the usual construction. The mode here described of admitting heated air, we would observe, must be used with very great caution, for we know experimentally, that no mode is more liable to overheat the atmosphere of the house when the fire or steam is brisk in the beginning of the night, and overcool it when the fire declines towards the morning. We have the same objection to Walker's Improved Construction of Hot-liouse Flues, as described (Hort. Trans, iv. 237.), by A. Seton, Esq. Here a cast-iron flue is enclosed in one of masonry, and the vacuity between them communicates with the open air at the stock-hole, and with the air of 3 G 2 581 820 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. the house at certain distances, by means of apertures in the top of the flue. The ar- gument in favor of this arrangement, is that usually given for vacuities around furnaces connected with flues, as adopted by Stewart, Gould, and various others ( Tr. on Hot- houses, p. 132.), viz. that " the current of external air, by commencing, when cold, at that part of the flue which is hottest, takes up the heat there where it is least wanted, and carries it to those parts at a distance from the furnace where it is most needed ; and as the valves are to be chiefly opened in the latter situations, to permit its escape, it diffuses a nearly equal warmth over the whole house." Every thing in this plan evidently depends on the management of these valves ; if they are left open during the night, the risk above stated is incurred ; if during day, less heat being wanted, little advantage is obtained. In stoves, however, this plan, under judicious management, might be useful ; but it must never be forgotten, that air can be rendered much hotter by a fire-flue than by a steam- pipe, and hence the danger to the plants. No one was ever more sanguine as to the ad- vantages to be derived from furnace vacuities and air-flues than ourselves (see Tr. on Hot-houses) ; but after twenty years' experience, we must acknowledge that they are so liable to produce accidents, either by admitting smoke or burning up the plants (as the phrase is), that we now seldom recommend their adoption. 6 1 85. Various pits and hot-beds will be required in the reserve-department of the flower- garden, for forcing shrubs and flowers, raising annuals, &c. ; the construction of which having nothing peculiar, need not be here detailed. (See 1591. et seq.) 6186. The idea of cold-houses seems to have been first suggested by Sir W. Chambers (Dissert, on Orn. Card. p. 90.}, and it may be worth while to submit some hints on their construction for such amateurs in this country as may be curious in the cultivation ofmusci jungcrmannuz, and other cryptogamous veget- ables which grow in the lowest temperatures ; and for botanists in warm climates, who may wish to cul- tivate not only mosses, but the more perfect plants of elevated regions or northern climates ; as for example, of the British or Swedish alpines in Spain, or in the south of Italy. The simplest form of a cold-house may be a vault of rustic masonry open at one end, along the floor of which a rill of water may pass, and from every part of the ceiling water may drop on the floor or bed, and descend to the rill in the centre. This is an ob- vious imitation of the dripping caves sometimes found in tracts of country abounding with calcareous rocks, of which, as an example, we may cite the dripping rock at Knaresborough, and the dripping cave near Rousseau's walk at Lyons ; in which last, on the 19th day of June 1819, we found the thermometer at 48, whilst in the open air, under the shade of an adjoining mulberry-tree, it stood at 72. Various mosses and jungermanniae were in luxuriant vegetation in the interior of the cave; and some sorts of ferns near its mouth. Another imitation of such caves might consist of an open grove of elms or oaks, among the lower branches of which lead pipes pierced with small holes, in Loddige's manner (1689.), might be fixed hori- 2ontally at regular distances, and these being supplied, during the warmer months, with water from proper reservoir, would furnish a continual shower, which, with the assistance of the small rills furnished by the collected rain thus produced, would lower the temperature of the atmosphere sufficiently for the growth of such mosses and ferns as do not require much light ; and the margin of the grove might be devoted to plants of a more perfect kind, requiring a low temperature and moist atmosphere. But a more perfect plan would be to form a house like a large pit, with a double glass roof, fronting the north. Over the outer roof should be a system of pierced pipes to keep it cool by a continual shower during sunset, and at the top of the back wall an arrangement whereby two or more separate and concentric coverings of can- vass could be let down to exclude the sun during the day. Instead of flues of masonry, large tubes of lead or cast-iron should surround the house, to be kept cool by a continual stream of water passing through them. The pit might contain a large metallic cistern, filled with ice, to be renewed when thawed, &c. It would be advancing too far into the regions of speculation to particularise other minor details that would be requisite to render such a house complete ; let it suffice to say, that such houses might be erected either in Britain or the south of Europe, so as to produce a temperature of 32 degrees throughout the year. This would admit the cultivation, in pots and on pieces of rock, of lichens, mosses, and of all the more per- fect plants which grow in the regions of perpetual snow. (See 1696.) CHAP. VI. Of the General Culture and Management of tlie Flower-garden and Shrubbery. 6187. T/ie cultivation of the jlower-garden is simple compared with that of the kitchen- garden, both from its limited extent and the general sameness of its products ; but to manage it to perfection requires a degree of nicety and constant attention beyond any other open-air department of gardening. As the stalks of flowering plants shoot up, they generally require thinning, and props for support ; and the blossom, both of plants and shrubs, no sooner expands than it begins to wither, and must be cut off, unless, as in some of the ornamental shrubs, they are left for the sake of the beauty of their fruit. Weeding, watering, stirring the soil, cutting off stems which have done flowering, at- tending to grass and gravel, must go hand in hand with these operations. 6188. With respect to the general culture and manuring of the soil, it should be subjected, as far as practicable, to the same process of trenching to different depths as that of the kitchen-garden. In the shrubbery this cannot be done, but it, and also the earth compartments of the flower-garden, should be turned over a spit in depth, and some vegetable mould, or very rotten cow-dung, added occasionally. Every two or three years the plants in the flower-garden should be taken up and reduced in size, and the beds or borders trenched, say one time at two spits deep, another at three, and so on-(see 2549.), adding enriching compost or manure completely rotted, according to circumstances. If, instead of trenching, the old earth were entirely removed, and replaced by good loam from a dry upland parterre, the improve- ment would be still greater. Most herbaceous plants flower well in such loam, and for the more culti- vated sorts, as border pink, auriculas, &c. that require a rich soil, a portion of enriching matter could be added to each plant as planted, and n corresponding attention paid to such as required peat-earth, sand, BOOK II. CULTURE OF THE FLOWER-GARDEN. 821 clay, or lime. In the shrubbery, a similar renewal of soil, and attention to the soils required by parti- cular shrub-plants, is also required, at least in front, where the more delicate shrubs naturally rank, and where the herbaceous plants are chiefly arranged. 6189. With respect to the times of planting, or sowing, and manner of cropping the flower-garden and shrubbery, the greater part of the surface being covered with shrubs or plants of perennial duration, very little cropping is required, and as a substitute for a rotation, recourse must be had to the renewal of the soil as recommended above. Annuals are sown at various periods from February to June ; but for the principal show, generally in March ; the half-hardy sorts are raised in hot-beds in the reserve-depart- ment, and transplanted when they are to flower in April and May, and later sowings and transplantings are made to procure a protracted display. Biennials and perennials of the fibrous or ramose rooted kinds are transplanted from the reserve-department in September or in March ; and such bulbous roots as are annually taken up, are generally replanted in November or February. When bulbs and other florists' flowers are cultivated in beds, a rotation may be adopted as far as respects them : thus the hyacinth, tulip, &c., may be succeeded by annuals, and those by the dianthus tribe, or dahlias, &c. ; but in borders and com- jwirtments planted in the mingled manner, as well as in shrubberies, a rotation is out of the question. Particular care is requisite to remove weak, ill-conditioned, or ill-flowering plants, and to replace them by others of the same height and color. This may be done at all seasons of the year by the use of the transplanter ; but the better mode is to have always an ample stock in the reserve-garden, of all the colors and heights, both of herbaceous plants and low shrubs, (of all the sorts is unnecessary,) in pots, and whenever, when any plant is in flower, a defect appears, it can be remedied at once by turning the plant out of the pot into its situation in the border. Independently of disease or accident, fine showy species, answering in general color and height, may thus at pleasure be substituted for such as are less showy, or less to the taste of the master. 6190. Ornamental plants, whether shrubby or herbaceous, require to be pruned, (rained, thinned, and dressed, according to the sort of beauty or effect expected from them. If they are grown chiefly on ac- count of their blossoms, then they must be pruned on the same general principles as fruit-trees ; but little more than thinning out weak and crowded shoots will be required where they are grown chieflv on account of the beauty of their foliage ; and still less where the tree or bush is planted for the sake o'f its natural shape. It is customary in some places to apply the hedge-shears to shrubs ; but this is a bar- barous practice, destructive of all these beauties, which ought to be exploded, unless in cases where, in imitation of the antient style, trees are to be trained in artificial shapes. Herbaceous plants require little pruning, but nevertheless something in this way may be occasionally required on the same general principles applied to trees. Where very large flowers are wanted, it is obviously advantageous to prevent the plant from expending its vigor in too great a number of them, or in mere shoots and leaves. Top- heavy plants, as some thistles, solidagos, &c. may require to be lightened, and almost all are benefited by thinning out a part of their shoots. In some annuals, thinning is effected both by eradication and pruning, and in the more delicate sorts by pinching off the young shoot, when an inch or two high. Creepers, climbers, and shrubs planted against walls or trellises, either on account of their rarity, deli- cacy, or to conceal the object against which they are placed, require different degrees of training ; those which attach themselves naturally, as the ivy, merely require to be occasionally guided so as to induce a regular distribution of their shoots ; the others must be treated like fruit-trees, training thinly, if blossoms are the object ; and rather thicker, if a mass of foliage be what is chiefly wanting! Hedges and edgings require to be cut and otherwise kept in order by the obvious means. " Edgings of all sorts," Marshall observes, " should be kept in good order, as having a singularly neat effect in the appearance of a garden. The dead edgings will sometimes, and the live edgings often, want putting to rights ; either cutting, clipping, or making up complete. Where there are no edgings, or but weak ones, let the earth border- ing on the walks be kept firm, and now and then worked up by line in moist weather, beating it smooth with a spade." (Introd. 57.) 6191. Grass-plots require to be regularly mown at least once a-fortnight, and where extraneous plants, of broad-leaved kinds, make their appearance, as plantagos, crowfoots, &c. they must be carefully re- moved. Worms should be gathered by hand before sunrise, or their casts swept off with the wire besom (1321.), and then the ground watered with lime-water. Rolling and watering must be applied ac- cording to circumstances, and nothing neglected to ensure that deep-green color and velvet texture which is, or ought to be, the characteristic of the British lawn, and which is indeed the pride of our island. 6192. Various tender sorts of plants and shrubs require protection by one or other of the different uten- sils, structures, or contrivances (2206. to 2218.) destined for that purpose. Alpine plants require protec- tion from cold, by covering with snow, or by hand-glasses, or frames during winter ; and from heat, by screens to produce shade during summer. The roots of many sorts require to be protected by ashes, rot- ten tan, or litter, from frost, and the tops of others both shrubs and plants, to be guarded by fronds of fern, fir-branches, mats, or portable glass cases, from rain, hail, and cutting winds. Great care must be taken to protect pots of plants from frost ; by always keeping them plunged in earth or some non- conductor ; for no state in which a plant can be placed is so obnoxious to the baneful influence of con- gelation as that of being grown in a pot. Climbing plants require to be supported by poles or rods, as some sorts of honeysuckle, bignonia, aristolochia, &e. ; by props, as pyramidal bell-flower, lobelia ful- gens, &c. or by branches or spray, as the nasturtium and pea tribe. Much of the beauty of the flower- garden depends on the manner in which these operations are performed. The prevalent error consists in overdoing the thing, in employing too stout and too long rods or props, and too many thick tufty branches, instead of such as are free-grown and open. Watering must be liberally applied to almost every part of the flower-garden during summer, and in the evening ; it increases the progress, and en- larges the parts of all vegetables ; gives a fresh appearance to the soil as well as the plants, disperses their odors in the surrounding atmosphere, and tends to subdue various kinds of insects. 6193. Water, whether as an orna- mental feature, or as an aquarium, should be kept clear both of weeds and insects. Of aquatic weeds .the most troublesome in small aquariums are the confervae and byssi, which can only be removed by hand, or by entangling them with a rake or broom. The larva? of numerous land- insects are deposited in water or in the muddy sides of ponds and ditches, as the elephant-hawk-moth (Sphinx Elpenor, L.) (fig: 582.), the dragon- fly (LibeUula, L.), and many others. Of the aquatic kinds are the well known tipula, of which some species (T. oleracea) (fig. 583.) glide over the water, and are by many considered rather ornamental than otherwise, and others live entirely under it, and feed on the roots of plants. To de- 822 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. stroy, or at least greatly to keep under all aquatic Insects, an effectual mode Is to dry the pond for a day or two ; but in the case of an aquarium it cannot be done ; fish and frogs, their natural enemies, must therefore be encouraged, in order that they may attack them. C194. Insects and vermin. These must be kept under in every part of the flower-garden and shrubbery, and we perfectly agree with the author of the Florist's Manual, that " the simple and laborious mode of picking away the animal, is the only one to which recourse can be had with permanent advantage. To give full efficacy to this method of rescuing plants from caterpillars, snails, &c. our attacks must be made upon them at particular sea- sons, which can only be done from such a knowledge of their history, as shall enable us to have swarms of them destroyed in the destruc- tion of an individual of the spe- cies. Without, however, much re- search into their natural history we may, from common observ- ation, understand that in the winged insect we may free our plants from an innumerable tribe of those which crawl, and which, in that reptile state, have the ca- pacity of devouring the whole product of a garden. The two pe- riods of change of form in the ca- terpillar species, seem to afford the most advantageous times to put an end to their existence. Thus, the ephemeral butterfly ; if timely attended to, we may de- stroy the animal before it has ac- quired the power of disseminating its young progeny ; and, in the in- termediate and voracious state of caterpillar, every single one which is prevented attaining the winged form, preserves our flowers from a host of enemies. The green ca- terpillar is the most common foe to our flower-borders and in au- tumn attacks the branches of mig- nonette in such numbers as to af- ford an easy opportunity of their destruction. A more persevering enemy, and more difficult to exterminate from gardens, is the snail (Helix) and slug (Limax) ; which, forming their habitations under the soil, attack the roots of the flow- ers, and frequently destroy them before the gardener can be aware of the mischief, that too often becomes visible only when past reparation. Under a vigilant eye, however, plants will not twice suffer from the enemy not being ostensible ; as the symptoms of his vicinity may be marked by flowers perishing as they first emerge from their buds or bulbs, by leaves or petals being pierced in small holes, or having the ap- pearance of being gnawed in growth, or from almost any failure in vigor which cannot be accounted for by external causes. In cold and dry weather the snail rarely appears, but after warm showers it may generally be found ; early in the morning, and about the close of evening, are the usual times of their coming abroad, when they may be picked up in large quantities. They will, however, frequently molest a plant for a length of time without being visible, in which case, when there is reason to suspect their hidden attacks, the only method to entrap them is to place a common garden-pot over the infested root, and it will rarely occur that the enemy is not discovered, as snails fasten themselves to the sides or tops of boards, or mats, or cabbage-leaves, so placed, and thence are easily taken. In droughty seasons it will be of use to water the plant before it is covered, as the moisture of the earth will be an additional mo- tive of attraction to draw the animal from his hiding-place. The smaller insects which infest rose-trees, and some herbaceous plants, can only be kept within moderate bounds by sweeping them from the branches, or by cutting off those whereon they are found in most profusion. In carrying off these diminutive ene- mies, birds are peculiarly serviceable. Insects generally attack, those plants which are least vigorous ; and the reason of the selection of such leaves as are beginning to decay may be, that in their declining 584 BOOK II. CULTURE OF THE FLOWER-GARDEN. 823 state they have usually a peculiar sweetness, probably perhaps owing to some saccharine juices which are preparing for the nutriment of the bulb or bud which is forming in their bosoms, for the nascent veget- able derives its sustenance from the recrements of the one from which it takes its birth." (Flor. Man. 25. et seq.) The cultivated bee is an insect which the gardener will of course take care not to destroy on ac- count of its use ; and it may be a question whether some species of the butterfly, moth, dragon-fly, &c. should be destroyed on account of their beauty. Some species of these genera are highly beautiful, as the four-blotched dragon-fly (Libcllula quadrimaculata, L.), and the swallow-tailed butterfly (Papilio Machaon, L.) (fig. 584.), which is reckoned the most superb of the British species. It is very local, but occurs near Bristol, Beverly, and in the New Forest. The larva feed on umbelliferous plants ; the caterpillar is green, banded with black, marked by a row of red spots. It changes into the chrysalis state in July ; and the perfect insect is found in August. There are two broods, the first appears in May, having been in the pupa state all the winter, and the other in August from the pupa of July. (Samoucllc.} 6195. The cutting off" flower-stalks, decaying flowers, leaves, &c. is to be done in most cases immediately after the flowers are faded ; but there are exceptions where the leaves on the lower part of flower-stems may be requisite to strengthen the root, and where, as in the case of stipa, some convallarias, eringoes, &c. the parts of the flower are persisting, or the fruit or seed-pods are objects of beauty. The leaves of bulbous-rooted plants, and such others as are not prolific in foliage, should be carefully preserved till they have begun to decay ; and, indeed, the base or root-leaves of no plant whatever should be cut off' till this is the case, unless for some particular object. Every single flower, as soon as the petals begin to droop, should be pinched off, and especially every flower of the double kind. Every rose, when it begins to droop, should be dipt off near to the foot- stalk of the one which is about to succeed it ; and when the last of the corymb has done flowering, then the common foot-stalk should be cut off back to the first strong leaf-bud : nothing is more unsightly in a flower-garden than rose-bushes where this has not been attended to. By employing women or apprentices to go over the whole pleasure-ground every morning during the four summer months, to attend to this business, it may be com- pletely accomplished at very little expense. These and other points of management, we know, are considered needless niceties by many gardeners : but what is a flower-garden unless it is kept with the utmost nicety? Others will tell you, they have not time for such things ; but where there is a real taste for neatness, time will be found. " No gentleman," Sir G. Mackenzie observes (Caled. Hart. Mem. iv. 194.), " ought to keep a gardener who does not understand that there is time enough for every thing, provided that time is not wasted, but properly regulated, and nothing too long delayed." 6196. Gathering flowers. Gather, if possible, only from the reserve-garden ; for if the main borders and compartments are managed as they ought to be, much gathering will disfigure the plants. Always use the knife, and prefer such as are coming into flower, rather than such as are fully expanded. If possible, gather from crowded plants, or parts of plants, so that every gathering may operate at the same time, as a judicious pruning and thinning. 6197. The French rose-gatherer presents a refinement in floricultural instruments highly characteristic of its origin. The general form of this little engine is that of a pistol : it has a handle and trigger like it, and a cutter in the manner of the wire pliers, or flower-gatherer (fig. 152.), disguised as a barrel. A rod, an- swering to the ramrod, connects the pincers with the trigger, which last, being pressed, opens the pincers, that is, charges the pistol ; the operator then presents the pistol to the rose to be gathered, and so that when the cutter operates, it may separate it at the precise point of the stalk deemed proper : things being thus adjusted, the trigger is drawn, and the deed is done. Of course this instrument, like a number of other horticultural toys manufactured by the Parisians, is chiefly pour les dames. 6198. Flowers may be preserved, when gathered, by inserting their ends in water, moist earth, or moss ; and may be freshened, when withered, by sprinkling with water, and putting them in a close vessel, as under a bell-glass, hand-glass, flower-pot, or in a botanic box ; if this will not do, sprinkle them with warm water, or with spirits of wine, or ether, and if this fails, insert their ends in water heated to 80 or 90, and cover them with a glass. 6199. Grafting, budding, laying, &c. Operations of this sort require to be performed in the flower-garden and shrubbery, for enlarging, renovating, and otherwise improving shrubs and plants, or introducing new sorts ; they are also required for the common pur- poses of propagation. 6200. Ordering seeds, bulbs, and plants. This business is much simpler in the flower than in the kitchen garden. For flower-seeds of most sorts, an order is simply given for a paper of a sort; mignonette, lupins, sweet peas, and a few others, may be ordered by the ounce ; bulbous roots are generally ordered by number, either of mixtures or single sorts ; and herbaceous plants, shrubs, &c. by name and number, or by the hundred or dozen in mixture. See the priced catalogue of any nurseryman. 6201. Neatness has been already a good deal insisted on in different parts of this work We repeat, it is the dress and visage of gardening, and if necessary any- where, is more especially so in the flower-garden. A gardener who pretends to manage a flower-garden without the most vigilant attention to this point, at all times, is unworthy the charge. The first thing is to have a quick intelligent eye, so as instantly to perceive what is wanting, and the second is to be possessed of that principle of activity which immediately sets about supplying the want. Many gardeners have certain times for cleaning up, &c. and will go fifty times past a weed, stone, dead leaf, or some such article, which disfigures or injures a scene, without re- , , , , moving it, merely because the time for cleaning, &c. has not come. This is most abominably formal con- the severest reprobation. A gardener ought to have his eye, his head, his heart, his hand, , and charge. Let hi the hours of rest and refreshment; and let him not undertake it without adequate terms of remuneration. (See 2355. 2373.) 3 G 4 , , . duct, deserving the severest reprobation. A gardener ought to have his eye, his head, his heart, his hand, his knife, and apron, ready for action at all times, places, and seasons, when within the precincts of his charge. Let him drown this incessant care in his own way when he is without his scene of business, or m PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. CHAP. VII. General Culture and Management of the Ornamental or Botanic Hot-houses. 6202. Tlie general culture offloricultural hot-houses respects soil, choice of plants, plant- ing in pots or beds, and arranging : after offering some remarks on these heads, we shall submit a few as to what is general in the management of the principal floricultural habit- ations, as the frame, green-house, and stove. 6203. Soil for beds or borders. The first operation of the gardener, after a conservatory or stove is finished, is to fill up the beds and borders with prepared earth. These being narrow, should seldom be less than three feet in depth, the bottom should generally be paved, and sloping to a drain or drains ; and in cases of very dry soils, provision may be made for the roots extending themselves beyond the area of the house. In general, however, this is not desirable in stoves, as the roots might be chilled during se- vere frosts ; but provision may be made for their extension under the paths, and every other part of the area of the house. When a variety of plants and trees are to be grown in such pits, no soil can be fixed on that will suit them all ; but if the main body be a sandy loam, then, as each particular tree is planted, a few cubic feet of this loam may be removed, and replaced by the soil best suited to the plant The plant once established, be it what species it may, will not languish in a sandy loam, other circumstances being favorable. 6204. Choice of species and planting. The species of stove or green-house plants must depend on the sort of house, and a variety of circumstances which need not be entered into. For common purposes choose the showy-flowering, easily cultivated, and vigorous-growing genera, as geranium, camellia, fuch- sia, jasminum, && ; or evergreens, as the myrta?, proteacea?, &c. choosing (from the tables in Chap. X.) some plants of the principal colors to flower in every month. In planting broad central beds in a house, glass on all sides, the highest-growing kinds will be placed along the middle of the bed ; but where there is a wall to the north, the highest kinds will be placed next it. With respect to arrangement, the limited space admits of very little ; in general, it will produce the most showy and immediate effect to adopt the common mingled and shrubbery arrangement, which we have recommended (6139.) ; but as the spectator lingers longer on the pavement of the conservatory or stove, than in the walk of the shrubbery, more prolonged interest will be produced by assembling such plants as belong to one genus, or natural order, by themselves ; because this will be to unite what used to be considered the desideratum of taste unity and variety ; that is, a general harmony of character in the genus, tribe, or family, and yet, when examined in detail, a distinctive character belonging to each of the individual species which compose it. It is a very common practice to plant climbers in such beds and along narrow borders, close to the upright or front glass, to be trained under the roof. We most decidedly disapprove of this plan, in almost every case, as tending to defeat the whole object in erecting such houses. Very luxuriant climbers are thus produced, but it is at the expense of light, not one ray of which, if possible, should be prevented from falling on the plants in the body of the house. Climbers or creepers are highly ornamental, and may be planted in a variety of situations without injuring the other plants : for example, in the bed, and trained on rods, or up such props as may be necessary to support the roof; or, along the sides of a central walk in a house standing north and south, and trained over the walk on an arcade of rods ; or, on a similar arcade over the back path of a single-roofed house, or on the back wall It is a very common thing to see the coba^a in green- houses, and the fruit-bearing passion-flowers in stoves, darkening the greater part of the roof, and the plant.-, beneath growing or elongating fast enough, but weak and of an unhealthy languid green. It is, only under the broad wooden rafters of old-fashioned hot-houses that any sort of creepers may be trained ' up the roof without materially injuring the plants below ; and even in these cases the injury is consider- able, unless they are kept within very narrow bounds. But if creepers are injurious in plant hot-houses, the introduction of vines under the rafters is still worse ; for, besides darkening the plants below more than the others with their broader leaves, the incongruity of effect produced by the attempt to unite two opposite characters, is exceedingly disagreeable, and only to be tolerated in humble economical residences, where a green-house, perhaps, is the only glass structure. 6205. Arrangement of plants in pots. Where the house and the collection are small, or the plants few and large, the same observations will apply which we have advanced on the subject of planting tile beds of conservatories or stoves ; but when the houses and collections are extensive, then some plan of arrangement ought to be adopted. Here, as in shrubberies and flower-gardens, there are three modes, by mingling, by grouping, and by method. For general effect the first is the best, but for prolonged enjoyment and examination in detail, the two others are greatly preferable. An abstract view of the modes by mingling and grouping might be represented by lines (Jigs. 585, 586.), in 585 --- .!:J 4- : .+.. --!.. ; ; : -i 4- r ''"1 t' "i- -!-- -i- _.!.-. -!" .,j... - - .-:,_ ...;-. ..;_. _.^. ..._- --:-- ..;... -i" 1 * -t- .^.. -!-,. -!... ":" -_.. f" ; --T-- ..!_.. : i ; . . j , ; i i : 1 ,.!,. | ' ; f" ' ...;... -4- -T~ ~r- 1 ~T~ -f- : . ! -v- ..;. ..:_. -H --I -; ..!.. i which, by the mingled mode, the colors are as regularly arranged as chequer-work, while, by the grouping mode (Jig. 586. ), they succeed each other in large irregular masses. By the first mode, there is only one plant of a color by itself; by the second, from half a dozen to three or four dozen, according tt> the size of the group and the plants. BOOK II. CULTURE OF BOTANIC HOT-HOUSES. 825 .583 Thalamiflo. sect. 1. | Thalam. sect. 2. [ Thalamiflo. sect. 3. | Calycifloraa. ] Corolliflorae. | Monochl. & Phanerog. 6206. By either mode regard must be had to place the plants in gradation according to their size, from the front to the back, or from the lowest to the highest part of the stage, as well to give them every possible advantage as to light, as to present the greatest surface to the eye of the spectator. It is not desirable, however, to dress them so regularly, as that the general slope of verdure shall appear as if shorn or mown, for that both deprives the sides of the plants of a considerable portion of light and air, and the eye of variety of form, and light and shade ; it will have a much better effect if somewhat irregular, and if here and there a distinguished individual appear above the rest as a standard. 6207. In arranging by method or botanical/y, either the Linnaean or Jussieuean classifi- cation may be adopted ; the latter is unquestionably preferable, as exhibiting a more per- fect relationship ; and it may be considered as represented by the same lines as those de- lineating the mode of grouping by colors. (Jig. 586.) Where the Linnaean method is adopted, the classes may either be grouped in irregular roundish masses ; or, as the tallest trees and lowest herbs are often placed in the same class, it will answer better to dispose each class and its orders in irregular strips (Jig. 587. m. d, t. tet. pentandria, &c. ), from the lowest to the highest part of the stage, by which the dwarf plants of each class may be placed in front, and the taller farthest back. 587 d. t. tet. pentan. hex. h. o. en. d. dod. ices. poly. did. tet. mon. dla. polyad. sjn.gy. mo.di. po.crypt. advantageously adopted, in tne case 01 green-nouses attacned to living-rooms, ana wi houses to keep up a supply, only such plants as are in bloom should be introduced, by grouping the colors may be adopted with great effect. But whatever be the size the extent of a bed, or shelf, or any part of them, never let the plants be placed t 6208. The botanic arrangements, it has been already observed, are only adapted for extensive collec- tions and capacious hot-houses ; on a smaller scale the mingled method, or that by grouping, will be most advantageously adopted. In the case of green-houses attached to living-room*, and where there are reservc- ' and there the method > of the house, or even irer let the plants be placed there in the present in- discriminate mode. In this, no regard is paid to any thing but height ; or if any farther object is taken into consideration, it is to mix the kinds as much as possible, with a view, as is alleged, to produce variety. But the effect of this mixture, whether on a large or small scale, instead of variety, is same- ness or monotony, which lessens interest, and finally produces indifference in the spectator. It is true, there is as great a degree of sameness in the mingled mode ; but then it is the sameness of a formal and avowed regularity; whereas, the sameness resulting from the common mode of mixture, is the sameness of affectation, a sameness resulting from an abortive attempt at something not attained. The one mode may be compared to the geometrical manner of laying out grounds, and the other to the mode by clumps and belts ; both are alike artificial, but the former is avowedly so, and therefore has attained its end, while the latter affects to be an imitation of nature, and therefore disappoints. A safe rule for every gardener to adopt, whether in setting pots of plants on a shelf or a stage, however small either may be, and however limited the collection, is to keep each genus together, placing the tallest plants farthest from the eye. Sometimes this will form a thin, straggling group from the front of the shelf or stage to the back (fig. 588. pelargonium, geranium, and erodium), and at other times, a sub-orbiculate group in tine front (o-ralis,} middle (olea,} or back parts (cassia}. This is a very simple rule, easily recollected and ap- plied, and every master and head gardener who approves of it, ought to insist on its being carried into execution in every case, whether in the open air or in hot-houses, where pots of plants are to be set down together ; unless, indeed, it should, in the case of diseased plants, interfere with culture. The ef- fect of this mode may be very well estimated by inspecting the hot-houses, or open air collections of pots 826 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. 588 PART III. in some of the nurseries, and more-particularly in Messrs. Loddiges', where this arrangement, both in the extensive green-houses and beds of pots of alpines and other herbaceous plants, is adopted on account of its utility. 6209. The following directions respecting the particular plant-habitations of floricul- ture, are chiefly taken from Sweet's Botanical Cultivator (of 1 820), and Cushing's Exotic Gardener (of 1814). 6210. Frame. Very little management is requisite for this department, as the plants kept in cold-frames are so hardy, that for seven or nine months of the year the sashes do not require to be put on. All that is requisite is to expose the plants to the air the whole of every day during winter when the weather is open, by drawing off the lights ; to attend to watering them moderately, during winter in mild weather in the morning after sunrise, and in summer in the evening. Once a-year in spring each plant should be examined, and such changes made in the soil, size of the pot, head of the plant, roots, &c. as the experience of the gardener, the appearance of the plant, or the object desired by cultivating it may dictate. The routine culture of weeding, staking, picking off decayed flowers, leaves, &c. need not be insisted on ; and the culture of par- ticular species or even tribes cannot here be entered into. (See the Catalogue of Frame Plants, in Chap. VIII.) 6211. Green-house. The plants of this department, Sweet observes, only require protection from frost in winter. The more air they have given them when not frosty, the more healthy they will be. On a fine morning, the sooner air is admitted the better ; but it is best to shut up pretty early in the afternoon, particularly if likely to be a cold night. No fire is required, except frost is expected in the night, or the house should be damp with continued wet weather ; then a little fire is requisite to dry the house, as plants are more liable to be injured by damp than by cold. The plants should be looked over most days to see if any require water, which must only be given when quite dry, in the winter season : from nine to twelve o'clock in the morning is the best time for watering them ; for, if watered in the afternoon, they are apt to be chilled at night, which makes their leaves look yellow and unhealthy. When the surface of the mould is green with moss, &c. the top should be taken off, and the surface moved with a flat stick, but not deep enough to disturb the roots ; if a little fresh mould is wanting on any of them, it should be added. Always be careful to put the same kind of soil they are al- ready grown in ; for a different kind put on injures plants more than some cultivators are aware of. 6212. When the weather begins to get warm in spring, some air should be left all night to harden the plants before they are set out ; a little must be left at first, and continue to increase it every night till they have full air, if the weather will allow of it. The time of setting them out in the open air depends entirely on the weather. Sometimes they may be put .put with safety by the middle of May, in other sea- sons not till the latter end ; but they had better stay in a little too long than be put out too soon. Calm cloudy weather is the best time for setting them out, when as sheltered a situation as possible should be chosen for them. The best time for shifting them in fresh pots is early in spring : some shift them before they are set out, and let them make fresh roots while in the green-house, which is a very good plan, par- ticularly for young or tender plants. If any plants are too tall, and want cutting back, it should be done early in spring, as soon as they begin to grow ; then they have time to recover themselves, and make good bushy plants by autumn. 6213. Cuttings require to be put in at various seasons, and in different situations. From Christmas to May may be considered the best time for cuttings in general ; but some will require to be put in at various seasons throughout the year, according to the state of the shoots. The best time for watering green- house plants in summer is as late as possible in the afternoon, then they have all the night to refresh them. If watered in the morning of a warm day, they will dry again almost immediately. Plants should not remain out too long in autumn, as they are liable to get too much wet, and the worms get in the pots, The middle of September should be the latest, but give them full air as long as the weather will permit (Bot. Cultivator, 121.) 6214. Stove. The management of stove plants, according to the same author, whose experience and success are exceeded by none in the cultivation of exotics, de- pends a great deal on the kind of house in which they are grown ; but there is little '"ilUculty in growing them well, if the house can be kept up to a proper heat, and a suf- ficient quantity of air can be given when required. Close glazing is to be preferred ; BOOK II. CULTURE OP BOTANIC HOT-HOUSES. 827 either the lights should be leaded, or the laps stopped with putty, so that a sufficient quantity of air may be always given, and the house kept to a more regular heat. When the laps of the glass are left open, a great deal of air is admitted, which is often injurious, particularly on a cold windy night. The thermometer should never be allowed to be below 60 of Fahrenheit's scale ; if it gets above 70 on a fine day, a little air may be given, which should be taken away early, and the house shut up warm ; it then requires less fire to keep up the heat through the night. If the house is heated in the common way by flues, and the plants are plunged in tan, care must be taken not to give these too much bottom heat, as it will injure their roots, or too much water in winter, as it is apt to rot them. Particular caution is necessary for watering in winter, not to wet the tan, as it makes the worms very troublesome ; they often destroy young plants by throwing the mould out of the pots ; but a better way is the one now very generally adopted, viz. to do without plunging in tan. Some hot dung or tan may be still kept in the pit to throw up a little warmth, on which should be put a good thickness of sand or gravel for the pots to stand on, and the plants will thrive much better than when plunged in tan : it is also coming nearer to nature, which should be always studied in the cultivation of plants, both in soil and situation. In tropical countries it is the sun that heats the earth in which the plants grow, not the earth that heats the air ; and the heat must be kept up in the stoves accordingly. If the houses are heated by steam, no tan is required. The plants may be set on stages, or any way that is most conve- nient. Some of them may be planted out in the house, where they will grow in greater perfection, and flower and ripen fruit better than when confined in pots. 6215. To have plants look well they should be always kept clean and free from insects : if infested with any species of aphis, the house should be smoked with tobacco, which instantly destroys them. The red spiders are likewise a great pest to cultivators, but.are also easily destroyed. One pound of sulphur vi vum, mixed up in a pail of quick-lime, and the flues brushed all over with it as a common whitewash, will de- stroy any quantity of them, and make the house look light and clean. The mealy bug is also troublesome if left to increase on the plants ; but as soon as they appear they should be brushed off as well as the scaly in- sects ; for, if left to increase, they will disfigure the plants, and be very difficult to get rid of. In fine weather the plants should be often sprinkled over with water from an engine, and the house shut up warm afterwards, which is a great means of keeping them clean and making them grow luxuriantly. Air should be given in the morning as early as possible, in fine weather, as it sweetens the house, and makes the plants healthy. It should also be taken away early in the afternoon, and the house shut up warm, that they may not be chilled by the night air. 6216. In potting plants, care should be taken to drain the pots well with broken potsherds or rough bits of turf j for nothing injures them more than letting them get sodden with too much wet. The best time to shift them in fresh pots is the spring, but some will require to be shifted again in autumn, to have them thrive well. The free-growing kinds cannot be well overpotted if there be plenty of room for them in the houses : they will thrive and flower better for being in large pots. Others that are more tender should be kept in as small pots as possible, that they may not get sodden, and lose their roots. (Sot. Culti- vator, 1.) 6217. The reserve hot-houses of the ornamental garden may be divided into those for forcing hardy flowering plants and shrubs, and those for propagating exotics by seeds, cuttings, or otherwise. 6218. Herbaceous plants and flowering shrubs are generally forced in pits or low houses ; and as soon as the flower-buds begin to expand, removed to the green-house or drawing-room, there to prolong the flower- ing season. The shrubs should be previously established in the pots, by being planted and plunged in the open reserve-garden a year beforehand : the autumn before forcing they should be thrown early into a state of rest, by covering them with canvass frames to exclude rain and sun, but so as to admit cold and air. This operation should be commenced in July ; and the first course of pots may be removed to the pit in November or earlier. Herbaceous plants of most sorts, especially of the fibrous-rooted kinds, may be taken up with balls, and planted in pots early in the autumn preceding the winter in which they are to be forced. Fusiform-rooted sorts earlier, as they do not rise so easily with balls ; and the bulbous sorts, the bulbs being out of ground, may be planted in the end of autumn, plunged in the open ground, and covered with rotten tan or ashes, and taken up as wanted. It is of some consequence to remark, that the flowers should be pinched off both the shrubs and herbaceous plants, the summer preceding the forcing season, in order to communicate additional strength, and aid in throwing them more early into a state of rest The bottom heat may either be from tan or dung, or a vault heated by flues or steam ; but the former we consider as most to be depended on. The temperature of the air of the house may at first setting in the plants be kept at 50 or 55* ; and in a fortnight, raised 10 degrees higher. After that, it may be kept up to 65 or higher, admitting air during sunshine. The temperature of the pit should be kept as high as that of the air. Successional supplies should be kept for the first fortnight in a cooler house, or in the coolest part of the pit; or the temperature, on their admission, may be somewhat lowered. The other points of routine culture need not be entered into. 6219. The propagation-house requires to be kept at a much more moderate tempera- ture both as to the atmosphere and the bottom heat than the forcing-pit or the principal stove. It need seldom exceed 60 in winter, and 65 in summer. Abundance of air must be given at certain seasons when damp and mouldiness begin to appear ; and shading and watering, so as to produce a moist atmosphere, must be attended to in the summer season. 828 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. CHAP. VIII. Floricullural Catalogue, Herbaceous Plants. 6220. A floricultural catalogue, as copious as that which we have given of culinary plants and fruits, would greatly exceed our limits. Plants grown for ornament are so numerous, that we cannot particularise separately the culture of each individual species ; but, with the exception of some of the more choice sorts, as the florists' flowers, &c., must collect them in groups, and detail a mode of culture applicable to the whole group. We shall first commence with herbaceous flowers, and these we shall arrange as florists', or select flowers, border-flowers, and herbaceous plants for particular purposes. SECT. I. Florists', or Select Flowers. 6221. Florists'flowers are so called as being " flowers" by way of eminence, and be- cause the principal sorts of them for a long time almost exclusively engaged the attention of the flower-gardener. The Dutch, in this, as in most other departments of gardening, were the first to bring it into notice, and more particularly by the great excellence to which they attained in the culture of florists' bulbs. In the culture of that tribe, they still excel ; but die fibrous-rooted flowers, as the carnation, auricula, &c. ; and the tuberous-rooted kinds, as the dahlia, pa?ony, &c. are brought to a higher degree of perfection in Britain than any where else. Ornamental flowers, like culinary vegetables which have been long and highly cultivated, acquire a magnitude, succulence, and conformation of parts which render them widely different from what they are in their natural state. This takes place both in double flowers, that is, when the petals of the corolla are increased in num- ber, or by the transformation of other parts of the flower into petals ; and also in single flowers, or those in which the petals do not exceed the common number. A flower so changed by cultivation, can no more be compared to the blossom of the same species in its wild state, than a headed cabbage or a broccoli can be compared to the wild cabbage of our sea-shores. Hence have been formed, by the common consent of florists, what are called canons of criticism, by which to estimate the properties of new varieties of established sorts of florists' flowers. To the hyacinth, tulip, auricula, and a few other sorts, particular canons are adapted ; but the merits of a number of other select flowers, double and single, are only to be judged of by general rules, such as fulness of floral leaves, roundness of outline, brilliancy and distinctness of color, &c. Under each species we shall give the established criterion, or canon, as far as generally agreed on. We shall take the plants of this section in the order of bulbous, tuberous, ramose, and fibrous rooted flowers. SUBSECT. I. Hyacinth. Hyacinthus Orientalis, L. (Sot. Mag. 937.) Hcxandria Monogi/nia, L. and Asphodeletc, B. P. Jacinte, Fr. ; Hyacinthe, Ger. ; and Giadnto, Ital. (fig. 589.) 6222. The bulb of the hyacinth is tunicated, the leaves broad and green, from the centre of which arises a scape, with a spike of flowers, pointing in all directions, and by which it is known, at first sight, from Hyacinthus nonscrip- tus, L. (Scilla nonscripla, W.), in which the scape is drooping, and the flowers all turned to one side. It is a native of the Levant, and abundant about Aleppo and Bagdat, where it flowers in February ; here it flowers in March and April. It was cultivated by Gerrard in 1596 ; but had, doubtless, long before been im- proved by the Dutch, who have added greatly to the strength and beauty of the plant, and produced almost innumerable varieties. 6'223. Varieties. Gerrard mentions the single and double blue, tlie purple, and the white. Parkinson, in 1629, enu- merates eight sorts. Miller says, the Haerlem gardeners distinguish near 2000 sorts, and generally publish cata- logues of them from year to year. At present, the taste for this flower being considerably abated, the Dutch and English catalogues contain only a few hundred sorts. Mason's catalogue for 1820, contains three hundred sorts with names. These names are quite arbitrary, being given by the grower after himself or some public character ; and therefore they are here omitted. They are arranged as double blues, whites, reds, and yellows, and single sorts of the same colors ; the blues and reds arc the most numerous ; the yellow, those of which there is least variety. ^)nly single hyacinths were at first cultivated ; but about the beginning of the last century attention was paid to double flowers by Peter Voerhelm, whose first double flower was named Mary, and is now lost ; but his third flower, the King qf Great Britain, which is now looked upon as the oldest double hyacinth, was greatly preferred to all the flowers known, and the price of it was then above 1000 florins, or 100/. sterling. Up to the middle of last BOOK II. HYACINTH. 829 century, the greatest attention was paid at Hacrlem to raising new sorts of double flowers; and as much as 200/. has been known to be given for a root : but, since that period, the taste for this and other bulbous flowers has considerably declined, and at present there are few sorts for which more than 10/. are asked : the general price being from one to ten shillings a bulb for the varied sorts, and what are called the com- mon mixtures are sold at from 2/. to 3/. a hundred. A variety dbgenerates, under bad treatment, in two or three years ; but in Holland some have been preserved nearly a century. 6224. Criterion of a fine double hyacinth. ( fig. 589. ) The stem should be strong, tall, and erect, sup. porting numerous large bells, each suspended by a short and strong peduncle, or foot-stalk, in a horizontal position, so that the whole may have a compact, pyramidal form, with the crown, or uppermost flower, perfectly erect. The flowers should be large, and perfectly doublet i. e. well tilled with broad bold petals, appearing to the eye rather convex than flat or hollow ; they should occupy about one half the length of the stem. The colors should be clear and bright, whether plain, red, white, or blue, or variously inter- mixed and diversified in the eye ; the latter, it must be confessed, gives additional lustre and elegance to this beautiful flower. Strong bright colors are, in general, preferred to such as are pale." 6225. Propagation. By seed for new varieties ; and by offset-bulbs for continuing approved sorts. 6226. By seed. " The seed should be saved from such sorts as have strong and straight stems, and a regular well formed pyramid of bells, not perfectly single, but rather semi-double. It should not be gathered till it has become perfectly black and ripe, at which time the pericarpium will appear yellow on the outside, and will begin to open. The stem, with which the seed is connected, is then to be cut off, and placed in a dry, airy, cool situation, where it may remain undisturbed till the time of sowing, which is the latter end of October, or beginning of March : it should then be sown about half an inch below the surface of the soil, in a deep box, filled with good sound garden-mould, mixed with sand, or the hyacinth compost, which should be afterwards placed in a warm situation during winter. It will never require to be watered, or have any other attention paid to it than to keep it free from weeds and frost, till it has remained in this state two years ; it must then, on the approach of winter, have an additional stratum of the compost placed upon it, about half an inch thick ; and at the third year, in the month of July, the roots may be taken up, dried, and treated in the same manner as large bulbs or offsets : some of the roots will flower the fourth year, one half of them will at the fifth, but by the sixth year, every healthy root will exhibit its bloom, and then the hopes and expectations of the cultivator will be realised or disap- pointed. He may think himself fortunate, if one half of the plants that first appeared, are in existence at this period ; and if he can at last find one flower in five hundred deserving a name or place in a curious collection, he may rest perfectly content, and be assured that he has fared as well as could reasonably be expected, and better than many who have bestowed equal attention on the subject." (Maddock.} 6227. By offsets. These may be planted in the beginning of October, or soon after they have been separated from the parent bulbs. Plant them in an open part of the garden, in rows about two inches deep, upon a bed raised six or eight inches above the common level, consisting of a sandy soil, pulverised, eighteen inches deep ; the surface of the bed should be made rather convex or rounding, so as to throw off heavy rains ; no further attention is necessary, except to stir the surface of the bed occasionally, keep it free from weeds, and preserve it from very severe frost. The proper time to take them up is the same as for large roots. Offsets, if preserved in health, will bloom weakly the second year ; but by the third tolerably strong, and may afterwards be placed on the best bed. 6228. Choice of full-grown roots. " Such roots as have attained the age of four or five years, bloom stronger in this country than any other ; they afterwards gradually decline, either by dividing into offsets, or diminishing in size and strength : but in Holland, owing to the peculiar circumstances of the soil, climate, situation, &c. the same bulb has been known to produce blossoms twelve or thirteen times, nor is it ever known to die merely with age." 6229. Soil and site. " The bed on which they are to be planted should be situated in rather a dry and airy part of the garden ; a southern aspect is to be preferred, sheltered on the north and east. When the situation is determined on, the dimensions of the bed should be marked out, and the soil entirely taken away to the depth of at least two feet ; the earth in the bottom must then be dug up and pulverised, one spit or nine inches deeper, and the space above filled up with a compost consisting of one third C3arse sea or river sand ; one third fresh sound earth ; one fourth rotten cow-dung, at least two years old ; and earth of decayed leaves for the remainder. These ingredients are to be well mixed and incorporated, and about a fortnight previous to planting, the bed should be filled up with the compost to about four inches above the level of the path on the south or front side, and ten inches on the north side, so as to form a regular slope or inclination towards the sun." 6230. In the Dutch Florist of Nicholas Van Kampen and sons, florists at Haerlem (Haerlem 1760, and Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1763), sandy earth is said to form the basis of the culture of the hyacinth. It ought to be of a bluish-grey or blackish-red color, not sharp, but rather handling smooth, a little greasy, and taking a pearl color when dry ; the water passing through it being sweet and of a delicate taste. The best method of enriching sandy earth, according to their experience, " is to make use of cow-dung, rotted leaves of trees, and tanners' bark ; but the bark ought not to be taken fresh out of the pits, but laid up for two years at least, that it may be well rotted and consumed to one half : Our method, then, of mak- ing compost for hyacinths is as follows : Two sixth parts of grey sand ; two sixths of well rotted ccw- dung ; one sixth of tanners' bark, quite rotted and reduced to earth ; one sixth of tree-leaves, also well rotted. All these materials must be thrown into a heap, not more than three feet thick, so that the rays of the sun may have power to penetrate through it, and warm it to the bottom ; for which purpose the heap must be laid in a high and open place exposed to the south. Once a month it ought to be carefully turned, and the bottom thrown to the top, that all parts of it may partake of the benign influence of the sun and elements : this is essential ; and this turning must be continued for twelve months, taking care not to sift the compost, .because, in that case, it is apt to run into lumps, which would be of dangerous consequence." (Quot. by Neill, in Hort. Tour, 536.) 6231. In St. Simon's work, entitled Des Jacintes (Amst. 1768, 4to.), in which the Dutch mode of cul- tivating the hyacinth is fully detailed, the compost used at Haerlem is said to be rotten cow-dung, rotten leaves, and fine sand. The leaves of elm, lime, and birch are preferred to those of oak, chestnut, walnut, beech, plane, &c. which do not rot so quickly. The cow-dung is collected in winter from cattle, stall-fed upon dry food, without any mixture of straw or other litter. The leaves, when decayed and fit for use, are thus mixed with the other materials : " First, they place a layer of sand, then one of dung, and then one of rotten leaves, each being eight or ten inches thick. These layers are repeated till the heap is six or seven feet high, a layer of dung being uppermost, sprinkled over with a little sand to prevent the too powerful action of the sun upon it. After the heap has lain thus for six months or more, it is mixed, and thrown up afresh, in which state it remains some weeks to settle before it is carried into the flower- beds. This compost retains its qualities about six or seven years ; but the Dutch avoid setting hyacinths in it two years successively ; in the alternate years they plant tulips, jonquils, narcissuses, crocuses, irises, &c. in the same beds ; nor do they venture to set hyacinths in the compost the first season, when the fresh manure might be injurious to them." (Herbert, in Hort. Trans, vol. iv. 165.) 6232. Planting. This should take place " from the middle of October to the middle of November ; if it is done earlier the plants will appear above ground in the middle of winter ; or if it is deferred later, the roots will be weakened by their natural tendency to vegetate. On planting the roots, the surface of the bed should be covered with a little fresh sandy earth, about one inch thick, raked perfectly smooth 8SO PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. W R B W R B W R K B W R B VT R B W R B W R B W R R B W R B W R B W R B W R B W R R B W R B W R B and even, and have the exact situ- 590 ation for every bulb marked upon it (Jig.59().}, regularly mingling the co- lors of rod, blue, and white; the yel- lows being classed with the latter. The width of the surface of the bed may be four feet, and six rows may be placed across it at eight inches asun- der, the two outside rows being each four inches from the sides of the bed ; consequently the space between the centre of each bulb will be about nine inches and a quarter. On planting hyacinths, a little clean sand should be placed underneath, and likewise upon the roots, to prevent the earth adhering too closely to them ; the whole are then to be covered with sound fresh sandy earth, from three to four inches deep, according to the size of the bulb; when this is completed, the bed will be about eight inches above the level of the walk on the south or front side, and about fourteen inches on the north ; it will look neater and have a better effect, if it is supported on each side with a strong frame of thick boards or brick-work. 6233. The Dutch Florist directs, " After a place has been pitched on for planting the flowers, the natural earth must be dug out to the depth of three feet, and the bottom covered with a stratum of cow-dung half a foot thick; which must be beaten and trod down till it be very firm and compact like a hard crust, so as to prevent any communication with the sub-soil. Then the hole is to be filled up with compost, six inches above the level of the garden. The compost should be laid into the designed bed about a month before the roots are planted ; for if it be put in later, the earth might settle while the roots are in it, which would lay them too deep. The proper season for putting in the bulbs is October and November. They ought to be set at the depth of four or five inches ; but early flowering varieties may be one inch deeper, which will bring them to flower at the same time with the others." (Quot by NeiU, in Hort. Tour, 537.) 6234 Culture. " In order to preserve it from very heavy rains or severe frosts, it should be hooped over, and mats or canvass should be placed at hand ready to cover the bed on such emergencies ; but it will not be necessary to defend it from moderate rains or slight frosts: for too frequent and long covering will de- prive the roots of the due action and influence of the air, which ought to be avoided as much as possible : it were even better to run the hazard of incurring a slight injury by the omission of covering on some oc- casions, than overdo it to the certain detriment of the plants. If frost is permitted to penetrate so far into the soil as to reach the bulbs, especially about the time that the plants begin to appear above ground, it will produce a singular effect, by causing some of them to shoot forth or discharge their stems and blos- soms ; but if the roots become entirely frozen through, they are in danger of being destroyed. The earlier sorts will begin to open and show color about the beginning of April ; it will be proper to screen such from the too powerful effects of the sun, which, if not prevented, would bleach and tarnish their colors, parti- cularly the reds and deep blues ; but if they are properly defended from it, their colors will be preserved, and they will, in some measure, be kept back, so as to be in full bloom with the later sorts, especially if the roots of the early sorts have been planted about an inch deeper than the rest : it is a very desirable object to hae a uniform bloom. It will be necessary to support the stems as they advance in height ; for this purpose, small sticks or wires, painted green, should be forced into the ground, immediately behind the bulbs, either in an erect position or leaning a little backwards, to which the stems are to be rather loosely tied with small pieces of green worsted, as soon as they begin to bend, or are in danger of breaking with the weight of the corolla or bells : this operation must be repeated as they advance in height, for it is im- possible to do it at one time so as to answer the purpose. When the greater part of the bed appears in color, a covering, or awning, should be erected over it and the path in front : the awning should consist prejudicial to the bloom. The covering (fig. 591.) should be so ccnsturcted, by means of lines (a) and pulleys (6), as to be easily and expeditiously rolled up, or let down, as occasion requires, to afford the plants the full benefit of light and air, at all favorable opportunities, that is to say, when the air is mild, and light clouds intervene, so as to blunt the sun's ray. This sometimes, and, indeed, often happens to be the case from seven to nine o'clock in the morning, and from four to six in the evening, at which time the sun has also less power than in the middle of the day. A bed of hyacinths never requires to be watered at any period ; the rains that happen after planting are generally more than sufficient both for the roots and the bloom ; and after the bloom is over they are rather prejudicial than otherwise, except when very moderate. Although covering in the manner described presents and exhibits the bloom to the greatest advantage, yet it evidently has a tendency to weaken and injure the bulbs, and ought not, therefore, to be continued more than two or three weeks at most; but as soon as the general Woom declines, the beds should be immediately exposed to the open air, and the mats and hoops should be replaced, as before, to keep off heavy rains." 6S35. Taking up the bulbs. " It is the practice in Holland, to take up the bulbs about three weeks or a month after bloom, in the following manner : As soon as the plants begin to put on a yellowish decayed ap- pearance, they take up the roots and cut off the stem and foliage close to, or within half an inch "of, the bulb, but leave the fibres, &c. attached to it ; they then place the bulbs again on the same bed sideways, with their points towards the north, and cover them about half an inch deep, with dry earth or sand, in the form of a ridge, or little cone, over each : in this state they remain about three weeks longer, and dry or ripen gradually ; during which, as much air is admitted as possible, but the bed is preserved from heavy rains, and top hot a sun ; at the expiration of this period the bulbs are taken up, and their fibres, which are become nearly dry, gently rubbed off; they are then placed in a dry room for a few days, and are afterwards cleaned from any soil that adheres to them, their loose skins taken off, with such offsets as may be easily separated. When this dressing is finished, the bulbs are wrapped up in separate pieces of paper, or burietl in dry sand, where they remain till the return of the season for planting. Another, and less troublesome, mode of treatment after bloom, though perhaps more hazardous, is to keep the bed airy, and rather dry, 11 the stems and foliage appear nearly dried up or consumed ; this will seldom happen to be the case in less than two months ; the bulbs are then to be taken up, cleaned from the fibres, soil &c and preserved in sand or papers as before directed." BOOK II. TULIP. 881 6236. Van Kampcn and son say, " We take up the roots as soon as the leaves begin to wither, that is. when their plants begin to turn yellow. We then break off the stems an inch above the bulbs, which we afterwards cover with earth, in which they are to lie till the gross moisture be dried up by the warmth of the sun. We make a little heap of earth, and place the roots in it, bottom downwards as they grew ; and the heap is covered with an inch or two of soil. When the bulbs have lain in this heap for three weeks, they are to be taken out in fair weather, and laid on a board in the sun for an hour, after which, they are to be cleared of the earth and offsets about them, taking great care not to give the least bruise or wound." (Quot. bv Netil, in Hort. Tour, 558.) 6237. Herbert says, " The bulbs should be placed in an airy store-room, and not suffered to touch each other ; a moveable stage of open lattice-work, furnished with drawers, may be used, and the utmost atten- tion should be paid to ventilation." A French florist, Baudry, is said (Caled. Hort. Mem. iv. 76.) to have lost annually a number of his hyacinth-bulbs through dampness until he adopted the expedient of placing them in the store-room with the base of the bulb upwards. Drawers of lattice-work would effect the same object. 6238. Diseases. " Hyacinths are subject to various diseases, arising from different causes ; that distem- per commonly known by the appellation of the ring-sickness, is of all others the most dangerous and most difficult to cure; in short, the only effectual remedy is to cut out the diseased part, till no brownness, yel- lowness, or other symptom of distemper remains. The sound part will survive the operation, if it consist of no more than the outside tunic of the bulb, without any heart ; but it will, in such case, only be able to produce offsets, and will never recover itself so as to flower again : as soon as the operation is performed, the wounded part should be exposed to the sun. till it becomes dry, to prevent mouldiness, and it will be best to replant it in some dry situation soon after." " The Dutch," Herbert observes, " are much troubled with this disease ; the cause of which appears to be a fungus, the spawn of which is nurtured in the cow-dung. The only remedy is the removal of the distempered bulb, and the compost that was in contact with it." 6239. Duration of bulbs. " The hyacinth delights in a sandy soil and saline atmosphere ; of conse- quence it succeeds best on the sea-coast, or in situations very near to the sea. In more inland parts, it will generally be found necessary to procure an annual reinforcement of fresh imported bulbs, in order to make good or supply the deficiencies arising from the loss, or impaired health and strength of many of those that have bloomed on the best bed the preceding spring. Those who are well acquainted with thehyacinth, always allow about one bulb in twelve to fail, notwithstanding no visible blemish or decay is discernible at the time of planting; such generally have a corps de reserve, in narrow deep pots, which, at the com- mencement of bloom, they plunge or sink into the bed, wherever a vacancy, or weak sickly plant makes its appearance ; by which means the uniformity and regularity of the bed is preserved, without any visible defect or alteration." Herbert says, " My own 'experience enables me to say, that the nurseryman in the neighborhood of London may produce hyacinth-bulbs equal, if not superior, to those imported from Hoi. land ; though, perhaps, with greater loss from disease, owing to his not being able to procure the dung of cattle fed upon hard food, and free from straw." (Hort. Trans, vol. iv. p. 168.) 6240. Forcing the hyacinth. Plant the roots in narrow deep pots, filled with sandy loam, in October j plunge them in and cover them with old bark-leaves or sand ; they will soon throw down roots, and a part may then, say in November, be plunged in bottom heat, which will come into bloom by Christmas, and successional supplies can be taken from the store planted in October, and a bloom thus kept up till they flower in the open air. The best sorts to force are the single blues and reds. 6241. Blowing hyacinths in water-glasses. Blue or dark-colored glasses are more favorable to the pro- gress of the roots than light ones, light being injurious to all roots. The bulbs to be blown in the glasses should be planted in October, in earth in which they push their fibres more regularly, and taken up as wanted, washed from the earth, and placed in the blowing-glass : the glasses may be kept in a warm room or in a stove. The water should be soft, and the glass so full that it may rise a fourth of an inch on the bulb. As often as it becomes fetid, it should be renewed. SUBSECT. 2. Tulip. Tulipa Gesneriana, L. (Sot. Mag. 1135.) Hex. Monog. L. and Lilies, 3. Tulipe, Fr. and Ger. and Tulipano, Ital. (Jig. 592.) 6242. The bulb of the tulip is solid, and sends up an upright stem from twelve to eigh- teen inches high, with glaucous leaves, and a large erect flower, the petals in its wild state having a black base. It is a native of the Levant. It is common in Syria, and is sup- posed by some to be the " lily of the field," referred to in Christ's address from the mount; though Sir J. E. Smith thinks the amaryllis lutea is there meant. In Persia, where the tulip is abundant, it is considered as the emblem of perfect lovers. " When a young man," says Chardin, "presents one to his mistress, he gives her to understand, by the general color of the flower, that his body is on fire with her beauty, and! by the black base of it, that his heart is burned to a! coal." According to Gesner, the tulip was brought to Europe in 1559. It was cultivated in Eng- land by James Garnet, in 1577, having been intro- duced, according to Hakluyt, from Vienna. To- wards the middle of the 17th century, the tulip became the object of considerable trade in the 592 Netherlands ; it rose to its greatest height in 1 634, and the three following years. According to Beckmann (History of Inventions, art. Tulip}, for one root of a variety called the Viceroy, articles to the value of 2500 florins were agreed to be de- livered. The Semper Augustus has been sold for 2000 florins ; one person agreed to give 4600 florins (about 460/. ), with a new carriage, two horses, and complete harness ; and another agreed to give twelve acres of land for a single root. The trade was generally followed for a time, and having no foundation in real utility, like the Missisippi and South Sea schemes, it was a mere gambling business, and rightly named Tulipomania. John Barclay, the celebrated author of the romance of Argenis, is said to have had this mania to such an excess, that he placed two mastiffs as 832 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. sentinels in his garden. This was between 1600 and 1621, when he lived at Rome, in an ill aired and unwholesome habitation ; in which, however, he chose rather to continue than abandon his favorite flowers. (Chalmers's JBiog. Diet.) The taste for tulips in Eng- land was at its greatest height about the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th cen- tury ; about the year 1 730 or 40, it had declined and given way to the taste for botany, and new plants from America and other foreign countries. The tulip, however, is still much cultivated both in Holland and England, near large towns, though in the latter country there are now very few good collections in the private gardens of the higher classes. Like the auricula and some other flowers, it is more the flower of the tradesman and oper- ative manufacturer than of the botanist or man of fortune. 6243. Varieties. Parkinson, in 1629, enumerates 140 sorts: but " to tell of all the kinds," he says, " which are the pride of delight, they are so many, and as 1 may say almost infinite, doth both pass my ability, and, as I believe, the skill of any other." In Parkinson's time, tulips were divided into prtucoces, or early blowers, and serotinee, or late blowers, with an intermediate division of dubia; mediae, doubtful or middle blowers, which, for the most part, however, belonged to the serotinee. The early blowers have short stems, and the Due Van Tholl is almost the only variety in repute among modern florists. The great variety in the catalogues is produced from the late blowers, which have tall stems and much richer colors ; of these the catalogue of Maddock in 1792 contained the names of 665 sorts. In Mason's catalogue for 1820, are six sorts of early tulips ; four of perroquets, or middle blowers ; 22 double sorts, and upwards of 600 single late sorts. The Dutch florists class their late-blowing tulips as under : a variety will last an un- known number of years. Prime baguets (bagitettt, Fr. a rod or wand) ; very tall ; fine cups with white bottoms, well broken with fine brown, and all from the same breeder. Baguets Rigaut's (supposed from Ri- ftaud, some eminent florist's name, or rovgeaiute, red-faced} ; not quite so tall, but with strong stems, and' very large 1 6244. The names of the different stantly changing, their insertion Y published by the nurserymen and well formed cups, with white bottoms, well broken with fine brown, and all from the same breeder. Incomparable Verports; very perfect cups, cherry and rose, and white bot- toms, well broken with shining brown. By blomcns, or next flowers, thejlamand* varieties, classed under these heads, ere could be of no use. (See the * florists.) What are called breeders a of the French florists, with bottoms white, or nearly so, from different breeders, and broken with variety of Bizarres (Irixarre, Fr. odd, irregular) ; ground yellow, from different breed- ers, and broken with variety of colors. being perfectly arbitrary, and con- nnual Catalogues of Bulbous Rooty, re procured from seed, and consist of one plain color on a white or yellow bottom.^ These being cultivated on a dry and rather poor soil be- come broken or variegated, and produce new v'arieties. The time that elapses "before they break varies from one to twenty years or more, and sometimes this change never takes place, so that whoever thinks of raising new varieties of tulips from seed must be possessed of an ample fund of patience and persever- ance. "The early dwarf tulip, known among florists as the Van Tholl, is a distinct species, T. suaveolens. Formerly there were several varieties of early dwarf kinds. 6245. Criterion of a fine variegated late tulip. " The stem should be strong, elastic, and erect, and about thirty inches above the surface of the bed. The flower should be large, and composed of six petals : these should proceed a little horizontally at first, and then turn upwards, forming almost a perfect cup, with a round bottom, rather widest at the top. The three exterior petals should be rather larger than the three inferior ones, and broader at their base : all the petals should have perfectly entire edges, free from notch or serrature ; the top of each should be broad and well rounded ; the ground-color of the flower, at the bottom of the cup, should be clear white or yellow, and the various rich-colored stripes, which are the principal ornament of a fine tulip should be regular, bold, and distinct, on the margin, and terminate in fine broken points, elegantly feathered or pencilled. The centre of each leaf, or petal, should contain one or more bold blotches, or stripes, intermixed with small portions of the original or breeder color, abruptly broken into many irregular obtuse points. Some florists are of the opinion that the central stripes, or blotches, do not contribute to the beauty and elegance of the tulip, unless confined to a narrow stripe, ex- actly down the centre, and that they should be perfectly free from any remains of the original or breeder color : it is certain that such appear very beautiful and delicate, especially when they have a regular nar- row feathering at the edge ; but the greatest connoisseurs in this flower unanimously agree, that it denotes superior merit, when the tulip abounds with rich coloring, distributed in a distinct and regular manner throughout the flower, except in the bottom of the cup, which, it cannot be disputed, should be a clear, bright white or yellow, free from stain or tinge, in order to constitute a perfect flower." 6246. Propagation. By seed for new varieties, and by offsets for continuing approved sorts. 6247. By seed. Select such breeders as have tall strong stems, with large well formed cups, clear in the bottom, and save seed from these in preference to the finest of the variegated or broken sorts, as the seed of such sorts produces nothing but poor weak breeders of no value. " It should remain growing on the stem till the pericarpium becomes of a brownish color, and begins to open; it is then sufficiently ripe, and should be cut off, with six or eight inches of the stem, and treated afterwards, in all respects, agreeable to the directions given for the management of hyacinth-seed. Some of the seedlings will bloom by the fourth or fifth, and most, if not all, by the seventh year." 6248. By offsets. These should be planted soon after they are separated from the parent bulb, in beds of fresh sandy loam, with a little rotten cow-dung placed from seven to twelve inches below the surface, in a dry airy situation, from two to four inches deep, according to the size of the roots. The beds should be raised six or eight inches above the alleys, formed rather convex on the surface, and may be provided with hoops and mats, to be used to guard them, as occasion may require, from heavy rains and severe frosts. 6249. Choice of full-grown bulbs. Select such as have not lost the brown skin, are not mouldy or soft at the root end, and are full, solid, and rather pointed at the other. Just before planting, strip off the brown skin so as to leave the root perfectly bare and white, performing the operation with great care, to avoid bruising or wounding the root, especially at the lower end, where the fibres are formed, which is, at the season of planting, extremely tender. 6250. Soil and situation. " The situation for the best bed should be in an open airy part of the garden ; * when that is fixed upon, the ground should be marked out, agreeable to its intended dimensions, and the soil taken out twenty inches deep ; the bottom is then to be filled up with sound fresh earth, ten inches thick, upon which is to be placed a stratum of two-year-old rotten cow-dung, and earth of the above description, about one hatf of each, well mixed together, twelve inches thick ; and again, upon this is to be placed an- other stratum of the same kind of earth as that of the bottom ; this is only to be two inches thick at the sides, and three inches at the middle, which will give it a small degree of convexity ; this is to be per- formed about the 20th of October, i. e. a week or two before planting, to give the bed time to settle ; at the expiration of two weeks, the earth will have subsided, so as to be about two inches higher than the cir- cumjacent paths ; but if heavy rains intervene between this preparation of the bed, and the time of plant- ing, it will be pro])er to keep them off, in order to preserve the temperature of the earth, as it would be rendered too compact and adhesive, by a redundancy of moisture for the fibres to pass freely through it, which ought to be avoided." Hogg recommends a fresh, rich, loamy soil, of rather a sandy nature, which should be dug twelve months at least before it is used, and a small portion of well rooted dung must be added. He says, an intelligent old tulip-grower assured him, that the best compost he had ever hit on " was three fourths rich yellow loam ; one fourth leaf-mould ; one sixth two-year-old horse-dung ; and BOOK II. TULIP. 833 one eighth sea-sand, well incorporated, and laid in a bed, or stratum, for the plants, two feet deep." (Tr> ^fln the Carnation, Auricula, Tulip, &c. 142.) 6*251. Planting. The most proper time is from the end of October to the tenth of No- r vember. On the day made choice of for planting, rake the surface of the bed smooth and even, still preserving its convexity, and mark the exact situation for every root upon it. The proper distance between each root is seven inches from centre to centre ; and if the rows are seven inches asunder, the roots will form squares of similar diameter on all parts of the bed. A bed consisting of seven rows makes the noblest appearance, when it is of sufficient length, with a path round it about two and a half or three feet wide ; but where the number of roots is small five rows may suffice, and the path, in that case, may either extend quite round the bed, or only on one side, at pleasure. If, therefore, the bed consists of seven rows, it should consequently be fifty inches wide, which will allow a space of four inches between the outside rows and the sides of the bed ; but if the bed contains only five rows, it will only require to be three feet wide, to give the roots similar distances. Having sprinkled a little clean sand where the roots are to be set, place them with great exactness and add some very sandy earth, so as to completely envelope each root in a lit- tle cone of it; then cover the whole very carefully with strong, sound, fresh loam, about four inches thick at the middle of the bed, gradually decreasing as it approaches the sides, where it should be about three inches thick ; thus will the convexity of the surface be in- creased in a proper degree, and the roots will be covered with soil, to a depth propor- tionate to their size and strength ; the largest and strongest having been placed in the cen- tre rows, and the smaller and weaker on those of the outside. No tulip-root, whatever may be its size or strength, should be planted more than four inches deep from the upper side of the root ; nor should any blooming root be planted less than two and a half or three inches deep, however small it may be. The soil made use of for covering the bulbs should be frequently turned over, and thoroughly exposed to the sun and air, some time before it is made use of, that it may be rendered perfectly sweet and free from the acrid qua- lity that most soils are subject to, when- taken considerably below the surface. But if the bed is only to contain five rows, with a path in the front, and none behind, then it will be proper to plant the smallest and lowest growing roots in the front, next the path, and so gradually to increase in the size of the roots to the fifth or last row, which should con- tain the strongest and largest of all; when the roots are properly covered with soil, as before directed, the surface of the bed will slope one way, forming an inclined plane : it will be necessary to support its highest side at least with boards or brick-work, otherwise the earth would be liable to crumble down and leave the roots bare or too shallow. 6252. Future culture and management. " When the operation of planting is concluded, the bed may be hooped over, and taken care of, in the manner directed for hyacinths, i. e. so as to preserve it from very heavy rains, and severe frosts ; but either one or the other, in moderation, will be of more service than injury to it. By the end of February every plant in health will be visible above ground ; some tall early sorts will be two or three inches high, others one inch, and the latter sorts just making their anoearance ; indeed, a very few remarkably late sorts may be a week longer before they appear, but not more : if, on examination, any distemper or canker is discernible on the foliage, about this time, either above or an inch or two below the surface of the soil, it should be carefully cut out with a sharp knife, and the wounded part left exposed to the sun and air, which will presently heal it : a fine dry day should be made choice of for this operation. If the surface of the bed appears to be of too close and solid a contexture, it should be carefully stirred up, about two inches deep, which will admit the air more freely, and prove, in all respects, very beneficial. By the end of April, some of the plants will probably be grown so tall as to require the hoops to be raised a little, to secure the blossom from injury : attention to this part must not be omitted, for the blossom is very tender and likely to be bruised and disfigured, by a very slight blow, or rub against the hoops. As soon as any of the earlier sorts begin to show color, they should be shaded from the sun, for, when its heat is considerable, it will cause the colors to run and intermix, in such a manner as to destroy the elegance and beauty of the flower ; some sorts are more particularly liable to this effect than others, and will be spoiled in five minutes. When the greater part of the blossoms have begun to open, a frame, or awning, should be erected over the bed and paths, nearly similar to that for hyacinths (fig. 591.) : that is to say, so as to keep out rain, and admit as much light as possible ; this must be thrown off, or rolled up, at every favorable opportunity, as directed for hyacinths, except that it should be done rather earlier in the morning, and later in the evening; because the sun has acquired a greater degree of power at this season of the year than earlier. If these frequent exposures to the light and air be omitted, the colors of the flowers will be faint and weak, and the grandeur of effect will be lost, or consi- derably lessened. The cloth covering should come down on each side, within about three feet of the ground, to allow a free circulation of air, except in windy weather ; from the effects of which, the flowers must be most carefully preserved, by a continuation of the covering quite down to the ground, on the windy side ; a line of mats sewed together, and their upper edge nailed to the frame on that side, may answer the purpose, if the cloth is not of sufficient length. Tulips never require to be artificially watered, in the hottest and driest seasons, at any period from planting to taking up the roots ; nevertheless, mo- derate rains may always be admitted before, and in very small quantity after the bloom is over ; but early in the spring, they are absolutely necessary, in order to procure a strong bloom. When the awning is erected, the hoops should be carefully taken away, the sides and ends of the bed should be neatly boarded up, and the paths lowered two or three inches, to bring the flowers nearer to the eye : a slight frame, about two feet high, should surround the bed, to prevent the garments of spectators from rubbing against, or breaking off the flowers ; lines of small twine, painted green, and corresponding with the rows of flowers, should pass from one head of the bed to the other, fastened to the end pieces of the frame, and stretched tight ; to these the stems of the flowers are to be loosely tied with short pieces of green worsted, which will preserve a pleasing regularity of appearance, without stiffness and formality. Tulips will bear to be covered a longer time in bloom than most other flowers, without sustaining any considerable injury : it may be continued three weeks with great safety. If any roots should perish, or fail to produce bloom, the deficiency may be made good by transplanting, with the tube transplanter (fig. 93.), from a reserve- bed, or the lower end of the stems of flowers, taken from the reserve-beds, may be immersed in phials, filled with water, and sunk into the bed, so as not to appear above ground these will continue in bloom 3 H ; 834 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. several days, without requiring to be changed, and will make a tolerable appearance. About a week or ten days after full bloom, when the petals of many begin, to drop oft', the awning should be taken down, together with the frame, boards, &c. that surround the bed ; and the mats and hoops may be replaced as before, to throw off excess of rain, as the case may require : and as the leaves or petals of any fall, the seed-vessel of such should be immediately broken off close to the stem ; for if suffered to remain on the plant, it will procrastinate the period of its maturity, and weaken the root considerably. The bed may remain in this state about a fortnight longer, by which time the grass, or foliage, will become of a yellow- ish-brown, and two or three inches of the top of the stem will wither, dry up, and become purplish : this denotes the critical period to take up the roots, because if done earlier, they will be weak and spongy, and if deferred later, their juices will become gross ; this will be manifest at the succeeding bloom, by too great a redundance of colorific matter in the petals, and the flowers being what is generally termed foul." 6253. Taking up the roots. Dig them up carefully, and place them under cover, in a dry, airy, shaded situation. Here they may remain untouched till August or September following. " Then it is proper to take off their loose skins, fibres, and such offsets as are easily separated; observing not to leave the roots too bare, because the action of the air upon such would have a tendency to weaken and injure them, by drying up part of their juices ; the last brown skin, which is so intimately connected with the root, should remain on it till the time of planting." 6254. Diseases. The tulip is hardier, and less liable to disease and injury from weather, than most sorts of flowers ; it is sometimes attacked by grubs and wire-worms at the root early in spring, and then the best mode is to remove the plant and a portion of the soil, replacing the former from the reserve or offset-buds. 6255. Forcing the tulivin pots or water-glasses. The early dwarf sorts are well adapted for this purpose, especially the Due Van Tholl. They may be treated as in forcing the hyacinth. SUBSECT. 3. Ranunculus. Ranunculus Asiaticus, L. (Mill. Ic. 2. t. 216.) Poly. Polyg. L. and Ranunculacece, J. Renoncule, Fr. ; Ranunkel, Ger. ; and Ranun- colo, Ital. (Jig. 593.) 6256. The ranunculus from a fasciculus of small tubers sends up several bipartite leaves, and an erect branched stem with a terminating flower variously colored. It is a native of the Levant, and was cultivated by Gerrard in 1596. Though rather a tender plant, innumerable and highly beautiful double-flowered varieties have been raised from seed, chiefly by the English florists, from the middle to the latter end of last century. 6257. Varieties. Only double ranunculuses are held in esteem : of these, Parkinson, in 1629, enumerates eight; and Ray, in 1665, twenty sorts. Justice, in 1764, divides ranunculuses into Turkey and Persian ; of the former he enumerates eighteen J^rts, and of the latter a hundred. What he calls the Turkey ranunculus is only a variety or sub- species with a very dark flower, which Miller also considered as a species, and named it .R. sanguineus. Maddock, in 1792, had upwards of eight hundred sorts. Mason's catalogue for 1820 contains about four hundred names. " There are more varieties of ranunculuses," Maddock observes, " than of any other flower ;" but as their names are arbitrary, it would be of little use to enumerate them here. A variety will last from twenty to twenty-five years. 6258. Criterion of a Jine double ranunculus. (Jig. 593. a) " The stem should be strong, straight, and from eight to twelve inches high, supporting a large well formed blossom, or corolla, at least two inches in diameter, consisting of numerous petals, the largest at the outside, and gradually diminishing in size as they approach the centre of the flower, which should be well filled up with them. The blossom should be of a hemi- spherical form ; its component petals should be imbricated in such a manner as neither to be too close and compact, nor too widely separated ; but have rather more of a perpendicular than horizon- tal direction, to display their colors with better effect . The petals should be broad, and have per- fectly entire well rounded edges : their colors should be dark, clear, rich, or brilliant, either con- sisting of one color throughout, or be otherwise variously diversified, on an ash, white, sulphur, or fire colored ground, or regularly striped, spotted, or mottled in an elegant manner." 6259. Propagation. By seed, for new varieties, and by offset-tubers, or dividing the tubers for continuing approved sorts. 6260. By seed. The seed of the ranunculus, Maddock observes, in no instance ever produces two flowers alike, or the same as the original It should be saved from such semi-double flowers as have tall strong stems, a considerable number of large well formed petals, and rich good colors, chiefly preferring the darker, but not to the exclusion of the lighter colored, when their properties answer the foregoing description. " The seed should remain on the plant till it has lost its verdure, and becomes brown and dry ; it may then be cut off, and spread abroad upon paper in the seed-room, exposed to the sun, that every degree of humidity may be exhaled from it ; in which state it should be put into a bag, and pre- served in a warm dry place " 6261. January is the proper time to sow the seed ; and in order to prepare it, it must be separated from the stalks to which it is connected, in the following manner, viz. in the first place, it should be taken out of the bag, and spread thin upon a sheet of paper or tea-tray, &c. and placed before a moderate fire, till it is jost warm, and no more ; the seed will then easily scrape off, by means of a penknife ; but great care must be taken to avoid scraping it off in lumps, or suffering any pieces of the stalk, dried petals oi BOOK II. RANUNCULUS. 835 the flower, or other extraneous matter to be mixed with it, which would create a mouldiness when sown of very destructive consequence : when the seed is scraped in a proper manner, -it will have much of the appearance of clean coarse bran, with a little brown or purple speck in the centre of each cuticle, which is the kernel. When the seed is thus prepared, it should be sown in a shallow frame, provided with sashes the soil should have been previously taken out, three feet deep, and spread thin upon the ground, till it has been perfectly frozen throughout, in order to destroy any vermin it may have contained, more parti- cularly the common earthworms. When the pit is filled up again with the frozen lumps of earth, it should remain till the whole mass has thawed, and subsided to its pristine bulk, or nearly so ; its surface should then be made perfectly smooth and even, and the seed sown upon it with the utmost regularity, in such quantity as nearly to cover it ; the glasses should be placed over it immediately, and the frame kept closely covered with them, for two or three days, till the seed begins to swell and soften ; a little light earth should then be sifted upon it, through a fine sieve, but not sufficient to cover it ; this should be re- peated once or twice a-week, till the greater part of the seed disappears : it is proper to remark in this place, that such seeds as happen to be covered deeper than the thickness of a half-crown piece, will never vege.tate, and must of course, inevitably perish. 6262. It is necessary to keep the seed moderately moist, by gentle waterings with soft water, that has been exposed to the sun till it is a little warmed ; the rose of the watering-pot should be hemispherical, and perforated with a great number of very small holes, that will discharge fine streams of water, in a very distinct and regular manner. About the time that the plants begin to make their appearance, it is proper to stir the surface of the earth with a pin, or silver bodkin, just sufficiently to admit air, and give liberty to the young plants to pass easily through ; this operation should be very carefully performed, to prevent breaking off the fibres, or raising and leaving any of the plants- out of the earth, because one hour's sun upon such would inevitably destroy them. When the sun shines very hot, it is necessary to admit some fresh air under the glasses, and shade the frame with mats ; but it should be close shut up with the glasses when the air is cold, and always at night. 6263. After the plants are all up, and their two interior leaves appear, more air must be given, by hav- ing hurdles or lattice-work substituted for the glasses ; waterings must be regularly continued, in the manner before described, when the long continuance of dry weather renders it necessary : but fine warm showers of rain are always preferable, when they happen in due time. This kind of management is to be continued tjll the roots are matured, and fit to take up, which is known by the foliage becoming perfectly brown, dry, and nearly consumed. 6264. The speediest and safest method of taking up these small roots is to pare off the earth, three inches deep, with a trowel or shovel, having previously carefully picked off the dried leaves, and any other ex- traneous matter that may be found upon it. The earth and roots, thus collected, are to be thrown into a fine brass-wire sieve, that will not permit the smallest roots to pass through it ; the sieve is then to be worked in a large vessel or tub, nearly filled with water ; the earthy part will, in consequence, be dissolved and washed away, and the roots will remain in the sieve, where, by a little management, they may be easily separated from the stones, &c. which are mixed with them. The upper rim of the sieve must, at all times, be held above the surface of the water, otherwise some of the smallest roots will be lost, as they are frequently found floating on the surface, till they have imbibed a sufficient quantity of water to make them sink. The roots are to be dried and preserved, and are to be planted at the latter end of Oc- tober, or beginning of November ; the greater part, or such as have two or more claws, will blow strong the following summer. The Rev. W. Williamson sows half his seed in autumn, and the other half in January, in the open air. He prefers the autumnal sowing, if the winter proves mild. 6265. By offsets. Unlike the offsets of the hyacinth and tulip, those of the ranunculus generally attain perfection in the season of their formation on the parent plant, and are therefore fit to be planted as full- grown tubers the same season in which they are removed. Smaller ones, which are unfit to bloom the following year, may be planted in a bed prepared as to be directed for the full-sized roots. 6266. By dividing the tubers. " In minutely examining the crown of a ranunculus-root,' several small protuberances will be found ; from each of which a shoot will arise, and the root may therefore be divided by a sharp knife into as many parts as there are protuberances ; and thus the danger of losing any rare variety is much diminished. These sections will not bloom till the second year." (Hort. Trans, iv. 380.) 6267. Choice of full-grown roots. Select such as are sound and full in every part, and have plump and prominent buds. 6268. Soil and situation. According to Maddock, a fresh, strong, rich, loamy soil is preferable to all others. Rev. The situation should be open, dug from eighteen inches to two feet deep, arid not raised more than four inches above the level of the walks, to preserve the moisture more effectually : at about five inches below the surface should be placed a stratum of two-year-old rotten cow-dung, mixed with earth, six or eight inches thick ; but the earth above this stratum, where the roots are to be planted, should be perfectly free from dung, which would prove injurious, rather than of benefit, if too near JRem. The fibres will draw sufficient nourishment from it at the depth above mentioned ; but if the dung was placed deeper, it would not receive so much advantage from the action of the air, which is an object of consequence." 6269. Planting. " This may be done either before or after winter : if the soil and situation is remark- ably cold and wet, it will be better to defer planting till the middle or end of January or beginning of Fe- bruary, as the weather may favor ; but, in other situations, the latter end of October or beginning of November is to be preferred, as the roots will have more time to vegetate and form themselves, and will in consequence bloom rather stronger, though only a few days earlier than those later planted. A bed, consisting of the variety called the scarlet-turbaned ranunculus, will produce a most brilliant effect ; if planted at the same time as the tulip-bed, they will bloom together ; they are hardier than any other ra- nunculuses, but may, in other respects, be treated in the same manner. The surface of the bed should be raked perfectly even and flat, and the roots planted in rows, at the distance of about five inches from each other. It is better to plant in shallow trenches, made nearly two inches deep, than to make holes for the reception of the roots : there should be a little clean coarse sand sprinkled into the trench, and the roots should be placed with their claws downwards, from three to four inches asunder, according to their size : when the trench has received its roots, it should be carefully filled up level with the same earth .that was taken out, so as to cover the root exactly one inch and a half deep, which is the only true depth to procure a good bloom : it is pointed out by nature in a singular manner ; for when these roots have been planted too shallow or too deep, in either case, a second root is formed at the proper depth, by which the plant is weakened to such a degree that it seldom survives a repetition of it. Williamson plants in spring, but never after the tenth of February; and he frequently plants the roots in the same place for several years successively." (Hort. Trans, iv. 376.) 6270. Future culture and management. Ranunculus-roots will remain several days in the ground after planting, before they begin to vegetate ; during this period, they be- come very much swelled, by imibibing the moisture of the soil, and are, in this state, extremely susceptible of injury from frost, much more so than when vegetation has actu- ally taken place. As soon as the bed is planted, a sufficient quantity of barley or oat straw should be placed near it, ready for a covering : in case of frost, it may perhaps be 3H 2 268. Soil and situation. ccorng to aoc, a res, strong, rc, oamy so s preerae o a ers. Hogg recommends fresh loam, with a considerable portion of rotten horse or cow dung. The v. W. Williamson (Hort. Trans, iv. 375.) uses a stiff clayey loam with a fourth part of rotten dung. e situation should be open, but not exposed to violent winds or currents of air. " The bed should be 836 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. necessary, during a very severe winter, to cover the bed in this manner ten or fifteen inches thick ; but the straw should be taken off at all favorable times : for the effects of covering too much or too long are as destructive as the reverse, especially before the roots have begun to vegetate, because they are then more liable to become mouldy than at any other period, than which nothing can be more prejudicial. Early in the spring, when the plants make their appearance above ground, so as to render the rows easily discernible, the surface of the earth between each row should be trodden or beaten, so as to make it firm and compact ; and if the soil is compressed with the fingers, quite close to the plants, it will keep out cold drying winds, and prove beneficial. It is ad- visable to make choice of a fine dry day, soon after rain, whilst the ground is still moist, to perform the above operation : when it is finished, a little long straw should be placed between each row, to preserve the surface of the soil cool and moist, till the foliage of the plants is sufficiently grown and expanded, to afford it shade without further assistance. 6271. Water. April showers, and frequent rains in May, are essentially necessary to the growth and vigor of the plants : if these fail, soft water must be administered in sufficient quantity between the rows, by means of a common watering-pot, with a long tube or spout, held low, so as not to wash the earth into holes ; for it is better to avoid watering the plants themselves, as it may chill them too much, and stagnate their juices. The consequences of omitting to water when necessary are these, viz. the plants will make little progress j the blossom-buds of the strongest will be small, and the weaker plants will not bloom at all ; the grass, or foliage, will put on a sickly yellowish appearance, from which it will never recover during the season ; and, lastly, the roots will, when taken up, be small and lean. But such kind of waterings, however necessary, are by no means so salutary to these, or any other flowers, as fine, warm, natural showers ; they can neither be so equally dispensed, nor are the plants naturally disposed to receive them when the atmosphere is dry, because their pores and fibres are contracted, and they are, as it were, in the expectation of dry weather. Since it is evident that artificial waterings are, in all re- spects, so much inferior to natural, it is better therefore to wait a day or two, in hopes of a change of weather, than to be too hasty in watering, although the plants may appear to suffer for the moment, by the omission ; for if such a change should fortunately take place, they will receive infinitely more benefit from it than when both themselves and the soil are already saturated," or replenished, with moisture. 6272. Shading. The weather in May is sometimes very clear and hot ; the plants ought to be shaded at such times by means of lofty hoops and mats, or some better contrivance, that will admit light and air freely ; a frame and covering, similar to that for hyacinths, would answer best, if expense and trouble were not to be considered : it will, however, be absolutely necessary to shade them, in some manner, during the period of bloom, otherwise they will continue but a very short time, especially the dark rich-colored sorts ; for, in proportion as their colors approach to black, is the injury they will receive from the rays of the sun, if permitted to shine upon them in full force; some of the very darkest cannot stand it one hour without being entirely spoiled. The light-colored sorts will bear the sun's rays much better, reflecting them in proportion as they approach to white ; green is the only color that reflects and absorbs the rays of light in equal proportion, and is more predominant in the vegetable kingdom than any other. After the bloom is over, watering is no longer necessary, but shading, in the middle of hot days, is still very beneficial to the plants : it tends to prolong their vegetation, and the size and substance of the roots are thereby increased. 6273. Taking up the roots. By the end of June, or soon after, the greater part of the plants will ap- pear brown and dry : vegetation has then ceased, and it is the exact time to take up the roots, because if they are suffered to remain in the ground till rainy weather ensues, they will begin to shoot afresh, and thereby sustain considerable injury. When the roots are taken up, their stems, &c. should be cut ofi* close, and they should be placed in a shady airy room, or situation, to dry gradually ; but before this is perfectly accomplished, it will be proper to clean and separate them, because, when quite dried, they be- come very hard and brittle, and there is great danger of breaking off their claws : some may be separated into many complete roots, although they are so closely connected, as, on a superficial observation, to have the appearance of only one large root. Nothing more remains to be done, till the return of the planting season, except to stow the sorts separately in bags or boxes, for the sake of convenience, in a dry room, in which state it is possible to keep them out of ground for two or three years without perishing, although it evidently tends to weaken and injure them : there have been instances known of the ranunculus-roots sur- viving till the fifth or sixth year ; they were, however, rendered extremely weak, nor could any but very strong roots retain their vegetative powers for so long a period. Williamson takes up the roots immediately after the color of the foliage begins to change. 6274. Forcing. The ranunculus may be forced, but loses much of its strength of stem and brilliancy of color. SUBSECT. 4. Anemone. Anemone, L. Poly and. Polygyn. L. and Ranunculacea, J. Anemone, Fr. ; Windblume, Ger. ; and Anemone, Ital. 6275. There are two species of anemone cultivated as florists' flowers, under the com- mon name of anemone : the A. coronaria, L., or poppy-anemone (Sot. Mag. 841.) (Jig. 594. a), a native of the Levant, and introduced in 1596 ; and the A. hortensis, the star or broad-leaved anemone (b), a native of Italy, and introduced from Holland in 1-597. The anemone has been cultivated from as early a period as the tulip, and many fine double varieties produced both by the Dutch and British. The single and semi-double flowers are nearly in as high estimation as the double ones. 6276. Varieties. These are numerous, but few of them are named. Parkinson, in 1629, enu- merates thirty sorts of single narrow-leaved ane- mones, and nearly as many double and single of the broad-leaved sort. Mason's catalogue for 1820 contains seventy-five sorts. A variety will last for twelve or fifteen years. BOOK II., ANEMONE. 837 6277. Criterion of a fine double anemone, (fig. 595.) " The stem should be strong, elastic, and erect, not less than nine in- ches high. The blossom, or corolla, should be at least two inches and a half in dia- meter, consisting of an exterior row of large substantial well rounded petals, or guard-leaves, at first horizontally ex- tended, and then turning a little upwards, so as to form a broad shallow cup, the interior part of which should contain a great number of long small petals, imbri- cating each other, and lather reverting *rom the centre of the blossom ; there are a great number of small slender stamens, intermixed with these petals, but they are short, and not easily discernible. The color should be clear and distinct when diversified in the same flower, or brilliant and striking if it consists only of one color, as blue, crimson, or scarlet, &c., in which case the bottom of the broad exterior petals is generally white ; but the beauty and contrast is considerably increased when both the exterior and interior petals are regularly marked with alternate blue and white, or pink and white, &c. stripes, which in the broad petals should not extend quite to the margin." 6278. Propagation. Byseed for new varieties, and by dividing the root for continu- ing approved sorts. 6279. By seed. Select " single or semi-double flowers, that have strong, tall, and erect stems, large well formed cups, and petals of very brilliant colors. The seed must be gathered from time to time as it opens ; for, being very downy and light, it will otherwise be blown away by the first breeze of wind, or fall down and be lost : it may be sown at the same time, and be treated in all respects like that of ranuncu- luses; the seedlings will, like those, blow strong the second year. It will be found very difficult to sow anemone-seed in a regular manner : it is united with, and enveloped in a downy substance, that upon being put together in quantity, adheres in such a manner as to render it necessary to make use of some sand or earth to separate it on sowing; nor will this be effected sufficiently without considerable labor in rubbing it for a long time amongst the earth, as it ought not to adhere together in lumps, which would not allow the young plants space enough to form their roots. There will be found but few double flowers amongst the seedlings, nor can it hardly ever be expected there should, if the seed be entirely saved from single ones ; of course, the greater number of broad petals the flower of the seed-bearer possesses, so much greater is the probability of procuring large double flowers from the seed of it." 6280. By dividing the root. When the division is properly made, every piece will blow the first year, and is therefore to be treated in the same way as such as are full-grown. 6281. Choice of full-grown roots. Select fresh plump roots of moderate size ; large ove*grown roots, which are hollow in the centre and often decayed, are to be avoided, as they never blow strong. 6282. Soil and situation, and preparation of the bed. The same as for the ranunculus. 6283. Planting and future culture. The distance between the roots may be the same as for the ranun- culus. Attend to place that side of the roots next the soil in which the decayed rudiments of small thread-like fibres will be observed, and cover about two inches deep. " Anemones are hardier than ranunculuses, and, consequently, may be always planted in the autumn with safety ; the most advisable time is about the middle of October, by which means they will blow a week or two earlier than the tulips : if they are planted ten days or a fortnight after the tulips, they will all bloom together; but a few days earlier or later in the planting will scarcely be perceptible at the time of flowering : it is, how- ever, proper to observe, that such roots as are planted in October, will blow stronger, and, when taken up, will be found of a larger size than those that are planted towards the end of November, especially if the winter proves mild ; but if the winter sets in early, and proves severe, late-planted roots will not have time to vegetate before frosty weather takes place ; in which case there will be great danger of their perishing, unless they are covered with straw, just sufficiently to keep frost from the roots, as they are then in a state of inactivity, but replete with moisture, which renders them more susceptible of injury from frost, and, at the same time, in much greater danger of mouldiness than after vegetation has commenced. The covering must therefore be taken off and put on, as often, and in such proportion, as the exigency or circumstance of the case requires." Water and protect from high winds and heavy rains, as directed for ranunculuses. 6284. Taking up the roots. " Anemones continue longer after bloom in a state of vegetation than ra- nunculuses, probably because of their greater degree of succulency ; and even at the proper time to take them up, it will sometimes happen, that part of their foliage will not be entirely divested of greenness and moisture ; this will often be the case when frequent showers of rain intervene, and are admitted between the times of blowing and the maturity of the roots : when it thus happens, much skill is required to ascer- tain the critical period to take up the roots ; for if they are suffered to remain in the damp or wet ground a few days too long, they will shoot afresh, and be thereby materially weakened and injured ; it is, indeed, better to take them up rather too early, than suffer them to re-vegctate in this manner; but the roots will not be so firm and solid as if done at the exact time. The safest and most effectual method to pre- serve them from these disagreeable consequences, is to keep off all rains after the bloom is quite over, by means of mats on hoops; the roots will then regularly and gradually mature, and the foliage will, in like manner, become brown and dry, which will point out the true time to take up the roots ; and this will usually happen to be about a month after full bloom. The whole subsequent treatment of the roots, till the time of planting, is the same as for ranunculuses, with only the following caution, viz. that as the roots are exceedingly brittle, it is necessary to handle them very gently upon dressing or cleaning away their fibres, and the soil that adheres to them ; however, should only small pieces break off, such should not be thrown away, as each will, in the course of a few years, become a blooming root, if it has an eye, without which it is of no value ; but that seldom happens to be the case." (Maddock.) Anemones may be forced like the ranunculus; but. as it generally destroys the roots, the finest sorts should not be devoted to this purpose. 3 H 3 838 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PAT III. 597 SUBSECT. 5. Crocus. Crocus, L. Trian. Monog. L. and Index, B. P. Safran, Fr. Safran, Ger. ; and Zajfarano, Ital. 6285. The bulb of the crocus is round, solid, and compressed, with a netted skin, from the centre of which arise four or five grass-like leaves, and one or two flowers. Out of the centre of the tube of the flower arises a slender style, crowned by a broad flat stigma of a gold color. After the flower is past, the germ, which hitherto was seated on the bulb at the base of the tube, pushes out of the ground, and ripens its seeds ; a singular economy in nature, and which occurs only in the colchicum, and a few other plants. All the known species of this genus may be considered as florists' flowers. Many botanists, indeed, reckon only two species, the C. vernus, or spring-blowing crocus ; and the C. sativus, the saffron, or autumn crocus. From the Crocus rernia (Eng. Bot. 343. and our fe. 596.), they consider that the C. verricolor (Jig. 597.), the C. -bijitn-ut (fig. 598. a), the C. tutiana (6), the C. tttlphureus (c), and the C.'nuesiama (d and ), with their numerous subvarieties, have been produced by culture or locality From the Crocus sativus, or saffron-crocus (Eng. Bot. 343. and our Jig. 599. a), they think it likely that the C. serotimu (Jig. 599. i) and the C. nudijloru* (Jig- 599. c) have been also originated by cultivation or 598 6286. All the sorts of crocus have been, time out of mind, and still are, great ornaments to the garden ; the spring sorts coming into flower in February and March, and the autumn sorts in September and October. The color of the spring crocus in its wild state, in Switzerland, is white with a purple base ; it is considered as naturalised in Eng- land, but, when found wild, is almost always of a yellow color. The autumn crocus, or saffron, is also found wild in some places, and considered as naturalised ; but it ap- pears to be an African plant, which its Arabic name, sahafaran, seems to justify, and introduced originally in Edward the Third's time. Its color is generally purple or blue, as is that of most of the autumn varieties in cultivation at present. 6287. Varieties. None of these are double. Of the spring crocus, Parkinson has enumerated twenty-seven varieties ; the fundamental colors of which are blue, purple, yellow, and white. Miller recites twelve as leading sorts. Mason's catalogue for 1820 mentions " twenty named sorts," besides the light, dark, and striped purple, cloth of gold, the Scotch crocus beautifully striped, the white, the large and small yellow, and several striped sorts. The Dutch are continually producing new varieties, as are some florists in this country, of which Haworth (Hort. Trans, i. 122.) may be cited as an in- stance. Of the autumn crocus, Parkinson has enumerated four, and Ray six varieties. Miller has only four : the sweet-smelling, of a deep blue ; the mountain, of a paler blue ; the many-flowering, bluish ; and the small -flowering. Most of these varieties are now lost. 6288. Criterion of a good crocus. Clear or brilliant colors, and each color distinctly marked and finely pencilled in the striped and variegated sorts. 6289. Propagation. By seed, for new varieties ; and by offset-bulbs, for common BOOK II. NARCISSUS. 839 purposes. The latter generally flower the first spring after planting, and are treated in all respects as full-grown roots. 6290. By seed. The following directions are by Haworth. " The seeds of crocuses are best sown, immediately after being gathered, in light dry earth, in large pots, or pans, or small shallow boxes, with a sufficiency of holes and potsherds at the bottom, for the purpose of draining off with certainty all superfluous moisture thinly ; for almost every seed will vegetate, and cover not more than half an inch with the mould. The most eligible aspect, or situation, for the seminal boxes, until the autumnal rains set in, is a moderately shady yet unsheltered one : permitting them to receive all the influence of the weather, except such heavy showers as would wash bare the seeds. As soon, however, as the autumnal rains commence, remove the boxes to a warm aspect ; and protect them from all excessive rains, frosts, and snows, by the occasional shelter of a garden-frame : allowing them, nevertheless, the benefit of the full air at other times, but more especially after the seminal leaf (for they have but one, being monoco- tyledonous plants), eager to commence the career of life, urges its fine setaceous point above the surface of the earth. This occurs sometimes about the end of the year; but oftener in earliest spring. After this it is quite essential that they should have complete exposure to the air, even in frosty weather ; screening them, however, occasionally, like early radishes, with loose straw, from other injurious effects of frost ; so as to prevent their being raised out of their infantile beds by its baneful effects. In this manner may the young crocuses be treated until the sun acquires sufficient power to dry the earth in their boxes, so as to require daily waterings. It will be then found advantageous to remove them to a cooler, but not sheltered situation, and here they may remain until their leaves die down ; giving them, as just hinted, at all times, and in every situation, while their leaves are growing, such discretional rose- waterings, when the sun is not shining, as they may reasonably appear to require : but never until the earth they grow in becomes dry: not any whatever, after their leaves begin to look yellow. After this period, it is necessary to defend them from all humidity, except dews and gentle rains, until the end of August, or beginning of September." 6291. From weeds, worms, slugs, and snails, " it is almost needless to observe, they should constantly be kept as clear as possible. And if the surface of the earth in their boxes is occasionally stirred with the point of a knife, or fine piece of stick, it will never fail to be attended with beneficial effects, and invigo- rate the bulbs : operating no doubt, as a sort of hoeing, and, like that important practice, (as the writer of this paper conceives,) proving salubrious to vegetables of every denomination, not only by lightening the soil, but by admitting new accesses of atmospheric air towards their roots ; and thereby facilitating, and stimulating their absorbent inspiration of its oxygen : without a due supply of which all vegetables, as well as animals, eventually become feeble and sick. If, notwithstanding the precaution of thinly sowing the seeds, the plants in any of your seminal boxes should have grown so thickly together as to have incommoded each other, it will be desirable to have such taken up, and replanted immediately further asunder in fresh earth, and about three quarters of an inch deep. But if they are not too crowded, they will require no shifting this their first autumn ; but merely about a quarter of an inch of fresh mould sifted over them, previously stirring and cleaning the surface of the old from moss and weeds ; and observing not to bury the young bulbs not yet so large as lentils, deeper than three quarters of an inch, or an inch at the most. The second season requires exactly the same manage- ment as the first. But as soon as their second year's foliage has passed away, the roots should all be taken up, and replanted again the same or following day, into fresh earth, of the same kind as before, about an inch deep, and as much apart, and treated as above. Nor does the third season demand any alteration in their management ; sifting over them in autumn half an inch of fresh earth. The spring following, if they have been duly attended to, most of them will show flowers (a few, perhaps, having done so the season before) in the midst of- their fourth crop of leaves ; fully rewarding with the cheering colors of their new faces all the preceding assiduity and care." (Hort. Trans, i. 125.) 6292. Choice of bulbs. Observe that the base is not mouldy, nor the bud or summit of the bulb 6293. 'Soil, situation, and culture. They will grow in any common soil, but prefer a loamy sand. Octo* ber is the best season for planting; the more select varieties are grown in beds like the hyacinth, and the colors mingled in the same manner; the distance from bulb to bulb about three inches. The more ordi- nary sorts are grown as border-flowers, and form an important part of the early flowers of the front row. (Jte, 552. a) They are very hardy, and require no care till the leaves begin to fade, when they should be 'taken up, and kept in a state of rest for two or three months. Some do not take them up oftener than once in three years, which answers very well for the border sorts. Even these, however, should not be left longer, because, as the young bulbs are formed on the tops of the others, they come nearer to the sur- face every year, till at last, if neglected, they are thrown out and lost. SUBSECT. 6. Narcissus. Narcissus, L. Hex. Monog. L. and Amaryllideee, B. P. Narcisse, Fr. and Ger. ; and Narcisso, Ital. 6294. The bulb of the narcissus is pear-shaped and tunicated, the leaves succulent and linear, and the flower-stems, which are from six to eighteen inches in height, bear either solitary or fasciculated flowers ; the color of the flower is either white or yellow, and generally Odoriferous. Most of the species are natives of the south of Europe, but one, the N. Pseudo- Narcissus, is a native of England, and common in woods in clayey soils. They come into flower in February, March, and April. 6295. Species and varieties. The popular division of this genus is into daffodils, white narcissus, jonquils, and polyanthus narcissus. he daffodils are N. Pseudo Narcittut (EitL'. Bot. 17.), of which the varieties are the common double, the double with white petals and a yellow cup, the single with yellow petals and a golden cup, three or four concentric cups, Tradescant's daffodil, and above a dozen other nameless varieties ; the peerless, or two-flowered daffodil (N. Worut) (Eng. Bot. 276), and a variety (N. b. a. ieifaior) with one flower only on the scape; the two-colored daf- fodil (N. bicolar) (Bot. Mag. 1187.), a native of Spain, and a variety of the great yellow Spanish, the largest flower of the genus; the least daffodil (N minor) (Bot. Mag. 6.) ; the rush-leaved (N. triandrut) \Bot. Mag. 48.) ;. and some other species and varieties. The white narcissi are the poets' nar- cissus (N. poeticus) ; the early -flowered (N. p. a. anguttijbliut) ; and the late- flowered (N. p.fcmajalit); the musk- narcissus (N. moschatut) (Eng. Bot. 1300.); the eastern narcissus (N. ori. entalii) (Bot. Mag. 948.), and the yel- lowish and large-flowered varieties ; the hoop-petticoat narcissus (N. bul- bocodium) (Bot. Mag. 88.); and the paper narcissus (N. papyraceut), with The jonquils are the common (N. ion- quilla) (Bot. Mag. 15.), so named from its rush or jonc-like leaves ; the double- flowered jonquil; the sweet-scented jonquil (-V. odonu) (Bot. Mag. 934.) ; the great jonquil (N. calathinis) (Bot. Mag. 78.) ; and some minor varieties* The polyanthus narcissi are the com- mon (N.tazzetta){ Bot. Mag. 925.) ; the sulphur-colored, single and double ; the white and yellow, single and double ; and above a hundred other sorts, with arbitrary names given by the Dutch, who have highly improved this division of the genus. Some of these sorts are considered species by botanists. 6296. Criterion of a good narcissus. Strong erect stems ; regularity of form and dis- position in the petals and nectars ; distinctness and clearness of color ; and in the many- flowered sorts, the peduncles all of the same length, and coming into flower at once. 6297. ProiHigation. By seed for new varieties, but generally by offsets, which, as they SH 4 84O PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. seldom flower the first year after separation, should not be planted with the full-grown roots, but in a bed of light loamy soil by themselves in the reserve-garden. They should not be planted later than the beginning of September. 6298. By seed. Miller directs to sow in flat pans, filled with fresh, light, sandy earth, about the be- ginning of August, soon after the seed is ripe ; to place the pans where they will receive only the morn- ing sun till October. Then expose them to the full sun, and protect them from heavy rains and frosts 1111 ^-vpi u, wiitrii uavj mm nave IMMHV u^r, auu must in EWWdl U' uicn mat Mtuatiuu. iiiuuuc, tut: leaves wiii have decayed, when some fresh earth is to be shifted over the surface of the pans. Treat them in other respects during the second winter as during the first The end of the second summer after sowing, the roots are to be taken up and planted at about three inches' distance every way, in beds raised and rounded to throw off the water. These beds are to be protected in winter by old tan-ashes or haulm. After remaining two years in this situation, they are to be taken up and planted in others, dug deep, and with a little rotten cow-dung buried in the bottom of the fibres to strike into. Here the roots are to be planted at six inches' distance, having earth sifted over them when the leaves decay, and tan or ashes in winter. The second season of their growth in this bed, that is, the fifth from sowing, most of the bulbs will come into flower. Such as are esteemed good flowers may be taken up and treated as full-grown bulbs ; but those which have not flowered, or of which the flowers are of doubtful excel- lence, may remain another year. Miller says, none should be rejected till they have flowered two or three times : as it often happens, that their first blowing is not near so beautiful as their second and third. 6299. Choice of full-grown bulbs. Select such as are rounded towards the base rather than compressed, with full sound tops, and bottoms free from mouldiness or decayed fibres. 6300. Soil, situation, and planting. As eastern aspect is to be preferred ; and, according to Miller, the best soil is fresh, light, hazel loam, mixed with a little very rotten cow-dung. The bed in which they are to be planted must be excavated three feet deep, and filled with this compost, and then the roots planted on it about eight inches' distance every way, and covered from six to eight inches, in the man- ner directed for tulips. The best time for planting is August, or the beginning of September. 6301. Culture. Stirring the soil, weeding, and watering are all that is in general required : bat such as wish to produce a very perfect show of flowers, shelter with an awning in the manner recommended for hyacinths. In winter, the beds require the protection of tan or litter, which should be put on in October or November, and removed, and the soil stirred in February or March. Where the narcissi are cultivated for commercial purposes, the strength of the bulb is greatly increased by cutting off the flower-stem when the flowers begin to expand. The flower is still valuable, being expanded till in a marketable state by inserting the stalk in water. " Some years ago I gained admittance into the grounds of Daniel Carter, at Fulhain, who has long cultivated large quantities of polyanthus narcissuses for sale, and was surprised to find all the crop nearly gathered, though very early in the season. His son, how- ever, explained the mystery, by taking me into a large barn, which was filled with the gathered flowers, blowing in pans of water ; and he told me that by doing this, the bulbs continued to produce as abund- ant' crops every year, as new ones imported from Holland. The practice was suggested to him by re- marking, that in a bed left for seed one year, very few roots sent up a complete bunch of flowers' the following season, and many roots none at all. He therefore now cuts off the stalk close to the ground, as soon as two or three of the flowers are expanded, but is very careful not to injure the leaves." (Hort. Trans. L 362.) 6302. Taking up the bulbs. The bulbs should not be taken up oftener than every third year, if they are expected to flower strong and make a great increase. If they remain longer than three years, the offsets will become so numerous as to weaken the bulbs, which will at first flower weakly, and in time cease al- anost entirely to show flowers. The Dutch take up these roots every year, because their object is to fur- nish a round plump root, and the way to accomplish this is to take off the offsets annually, to prevent their pressing against and flattening the parent bulb. The bulbs being dried in the shade, may be laid in an airy situation in the seed-loft till wanted for planting. 6303. Forcing. These bulbs force well, and either in deep pots of sandy loam, or in water-glasses ; their previous treatment is the same as we have prescribed for the hyacinth ; and they are highly odoriferous and ornamental in apartments., 7. Iris. Iris, L. Trian. Mon-og. L. and Iridete, B. P. L'Iris, Fr. ; Schuvertlilie, Ger. ; and Iride, Ital. (Jigs. 600, 601.) 600 6304. There are several species of iris which are considered florjsts' flowers. The Persian iris (/. Pertica) (Bat. Mag., and our.fc'. COO. a) ; a very low bslbous rooted plant, with delicate blue and violet-colored flowers, greatly esteem- ed for their beauty and sweet smell, which it so powerful that one plant will scmt a whole room. It is a native ..ml was cultivated by Par- Union m 1629. The bulbs are ge- nerally imported from Holland, and blow in water-glasses, or pots of sand with very little earth intermixed, in February and March. The snake's-head iris (7. inberoia) (Bat. Mag. 531. oadjfe.800.ii hai long narrow four-cornered leaves, and a dark purple flower, which appears in April. It is a native of the Lerani. and wai cultivated in 1597. The tubers are generally imported from Holland. The Chalcedonian iris (/. nuianaf (not. Mag. 91. and./ig-. 600. c) has finely striated leaves, a scape a span high, and the largest and most magnificent corolla of all the species. Its petal; are of a delicate texture, -almost a, broad as a hand, j-ur|ile or black, BOOK II. FRITILLARY. 841 striped with white. It flowers in the beginning of June; is a native of the Levant, and was cultivated by Gerrard in 1596. The bulbous-rooted, or Spanish iris (7. xip/tium) (Bot. Mag. 686, and Jig.60\ a) has channelled leav heir at the tip ; the ves, convoluted hole length, and awl- e flowers of the wild plant are blue, with emarginate petals, and appear in June; but culti- vation has produced a great number of varieties with yellow, white, violet, and variegated flowers. It is a native of the south of Europe, and was cul- tivated by Gerrard in 1596. The great bulbous-rooted iris, the English iris of the Dutch, (/. xiphiuidei) (Bot. Mag. 602. and .fig. 601. t), is much larger than the other in all its parts, the flower-stalk is near twice tile height,.and the flowers are more thatt double the size. It is equally prolific in varieties as /. xiphmm, of which it is by some botanists considered only a variety. The tubers of both sorts are mally imported from Holland. 6305. Culture of the first three species. These seldom ripen their seeds in this country, nor are they often propagated here from offsets, annual supplies of bulbs being obtained from Holland, and generally forced like the hyacinth. Justice says (Brit. Card. Direct. 222.) the Dutch florists told him, that they never could obtain any varieties from sowing the seeds of the Persian iris ; nor could this author himself, who cultivated the plant, and raised seedlings at Crichton, near Edinburgh, with great care and considerable success. The three sorts are best cultivated under the protection of a frame, where their flowers will be less liable to injury than in the open air, and where their leaves will be stronger and more able to nourish the bulbs and offsets. The Chalcedonian iris, Curtis observes, thrives best in a loamy soil and sunny exposure, with a pure air, but guarded from moisture, and from frosts during winter. The Persian iris thrives best in a light sandy loam and eastern exposure, sheltered from rains and frosts, like the other. The snake's-head iris is the hardi- est of the three, requires the same soil and exposure as the Persian, but less care during winter. None of these sorts need be taken up oftener than once in three years, when the leaves decay ; they should be replanted in a month or six weeks afterwards, at six inches' dis- tance every way, and covered from two to four inches according to the size of the bulbous tuber. If the soil in which the bulbous and tuberous sorts of iris is planted be loose and deep, and the plants not taken up every three, or at most four years, they will run down and be lost. 6306. Culture of the bulbous irises. Miller and Justice recommend a light sandy loam, not rich, and an eastern exposure. The plants are multiplied abundantly by offsets, and as they also produce seeds freely, many new varieties are obtained in that manner. Justice says, he raised a great number with very little trouble (Brit. Gard. Direct. 430.) ; and Masters says, " I know of no flower that better repays the time and attention of the horticulturist. " The following are this author's directions for its propagation by seed. " In August the seeds become ripe, and are plentifully produced on all seedling plants, although, like many other plants, but sparingly, and very frequently not at all, on such as have been long increased by offsets, or parting the roots ; they may be sown in slight drills, about six inches asunder, as soon as ripe ; and in the March following, they will make an appearance very similar to rows of young onions. With no other care than frequent weeding, they may remain in the seed-bed for three years, for they are much more hardy than most kinds of seedling bulbs, and, therefore, will not even require protection from the frosts. In August or September of the third year, it will be necessary to transplant them into beds, at one foot's distance, row from row, and the bulbs six inches apart ; and in two years from their re- moval, most of the strongest will show blossom, and nearly all in the year following, or the sixth from the seed. If, during the time the roots are at rest, the top surface of the earth is carefully removed, and fresh light loam is substituted, a year will be saved, for this treat- ment will greatly promote the growth of the bulbs, and with these, as well as many other seedling plants, it is not a stated time that must pass before they blossom, but only such a portion as will allow the bulb to attain a size sufficient to contain vigor to produce and perfect a flower-stem, the rudiment of which is formed in the preceding summer. When they blossom, a selection can be made, and the va-^ rieties perpetuated by the increase of their offsets. The- most proper time for removing the bulbs is in August and September, those kept out of ground until Christmas rarely blossom in the succeeding summer." (Hort. Trans, iv. 413.) 6307. Flowering bulbs. Every third year, in August, is the most proper time for taking them up ; and they should, if possible, be replanted in September following. Masters says, those kept out of ground till Christmas rarely bios- som in the succeeding summer. They may be planted either in beds, at eight inches or a foot distant every way,j or in mingled borders, care being taken in either case to prevent the roots running down by removal every third year, or by a substratum of tiles or compact rubbish within eighteen inches of the surface. These species are very hardy, and flowering so late as June, require no protection either in summer or winter. They are seldom or never forced. SUBSECT. 8. Fritillary. Fritillaria, L. Hexan. Monog. L. and Liliee, J. (fig.602.) 6308. Of thefritillary there are three species which are considered as florists' flowers ; of these species there are numerous varieties. The crown-imperial (F. Imperialis. (Bat. Mag. 194.) La Couronne Imperials, Fr. ; Kaiterkrone, Ger. ; and La Coron* 1m- periale, Ital.) ( fe. 602. a) has a scaly bulb, from which arise strong stems, from two to four feet in height, fur- nished with numerous broad shining green leaves, and crowned with a whorl of showy pendulous flowers, yel- low, red, or striped in various ways, which appear in March and April. It is one of the earliest ornaments of the flower-garden, producing a fine ap- pearance in the middle of large borders, at a season when such flowers are most wanted. The " singular nectary," Pro- fessor Martyn observes, " cannot but engage the attention of the curious observer ; it is a white glandular cavity, as the baseof each petal, and has a drop of limpid nectareous juice standing in it, when the flower is in vigor. Another of the wonders of nature may be ob- served in the peduncles which bend down while the plant is in flower, but become upright as the seed ripens." There are above a dozen varieties in cultivation, distinguished by the dif- ferent shades of yellow, white, and red in the flower, and by being striped double or semi-double. The Persian fritillary (F. Persica) (Bot. Mag. 1537, and 'fig. 602. b) has a large round root, the size of an orange; the stem is three feet high, and the flowers in a loose spike at the top, forming a pyramid. They are of a dark purple ct>lor, and appear in May, but seldom produce seeds in England. It is a native of Persia, ami was cultivated here in 1596. There is a smaller variety, with a shorter stem, and smaller leaves and flowers. The common fritillary, or chequered lily, (F. Meltagrit (En/?. Ho'. 602.) La Fritil- laireMeleasre,?*.; Kifbitzti/, Ger.; and Gigiia mriegato, Ital. (fig. 602. c),has a solid tuber, about the size of a nut, a stem from twelve to eighteen inches high, with linear leaves, and one or more pendulous flowers on the top ot the stem. It is a native of Britain, and flowers in April and May, or m March in mild seasons. There are nearly twenty varieties, with red, white, purple, black, striped, and double flowers, besides an umbellate fritillary, a mule between this species and the crown-imperial. 842 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 6309. Propagation. The common method is by offsets; but they may be raised from seed, which ripens readily, and is to be treated in all resects like that of the tulip, the seedlings of the crown-impe- rial flowering in the fifth or sixth year, and those of the two other species in the third or fourth year. fi310. Culture of flowering bulbs. They delight in a light soil, not too wet nor very full of dung. It should be dug deep, and the bulbs may be planted six inches deep, and from eighteen inches to two feet distant every way ; but they have the best effect in a mingled flower-border. They need not be taken up above once in three years, when the stems are withered iu May or June, and they should not be kept longer out of the grofcnd than two months. SUBSECT. 9. Lily. Lilium, L. Hexand. Monogyn. L. and Lilue, J. Lis, Fr. ; Lilie, Ger. ; and Giglio, Ital. 6311. Of the lily there are sixteen species introduced in Britain, and the whole of them may be reckoned very choice flowers. We shall notice particularly, only those species, of which numerous varieties have been produced. These are : The white lily (L. Candidum) (Hot. Ma K . j the stem produces small green bulbs in The white lily (L. Candidum) (Bot. Mat;. 278.) has a large scaly bulb, a leafy stem, from three to four feet in height, terminating in large pure white flowers on peduncles. It is a native of the Levant, and was in most gardens in tierrard's time. Of this species there are above eight varieties. The orange lily (L. Inilbifennn) (Bot. Mag.X.) has a scaly bulb, a leafy stem, two feet and a half high, terminating the axillae of the leaves. Of this spe- cies, there are eight or ten varieties and subvarieties. The martagon, or Turk's cap, (L. Mar- cap, (L. i, has a c>/. Mag. 893.), has a large scaly bulb, a stalk furnished with nar- row leaves, near three feet high and terminating peduncles of fine carmine flowers in July. Of this species there are half a dozen varieties, lie&ides the scarlet martagon (L. Chalceilomcirm), of which there are also different sorts. Besides the above species and their va- rieties, there are the L. Canaderae, titperbmn, or Turk's cap ; the Pompo- nium, and Tigrinvm, or tiger lily ; the Jnjnniictiin,oT Japan lily, with stems of 5 feet, and the flowers "7 inches broad, pure white with a streak of blue ; all equally meriting cultivation as select flowers. in orange-colored flowers. Son: 6312. Propagation. This is almost always by offset-bulbs ; but new varieties may be raised from seed, which ripens in most sorts in August : being treated as directed for raising new varieties of the narcissus, the young bulbs will flower the fourth and fifth years. 6313. Culture of flowering bulbs. The more common sorts, species, and varieties, will thrive in any soil and situation, even under the shade of trees. The Canadian. Pomponian, and Philadelphia!! mar- tagons are somewhat tender, and require the protection of ashes or rotten bark in winter. They are ge- nerally planted in borders, and need not be taken up pftener than every three or four years in September, and replanted six inches deep in the October following. None of the species can be safely transjdanted, after they have pushed leaves, without weakening them so as to prevent their flowering for several years. This remark, indeed, will apply to most bulbous- rooted plants. Griffin, of South Lambeth, whose supe- rior skill in the cultivation of bulbous plants is well known (Hort. Trans, iv. 544.), has been in the prac- tice of keeping the lilium japonicum in pots, protected by a green-house or garden-frame ; but he thinks they thriv e best in the former. He places the bulb in twenty-four-sized pots, not lower than an inch from the surface of the mould, which is composed of about two thirds peat and one third loam, the bottom bf the pot being covered to the depth of two inches, with broken pieces of tile and the rough sittings of peat. The plants are kept entirely from frost, and are watered very little when in a dormant state, for they are then very impatient of wet in excess. The pots kept in the green-house are placed at a distance from the flue to prevent the mould drying quickly. (Hort. Trans, iv. 554.) Brooks grows in a brick-pit, which he can cover with mats or glasses at pleasure ; but he says, it " appears to be sufficiently hardy to en- dure our winters, as I have had a bed of them two years in the open ground without protection." (Hort. Trans, iv. 552.) SUBSECT. 10. Amaryttideae. Amaryllis, L. Hex. Monog. L. and AmaryUideee, B. P. Lis-narcisse, Fr. ; Narcissenlilie, Ger. ; and Giglio Narcisso, Ital. 6314. Tlie amaryllideee is a splendid family, lately subdivided into those of Ncrine, Coburgia, and Brunsvigia (see Sot. Mag.}, of which almost every species may be consi- dered a select flower. The A. amabilis, Josejrfiina, and Vittata, are reckoned the most splendid bulbous- rooted plants; and the A.fornwsissima, or Jacobea lib/; Sctrniensis, or Guernsey lily; Belladonna, &c. are less magnificent, but of very great beauty. Most of the species are green-house or stove plants, and natives of the Cape of Good Hope, China, or South America. Various hybrids of this family have been produced by Her- bert, Sweet. Gower, and others. (Hort. Trans, iv. 488. &c.) 6315. Propagation and culture. New sorts, as in similar cases, are procured by seed ; but the most usual mode, as few of these plants have ripened their seeds in this country, is by offsets from the flowering bulbs, removed yearly, or every time the bulbs are taken out of the ground. The great art in cultivating these, and all other bulbs, is to procure vigorous leaves, as on these depend the quantity of nutritive matter prepared and deposited in the bulb, and consequently its ability to flower the following season. The circumstance of several of these plants, as the Guernsey lily, flowering in the autumn, and producing their leaves afterwards under the disadvantages of a winter's sun, is the reason why they have been hitherto cultivated with so little success in this country, and why we are obliged to import the bulbs annually from other countries. The observations of Knight on this subject are particularly valuable ; they more immediately refer to the Guernsey lily, but they are equally applicable to all exotic bulbs. " Bulbous roots increase in size, and proceed in acquiring powers to produce blossoms, only during the periods in which they have leaves, and in which such leaves are exposed to light ; and these organs always operate most efficiently when they are young, and have just attained their full growth. The bulb of the Guernsey lily, as it is usually cultivated in this country, rarely produces leaves till September, or the beginning of October, at which period, the quantity of light afforded by our climate is pro- bably quite insufficient for a plant, which is said to be a native of the warm and bright climate of Japan ; and before the return of spring, its leaves are necessarily grown old, and nearly out of office, even when they have been safely protected from frost through the winter. It is, therefore, not extraordinary, that a bulb of this specie's, which has once expended itself in affording flowers, should but very slowly recover the power of blossoming again. Considering, therefore, the deficiency of light and heat, owing to the late period of its vegetation, as the chief cause why this plant so often fails to produce flowers, I inferred that nothing more would he required to make it blossom, as freely, at least, as it does in Guernsey, than such a slight degree of artificial heat, applied early in the summer, as would prove sufficient to make the bulbs vegetate a few weeks earlier than usual in the autumn. Early in the summer of 1816, a bulb, which had blossomed in the preceding autumn, was subjected to such a degree of artificial heat, as occasioned it to vegetate six weeks, or more, earlier than it would otherwise have done. It did not, of course, produce any flowers i but in the following season it blossomed early and strongly, and BOOK II. IXI^E AND GLADIOLI, TUBEROSE. 841; afforded two offsets. These were put, in the spring of 1818, into pots, containing about one eighth of a square foot of light and rich mould, and were fed with manured water, and their period of vegetation was again accelerated by artificial heat. Their leaves, consequently, grew yellow from maturity, early in the present spring, when the pots were placed in rather a shady situation, and near a north wall, to afford me an opportunity of observing to what extent, in such a situation, the early production of the leaves in the preceding seasons had changed the habit of the plant I entertained no doubt but that both the bulbs would afford blossoms, but I was much gratified by the appearance of the blossoms in the first week in July. From the success of the preceding experiment, I conclude that if the offsets, and probably the bulbs of this plant which have produced flowers, be placed in a moderate hot-bed, in the end of May, to occasion the early production of their leaves, blossoms would be constantly afforded in the following sea- son : but it will be expedient to habituate the leaves, thus produced, gradually to the open air, as soon as they are nearly fully grown, and to protect them from frost till the approach of spring." 6316. The Rev. W. Williamson has adopted the same rationale as Knight; and, with the aid of a glass frame, without artificial heat, brought bulbs which had flowered into a state to flower again after two winters. Had he applied artificial heat, he thinks one winter might probably have been sufficient. (Hort. Trans, iii. 450.) 6317. The Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert has found a similar treatment attended with corresponding suc- cess. He says, " the only attention which the Guernsey lily requires here (Spofforth, Yorkshire), is to give it sufficient air while the leaves are growing, that they may be strong and dark-colored ; to protect the leaves from frost, keeping the pots near the light, if under glass ; to give a moderate and regular supply of water, and to leave the bulbs nearly dry, from the time the leaves decay, that is, about mid- summer, at latest, to the end of August, when the flower-buds should appear. If the bulbs are not left dry early in the summer, the autumnal shoot will be delayed till the season becomes too cold for the proper growth of the flowers or leaves, and the natural course and vigor of the plant will be interrupted, after which it will require at least a year to repair the injury it will have received. Whenever the sprouting of the bulb is tardy, it should be assisted by placing it, for a short time, in a warmer situation. If the stigma does not expand so as to become, after a few days, trifid, it is a sign that the temperature is rather too low to suit the plant, and the leaves will probably not push freely without more heat. I have obtained seed from the Guernsey lily by procuring the blossom early in an airy situation." The soil Her, bert recommends -is a good yellow loani, without any manure ; but he thinks " they will thrive in any wholesome compost, which does not canker thetf bulbs. They should be planted partly above ground, for the wet earth round their necks will prevent their flowering or thriving, and will even sometimes destroy them." (Hort. Trans, iv. 177.) The same treatment, with very few exceptions, he ;uld>, suits the whole of the bulbs included under amaryllis, as well as a number of other allied genera, as haemanthus, pan- cratium, agapanthus, &c. Some species of these genera, as Amaryllis longtfolia, W. and Crinum Asiaii- cum, Rox., are natives of dry ditches that communicate atcertain seasons with the water of the rivers in Bengal, where they root deeply in the mud. These species, and some others, Herbert found to succeed perfectly when plunged during summer in a pond. " Most of the crinums," he says, " are swamp plants, or grow in river-mud, and should be cultivated in our stoves, with a pan of water under them, the bulbs being raised above the earth, and stripped of all dead integuments. Agapanthus wribellatus flowers best when so treated ; the Amaryllis longifolia (which, he says, should.be named Crinum capense) will," he has no doubt, " flower as a hardy aquatic, if planted in any pond or river of two feet water, not liable to freeze at the bottom." (Hort. Trans, iii. 188.) 6318. Some account of the culture of the Guernsey lily in the Island of Guernsey is given by Dr. Maccul. loch (Caled. Mem. ii. 62.) : there they grow it in the open air, and protect it with sand during winter. SUBSKCT. 11. Ixi&and Gladioli, W. Trian. Monog. L. and Irideee*, B. P. 6319. The ixif earthing up, as it is' termed, should commence ; that is to say, the superficial earth of the pots should be carefully taken away, about an inch deep, and fresh compost with the addi- tion of a little loarn, to give it more tenacity, should be substituted in its stead: this will contribute greatly to the strength of the plants, and the vigor of their bloom : at the same time it will afford a fa- vorable opportunity to separate such offsets as shall appear possessed of sufficient fibre, to be taken off at this early season with safety: these offsets, when properly planted in small pots, should be placed in a frame, in some warm sheltered situation, till the roots are established. The auricula is by no means a tender plant, yet it will be proper to cover the repository with mats, in case of severe frost ; for although ' 'My would not destroy the plants, unless it happened in an ' it probably would not destroy the plants, unless it happened in an extreme degree ; it would, however, in- jure them, and it would certai jure them, and perhaps spoil their bloom, particularly early in the spring, when the stem begins to rise ; it would certainly, at that period, destroy or render the pips or corollas abortive. If any plant is possessed of more than one or two principal stems, it is advisable to pinch offthe pips of the smallest and weakest, in order to render the blossoms of the remaining one larger and more vigorous than they would be if this was omitted to be done in due time. It is a curious fact, that those sorts which are naturally possessed of a fine green on the edge, or margin, of the flower are often known to lose that property, when the stem proceeds from the very heart or centre of the plant ; whereas those stems that proceed from the side pro- duce larger pips, possessing their true natural colors in much greater perfection : these last are called the winter stems, because they are usually forwarder, and produce their flowers rather earlier in the season than those which proceed from the centre of the plant. When the pips become turgid, and begin to ex- pand, they must be preserved from rain : nor should they remain any longer in a situation exposed to cold winds ; on the contrary, such plants ought to be selected from the rest, and removed to a calm shady cor- ner, where they should have small hand-glasses suspended over them in such a manner as to preserve the bloom from rain, &c. and yet admit a free circulation of air, both to the plant and to the blossom, it being equally necessary for the one as for the other." 6376. Emmerton, about the middle of October, makes choice of a full southern aspect, and in general puts his pots of plants into small frairfes of about three and a half to four feet long, and each light about three feet wide. So soon as they are placed in their winter situation, during the autumn and winter months, even down to the 5th of April, or thereabouts, he exposes them, during the day, to as much air as possi- ble, by leaving the lights entirely off. It is necessary they should be kept very dry, in November and December, as in case of a severe frost the weather has less power on the roots of the plants. During January, and most likely the greater part of February, much depends upon the depth of snow and the in- tense frost. Some winters are more favorable than others : if the season has now the appearance of open weather, you may treat your plants nearly in the same manner as the two last months ; but if you have snow, and the weather is now a severe frost, you must be rather more cautious as to the exposure ; a trifling frost is of no serious consequence to these hardy plants, but the mould should not be severely fro- zen in the pots, as by the end of January the bloom is formed, although very low in the heart of the plant ; he therefore covers with mats till the weather becomes mild and open, giving air, however, a few hours in fine days ; but no water till natural rains fall. (Treatise on Auricula, &c. p. 85.) In February he top- dresses with rich compost, and transplants offsets intended to bloom, from small pots into larger ones. He exposes the plants to all the gentle rains of this month, at the same time carefully defending them from frost and hail-storms, or long continued rains. From the 10th or 12th of March he covers up with " warm clothing," to defend the coming bloom against frosts. 6377. Hogg puts his auriculas into frames in October; the frames are placed on a bed of ashes, and are raised on bricks to admit a free current of air under them ; but when the frost sets in, about Christmas, 3 I 2 852 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. the bricks are removed, and the frames rest on the ground. In all dry and temperate weather the plants are exposed to the air, very little water is given, and the plants are kept free from decayed leaves, and the surface of the pots from mouldiness. From the second week of February, and during March, the plants are allowed the benefit of gentle rains for an hour or two ; they are top-dressed, such as require it are shifted, and suckers are taken off where they are large, and while all possible air is given during day, the frames are shut close at night, to prevent the opening blossoms being nipped by the frost. 6378. The Lancashire growers have no frames or lights, but make use of weather-boarding, with hinges, fixed against some wall or fence, in a south aspect, to defend them against the rain and snow, resting, when shut close, upon a board nine inches high ; but this is never done except in very severe weather : the pots are plunged up to the rim in sawdust or coal-ashes. (Hogg.) 6371). Justice places his auriculas in what he calls a bunker or shed, on the 10th of October. This bunker is a stage with boarded ends, front and cover, placed against a wall with a north-eastern exposure. He gives water sparingly, but as much air as possible ; by the end of February he top-dresses the plants, and if they are weak he adds the proportion of one eighth of fullers' earth to the compost. 6380. Blooming-stage, (fig. 605.) This, according to Maddock, should have a northern aspect, that the sun may not shine on the flowers ; it should consist of four rows ^>ML. Verbascum pinnatin. p. Cardamine uratf nsis flo. pleno Penstemon campanulata Lamium laevigatum Drobus vemus *. Primula villosa, p. Vicia dumetorum Viola hastata Verbascum pinnatifi. p. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. nemone hortensis, p. Derastium aipinum ris pumila variegata, p . iola striata Iris prismatica, p. Aristolochia clematitis GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. aris quadrifolia Aquilegia alpina viridiflora, p. Saxifraga palmata BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. rimula veris, flo. pie. . Mercurialis perennis _ polyanthos TTT"NTF RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. ncistrum lucidum, t.p. Kanthus deltoides alpinus, 3. Aphilanthes monspeli. Schium rubrum ledysarum onobrychis Achillea mille. fl.ru. *. p. 'aeonia sinensis, rub. pi. ianguisorba ofncinalis Papaver orientalis Thalictrum atropurpur. Valeriana ollicinalis Coronilla, varia flo. car. Aconitum napel. fl. JTOS. caesius rub. 3 glaucus Anthyllis vul. coc. Dianthus atro. rubens Valeriana rubra Fumaria spectabilis pyrenaica Paeonia peregri. fl. ro. pi. aponaria ocymoi. 3. p- axifraga sarmentoxa emperv. arachnoide. p. tatice cordifolia, p. Anthyllis vulne. flo. coc. Asperula taurina Phlox r,etacea, p. subulata Sempervivum arachn. Veronica urticifolia Aquilegia rosea. multi. Jrobus sylvaticus, p. Paeonia anomola 'aleriana dioica Ononis repens etonica incana rotundifolia Sempervivum caspi. p. globfferum Phlox pilosa, p. Ononis hircina Jrobus varius, p. Polygonum bistortum, . flu bus arcticus, p. Saxifraga rotundifolia Statice cephalotes, t. p. Teucrium multiflorum WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. \sperula crassifolium Illicebrum capitatum,p ithillca clavennae, . Anchusa angusti. fl. alb. Anemone pensvlva. *. p. Anthemis pyrethrum Valeriana rubra, var .alb. Achillea ligustica moschata Actea spicata _ bacc. albidis _ bacc. rubris Aconitum napel. fl. alb. Asphodelus ramosus Convolvulussepium.alb. Ljupa reptans, flo. al. p Lndrosace lattea Arabis lucida, p. sibirica tellium bellidioide*, p. "ampanu . rot un . fl . af. p ^ornus suecia, p. tris pumila alba, p. Poljgonum viviparum Anthericum liliago liliastrum Arenaria laricifolia, p. montana Arum maculatum Chrysanthemum argen. monspeliense Cochlearia saxatilis . nobilis Apocynum hypericifoli. Asclepias vincetoxicum Betonica glomerata Chrysant. ceratophylloi. Dorycnium herbaceum Hesperis, mat. flo. pi. al Imperatoria ostruthium Anthericum ramosum Apocynum cannabinum Athamanta sicula Clematis recta, p. Laserpitium trilobum Mentha cervina | Paeonia albiflora - sibirica Plantago alpina Coronilla varia, fl. albo Cynanchum acutum, 3 Galega officina. fl. albo Laserpitium aquilegifo. Spiraea aruncus, p. i BOOK II. BORDER-FLOWERS. 869 PERENNIAL BORDER-FLOWERS. JUNE continued. aJgUfrvnOtoitfaft. From 3 of a foot tol% foot. From \^ foot to tyfeet. From ty feet to 34 feet. From 3i feet upnturdi. WHITE. .* WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Saxifraga adscendens _ caesia cernua Convallaria latifolia ^yprepedium album s. )"i in it 1 nis caesius, flo.albo .epidium latifolium agusticum austriacum Lychnis vespertina Salvia indica iambucus ebulus anguisorba canadensis _ nivalis rivularis virginicus Joronicum bellidias. flo. pleno Harrubium vulgare rhalictrum angustifol. aguilegifol. Scroj>hularia altaica Sisvmbrium sagittatum Thalictrum fretidum Thesium alpinum _ linophyllum Srodium chamaedryoi. }eum virginianum, p. lelonias asphodeloides lydrophyllum virgini. 'impinella peregrina lubus rosaefolius, p ^aururus cernuus, t. p. Sophora alba, p. Spiraea trifoliata contortum cornuti Valeriana Phu Trientalis europea, p. Iris flexuosa, p. rhalictrum rugosum Valeriana celtica Veronica alpina Viola blanda jthospermum virgini. jychnis, flo. albo Melissa ofticinalis anceo a Physalis alkekengi Pimpinella saxifraga 'otentilla rupestris lanunculus alpestris iubus chamaemorus, p. saxatilis Sanicula europaea Saxifraga ajugifolia aizoon Seseli aristatum Silene amoena, p. Stellaria cerastoides, p. scapigera.p. Teucrium pyrenai. p. Trifolium canescens Trifolium pannonicum repens macu. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. L,inum flavum, p. Medicago prostata Aletris aurea Achillea falcata micrantha, p. pubescens Achillea tomentosa Astragalus alopecuroi. Cineraria cordifolia Agrimonia eupatoria Asphodelus luieus, * Astragalus glycyphylUs Cineraria slberica )atisca cannabina ledysarum alpinum farinosa Alyssum alpestre murale santolina Agrimonia agrimonoid. Clematis ochroleuca, p. Convallaria multiflora polygonat. "entaurea phrygia Ferula assafoetida, p. orientalis, p. Heracleum angustifol. nula germanica ^igusticum levisticum, Anemone palmata, *. p. Anthyllis vulneraria Arabis bellidifolia, p. ^istus tuberaria, t* p ilaux maritima Alyssum tortuosum Hieracium aurantiacum Trollius americanus asiaticus major _ flo. pleno Coreopsis angustifolia, p. euphorbia cyparissias lelonias luteus, p. Hemerocallis fulVa jaserpitium gallicum ^cabiosa alpina sisymbrium strictissi. tanacetitbl. J astinaca opoponax 3 eucedanum alsaticum, rhalictrum lucidmn . maju* _ 'speciosuffl jnaphal. Leontopod. p. Hipyocrepis comosa 1 1\ por.hoaris Helvetica Saxifraga mutata jeum potentilloides, p. Hypoxis erecta, p. Sedum deficiens Arntca montana, p. scorpioides Bupthalmum grandiflo. Caltha palus, flo. pleno Oheiranthus helvetic. p Crepis rigida Cyprepedium calceol.f.p flo. pleno lypericum hirsutum, p Iris pallida Wimulus luteus, p. Poeohia sinen. alb. pie. 3 Ranunculus acris fl.ple 5ophora tinctoria, p. virens Viola lutea Dracaena borealis,p. Erysimum barb.flo.plen Trollius europaeus Fumaria nobilis, 3. p. Galeobdolon luteum urbanum Hemerocallis graminea Hypochosris maculata radicata Inula hirta Medicago karstiensis marina 3phiopogon japonicus,p Panax quinquefolia, t. p Smymium aureum Thalictrum sibiricum' Potentilla argentea astracanica aurea obscura Ranunculus glacialis _ lingua Rhodiola rosea Rubia tinctorum Trigonella ruthenica, p Viola grandiflora lutea BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. Arum triphyllum, p. " Asarum canadense europium Gentiana adscendens, t. Ajuga alpina pyramidalis reptans Campanula rotundi. p. Globularia vulgaris pu. Pulmonaria marit. 3. p Statice tartarica, p. Veronica aphylla bellidioides chamaedrys saxatilis Campanula azurea, 3.p alpina, 3 _ barbata, 3 _ betonicaef. 3 saxatilis, 3 Dracocephalum austriac Phyteuma spicata Pulmonaria paniculata Geranium pyrenaicum sibericum Houstonia coerulea, p. Iris virginica Orobus lathyroides, p. Statice limonium Veronica latifolia Aconitum uncinatum Amsonia angustifolia, p Aquilegia vulgaris flo. pleno Campanula laciniata,3.; peregrina, a Clematis integrifolia Geranium aconitifolium angulatum Iris pensylvanica Lithospermum fruticos. Salvia phlomoides Symphytum caeruleum Veronica laciuiata Iris germanica Lathyrus pisiformis Podalyria australis, p. Vicia cassubica Aconitum napellus pyramidale [ris sambucina Podalyria lupinoides, p. Sympnytum asperrim. Viola calcarata Viola montana grandiflora _ palustris maculata PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Anthemis montana, p- Aristolochia serpenta. p Astragalus hypoglottis Geum reptans, p. Iris pumila Aquilegia viscosa Aristolochia longa Astragalus monspesulan Diantnus plumarius Geranium phaeum Lychnis flos. cuculi Aristolochia rotundata Cnicus monspesulanu-.p Hesp. matron. flo.pl.pur Lychnis diurna _ flo. pleno Salvia viscosa Iris livida Peeonia peregrina, 3 Veratrum nigrum Lunaria rediviva Thalictrum purpuras. Coronilla varia, 3 Galega officinalis, 3 Hesperis matronalis Phlomis tuberosa Sedum villosum hybridum Teucrium chamaedrys Mrerhingia muscosa flo. pleno Phlomis alpina Phlox ovata, p. ScrophulariaWmicif. Symphytum officinale Anchusa angustifolia , Medicago sativa Thalictrum alpinum 3K3 870 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. PERENNIAL BORDER-FLOWERS. JUNE continued. Height fromO to 3 of a ft. Fromf of afoot to Itfoot. From 1% foot to fy feet. Frrnn '4 feet to 3bfeet. From offset upniards. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. P0RPLE. Verbascum myconi, p. \ Thymus vulgaris t Linaria cymbalaria | Vicia cracca _ fol. variegatis Viola palmata, p. _ pilosum purpureum VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. Asperula cynanchia Iris variegata Dianthus barbatus hortense Apocynum androsace. p. Heracleum austriacum Asclepias vark'gata,i3, p. pumfla variegata, p. Saxifraga androsacea Geranium pratense striatum Iris aphylla squalens Veronica montana Iris fsetidissima, p. susiaua fol. varieg. versicolor Lotus maritimus GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. AndrosaceviUosa,p. Astragalus virescens Euphorbia verrucosa Gundelia Toumefortii,p. Heracleum sibericum Saiifraga pennsylvanica Humulus lupulus Smilax herbacea, p. Hydrastis canadensis BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. Medeolavirginica,p. Helleborus trifolius, p. j Heuchera Americana TTTT Y RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Epilobium alpinum (ieranium sanguineum Anemone valdensis, p. Astragulus onobrychis "entaurea sibirica ietonica grandiflora ^arduus cyanoides Manthus super, flo. rub. Arundo, donax fol. var. Asclepias amosna, 3. p. Rictamn. albus, flo ruo.3 Arundo donax Uonvolvulvus soldanell.i. [)elphinum puniceum,p. Oianthus hyssopifolius Dianthus hybridus >athyrus tuberosus Lychnis chalcedonica Epilobium hirsutum Phlox stolonifera, p. Saxifraga autumnalis Silene saxatilis _ saxifraga Melittis meUssophyllum ilentha odorata "Jepeta nepetella Wgarium hybridum Phlomis herba venti Sanguisorba media Dianthus caryophyllus,<. Tnfolium rabens Monarda didyma Phlox glaberrima, p. intermedia latifolium Phaca bretica Phlox maculata, p. Eupatorium cannabin. - vallesia 'olygonum erectum Veronica flo. incamato Bartsia coccinea iaxifraga geum Satyrium repens, p. A ndrosace carnea, p. Circasa alpina Statice'flexuosa, p. n>igelia marylandica Triosteum perfoliat. p. 'eronica fruticulosa Circsea alpina Achillea asplenifolia, p. lutetiana Phlox ameena, t. )nonis spinosa rub. Sempervivum tectorum Achillea montana - tanacetifolia WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Asperula tinctoria, 3 Manthus collinus )ryas octopetala, p. llicebrum paronych.,p. Rubia cordifolia Scuttellaria alpina Achillea decumbens alpina ptarmica Achillea setacea, p. pentaphylla toraentosa Arnica bellidiastrum, p. Asperugo tsevigata Athamanta cretensis }amp. rotund, ft. albo, p. .ucubalus stellatus }yprepedium canad. p. Achillea atrata herborata impatiens !Inicus tartaricus, p. )ianthus superbus Sryngium bourgati campestre Supatorium perfoliatum liaserpitium angustifol. Acanthus mollis, p. lusitanicus Achillea magna Asclepias nivea, p. Campan.persicif. alb.pl. Dictamnus albus, 3 Laserpitium latifolium Lycopus europajus Lysimachia ei)hemerum Aconitum album Clematis alpina, p. Eupatorium altissimum Galega orientalis, p. virginlana, p. " Kitaibelia vitifolia, p. Lathyrus palustris, p. Lycopus exaltatus Verbena carolineana _ flo.ple. )ororucum altaicum Lepidum graminifolium Marrub.candidissiin.t.o. .Alchemilla pentaphylla Anemone cemua, p. Anthemis nob., no. plen. Arenaria baliarica, t. p. - peploides Galium boreale rubioides Jypsophilla panicula. p. Wonarda rugosa, p. Vepeta italica [vvchn. chalcedon.fl.albo Nepeta cataria melissaefolia, p. Polygonum divaricatum Panicula canadensis Parthenium integrif. t.p. Phlox paniculata,flo.alb. Podalyria alba Polygonum undulatum _ saxatilis )nonis spinosa alba Sedum telephium album (Jalax cordifolia, p. )nosma simplisissima, t. major album Melanthium leetum Origanum creticum, t. Selinum austriacum 'arnassia palustris Orobus albus Sesseli montanum prunella grandiflora, p. Sedum album angustifolius, t. Salvia mollis Sison canadense Solanum tuberosum dasyphyllum Sempervivum sediforme Scuttellaria lupulina, p. iedum populifolium Spiraea filipendula - lobata,p. Silene alpestris Mum sisarum ulmaria - rupestris Spiraea ulmaria, flo.plen. flo. pleno. Tofieldia palustris Statice speciosa, p. Telephium imperati Stachys cretica Stipa pcnnata ' Teucrium montanum Veronica maritim.fl.albo Tradesc.virgin.fl. albo,p. Trifolium montanum YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Inulaensifolia Senecio incanum, p. Achillea aurea Aconitum anthora, p. Achillea abrotonifol. p. Antirrhinum gensitifol. Aconitum lycoctonum ochroleucum Aconitum pyrenaicum septentrionale Achillea odorata Alchemilla alpina Linaria vulgaris - peloria "^oronilla minima Ivrigeron tuberosum Hyoseris foetida - lucida Alyssum montanum A nemone patens, p. Anthemis tinctoria Arum italicum Astragalus microphyl. p. Betonica alopecurus Bupthalmum cordifol.p. Dnicus spinosus, p. Conyza bifrons Astragalus cicer ^-oronilla coronata Crepis albida sibirica Cucubalus otites Gatium vemum Gentiana fulva, . junnera perpensa, t. Hieracium lyratum Astragalus christianus Erigeron carolinianu. p. philadelphicum Ferula nodiflora Lysimachia vulgaris Salvia glutinosa Scorzonera hispanica Chelone formosa, t. p* Agrimonia odorata Aralea nudicaulis, p. racemosa Astragalus galegifonnis Centaurea glastifolia Ciniii-ini K afo3tida,p. Cineraria gigantea glauca Cnicus cernuus radiata fKnothera pumila, 3. p. Potentilla tridentata Cyprep.calc.fol.glab.3.p Hedysarum saxatile Hyoseris fretida porrifolium [nula crythmifolia, t. Lysimachia ciliata oleraceus [jentiana lutea, p. Helianthus pubescens Santolina anthemoides lucida quadrifolia * strumosus, p. Saxifraga aizoides moschata radiata Inula bubonium, t. quadriflora (Enothera undulata Inula helenium Iris ochroleuca, p. Sedum quadrifidum rupestre mariana ._T montana Phaca alpina Ranunculus cassubicus Lupinus nootkatt'ns. 3. p. Polymnia canadensis ... - sexangulare ^ibbaldia procumbens ^olidaco cambrica suaveolens Lotus cytissoides Lysimachia bulbifera Rudbeckia hirta, p. Scorzonera graminifol. Senecio abrotanifolia Senecio doria thyrsiflora Stachys maritima , Peganum harmala, t. Iris fulva ' Penthorum sedoides Thapsia asclepium Phaca rigida Physalis pensvlvanica, p Potentilla bifurcp BOOK II. BORDER-FLOWERS. 871 PERENNIAL BORDER- FLOWERS. JULY continued. Height fromO to 2 of a ft Frmn^ofafoottol^foot From 1-i foot to 2J/erf. from '4 feet to 3J feet. From^feetuprvar*,. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. PotentUla pennsylvanica tridentata Salvia austriaca Santolina anthemoides Scuttellariaorientaljs, p Sedum reflexum Senecio doronicum Sisyrin. iridioicl. fl . lut. p Symphytum tuberosum Tagetes lucida, p. Thalictrum dioicum Valantia glabra Valerianarutheniea Veratrum luteum Uvularia lanceolata, p. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. Scabiosa columbaria, p. anaria repens Campanula carpatica, p pumila, t. "rankenea hirsuta Gentiana punctata, p. purpurea ilobularia nudicaulis 1'runella grandiflora, p. hyssopifolia >isynibrium anceps, p. Veronica multifida, t. orientalis Viola cenesia, p. cuculata Anchusa sempervirens Campanula alliariBefol.|) carpatica grandiflora nitida, p. patula Centaurea montana Cynoglossum pict. t. p. Delphinium grandiflor. Dracocephalum grandiflorum Erigeron alpinum Gentiana cruciata, 3. p. macrophylla septemfida Astragalus ulieinos. p. Delphin.grandi. fl. pi. 3. _ urceolatum, 3. Eryngium alpinum Hyssopus ofncinalis Lychnis chalced. fl. pi. p Salvia grandiflora nemorosa Sonchus sibiricus Veronica incisa maritima spicata teucrium Lobelia siphilitica, t. p. Asclepias sibirica, 3. Astragalus sulcatus Campanula persicifol. p. caer. pleno rapunculbides Satananche caerulea Delphin. exaltarum, 3.p. Kchinops ritro Eryngium amethystin. Iris halophylla Salvia verticillata Veronica sibirica Linum perenne Asclepias nigra, p. Aconitum volublle Delphin. alatum, 3. p. azureum, 3. flo. pleno, 3. intermed. p. Schinops spheeTocepbal Glycyrrhiza echinata, p. glabra ' Sonchus plumieri Sophora australis alopecuroides^. Verbena hastata Vicia sylvatica Geranium ibericum reflexum sylvaticum flo. pie Gratiola officinalis Hemerocallis caerulea, p Linum alpinum Mimutus alatus, p. Monarda ciliata, /. Phyteuma campanul. t. hemisphterica Scabiosa graminifolia Scutellana galericulata Sisyrinchium berb. t. p. iridioides Statice latifolia, p. Tradescantia virginica Veronica austriaca - Candida hybrida pinnata PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. .ster alpinus, 3. p. Geranium maculatum AnthylUs montana Jnaria triornithophor.p. )racocephal. pereg. t. p. Hoclysarum obscurum edum teleph.purp.min. erratula alpina, p. Thymus serpilium, p. cit. odore Anchusa officinalis _ tinctoria Astragalus tenuifoliiis.p Betonica stricta 3arduus pycnocephalus Centauiea rhapontica scabiosa Dodartia orientalis, p. Trifbliumlupinaster Erigeron purpureum Actaearacemosa Cacalia alpina Centaurea tartarica Cnicus caucasicus, p. heterophyllns carniolicus, p. VTonarda clinopodia Salvia pratensis Scrophularia betonicifol. Scuttellaria altissima, p. Cnicus centauroides, p. ^eonorus cardiaca Monarda fistulosa purpurea Verbasc. phceniceum, p. Aconitum cammarum Cnicus canus, p, ^upatorium purpurea ^ythrum salicaria 'renanthes purpurea Serratula coronata Phytolaccadecandra, p. Mfolium alpinum r eronica allionii .\ M i-aitalus uralensis, p. StatioereUoulata Geranium macrorhizum palustre Melissa grandiflora Welittis grandiflora Pisum maritimum Sedum anacampseros Sedum telephi. pur.maj. Stachys alpina, p. Lycopus virginieus Penstemon fcvigata, p. Saponaria officinia. 3. glaucum flo. plen. 3. Teucrium hircanicum, t. icabiosa arvensis Tradesc. virg. flo. pur. p. Verbena officinalis Trifolium alpestre Mimulus ringens, p. Mitellanuda Silene longiflora Statice reticulata Astragahis uralensis, p. Bartsiapallida,p. Betonica orientalis VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. Geranium lancastrense )ianth. caryophyllus,<.3. |Cynanchum monspeliac argenteum ris graminea ris spuria Sessifi glaucum inaphalium alpinum dioicum Sisyrinchum striatum,p. Stachys lanata, p. Gypsophilla paniculata saxifragra GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. A hymus montanus Tofieldiapubens Helanthium virginic. p. 'oterium sanguisorba Poterium hybridum Euphorbia palustris BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. Arum atrorubens Scrophularia auricul. /. Arum dracunculus Geranium lividum orientalis /'erbascum ferrugin. p. ATTriTTCT RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Sanseviera oarnea, p. Artemisia caerulescens Mepeta pannonica Statice oleifolia, t. \thamanta condensata Veronica marit. f Linear. Dianth. carthusianorum . Epilobium angustissim. ] Asclepias incarnata, 3.p. Athamanta siberica Gypsophilla perfoliata,p. Artemisia vulgaris Dioscoria verticillata^.p. villosa, t. ( ^obelia cardinalis, 3. ( 'hlox undulata 3. p. ( Clematis crispa, p. 1 Althaea narbonensis 3arduus defloratus Centaurea centaurium Cnicus ciliatus, p. ilycine apios, p. 3 hlox decussate, 3. i>. : ! ah .-; alcea 'ripsacum dactyloid,<.p. _ moschata { jathrus heterophyllus 3K4 872 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. PERENNIAL BORDER-FLOWERS. AUGUST continued. HtiKhtfram to 2 of a ft. j from J o/a/oo< to IJ/oo From li foot to <4 feet From 24 feet to 3J feet. From 34/erf upward*. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. fepeta incana, p. Silene maritima Achillea cretica, p. macrophylla Artemisia dracunculus Aster linifolius Acanthus spinosus, p. Centaurea cineraria Aconitum variegat. p. Bocconia cordata Achillea cristata 'renanthes alba Sedum forsterianum Sisymbrium barbarea rhymus marschalli,<. p squarrosa, p. Arenaria grandiflora, p Artemisia campestris maritima santonica sericea Astrantia minor, n. umbellatus Athamanta libanotis Leonorus crispus Phlox suaveolens, p. Scabiosa leucantha Scutellaria peregrina, t Selinum curvifolium Eupatorium hyssopifol. Marrubium peregrinun Polygonum virginianun Cacalia suaveolens i Campan. latifol. alb. p. persicif. fl. alb. pi Chelone glabra Clematis angustifolia Epilob. angust. flo. alb. Athamantia rigida Sium rigidum, p. NepKa IJevis Cacalia hastata glabra Convza linifolia, p. Erigeron uniflorum Eupatorium rotundifol Veratrum album, p. Veronica virginica Gratiola virginica (iypsophilla prostrata Hemerocallis japonic, p Melissa calamintha nepeta Sriganum heracleotic. Phlox suaveol. fol. var. p Selinum chabraei Thymus zygis Gnaphal. margar. 3. p. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Santolina maritima 'runella pensyl vanica,p Saxifraga cespitosa - hirculis Sisymbrium pyrenaicum Anthericum ossifragum Artemisia glacialis Bupthalmum maritim. salicifol. Coreopsis minima, p. Inula oculus christi provincialis Achillea ageratum, p. upatorium nula salicifolia 'renanthes altissima, p Solanum quercifolium Solidago ambigua bicolor Artemisia pontica Balsamita virgata vulgans .hrysocoma biflora Coreopsis aurea, p. verticillata Jrigeron carlinianum, p Bupthalmum helianth. Cacalia saracenica Cassia marilandica, t. p. Clematis vioma, p. Coreopsis procera - tripteris Helianthus altissimus squarrosa - cassia Hieracium sabaudum (Enothera missour. p. Podalyria tinctoria, p. canadensis umbellatum Rudbeckiadigitata Rhexia, virginica Sideritis scordioides Silene chlorafolia integrifolia Asclepias tuberosa, t. 3. ^Ethonera fruticosa, p. Solidago aspera odora Tanacetum balsamita - fulgida laciniata Silphium asteriscus connatum Solidago humilis laminiatum Teucnum canadense perfoliatum scorodonia Solidago argu t a BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. 'entha pulegium Viola mirabiUs Artemisia austriaca Aster linarifolius, p. 3onyza asteroides, p. Eryngium maritimum Gentiana asclepedia, p. bavarica Phyteuma orbicularis, p. Salvia forskoehlii Aster acris Bestivus - cordifolius,p. Glycyrrhiza asperima, p Hedysarum violaceum lyssopus lopanthus, p. Aipinus perennis Anchusa undulata Campanula verticill. p. Clematis cylindrica xOllinsonia canadensis iryngjum planum Salvia sylvestris Verbena urticifolia Aconitum japonicuni Asclepias syriaca Aster novi bergii Campan. latifol. caer. p. pyramidalis,p. - trachelium fl. caer. pi. 3. ^avattia thuringiaca lyrata Scabiosa caucasica, t. p. Veronica incana Nepeta tuberosa cabiosa sylvatica Viola mirabilis, p. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. 'ris dichotoma, p. } hlox Carolina, t. Saxifraga viscosa ster amellus ythrum triflorum, p. verticillatum Jupatorium maculatum Aster concolor Chelone obliqua, p. major tf entha crispa, t. piperita - viridis /athyrus sylvestris /iatris squarrosa, p. .ythrum virgatum Clematis purpurea Epilobium angustifoli.p. Hedysarum canaden. p. crophulariascrodon. d. Lathyrus latifolius graiidiflorus Liatris scariosa, p. Rudbeckia purpurea, 3. Cacalia atriplicifolia VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. \strantiacamiolica, t. p. )racocephalum dentic. jypsophilla altissima ntirrhinu. monspessul. strantia major, p. tachys germanica Campanula versicol. p. Urigeron canadense repens BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. Artemisia rupestris spicata chillea ochroleuca elianth. atro-rubens,p. Swertia perenis SEPTEM 3ER AND OC TOBER RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Lobelia splendens, t. 3. p. Boltonia asteroid^ Lobelia fulgens,*. 3. Ater salicifolius: jlycine monoica, p. Phlox pyramidalis WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Eupatorium sessilifol. Aster corymbosus - diffusus Artemisia japonica Aster dumosus Aster ericoides tenuifolius di-varicatus linifolius multiflorus iupatorium aromatic. macrophyllus pendulus Scabiosa gramuntia YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Chrysocoma villosa, t. Solidago mexicana yhrysocoma linosyris' Euphorbia emarginata Helianthusdivaricat. p. Scolymus hispanicus Solidago odora Petragonotheca hull. p. "oreopsis alternifolia amplexicaulis Helenium autumnale,p. pubescens Helianthus decapitalus - gigant^us multiflorus - - flo.pleno tuberosus 'olymnia uvedalia iohdago Isevigata lanceolata petiolaris procera sempernrms berotjna BOOK II, BORDER-FLOWERS. 873 PERENNIAL BORDER-FLOWERS. SEPT. AND OCT. continued. Height from to $of a ft. From 3 of a foot to 1 J/oo<. From 1J foot to 2J feet. From 2i feet to 3J feet. From 3i feet upwards. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. Gentiana ciliata,*. pneumonanthe Gentiana catesbaei, p. Scabiosa succisa Aster laevis sibericus Aster paludosus tradescanti Aster foliosus fragilis speetabilis Gentiana saponaria, p. Plumbago europaea, p. undulatus, p. Dracocephal. virgin!, p. paniculatus puniceus elatior PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Aster hyssopifolius latifolius Liatris pumila, p. Phlox suff ruticosa Sal via napifolia Serratula quinquefol. p. Aster grandiflorus radula ^yssopus nepetoides, p. Liatris heterophylla,-?. pilosus Aster altissimus junceus mutabilis novas anglise spurius spicata ^ Liatris elegans, I. 6490. Propagation of perennial herbaceous plants. All the modes of propagation, ex- cepting such as are applicable only to woody plants, may occasionally be adopted ; but the most general practice is by dividing the root, by suckers or offsets, and by seed ; the other modes are by cuttings of the stalks, shoots, or roots, and by layers. 6491. By dividing the root. This mode is applicable to nine tenths of hardy herba- ceous plants. The plant may either be taken up, divided with the knife, and a portion replanted to continue the species in the spot allotted to it ; or, the earth may be partially removed, and part of the roots and crown cut off to make new plants. The sections may, if well rooted, be planted at once where they are to remain and flower, or, what is preferable, they may be planted for one season in nursing-beds in the reserve-garden, and prevented from flowering that season by pinching off the flower-buds as they appear. The common season for performing the operation is spring, when the plant is beginning to push, or in summer or autumn immediately after it has flowered. The latter is ge- nerally the preferable period, unless the plant flowers very late, in which case the sections will not have sufficient time to form roots for their support during winter. 6492. By suckers or offsets. This mode is also applicable to nine tenths of common herbaceous plants ; the best time for removing them is in spring, or early in summer, after the plant has begun to grow. Plant them in the nursing-department, and pinch off their flower-buds, that they may flower strongly next season when removed to their final destination. 6493. By seed. This mode is applicable to all the single-flowering kinds, but is only adopted with a few species, which are otherwise difficultly multiplied. Collect the seed from the flowers which expanded first, as being generally the strongest. If it is ripe before August, it may be sown the same season, but if otherwise, it will be preferable to defer sowing till the following spring. Sow on beds of light earth, thinly covering ac- cording to the size of the seed, and prick out the plants once or twice according to their strength, size, or weakness, so as they may be fit to remove to their final destination in August or September. They will flower strongly the following year, and probably may show some new varieties. 6494. By cuttings from the side-shoots or Jlower-stems. This mode is applicable to a number of the more delicate and double- flowering herbaceous plants, as to scarlet and pink lychnis, double rockets white and yellow, some hollyhocks, and a variety of others ; but more to biennials and annuals than to perennials. The cuttings may be taken off at any time when the shoots are tender and properly prepared, and planted in sandy loam in a warm situation, but shaded and covered with a hand-glass. Afterwards transplant them in the nursery-department, and again the same season where they are finally to re- main. They will blow freely the summer following. 6495. By cuttings from the root-shoots. This is applicable to some sorts which do not multiply fast at the root, or whose rooted stolones or suckers do not make handsome plants ; as to some species of alyssum, statice, silene, &c. The early part of summer is, in general, the most fitting season for performing the operation ; plant in sandy loam under a hand-glass, and shade in the sunny part of the day ; then transplant in the nur- sery department for a few weeks, when the strongest plants will show themselves, and may be removed in September to their final destination. They will blow strongly next year. 6496. By cuttings of jointed root-shoots or pipings. This is chiefly applicable to the di- anthus tribe, saponaria, the striped grass, or any other grasses or reedy plants. Proceed as in piping pinks or carnations (6412.); but no bottom heat will be required for the sorts that come under this section. 6497. By cuttings from the roots. This is strictly applicable only to such plants as form buds on their roots, as to most of the rubiaceae, to the mints, epilobiums, &c* About midsummer is the earliest period at which the creeping roots are generally fit for this purpose ; but with some others, as gallium, osmunda, &c. it may be done in spring 874 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. Plant the cuttings in the shade, and afterwards transplant and treat them like cuttings from the flower-stalks or root-shoots. 6498. By layers. Such plants as cannot easily be propagated by any of the foregoing modes may be increased by layers ; such as the carnation, some species of sal via, sibbal- dia, sibthorpia, some silenes, &c. Commence the operation when the plant begins to flower, and when the layers are rooted, treat them as directed for pipings. 6499. General culture of Jibrous-rooted herbaceous flowers. Autumn, after the plant has done flowering, or spring, when it has begun to grow, as has been already observed (6189.), are the seasons for planting or transplanting. The general culture is, stirring the soil ; renewing it according to the kind of plant (6188.) ; taking up overgrown plants, reducing them, and replanting (6190.) ; sticking, pruning, trimming, removing all use- less, decayed, injured, or diseased parts ; and supplying blanks. (6192.) The general management consists in attending to order and neatness. (6201. "1 SUBSECT. 2. Species and Varieties of bulbous-rooted Border- Flowers. 6500. BULBOUS-ROOTED BORDER-FLOWERS. MARCH. Height from to g of a ft. From J of a foot to l^foot From 1J foot to 2A feet. From '4 feet to 3J feet. From 3i feet upward*. RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Cyclamen coum, * p. Hyacinthus orientalis WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. /eucojum vemum irythr. dens can. fl. al.p. Scilla bifolia flo.albo. p. Furaaria bulbosa cava Galanthus nivalis, Feb. 1 flo. pleno YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Jelleborus hyemal. Jan. [' ulipa suaveolens, p. flo. pleno Helleborus hyemalis Narcissus pseudo narcis. Tulipa sylvestris >ocus vernus BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. Scilla bifolia, p. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Srythronium dens can.p. Izia bulbocodium VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. Allium chamae-moly RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Hyacinth orient, fl.carn. Fritillaria latifolia imperialis flo. pleno major WHITE. Sanguinaria canaden. p. WHITE. Hyacinthus orient.fl.alb. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Narcissus biflorus Sanguinaria canadens. p. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Narcissus minor Narcissus bicolor Ornithogalum stachy. JFritil!arialat.no.lut. major pleno fol.variegatis BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. Bulbocodium vern. (. p. Scilla nonscripta amonna, p. verna PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. 1URPLE. Allium inodorum VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VAP.IEGATED. Wtillaria meleagris Iris persica GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. Ornithogalum luteum Iris tuberosa Ornithogalum nutans umbellat. MAY RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Muscari botryoi. fl. cier. Liliumbulbifer.ard.p. Lilium concolor, t. p. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Narcissus tenuifolius Allium ursinum triandrus Muscari botryoi. fl. alb. Trillium grandiflorum romanus Narcissus angustifolius - orientalis fl. pleno ' s - pottiem fl. pleno YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. INarcissusjonquilla Narcissus bulbocodinm ! - bulb^odiZf. compressus - incomparabil. odorus _ orientalis bio. tenuior - trilobus BOOK II. BORDER-FLOWERS. 875 BULBOUS-ROOTED BORDER-FLOWERS. MAY continued. Hei K htfromQto J of a ft. Fwm 2 ,f./M to !!/,. F ram 1$ foot to '2^ feet. From VWtoV feet. From Sjjerf iipn-antt. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. IMuscari botyroid. com. monstros. Scilla campanulata, p. lusitanica Hyacinth, botryoid. ca?r. flo.pallido,!. racemos. icilla italica PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Fritillaria persica racemosa pyrenaica Allium angulosum VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. Anemo. coron. flo. pleno Anemone coronaria Tulipa gesneriana Allium carinatum Oxalis acetosella GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. Muscari moschatum Omithogalum striat. p. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. Trillium cernuum, p. ' erectum sessile TTTVTT? RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Allium nutans Allium descendens Orchis conopsea sphaerocephalon Gladiolus communis, p. Lilium pomponium flo. coccineo Gladiolus byzantinus, p. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE Ptfinaria cucullaria, ;>. Allium sativum Allium canadense Amaryllis atamasco, t. senescens Leucojum sestivum Orchis bifolia Gladiol. byzant. flo. al.p. communis Omithogalum pyramid. Pancratium illyricum, p. Scilla lilio hyaci. fl. pie. lil. hyacin. fl. alb. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW- ErJth.den.can.fl.fla.p. Allium moly Lilium pompon, fl. lut. bulbiferum, t. p. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. Scilla sibirica Hyacinthus serotinus Irisxyphioides Iris xiphium Scilla lilio-hyacinthus peruviana PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Allium ascalonicum Allium roseum schoenoprasum Orchis militaris Oxalis violacea, t. p. pyramidalis Oxalis violacea, p. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. Ranunculus asiaticus Orchis maculata Ornithogalum pyrenaic. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. . Allium victorialis Ophrys ovata BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. Ophrys apifera muscifera Omithogalum uniflor. t. JULY RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Amaryllis belladonn. p. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Allium tartaricum tricoccum Allium ampeloprasium Allium nigrum Pancratium maritim. p. Lilium candidum _ flo. pleno Ornithogalum comos. p. -~ . flo. variegat. martag. flo. alb. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Oxalis corniculata, p. Allium flavum Allium obliquum Lilium tigrinutn stricta PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Allium lineare Allium paniculatum Lilium martagon _ flo. pleno Allium scorodoprasum VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. Lilium candid, fl. stria. martae- fl. mac. ATir'TTCT' cTTDT-vivrTOT?!? nPTOBER. \ RED. RED. *a A. JL JLJ Al* JJ *-* -"*J RED. RED. RED. Colchic. autumn, m. p. flo. pleno Cyclamen europseum fol. varieg. Cyclamen europium, p. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Colchic. autum. fl. al. p. Cyclam. europ. fl. alb. p. Leucojum autumnale YELLOW. Cyclamen europ. fl. al.p. Leucojum autumnale YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. BLUE. Lilium catesbaei, p. uniflorum BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. Lilium canadense, p. _ _ penduhflor. superbum pensylvanic. Crocus autumnalis Crocus autumnalis _ _ phHadelphic. sativus satims b VARIEGATED. Colchi. autum. fl. var. p. 876 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 6501. ProjMgat ion of bulbous-rooted flowers. By offsets or by seed ; the whole, with the exception of the cyclamen, and one or two others, are propagated by offsets, which are to be taken off when the plant is in a state of rest, which happens in most sorts after it has done flowering ; afterwards they are to be planted in a nursery-bed for one year, and where they are finally to remain the year following. Autumnal-flowering bulbs are not in a state of rest till the beginning of the following summer : as the colchicum, autumnal- flowering crocuses, amaryllis lutea, and a few others. These, therefore, are to be taken up when their leaves begin to decay early in summer, their offsets separated and planted in the nursery-department, and the parent bulbs replaced in a month or six weeks, in order that they may have time to establish themselves and flower before winter. 6502. General culture and management. Bulbous-rooted flowers differ from others in requiring in their cultivated state to be frequently taken up and replanted. Fibrous- rooted plants which grow much at the root, require this occasionally ; but almost all bulbs frequently. The reasons are, that in deeply comminuted rich ground, most sorts, but especially those which form their new bulbs beside the others, multiply so fast that the bulbs become crowded, small, and unfit to send up strong flowers ; that many sorts, as in narcissus, tulip, &c. which form their new bulbs under the old one, send down their bulbs at last so deep that they at first come up weakly, and afterwards cease to appear at all, as in the bulbous-rooted irises, colchicum, &c. ; and that some, on the contrary, which form their new bulbs over the old ones, send them up at last above the surface, as in crocus, gladiolus, &c. ; and are consequently killed by the frost or drought. Hence the finer bulbs of florists require to be taken up every year, and all the border-bulbs at least every three or four years. The time to do this is when the plant has flowered and the leaves have begun to decay. No bulb should be taken up for any purpose, or injured in its growth in any way while the leaves are green ; for it should ever be remembered by gardeners, that it is the leaves which bring the root to maturity and prepare it for flowering the following year. If these are injured or cut off, or if the plant is trans- planted, unless with such a ball as not to touch any of its fibres while in a growing state, the bulb will not recover so as to be able to flower for at least one year, and probably two or three. The time for keeping bulbs out of ground depends on their habits as to flower- ing. The object is to heal the wounds made by removing the offsets, and perhaps by setting the bulb more completely in a state of rest, to render it more excitable when planted. A month will in general be sufficient for this purpose, and more cannot be allowed with safety to the autumnal-flowering bulbs : more than three months is more likely to be injurious than useful to most sorts, though hyacinths, and other bulbs which form articles of general commerce, are frequently kept out of the soil half the year : when planted so late, however, they seldom flower well the first season, and commonly not at all for a year or two afterwards. The taking up, drying, and replanting of border- bulbs must be attended to by the flower-gardener with equal regularity, though not with equal frequency as the finer, select, or florists' bulbs : the offsets may be planted in beds in the reserve-garden, if wanted for stock ; and the soil of the spot where the plants stood in the border renewed according to its kind, and the flowering-bulbs replaced. Some bulbs multiply so fast by throwing out offsets, that they soon cease to send up flower -stems. Of these may be mentioned the ornithogalum umbellatum, luteum, and some other species ; some species of scilla, muscari, iris, allium, oxalis, and others. These should either be annually taken up, their offsets removed, and the parent bulb replanted ; or the offsets, as soon as they send up leaves, should be destroyed. Indeed, whenever strong-blowing bulbs is the principal object, the offsets should never be al- lowed to attain any size ; but as soon as they indicate their existence by showing leaves above ground, they should be removed with a blunt stick, or in any way least injurious to the parent. By this practice a great accession of strength is given to the main plant, both for the display of blossom during the current season, and for invigorating the leaves to prepare and deposit nutriment in the bulb for the next year. In pursuance of the same objects, every flower should be pinched off as soon as it begins to decay, but the flower-stalk may remain till it begins to change color with the leaves. Some bulbs are greedily sought after by vermin : as the crocus and tulip by the mouse and water-rat ; the snowdrop and some of the narcissi by the snail and slug ; and the hyacinth by a particular sort of grub-worm. We know of no method of mitigating these evils but by catching the mice and rats, gathering the snails, and taking up, drying, and replanting in fresh soil, the roots attacked by worms or insects. The snail is perhaps the worst of these vermin, and, fortunately, it may be most effectually kept under, by scattering leaves of the brassica tribe (of any variety) over the ground, and picking from them, every morning, the snails which have fixed on them during the night. 6503. Most bulbs force well; to expedite this, retard the bulbs by keeping them in an ice-house till the autumn of the second summer ; put them in water-glasses or pots in September, and they will be in full blow by Christmas. BOOK II. BORDER-FLOWERS. 877 6504. SUBSECT. 3. Species and Varieties of Biennial Border-Flowers. BIENNIAL BORDER-FLOWERS. MAY, JUNE. Heignt from <0J of aft. From 2 ofafootto 1$ foot. From 14 foot to 2* feet. From ty feet to 3J feet. From 3J feet uprrardi. RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Thymus alpinus Illesperis tristis Agrost. coro. flo. pi. rub. Hedysarum coronarium flos. jovis ! Antirrhinum ma. fl. pie. Agrostemma coronaria Antirrhin. ma. flo. rubr. IThlapsi saxatile Mlene muscipula, p. lol. var. Enothera rosea Thymus grandiflorus WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Cochlearea glastifolia Hedysar. coron. flo. albo Agrost. coron. flo. albo Hespes. matr. flo. alb. pi. Antirrhin. maj. flo. albo Thlapsi hirtum Trigonella platycarpos YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Alyssum sinuatum Alyssum clypeatum Linum strictum, p. Papaver nudicaule Ranunculus pennsylr. p. Scorzonera resediiolia Tragopogon crociiblius Antirrhin. maj. flo. luteo Ligusticum peregrinum (Enothera smuata Scorzonera lasciniata Sorophularia trifoliata vernalis Verbascum lychnitis (Enothera biennis Scabiosa tartarica Scorzonera hispanica Tragopogon villosus Verbascum phlomoides Tragopogon dalechampi pratensis BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. Phyteuma comosa Scabiosa columbaria Anchusa paniculata, p. Delphinium staphisagr.f. Cynoglossum sylvaticum PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Alyssum deltoideum Hesper. ma. flo. pur. pie. Centaurea pullata Scorphularia peregrina Silene bupleuroides, p. Antirrhinum majus Cynoglossum officinale Tragopogon porrifolius Hesperis matronalis Lunaria annua VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. Cynoglossum cheirifol. t. Hyoscyamus niger GRBEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. Delphinium aconiti, t. Euphorbia verrucosa TTTT V Euphorbia lathyris RED. RED. 1 RED. RED. RED. Thymus patavinus, t. Dianthus monspelia. p. Cheiranthus incan. red (Enothera rosea Leonorus sibiricus Cheiranthus incanus Digitalis erubescens Fumaria spicata WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. . WHITE. WHITE. Jnopordum acaulon Teucrium montanum, p. Alyssum maritim, p. fol. var. Iberis linifolia, p. Teucrium campanulaU. Campanula thrysoid. p. Cheiranthus inca. white Cheiranth. incan. white Reseda alba Verbena urticifblia, p. Campan.med. flo. alb. Conium maculatum Digitalis purpur. fl. albo Dipsacus silvestris Verbasc. blattar. fl. albo YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Alyssum sinuatum Crepis foetida Gnaphalium lut. album Papaver nudicaule Reseda undulata Trigonella ruthenica Cerinthe minor Ligusticum scoticum (Enothera mollissima nocturna Digitalis ambigua lutea Fumaria fungosa (Enothera grandiflora Verbascum pulverulent. sinuatum Isatis tinctoria (Enothera sinuata Pastinaca lucida sativa Verbascum thapsus thapsoides BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. Antirrhinum bellidifol. Campanula siberica Lobelia urens Campanula cervicar. p. rapunculus Campanula medium Vicia biennis PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Carlina vulgaris Verbena officinalis Centaurea salmonitica Anchusa italica Digitalis minor thapsi Marrubium alysson Conyza squarrosa splendens Cheiranth. incan. purple Carduus marianus Digitalis purpurea Onopordum arabicum ;" " Salvia pinnata illyricum iTrachelium caeruleum Verbascum blattaria jTrichostema brachia. p. VARIEGATED. 1 VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. Dianthus armeria, p. Althaea sinensis pleno BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. Dianthus ferrugineus Monarda punctata, p. Scabiosa atropurpurea RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Gypsophilla muralis Leonurus tartaricus Centaurea romana Althaea rosea Sison segetum lake col. doub. flesh col.doub. Echium creticum WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Digitalis leucophaea, t. Salvia ceratophylla Dipsacus laciniatus Sison amomum Althaea ros. white doub. Echium italicum Gaura biennis Lavatera arborea YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Gnaphalium sylvaticum Scabiosa ucranica Althaea ro. straw-col, do. yellow orange donb. ficifolia Crepis biennis BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. Erigeron acre Echium vulgare Michauxa campan. t. p. Verbena bonar. t. Sept. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Carduus eriophorus | Verbascum virgatum BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. Althaea ros. brown, dou. Digitalis femiginea 878 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 6505. Propagation and culture of biennial border-lowers. They are all raised from seed, but some of the finest double varieties are continued by cuttings. The seed of such sorts as ripen by August may be sown immediately after it is gathered ; but the seed of those sorts which ripen later should be preserved till the following spring, and sown in May or the beginning of June. Sow thinly in beds in the reserve-garden, transplant into other beds when the plants are a few inches high, and in September or October remove the plants to their final destination. If this be, as it most generally will in the mingled flower-border, to provide a succession of the same sorts, then it can only be done in the case of those sorts which are done flowering by September or the first of October, and the others must be removed early in March with balls. Great care is requisite in removing some sorts which have large tap-roots, as oenothera, holly- hock, lavatera, &c., for if materially checked they will not flower strongly. The best mode is to nurse these sorts in large pots, and transplant them in October or February, with their balls entire. The sorts continued by cuttings are chiefly fine double varieties of wallflowers, stocks, rose-campions, &c. The cuttings may be taken from the flower- stalks, or the root-shoots, early in summer, put under hand-glasses, and otherwise treated as cuttings of perennials. If the cuttings of some sorts, as dahlia, chrysanthe- mum, lobelia, &c. are taken off early in the season, they will flower in the autumn. The plants once placed where they are to remain, their general culture and manage- ment is the same as for the perennial border-flowers. (6187.) SUBSECT. 4. Species and Varieties of Hardy Annual Border-Flowers. 6506. HARDY ANNUAL BORDER- FLOWERS. JUNE. \Heighifrom to\ of a ft. From \ofafoot to U/orf. From \bfuot to 2J feet. From 2i/erf,r ~ x on every side, rising gradually from the edge up- /' ^' c Q ~^-*C" NN * wards, the highest plants meeting nearly in a point 4r/ V ' at the centre, and no two flowers of the same color /\ / or shape being seen together." (Beauties of Flora, fc! / & &c. p. ii.) To those who have but a limited space . / ^i *' and means, or who have few perennial flowers ; w | ; ^! to persons in remote situations in the country ; to W V J\ * residents in the colonies ; and to female and infant \ \ , gardeners, the above list and modes of arrangement ^ ^ afford a source of considerable show and amusement at a very small expense, little trouble, and, being "^ annuals, little loss of time. Swindon was in the habit of supplying masters of ships with packets of these seeds for all parts of the world. 616 BOOK II. FLOWERS FOR PARTICULAR PURPOSES. 881 617 SUBSECT. 5. Species and Varieties of Half-hardy Annual Border- Flowers. 6512. HALF-HARDY ANNUAL BORDER-FLOWERS, FLOWERING IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER. Height from to J qf nfl. From^qfafoottol^foot. From. 1$ foot to 24/erf. From ^ feet to Z^ feet. From Zlfeet upnardt. RED. RED. f RED. RED. 1 RED. , Dianthus sinensis Lopezia racemosa, p . Stevia pedata serrata Aster sinensis, red bonnet - _ red quill. Mirabilis jalapa. flo. rub. Senecio elegans, fl. in. oL Polygonum orientate Ipomcca cocclnea, p. Nicotiana glutinosa tabac. fol. ma. Zinnia multiflora, rub. revoluta Convolvulus pur. fl. car. verticillata WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Cistiu niloticui Ricinus inermis, j>. - viridis " Aster sinensis, white quilled Senecio elegans, fl.al.pl. Con volvulus discolor michauxii, pi. Mirabilis jalapa, flo.albo. Mirabilislongiflora Chrysanthem. cor. fl. al. Ricinus communis, p. Polygonum orien. fl. al. Trichosanthes auguina YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Spilanthes acmella, p. Cacaliacoccinea,}.. Tagetes lucjda Argemone mexicana, p. Bidens heterophylla Ceisia orienfalis Fumaria vesicaria Galinsogea parviflora tritoba Tagetes erecta lutea flor. tereti Chrysanthem. coronari. . coron. pet. tereti. Cucumis colocynthis Gnaphalium foetidum aurantia flexuosus undulatum teret. aur. Helianthus annuus Mirabilis jalapa lutea Carthamus tinctorius flo. pleno Tagetes tenuifolia Zinnia multiflora lutea nanus florepallido pauciflora Momordica balsamina Tagetes patula simp. - lutta flo. pleno. Rudbeckiaamplexifolia nana, simp. Tricosanthes cucumeri. pleno Xeranthemum lucidum Ximensia encelioides Iporr.o?a phoenicea, p. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. S'olana prostrate Aster sinensis, light blue quilled Atropa physaloides Convol. pur. fl. ceer. pal. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Monopsis scintillarig Ricotiasegyptiaca Aster sinensis chine, pur. purp. quilled Chrysanthemum tricolor Datura ceratocaulis Senecio elegans, purp. Convolvulus purpurea Datura metel Zinnia violacea VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. Aster sinensis, pur. stri. red Mirabilis jala. flo. ru. st. flo. hit. stria. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. Nicotiana paniculata 6513. Propagation and culture of half-hardy annual flowers. These are raised from seed, which is sown in March in a not-bed ; and the plants, when an inch or two high, are transplanted into another bed of very moderate temperature. Here they may remain till the middle of May, or till all danger from frosty nights is over, and be then transplanted to where they are to flower in the borders, and treated in all respects as hardy annuals. 6514. To save seed. In dry seasons, most sorts will ripen seeds, if permitted, but in wet seasons, unless the plants have been well forwarded in spring, and planted in a dry soil and warm situation, the seed will not be matured. In such cases, a hand-glass supported over the flower is of use ; or some may be re- moved with balls into large pots, and placed in an airy pit, frame, or green-house. In the northern and western counties, where the climate is cold and moist, half-hardy annuals never ripen their seeds in any year j and supplies are therefore annually obtained from the London seedsmen. SECT. III. Floiversfor particular Purposes. 6515. The particular purposes to which flowers are sometimes applied, may be either the concealment of local defects, or the production of local beauties. Among the former may be classed, covering naked walls, posts, parts of ruins, or other upright objects ; concealing horizontal defects, as naked sub-barren spots, unsightly banks, &c., producing vegetation under the shade and drip of trees : among the latter, ornamenting water with flowering plants ; ornamenting rocks, or assemblages of stones formed in imitation of rocks ; preserving a green appearance on beds or borders during winter ; forming edgings to beds or borders ; furnishing odors ; and presenting botanical, curious, and scientific assemblages. 3 L ' ' PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. SUBSECT. 1. Flowers which reach from Jive to seven feet in height, for covering naked Walls, or other ujrright Deformities, and for shutting out distant Objects which it is de- sirable to exclude. 6516. The flowers suited for covering upright deformities are the climbers and twining plants : the former to be supported by spray or trellis-work, or nailed in the manner of wall-trees, and the latter by rods. We shall select a few species of each from the plants already enumerated in the foregoing section, to which the botanist will easily be able to add others from the more extensive catalogues. Twining plants, annuals. Convolvulus tricolor, Phaseolus multiflorus. Tn-iiiing plants, half-hardy annuals. Convolvulus discolor, Michauxii pur- purea, p. flo. carneo, p. flo. coer. pal- lideo. Ipomoea coccinea, & phoenicea. Climber*, perennial. Astragalus galegi fortnis, Clematis alpina, vi i 9 sorts, Momordica elaterium, Tro- fortnis, Clematis alpina, vioma. v. i paeolum majus. purpurea, Lathyrus latifolius, Vicia IClitnbers, half-hardy annuals. Cucurais colocynthis, dudaim, flexuosus. ,Tnestris, Riibus articus 3, chamaamorus 3, rosaefolius 3, saxati- lis 3, Saxifraga aizoides, nivalis, op- positifolia, pennsylvanica, petrsea, ro. tundifolia, sarmentosa, Sedum for- sterianum, giaucum, hybridum, ru- pestre, sexangulare, vilfosum, Silene alpestris, rupestris, saxatilis, saxifraga, Telephium imperati, Teucrium mon- tanum, Thlaspi alpestre, Thymus vulgaris, Tormentilla reptans, Trifo- lium alpestre, montanum, repens ma- culatum, Valeriana montana, pyre- naica, Veronica montana, saxatilis, Viola lutea, montana. Bull*. A Ilium carinatum, Fritillaria pyrenaica, Omithogalum pyrenaicum, Oxalis acetosella, violacea 3 s. Biennials. Alyssum deltoideum 3, Cam- panula cervicaria3,thyrsoidea3,Car- duus marianus, Carlina vulgaris, Cheiranthus cheiri, incanus, Cochle- aria glastifolia, Digitalis purpurea, p. flo. aTbOjEchiumvulgare.Gnaphalium luteo album, Hedysarum coronarium, Marrubiumalysson.Teucrium monta- num 3, Thlapsi saxatile,,VCTbena offi cinalis Hardy Annuals. Alyssum caiycinum 3, Antirrhinum chalepense*,Campanula perfoliata, Geranium moschatum, Momordica elaterium, Reseda odor- ata, Scorzonera picroides, tingitana, Silene acteon, behen, Trifolium po- lonicum, Viola tricolor. 6525. The ground-plan and figure of the elevation of the rock-work must, as in the case of the aquarium, be made to harmonise with surrounding objects. Simple outlines and surfaces, not too much broken, show the plants to most advantage, and are not so liable to ridicule as imitations of hills or mountains, or high narrow cones, or peaks of scoriee in the Chinese manner, which are to be seen in some places, A ground-plan, in the form of a crescent, or of any wavy figure widest towards the middle part of. its length, and with the surface not steeper than forty-five degrees (fig. 619.) will be found well suited to the less durable materials, such as bricks, pudding-stone, scons, &c. which are found in flat countries. Sometimes one side of such rock-works may be nearly perpendicular, in which case, if facing the north, it affords an excellent situation for ferns and mosses. 6526. In countries abounding with stone, massy and extensive pieces of rock-work may be formed, and shrubs introduced as well as plants, so as to produce a scene of considerable beauty and interest. Its base, and such parts as are near the eye, may be formed of masses of granite or bassalt ; selecting such for the shady side as are already covered with mosses and lichens, especially the lichen atra-flavus, geo- graphicus, ventosus, stellaris, &c. These vegetables will not grow on sandstone, and but seldom on limestone, therefore stones of these earths should be kept as much as possible in the more distant parts, where they will be partially covered with shrubs and plants, rooted in proper soil, introduced in the crevices. When works of this kind are extensive, a winding walk or stair may be led over them, and wells, or small reservoirs of water, introduced in some places for mountain bog-plants and aquatics, and for keeping the whole mass moist and cool. SUBSECT. . Evergreen-leaved Flowers, m- -such as are adapted for preserving an Appear- ance of Vegetation on Beds and Borders during the Winter Months. 6527. A due proportion of ever green-leaved flowers is very necessary for enlivening borders in the winter time, and more especially in dug compartments on a surface of turf, which, without some evergreen plants, ook dreary by contrast with the verdant surface. pleno coer. 3, o. flo. albo 3, o. flo. pleno albo 3, o. flo. pi. purp. 3. Bvlbt. Amaryllis lutea, Allium cana- dense, Lilium candidum, Tulipa gesneriana, Helleborus hyemalis. Biennials. Agrostemma coronaria, c. flo. albo, c. flo. pi. rub. Anchusa italica, paniculata 3, Dianthns arme- ria 3, ferrugineus 3, monspeliacus 3 . Uesperis matronalis, Ibens UnifoUa 3, Lavatera arborea, Silene viscosa. Perennials. Achilles millefolium, m. flo. rubro, Alchemilla alpina, penta- phylla,vulgaris,v.pubescens,Anthemis nobilis, n. flo. pleno, Bellis perennis, nortensis, h. variegata, h. alba, h. fis- tulosa, h. prolifera, Campanula pumi- la 3*, Dianthus barbatus, b. atro-ru- ben, hortensis,Gentiana acaulis3,ver- na 3, Gnaphalinm dioicum 3, Lych- nis floscuculi, f. flo. pi. f. flo. albo, Tiscaria, v. flo. pi. v. flo. albo, Melissa offtcinalU, Melitbs meli*sophyllum Primula acaulis, auricula, veris, T. elatior, v. polyanthos, v. flo. pleno, Saxifraga csespitosa, cuneifolia, gera- noides, geum, hypnoides, mutata, nivalis, oppositifolia, petraea, umbrosa, Silene acaulis 3, Statice armeria.a. flo. albo, Stipa pennata, Teucrium chameedrys, montanum, Thymus montanus 3, serpyllum 3s. cirri odord, vulgaris, zygis *. Veronica hybrida, Viola grandiflora 3, g. flo. luteo 3, g. fh>> maculata 3, odorata coer. 3,o.flo. BOOK II. FLOWERS FOR PARTICULAR PURPOSES. S8i> ^ SUBSECT. 7. Flowers for Edgings to Beds or Borders 6528. The principal plants for edgings, next to the dwarf-box, are the statice armeria, bellis percnnis, gentiana acaulis, saxifraga umbrosa, oppositifolia, hypnoides, festuca ovina, and other low-growing evergreens ; but all the following sorts may be used in extensive concerns requiring edgings of flowers. The common and other heaths make very beautiful edgings in parterres of peat soil. Perennials. Achillea mlllefplium, m. flo. rubro, Alchemilla alpina, penta- phylla vulgaris, v. pubescens Anthemis nobilis, n. flo. pleno, Bellis perennis, hortensis, h. variegata, h. alba, h. fis- tulosa, h. prolifera, Campanula pumi- Ia3 s, Dianthus barbat.,b.atro-rubens, hortensis, Festuca glauca, Gentiana acaulis 3, verna 3, Gnaphalium dioi- cum 3, Lychnis flos cuc.uli, f. flo. pleno, f. flo. albo, viscaria, v. flo. pleno, v. flo. albo, Melissa officinalis, Melittis me- lissophyllum,Primula acaulis, auricula, veris, v. elatior, v. polyanthos, v. flo. pleno, Saxifraga ccespitosa, cuneifolia, geranoides, geum, hypnoides, mutata, nivalis, oppositifolia, petrtea, um- brosa, Silene acaulis 5, Statice armeria, a. flo. albo, Stipa pennata, Teucri- um, chamiedrys montanum, Thymus montanus 3*, serpyllum 3 *. citri odore', vulgiftris, zygis *, Veronica hybrida, Viola grandiflora 3, g. flo. luteo 3, g. flo. maculato 3, odorata coer. 3, o. flo. ple- no coer. 3, o. flo. albo '3, o. flo. pleno albo 3,o. flo. pi. purp. 3. Annual*. Uri/a maxima, Calendula of- ficinalis, o. flo. pleno, Cheiranthus an- nuus rub maritimus, m.tlo.alb., Del- phinium ajacis, Dianthus, prolifer, 3, Iberis amara, a. Ynajor, urabellata alba, u. purpurea, u. rubra, Reseda odorata, Silene armeria rub. a. flo. alb. rubella, Viola tricolor, t. mac. major, t. mac. SUBSECT. 8. Highly odoriferous Flowers. 6529. Flowers with sweet smells are no less desirable than those with fine forms or colors. So little has hitherto been done in the nomenclature and classification of vegetable odors, whether fixed or volatile, that we can hardly submit any thing satisfactory on the subject. No small part, however, of the pleasure derived from flowers depends on their odors ; and that these are very different, every one must have re- marked who has walked in a wood or a garden after a warm shower, or in a dewy summer's evening. Perhaps the best mode to arrange the odors of plants in our present imperfect state of knowledge on the subject, would be to fix on some generally known smells, as those of the rose, lily, thyme, &c. and group the others under these in the way of natural orders ; and thus we should have rosodoreje, liliodoreae, thymodoreaj, &c ; but in default of some such, or any system, we shall here bring together a few names under commonly received distinctions. The entire plant aromatic. Agrimonia eupatoria, Hyssopus officinalis, Salvia, numerous species, Thymus vulgaris, Acorus calamus. The Jlorver mellifluous. Symphytum officinale, orientale, tuberosum, Iris persica, Lilium candidum, Hottonia palustris, Cerinthe minor The Jlorver aromatic and mellifluous. Balsamita vulgaris, Artemisia abro- tanum Liliaceous, smells. Convallaria majalis, Viola odorata, Hyacinthus orientalis, Narcissus, various species, Reseda odorata Srveet aromatic smells. Melissa offici- nalis, Monarda didyma, Origanum basilicum, Thymus citri odore, Cheir- anthus cheiri, Calendula officinalis The jlon-er smelling like hay. Asperula odorata, taurina, Gallium boreale, Stellaria graminea, Tussilago fra- grans, Antnoxanthum verrum, Helio- tropium indicum Anise smelts. Primula veris, elatior, acaulis, Scandix odorata, Anethum graveolens, Angelica archangelica Sternutatory smells. Achillea ptarmi- ca, vulgaris, Dictamnus albus Soporific smells. Humulus lupulus, Atropa belladonna. Nicotiana Ta- bacum Night-smelling .flowers. Hesperis ma. tronalis, (Enothera fruticosa, pumila, Cheiranthus cheiri, annuus, Tropieo- lum majus, Reseda odorata Volatile smells which perfume the *>ir- rounding atmosphere. Lilium candi- dum, Cheiranthus cheiri, Hesperis ma- tronalis, Reseda odorata Stinks. Astrantia major, Cimicifuga fcetida, Ferula asafoetida, Heleborus foetidus,Allium, various species, Scro- phularlaaquatica, Anthemis cotula. SUBSECT. 9. Other selections of Flowers. 6530. Other selections will readily occur to the florist who is conversant with the ample store of plants at his command ; such as double flowers, flowers that continue in bloom the greater part of the year, flowers for peat soils, &c. all which he may select from the indications in the tables already given. He may also select, according to the Linnsean or natural orders, by referring to the tables (588. and 589.) in which the genera are so arranged ; or according to the native habitation, native country, year of introduction, or rarity, which circumstances he will find noted in the excellent catalogues of Sweet and Page. SUBSECT. 10. Botanical and other Assemblages of Plants. Dial-Plants, Parasites, Ferns and Mosses, Alpines, and a selection for a small garden. 6531. Botanical collections, as well as cabinets of shells and minerals, have been in vogue by the curious since Solomon's time. In many private families there is a taste for scientific botany ; in which case all the hardy plants of the vegetable kingdom, as far as they are introduced into this country, are arranged in their order according to some system ; and either in narrow beds, in which one species follows another; or in groups, on lawn or gravel, are placed together, each group constellation of groups, connected follows. Sometimes a different arrangement is adopted, and all the plants that can be considered as orna- mental are assembled in beds or borders, and all those that are merely curious, as the ferns, mosses, fungi, &c., or useful in agriculture or the arts, as the grasses, garden-plants, plants used in dyeing, tanning, &c. are arranged in beds or groups in compartments by themselves. This is in general the most suitable mode for a private garden. With respect to the species to be introduced in these groups, the gardener will have recourse to the tables already referred to, in which, in the Jussieuean table (589.), under Graminea?, Cj - peracea? Junceaa, Rostiacea?, he will find all the grasses ; under FiliceSj all the ferns ; under Lycopodina;, the plant-mosses ; under Equisetacea?, the equisetums, &c. The economical plants he will find under general heads in our view of the distribution of the British Flora (973.), and the species he will find enu- merated, and classed, in our Encyclopedia- of Agriculture. 6532 Dial-plants. Among curious collections, it may sometimes be desired to assemble the dial-plants, or such as indicate the hours of the day. An ample list of these has been given by Linnaeus, in the Phi- losophica Botanica , but the following, being plants generally known and easily procured, may be deemed sutLcient to complete a botanist's dial in Britain : Opens in the Stints frma morning, noon to night. Hou. Win. Hou. Min. Tragopogon luteum Leontodon serotinum Picris echioides Crepis alpina Cichorium intybus Papaver nudicaule Hemerocallis fulva Sonchus Ifevis alpinus Convolvulus arvensis Lapsana communis Leontodon taraxacum Opens in the Shut t from mom Hou. ine* noon to night. Mfn. Hou. Min. 3 4 4 6 5 9 12 12 10 Hypochswris maculata Nymphaea alba Lactuca saliva 4 4 5 5 8 9 Tagetes erecta Anagallis arvensis 5 7 Hieracium pilosella - 5 5 7 11 8 12 Dianthus prolifer Calendula arvensis - 5 5 6 12 4 5 Arenaria purpurea Portulaca hortensis - 5 6 10 Malva caroliniana 5 6 8 9 Stellaria media . - SL 9 10 4 3 3 2 1 3 (I 2 5 11 12 12 1 9 10 886 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 6533. In botanical collections, some peculiarities of culture may be required for parasites, ferns, mosses, fungi, and marine vegetables. The only hardy herbaceous parasite is the cuscuta, or didder, a twining plant found in hedges, and on hops, furze, thistles, and many weeds, with thread-like reddish stems, a few small membranaceous scales, and balls of white or purplish flowers, which appear in July and Au- gust They propagate themselves by seed, which germinates in the soil, and at first draws its nourish- ment from thence ; but the original root withers away as soon as the young stem has twined round any other plant. In cultivating the cuscuta, it is easy to imitate nature by sowing the seeds at the root of a thistle or whin. 6534. In raising ferns' and mosses from seed, these being very small, should be sown on the surface of peat-earth, ground to the finest powder: the seed need not be covered, but the pots should be placed in the shade, or in a vault ; and a moist close atmosphere produced by covering with a bell-glass, rendered semi-opaque by a wash of mud. When they come up, they may be transplanted into pots of the smallest size, and placed in situations formed in imitation of their natural sites. The more hardy fenis and mosses, and also some of the fungi, will come up very well, if the entire plants, covered with ripe seed, are strewed over a bed or border of peat-soil, completely shaded from the sun. The parent vegetables in rotting will afford shelter and congenial nourishment to their infant offspring. 6535. Seeds of the fungi, hepaticce, algae, and lichenes, may be sown in pots of fine earth, like the mosses ; but.many require to be sown on pieces of decaying bark or wood, or on stones or pieces of lime, or on walls, &c. Portions of these, or of whatever substances are requisite, should be procured and neatly fitted to pots of six or eight inches' diameter ; the seed should be sown immediately when gathered, one sort in a pot, and the pots set in a vault ; some kept damp and close by means of other pots whelmed over them ; and others allowed more air, according to their natures. If it is wished to multiply specimens, it may be done after they come up, by dividing the masses on which they grow. 6536. The culture of hardy marine productions, or submersed algce, may be attempted by forming a cistern or basin of salt-water with shelves or terraces within, in the manner of the common aquarium. (fig. 618.) Their pots or receptacles, in the form of rough cones or square blocks, may be formed from basalt or compact limestone, and a specimen of the sea-weed, in which the seeds are supposed to be ripe, attached to each receptacle ; or some of the receptacles may be placed in the sea near the fuci, which it is desired to introduce to the marine aquarium ; and when the young fuci appear, the stones may be re- moved to the cistern, and placed on a higher or lower terrace, according to the depth of water supposed to be requisite. It has not been proved, that the motion and alternate immersion and exposure to air produced by the tides is essential to the growth of marine vegetables ; but if it is, these circumstances can be imitated by pumping the marine aquarium dry once a-day into a cistern above its level, and then al- lowing the water to return gradually ; or the same thing might be effected without the labor of pumping, by two moderate-sized cisterns fixed like scales on the ends of a moving beam, for weights, &c. The lichenes of fresh-water are of easy cultivation. 6537. Alpines. A very general assemblage of plants is formed by gardeners under the title of alpines. These ought properly to consist only of such plants as grow on high mountains ; but the gardener adds to them all very dwarf small plants that are difficult to preserve in a state of cultivation. Some of these, in- stead of being alpine, are arenarious, sea-side, or bog plants. Alpine plants are universally very low, bushy, and evergreen. In their native sites, they are covered by snow great part of the year, and conse- quently never experience either violent cold, violent heat, or intense light. The atmosphere which sur- rounds them is of light or thin air, almost always highly charged with vapor, and the soil in which they grow is generally soft, black, and peat-like, forming a thin stratum on rock, or filling up the chinks of rocks or stones, and always moist Art imitates these circumstances, by putting such plants in small pots of peat or bog-earth, well drained by gravel, or scarcely drained at all, or mixed with stones, or with sand, according to the habitation to be imitated. The pots are kept, during winter, under glass in frames, in a situation exposed only to the morning sun ; and in summer they are removed to a full northern exposure, or screens placed so as to produce this effect in their winter situation. Care is taken to water three or four times a-day during summer, and to keep the ground around the pots constantly moist; and in winter to protect by mats, in addition to the glass, when the cold is likely to be greater than 25* or 30. Perhaps an improvement in the management of alpine plants would be to set the pots, in the summer season, on a grating or frame of cast-iron, placed a few inches' distance above a cistern or pond of water, by which means a constant evaporation would take place, and a moist cool atmosphere be produced In winter they might remain in the same situation, protected by frames ; or they might be removed to their usual site ; or the pots might be arranged in beds, and a pipe, finely pierced with holes, in Loddige's manner, might pass along the centre of each bed, at such a distance above it as that the shower would just cover the bed. A shower might thus be applied at pleasure, and the plants kept moist by prolonged and gentle rains, instead of being deluged by sudden and heavy rains from the watering-pot. Whatever plan be adopted, it is essential that the site be open to the morning sun only during winter, and to only one or two hours' sun during summer, and that it should not be shaded by trees. Professor Thouin arranged a bank for alpine plants in the Paris garden, and has given an account of it, accompanied by some very judicious reasoning, in the Annalcs dc Musee, (see a translation in Hort. Trans, vol. i. App.) ; but experience shows, that plants of this description never thrive long on beds or banks of any kind; those planted by Professor Thouin never did much good, and in the course of two years, as we were in- formed on the spot, many of them died off, and the rest became too luxuriant for the situation. Potting is by far the best mode, as each individual plant may then be examined at the root as well as the top, and its soil or situation changed at pleasure. From the rarity of this class of plants, the difficulty of keeping them, their vivid green, neat shapes, small size, and many of them flowering early in spring, they are much prized, and collections made in most flower-gardens of note ; we shall, therefore, give a list of the leading species of alpines, most of which will be found in a former table (6489.), as plants for the front row of the border : Perennials. Achillea alpina 3, Aoo- nitum pyrenaicum, Adoxa moscha- tellina 3, Ajuga alpina, genevensis, Al- chemilla alpina, Alyssum alpestre, Anemone alpina, apennina, baldensis, Antirrhinum triornithophorum 3, A- quilegia alpina, Arabis alpina 3, bel- lldifolia 3, lucida 3, sibirica 3, Aretia alpina 3, helvetica 3, vitaliana 3, Arnica bellidiastrum 3, montana 3, scor- pioides 3, Astragalus alpinus, Bellium bellidioides 3 i, Cacalia alpina, Cam- panula alpina 3, carpatica 3, Cerastium alpmum, Cheiranthus alpinus 3, hel. veticus 3, Cherleria sedoides, Chryso- plenium altemifolium, oppositifolium, Cistus tuberaria 3 i, Cnicus spinosis- simus 3, Convolvulus soldanella*, Cor- tusa mathioli , Cotyledon lutea, umbi- licus, Crepis rigida, sibirica, Cypre- pedium acaule 3, album 3, calceo- Ius3,c.fol.glabris 3, canadense 3, Dian- thus alpinus, slaucus, Draba aizoides, ciliaris, stellata, Dryas octopetala 3, Erigeron alpinum, Erinus alpinus , Frankenia nirsuta, laevis, Gentiana adscendens 3 *, ciliata 3 *, pneu- monanthe 3, punctata 3, purpurea 3, saponaria 3, septemfida 3, verna 3, Glaux maritima, Gnaphalium al- pinum 3, Gundelia toumefortii 3 *, Gunnera perpensa , Hypochceris hel- vetica, Hvpoxis erecta s 3, Isopyrum thalictroides *, lychnis flos-cuculi, quadridentata 3, vespertina, Mcerhin- gia muscosa, Orontium japonicum 3 *, Panax quinquefolium 3 s, Parnassia palustris, Peganum harmala *, Pentho- rum sedoides, Phlox pilosa 3, setacea 3 *, subulata 3 1, Primula cortusoides 3, farinosa 3, helvetica 5, integrifolia 3, longifolia 3, marginata, nivalis, Ra- nunculus alpestris, glacialis, pamassi- folius, Rubus arcticus 3, chamaemo- rus 3, rosaefolius 3, saxatilis, 3, San- seviera carnea 3 *, Saxifraga aiioideb, aizoon, androsacea, autumnalis, cresia, raespitosa, cernua, cordifolia, cotyle- don, crassifolia, cuneitblia, geranoides, geum, granulata, g. flo. pleno, mos- chata nivalis, palmata, rivularis, stel- laris, viscosa, Sedum, aizoon, album, dasyphyllum, dimciens forsterianum, glaucum, hybridum, quadrifidum, sex. angulare, villosum, virens, Semper- vivum arachnoideum 3, cuspidatum 3, globiferum 3, hirtum 3, sediforme 3, tectorum 3, Sibbaldia procumbens 3, Sibthorpia europaea 3, Silene acaulis 3, vallesia, Sisyrinchum bermudiana 3, Thlasni alpestre, Tiarella cordi- folia 3, trifoliaS, Valeriana tuberosa, Veronica alpina, aphylta, Veronica pinnata, Viola cenesia 3, pedata 3 t. Butbt. Bulbocodium vernum 3 *, Cy- clamen coum 3, eurof aeum 3, e. flo. albo, Ixia bulbocodium 3 I, Ophrvs apifera, muscifera, ovata, Orchis bifo- lia, conopsia, maculata, militaris, pyra- BOOK II. CATALOGUE OF HARDY TREES. 887 midalis, Kcilla amoena 3, autumna- lis 3, bifolia 3, b. flo. albo 3, campa- nulata 3, italica 3, Wio-hyacinthus, 1. flo. pleno, lusitanica 3 *, praecox 3, sibirica !>, verna. [This is a most beau- tiful trilK f little early Hue-flowering plants, deterring a place in every Jlorver- earilen.] Trillium erectum 3. Biennials. Campanula sibirica, virgata, Delphinium aconiti, Dianthus armeria, , inonspeliacus. Digitalis lutea, Gna- | phalium luteo album, sylvatlcum, Gypsophila muralis. Linum striatum, Monarda rosea, Phyteuma comosa, Ranunculus pennsylvanicus, Scabiosa columbaria, uranica, Scorzonera re- sedifolia, Teucrium campanulatum, Tlilapsi hirtum, saxatile, Thymus al- pinus, grandiflorus, patavinus, Tra- gopogon crucifolius, Trichostemabra chiata, Trigonella platycarpos. Harily annuals. Arctotis anthemoides , tristis a, Artemisia annua, pectinata. Bellis annua, Bellium bellidioides, minutum, Biscutella coronopifolia, Campanula erinus, hybrida, Cheiran- thus maritimus, m. flo. albo. Cis- tus guttatus *, Claytonia perfoliata, 33, Dianthus prolifer 3, Geranium gruinum t, Lychnis laeta, quadriden- tata, Silene acteon, rubella, Viola tri. color, viol. tri. mac. major, v. tri. mac. minor. 6538. A collection of flowers for a small garden. Having given a selection of the most rare plants, and such as in a state of cultivation are the most difficult to preserve ; we shall conclude with a list of flowers, the most common, hardy, and showy, which flower great part of the year, will thrive in almost any soil and situation, and which are recommended as fit for the commonest description of flower-borders, shrub- beries, or parterres. Flowering from February to May. Red. Hepatica triloba. Anemonehorten- sis, Alyssum deltoideum. Bellis peren- nis. Erinus alpinus. Erythronium dens canis. Fritillaria imperialis, me- leagris. Fumaria solida. Hyacinthus orientalis. Orobus vernus. Phlox subu- lata, setacea. Primula vulgaris, villosa, longiflora, farinosa. 'Blue. Hepatica trilob. Anemo. pulsatilla, apennina. Cynoglossum omphaloides. Crocus vernus. Muscari botryoides comosum. Iris pumila. Primula auri- cula. Pulmonaria officinalis, virginica. Scilla pracox, bifolia, verna. Viola. Yellon.'. Adonis vernalis. Alyssum sax- atile, minimum. Crocus verrus, sul- phureus, susianus. Erythronium a- mericanum. Fritillaria imperialis. Heileborus-hyemalis. Narcissus angus- tissimus, minor, bulbocodium, trian- drus, jonquilla, pseudo-narcissus, bi- color, ta/.etta. Primula veris. White. Anemone nemorosa, hepatica. Arabisalpina. Bellis perennis. fcarda- mine pratensis. Crocus biflorus. Ery- thronium dens canis. Galanthus ni- valis. Helleborus niger. Lecucojum vernum. Primula nivalis, vulgaris. Ranunculus amplexicaulis. Sangui- naria canadensis. Tiarella cordifolia. Floweringfrom May to August. Red. Antirrhinum majus. Astrantia ma- jor, minor. Aquilegia vulgaris, cana- densis. Anemone hortensis. Bellis pro- lifera. Cistushelianthemum. Cheiran- thus cheiri, annuus, incanus. Chelone barbata, obliqua. Dianthus barbatus, superbus, casius. Dictamnus alb.rub. Dodecatheon meadia. Epilobium an- gustissimum. Fumaria formosa. Ge- ranium macrorhizum, sylvaticum, sanguineum, Lancastriense. Gladiolus communis. Ivis versicolor. Lathyrus latifolius. Lilium chalcedonicum. Lychnis viscaria, flos-cuculi, chalce- donica. Lythrum salicaria, virgatum. Monarda didyma. C)robus varius. Or- chis muscula. Papaver orientale. Pse- onia officinalis, tenuifolia. Phlox gla- berrima, stolonifera,., orata, amnena, intermedia, pilosa, maculata. Rud- beckia purpurea. Scilla nutans. Tulipa gesneriana, suaveolens suav. flo. pleno. Thalictrum aquilegifoli- um. Valeriana rubra. Veronica car- nea. Blue. Anemone hortensis. Aster alpi- nus. Aconitum napellus. Campanula persicifolia, pumila, carpatica. Ca- tananche coerulea. Cheiranthus inca- nus, annuus. Centaurea cyanus. Del- phinium grandiflorum, eratum, azu- reum. Gentiana sappnaria, septemfi- da, asclepiadea, acaulis. Geranium pa- lustre. Hemerocalliscoerulea. Iriscris- tata, sambucina, germanica, xiphium xiphioides. Linum perenne, pumila. Lupinus perennis, polemnonium coaru- leum. Phyteuma orbicularis. Scilla campanulata, nutans. Sophora austra- lis. Veronica prostrata, chamsedrys, incana, spicata, gentianoides. Vinca major. Yellow. Allium moly. Antirrhinum spartium. Caltha palustris. Cheiran- thus cheiri. Cistus helianthemum. Coreopsis tenuifolia, aurea, verticiilata. Hemerocallis flava, fulva. Lilium canadense, bulbifcrurn, tigrinum. QEnothera pumilia, fruticosa. Papaver cambricum. Tulipa sylvestris, ges- neriana. Trollius europaeus, asiaticus. Viola tricolor, grandiflora, lutea. White. Antirrhinum, majus. Anthericum llliago, liliastmm. Acteea raceniosa. Anemone dichotoma. Bellis peren- nis. Campanula persicifolia, pumUum. Cheiranthus incanus, annuus. Conval- laria polygonatum. Dictamnus albus Hesperis matronalis. Iris xiphioides. Lilium candidum. Narcissus poeticus. Omithogalum pyramidale. Phlox sua- veolens. Pancratium maritimum. Po- lygonum viviparum. Ranunculus aco- nitifolius. Saxifraga granulata. Scilla campanulata, nutans. Stipa pennata. Spirea aruncus, filipendula, ulmaria, trifoliata. Thalictrum aquilegifolium. Tulipa gemeriana. Veronica spicatj, pinnata. Vinw minor. CHAP. IX. Catalogue of Hardy Trees, with showy Flowers. 6539. All trees may be considered as ornamental by adding to the beauty of land- scape ; but we mean here to confine ourselves to such as are ornamental, by the con- spicuousness of their flowers. These are not numerous ; they are all of the deciduous kind, and their time of inflorescence is limited to two or three months. The principal are the horse-chestnut, acacia, the fruit-trees in their wild state, some species of mes- pilus, sorbus, cytisus, robinia, &c. ; these, with some others, we have arranged accord- ing to their height and time of flowering, in order to admit of a selection for the back rows of the shrubbery. None of the few evergreen trees which we possess, have showy flowers, but we have added the names of these, with their heights, to facilitate a selec- tion for mixing with the deciduous sorts in the mingled or grouped shrubbery. We have omitted all those showy flowering and evergreen trees which do not usually attain the height of twenty feet, deeming it more suitable for our purpose to include them among the shrubs of that size. All the useful and curious species of trees will be found in Page's Prodromus, with their heights, time of flowering, soil, mode of propagation, and other circumstances. In the Arboricultural Catalogue (Part III. Book III. Chap. VIII.), the most useful timber-trees are described, and the shapes of trees, and their colors, and characteristic expressions, are treated of both under Arboricultural and Landscape Gardening. (See Part III. Book III. Chap. II. Book IV. Chap. II.) Much less attention has of late been paid to the introduction of new sorts of trees into this country, than to the introduction of fruits and flowers. The French and Germans seem to excel us in this respect. A considerable number of new sorts of 3L 4 888 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. ornamental trees have lately been added to the British Arboretum, by Messrs. Loddiges, and specimens of them are conspicuously arranged in the Hackney nursery, to show their forms and characters. 6540. SECT. I. Deciduous Trees with showy Flowers. DECIDUOUS TREES. MARCH AND APRIL. Height from 20ft. to 28./J. From 28 feet to 36 feet. From 36 feet to Mfeet. From 44 feet to 52 feet. From 52 feet vpnardt. RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. 'vrus angustifolia, *. Mespilus oxycant, pr. i. Pyrus aria, . dentata, i. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Prunus cerasus, *. Prunus padus, a. Prunus avium, 3. domStica, . rubra, *. _ nigra,.. pennsylvanica, *. Pyrus coronaria, *. Salix amygdalina, t. communis, *.' -r fl.plen.*. caprea triandra to. var. *. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Salisburia adiantifolia Ulmus americana Ulmus campestris - - alba _ pendula fol. var. GREEN. GREEN. campestris saliva GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. Taxus baccifera Quercus robur fruc. sesi. . rubra Quercus robur montana tinctona BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. Populus candicans heterophylla pendufla - tnfida ' ; Pinus larix microcarpa _ pendula Populus laevigata nigra; Populus graeca Ulmus montana nemoralis. _ snberosa Populus alba balsamifera tremula Populus dilatata MAY RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Acer tartaricum lercis sfliquastrum, t. Mespilus coccinea, t. oxyacantharosea,*. _ fol. var. . Pyrus spectabilis, . _ prunifolia,*. salicifolia, *. _ WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Acer campestre fol. arg. Celtis ocidentaiis Cercis siliquastr. fl. at t. Mespilus acerifolia, . Betula daurica Juglansalba angustifolia cinerea compressa Celtis australis Jisculus hippocastan. i. fol. aur. *. - - arg.. Pyrus torminalis Jnglans regia major Platanus orientalis cuniata Betnla excelsa Platanus occidentalis - - acerifol. _ apiifolia, *. nigra azarolus, *. cordifolia, *. cms galli, s. Zdiptica '*' fissa grossularf. _ _ hybrida _ _ incisa _ -nigra oxycantha aurea _ _ pleno tanacetifoli YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Acer montanum dasycarpum ?upressus disticha Fagus sylvatica for. aur. Quercus alba aquatica attenuate Acer opulus Juercus exoniensis * - - latifolius Fagus sylvatica Fraxinus excelsior altissima lobatum negundo - P'^'^prea heterophyL _ indivisa tumeri coccinea - pendula pennsylvanicum Fraxi. excelsiorsimplicL - - longi&lia _ montana Mespilus flava, . _ _ stricta Jarpinus americana _ _ variegata betulus i< raxinus americana - _ pubescens rubra GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. Quercus coccinea elon. Quercus paluslris fbliata prinus _ latifolia longifolia BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. Alnus glutinosa Populus monolifera Populus angulata Pinus larix lacinata quercifblia BOOK II. ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS. 889 DECIDUOUS TREES. JUNE. fidglitfrom 20 to 28 feet. From 28 feet to ZSfeet. From 36 feet to 44 feet. From 44 feet to 5'lfeet. From 5'lfeet uprvardi. RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. JEsculus pavia Acer saccharinum _ rosea WHITE. WHITE. .WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Mespilus odoratissima, . Magnolia cordifolia, s. Castanea vesca, fol. aur. _ heteroph.' Magnolia tripetala, . Prunus serotma, a. Pyrus aucuparia, *. Morus alba _ nigra Pyrus hybrida, . Castanea vesca Prunus domestica, t. _ fol. lucidis Diospyrus lotus virginiana YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. /Esculus flava Catalpa syringuefolia, p. Cytissus laburnum, . Acer platanoides lacinia. pseudoplat. fol. arg. Acer platanoides pseudoplatanus aur. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. Acer rubrum GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. Magnolia acuminata, *. Tilia europaea,*. Carolina BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. I Betula nigra TTTTV RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Gleditschia triacanthos Robinia viscosa . WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Liriodendron tulipifera integrifolia YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Gymnocladus canadensis Tilia alba /Mlathus glandulosa americana Betula populifolia 6541. SECT. II. Evergreen Trees. EVERGREEN TREES. All of these flower in March, April, and May. HeightfrvmWft.to'l&ft. from 28 feet to 36 feet. From 36 feet to 44,/irf. From 44 feet to 52 feet. From 52Jeet Sf vprrardt. Cupressus sempervirens Pinus abies alba _ cembra lanceolata Pinus tseda picea abies nigra rubra Pinus pinea variabilis sylvest. marit. pungens Pinus abies inops resmosa balsamea Pinus pinaster rigida _ sylvestris strobus palustris canadensis Quercus esculus Ouercus gramuntia suber Juniperus virginiana, p. Prunus carolmiana virens Propagation and culture. See ARBORICULTURE. Most of the trees enumerated in both the foregoing sections are highly ornamental as single objects on a lawn ; and form curious chamber plants when dwarfed and potted in the Chinese manner. (Hort. Trans, iv. 289.) CHAP. X. Ornamental Shrubs. 6542. The ornamental shrubs are a much more numerous tribe than the trees : we shall first notice the more select sorts, as the rose, rhododendron, althaea, &c. and after- wards, in succession, the deciduous kinds, evergreens, creepers, and sorts for particular purposes. SECT. I. Select Shrubs. 6543. The term select shrubs we apply to such shrubs as have been much cultivated, and of which numerous varieties are recognised as beautiful. SUBSECT. 1. Rose. Rosa, L. Icos. Polyg. L. and Rosaceee, J. Rosier, Fr. ; Rosenstock, Ger. ; and Rosajo, Ital. 6544. The rose is known by every body at first sight, and has been a favorite flower from time immemorial among the civilised nations of Europe and Asia. The shrub varies in size in different species, from one foot to six or eight, and the colors are red, white, yellow, purple, black, striped ; simple, or in almost numberless shades and mix- tures ; and single, semi-double, and double. It is cultivated in every garden, from that PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III, of the most humble cottager upwards ; some species, as R. centifolia damascena, &c. are also cultivated by commercial gardeners on a large scale for distilling rose-water, and for making attar, or essential oil of roses. Six pounds of rose-leaves will impregnate by dis- tillation a gallon of water strongly with their odor ; but a hundred pounds afford -scarcely half an ounce of attar. The rose is also used in medicine. Botanists are not agreed as to the number of original species of this genus, some regard all the European species as originated from one source ; others, and especially the moderns, divide them into species, subspecies, and varieties. The most scientific work which has appeared on the roses in England, is the Rosarum Monographia of Lindley, 1819, in which above a hundred species or subspecies are described, and some of them figured ; and Miss Laurence has published ninety plates of A Collection of Roses from Nature, ]810. In France, Guillemeau has published Histoire Naturelle de la Rose, 1800; and Redoute and Thory are engaged in a splendid work, in folio, entitled Les Roses, containing plates of all the known species and varieties of this flower. Thory has pub- lished a separate tract on their culture, entitled Prodrome de la Monographic du Genre Rosier, &c. 1820; Pronville, a Nomenclature Raisonnee, in 1818; and Vibert, Ob- servations, &c. in 1820. A copious and intelligent account of the Scotch roses has been lately given by Sabine (Hort. Trans, iv. 231.), and some hundreds of new varieties have flowered from seedling plants, in the nursery of Lee, and will soon be found in his sale- catalogues. 6545. Species and varieties. The lists of the London and Paris nurserymen contain upwards of 500 names : that of Calvert and Co., Englishmen, who have established a nursery at Bonne Nouvelle near Rouen, enumerates near 900 sorts. The greater part of these have been raised from seed on the continent, where it ripens better than in this country, within the last thirty years. A number of varieties have also been raised in Britain, especially of the It. spinosissima, or Scotch rose, of which above 300 varieties are procurable in the Glasgow nursery. New varieties are raised in France and Italy annually ; Villaresi, royal gardener at Monza, has raised upwards of fifty varieties of Rosa irulica , not one of which have, as far as we know, reached this country. Some of them are quite black, others shaped like a ranunculus, and many of them highly odoriferous. The following table contains nearly 150 species and varieties of sin- gle roses, of longest standing, arranged according to their time of flowering, heights, and colors ; and of the greater number of which there are double and semi-double varieties of the same colors. The names are chiefly taken from Page's Prodromus, and the plants are known by them in the Hammersmith nursery". Ample lists, as already observed, may be had from all the principal nurserymen, and the best mode of making a selection is to view the plants while in flower. 6546. ROSES. MAY. Height from to 1 foot, j From 1 foot to 2 feet. From 2 feet to 3 feet. from 5 feet to 5 feet. From 5 feet to Sfeet. RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Rosa spinosissima rub.;>. Rosaplmpinellifolia pnecox WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Rosa spinosissima alb. p. - - stricta PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Rosa spinosiss. marm. p. ! VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. j VARIEGATED. Rosa spinosks.pannic. p. TTTXTT? RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Rosapumila Rosa alpina rubra _ gallica hibemica Rosa centifolia rubiginosa coccinea -- damascena Rosa caucasica iRosaolvmpica - feror | - villosa pendulina _ rubiginosa apiifblia cinnamonia provincialis rubiginosa WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Rosa pilosa, ;>. pyrenaica Rosa alpina Rosa alba muscosa - teneriftensis sibirica YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Rosa prostrata, p. Rosalutea bicolor TTTT V J RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Rosa bland. spinis rubr.p. indica resplendens _ diversaeflora, p. _ indica balicifblia,j>. Rosa Manila, ,). Rosa turbinata _ lyonii, p. - rubifolia,p. Rosa indica, p. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Rosa lucida Rosa kamschatica YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Rosa americana lutea,p. stricta caroKneana PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Rosa minuta, d. i Ross minuta, d. ATTniTCT YELLOW. RED. RED. RED. | WHITE. Rcsa hracteata, p. Rosa pennsylvanica, p. 1 Rosa inoschata BOOK II. ROSE. 891 6547. Propagation By -seed .for new varieties, and chiefly by layers for continuing approved sorts. They are also multiplied by budding, cuttings, and suckers. 6548. Bu seed. Ripe hips containing the seeds are obtained from semi-double and single flowers, and to increase the chance of new varieties, these should be taken from plants that have been planted among or near to the sorts of which a cross is desired. We are not aware that Knight's mode of extracting the stamina from the one parent, and dusting the stigma with the anthers of the other, has been applied to the rose, but there can be no doubt it might be done in many instances. In France and Italy, the usual mode is to form a plantation of double and semi-double sorts mixed indiscriminately, and take the result of promiscuous impregnation. Guillemeau has given lists of such as are adopted for this purpose and Villaresi raised most of his beautiful varieties of the Rosa indica, by planting them among as many va rieties of the European roses as he could procure. Austin, nurseryman at Glasgow, and Lee of Ham- mersmith, mix all the sorts of Scotch roses together in the same plantation. The other mode may be compared to cross-breeding at random ; and this to random-in and in-breeding. 6549. Process. Few of the hips are ripe before October, but most sorts that come to maturity in this country, will be fit to gather by November. The seeds of the rose require to be one year in the soil before they vegetate ; they may either be immediately rubbed or washed out, and preserved among sand or cin- der-dust : or the hips entire may be so preserved a full year, when the husks will be perfectly rotten, and the seed being separated and sown in February, will come .up in the Mayor June following. The best place to lay up the hips is the floor of a cellar, such as that used for storing roots ; but in whatever way they are preserved, care must be taken that they are not laid together in such masses as to produce fer- mentation ; and that the heap be turned over frequently in course of the twelve months, to promote decay. The seeds should be sown in a soft moist soil, such as that composed of equal parts of sand and vegetable mould, in a shady situation ; it may be covered from a fourth to half an inch, according to the size of the seeds, and the surface should be kept moist by watering in the evenings, till the plants have come up and attained a few inches in height. Early in the second spring, they may be transplanted in rows a foot apart every way, and a year afterwards again transplanted to a distance more or less, accord- ing to the sorts. Here they are to remain till they flower, which varies in different sorts, from the third to the fifth year, but most commonly they flower the fourth summer. 6550. By layers. The common mode is to lay down the young shoots of the preceding summer late in autumn, or early in the succeeding spring, and then, with the exception of the moss-rose, and one or two others, they form rooted plants by the next autumn. But it is now found, that if the same snoots are laid down when the plant is beginning to flower in July, they will, with a few exceptions, produce roots and be fit to remove the same autumn, by which a whole year is gained. Such sorts as do not root in one year must be left on the stools till the second autumn ; but layers made when the shoots are in a growing state, and furnished with healthy leaves, root much more freely than shoots of ripe wood. After the plants are removed from the stools, they are planted in nursery rows, and in a year, the blossom-buds having been carefully pinched off' from the first laying down, they will be fit for removal to their final destination. The stools are then to be pruned, and the soil stirred and enriched on the general principles already laid down. (2004.) 6551. By suckers and dividing the roots. Many of the commoner sorts admit of being rapidly multiplied in this way ; and the plants obtained may be planted in their final destination at once. 6552. By cuttings. Most of the sorts might, no doubt, be propagated from cuttings of the young wood ; cut at a joint where it is beginning to ripen, and planted in sand and vegetable mould under a hand-glass. But this mode is only adopted with such sorts as strike easily, as the R. indica, and other eastern species. 6553. By budding. This mode of propagating roses is adopted chiefly with the rare sorts, and such as are difficult to propagate by layers ; for it is found, that plants so originated, even though on stocks of the hardier sorts, are less durable than such as are raised by any of the other modes. But the chief use of budding in the culture of the rose is to produce standard roses, or to produce several sorts from the same stock. Standard roses are a modern invention, it is generally supposed of the Dutch, first carried to Paris, and about twenty years ago to England. They are highly artificial objects, of great beauty, and form magnificent ornaments to parterres and borders. The stocks are either of the tree-rose (R. villosa, W.), or of any sorts cf woody wild roses, as R. scabriuscula, heterophylla, or surculosa, Sm. They are budded at different heights from three to seven feet, but commonly between five and six feet from the ground. A stock in the Paris garden, which carries several sorts, has a naked stem of nearly fifteen feet, and there are others at Malmaison and the Grand Trianon, of equal height. These stocks are, both in France and England, procured from woods and copses, and after being planted in nursery lines, are often budded the same summer, sometimes in spring by the scalopemode of budding (2059.), Fceilpoussant of the French ; and never later than the succeeding spring or summer by the common mode, rceil dormant, Fr. Generally two buds are inserted on opposite sides of the stock, but often three or four, or a dozen, in alternate positions on the upper six, or twelve inches of the stem. Every stock is supported by a rod, which should reach a foot or eighteen inches higher than the situation of the bud ; to this rod the stock is tied, and afterwards the shoots from the buds, which are otherwise liable to be blown out by high winds. The Paris nurserymen being supplied with stronger stocks than can readily be procured in England, and having a better climate, and more experience in the culture of roses, excel us in this department of rose propagation, and their standards afford an article of commerce with other countries. Their common plants, raised by layers, are also in extensive demand, but in these we equal, if not surpass them. Fine collections of standard roses from Paris, may be seen in the Hammersmith nursery, in the Comte de Vande's garden at Bayswater, in the Duchess of Dorset's at Knowle, and at various other places. 6554. Final situation. No species of rose, wild or cultivated, thrives well in or very near large towns, on account of the smoke and confined air. The yellow and Austrian roses (R. lutea and L. bicolor) are difficult to flower in any situation, but seldom or never blow in the suburbs of London : even the monthly rose does not thrive so well there as at some miles' distance in the country. Roses are generally planted in the front of shrub- beries, and in borders ; they are also planted by themselves in rose-gardens or rosaries (fig. 620.), in groups on lawn or gravel, either with common box or other edgings, or with edgings of wire, in imitation of basket-work. These last are called baskets of roses ; the ground enclosed in the basket-margin is made convex, so as to present a greater surface to the eye, and increase the illusion ; the shoots of the stronger sorts are layered or kept down by pegs till they strike roots into the ground, so that the points of the shoots furnished with buds appear only above the soil, which is sometimes covered witn moss or small shells. Under this treatment, the whole surface of the basket becomes, in two or three years, covered with rose-buds and leaves of one or of various sorts. Where one of the larger free-growing sorts is employed, as the moss, or any of the Provence (rose de cramoisi, Fr.) varieties, one plant maybe trained so as to cover a surface of many square yards. Where different sorts are introduced in 02 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. 620 PAW III. the same basket, they should be as much as possible assimilated in size of leaves and flowers, and habits of growth, and as different as possible in the colors of their flowers. By mixing small-flowered with large showy sorts, the beauty of the former is lost with- out adding to the effect of the latter. 6555. In rosaries commonly but one plant of a sort is introduced, and the varieties which most resemble each other are placed together, by which their distinctions are better seen. Particular compart- ments are often devoted to one species, as the Scotch, Chinese, yellow, burnet-leaved, &c. which has an excellent effect ; sometimes a piece of rock-work in the centre is covered with the creeping roses, and on other occasions these are trained to trellis-work, which forms a fence or hedge of roses round the *.vhole. In this hedge, standard-roses are sometimes introduced at regular distances ; a grove of standards is also frequently formed in the centre of the rosary, and sometimes they are introduced here and there in the beds. 6556. Standard roses, however, have certainly the best effect in flower-borders, or when completely de- tached on a lawn : their sameness of form, and that form being compact and lumpish, prevents them from grouping well, either among themselves or with other objects. Their beauty consists in their singularity as rose-plants, and in their flowers ; and, therefore, to display these beauties to the best advantage, they require to be seen singly, or in succession. This is the case where they occur as single objects on a lawn, or in the centre in, and here and there among, groups of flowers; or in lines or avenues, along flower- walks. In the gardens of the Grand Trianon, they are planted profusely in large masses, like plantations of trees and shrubs, and there much of their individual beauty is lost, and no good general effect produced. 6557. Soil. Most species of the rose in their wild state grow in sandy and rather poor soil, excepting such as are natives of woods, where the soil is richer, and comparatively moist But all the cultivated roses, and especially the double-flowering kinds, require a rich loamy soil, inclining to clay rather than sand ; and they require also, like most double flowers, plenty of moisture when in a growing state. 6558. General cutture. To produce strong flowers, roses require some attention to pruning ; old wood should be yearly cut out, and the young shoots thinned and shortened according to their strength, and whether number or magnitude of flowers be wanted. Those sorts which throw up numerous suckers should be taken up every three or four years, reduced and replanted ; and most sorts, excepting the standards, will be improved by the practice, provided attention be paid to remove a part of the old soil, and replace it by new. The points of the shoots of the more delicate sorts of roses are very apt to die when pruning is performed in winter or spring ; to avoid the consequences of this evil, many give a second pruning in June, or do not prune the tender sorts at all till the be- ginning of that month. A very good time for performing the operation is immediately after the bloom is over ; cutting out old exhausted wood, shortening shoots which have flowered to a good bud accompanied with a healthy leaf, but leaving such shoots as are still in a growing state untouched till October. Where very large roses are wanted, all the buds but that on the extreme point of each shoot should be pinched off" as soon as they make their appearance, and the plant liberally supplied with water. To lessen evapor- ation, and keep up a constant moisture at the roots of their roses, the Paris gardeners generally mulch them with half-rotten stable-dung, or partially rotten leaves. 6559. Forwarding and retarding roses. The earliest flowering rose is the monthly, which, in mild seasons, and planted against a wall, will sometimes flower in the beginning of April ; the roses next in succession are the cinnamon, which flowers in May ; the damask, in the end of May or beginning of June ; the blush, York and Lancaster, Provence and Dutch hundred-leaved, in June, July, and August. The Virginia and musk roses are the latest European sorts ; they flower in September, and in shaded situations will sometimes continue in bloom till the middle of October ; but the earliest rose (the monthly) is also the latest, and generally continues flowering till interrupted by frost The earliest sorts may be materially forwarded by being planted against a south wall, and if portable sashes are placed before them, and the wall is either flued and heated by fires, or a lining of dung placed behind, the plants may be brought to flower in February or March. The monthly rose being protected by glass in autumn, or aided by artificial heat, may be continued in bloom till Christmas. A very common mode of obtaining late roses, and one of the greatest antiquity (48.), is by cutting all the flower-shoots off when the buds begin to ap- pear, or by rubbing off all the rudiments of shoots, of every kind, early in spring ; a second crop is in consequence produced, which will not be in a state to bloom before the autumn. 6560. Forcing the rose. The best sorts for this purpose are the common and moss Pro- vence; the Indian sorts force well, or rather, in stoves, continue in bloom all the year; but the commoner varieties of these not being fragrant, they are in less repute than the European roses. Rose-plants should be a year in pots previously to the autumn when it is intended to force them ; they should be planted in pots of six or eight inches' diameter, in rich loam, and plunged in an open airy situation ; their flower-buds pinched off as they ap- pear ; and the plants put early into a state of rest, by excluding the sun and rain, but BOOK II. SELECT AMERICAN PEAT-EARTH PLANTS. 893 not a free circulation of air. Abercrombie says, " There is no certainty of attaining a fine blow of roses in the depth of winter by the most expensive artifices of forcing ; and yet fine flowers may be produced early in the spring by any ordinary stove put in oper- ation in December. When the plants are first introduced, keep the air of the house at about 50, never letting it fluctuate to more than two or three degrees below or above. In the second week, aim at 60 as the standard ; in the third week at 65. When a month has nearly elapsed, begin to increase the heat gradually to 70 ; having brought it to this standard, let it afterwards exceed it from three to five degrees, rather than sink below. A succession may be kept up by introducing some pots every eight or ten days." 6561. Insects. All the species of roses are very liable to the attacks of insects, especially of the aphides ; some, and especially the briar and Scotch rose, are attacked by the Cynips rosae, which, by puncturing the bark, occasions the production of rose-galls, and of those mossy tufts often seen on wild roses, which were known formerly under the name of Bcdeguar, and used in medicine. A great number r A V RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. r accinium erythoroc. p parviflorum losa, various sorts, 3. * .mygdalus persica nan iyringa persica incisa Spiraea crenata, o. Vaccihi. amaen.ff. rub.p arboreum Rosa, various sorts, 3. s Amygdalus nana Colutea pocokii Spiraea nypericifblia Amygdalus orientalis, 3 sibirica, 3. sinensis, 3. Robinia hispida Cercis canadensis _ arborea Mespilus parvifolia, 3. Amygdaluscommun.pl. 1 punctata, 3. persica fl. pleno, 3. 1 sanguinea, 3. Amygdalus commun. 3. Vaccinium venustum, p. jmmilo pi. Lonicera alpigena amara, 3 Persica fl. pleno, 3. - - fru. slab! 3. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Vaccinium album, p. angustifolium corymbosum fuscatom glabrum glaucum halleriaefolium Cornus florida Fothergilla alnifolia, p. - glauca speciosa Mespilus cotoneaster Pyrus depressa, 3. maritima, 3. Azale ponticaglau. 3.| precox, 3. Halesia diptera, p. - tetraptera Magnolia speciosa, 3. Prunus pendula, 3. sibirica, 3. Euonymus eur. fru. alb. - - pall. latifolius Philadelphus coronarius flo.'jilen _ fol. var. Prunus cerasifera Celtis orientalis Mespilus pyrifolia spathulata spinosissima splendens tanacaetifolia Euonymus europaeus latifolium ligustrinum mucronatum - pallidum rugosum, p. salicinum tomentosum montana, 3. arbutifolia, 3. fruc. luteo, 3. nigro, 3. Vaccinium amaenum, p. arboreum, t, susquehana, 3. - chicasa, 3. Pyrus amelanchier, 3. americana, 3. gneca.3. chamee cerasus nigra, 3. Pyrussorbifblia,j>. Sambucus nigra, fol.var. _ alba _ laciniata Spartium multiflorum - - fol.aur. 'runus armeniaca, 3. Pyrus baccata, 3. ' - pollveria.3. Broussonetia panyr.mas _ villosum Syringa vulgaris alba, 3. virgatum viride monstrosa YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Jenista decumbens, p. decumbens Jerberis cretica, p. )aphne altaica, 3. p. "raxinus pumila Spartium angulatum Azalea pontiea, 3. - pallida, 3. pleno, 3. Berberis americana Staphyleapinnata ^raxinus omus lobinia caragana lobinia chamlagu Myricacerifera^ vulgaris, 3. .ytissus sessilifolius ?raxinus atra - gale Genista pilosa Rhamnus alnifolius - hybridus Lonicera pyrenaica Zanthoxvlum fraxineum Rhus aromaticum, p. spiraea laevigata,'^ p. sibrtca thalictroides, p. trilobata, 3. yringa persic. alba, 3, p. Vaccinium salvifqUum _... 896 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. DECIDUOUS SHRUBS. MAY continued. PART III. Height fromO to S feet. Promt feet to 4 feet. From 4 feet to 7 feet. From 7 feet to 10 feet. From 10 feet /o20 feet. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Syringa persica pur. p. Betula pumila, t. p. Magnolia purpurea, 3. Syringa vulgaris pur. 3. cserulea, 3. Syringa sinensis,p. rothomag. GREEN. GREEN. .-GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. Berber* daurica Herberts sibirica Hippophae sibirica Liquidamberimberbe Carpinus betulus incisa onentalis Aristotelia macqui Coriaria myrtifolia Fagus asplenifolia Hippophat rhamnoides argentea BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. Vaccinium marylandi.p. pensylvanic. TTTXTT? RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. 'accinium dumo. t. p. - nitidum x>sa, various sorts, 3. t. Azalea rosea, 3. p. rubra, 3. rub. plen. Chionanthus virgin, p. latifoUa Mespilus chamap mespil. Rosa, various sorts, 3. * . Ononis fruticosa, 3. rub. pal. J P fl nien 3 ruffa,3. iosa, various sorts, 3. t. ruberrima, 3. p. viscosa pulchel. 3. - blanda,*3. . carnea,3. incarnata, 3- lydrangea hortensis,3.p. ttorus tartarica r accinium stam -fl.rubo. Jolutea cruenta, 3. Rosa, various sorts, 3. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Azalea viscos, alb. 3.p. dealbata )aphnealpina,p. xmicera caucasica Prunus prostrata Vaccinium cinereum.p. diffusura, i. Andromeda calyculat. 3. globulifera, 3. paniculata undulata Azalea nudiflora, alb. 3. Azalea odorata, 3. p, Cornus alba _ altemifoUa circinata fastigiata paniculata sericea ^isculus aculeata Cornus sanguinea stricta fol. varieg. Fraxinus striata ?hiladelph. coron. mul. j^raxinus rotundifolia Magnolia auriculata, p. glauca 'vrus americana, 3. p. ." lanuginosa.3.p. myrsinites staminea, 3. luonymus angustifol. p. Viburnum lantana, p. resinosum, t. Rosa, Tarious sorts, 3. - villosa,3. tomentoia, 3. viscosa sissa,3. floribunda, 3. Genista florida .aurus aestivalis Magnolia pyramidata.p. 'runus rubra, *. -fol.vaJ'. latifolium - - glabra, 3. fiirta, 3. Pyrus japonica, fl. albo. Rubus CiBsius lucida, 3. corylifolius odoratk.3. - - pleno, 3. pubescens, 3. Sambucus racemosa Sp !^^S hrunus pumila _ latifoUa Spartium patens, p. - purgans paniculata Viburnum pyrifolium, p. piraea stipulacea ulmifblia tyrax laevi^ata, t. 'accinium rrondosum,p. ' stamineum Viburnum alnifolium dentatum fol. lunatis nitidum losa, various sorts YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Hypericumkalmianum Ihamnus saxatills Coronilla emerus Cytisus biflorus Fraxinus lentiscifblia ' Hhamnus infectorius ' Colutea arborescen*, 3. Rhus cotinus capitatus, i. Robinia halodendron elpngatus Staphylea trifoliata triflorus Zizypfiuspaliuriu Azalea nudfli. auran. t.p. Jenista triquetra, t. p. Jypericum denticulat. olympicum Lonicera diervilla Potentilla floribunda Rhamnus lycioides PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. At raphaxis alpina, p. Euonymus atro pur. p. - iatifolius verrucosus Robinia halodendron VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED Azalea fl. rub.etalba,3.p Azalea viscosa var. 3. p. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. Morus pumila rubra Diospyrus lotus Hippophae canademis Diospyrus virginiana BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. Caljcnthusflorida,p. Calycanthus flo. 3. p. longifoGus Ainus pumila pensylvan. Boor II. GENERAL CATALOGUE OF SHRUBS. 897 DECIDUOUS SHRUBS. JULY. Hdght from to 2 feet. From 2 feet to 4 feet. From 4 feet to 7 feet. From Tfeet to 10 feet. From 10 feet to 20 feet. RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. A ndrom. mariana, 3. p. lanceol. Azalea tricolor,*, p. coccinea crispa, 3 . ilosa, various sorts, 3. t. Gleditschia sinensis, p. horrida r accinium tenetlum Rosa, various sorts, 3. t. rubra pailido, *. coccinea, 3 p. _ flamea, 3. Koelreuteria panic. 3. p. rubra, fl. pleno, . )aphne mez. serot. 3. p. tydrangea quercifolia kfenziesia globular. 3. p. iosa, various sorts, 3. s. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Aralia hispida, t. p. enista pUosa Philadelphia inodorus r ibumum dauricum Hosa, various sorts, 3. > ^Esculus humilig Androm. cassinifol. 3. p. dealbata frondosa pulverulenta racemosa, p. Azalea canescens, 3. p. coccinea major ,3. 2ornus sibirica Prunus verticillatus, p. Sambucus canadensis Styrax grandifolium, t.p. officinale, t. Viburnum piminum Rosa, various sorte, 3. . Amphora fruticosa, t. p. Andromeda arborea, t. Eleagnus angustifolius Ligustrum vulgare rruc.flav.p fol.varieg. Viburnum Uevigatum,p. papillonacea Prrnos ambiguus, p. laevigatus lanceolatus prunifolius Ptelia trifoliata tiubus hispidis Spartiura sphaerocarp.p. Viburnum acerffolhim carolineanum,p. lantanoides iiuduin YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Cytisus supinus wolgaricus i ypericum rosmarinifbl. Rhamnus pumilus Azalea maxima, 3. p. lutea, *. major, 3. Cytisus argenteus, 3. Hypericum elatum Rhus toxicodendron - vemix Rhus coriaria elegans glabrum typhinum Virgilia lutea, p. repens austriacus Rosa, various sorts, 3. *. nigricans sericeus Hypericum hircinum prolificum Rhamnus latifolius Rhus pumilum, p radicans Azalea aurantia maj.S.p. calendulacea, t. Rosa, various sorts, 3. t. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Azalea purpurea, . p. Betulanana Rhododend. azaleoides Cytisus purpureus, 3. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. - Celastrus bullatus Castanea americana,*. p. pumila, t. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. BROWN. Azalea cuprea, p. pallida bicolor major Menziesia ferruginea ATTnTTOT RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Hibisc. syriac. rub. *. t. ^Esculus macrostachya pleno,*. fol.var.* ^Esculus parviflora WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Ceanothus americ. p. micro.p. .onicera symphoric. p. Azalea glauca, *. p. Cephalanthus occidental. Clethra alnifolia, p. acuminata Hibiscus syriacus alba, . Hydrangea arboresc. p. Rosa, various sorts, 3. t. paniculata scabra Rontanesia phillyraeoides Hydrangeaglauc^ Iteavirginica,p. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Rosa, various sorts Annona triloba, p. Cytisus divaricatus Mimosa arborea, p. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE, PURPLE. Hibiscus syriac. purp- *< VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. Hibisc. sjri.fl. alb. etr.. 3M PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. DECIDUOUS SHRUBS. SEPTEMBER. ffaghtfromOtoZfeet. From 2 feet to 4 feet. From 4 feet to 7 feet. From" feet to 10 feet. From 10 feet to 20 feet. RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Vitex agnus castus lat. 1 angustif. ; WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Azalea glauca serot. s. p. Gordonia pubescens, t. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Aralia spinosa VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. Azalea variegata SUBSECT. 2. Evergreen Shrubs. 6572. EVERGREEN SHRUBS. MARCH. RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Mca camea, Febr. 3. p. Daphne collina, 3. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Viburnum tinus , Janu. _ _ fol. arg. aur. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Daphne ponnca Ulex europaeus - "^fl.pleno GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEK. GREEN. Daphne laureola fol. var. Taxus baoccta, fol. Tar. Taxus baccata erecta APRIL RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Empetrum nigrum, p. scotic. r accinium vitis idaea majus maximum minor Azalea procumbens, p. Vaccin. vit. idaea, fl. coc uliginosa Andromeda polifolia, p. fatifolia erecta media minor WHITE. .WHITI . WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Andromeda calyculata latifolia YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. irbutus alpina )aphne cneorum, 3, p. Erica mediterranea, 3. minima, 3. strlcta, 3. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN Cupressus thyoides Buxus sempervirens angustifolia aur. var. ang. nana TV/TAV RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Jrica fuscata, 3. t. p. Erica australis 3. t.p. Ilex aquifol. crassifol. Ilex macrophylla WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Andromeda axillaris, p. Arbutus andrachne, t. Ilex aquifol ium - catesbaei luckla, t* fruc. fla. Ledum buxifolium serratif. t. _ _ heterophill. angustifolium fol. Tar. arg. decumbens aur. palustre - fatifolium _ _ _ mac. arg. longlfolium ^echinata 'olygala chamae-bux. 3. Olea angustifolia nana - arg. _ aur. lhodod!maxi.fl.aL3.p Prunus laurocerasus luscus hypoglossum fol. mac. - - angustif. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. genista anglica Spartium scoparium GREEN. Laurus nobilu nana . GREEN. GREEN. Acer creticum iLaurus nana angustifol. GREEN. GREEN. Juniperus oommunis Laurus nobilis Thuja occidentalis densa ) - orientaJis BOOK II. GENERAL CATALOGUE OF SHRUBS. 899 EVERGREEN SHRUBS. JUNE. Height from to 2 feet. FromZfeetto4feet. From 4Jeet to 7 feet. From 7 feet to 10 feet. From 10 feet to 20 fed. . RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Cistus apennin. fl. rub.p grandiflor.fl.rub n,-lianthemuin Rhodod. catawbien. 3.p Rosa indie i, 4 va . 5' sulph. LinnteaborealisKp. Vaccinium buxifolmm crassifolium hispidulum _ lucidum macrocarpon sibiricum Srica cineria, t.p. vulgaris, flo. albo fl. pleno WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Andromeda coriacea, t.p Astragalus tragacantha tragodes "istus alpestris apenninus, fl.alb.p helianthemum,fl.a Cistus ladaniferus, p. laurifolius populifolius major salicifolius [lex opaca Rhamnus alatemus, fol. var. org. Lieustrum vulg. semp. Misp'ilus pyracantha Olea angustifolia - laUfolia obliqua - media Prunus lusitanica, 3. fol. mac. Rhamnus alatemus latif. - - fol. mac. flo.mutabile parado buxifolia incanus Jlea angustifolia rosma pendula italicus tiuscus racemosa fol. var. Rhamnus alatem. lacini polifolius fol. var. salvifolius, fl. Daphne gnidium tarton-rara Srica cinerea, flo. alb. p vulgaris umbellata YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Cistus apenninus, p. grandiflorus 3ytisus hirsutus, t. R-obinea'halodendron _ flo. sulph. Buddlea globosa, t. helianthemum flo. luteo pleno tenista germanica sagittalis Hyperic. androsaemum calycinum Cistus heliant. fl. aur. p. pleno PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. .ndromeda coerulea Rhododendron pont.3.p Cistus heliant. flo. pu. p. Rhododendron chamffi- cistus, t. a. p. maximum, t. angustifolia, 3. contortum, 3. macrophyllum,3 roseum, 3. ponticum myrtif. salicifolium, 3. pumilum - fol. arg. var. 3. aur. 3. algarvense, 3. p. GREEK. GREEK. GREEK. GREEK. GREEK. Sphedra distachya Juniperus repens Suxus balearica uniperus sabina fol. var. Aucubajaponica,p. Juniperus thurifera 'uniperus excelsa IT lycia oxycedrus tamariscifolia phoenicea sibirica suecia TTTT V RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Srica tetralix, 3. p. iaultheria procumbens Kalmialatifoliarub.p. 'yrola maculata, 3. hododendron fer. 3. p. hirsurum, 3. fol. mac. 3. Srica ciliaris, 3. p. vagans, 3. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. triplex portulacoides Cistus albidus, p. crispus, t. monspeliacus, t. Andromeda acumin. t.p. - ferruginea,<. Euonymus americanus Andromeda serratifolia Atriplex halimus Kalmialatifol. fi.alb.p. )omus canadensis Dpigeea repens, 3. Erica tetralix flo. alb. 3. vagans flo. alb. 3. 'yrola umbellata, 3. ialis reticulata Vaccinium arctost. t.p. Andromeda speciosa * YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Veucrium flavum Ruta graveolens Sparthim junceum - _ pleno fructicans PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Drica viride pnrp. 3. p. .avendula stechas, t. Rhododendron puncta.3. latifbl. GREEK. GREEN. GREEK. GREEK. GREEK. Jupleurum frut icosum unipenis daurica ATTnTTCT- RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. 'olygonnm fruteseens hoaodend. caucas. Z.p. [lex oassine major, p. Rosa semperflorens 7 va- ietfes, 3. . p. ,-. T\/r ,-* 900 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. EVERGREEN SHRUBS. AUGUST. HeightfromOtoZfeet. From 2 feet to 4 feet. From 4 feet to 7 feet. From" feet to 10 feet. From 10 feet to 20 feet. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Prinos glaber Vucca hlamentosa, /. Ilei cassine media, p. minor Magnolia grandiflora, 3. acuminatu _ angustifolia, t. Iva frutescens, p. exoniensis gloriosa, t. 3. ferruginea obtusifolia rotundifolia salicifolia YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Ruta montana Jasminum fruticans - humile GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. Artemisia abrotanum SFPTFMRFR RED. RED. O EJ L X J-J if A D i . IX RED. RED. RED. Salvia erecta Arbutus unedo rubra _ officinalis angustifol. triloba Kalmia angustifolia se. rotina, p. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Ligustrum lucidum GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. -, GREEN. GREEN. Ephedera monostachya Salsola fruticosa OCTOBER WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. (Arbutus unedo crispa (Arbutus unedo WHITE. WHITE. 6573. SUBSECT. 3. Climbing and Twining Shrubs, HARDY CLIMBING SHRUBS. APRIL. , BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. MAY Atragene austriaca WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Lonicera belgicum prec. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. J PURPLE. Vinca major. ei>. _ J /ol.arg. Vinca major, ev. _ fol. aur. no. pleno. TTTXTT? RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Polygonum volubile Clematis viorna, tw. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Ampelopsis cordata, p. hirsuta Celastrus scandens Rosa arvenois canina pleno variegata sempervirens, ev. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Lonicera caprifolia, ita- licum Clematis reticulata, p. tritemata Aristolochia pubesc. p. Lonicera quercifolium variegatum PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Clem, viorna purp. 3, ev. GREEN. OREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. Vitis labrusca Vitis laciniosa, p. Ziziphus volubilis odoratisma rotundifolia TTTT T7 RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Lonicera impleza, 3. Lycium barbarum Lonicera sempervirens^- minor, t. longifol. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Clematis florida, 3. v- Atragene americana,3.p sibirica Lonicera pencjym. fl. al. Clematis vitalba Jasminum officinale fol. arg. Rosa repanda, ev. Rubus fruticosus _ -fruc.albo. . lacinatns _ _flo.plno. BOOK II. SHRUBS FOR PARTICULAR PURPOSES. 901 HARDY CLIMBING SHRUBS. JULY continued. Height from to 2 feet. From 2 feet to 4 feet. From 4 feet to 7 feet. FromT feet to \0feet. From 10 feet to ZQ feet. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Glycine frutescens. p. Lonicera flava BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. BLUE. Clematis viticellacoer. 3. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Passiflora coerulea, 3. p. PURPLE. Clematis viticella rubra GREEN. GREEK. GREEN. GREEN. fl. pie. GREEK. Vitis arborea blanda Menispermum canad.p. virgin Rhus radicans PassiHora maculata AUGUST. RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Clematis virginiana, p. vitalba canaden. Rosa multiflora, 3. t. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Periploca graeca YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Clematis orientalis Aristolochia sipho, p. Bignonia radicans, 3. p. major, 3. GREEK. GREEK. GREEN. GREEK. GREEK. Smilax aspera Heder hel. etvar. ev. Oct. Lonicera grata &V74. The propagation and culture of shrubs being the same as that for trees, we combine both subjects in the catalogue of arboriculture in the succeeding book. SECT. III. Selections of Shrubs for particular Purposes. 6575. The particular purposes to which shrubs, like flowers, may be applied, are the concealment of deformities or imperfections, and the production of particular beauties or desirable effects. We shall here select the names of a few for concealing vertical and horizontal deformity ; for producing an immediate effect as to bulk ; for producing ve- getation under the shade and drip of trees ; for ornamenting water and rocks ; for form- ing edges and hedges ; for diffusing agreeable odors ; for being ornamental by their fruit ; and for economical or botanical purposes. SUBSECT. 1. Shrubs for concealing vertical and horizontal Deformities. 6576. Vertical deformities may either be concealed by the rapid and tall growing sorts (Subsect 2 ) or by the climbers or twiners, either deciduous or evergreen. The climbers may be nailed to a wall or fence or tied to a trellis, or allowed to climb on branches and spray ; for the twiners, tall sticks or poles are necessary. 6/577. Horizontal deformities may be concealed by rapid-growing bushy plants, by allowing climbers and trailers to spread over them, or by the proper trailers and creepers of the hardiest kinds, a few of which are these : I Evergreens. Rosa sempervirens, Vinca major and minor. Deciduous. Rosa arvensis, Rubus fruti- I cosus, Cissus hederacea, Cytisus su- | pinus, Genista decumbens, repens. SUBSECT. 2. Shrubs of rapid and bulky Growth. 6578. Shrubs of rapid and bulky growth are often desirable to produce immediate effect in laying out pleasure-grounds, as well as for producing shelter, and concealing objects. Deciduous. Colutea arborescens, et fru- tesceas, Cornus alba, florida, et san- guinea, Cytisus laburnum, et sessilifo- Bus, Ligustrum vulgare, Philadelphus coronarius, Rosa villosa, Sambucus nigra, Spiraea opulifolia, Syringa vul- garis, Viburnum opulus. Evergreens. Cupressussempervirens,Ilex aquifolium, Juniperus virginiana, Li- gustrum vulgaris, var. sempervirens, Mespilus pyracantha, Pinus palustris, Quercus gramuntia, Prunus lauro- cerasus, lusitanica, Rhamnus ala- ternus, Spartium iunceum, Taxus baccata, Thuja occidentalis, orientalis, Ulex europaeus, var. hibemiae. SUBSECT. 3. Shrubs which thrive under the Shade and Drip of Trees. 6579. Shrubs which grow under the shade of trees are found in practice to be a most valuable class for filling up blanks in old shrubberies, or screen plantations ; and thus producing greenness, variety, and a healthy aspect, instead of emptiness, haggard stems of trees, or mere ghosts of plants. aquifolium, Ligustrum vulg. semper vir. Viburnum tinus, t. fol. arg. t. fol aur. t. hirtum, t. lucidum. Climbers. Clematis vitalba. v. canaden sis, Hedera helix e, h. fol. arg. mac e, h. fol. aur. mac. e, h. fol. arg. var e, h. fol. aur. var. e, h. fol. maximis Lonicera periclymenum, pi. flo. albo Rosa arvensis ev, repanda, Vinca, major e, minor e, m. fol. aift < fol. aur. , m. flo. pleno. Deciduous. Cornus alba, altemifolia, florida, sanguinea, Corylus avellana, Daphne alpina 3 mezereum, m. flo. albo 3, m. serotina 3 *, Euonymus angustifolius 3, latifolius 3, verru- rosus 3 *, Hypericum hircinum, h. minor, prolificum, Ligustrum vulgare, v. fruc. flavo, v. fol. variegatis, Loni- cera symphoricarpus 3, tartarica, I xylosteum, Mespilus tomentosa, Rosa , rv. sibirica, arvensis, Rubus occiden- talis, odoratus, trivialis, villosus, Sam- bucus nigra fol. var. n. alba, n. laci- niata, racemosa, Spiraea canadensis 3, thalictroides 3. Evergreens. Aucuba japonica 3, Bux- us, sempervirens, s. angustifol. s. aur. var. s. are. var. s. nana, Cistus ca- nadensis, Daphne cneorum 3, c. fol. var. collina 3 *, laureola, 1. fol. var. Ephedra distachya, monostachya, Hy- pericum androsaemum, calycinum, Ilex 3M 3 *)2 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. SUBSECT. 4. Shrubs for planting by the Sides of Pieces of Water, or in Marshy Grounds, and among Rocks. 6580. Besides aquatic shrubs, most of the peat-earth species are also suitable for planting in marshy situations. Deciauou*. Alnuspumila, Betula nana, I Myrica cerifera, and gale, Salit, most I Evergreen*. Arbntus anedo, Ledum pumila, and sibirica, Dirca palustris, of the species. \ palustre, Pinus palustris, Salix reto- I culata. 6581. Of mountain or rock shrubs the following are some of the most hardy : DtcUuma. Atraphaxis alpma, Daphne alpina, Genista decumbens, Lonicera. alpigena, Ononis fruticosa, Potentilla fhitfcosa, Rhamnus saxatilis, Rho- dodendron dauricuin, Kibes alpinum, Rosa alpina, spinosissima, Rubus cae- sius, corylifolius hispidus, Spartium angulatum. Evergreen*. Arbutus alpina, Azalea procumbens, Daphne collina, Empe- trnm nigrum, Erica, all the hardy species, Cistus, aU' the species, Gaultheria pro- cumbens, Juniperus communis, Ros- marinus officinalis, Ulex europseus. SUBSECT. 5. Shrubs for forming Edgings and Hedges in Gardens. 6582. Qf shrubs for edgings few are comparable to the box (Bums sempervirens var. nana); but some others may be occasionally used, as the Andromeda polifolia, Arbutus alpina I rious species of Erica, especially herbacea, I dula spica, Sedum buxifolium, and CTI and uva-ursi, Empetrum nigrum, va- | tetralix, vulgaris (Calluna, W.), LaTen- | Ulex nanus. 6583. Hedge plants. The following are a few of the numerous plants which may be used as hedges for shelter in gardens ; almost all the free-growing sorts may be planted in rows, and cut in the hedge form ; but the following sorts will form compact evergreen shelters : Buxus sempervirens, Juniperus com- I trum vulgare, sempervirens. Olea (Wild.) I Taxus baccata, Thuja occidentals and munis, Ulex europaeus var. hibemiae, I angustifolia, latifolia, and media, Rham- orientalis, Viburnum tinus, Pninus lau- Ilex aquifolium, Laurusnobilis,Ligus- | nus alatemus, Rosmarinus officinalis, | rocerasu*. The creeping shrubs may be formed into hedges by training on frame-work. 6584. Flowering hedges may be formed of the following deciduous sorts : Rosa various species, Coronilla emerus, I Philadelphuscoronarius, Pyrus japonica, I Spiraaa hypericifolia, Syringa persica, Daphne mezereum, Hibiscus sjriacus, | Robinia hispida, Spartuun multiflorum, | yulgaris, hybrida, or varin, &c. SUBSECT. 6. Shrubs whose Floivers or Leaves have volatile Odors, and diffuse them in the surrounding Air. 6585. Of shrubs whose odors are volatile only a few have this quality in the leaves as well as the flower j these are marked leav. : Deciduous. Azalea most of the species, I cially S. viminalis, alba, Syringa vul- Betula sibirica, leav. Daphne me- garis. zereum, Rosa rubiginosa, leav. I Evergreen*. Lavandula spica, Rosma- ibiginosa, species, but Salix most of the species, but espe- | rinus officinalis. Climbers. Clematis flamula, Jasminum officinale, Lonicera caprifolium, peri- clymenum. SUBSECT. 7. Shrubs ornamental by their Fruit as well as Flowers. 6586. Ornamental fruit-bearing shrubs are also serviceable as encouraging singing-birds to resort to the shrubbery. trum nigrum, Euonymus americanus, Deciduout. Herberts vulgaris, Ligustruro vulgare, Ribes alpinum, cynosbati, Rosa spinosissima, et villosa, Sorbus americana, et lanuginosa, most of the species of Vaccinium, Lonicera, Vi- burnum, and all the species of Comus, Euonymus, Mespilus, Prunus, Pyrus, and Sambucus. Few shrubs are more ornamental than the sloe (Prunus in April, and with dark-purple fruit Ilex aquifolium, Juniperus communis,. and suecia, Mespilus japonica, pyra- with a fine bloom, from September to cantha, Prunus all the species, Taxus February. It is much cultivated in | baccata, Vaccinium all the species, Japan (464.), where its flowers attain Hedera heli the size of a double rose. Evergreent. Arbutus unedo, alpina, and uva-ursi, Comus canadensis, Empe- Climberi and Creeper*. Lonicera all the species. Rosa canina, Vitis vul- pina. SUBSECT. 8. Selections of Shrubs for botanical or economical Purposes, parasitic Trees, and Shrubs for a small Shrubbery. 6587. Selections of shrubs may be arranged in innumerable modes, as well as herba- ceous plants; as, according to soil, climate, habitation, country, rarity, place in bo- tanical systems, uses in agriculture, or the arts, &c. No gardener can make any selec- tion who does not know by inspection the actual plants, and their habits, culture, and history ; to him it is needless to repeat the sources to which he may have recourse for forming any classification whatever. 6588. A selection for botanical purposes will necessarily include parasitic plants, of which the only hardy genus is viscum. This is propagated in February by sticking the berries, which are viscid when bruised, in a slit like that made in budding, on the smooth bark of the apple, pear, thorn, or almost any tree. If these are not washed away by rain, or otherwise rubbed off, they will germinate in the following sum- mer. To make sure of their not falling off, some bore a hole in the bark and insert the seed ; or cut a notch in it, or make a slit : the last seems the best mode, and has been successfully adopted by Professor Thouin in the Paris garden, and extensively by Watts, a nurseryman at Acton, on most sorts of trees. Some, as Professor Walker (Essays on Nat. Hist.}, on the supposition that the seeds will not vegetate till they have passed through the stomach of a bird, recommend causing fowls to eat the seeds, and then sowing them. But this is found not to answer, for though the digestive powers of the stomach do not destroy the vegetative power of seeds which pass rapidly through it, yet in most cases it does. The mistle- toe in nature is propagated by the mistletoe-thrush (Turdus viscivorvs], but not, as is generally supposed, by means of its excrement This bird feeds on the berries of the misletoe in winter. These, from their viscosity, often stick to the outer part of the bird's beak, and to disengage them he strikes it against the branch of the tree on which he alights, and leaves the seed sticking to the bark ; if this should chance to be a smooth part, the seed will adhere to it, and the succeeding spring will grow, the radicle piercing the bark, and the plume unfolding itself in the air. The viscum grows best on the pyrus and mespilus triben, I'nt it will also grow on the ash, poplar, lime, oak, fir, &c., on which trees we have observed it in abund- ance in Germany. In the pine-forests, near Magdebourg, it is most abundant on pinus sylvestris. BOOK II. FRAME EXOTICS. 903 6589. A selection of trees and shrubs of great beauty and easy culture, proper for intro- duction in shrubberies of limited extent : pervirens, Magnolia grandiflora, Mes- pilus pyracantha, Olea angustifolla, latifolia, et media, Pinus cembra et lanceolata, Prunus laurocerasus lusi- tanica, Rhododendron maximum and ponticum, Rosa indica, semperflorens and banksise, Rosmarinus officinalis, Ruscus racemosus, Spartium junceum Taxus baccata, Thuja occidentalis et orientalis, Viburnum tinus, Ulex europaeus, Yucca filamentosa, gloriosa. Climbers. Atragene austriaca, Bignonia radicans, Clematis cirrhosa, flamula, florida, viorna, vitalba, et vitieella, Hedera helix and varieties, Jasmi- num officinale, Lonicera caprifolium, periclymenum, belgicum, et semper- virens, Lycium barbarum, Passiflora caerulea, Rosa arvensis, repanda, et sempervirens, Vinca major et minor, Cissus hederacea. Deciduous trees. Acer pennaylvanicum, ^Esculus hippocastanum, Amygdalus communis, Cupressus disticha, Fagus sylvatica purpurea, Platanus occi- dentalis, Quercus coccinea, Robinia pseud-acacia, Sorbus aucuparia, Ti- lia europsea. Evergreen trees. Pinus cedrns, bal- samea, pinea abies, Cupressus sem- pervirens, Quercus gramuntia and suber, Juniperus virginiana. Decidumia sftrubs. Amygdalus nana, An- dromeda paniculata, Azalea nudiflora, and pontica, Chionanthus virginica, Colutea cruenta, Cornns florida, Co- ronilla emerus, Cytisus purpureus, and sessilifolius, Daphne mezereum, Genista florida, Halesia tetraptera, Hibiscus syriacus and varieties, Li- gustrum vulgare, Magnolia purpurea, Mespilus chamae-mespilus, Philadel- phus coronarius, Prunus cerasifera, Pyrus japonica, Robinia hispida, Rosa alba, centifolia, cinnamomea, damascena, indica, lutea, moschata, muscosa, rubiginosa, spinosissima,'vil- losa. Sorbus lanuginosa, Spartium multiflorum, Spiraea hypericifolia, epulifolia, and canadensis, Syringaper- sica, sinensis, vulgaris, Viburnum opulus, lantana. Evergreens. Andromeda calyculata, Arbutus unedo and andrachne, Au- cuba japonica, Buddlea globosa, Buxus balearica and sempervirens, Cistus apenninus and grandifloius, Helian- themum vulgare, Cytisus hirsutus, Daphne laureola et pontica, Erica herbacea et deboeeia, Genista anglica, Ilex aquifolium, and numerous va- rieties, Jasminum fmticans et humile, Juniperus sabina, Kalmia angusti- folia, Lavandula spica, Laurus no- bilis, Ligustrum vulgare, var. sem , CHAP. XI. Frame Exotics. 6.590. Frame exotics are such plants as are rather hardier than those kept in the green- house and of low growth. Some of those enumerated here will also be found among the green-house, and a few among the hardy plants. The frames or pits in which they are kept are never artificially heated, but are well covered with mats or other materials during severe frost. The frames are sometimes attached to the front of the green-house or stove, and thus derive some heat from the front flue, which, when an outside frame is in contemplation, is generally built in the front wall. When this is not the case, they may be advantageously placed on a border sloping to the east, south, or west, under the shelter of a hedge or wall. The pots should be plunged in scoriae, ashes, sawdust, or any similar non-conductors, and abundance of air, and little water given in the winter time. Few scenes are more interesting in the spring season than a small oblong flower-garden, surrounded by a holly-hedge enriched with many spikes of coral berries : within the hedge a sloping frame-border all round ; on the north side, containing frame exotics ; on the west, early-flowering bulbs, as hyacinth, crocus, narcissus, &c. ; on the east, choice auriculas ; and on the south side (the border facing the north), a collection of alpines. The middle of the garden laid out in beds of florists' flowers. In summer the sashes are applied to various useful purposes, as to ripen fruits against walls, to raise late crops of cucumbers, melons, &c. SECT. L Frame Woody Plants. Those marked cl are climbers ; tw are twiners ; and tr are trailers. 6591. FRAME WOODY PLANTS. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY. I JUNE. JULY. AUGUST. SEPT. TO NOV. Sydonia speciosa 2orchorus japonic. 3 Magnolia conspi. p. tomentosa Prenanthes spinosa Thuja articulata Prunus prostrate Ilex dahoon, p. Illicium floridanum angustifolia parvifloru. p. ! vomitoria Magnolia obov. t. p. Lonicera flava Penstemon campan. Cydonia japonica, p. Vella pseudo-cytisus Helianthem form. p. Lonicera semp. min Rhododen. chasm, p Hudsoniaericoid.p Rosa berberif. sinica Cistus villosus monspeliensis Ilexcassine,j>. Pinckneya pubens Prinos lucidus Silene fruticosa Euphorb. par. suf.p sylvatica Lonicera flexuosa japonioa, 3. p. Asparagus albus, p. acutifolms Euphorbia imbri. p. Mespilus japonica.p. Anthvllis erinacea Othona chierifolia halimifo. hirsutus salvifolius Helianthem.canu. p scabrosum Vitex agnus-cast. p. Antirrhin. molle, t. 3upressus lusitanic. Smil. pseudo-chinen Juniperus bermud. = SS2: Thymus tragorigan. Scrophularia trutes. Biscutella semperv. Amorpha pubescens Anthyllisherman.p. Medicago arborea,. Conyza Candida, <. heterophyllus _ creticus HeUan?h/5"imo. _ umbella _ lavipes Teucrium massil. p. aureum flavescens lavandul. Reaumuria hyper, p Stachys orientalis tfarrubi. pseud.dict. Thymus mastichina Calamintha cretica Alyssum spinosum Stauracanth. aphyll Amorpha canesoens ^upinus arboreus Lepidium subulat. Gordonia pubesc. p. gnaphalo. Artemisia valentina Prasium majus Jleditschia sinensis Amorpha microphy. Hypencum nudiflor. rosmarinif. flsciculat. 3M 4 904 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 6592. SECT. II. Frame Succulents. FRAME SUCCULENT PLANTS. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY. JUNE. JULY. AUGUST. SEPT. TO NOV. Euphorbia characias Saiifraga sarment. Euphorbia nicaensis A.gave Tirginica SECT. III. Frame Herbaceous Plants. 6593. FRAME HERBACEOUS PLANTS. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY. JUNE. JULY. AUGUST. SEPT. TO NOV. eleborus lividus, p. Erinus alpinus, 3 hispanicus rum crinitvun, p. \rurn arisarum, p. Saxifraga granulata pleno Satureia Juliana dimulus luteus :"edicularis euphras. . myriophyl. resupinata Srodium gjandulos. chamaedryoi. Jeranium argent. Lotus odoratus Marshallia lanceol. _ latifolia Arum ternatum, jj. Lobeliafulgens,3.j>. splendens, 3 _ cardinalis, 3 CEnothera rosea Saxifraga sarment. _ virginiensis _ congesta _ stellaris bryoides androsacea oppositifol. rivularis Saracenia flava, p. purpurea Satureja grseca Scrophularia samb. Linum narbonen. p. Rhexia ciliosa, p. Saxifraga mutata autumnalis Dianthus japonic, p. _ fruticosa Silene fabaria Sedum spinosum Euphorbia paralias Marrubium acetab. Antirrhinum asarin. Linaria triornithop. bipartita tristis Statice auriculatf. p - emarginata cordata spatulata . speciosa conspicua Saxifraga aspera hirculis Scronhularia mellif Stevia salicifolia Artemisia indica Zaluzania trjloba 3upthalmum mant Coreopsis feruleefol. Urtica ruTea, j>. Pedicularis recutita reticulata _ foliosa alpina, p. verticillata villosa theris umbellata Hedysarum murica. Pedicularis scep.car. flammea Sypericum setosum tuberosa Eupator. urticse fol. Artemisia chains. Rudbeckia laevigata Centaurea spinosa _ compacta Lupinus villosus, p. Olycine reniforme.p. Hypericum mutil. sempemr. Calopogon pulche.p. Iresine celosioides SECT. IV. Frame Bulbs. 6594; FRAME BULBS. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY. JUNE. JULY. AUGUST. SEPT. TO NOV. iVUium-chanue-mol Omithogal. arab.p. Ornithogaluni squil. Omithogalura izioi nmithmmiiim latff. Uropetalon serotin. T? >ncifo. Uropetalon fulvum SECT. V. Frame Biennials. 6595. FRAME BIENNIALS. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY. JUNE. JULY. AUGUST. SEPTEMBER. Acynos alpinus Gauramutabilis Lepidium subulat. cardamines Cichorum nosum, i Origanum majorans Celsia arcturus - lanceolata Cnicus casabonae spi afer Gnaphalium fcetidum,*. SECT. VI. Frame Annuals. 6596. FRAME ANNUALS. FEB. MAR. APR MAY. JUNE. JULY. AUGUST. SEPTEMBER. Mams rugosus Trichosanthes au- Saxifraga hederace Momordica balsa- i guina mina cucumerirui charantia - operculata luflFa The propagation and culture of frame exotics is the same as for green-house plants. BOOK II. GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS. 905 CHAP. XII. Green-house Plants. 6597. Of green-house plants we shall first arrange some of the more select tribes, and next class the most showy and easily-flowered sorts, under the head of woody, succu- lent, climbing, herbaceous, bulbs, annuals, and biennials. Each of these subdivisions will be arranged as before as far as respects time of flowering and color ; but consider- ing the limited height which all exotic plants attain in pots, it has been considered un- necessary to attend to size. Such as are trees in their native country will be indicated by the letters tr, and also such as are biennials by the letter b ; the most tender t, most showy s, and those continuing in flower two or three months 3, as before. SECT. I. Select Green-house Plants. 6598. As select green-house plants we shall consider the geraniums, heaths, and ca- mellias ; which three tribes united will supply a green-house with flowers of almost all colors, during every month of the year. SUBSECT. 1. Geranium. Geranium, L. Geranium, Erodium, and Pelargonium, of modern authors. Monadelphia, L. and Geranits, J. Geranier, Fr. ; Geranium, Ger. ; and Geranio, Ital. 6599. The geranue tribe comprehends numerous species and varieties of herbaceous suffruticose and shrubby plants, generally of a somewhat succulent nature throughout. They are almost all natives of the Cape of Good Hope, and with the exception of three or four species, have been introduced, or originated here from seed, during the present and latter end of the last century. They are chiefly admired for their flowers, which they produce in abundance from May to September, generally in corymbs from the axillae of the leaves, of every shade of red, scarlet, and purple, mixed with white and yellow. The plants are easily cultivated, and by proper pruning, with the aid of gen- tle forcing in winter, many of the species, as the P. zonale, cuculatum, cordatum, &c. may be kept in flower all the year. The best collection of this family is in the nursery of Messrs. Colville, under* the care of the botanist Sweet, whose Gerania, now publishing, is the most elegant and complete work of its kind. 6600. Species and varieties. Many species and subspecies have been received from the Cape ; but the greater number of the admired sorts have been raised in this country from seed ; some of these have re- ceived systematic appellations, but the greater number have been named by those who raised them after themselves, or their friends, in the manner of florists' flowers. The following table contains some of the old established sorts, arranged according to their habits of growth and time of flowering; the flowers of most of the sorts are so mixed in regard to color, that it is almost impossible to class them in that respect j most of them are variegated with red, purple, scarlet, and white. 6601. GERANIJE. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY. JUNE. JULY. AUGUST. SEPTEMBER. Pelargonium dipetalum Pelargonium longifolium Pelargonium undulatum Pelargonium radiatum Pelargonium -- lobatum Pelargonium balsameum spatulatum affine roseuin allatum longiflorum elegans auriculatum purpurascens lineare punctatum dioicum triste, <. . flavum - alchemilloides -quinquevulner. canariense hirsutum althaeldes atrum revolutum odoratissima tricuspidatum^i. pictum myrrhifolium _ nervifolium oxalidifolium ' fragans scabrum _ triphyllum grevillianum _ nummularifol. reflexum inodorum gratum punctatum crenatum pilosom astragalifolium columbinum consanguineum _ floribundum conduplicati melananthon _ coronillsefolium coronopifolia pallidum _ bubonifolium Barringtonii chamsedrifolium luteum tricolor obtusifolium rapaceum _ sidaefoUum ovale barbatum' reniforme tripartitum _ fissifoliumtut. cucullatum anceps incrassatum inquinans exstipulatum laciniatum speciosum senecioides blattarium heteroganum unicolorum cameum acerifolium coriandrifolium tabulare monstrum _ willdenowii grenvillianum _. pulchellum quinatum amplissimum glaucum aentatum grossularioides crassicaule, t. peltatum laevigatum _ fragile, t. . ignescens fuscatum stenopetalum multicaule ' lateripes ineisum . ardens patulum pumilum _ caucalifolium tetragonum, t. carnosum cenothera sororium _ zonale diversiflorum variegatum, t. _ dasycaule eriostemon procumbens oordatum grandiflorum gratum variegatum marginatum cochleatum pubescens cuspidatum penicillatum betulinum angulosum, t. radula lanceolatum acetosumt hybridum spurium delphmifoli. rugosum formosum denticulatum reniforme cynosbatifblia rubens, . scandens _ semitrilobum cortuseefolium H alnifolium spinosum crispum papilionaceum glutinosum lateritium saniculsefolium splendens _ fulgidum, . candidum Erodium hy menodes gjbbosum nisipidum australe _ alternans Beaufortiana ceratophyllum _ vitifoHum Erodium crassifoli. Erodium capitatum hermannifolium _ incarnatum _ geranifolium alpinum adulterinnm Geranium abrotanifolium canesens tenuifolium incanum Geranium spinosum j .erubescens 6602. Propagation. The ordinary mode of continuing each species, is by cuttings, but almost all th< orts produce ripe seeds in this country, by which they may be multiplied, and also new varieties produced rhe seed, if ripe before midsummer, may be sown as soon as gathered, in pots of light rich earth, anc >laced in a gentle hot-bed and shaded ; the plants will soon come up, and if, when they show two propei eaves, they are transplanted singly into pots, and kept under a cold-frame, they will flower the sarm lutumn. No plant grows more readily by cuttings than the shrubby or suffruticose species of this family he cuttings may be taken off at a joint where the wood is beginning to ripen; laid in the shade for ar lour or two till the wound heals ; and then planted in sandy loam, and placed in a gentle heat. The lardier sorts, as P. zonale, inquinans, &c. will strike in the open air or in any shady situation, withou 906 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. being covered with a glass. Cuttings of the roots of such sorts, as P. triste, gibbosum, &c., strike readily; a small portion of the root being left above ground. The fibrous-rooted herbaceous sorts, as E. Chamae- dryoides and glandulosum, may be multiplied by dividing the roots. " From the latter end of March to the middle or end of July," Gushing observes, "cuttings of all the common kinds of geranium may be put in with success : Let a moderate hot-bed be made up, and surfaced with some old tan ; when it is of a proper temperature, let the cuttings be made, and put in some nice rich loam ; plunge the pots to the rim on the bed, and shade them for a day or two, but no longer. Pick off any damping leaves that may appear, water them occasionally, and observe to pot them off in due time, by which means they will be stout plants by the end of autumn : the more curious kinds are in general done by cuttings of the thick fleshy roots, which they produce in abundance : as many of these as can be spared with safety being taken off carefully from each plant, and a few of the finer fibres attached to them and neatly potted in small pots, leaving the crown of each about one fourth of an inch over the surface, watered and set on a moderate heat, will, in a few weeks, make excellent plants : one, two, or more stems, which they in general pro- duce, being left to form the plant." (Exotic Gard. 90.) 6603. Culture. The geraniae require a light rich soil ; they grow well in equal parts of sandy loam and well rotted dung ; or they will grow in leaf-mould and a little sand, without any thing else. As most species are rapid growers, the pots require to be examined in spring and autumn, and the roots and top reduced, or the plant shifted into a larger pot In general the shrubby sorts should be kept low and bushy by pruning ; for when they are allowed to grow tall and straggling, "they are very unsightly and do not flower well. Some of the herbaceous sorts may be considered as frame plants ; but the greater number require the green-house, and some of the very succulent sorts are best grown in the dry-stove. When an extensive collection of geraniums is kept, it is desirable to devote a house entirely to their culture ; in this the roof should be of a construction to admit as much light as possible, the stage should be near the glass, and there should be ample means of giving air and heat. Most of the species require rather more heat during winter than evergreen woody exotics from the same climates ; otherwise they are apt to lose their leaves and rot at the points of the shoots. To prevent this, heat should be given in the daytime and air admitted, and whenever any leaf begins to decay, it should be removed. The hardier gerania?, like other green-house plants, are generally placed in the open air from May to September ; but as the flowers are much injured by heavy rains and winds, the more delicate sorts, and all those intended to flower in the best manner, should be kept in the house with abundance of air night and day. In warm situations it is customary in April or May, to plant many of the P. zonale and other free-growing sorts in the borders of the flower-garden or shrubbery : these have a splendid effect till attacked by frost, when their roots may either be protected where they stand by abundance of litter and mats, or they may be removed into single pots, and placed in a dry part of the green-house till the following spring. The Rev. W. Williamson has found, that if the plants are taken up, deprived of their stalks and fibrous roots ; the wounds made in doing this healed by exposure in a dry place ; and afterwards the roots deposited in layers in a mass of sand, placed in a cellar, or otherwise excluded from frost, they will retain their vegetative power through the winter, and grow vigorously when replanted in the open air in spring. (Hart. Trans, iv. 414.) 6604. Forcing the geranue. The hardier shrubby sorts force well with a very gentle heat, and in this way may be kept in flower during the winter months till April and May, when they will be succeeded by those that have been kept in the common green-house temperature. SUBSECT. 2. Exotic Heaths. JErica, L. Octandria Monogynia, L. and Ericete, J. Bruyere, Fr. ; Heyde Kraut, Ger. ; and Macckia, Ital. 6605. The heath family constitute an extensive assemblage of low shrubby evergreen plants, much valued for the beauty of their flowers, and the blossoming of many of them in the winter season. Scarcely any exotic heaths were known in Miller's time, and none of the Cape species. Almost the whole of these have been introduced to Europe during the reign of Geo. III., and the greater part by Masson, a collector, who made two voyages to Africa at that king's expense. 6606. Species and varieties. Above 300 species have been introduced, some of which, from the difficulty of propagation, or accidental causes, have been lost; but there are still upwards of 250 sorts, which may be procured from the nurseries. There are also several varieties which have been raised from seed. The Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert has raised several hybrid heaths, which gives reason (Hort. Trans, iv. 27.) for thinking that many of the sorts imported from the Cape, and considered as species, are only hybrids pro- duced by promiscuous impregnation. We have here arranged most of the sorts procurable in the nur- series; and, in addition to the time of flowering, height in inches, and color, designated the form of the flower, as bell (6), pill or tube shaped (p), open (o), roundish (r), or ventricose (v). 6607. ERICA. MARCH. Height fr.OtoGinch. From 6 to 12. From 12 to 18. From 18 to 24. From 24 to 30. From 30 upward*. RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Ardens, Feb. o. r. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Oppositifolia, o. v. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Fallens, Feb. p. GREEK. GREEK. GREEK. GREEK. GREEK. GREEN. Vemix,r. major WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Barbata major, p. minor discolor AT>PTT RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Costata, t. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Mutabilis, v. Finitiana, o. Gracilis, p. Baccans, r. LinniEoides, t. Praecox, p. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. I Sessilifolia, t. Spicata,*. GREEK. GREEK. GREEK. GREEK. GREEK. GREEN. Sessiliflora, t. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. UttitanguU Aristata, o. v. Gtiida Discolor, t. BOOK II. EXOTIC HEATHS. 907 ERICA. MAY. Height Jr. Oto6 inch. From 6 to 12. From 12 to 18. From 18 to 24. From 24 to 50. From 30 uprvardt. RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Fimbriata, p. Kalmiseflora, o. Trivialis,p. Acuminata, t. Persoluta rubra, p. Ruffa, t. Versicolor, t. Viscaria, r. Trossula rubra, v. conferta VndromadiEflora, r. Venusta Tubiflora, t. Squarrosa carnea, t. fissa Racerniflora, p. Spuria pallida, t. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Exserta, p. Patens, o. Spuria, t. Concinna, t. Fragran, Mellifera, p. Plumosa Racemosa Mollis Puerilis YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW.' YELLOW. YELLOW. Campanulata, n Lacticolor Muscaria, v. Tenuiflora, t. [gnescens Hybrida Enneaphylla, t. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. irborea racemosa Squarrosa Arctata, p. Biflora, r. Cordata, o. p. Actea, p. Dormia variegated Pattersonia major, t. ^onfetta, p. Flexuosa Mundula, r. Persoluta alba, p. Odore rosaa, o. r. Pinifolia discolor Nigrita, r. Densa Stellata, p. Trossula alba, v. TTrsina. r. TTTxn? RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Longipedunculata, 0. V. Saturcifolia, o.p. Bracteata, o. o. Pistillaris, p. : Hyacinthoides, . Linnaea superba, t. Empetroides, p. Lams rubra Margaritacea incar- Splenden*, o. t. Reflexa rubra, r. nata PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. 5anksia purpurea, t. Blanda, o. t. Empetrifolia, p. Jlevata, o. v. Concava, o. )roseroid. minor, o. Elegans, o. Congesta.p. Depressa, t. Nivenia, o. v. Nobilis,o.p. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Banksia, t. Halicacaba, v. Flammea, o. t. Epistomia, . Simplicitblia, t. Erecta, t. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Acuta, o. t. Nivea, r. Absynthoides, p. J etiolata, p. Primuloides, f. Rostella, p. Linns ^ Margaritacea, p. Aristata scrotina, o. Heflexa alba . Melanthera Pyrolseflora, r. Regerminans, p. ra ' r TUT v RED. RED. RED- RED. RED. RED. 'aniculata, o. L.achniea rubra, o.p. Dickinsonia rnbra Articulata, . Lambertia, o. r. iFastigiate, iProboscidea 'Flaccida,p. Struthiolaeflora,o.p. Pendula 1 Phyllicoides major Pnysodes, . Pilosa, t. Shannonia, r. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED. Caffra spicata, p. Tricolor major Tricolor minor, o.t.l SEPTE lvmTi ' T * RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. /alycina min. o. p. Tenuifolia, v. Declinata, p. Fibula Floribunda Coccinea,/. major Mucronate Pregnans coccin. v. Carneola Alultiflora, p. Vestita coccinea, t. Plunkenetianana, t. Globosa,r. Pregnans, v. Dernua. p. Imbricate Rollinsonia,*. Archeria, o.t. Princeps, o. v. Erubescent, t. Palustris,p. Pulchella Scabriuscula,p. Sebana viridis PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Archeria, v. Cathroides, o. Tiarseflora Rugate, t. Vestita purpurea, t . Vestita fulgens, t. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Speciosa i Glandulosa Lanuginiosa, v. Petiveriana coc. t. Glutinosa Leea Fetiveriana GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. Superba Vindiflora Viridescens WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Cumulate Eriocephala, p. Occularia Plunkenetia alba, '. Planifolia, p. Setecea Pura, /. Solandr* OCT OBER RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Horizontalis, t. Cerinlhoides Ian. t. Pulverulente,r. Cerinthoides clote Pyramidalis, o. Cerinthoides cap. t. Perlate rubra, p. ' PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Rosacea, o. | Filamentosa, v. /. rurpurea YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. A urea, f. Serratifolia Flaya, t. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEN. GREEK. GREEN. Viridis, t. Euerana, t. - pilosa - speciosa WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Denticulate alba, v. Pinastri, t. Perlata, p. Senectula xrnv EMBER RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. RED. Vestita rosea, Dec. t. " PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. PURPLE. Laxa,p. Colorans YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. YELLOW. Sulpbnrea, t. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. WHITE. Pinca BOOK II. CAMELLIA. 909 6608. Propagation. A number of the sorts ripen their seeds in this country, and may be so propagated ; but the greater number are struck from cuttings, and some few, as E. massoni, retorta, petiolata, &c., by layers, which require two years to throw out roots. The seeds are often imported from the Cape, and arrive in winter : they should be sown early in the spring following, in frames filled with equal parts of peat and sand, very thinly covered, placed in the shade, and bell-glasses placed over them. Thesoil must be kept moderately moist by gentle waterings : they will in general come up in six weeks or three months, and may then be kept close to the glass in the heathery, or in a frame or pit till autumn, when they may be potted off. Seeds which are saved in this country may be sown as soon as gathered, if they ripan before September, but after that period it will be better to preserve them till next spring ; as the plants iroduced from them would not be sufficiently advanced to endure the winter. Cushing (Exotic Gard. 74.) prefers a September sowing, because he finds-the plants will stand the winter in the seed-pot better than tiose that have been raised early in spring, and transplanted in autumn into single pots. Ample directions "or strik- ing heaths will be found in Cushing's Exotic Gardener, who observes, that cultivators failed a; first by planting large cuttings of ripened wood, instead of taking only the points of the fresh shoot. The true method, he considers, of propagating heaths was first discovered in the Hammersmith nursery, and the following abstract of the practice there is from Page's Prodromus. " About the month of June, cr as soon as the plant has made fresh shoots, cut off' the extreme points about an inch long or less, according as the sort may afford, but always in the fresh shoot ; take off* the leaves from the lower part, as far as t is to be put in the sand, without injuring the shoot ; this is rather a nice operation, and should be done with a sharp penknife, for the least bruise spoils the cutting. Dibble them into a pot, filled with moisteaed com- mon white house-sand, before they have time to flag ; when they are all planted, water the whale to fix them still better ; let the moisture a little subside, then cover them with a small bell-glass, fitted within the rim of the pot, and place them in the shade on a spent hot-bed, keeping them close till rootei, which will, with the free sorts, take place in about two months : when rooted, which is known by their thooting, take off the small glass, for about a week, at night, previous to its total removal. They will be fit to pot off" in March the ensuing year." 6609. Henderson of WoodhalVs mode of striking ericas is as follows : " The month of July is a good time for putting in most of these cuttings ; but the cuttings must not betaken off till the young wood be firm. Cuttings of ericas may be put in at any time when the wood is in a proper state. Take the cuttings off the plants about three quarters of an inch long, pulling them off downwards; strip off the leaves nearly half the length of the cuttings ; place the cutting on the nail of the thumb, and, with a sharp knife, at right angles, cut off the small end close to the joint, or place where it was pulled off the plant. Having done this, plant them into a pot filled with small pit or river sand, giving them a good watering to tettle the sand about them. Set them on a shelf where they are a little shaded ; cover them with glasses, and notice to keep the sand always moist. Some of these sorts will be well rooted in three months, and others will require six months." (Caled. Mem. iii. 323.) Henderson keeps his ericas, at all times, cool and airy; " opening the glasses in winter when there is no frost, and letting the wind blow on them, and using no fire but in time of frost. Never," he says, "shift any plant till the pot is quite full of roots. When the plants get large, several of them will continue in good health for three or four years without shifting, and flower well. I have plants of erica retorta here, in pots seven inches in diameter, which are very bushy, being eighteen inches across, and fourteen inches high above the pot ; erica infundibuliformis, two and a half feet in diameter, and two feet nine inches high ; erica pilosa, betwixt five and six feet high, and three feet across, in pots eleven inches in diameter : these have not been shifted for five years, and are in high health, and covered with strong fine flowers from the mouth of the pot to the top of the plant." (Caled. Mem. iii. 327.) 6610. Culture. " A prejudice," Page observes, " having spread that the culture of these plants is diffi- cult, one of the greatest ornaments of the green-house has hence, of late, been neglected; although the method of culture is as easy, and nearly as certain, as that of the geranium, but requiring a little more de- licacy in the execution." The soil for all the species is peat-earth mixed with from one sixth to one fourth of fine white sand. The pots should be well drained and rather small ; but large, in proportion to the size of the plants. Heaths thrive best in a house by themselves, and placed as close to the glass as possible, without risk from frosts : they do not require so much heat as most green-house plants, but abundance of air, and, above all, great regularity as to water, so as to preserve, as much as possible, an equable and mo- derate degree of moisture about their roots. The mass of mould being once thoroughly dried, the plant is irrecoverably lost ; and it is equally so, though the operation goes on with less rapidity, if the pot is kept in a pan of water. No kind of plant is more injured by being kept in a chamber than heath, nor-vvill they thrive in a green-house or in the open air, within the influence of the smoke of large towns. In the best situations and under the best management, many of the species are short-lived, and therefore require to be frequently renewed by cuttings or seed. , . 6611. The ericas are not subject to insects. Henderson says " I have never had any insect on them except the green fly. The old grandiflora is the only one with me that has been attacked. I destroyed the flies by dipping the plant into an infusion of tobacco. The ericas, I find, do not agree well with being smoked with tobacco-paper in the usual way." (Ib. iii. 327.) SUBSECT. 3. Camellia. Camellia and Thea, W. Monad. Potyand. L. and Aurantice, J. 6612. Of the camellia genus there are four species introduced: the C. bohea, viridis, and sasanqua, are the plants whose leaves furnish the tea imported from China ; C. japonica, introduced in 1739, is an ornamental evergreen shrub, which grows to the size of a low tree in China, with dark-green ovate leaves, on short petioles, and flowers red, white, striped, and variegated, and single, semi-double, and double, without fragrance, but of great splendor and beauty, and peculiarly valuable, as appearing in December, January, and February. 6613. Varieties. These are White; the single, semi-double, double, I pink, buff', long-leaved, striped-leaved, I There are above half 'a dozen other sorts, , double white .waratah, Willbank's white, I myrtle-leaved^ady Hume's, Greville's I procured from seed, which are not yet 'fimbriated white, and spotted-leaved. I coronet, six-angled, and waratah. I named, and many hybrids have not yet Red ; the single, semi-double, double, I Red and white ; the striped, double, semi- I come into flower, pale, dark, large, pceony, pompone, | double, variegated, and spotted-leaved. | 6614. Propagation. The single red camellia is propagated by cuttings, layers, and seeds, for stocks ; and on these the other sorts are generally inarched, and sometimes budded or grafted. The cuttings are formed of ripened shoots of the preceding summer, which are taken off in August, cut smoothly across at a joint or bud, two or three of the lower leaves only taken off, and the cuttings then planted and made firm with a small dibber, in pans of sand or loam, or, by some cultivators, sand and peat, or sand alone. The pans are kept in a pit or cold-frame, without being covered with glasses, but shaded during powerful sunshine; and in the following spring such as are struck will begin to push, when they are to be placed in a gentle heat. In September or October following, the rooted plants will be fit to pot off; and in the second or third spring they may be used as stocks. Henderson puts in camellia-cuttings at any time of the year, except- ing when they are making young wood. He puts fifty cuttings in a pot of sand eight inches in diameter, sts them in a cool place in the back of a vinery or peach-house for a month or six weeks, and then plunges 910 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. them to the brim in a hot-bed where there is a little bottom heat. A speedy mode of obtaining stocks is by plantirg stools in a pit devoted to that purpose, and laying these in autumn ; the following autumn most of the layers will have produced roots, when they may be taken off and potted, and used as stocks in the succeeding spring. Inarching or grafting is performed early in spring, when the plants begin to grow j the chief care requisite is so to place and fix the pot containing the stock, as that it may not be disturbed during the connection of the scion with the parent plant. The graft being clayed over, is then covered with moss, to prevent its cracking. When independent grafting is resorted to, the mode called side grafting (2031.) is generally used, as in the case of orange-trees (5910.) ; but the operation of tongueing is generally omitted, as weakening the stock, and unnecessary, with a view to prevent the scion from being blown off by winds. A few seeds are sometimes obtained from the single red and semi-double camellias, and from the single waratah ; these require two years to come up, but make the best stocks of any. The tea-camel- lias are fjenerally propagated by layers, but will also succeed by cuttings. 6615. foil. Some cultivators grow the camellias chiefly in peat ; but Messrs. Loddiges, who have the most numerous collection of this genus, formerly used loam, with a little sand and peat for most of the sorts ; and they are grown in a similar soil in the Hammersmith nursery. Of late, Messrs. Loddiges find light loan alone to answer as well or better. In the Count de Vande's garden, at Bayswater, rotten dung is mixed with loam and peat, and the surface of the pots are top-dressed with fresh cow-dung, free from litter. The plants appear to us to grow most luxuriantly in a strong rich loam ; but to be most prolific in flower-buds in loam and peat. Henderson, of Woodhall, is one of the most successful growers of the camel- lia in Scotland ; his compost is as follows : Take one part of light-brown .jnould, one part of river-sand, one part of peat-earth, one half part rotted leaves. Mix them all well together, and when the camellias re- quire shifting, put some broken coal-char in the bottom of the pots, and some dry moss or hypnum over it. (doled. Nem. iii. 316.) 6616. Camellia-house. Camellias have the best effect, and are grown to most advantage in a house en- tirely demoted to them. Such a house should be rather lofty, as the plants never look so well as when six or eight feet high, trained in a conic form, and clothed with branches from the root upwards. The plants should be raised near to the glass by means of a stage, which should be so contrived that as they ad- vance in height, it may be lowered in proportion. Only the very best crown or patent glass should be used ; because it is found, from experience, that the least inequality of surface, or thickness of material so oper- ates on tie sun's rays, as to concentrate them, and burn or produce blotches on the leaves of the plants. Every cultivator must have observed that leathery shining leaves, like those of the orange, myrtle, &c., are more or :ess obnoxious to this solar injury ; but the leaves of the camellia are particularly so. Some nur- serymen recommend a roof which will not admit much light ; others, the use of green glass ; of an opaque roof, with glass in front only ; or, of a house facing the north. Our opinion is, that a light house facing the south, or, better still, glass on all sides, is essential to the perfect growth of the plants ; and that all solar accidents may be avoided, or at least rendered of no consequence, by using the best glass, and placing the plants as near it as possible. 6617. To grow the camellia to a high degree of perfection, considerable care is requisite. The roots are very apt to get matted in the pot, and by the space they occupy, so to compress the ball of mould as after a time to render it impervious to water. Hence frequent attention should be had, to see that the water poured on the pots, moistens all the earth, and does not escape by the sides of the pot, moistening only the web of fibres. The same cause renders examining the roots, and shifting or reducing and replanting them, a necessary measure, at least once a-year. When the plants are in flower, and in a growing state, they re- quire to he liberally watered, and also a degree of heat somewhat more than is usually given to green-house plants. Jf this heat is not given in November and December, the plants will not expand their blossoms freely ; and if both water and heat are not regularly applied after the blossoming season, vigorous shoots will not be produced. To form handsome plants, they should be trained with single stems to rods, and pruned so as to make them throw out side branches from every part of the stem : to encourage these, the plants should not be set close together on the stage. In summer they may either be set out of doors on a stratum of scoriae, or on a pavement, in a sheltered but open situation ; or the glass roof may be taken off. The hardier sorts, as the double reds, blush pseony, flowered, &c., answer very well when planted in the bed or border of a conservatory, provided the roof or entire superstructure can be removed in summer to admit the full influence of the weather. Where this cannot be done, the camellia and most other plants are better in portable utensils, which admit both of examining their roots, and placing them in the open air, or in a greater degree of heat at pleasure. The single and double red camellia will endure the open air, when trained against a south wall, and protected by mats in winter ; and there can be no doubt that in time these and other species will be more perfectly inured to our climate. 6618. Henderson, of WoodhaU, gives the following account of his mode of treating the camellia. " The best time for a regular shifting of the camellias is the month of February or beginning of March. After shifting all those that require it, put them into the peach-house or vinery, where there is a little heat ; if there be no peach-house, vinery, nor pinery, set them in the warmest part of the green-house. They will soon begin to make young wood. From the time they begin to make their young shoots, till they have finished their growth, give them plenty of water. They may be kept in the vinery or peach- house till they have formed their flower-buds at the extremity and sides of the young growths, when a few of them may be removed to a colder place, say behind the stage of the green-house ; for the camel- lias are fond of being shaded during strong sunshine. In three or four weeks after, a few more of the camellias may be brought from the vinery or peach-house, and put into a cooler situation. This may be repeated three or four times, which will make as many different successions of flowering. Those that are wanted to come into flower early, may remain in the warm house till they are beginning to flower, when they should be taken to a cold place, say the coldest place of the green-house ; then give them plenty of "light only, and they will open their flowers well, and stand long. A camellia cannot stand heat when in flower, indeed they seldom open their flowers fine when in heat, and, at all events, the flowers soon fall off. Those that are kept all the summer in the vinery, will come into flower by the first or middle of October, and a pretty large plant, having perhaps fifty or a hundred flower-buds, will continue in flower till the month of January. Those plants that are removed early from the vinery, will now be in flower, to succeed those that were in flower in October, and have now done flowering. These last should be immediately taken into the heat They will make their young wood early, and they may remain in heat till they come into flower, which will perhaps be a month earlier next year. By attending to shifting the camellia-plants from the warm house to the cold, a regular succession of flowers may thus be had from the first of October to the middle of July. I have even had them all the summer, but the flowers are best in the winter. Those produced in summer are far from being so fine, and do not stand half the time of those that come into flower in November, December, January, February, March, and April Camellias delight to be kept damp all the summer months, and a little shaded from the strong sun. Give them plenty of water while they are making their young shoots; they may also get a gentle sprinkling over the leaves once every week during the summer season, except when they are in flower. Camellias will stand a great deal of cold without being much injured, but they will not form many flower-buds without some artificial heat. I find they flower best when kept in rather small pots or tubs. I never shift them but once in two years, or often once in three years. There are several very large camellias here that have not been shifted these five years, and they are still in high health, having always produced above a hundred fine large flowers every year. Six years ago, I shifted a single camellia from a twelve-inch pot into a tub seventeen inches wide by seventeen deep, and grafted it with two dif- ferent sorts of double red, one double striped, and one double white : it is still in the same tub, and all the rour sorts in high health. I have had all the four sorts in flower at once on it, producing a fine contrast BOOK II. WOODY GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS. 911 of colors. The plant is large and handsome, being eight feet six inches high, and six feet nine inches wide. There is another plant here, twelve feet high, having upon it all the sorts I possess. They were only grafted last summer, and a number of the sorts are showing flowers ; grafts of all of them have taken and are growing well. The plant is growing in a box sixteen inches over by sixteen inches deep." (Caled, Mem. iii. 316.) SUBSECT. 4. Various Genera which may be considered as select Green-house Plants, showy, fragrant, and of easy culture. 6619. Of other select green-house plants, the first we shall mention is the citrus tribe, already treated of as fruit-trees (4879.) ; the beauty and fragance of which need no en- comium. They merit a house by themselves, though they will thrive perfectly in the same climate as the camellia. The myrtle comes next in order : nerium is a well known genus, whose flowers are of great beauty and long duration ; fuchsia is universally ad- mired ; jasminum, gardenia, and daphne, have flowers of great fragrance ; heliotropium is remarkable as smelling like new hay ; various species and varieties of rosa indica and semperflorens are both beautiful and odoriferous, and flower throughout the winter. Among the new genera from the Cape and Botany Bay, acacia, mimosa, eucalyptus, melaleuca, metrosideros, and the proteaceae, are admired for being prolific in showy flowers, which, for the most part, appear early in spring, and being chiefly evergreens and large-growing hardy plants. Diosma, gnidia, and struthiola, are admired for their minute foliage and elegant flowers ; those of xeranthemum are prized for their dura- bility. Bignonia, coboea, dolichos, jasminum, lonicera, and passiflora, are admired climbers ; of passiflora some beautiful hybrids have been originated by Milne of the Fulham nursery. (Hort. Trans, iv. 258. and v. 70.) Mesembryanthemum, cactus, and yucca, are curious and beautiful succulents ; amaryllis, cyclamen, iris, ixia, and gla- diola, lachenalia, babiana, ferraria, and oxalis, are beautiful bulbous-rooted plants ; and calla, celsia, cineraria, lobelia, tropaeolum, and jacobaea, select herbaceous sorts. 6620. The principal species of these genera will be found arranged in the following sections, with their colors, and other particulars, added to each. They are of easy culture, and, with the genera of the pre- ceding subsections, may be considered as affording the best choice for a small, showy, odoriferous, ever- green, and ever-flowering collection. 6621. SECT. II. Woody Green-house Plants. WOODY GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS. JAN. FEB. MARCH. RED. PURPLE. YELLOW. WHITE. VARIEGATED. Salvia dentate, p. Azalea indica Daphne odora, fl. purp. Camelia various sorts Erica, various sorts Erica, various sorts Hyperium creticum, p. Pogonia glabra Cluytia alaternoides, p. Erica, various sorts Banksia paludosa, p. Phylica ericoides erubescens Banksia marcessens, p. Daphne odora fol. var. fl. Protea ampleiicaulis Camellia, various sorts Erica, various sorts Erica, various sorts Protea mellifera, fol. ' - ' pendula ' Camellia various sorts Isopogoaanfitbifolius APRIL. RED. PURPLE. YELLOW. WHITE. VARIEGATED. Spacris pungens rosea,p. Myrsineafricana,p. Boronia pinnata Cineraria ameloides Hermannia grossular. p. Hypericum balearicum Banksia littoralis Dryandra tenuifolia monogynum Acacia pubescens, p. rubra suaveolens pungens alba Parietaria arborea, p. Myrtus commun. ISvar. Phylica pubescens, p. Isopogon formosum Protea longiflora Struthiola erecta, p. MAY. RED. PURPLE. YELLOW. WHITE. ORANGE. Aotus villosa,p. cordifofta Bauera humilis, p. rubioides 3horizema rhombea Daviesia ulecina, p. major Fuchsia lycioides Magnolia annonifolia, p. Cheiranthus mutabil. p. Daphne olefolia, p. Diosma purpurea, p. ' Indigofera australis.p. Lavatera maritima, p. Lotus jacobacus Paeoma moutan, fl.pu. p. Polygala cordifolia, p. heisteria Edwaidsia grandiflora mycrophylla Genista linifolia canariense Gnidia simplex, p. - pinifolia - ciliata radiata Arbutus cassinifol. p. Buchnera viscosa, p. Cistus vaginatus Correa alba, p. Diosma capitata, p. ciliata ericoides ovata pulchella Pultenaea flexilis, n. - linophylla obcordata retusa fuscata Vlahernia pinnata Melaleuca tomentosa stipulacea Salvia africana sericea capitata flava uniflora umbellata Empetrum album Pseonia moutan papaveracea Polygala mixta rubra,p. Struthiol. ciliat. fl. ru. p. Camellia, various sorts grandis Pultenaea flexilis, t. p. - obcordatU retusa, t. Hakea pugioniformis, p. Malva capensis, p. Melaleuca viridiflora Pittosporum undulat. p. Pomaderris elliptica Protea lanceolata Struthiola ciliata tabricata - ov^ata 912 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. JUNE. PART III. RED. PURPLE & BLUE. YELLOW. WHITE, ORANGE. ;alothamnus quadnfida villosa Cheiranthustristis Corraa speciosa Crotolaria elegans, d. p. Jpacris grandiflora, p. Illicium floridanum _ parviflorum Me.aleucasm.h^.,,. Met^derosan^stifoL lanceolata Oxylobium cordifol. p. Pimelia linifolia, tlo. ros. Virgilia capensis Convolvulus cneorum, p. Indigofera angustifol. p. purpureum Podalyria calytrata, p. Polygala bracteata _ cordifolia opposititblia Swainsonia galegifolia betonicum Teucrium fruticans Brunia ericoides, p. Cliftbrtia ericaefolia Corraea viridiflora, p. Gnaphalium arborescens congestum Gnidia imberbis Loddigesia oxalidifol. p. Acacia ensifolia i isir lophantha, p. Pittosporum revolut. .tobiraj Acacia alata 1 Andersonia sprengel. p. Buchnera pedunculata Citrus aurantium buiifohus decumana limon limonella medica nobilis Diosma fragrans, p. oppositifolia Empleurum serritulum latifolium Gnidia opposititblia Acacia lophantha, p. Pimelia linifolia Protea candidans Zieria smithii Sossiaea cineria, p. heteropnylla scolopendrium Daviesia latifolia _ saligna _ ericifolia Dillwyniaglaberima floribunda Goodia lotifolia pubescens Pultena.>a daphnoides, p. Sphaarolob. vimineum JULY. RED. PURPLE. YELLOW. WHITE. ORANGE. Beaufortia decussata, p. glauca Bouvardia triphylla, p. Calothamnus gracilis ;olutea frutesoens Spachris pulchella, p. minor "uchsia coccinea lermannia flammea, p. /ambertia formosa [ami 1). pseudo diet. p. Meialeuca densa _ fulgens _ pufchella! Grevillea linearis Lachnea purpurea, p. Lavandula pinnata Psoralea aculeata Salvia africana, p. Scabiosa africana, t. Swainsonia coron. fol. p. galegifolia Cassia corymbosa, p. Cytissus tomentosus, p. Gardenia Thunbergia Gnidia flava,,p. sericea Hypericum cons, p. Jasminum odoratissim. Leptospermum arbores- cens, p. Magnolia pumila Acacia acicularrs Salviaaurea Aster argophyllus, p. Banksia praemorsa Cassine maurocenia Cistus algarvensis, p. ' canarieusis Clethra arborea Dais cotonifoiia Diosma imbricata orbicularis speciosa Dryandra f loribunda HeUotropium grandiflo. Leptospermum ambigu. Protea latifblia mucronifolia Baeckia virgata, p. , Eiosea yervamora Bossieea mycrophylla Buddlea salvifoha Platylobium tbrmos. p, minor ' AUGUST. RED. PURPLE. YELLOW. WHITE. ORANGE. Hermanniacuneifolia,f. odorata Meialeuca decussata _ globifera hypericlfolia linarifolia Nerium oleander flo. pleno - splendens Srica, various sorts Elaeria purpurea, p. Diosma tetragona, p. Lavandula dentata Podalyria sericea, p. Polygala filiformis speciosa Trachelium caeruleum Erica, various sorts Brunia candicans, p. elegans Hypericum canariense olympicum reflexum lanceolatum Jasminum odoratissim. Acacia discolor Plectranthus fruticosus Erica, various sorts Janksia attenuata, p. Beaufortia glauca, p. Mastrus cassinoides, p. :>iosma latifolia Donnia glutinosa, p. iakia cineria Leptosperm. obliquum r -flo. alb. p. Neriunj oleander - - flo.plen. : 'rotea umbellata ;elago corymbosa, p. Struthiola virgata, p. StyUdium fruticosum,p. Erica, various sorts Eutaiia myrtifolia, p. Platylobium triangulare Tristania conferta, p. - nerifolia Erica, various sorts ta SEPTEMBER. RED. PURPLE. YELLOW. WHITE. ORANGE. 'hlomis leonorus Ericae et Oeraniae Ericae etGeranlae Gordonia lasianthus, p. Ericse et Geraniie Phylica ericoides, p. Protea tomentosa Ericae et Geraniffi Ericae et Geraniae OCTOBER, NOVEMBER, DECEMBER. RED. PURPLE. YELLOW. WHITE. ORANGE. Phlomis nepetifolia, p. Lantana africana Ericas et Geranias Statice mucronata Ericae et Geraniae Linum trieynum, p. Ericae et Geranice Arbutus longifolia, p. Protea hypophylla, p. Gomphocarpus arbores- cens, p. Westringia rosmarini- formis Ericae et Geraniae ' Ericae et Geraniae 6622. Propagation. The method universally applicable is that by cuttings ; but a few sorts, which are very difficult to strike, are sometimes layered, grafted, or inarched, and a number are raised from seeds. 6623. Many green-house plants bring their seeds to perfection in this country ; at whatever time these ripen, unless before midsummer, it is best to keep them till the following February. Sown at that season they soon vegetate, and make strong plants before winter. The pots should be well drained, filled with mould suitable to the species to be sown, and the surface covered with mould of the finest quality, as a bed for the seeds. Several kinds may be sown in a pot, where the quantity of seed is not great, or its quality doubtful ; cover with the same fine mould, according to the size of the seeds, and then give a BOOK II. WOODY GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS. 913 gentle watering with the finest-rose watering-pot. They may now he set in the most dry airy part of the tion-house, where they can be regularly attended, as to watering and weeding. Watering, Cushing observes, they will require at least once a-day, in a greater or less degree ; propagation-house, where they can be regularly attended, as to watering and weeding. 6624. Watering, Cushing observes, they will require at least once a-day, in a gre for if they are not kept properly moist, the seeds will not by any means vegetate freely, if at all ; however, , , the other extreme is to be studiously avoided. The weeds should be regularly pulled out before they attain any size ; else, besides their tops smothering the young seedlings which may have started, the roots, in getting them out afterwards, not only disturb them, but also the remaining seeds that may be perhaps on the point of bursting their embryo. As the spring advances, it will be necessary to lay a few sheets of strong paper over the pots, for two or three hours in the middle of the day, if the weather happens to be clear, and the sun acts forcibly on them; particularly those in which the finer seeds are sown, in order to prevent the surface getting over dry and powder-like; or otherwise, if the mould happens to be pretty moist, it is liable to form a mossy crust, which might be particularly injurious, by preventing the young seedling ushering itself into the light, from penetrating through it with that ease which is requisite. In this manner must they be managed until the beginning or middle of June, at which season the larger kinds of seed may be removed to some shady border, where the pots can be plunged nearly up to the rim in coal-ashes or sand ; which will greatly assist to keep them in a proper moist state : here, all the care they will require is to be kept clear from weeds, and regularly watered, morning and evening, if requisite : but never when the sun shines strong upon them, lest the tender leaves of the young plants should get scorched ; it will be also necessary to have a careful eye daily for slugs, worms, &c. Should there be any fine light-covered seeds, stich as heaths, &c. they must be set in such a manner, that they may be covered with a common hot-bed frame, in a moderately exposed situation, so that in case of sudden or heavy showers, which might otherwise wash the seeds out of the pots, they may be occasionally covered to preserve them from such violence ; yet they may be exposed to gentle rains at times, but never long together, lest they become over wet, which would soon perish them in this tender state. They will likewise require to be shaded with a mat in clear weather, or even a double mat, in the very hottest season. 0625. Potting qffl Early in July, many of them will be growing pretty fast, and will require to be potted off' into separate pots ; as it is much preferable to do this while they are young and small, before their roots become matted together, than it is afterwards ; besides, that they have a considerable portion of the growing season before them to establish themselves, before the winter stops their career. In per- forming this work, care should be taken to match the pot to the size of the plant, and nature of the species to be potted ; as overpotting these small seedlings might be of the worst consequence. The largest-sized pots for this use, unless the plants are particularly strong, are what are called No. 60s : but for heaths, and such like very small articles, a still less size, known by the name of thimble pots, are to be preferred. Being provided with a quantity of these, and the different sorts of mould properly prepared, that may be requisite for the kinds to be done, proceed to part the plants ; in doing which, let the nicest care be taken to preserve as much roots and earth to each plant as can possibly be done without injuring the others : let them be neatly potted in the proper mould, which must be gently pressed to the roots, that they may the sooner incorporate themselves with it. In this manner, pot as many as may be thought sufficient for the present purpose, at the same time allowing a few for mischances. They must then be well watered, in the manner already directed for seedlings, and set in a cool frame, on coal-ashes well rolled, or any other hard substance that will prevent, the worms getting so freely into them, as they otherwise would. The lights must be kept constantly on, and closed, for a few days, more or less as circumstances may require ; and it will be also necessary to shade them very secure from the strong rays of the sun at first; however, in a little time, the lights may be taken off at night, if fine, having them on, and shading in the day, until by degrees the plants are so "hardened as to be able to withstand the full power of the sun ; thus, in the space of a fortnight or so, they will be fit to be set along with the other plants. This business should not be undertaken later than the middle of August, for if executed at a more advanced season, the plants will not have time to establish themselves ; therefore, any that may remain in the pots, not strong enough to be parted by that period, should be removed into the propagation-house early in September, and there placed in their proper situation in that department until the spring following. Indeed, there are some seeds which absolutely require to be kept for that term before they will vegetate ; whereby it becomes necessary to examine with care whatever pots have not by that time shown any signs of vegetation, and those which are found alive must be saved, and treated in the same manner as fresh-sown seeds. 6626. The pots set in the house will require nearly the same treatment as usual, viz. to be kept perfectly clear from weeds, and regularly watered. Water should now be given in the morning only, as any damps it may occasion will have time sufficient to evaporate in the course of the ensuing day whereas, if given in the evening, it causes a dullness about their tender leaves, and from the necessary closeness of the house at night, not having free exhalation, it may do a material injury, not only to the seedlings them- selves, but likewise to the adjacent plants, by tending to increase the general damp of the house. When first housed, if the weather prove clear, they must be shaded for two or three hours at mid-day ; but this practice must not be followed too closely, as the influence of the sun is but seldom too powerful for them at this season, and during the winter months the more sun they receive the better : it is also necessary to be par- ticular in observing that no slugs, snails, or any other insect, harbor about them. Those seeds received from New South Wales, in general, as well as "many others of the South Sea Islands, and also several of the larger sorts from the interior parts of the Cape of Good Hope, from the warmer countries of temperate America, and in short, any of the climes in, or approaching the same latitudes, although the plants when grown will flourish and come to perfection in the green-house, yet the seeds will require the aid of a hot- bed when first sown, to set them in vegetation, and until they are parted and established in their separate pots, then to be hardened by degrees to the open air ; from which time, they may be treated as directed for the more hardy and common sorts of seedlings. (Exotic Card. 84.) 6627. By cuttings. This mode of propagation may be commenced about the middle or end of January. As young shoots in a growing state generally strike most freely, where these are wanting on particular specimens, the plants may be forced for a few weeks in the stove, or in any of the pits in the reserve flower-garden, to produce them, All the soft-w r ooded, tender, pithy kinds, such as indigofera, crotolaria, polygala, housto- nia, chironia, &c., as well as some of the more curious gemmae, may require this treat- ment. By the end of February, the heat will have produced shoots of from two to four inches in length, and from that to any time in March, proceed to cut and dress them neatly with a sharp penknife, taking off all the leaves as close to the stem as possible without wounding it, except a few at the top, to be left for the free respiration of the cutting : this observation should be particularly attended to in making cuttings of ever- greens in general, whether hardy or tender : let them be cut off at bottom with a clean horizontal cut, at a joint or bud, and immediately inserted in their proper pots. To have these properly prepared is a very necessary part of the business ; being well drained, they should be rather more than half filled with the mould or compost best suited to the nature of the plant, and afterwards filled with good loam or sand, whichsoever may be 3 N 914 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. thought more advisable to insert the cutting in : if sand is used, it should be previously well watered, otherwise it cannot be sufficiently tightened to the base of the cutting ; a most essential point to be observed ; however, it should have time to be well drained off from the pot before the cuttings are put in ; as they, being so tender, are extremely liable to damp at this season ; than which nothing is more injurious. The loam will, in general, be found sufficiently moist of itself ; and should it be of a fine, sandy nature, so much the better ; but if not, a third or fourth part of fine sand should be added, and well mixed previous to its being used. 6628. Being properly planted, let them be covered immediately with the proper glass, well fitted, and pressed moderately on the mould, so as perfectly to exclude the air. They should then be plunged in the front of the bark-pit of the propagation-house ; or otherwise in a hot-bed frame made up for that purpose. The inside of the glasses should be regularly wiped with a dry cloth every morning ; and any of them that happen to damp, carefully taken away before they contaminate the rest. If the sun happens to be un- clouded, they must be shaded for a few days moderately with strong paper, or some such article ; but by no means is it to be left on too late in the afternoon, as the cuttings being so soft and tender, are extremely susceptible of injury by over-shading. In the space of ten days or a fortnight, some of the free-rooting kinds will be making efforts of growth ; as soon as this is noticed, it will be necessary to give them a little air, by taking the glasses off every evening, when the sun is quite receded from them, and putting them on again early the following morning ; until they are by that means hardened, so as to be able to bear the full power of the sun without the glass, when it is to be entirely discontinued. If any of them should droop their heads when this operation is first performed, it is proper to refrain from moving the glasses until they have gained more strength. The shading is also to be decreased by degrees, but not so much as to be entirely done away while there remains any of them under glasses. In this manner is the business to be followed at different intervals, according as the cuttings are ready during the months of March and April. 6629. May and June is the most proper time for propagating most or all of the woody shrub-like plants ,- such as myrtles, oranges, metrosideros, banksias, &c. and more particularly heaths, as the young wood will by that time be in general pretty far advanced. If this business is begun in June, which is early enough, they must, on account of the increased heat of the season, be plunged in some cool shady situa- tion, where they can be conveniently shaded when requisite : an exhausted hot-bed, with a frame and good lights on it, will answer very well ; or otherwise, the north side of any low wall or hedge, where they will be a little sheltered from "the noonday sun, and have the benefit of it morning and evening ; in either place, the pots must be plunged up to the rim in old tan or sawdust; and in the latter, they will also require to be covered with large cap-glasses over the small ones, as well mixed cuttings as heaths, except a few of the herbaceous sorts, such as arctotis, calendula, &c. and strong, substantial, broad-leaved kinds, as camellia, laurus, &c. which will succeed better without the small glasses at this season, so that they are covered with sound airtight caps. There are many others, indeed all late- growing deciduous, as well as evergreen sorts, as pomegranates, oleas, myrtles, &c. ; which, in general, only form their callosities previous to the ensuing spring, that do better without the small glasses, as their leaves drop off much sooner when too closely covered, than they do when differently managed ; and it is well certified, that the longer the leaves are retained in an active state, the greater the pro- bability of success : this is to be merely understood as relating to late cuttings ; for the same articles, if put in early in spring, very young, in a moderate heat, closely covered, properly shaded and dried, will strike astonishingly quick. Cuttings of all the kinds that re'main to be propagated should also be made at this season, and managed in the same manner. The whole being thus arranged, they must be carefully shaded whenever the sun acts violently on them, especially when first put in ; but they ought not to be shaded longer than four or five o'clock in the afternoon, according to circumstances, as the mild influence of the sun at that hour will be necessary to dry up any damps that may have arisen within the caps. It will be also requisite to dry the small bell-glasses every morning, as directed for the spring cuttings, and to water occasionally any of the pots which may require it ; for though it is proper to keep the top of the cutting dry, yet "the mould in the pot must be kept as near a medium as possible between wet and dry, otherwise they will not freely vegetate. 6630. Potting qff'. Some of the first put in spring cuttings will, in May or June, require to be parted and potted separately in small pots ; in performing which, be careful to avoid breaking the roots, using them much in the same manner as already directed for seedlings. When potted and watered, they must be set in the propagation-house for a few days, and shaded until they have established themselves in the fresh mould : as soon as they have taken to grow freely, let them be removed to a frame ; but observe not to expose them to the open air entirely at first, as it might do them a material injury, on account of which, the lights over them should be kept closer than usual for a few days. About the middle of June, any of the tenderer green-house cuttings that have been left in the propagation-house since spring, should be plunged under the cap-glasses along with the others : where the Whole must be carefully attended to every morning, to pick off damps, dry the glasses, and water when wanted ; it is advisable, when fresh watered, to let the glasses stand off for about a quarter or half an hour, to dry the surface a little, except the sun happens to be very clear, and shining direct on them. It has been already remarked, that there are many kinds which do better without the small glasses ; such as the strong-growing, spongy, and succulent kinds; also those with thick leathery leaves, as the camellia, and some species of ilex, &c. which are very liable to have their leaves scorched by the glasses collecting the rays of the sun. Any time during the months of June or July, cuttings of these sorts may be made with success ; as by that time the young shoots will be sufficiently firm for that purpose, and will strike freely in good loam : but camellias, and such like sorts, should not be cut until the shoots have finished their growth, and the leaves attained their full size, as they are, when taken too young, particularly subject to rottenness and damp. In July and August, there will be many of the earlier cuttings growing ; they should have their glasses taken off, as before directed, and afterwards be set for a few days in a more exposed situation, to harden them by degrees, in which they must be shaded from the mid-day sun, but freely exposed to the air at night. 6631. Parting and potting should also be occasionally performed on such as are ready for that operation ; when, if any of them happen to be more backward than others in the same pot, and not rooted, let them be put in again as cuttings, and treated as such ; those potted should be set in a cool frame, as directed for seedlings, where they must be kept close and shaded, except in mild weather, until they are by degrees inured to the free air. 6632. Removing to the propagation -house. At the season in which it is judged advisable to house the general collection of green-house plants, it will be also requisite to have the cuttings removed to the propagation-house, to be cleaned, sorted, and regulated, according to their different kinds and stages of growth. The commoner sorts will do to be set in any part of the house where they will have free air and light, and that they can be got at conveniently to water, and pick them when necessary ; the more curious kinds should bo set in a dry airy part, where they can be carefully attended, to p'revent their getting over dry or dirty, and also to take the glasses occasionally off those that may be growing. All the backward heaths, proteas, or any other hard-wooded kinds, such as are most of the Botany Bay plants, &c. that take a long time to strike, should be set in one of the coolest and driest situa- tions of the hoUhouse, where they must be watered and cleaned, like the others, throughout the win- BOOK If. WOODY GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS. 915 tcr. Towards the commencement of the new year, many of them will begin to grow, therefore the glasses must be taken off such as soon as necessary. With the advancing season, these will likewise advance, and soon require to be parted, and potted separately. (Exotic Gard. 101.) 6633. Almost all the woody green-house plants may be projxtgatcd bu cuttings ; but a few are occa- sionally layered, inarched, or grafted, as the camellia, citrus, daphne, &c. which have been already 6634. General culture of woody green-house plants. We shall commence with the shifting season, which generally takes place about the end of May, and trace, from Cush- ing, an outline for their general culture and management throughout the year. Green- house plants, this author observes, for the most part require a considerable share of pot-room, as many of them are very free growers ; but still great caution is necessary to avoid over-potting the tenderer weak-growing kinds. When shifted, let them be neatly tied up, if requisite, and well watered. Any dead or ill grown parts can now be, with propriety, cut away, so as to give the heads a regular neat appearance. In bright sun- shine it may be also necessary to shade them for a few days from the influence of the sun and winds, until they are perfectly established in the fresh mould. 6635. Placing in the open air. By the middle of June, it will be time to think of preparing the out-door departments, in which it is intended the plants should stand during the summer months. The most eligible situations for this purpose are, the north aspect of vacant walls or hedges, where they will be a little shaded from the noonday sun, or between rows of close hedges, particularly planted for, and solely appropriated to this purpose. By no means set them close under the shade or branches of large trees : a's the plants are thereby inevitably drawn into a weak state in a few weeks, and those who adopt such situa- tions are not unfrequently under the disagreeable necessity of throwing away many of, perhaps, their most rare plants, every autumn : and even those that remain will have a bad unsightly appearance. In- deed, shelter from the winds is the great desideratum to prevent their being upset, for most green-house plants are fond of the warmth of the sun, except when recently potted, provided their roots are kept moderately moist. The practice of some gardeners is to plunge them amongst the shrubs and flowers of the pleasure-ground ; this answers pretty well with the strong-growing-kinds, such as myrtles, geraniums, coronillas, &c. old plants or supernumeraries that will not be wanted to house in the autumn ; and even has a very pretty effect when judiciously done ; but it will by no means do for the tender species. There- fore, upon the whole, the most unexceptionable situations are such as at the same time afford a moderate portion of shade, and-are so situated as to break the force of those strong gales which frequently blow in the summer and early autumn months, and yet allow that free circulation of air so necessary to the well- being of plants in general, and at all seasons. Having fixed on the place where they are to stand, it must be thoroughly cleansed from weeds, and the hedges, if any, neatly clipped. It should then be well rolled, to make it perfectly firm and level, over it a layer of good lime, slacked and made into the consistency of thick white-wash, should be poured, and left to soak into the surface, as a preventive against worms getting into the pots. When this is dry, let about an inch of finely sifted coal-ashes be regularly laid on, and firmly rolled a second time. Being thus prepared, the plants may be brought, out ard set regularly and level on the surface, in whatever form or arrangement may best suit the situation or the taste of the cultivator. 6636. Housing in autumn. As the young tender shoots of the summer's growth are "extremely liable to be injured by the frost, as soon as any symptoms of this appear, they should be removed to thc'ir win- ter quarters, where, if the green-house is built on a proper principle, they can still have the benefit of the free air, and at the same time be in a situation to be protected when necessity requires. They should, at all events, be removed in the earlier part of September. Therefore, about a fortnight before that time, they should be regularly examined, and any roots that may have extended themselves through the holes at the bottom of the pots, cleanly cut away : this tends to stop the too luxuriant growth, and being exe- cuted at a proper period, before their final removal, they have time to recover themselves from the partial check they may have received by it; which would come doubly severe, if deferred until the time of re- moving them into the house ; the transition from the cool bottom on which they stood, to the dry boards of the green- house stage, being so materially different. Whatever may be the mode of arrangement adopted (6205.), the plants must not be set too close when first put in, as it would occasion most of their ten- der leaves to turn yellow and fall off; neither should they, if the house happens to have been built on a close construction, be by any means taken in when their leaves are wet. 6637. When they are all housed, and dirt of every description taken away, let as much free air be given as possible in the daytime ; and even at night, should the weather prove moderately mild, and free from any appearance of frost. Frosts, at this early season, are seldom so severe as to injure any green-house plants that were not immediately exposed to its perpendicular effect ; therefore the front windows may be kept open continually, unless there is a prospect of its being particularly severe, or accompanied with cold driving winds, in which case it will be necessary to have them pretty close. If air is too sparingly admitted at this season, when many of the plants have not yet finished their summer's growth, it will in- evitably cause them to produce weak and tender shoots, which will be extremely liable to damp off at a more advanced season, when the house must be unavoidably kept close on account of the severities of the external air ; and besides, it will tend to give them a more general tender habit, and render them less able to resist the winter colds than they otherwise would. Hence it is evident, that they cannot receive too much air, whenever the state of the external air will admit of it, by being free from all appearance of frost, as it will be so much to their advantage to be thus hardened before the winter assumes its greatest severity. 663S." Water should also be plentifully administered when they are first taken into the house, as the dry boards on which they now stand, as well as the elevated situation and free circulating air, occasions them to require more than when they stood on the moist earth ; however, by no means go to the extreme, giving it only when evidently necessary. 6639. As the close foggy weather advances, water must be given more sparingly, else it will conspire with the atmosphere to increase the damps of the house, which will inevitably injure the plants, by rotting their leaves. These, and dead flowers, should be picked off as soon as they are observable, otherwise they will make a very disagreeable appearance. 6840. The months of November and December seem to be more noxious to the health of plants than any other season, by reason of their being full of young sappy leaves, and the remains of many of the autumn flowers still on them, when the weather (which at this time generally becomes close and chilly,) renders it necessary to keep the house shut and warm ; this occasions a most pernicious damp to exhale from every part of the house, and even from the earth in the pots, which fixes on the leaves, and other parts of the plants, to their inevitable injury, particularly the younger parts, such as were the produce of the preced- ing summer. If this kind of weather continues for any considerable time, it will be advisable to give a little fire-heat, to help in drying up these baneful exhalations, and also as much air as can be safely ad- mitted by the doors and front windows, more especially when fire is added, otherwise the heat of the flues will, instead of expelling the contaminated air, rather occasion it to exhale more freely, and be of worse consequences. At this season also, the plants should be regularly examined to clear them of all dirt, and 3N 2 91G PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III also to scrape off any moss, &c. that may have grown on the surface of the mould, and to renew it with a littU- fresh loam ; this contributes much to their pood appearance, if neatly executed. (.Ml. I'irc-hcat. Very little lire-heat seems to be requisite for the preservation of green-house plants in this climate ; in fact, the less it is found necessary to use the better. Except in the case of damp, as before mentioned, it need not be used till the frost be so severe as to lower the thermometer several de- grees below 48, and then merely sufficient to raise it again to that point. If this can be done without the assistance of fire, so much the better ; for which purpose, bass mats may be used along the lower parts of the house, where they can be conveniently fastened : these will be of infinite service, even when fire is used, as less of that element will suffice; but they should be always taken off in the day to admit the light, unless the weather happens to be particularly severe. It may be also proper to remark, that the more dry the mould in the pots is kept at this season 'the better, as it will be less liable to attract the frost ; there- fore, water must be used very sparingly, and only to such as are in actual want of it. Sometimes, in the depth of winter, there is a succession of very clear weather for several days together, wherein warm sunny days succeed the coldest frost, and nights 'in which fires have been absolutely necessary ; in this case, it will be requisite to give all the air possible in the day, (unless strong harsh winds, or other occasional pre- ventives, happen to prevail,) observing to shut the windows up close early in the afternoon, so as to include part of the natural heat of the atmosphere within the house. Such weather renders an increase of water necessary, especially over the entrance of the flues, where the fires have the greatest force. It should be administered in the morning, and ought to be kept in the house all night, to expel any frosty particles it may have imbibed, and render it nearly equal to the temperature of the air of the house. But unless water becomes actually necessary by the action of the fire, or the extreme drought of the season, (a circumstance not much to be dreaded in our climate at this time of the year,) the less water used the bet- ter; for though the plants in general like to be Vept pretty moist in the summer, there is hardly any thing more pernicious to them now than an extreme of moisture. 6642. Winter and sjrring treatment, insects, &c. During the months of January and February, and, indeed, all through the winter and early spring, on account of the neces- sary closeness of these departments, it may be expected to see a few dead or yellow leaves on the plants ; these, together with the dead flowers, and whatever damps may occasion- ally appear, should be picked off" as soon as discovered. 6643. The mildew and green fly will also be paying frequent visits at this season; particularly on the young shoots of heaths, and such like tender-leaved plants. The best remedy for the first of these is, to procure about equal proportions of sulphur and roach-lime, slacked and finely sifted, the quantity accord- ing to the number of plants infected, to be used in the following manner : As soon as the least symptom of this disease is perceived, (for the sooner it is stopped the better,) which makes its appearance like a whitish down around the tops of the tender shoots, or a species of fungus on the back, or under part of the leaves, provide a vessel full of clear water, large enough to immerge the plant in, exclusive of the pot, which must be held in an inverted position, with the hand placed so as to prevent the mould falling out ; in thi man- ner, plunge the plant into the water, and while it is wet, holding it in the same position, let another apply the above preparation with a powder-puff, or some such machine, in such a manner, that every part of the plant may be perfectly covered : one dressing in this way will, in general, be found sufficient. The plants should afterwards be taken to the reserve-department, or placed in some dry airy part of the house, not conspicuous, until it recovers its verdure. 6644. As to the fly, fumigation with tobacco will be found adequate to its destruction ; strictly observing 10 perform it at the proper season, that is, when the air is perfectly calm, and if close foggy weather, so much the better ; every aperture should also be stopped, so as to exclude the external air as much as possible. 6645. Towards the end of winter, the plants should be regularly examined, and cleaned from any filth they may have acquired during that dreary season ; such as moss on the surface of the pots, and leaves that have dropped thereon ; also any plants that may have grown into a loose habit should be tied up. The platforms or stages should be clean brushed, whilst the plants are removed, and any worms that may have harbored in the pots dislodged, by turning them upside down, and lifting them carefully off without break- ing the ball of roots, at the bottom or sides of which they are generally to be found. It is easily known when they are in the pots, by their casts on the surface. Indeed, this is a thing that should be attended to at every season of the year, as they are to be observed more or less at all times, and considerably disor- ganise the economy of the pot, when suffered to persevere. 6646. As the spring advances, it will be found necessary and convenient to admit a more free circulation of fresh air, and on account of the increasing drought and heat of the season, water must be given more plentifully ; but the houses must not yet be left open at night, particularly the top-lights, as the weather is in general so very changeable at this season, that it frequently happens, although the evening may appear mild and serene, the morning ushers in with a severe frost, which, if admitted to the plants, would mate- rially injure them ; and perhaps at once render all the winter's care and attention abortive. Until about the middle or end of May, the weather seldom becomes in any degree settled ; but at that season we may venture to expose the plants both day and night to all the vicissitudes of the weather, should it continue in any degree moderate. Being thus treated, they will require a considerable increase of water, which may now be copiously given to them, particularly the more free-growing kinds ; but let the following be observed as a general maxim not to be departed from ; that it is necessary to the health of plants, especially the ten- derer species, to be permitted to become moderately dry before they are again watered ; because, when kept in a continual wet state, the mould becomes entirely destitute of that active quality so indispensably neces- sary to vegetation ; and the plant, in consequence, will assume a very unhealthy appearance, which many might perhaps not attribute to the proper cause. (Exotic Gard. ISO.) 6647. Treatment of green-house plants in a conservatory. This should resemble the treatment of plants in pots, as far as the difference of circumstances will permit. The plants in the conservatory cannot be set out in the open garden ; but the roof can be re- moved to produce the same effect, and should be done about the same time. Instead of shifting, the soil can be refreshed by manure and top-dressings, or it may be entirely renewed ; and pruning, training, and attention to cleanliness and neatness are alike applicable to both modes of culture. When the green-house plants are housed, the lights or roof of the conservatory should be replaced. The plants, in the meantime, will require as much air as it is possible to admit on all fine days, and in case rain prevents the letting down of the roof-lights, the front ones, if any, should be as open as possible. This is to prevent the plants being drawn into long naked stems, and weak branches, which, from their free habit of growth, they inevitably otherwise would be. As the cold of winter increases, which it naturally will do in the months of October, November, and December, a proportionate decrease must be observed in giving either air or water ; BOOK II. CLIMBING GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS. 917 and, if necessary, add a little fire-heat, and mats along those parts of the glass nearest the plants, in such manner as to prevent the frost or piercing winds from injuring them. The conservatory, in these particulars, requires to be managed in the same manner as directed for the green-house. As few objects are more desirable than to preserve the gay appearance of the plants, it will be requisite to pay constant attention to the removal of decayed leaves and weeds of every description ; also to tie up or cut short any loose straggling branches that happen to show themselves, to remove those pots which may have been plunged or set on the pit when out of flower, and, if convenient, to have their places supplied with others in a fresher state. 6(348. During November, December, January, and February, the moisture of the atmosphere in such departments, where there is a great body of damp mould, will occasion several species of the bryum, and other mosses, as also of the fungi, to vegetate; particularly as the mould has had time to settle, and the surface to become of a close firm texture, which would give the house a very unclean appearance. It must be remedied by frequently stirring with a small fork the whole of the pit, to the depth of two or three inches, and raking it over smoothly with a neat close-toothed rake ; which, as well as the fork, should be particularly adapted to this purpose, by being furnished with short handles ; so as to enable the operator to use them with freedom under the plants, by which means many branches and flowers will escape being broken off', which cannot be well avoided when awkward tools arc allowed to be used for this purpose. As soon as raked, let some fine-sifted fresh loam be thinly scattered over the surface, and it will tend to give it a more agreeable appearance ; besides, being dry, it will serve to imbibe a good quantity of the superabundant moisture. (>649. As the spring advances, they will require considerable attention to keep them in proper order, on account of their great increase of growth, more particularly the climbing plants, trained against the walls or trellis-work; these should be daily attended to, and trained in their proper places; directing their course to those parts of the house which, from their nakedness, appear to want them most : also these species of plants being remarkably free growers in general, it will frequently be found necessary to thin them, by cutting away any unsightly parts, and those branches most destitute of flowers ; by which means there will be sufficient room for the young vigorous growth, and these should be trained "in regularly as they advance, otherwise they will attach themselves to the first object they meet, and render it difficult to dress them neatly afterwards. 6650. Slugs, snails, and other vermin, are very fond of harboring among the leaves of these plants, when permitted to grow crowded ; also under any low bushy plants in the pit, whence they make their nightly excursions, to the great injury of the foliage in general, if not seasonably detected. The drought and warmth increasing with the year, will render it convenient to admit more air, and an increase of water ; two very essential points, that should never be neglected. 6651. In summer, the lights having been removed, as before directed, the plants should have any neces- sary pruning, and be all regularly fresh tied up, to secure them against the free action of the wind ; they will, if the weather happens to be dry, which is most frequently the case at this season, require an abund- ant supply of water, particularly the strong free-growing sorts, on account of being thus exposed to the open air. The cause for thus taking oft' the top-lights every summer is, that the plants may have the benefit of the warm invigorating showers of that season, and the action of the perpendicular air, which will be a great means of their acquiring that strong, healthy, robust growth, so much wished for : indeed, where it is not practised, the plants seldom fail of being drawn into, the opposite unsightly extreme. In two or three years from the first planting, many of them will be grown to as large a size as the house will admit. The knife must be then freely used among such, to keep them within bounds, and prevent their injuring each other, which they inevitably would, if permitted to grow too close together. However, in performing this, one must be very careful lest they disfigure the general appearance of the plant, cutting away only the rude and overgrown parts, which should be taken clean off, without leaving any of the stumps behind. The younger parts which are suffered to remain should then be tied neatly up, so as to form a handsome middling-sized bush. It will also be necessary to observe whether any have outgrown their neighbors in the front rows ; these may conveniently be moved into more backward situations, and their places supplied with other new varieties, if to be had. This work may be done with safety any time in spring or autumn, when the weather happens to be a little dull ; it will be advisable, however, to cut off a few of the most luxuriant shoots, and to run a spade or large trowel down, around the roots, so as to fonn a ball, some days previous to its final transplanting, which also operates as a partial check on the free growth of the plant. It should be taken up with a good ball of roots and earth, and well watered as soon as replanted : it may also be found requisite to shade such as are thus removed lightly for a few days, if the weather happens to be very clear. (Gushing.} SECT. III. Climbing Green-house Plants. Those marked h have herbaceous stems. 6652. CLIMBING GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS. MAT. JUNE. JULY. j AUGUST. SEPT. OCT. iVristolocliia semper, p. Asclepias camosa, p. Hibbertia crenata, p. - volubilis Kennedia coccinea Fsoralea palaestina Aristolochia glauca, p. Jasminum gracile, t. Bignonia grandiflora ] grandiflorum Capparis spinosa revolutum Cobcea scandens, h. Kennedia bimaculata, p. Dolichos lignosus, p. Passiflora coerulea Kennedia monophylla < c. race. quin. Convolvulus canarien. h. c. r. trilobata _ c. r. racemosa Lonicera japonica, p. Jasminum azoricum 6653. The propagation and culture of this tribe is the same as for woody plants. The situation proper for planting climbers and creepers has already been considered. (6204.) To cultivate them to perfection, a house should be entirely devoted to them, in which they should be planted in prepared soil, and trained on poles, like hops, or on arcades, or on single rods running from the front or sides of the house to the back or centre ; but sufficiently distant from the glass to show the beauty of the flowers and foliage to the spectator. 3N 3 918 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 6654. SECT. IV. Succulent Green-house Plants. SUCCULENT GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS. MAY. JUNE. JULY. AUGUST. SEPT. OCT. Aloe ferox, 3. Aloe lingua Agave americana Aizoon lanceolatum Aloe arborescens _ tflauca i marKaritlfera Aloe maculata Aloe albicans picta _ riticulata Anthericum pujjionlfo. Crassula nudicaulis media minor, 3. pentagona mitriformU minor rvmbiformls, 3. depressa dichotoma major purpurascens Anthericum revolutuin _ obliqua _ odoratissima - perfoliata Anthericum aloides spiralis Cacalia repens, p. Cotyledon oblongata Cacalia articulata, p. camosa Mesembryanthemum marginatum Crassula orbicularis M esembrvan themum viscosa _ frutescens Crassula canescens ciliata iicoides _ kleinia _ mvcrophyllum Portulacaria afra aurantium capitatum Smpervivum montan. Cotyledon fascicularis hemispherica linjjurformis coccinea Mesembrvanthemum belliditlorum Mesembryanthemum compressum in c laud ens villosum Tetragonia herbacea Talinum arachnoids* filameutosum canaliculatam - lingueform. crucia. depressum diffbrme Septas capensis, p. - Klobiflora 6555. Propagation. With succulents this is remarkably easy, as cuttings and suckers, where they can be procured, seldom fail to put out roots ; however, some sorts of aloe, crassula, &c. do not readily produce shoots of any sort by which they may be multiplied. When the leaves are taken off cuttings or suckers, the latter should be laid in a dry airy place, till the wounds heal ; they may then be planted in the proper soil, one in each of the smallest-sized pots, and being kept a few weeks in a dry heat, and shaded from bright sunshine, they will seldom fail to grow. In raising succulents from seeds, proceed as directed for the seeds of woody plants ; but observe to be more sparing of water after the plants come up. 6656. Culture. A sandy loam is the soil universally allowed as the most proper for these plants ; not over linely sifted, in order to let the water pass the more rapidly through it ; and for the more succulent and dwarf sorts as stapelia, cactus, &c. about an eighth part of old lime-rubbish may be added. Succu- lents do not associate well with any other description of plants, neither as to appearance or modes of culture ; therefore, wherever they are extensively cultivated, there should be a house or houses on pur- pose for them. One house would be required for the more hardy sorts included in this section, and another for the dry-stove succulents, given in a succeeding table. They require very little watering, and never over the top during the winter months ; in summer, if the pots be well drained, they will bear more water, especially when in flower. The pots in which they are placed should be smaller in proportion than for other plants, as they grow slowly, evaporate little, and apparently derive great part of their sustenance from the air. They need not be shifted oftener than once in two or three years ; but the surface earth should be taken off, and fresh compost added every year. They do not require to be set out in the open garden during summer ; but as much air as possible should be admitted to them, and the roof of the house should be open at that season, night and day, excepting during heavy rains. " The greatest injury," Page observes, " which these plants have to be guarded against, is damps in winter; therefore they should be frequently looked over, and all decayed parts removed, particularly from those which are stemless, and when the leaves touch the earth." He adds, " few of these plants, either those of the green-house or hot- house, are cultivated in general, but merely to fill up the by-shelves and odd corners of the exotic houses ; but if a proper attention was paid to them, and their cultivation better known from a study of their characters, we have no doubt but they might be rendered as ornamental and interesting as those now considered the most select. Mftet of the forms and growths of these plants are truly curious ; and many of their flowers of the greatest beauty and brilliancy. Since the days of Dillenius and the late James Lee, these plants have had few admirers ; but the present Emperor of Germany, the Prince of Salm, the Vice- King of Lombard)', and our countrymen Haworth and Anderson, the latter the able curator of Chelsea Botanic Garden, are endeavoring to bring them again into that notice which they so eminently deserve." (Prodromus, 220.) 6657. Mesembryanthemums are planted out by Mowbray, in a pit along the front wall of a hot-house. The soil he uses is rich garden-mould and fresh loam : " the sorts are M. inclaudens, aurantium, perfoli- atum, deltoides, barbatum, and other species of different habits ; the strong-growing kinds are put to- wards the back, and the dwarf ones in the front. They grow vigorously, and flower in a superior manner to what they do in small pots ; nothing can surpass the brilliancy of their blossoms in a bright summer' day, and many of them continue flowering all winter. All the culture they require is thinning and protec- tion by mats over the glass in severe weather. In summer the sashes are taken off, and the soil may be covered with stones like rock-work." (Hort. Trans, v. 274.) 6658. SECT. V. Bulbous Green-house Plants. BULBOUS GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS. MARCH TO MAY. JUNE. JULY. AUGUST. SEPT. TO OCT. Antholyza cunonia, p. Cyclamen hederiefol, p. persicum flo. albo flo. adorata Amaryllis formosissima Antholyza brevlfolia, p. marginata meriana merianella Amaryllis capensis Fothergilli ' major elauca _ humilis Amaryllis crispa - .76hnsonii linearis Antholyza ringens, p. Gladiolus cardinalis Amaryllis sarnie-mis corvmbodus Lachenalia angustifolia Ornithogalum altissim. Oxalis rubella, p. Gladiolus abreviatus, p. spicata - pallida tabulare _ vittata polystachius Hyacinthus revolutus tenuifalia, p. L- tricolor cuspidatu* tubulosa Antholv/.a sethiopica, p. Ixia stellata alba, p. - variabilis marffinatus Gladiolus angustus iridifolia purpurea Veltheimia viridifolia bicolor tub*ens Omithofjal-am niveum prsecox, (Marc ) _ blamlus fusca Polvanthgs tuberosa watsonius Iris Msvrinchium by/.antinus major _ _ flo. albo Gladiolus versicolor undulatus flo.pleno Tigridia pavonia, ;). xia aulica . campanulatus Ixia columnaris - bulbifera carneus - grandiflora -achenalia flava, (April) galeatus purpurea Maswnia angustifolia - latifolia, (April) namaquensis pyramidalut versicolor ScUla hyacintboides I aMassoiiiast-ab.iMa.) roseus - violacea, (March) striatus >xalis labumitblia, ,,. Tulipa clu..iana Iris tricuspjs Ixia flexuosa BOOK II. DRY-STOVE PLANTS. 919 6659. Propagation and culture. After the ample directions on the subject of propagating and cultivat- ing bulbs, already given (6501.), very little can require to be added here. A mode of propagating such ;u rarely produce offsets may be mentioned : it applies only to tunicate bulbs, which, if cut over transversely, a little above the middle, will form young bulbs in abundance near the margin of the outer coat. This has been successfullypractised with hremanthus pubescens, and several of the more rare ornithogalin?. The grand art in cultivating bulbs is, to attend to the proper time for putting them into a state of rest ; and when they are in a growing state, to place them so near the light, and afford such a supply of air and water as will enable them to bring their leaves to perfection. The management of exotic bulbs is, in general, very imperfect among gardeners, who cannot be too much impressed with the importance of attending to these two points, the perfecting the leaves, and the putting the bulbs into, and keeping them during a proper time, in a state of rest. Bulbous-rooted plants associate almost as ill with all others as succulents do ; and, therefore, wherever a good collection is kept, there should be a house entirely devoted to their culture. The roof should be low and not very steep, and the pots should be kept on a level stage or plat- form, raised table high, or about two feet and a half, that the flowers may be near the eye. A house, glass on all sides, with a central platform, six or eight feet wide, and two side ones, or side borders, about three feet wide, would form an excellent house for plants of this description, as all of them would be near the glass, and near the eye of the spectator. "Whenever the bulbs, cultivated in such a house, became in a dormant state, they could be removed to a pit or frame of proper temperature in the reserve-garden, and kept there dry, till the growing season. Exotic bulbs require nearly the same degree of heat, when lying dormant, as they do when growing. SECT. VI. Herbaceous and stendess Green-house Plants. 6660. HERBACEOUS AND STEMLESS GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS. MARCH TO MAY. JUNE. JULY. AUGUST. SEPT. TO OCT. Linum flavum suffruticosum, p. Lotus creticus Sowerbia juncea, p. Statice mucronata Campanula mollis, p. Witsenia corymbosa, p. Achillea aegyptiaca, p. Antirrhinum molle Gnaphalium orientalej). Ononis natrix, p. crispa Agapanthus umb. mai. media minor 6661. Propagation and culture. A small house, constructed like a bulb-house, should be devoted to these plants ; some of which are of considerable beauty : but they do not assort well with woody and ever- green species. All the difference between the culture of hardy, and exotic herbaceous plants, consists in the latter being kept in a different climate and in pots. SECT. VII. Of Selections of Green-house Plants for particular Purjwses. 6662. The particular purjwses to which green-house plants are applicable are few com- pared with those for which plants which grow in the open air may be selected. The most hardy species will he found arranged as frame plants ; the most showy and odori- ferous under the first four sections. There are scarcely any green-house aquatics ; but a few marsh plants ; and no parasites, or air plants, suitable for the green-house, have been introduced hitherto. Collections, however, might be made of such as are grown in their native countries for useful or economical purposes, and whose produce is imported to this country, as of Laurus camphom, the camphor-tree ; Pistada lentiscus, the tree which affords mastich ; of such as are highly odoriferous, as Verbena, Heliotrojnum, &c. In a botanical collection, Dioncca and Sarracenia are plants of great rarity, and difficult to pre- serve or propagate. They are generally procured from their native countries, and grown in peat-earth, kept moist, and the atmosphere also rendered humid by covering them with a hand-glass. Cresswell has produced very strong plants of S.purpurea, by treat- ing it as a stove plant. Under his management, " it is planted in a mixture of the fibrous roots, obtained from peat-earth, with an equal quantity of rotten willow wood, broken into small pieces, by which the soil is kept perfectly drained. The pots in which the plants grow are kept in a shaded part of the stove, afhd watered occasionally, but they do not require to be placed in pans of water, except they become so dry as not to absorb the water given in the usual way." (Hort. Trans, iii. 360.) Some fine specimens of these genera, and also of Nepenthes distillatoria, are contained in the collection of Messrs. Loddiges, at Hackney. CHAP. XIII. Dry-stove Plants. 6663. What are called dry-stove plants are such as from experience have been found to require an intermediate degree of heat between the green-house and bark-stove plants and a more dry atmosphere than the latter. Their propagation and culture is the same as for green-house plants ; with this difference, that they are not in general removed to the open air during summer ; but where the construction of the house admits, the sashes may be removed in dry weather during the three warmest months, but always replaced on the commencement of heavy or cold rains and boisterous winds. We shall arrange them as woody, climbers, succulent, bulbous, and herbaceous plants. To cultivate them to any degree of perfection, it is essentially necessary that a house be appropriated to each section ; and each house so arranged as that the plants may be near the glass, and that heat and air may be supplied at the pleasure of the cultivator, or a long narrow house may be divided so as to keep each class separate. 3 N 4 9120 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 6664. SECT. I. Woody Dry-stove Plants. WOODY DRY-STOVE PLANTS. MARCH TO MAY. JUNE. JULY. AUGUST. SEPT. TO OCT. Aotus cordifolia, p. villosa Mahernia pinnate, p. I'hylica plumosa Aitonia capensis, p. Cliironla angustifolia, p. Andersonia spreiigeli. p. decussate Corraea speciosa, p. frutescens Crotolaria elegans, p. Chorizema illicitblia, ji. Citrus trifoliate, p. Platylobium parviflor. p. Abroma angusta, p. Annona glabra Crowea saligna, p. - latifolia Ardisia acuminata, p. sinensis .ntidesina alexiteria, p. paniculata kxxxmia frutescens Crotalaria paniculate, p. _ pulchra Cylista villosa Eugenia unitlora, p. zeylanica Gardenia radicans, p. Barringtonia speciosa Baitia daphnoides, p. Borassus flabellifonnii Brossium alicastrum spurium Gardenia pavette Grislea tomentosa, p. nana Gardenia florida, p. Heliotropium peruvian. Koella ciliata, p. Achania malvaviscus, p. mollis Achras mammosa sapota Aralia capitata, p. Ardisia elegans lateritlora Bauhinia auatomica Clerodendrum fragi-ans Duranteellisia Erithalis fruticosa (Gardenia micranthus solonacea Biia orellana, p. Cestrum diurnum,p. laurifolium nocturnum Clerodendrum inerme ligustrinum paniculatum ^cus bengalensis Gardenia randia tubiflora Justicia gendarussa, p. _ pectinata Lantana involucrata Ailanthus excelsa, p. Alangium decapetel. p. Amyris sylvatica (Jrewia asiatica Hibiscus abelmoschus manihot,^. siphonanthus D\iranta plumieri Grewia velutina Melastoma rubra, p. ui/i:i variabilis, p. Solaiidra grandi/lora Muntingia balabura Ophioxylon serpentinum Rhamnus eolubrinus, p. Annona hexapantha Asclepias parvitlora Bignonia leucoxylon, p. phceniceus populneus rosa sinensis Lantana radula scabrida Panax fruticosum Samyda rosea, p. tomentosa Blakea trinerva, p. Cestrum angustifoli. p. ilo. pleno plpalli. tomentosum, p. vespertinum SECT. II. Climbing Dry-stove Plants. 6665. CLIMBING DRY-STOVE PLANTS. MARCH TO MAY. JUNE. JULY. AUGUST. SEPI. TO OCT. assiflor i lutea, p. Asclepias scandens, p Yiminalis, p. Banisteria purpurea, p. Cylista villosa, p, scariosa, p. Dolichos urens Dracontium nyraphee- folium, p. Echites biflora elastica Basella alba rubra Bauhinia anatomica, p. Bignonia crucigera, p. paniculate Cynanchum suberos. p. viminale Dioscoria pentaphylla Il>omcoa sanguinea, p. Dracontium pertusum triphyUum Gronovia scandens Passiflora fcetida, p. unguis Cissampelos parieira smilacina Nissolia fruticosa, p. Passiflora maliformis Roxburghia gloriosoid^). Securidaca volubilis, p. trifoliate" - vitiginea SECT. III. Succulent Dry-stove Plants. 6666. SUCCULENT DRY-STOVE PLANTS. MARCH TO MAY. JUN-:. JULY. AUGUST. SEPT. TO OCT. Aloe glauca Aloearachnoidea Aloe maculate Aloe albicans Agave virgin ica reticulate Cactus flagelliformis Juphorbia canariense, p. Mesembryanthemu. aur. iissum Xanthorrhcea hastile, p. minor 'iper magimliiEfolium nigrum Pitcairnia bracteate, p. foliolosa I Bryophyllum calvcinum Crassula imbricate Mesembryanthe. rubic. Aloe viscosa aspera, p. Euphorbia clava Piper clusiarfolium Pitcairnia bromel isefol .p. graminifolia recurva Cactus heptagonus pentagonus peruvianus Crassula cordate Mesembryanthemum anceps expansum Sempervivum monanth. villosum Agave lurida, p. ngida Cactus grandiflorus Euphorbia neriifolia aspera cymbiformis depressa Cacalia tomentosa, p. Cactus cochinilifer cylindricus ficus indica Crassula columnaris Crithmum latifolium maritimum Mesembryanthemum elongatum Aloe barbadensis, p. lineata Cacalia papillaris, p. Mese'mbryanthem. digit. - felinum * Agavefoetida, p. vivipara Euphorbia heptegona hystrix, p. mamillaris Piper polystachvon reticulatum Pitcairnia angustifolia,p. Stepelia anguina piscatoria 1 tirucalli Cactus hexagonas concinna tithvmaloides lanuginosus mamillaris divaricate - mdocactus humilis SECT. IV. Bulbous Dry-stove Plants. 6667. BULBOUS DRY-STOVE PLANTS. MARCH TO MAY. JUNE. JULY. AUGUST. SEPT. TO OCT. Albuca altissima major spiralis,(April),p. Anthericum canalicul. iabiana rubro-cyanea,p. Albuca coarctata caudate minor vittata, p. Amaryllis maculata Albuca fragrans, p. Amaryllis tubispatha Babiana villosa, p. Cyanella capensis, p. Ericomis punctata Amaryllis purpurea albucoides Anthericum albucoides Gladiolus tristus terdi. p. luteo Amaryllis pumila Drimia elate, p. Oxalis monophylla tricolor sulphurea striata tenuifolia Mmiapusitla,p. Evicoinis bifolia, (April) nana Ferraria anthersosa, p. Anthericum asphodelo. Kal>iana latifolia, p. Cyrtanthus albus obliquuslatifo. ventricosus Galaxia graminea Gethyllis ciliaris spiral is Gladiolus graadiflorus Oxalis monophvlla undulate, p. Galaxia grandillora, p. , [ ., Gladiolus alatus 1 BOOK II. HOT-HOUSE, OR BARK-STOVE PLANTS. 921 666S. SECT. V. Herbaceous Dry -stove Plants. HERBACEOUS DRY-STOVE PLANTS. MARCH TO MAY. JUNE. JULY. AUGUST. SEPT. TO OCT. Canarina campanula Bletia tankervillia;, p. Neottia elata Arum divaricatum, p. Commelina tuberosa Iiengalensis Adiantum reniforme, p. ' Alstrcemeria pelegrina trape/iforme Witsenia maura, p. Arum bicolor, p. Arum esculentum. it. Arum auntum, p. orixense sagittifolium orchioidcs picta Pothos cordata Pteris grandifolia Marica martinicensis northiana Phytolacca octandra Polypodium asplenifol. Pothos canniciolia colocasia Begonia nitida Besleria melittifolia Calcii lobata Cailisia repens Asplenium prn-morsum striatum Begonia dichotoma evansiana macrophylla Dianella ensifolia Begonia acuminata Cyrilla pulchella Leea cnspa macrophylla Geranium incamatum Gloriosa superba 1 speciosa CHAP. XIV. Hot-house, or Bark-stove Plants. 6669. Bark-stove plants are such as require the highest degree of heat, which has ge- nerally been given by the aid of a bed of bark or other fermenting substance, in which the pots containing the plants are plunged. Sometimes, as before observed (6184.), steam or flues are applied under a vault covered with earth or sand as a substitute for bark ; and more recently the pots have not been plunged in any material nor bottom heat applied, but a greater atmospherical heat communicated, and the atmosphere about the pots kept moist by watering, &c. We shall arrange the most ornamental species which flower freely under woody, climbing, bulbous, perennial, annual, aquatic, reedy plants ; and add some remarks on palms, air plants, and ferns, which, though they seldom flower in this coun- try, or for the greater part have flowers of little show, yet are grand or interesting speci- mens of vegetable beings. 670. SECT. I. Woody Bark-stove Plants. WOODY BARK-STOVE PLANTS. MAY. JUNE. JULY. AUGUST. SEPTEMBER. irucea ferruginea, p. Cassia bicapsularis, p. Oordia gerascanthus monoica Elate sylvestris Cassia alata, p. Chrysophyllum cainito fuscum M^tsS 8 ' 1 " Adenanthera pavonia.p. ^Eschynomene sensitiva Allamanda cathartica Amyris salvatica Asclepias curassavica JSschynomene grand, p. Amerimnum ebenus Asclepias gigantea Bauhinia acuminata, p. Bignonia longissima, p. Cameraria angustifolia Carissa spinarurn Cassia biflora, p. Cerbera manghas Cinchona caribea, p. Erythrina carnea crista galll dumosa pimenta parviflora Bauhinia divaricate, p. paniculata pentaphylla Clusia flava Cioton aromaticum, p _ rosea ,-. longifolia pen-recta Brownea coccinea Desmanthus virgatus Eugenia jambos, p. uniflora tomentosa, p. zeylanica Bignonia leucoxylon, p. Brunsfelsia americana Brunfelsia undulata Bucida buceras Ephielis guinensis, p. Erythrina speciosa Euphorbia punicea Hillia longifloVa zuzygium Samyda rosea Carolinea minor, p. . Gardenia aculeata Cassia occidentals viminea Fagara pterota Hamelliaventricosa. v. Myrtus bfflora, p. Sophora tomentosa, p. 1 Gossypium vitifolium, p. Hedysarum pictuin, p. 'Helicteresisora Gardenia dumetorum Hedysarum strobilifer. Gossypium arboreum, p. Helicteris baruensis Guaicum officinale Ixora alba I Heliocarpus amerioana Hedysarum gyrans, p. pavetta Ixora folanaa cocrinea 6671. Propagation. All the known modes are occasionally adopted, but those by seeds and cuttings are the most general. Few stove plants ripen their seeds in this country, and such as are obtained are therefore generally procured from abroad. 6672. Tropical seeds in general, Cushing observes, are very liable to lose their powers of vegetation by reason of the transition from warm to cold climates, combined with the length of time which com- monly intervenes between their gathering and arrival with us, especially if they have been exposed to damps ; on that account they should be sown as soon as they arrive, at least a part of each parcel. Much depends on the state of the seeds when received. East and West India seeds generally arrive with the regular fleets, as indeed do those from the Cape of Good Hope, and all the South Sea islands, for the most part by the Eastern and China ships ; so that one may in general be prepared against their arrival. As early spring is undoubtedly the best time for sowing, a few weeks' delay may in some instances be ad- visable. If received late in October or November, wait until January, or perhaps February, unless it evidently appears that they will not keep out of the earth so long a time in a vegetative state ; such as can be sown before August have a good chance to acquire sufficient strength of growth to carry them through the winter months, so adverse to the general efforts of young vegetable life. 6673. The pots being well drained should be filled with the compost suitable to the species of plant of which the seed intended to be sown has been produced (see the table) ; let it be pressed down to about a third or half an inch below the edge of the rim, according to the size of the seeds ; if they arc small or light sorts, it will be necessary to press it pretty tight, and to add a little of the very h'ne-sifted mould on which to deposit the seed, previously smoothing it with a bit of thin flat wood, bent so as to lie on it level. Being thus prepared, let the seed be sown regularly on the surface, and cover it from about an eighth to a quarter of an inch, according to the size of the seed as before, with the same sort of fine mould. But if the seed is of the largest sorts, as, for instance, the nut or stone kind, no more is necessary than to press them into the earth with the finger, and to cover somewhat thicker than is recommcnded'for the others. Tn either case, the covering should be pressed moderately on the seed with the hand; which is indeed a most necessary caution in sowing seeds of any description whatever. In order to cniure the vegetation 922 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. of hard or very tough shelled seeds, some have them soaked in water for a few days, say a week, or even ten days, for such as happen to be very dry, previous to sowing : a shallow pan, placed on the coolest part of tho flue in the propagation-stove, is the readiest and safest article to receive them for this purpose ; they should be examined daily, and sown the moment any sign of swelling or growth appears : this process, however, is fraught with danger to many of the lighter and smaller sorts. 6674. The sowing beingjlnitned, the pots must be set on a level spot, and gently, but thoroughly watered with a pot, the rose of which has been made particularly fine, for this and other such uses ; and immedi- ately plunged in a strong heat, without which they will not be likely to vegetate : if a close dung hot-bed the better. A regular but moderate watering, steady heat, and occasional weeding, should any such ap- pear, is all they will now require until they are fit to be removed into separate pots ; which may be done as soon as they have attained a few inches' growth above their cotyledons, or seed-leaves. There are some fruit, such as nelumbium, whose exterior coat is so very hard that" the embryo plants are not able to burst through, at least, with us ; to remedy which, the knife is not unfrequently used to pare them thin, even to making a hole in them, but not too near the eye or part where they sprout, with good effect. If the busi- ness of seed-sowing is performed in spring, or early in summer, the smaller sorts may be expected to ve- getate in the course of five or six weeks at farthest ; whereas, the larger bony kinds will sometimes remain dormant in the earth for the space perhaps of twelve months : this must be attended to, else one might think them beyond a chance of growing, and perhaps throw them away without examination. Whenever there is any doubt of their vegetating, let some of them be taken up and opened with a knife ; when they will at once discover whether they are sound or not ; if sound, they must be still kept in a strong heat, and regularly watered as before ; for want of this simple precaution, valuable seeds are often carelessly thrown on the rubbish-heap, when just bursting their shell or embryo ; and not unfrequently, by that accidental check, are so materially injured as to prevent more than one half of them vegetating again ; if they have been at all so fortunate as to be noticed and resowed. (Exotic Gard. p. 8.) 6675. By cuttings. Besides the usual supply of the different sorts of earth, &c. there is another article necessary to be provided before we begin the business of making cut- tings ; which is, a few dozen of small bell-glasses, (the white glass is best,) of as many different sizes as are the pots in which the cuttings are intended to be planted : they should be fitted to the pot, so as to rest on the inner side of it, about an inch below the rim ; by observing which circumstance, when the pot is filled with earth, the glass will have room sufficient to sink a little into it, so as to perfectly exclude the external air ; of very essential importance to the cutting while in a dormant state, that is, from the time they are put in until they begin to grow. 667G. The cuttings may be made almost every season of the year ; yet the months of April, May, and June are certainly the most proper ; as the plants are at that season plentifully supplied with young wood, which, in most species, produce roots when made into cuttings, much sooner than the old wood will if used in the same manner. When the day is fixed upon for this business, let a quantity of pots of the pro- per size be selected, and prepared by covering their bottoms to the depth of one or two inches with pot- sherds ; and then, as wanted, about half filled with the compost best suited to the plant intended to be propagated, to grow in for a few weeks, when first struck, and the remaining part with the best loam that can be procured, to insert the cutting in when ready. On the purity and clearness of the loam depends in a great measure the success of many of the tenderer kinds of cuttings, particularly those which are obliged to be kept in moist heat, as it is, when contaminated with other composts, very liable in these situ- ations to cause damp and rottenness, by the particles of putrefying matter generally contained in mixed earths ; and the properties of which are put in motion, by the application of heat. As an exception to this rule, may be adduced sand ; which is of very great utility to mix with the loam, should it happen to be rather stiff for the nature of the cutting: but then, the sand proper for this use is of so pure a nature in itself, that it is evident it cannot have the effect noticed above in regard to mixed soils. 6677. In the choice of cuttings, preference should be given to the firmest wood of the same year's growth ; and of these, only such whose leaves have attained their full size and proper color, which are generally to be selected from the lateral shoots ; as the upright leading ones are mostly too luxuriant to make good cuttings. The cuttings of many plants, if taken from the lateral shoots, never become proper erect stems ; but are inclined at all times to form an irregular, bushy, weak head : this is not of small importance to such collectors as cultivate plants merely for the flower ; as such heads generally produce them sooner than luxuriant leaders. The lovers of handsome erect plants, however, choose their cuttings from the upright shoots, early in the season, before they acquire that luxuriance of growth so unfit for the puq>oses of propagation. The tops of the shoots are to be preferred, unless they happen to flag before used. To prepare them for insertion, most of the leaves must be trimmed off close to the stem, leaving only a few at the top, to allow a free respiration of the air necessary to the life of the plant. This is a most essential article in the art of making cuttings, particularly those of evergreens ; for if they are deprived entirely of their leaves, or that they otherwise flag, or occasionally fall off soon after they are put in, there will be little or no chance of their growing. The reason is obvious, because the inherent sap of the cutting, being deprived of these organs of respiration that kept it in motion, and the cutting having no roots by the efforts of which to produce new leaves, the sap, consequently, becomes stagnated in the pores of the wood ; which, like the stagnation of the blood in animals, will in all likelihood prove mortal, by occasioning an immediate mortification. 6673. In shortening each cutting to the most convenient length, care must be taken to do it with a clean cut, in a transverse direction at a joint ; and by no means should they be left exposed, or to lie any consi- derable time before planted. In planting, a small dibble or other convenient instrument should be used to press the loam sufficiently tight to the base of the cutting, as that is the principal part to be made fast ; as soon as the whole are inserted and the surface of the mould made level and a little firm, give them a gentle watering to settle them ; they should be left to soak about a quarter of an hour, and then covered with a bell-glass, which should be pressed pretty tight, so as perfectly to exclude the outward air. The atmo- spheric air being prevented by the glass from exhaling any of the juices of the plant, all its powers are forced downward to produce roots, and these will soon prove their existence by producing young leaves and branches. If there are several cuttings of the same sort, they may be all put in one pot, unless they happen to be very large or curious sorts ; but in general each species should be kept in a separate one, on account of the difference in time that some of them require to strike roots ; and also, that any scarce or va- luable kind should be put only one in a small pot, as they then are not liable to be injured so much by damp ; neither do they require to go through the precarious operation of separate potting, so soon after being struck. Should it be requisite to have a considerable quantity of cuttings made at the same time, it would be proper to have a one-light frame, with close glasses, placed on a moderate hot-bed, ready to receive them. It should be covered with sawdust or clean tan, about a foot deep, in which to plunge the pots : but if there are only a few done, they may be plunged in any frame among other things, provided there is a moderate heat. 6679. Watering and shading. They will now require the most particular attention as to watering and shading. The water must be given twice or thrice very moderately until the earth becomes sufficiently moist, which, if once so, will retain the moisture for a length of time, by being covered with the glass: but the shading is the principal care whenever the sun's rays fall on the glasses, as nothing will create rot. BOOK II. WOODY BARK-STOVE PLANTS. 923 tenness sooner than letting the leaves flag, and He upon each other, which will be the positive consequence of a neglect of shade. The most advisable method to do it is, to have a few large sheets of strong paper to lay over the glasses within a frame; which, at the same time that it shades the cuttings, does not prevent the sun's rays from entering the frame and clearing off any damps that may be accumulated therein ; whereas, if mats are laid on the outside of the frame-light, it is evident they will tend to have the direct contrary effect. However, in the course of a week or fortnight, they will be able to withstand a little of the rays of the morning and evening sun. 6680. While in an inactive state, they should be kept rather dry, but not let to an extreme ; else the bark will become shrivelled, and occasion a very smart falling off amongst them; on the other hand, should they be kept in an over-moist state, the consequence would not be less disagreeable, on account of the damp occasioned by the air being so closely confined under the glasses ; in this case it would be of infinite service to have the glasses wiped with a dry cloth about once a-week, which is quite sufficient for hot- house cuttings, as they are not so liable to suffer from this' cause as those of green-house plants. 6681. As the heat of the bed declines, it will be necessary to have another, properly tempered, ready, in which to plunge them when requisite; or otherwise, let the old one be renovated with linings of fresh warm dung ; but in such manner as to avoid creating any violent degree of heat or strong rank steam in the bed ; as it is better to do it often and but slightly at a time, it being but a trifling increase of labor compared with the probable consequences. By this management one may expect to have some of the free-growing kinds well rooted, and making rapid progress, in the course of a very few weeks ; when such is the case, it will be necessary to give them a little air by taking off the bell-glasses at night, and to keep them a little moister than before. If they endure this pretty well for a few days, the glasses may be left off entirely ; which will harden and prepare them by the time in which it may be thought convenient to part and pot them separately. 6682. In taking the bell-glasses off at night, it is necessary to observe that from their closeness they sometimes occasion the cuttings, more frequently the harder sorts, to produce young leaves and even shoots, before they have sufficient roots : if at any time these should be mistaken for well rooted plants, and their glasses taken off accordingly, in a few hours they may be perceived by their leaves beginning to flag ; in which case the glasses must be immediately replaced ; otherwise, if neglected, these tender shoots will be utterly spoiled, and it will be a very great chance whether the cutting will ever produce more or not. Should the above circumstance happen, they will be observed to be more impatient of damp after- wards ; as indeed will all those be which are growing ; the glasses should therefore be more frequently dried, and kept off until the leaves, &c. which were under them, become dry by evaporation ; lest we risk their success, I may say, perhaps, their existence, by rotting the first weak efforts towards active life. 6683. The rooted cuttings being thus prepared, they may be occasionally taken out of the frame, and set in more exposed airy situations in the hot-house : but as some kinds require a much longer time to pro- duce roots than others, it will be necessary to keep such still in the frame, shading and watering them when requisite, as already directed. Thus may they be treated until the autumn ; when, if any yet re- main in the cutting state, it will be advisable to have them taken to the propagation-stove, and plunged in the bark-pit ; previously clearing them from any damps, moss, or weeds that may have grown amongst them, and renewing the surface with a little fresh loam. Here they will require the same care as when in the frame, except that as the influence of the sun decreases, so must the shading in proportion ; using it only for two or three hours in the middle of the day, if at all requisite : and indeed it is necessary here to observe, that in the winter, and early spring months, they must not be shaded on any account, nor watered except when absolute necessity requires it ; neither should the cuttings that may be occasionally made at these seasons, receive any water when first put in, as directed for those made in summer, as the mould will be found in general sufficiently moist, in itself; and as there is not that quick principle of vegetation at this season, the water might prove materially injurious, by promoting damp and rottenness. It is even necessary in some instances, should the cutting be of a succulent plant, or in any degree approaching that nature, to provide loam rather dry, than moist; in which they must be planted and left without water, until they have completely formed their callosities, and the wounds are healed ; however, in either case, those fresh put in must be partially shaded for a few days, should the weather happen to be clear and sunny. It will be also necessary to dry the inside of the bell-glasses more frequently in the winter months ; as there is generally a stronger heat kept in the tan-pit, which gives rise to an increased evaporation ; and damp at this season should be more particularly avoided than at any other. In the ensuing spring those put in early, as well as what have remained since the preceding summer, will in general make an effort to grow ; as soon as they are observed in this state, let them be managed in the same manner as those already rooted have been. 6684. In regard to parting and potting the rooted cuttings or seedlings separately, the greatest nicety should be observed ; first, in turning them out of the pots without lacerating the roots ; and secondly, in shaking and working the earth from amongst them, until they can be readily parted without breaking ; if any of the mould can be conveniently preserved to them, so much the better ; but the preservation of the roots should be the principal object. They must be immediately potted in their proper soil, in pots suited to the size of the cuttings, and neatly tied up, if necessary ; let them be then well watered with a rose-pot moderately fine, but by no means should they be flooded, or slushed with it, as too many arc apt to do, but let it be given gently, and time allowed for it to soak regularly into the mould. They will re- quire a brisk heat and close shading for a few days, until they have established themselves in the fresh mould. (Exotic Gardener, 26.) 6685. Laying and inarching are rarely practised on hot-house plants. However, there are some that do not produce roots freely by cuttings, which may be multiplied successfully by these methods. 6686 In laying, choice should be made of the young tender shoots of the present year ; the soft bark of which will sooner form a callosity, and produce roots, than that of any of the preceding year's growth. It is particularly necessary to observe whether the plant intended to be laid is of a brittle nature or not ; for if it is, it will be necessary that the shoots be pegged gently down to the surface previous to laying, and thus left until their tops naturally acquire a perpendicular direction, which they will do in a few days; without this precaution, it would be extremely difficult to cut or tongue them without cracking, or break- ing them off; but if treated in this manner, the most brittle may be layed without danger. It is a con- clusion drawn from several experiments, that the layer, which is ihserted to a proper depth, roots sooner and better than that which is laid near the surface ; the reason of which is, at a certain depth the air is better excluded, and there is a more regular degree of moisture for the nourishment of the young fibres, when they make their appearance. No part of the shoot should on any pretence be covered with the mould, except that which is meant to produce roots, as the covering the whole renders it extremely liable to rot ; and therefore, if any particularly tender plant should happen to be thus treated, it would evidently endanger the whole stool. 6687 Inarching is much preferable to the common grafting, for evergreens in particular ; it is princi- pally practised as the best means of multiplying all the double varieties of camellia and plants of similar habits ; because their strong leaves, if only for a few days deprived of their regular support, by being cut clear from the mother stock, if not covered closely with a glass, will be certain to wither and fall off; after which there will be but very slender chance of the scion's completing a union : it is performed as follows : having provided a stock, which should always be some of the coarser free kinds of the same genus of plants and nearly of the same diameter as the shoot which is intended for inarching; cut a 924 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. thin slip from two to three inches long, about one third or something better of the whole thickness, smoothly off' from each of them, in the clearest part of the stem, with a small sharp knife ; a most neces- sary instrument for this business; the bark of each must then be titled together in the exactest manner, at feast on one side, and tied perfectly tight with good matting : they must be clayed in the same manner as grafts ; and as being within doors in a warm house will occasion the clay to become over dry, and in consequence liable to crack, they should, at least in dry weather, receive two or three times a-week some water from the rose of a waterpot or by means of a syringe, to preserve it in a moist proper state, ob- serving to do it in the evening, lest the leaves should get scorched by the rays of the sun: a little moss tied neatly round each ball of clay will prevent the water being so frequently necessary ; eight or ten weeks will in general be found sufficient time for them to unite; at all events, by that time they may be partially separated from the parent plant, by cutting the inarched shoots better than half-way through ; and if on trial, they are found to be united, and bear that operation well, they may in a few days after- wards be entirely cut off and placed in a shady part of the house, where they must be kept moderately syringed as before, and some additional shade given, according to the state of the weather, for two or three weeks; during which time they may be untied, and the top of the stock cut off'in a neat manner; and also any unnecessary part of the bottom of the scion that may remain : let a little clay be again applied that these fresh wounds may have sufficient time to become properly healed, which they will in a few weeks. In this manner, Gushing succeeded with myrtus pimento ; and other plants allied to it may be propa- gated on the common myrtle, which are particularly difficult to multiply by any other means j and also many other plants of the same description upon their kind. 6688. General culture. To attain a respectable degree of perfection in the culture of tropical plants, Gushing observes, the principal objects to which one should direct his attention, are assiduity in keeping up the stock by propagation ; a careful nicety in pot- ting, and shifting in the proper season ; a regularity in watering when requisite ; a thorough knowledge of the temperature necessary to be kept in the house ; and a steady attention to the cleanliness and habits of the plants in general. The business of shifting, or refreshing the roots of plants with earth properly prepared for that purpose, and trans- planting them into larger pots than they before occupied, is one of the most necessary operations required to keep them in ' a good state of growth. The quantity of earth contained in a flowerpot being in comparison so small to that which is requisite to the support of the generality of plants, it must be supposed that unless it is changed or aug- mented in due season, they will soon exhaust every particle of vegetative matter contained therein, though frequently assisted by proper water, which doubtless contains a large portion of the food of vegetables ; the consequence of which is, to the weaker-growing and tender kinds, that its salts being dissolved, and the sandy particles which kept it in a free open state washed away by the frequent and long continued ablutions, it becomes, in the case of ill drained pots for seeds, sour and coagulated ; and the plant being no longer able to draw its proper nourishment from it, must inevitably decline, and at last be- comes a nuisance to the collection, by breeding insects and filthiness : to the stronger sorts, though in a different manner, it will be no less pernicious, by starving them, and thereby occasioning them to dwindle into naked stems, and awkward unsightly forms. 6689. The season most proper for shifting hot-house plants is about the middle or end of April ; if done earlier (though some hot-house plants may be said to be in a state of growth for the greater part of the year) the generality of them will be found dormant ; and therefore will not have the power to establish themselves sufficiently in the fresh earth to prevent a great part of their leaves falling off, and the whole plant acquiring a sickly appearance ; and on the other hand, if done much later, most of them will be in a vigorous state, and it will require infinite care, and increase of labor to keep them properly shaded, else the intense influence of the sun on them, at an advanced season, will have, though a dif- ferent cause, nearly the same effect ; and reduce them to fully as disagreeable a state as in the former case. But if taken soon after they have made the first effort for the season's growth, the fibres being set in motion, and not having a top full of young tender leaves to support, they soon find their way into the fresh mould; and the plants, by being thus taken in time, and when done, placed in a brisk bottom heat to assist them, will in the space of three or four days at farthest be well recovered, and in general, able to suppprt themselves against the strongest rays we may reasonably expect at that season, without much danger to their leaves. 6690. Operation of shifting. Being fully prepared for the removal of the plants, let a part of them be taken to the potting-shed together, that they may be no longer than necessary out of the stove ; and while these are shifting, the remainder may be taken out of the tan, and set on any of the shelves or benches that are over the flues, so as to allow sufficient room to have it forked up and turned ; and should it be sunk considerably below the desired height, some fresh well dried tan should be added, and mixed well with the old in turning ; when done, let it be made pretty level with a rake that the plants may be conveniently and regularly set on the surface when shifted. In shifting the plant, the greatest nicety should be used not to injure the roots ; because, if the roots, from a multiplicity of wounds, (whjch are more frequently lacerated than cleanly cut,) once become cankered, or contaminated in any manner, the branches must also be expected to suffer and decay. 6691. An old but erroneous practice followed by many, is that of paring off the best part of the roots with a knife ; that is, the tips or ends of the fibres, which are undoubtedly the active agents in collecting the food for the stem, &c. ; then, without ever loosening the remaining part of the ball, set in the new pot with a little fresh earth thrown loosely about it: as a matter of course, they think it must then be completely drenched or flooded from the waterpot ; and lastly, to crown the whole, perhaps set it immediately in a pan of water ; when, if they only took time to consider the mutilated state, to which they have reduced the roots, it is impossible they could ever conceive them to be in a state fit to undergo such treatment with any kind of advantage : but it is the misfortune of many, who will not for a moment hesitate to undertake the care of tender and curious plants, as a matter ea'sily understood, yet will not take the trouble of judging for themselves, to follow the old track of cutting and watering, the same as they may have before seen practised on the hardiest geraniums or myrtles. Though the method may not seem to hurt some few kinds of strong free-growing plants ; yet it never can be allowed as a proper mode of treatment for all plants indiscriminately, because they may happen to have a good portion of roots : indeed, more plants have been destroyed by this practice than by any other particular part of the system of mismanagement which some so blindly follow. There are instances, however, wherein a knife is ne- cessary to the roots as well as the branches, viz. when they become rotten or otherwise contaminated; and also to such as arc propagated by cuttings of the roots, as most species of geranium may be, some mhnosae also, and indeed any that arc observed to produce suckers : in all which cases they should be taken off with precision, and a sufficiency left to support the parent, if considered worth preserving. BOOK IT. WOODY BARK-STOVE PLANTS. 925 6692. In turning the plant carefully out of its pot, observe if the roots have perforated it in any part, so as to render it impossible to part them without breaking the one, or lacerating the other ; in which case prefer the former as the slightest damage : however, when the ball of roots is divested of its pot let the broken tiles, or whatever substance may have been used as draining, be carefully picked out without tearing off the roots that may have grown amongst them : also any caked or mossy substance on the surface, which will come easily off with the fingers. Then proceed to loosen the earth and matted roots, by gently patting them on the side of the ball with the hand ; or otherwise, by pressing it so as to open the pores of the earth without cracking the roots ; shake off any loose earth, and having a proper sized pot, ready prepared, put in a quantity of the fresh mould sufficient to raise the crown of the roots to about half an inch below the rim of the pot, on which set the plant ; and add more earth, lightly shaking it in among the fibres ; let the whole be pressed moderately light, but not so as to render it hard in the least degree, nor by any means using a stick for this purpose, another never -failing attendant on the former practice, by which the roots are extremely liable to be torn or bruised ; add mould sufficient to raise the surface level with the rim, as it will settle to a proper depth with watering, and smooth the whole off neatly with the hand. 6693. Two or three assistants will be found necessary, where there is much of this work to be done ; one of those should be employed in supplying pots and other necessaries; the others in washing and cleaning from insects, &c. any plants that may happen to stand in need before shifted ; and in tying them up properly to their sticks afterwards : new sticks should be had at least once a-year, to hot-house plants in particular ; as the old ones very often harbor more or less of the several pestiferous insects which infest these departments. This done, let the plants be set on a level spot together, and moderately watered with a fine-rose pot, held at a distance above their tops so as to give the leaves a good rinsing; but observe to give no more water than is sufficient to settle the fresh mould to the roots, and by no means to slush or give the surface that puddled appearance, so very disagreeable to be observed in departments where neatness should be the uniform and leading principle. Having thus finished the first division, let them be immediately taken to the stove, to be set on the fresh-turned tan for the present, and those that remained there, taken to the shed to be treated and shifted in the same manner as the others. 6694. Whe n the whole are shifted, they may be partially plunged for a few days ; setting the pot about half its depth loosely into the tan, to avoid the danger that attends too violent a heat arising in the pit ; which is frequently the case, when it has been recently turned or augmented. However, there must be a pretty brisk fire-heat kept up in the house, until the plants recover from their inactive state, the un- avoidable consequence of their roots being so recently disturbed. They will be much benefited at this time by a moderate use of the hand-syringe, in the morning before the sun has begun to act upon them witli force ; also by raising a strong steam in the house, to be done by throwing water on the tops and sides of the warm flues. But when they are freely treated in this manner, they require but little from the water-pot ; as over watering is very pernicious to plants in general, and at no time is it more particularly so, than when they have been lately shifted. However this must unavoidably depend on the judgment of him in whose care they are placed; as some of them will require considerably more than others. In a few days, when the danger of a violent heat is over, the plants may be plunged neatly in the tan up to the rim ; "but observe that it is not left scattered on the surface of the pots, as it would give the work an extremely slovenly appearance; a few inches of clean sawdust laid over the tan, gives a clean and neat appearance, which, in most gardens, is a particularly essential part of the curator's conduct. All the plants which require the aid of tan-heat, being -properly plunged, and the remaining ones regulated on the different benches or shelves ; let the place be well cleaned put, when little more will be necessary for a few weeks than watering when requisite, squirting, steaming, and attention to the degree of heat necessary to be kept in the house at this season. This should in general be about sixty degrees. If it is kept much lower, it will considerably retard the plants in recovering their vigor ; and if many degrees higher, the free-growing kinds will soon over-top, and materially injure the weak and more tardy sorts unless prevented ; besides themselves becoming unsightly, the consequence of being drawn, or forced into long weak ungainly stems. 6695. Insects. As the heat increases with the advancing season, the different species of insects to which these departments are liable, will multiply incredibly. Those which seem to make the greatest havoc amongst plants in the hot-house, are, the green fly, the thrips, the mealy white bug, the great scaly bug, the small scale, or the pine-bug, and the red spider, which, although the smallest, is by far the most destructive of any of the species that exist in these departments. 6696. For the fly and thrips, there is no process which seems to take so much effect on them, as a strong fumigation of tobacco ; repeated twice or thrice, according to the strength the insects may have attained. 6697. For the bugs, there is none of the several expensive methods mentioned in different authors so effectual, as simply picking them off; this may be said to be tedious, but then it has surety to plead in its behalf; besides, that the plants are in no manner disfigured by the operation ; but unless regularity be observed in looking for them, examining plant by plant, and leaf by leaf, from top to bottom, and also any incisions or cracks that may be in the bark of the stem, &c. there will be a constant and tiresome employment ; on the contrary, if regularly done, one operation will be of more service than five, if ex- ecuted in a careless inattentive manner. As each individual plant is picked, it should be carefully washed with a strong lixivium of soft soap and water, which will have a powerful effect on their eggs, which are in general sufficiently small to elude the eye, or perhaps so situated within the young buds that they cannot be got at without materially injuring the future growth ; the wash will, however, penetrate into these secret holds, and in general be fully adequate to their destruction. 6698. When the plants are out of the house in summer, every part of them should be well washed with strong soap-suds, in which a little of the same tobacco, as used for fumigating, has been infused ; in par- ticular, all the joints of the wood- work, and also whatever nail-holes or other crevices may happen to be therein ; as in these places some of the species, more especially the white mealy bug, is much inclined to secrete itself for breeding. This operation will, however, if performed in spring and autumn, be a great means of their extinction, and will tend in a great degree to check the multiplication of the others. 6699. The red spider, the last and most pernicious of the species mentioned, is to be overcome neither by fumigation nor picking ; but by the free but well directed use of common water ; either by steam or with the hand-syringe. The steam, by creating a fine dew in the house, prevents the insect from extending its slender web from leaf to leaf, and thus checks its progress ; while the syringe, by su- perior force, breaks the ligaments of those already made, and in most instances washes the insects to the ground ; where, although it may recover its fall for the first or second application, it is in the end sure to perish. They will sometimes, however, elude the greatest diligence, for a while, by collecting under large horizontal leaves, which serve them as citadels against the attacks of the water; but here they will soon betray themselves, by extracting the fluid' substance of the leaf for their support, in consequence of which it loses its verdure and becomes conspicuous ; this, when found, should be picked off, and taken out of the house immediately ; for if left anywhere among the plants they will in a little time establish themselves on others. If they happen to be discovered before the leaf has lost its beauty, they may be rubbed off with the hand on a sheet of paper, and expelled the premises. If at any time the quantity 926 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. of water necessary to be used in these operations, should occasion the earth to become over-wet, in those ix>fc> particularly which are plunged in the bark-bed, the syringing must be omitted, and use made of the steam only, until they again become reasonably dry. Neither should it be performed when the sun acts freely upon the plants, lest their leaves become in consequence disfigured. For the water forms itself into little spherules, the surfaces of which collect the rays of the sun in a greater or less degree according to their convexity ; and thereby the leaves are disfigured by being burned in the focus of each spherule. 6700. Summer treatment. As the season advances, it will become necessary to ad- mit a reasonable portion of air on all fine sunny days ; and also to decrease the strength of the fires at night : but in these particulars, the only criterion to be guided by, are ex- perience and observations on the weather, the variations in which render it utterly im- possible to lay down any certain rule to act by, further than the admonitions of the ther- mometer ; observing to keep it pretty near to sixty degrees. About the beginning or middle of May at farthest, fires may be omitted entirely ; as the natural heat of the sea- son united to that of the bark-bed, will in general be found sufficient to keep the mer- cury up to the above-mentioned point. 6701. Towards the latter end of June, the plants by this treatment will generally be in a very luxuriant free state of growth ; it will be therefore requisite to raise the pots quite out of the tan-bed, to check and harden them a little, so as to be able to bear the air of the green-house for a few weeks, which will be of considerable advantage to them the ensuing winter. Should any of them remain of a sickly appear- ance, (and that a few may be in that state, in large collections, must be reasonably expected,) or any particular tender sorts among them, they must be removed to a separate house, as already hinted, where the tan being previously forked up, and otherwise properly prepared for their reception, they must be immediately replunged : if no such house is convenient, a large deep hot-bed frame, set on a good bed of well-prepared dung, will answer nearly as well for this purpose ; having nine or ten inches of rotten tan or sawdust spread regularly over the bed within the frame, in which the pots are to be plunged. 6702. When the bed has been got ready, a few days should elapse before the plants are set in it, that the steam and violent heat may have sufficient time to evaporate. At the expiration of five or six days, however, the plants in their pots may be set on the surface ; where they should remain a little time longer without being plunged ; but particular care is necessary that the frame at this time may not be kept too close, which would occasion the heat to ascend more rapidly than the plants could we'll bear ; to avoid this, give plenty of air in the daytime, and also a little at night, with a mat hung before it to prevent the sharp air entering into the frame. When the heat of the bed has attained a proper tem- perature, so that there may be no danger of the roots being burned or otherwise injured, let the plants be plunged, and afterwards" treated in the same manner as if they were still in the hot-house : only ob- serving to keep those that are in a weak state rather dry ; as nothing can be more injurious to a sickly plant than too much moisture, by reason of its inability to imbibe the usual quantity through want of vigor. The plants which remain, intended to be set in the green-house, must now have a considerable increase of fresh air on all fine days ; and also (the pots being quite out of the tan) they will require a greater portion of water than has been usually given them when plunged. 6703. As soon as the vxather becomes settled, and the night perfectly free from all chilliness and frost, which is seldom much before the middle of July, the plants may with safety be removed from the stove to the green-house; and set regularly on the benches lately occupied by the green-house plants ; which they will ornament very much, during the time the latter are set in clumps in the open air. The stove may in this interval be furnished with a few of each of the different tender annuals, to give it some- thing of a gay lively appearance. They will likewise in some measure serve as a kind of natural trap for the spider, &c. ; as they will, should there be any of them left in the house, immediately attack the soft tender leaves of these plants, in which case, as soon as they are observed to be collected in force upon any individual plant, it should be removed to the open air, without loss of time, and another sub- stituted in its room; this practice will contribute towards subduing this formidable enemy, so that, combined with other exertions, by the time it becomes necessary to have the hot-house plants reinstated in the bark-bed, the house should be pretty free from them. These being now in the green-house, will require a little attention to preserve their verdure, such as keeping the glasses close at night and ad- mitting air only on fine days ; thus to exclude any chilling or strong winds that may happen to prevail, which would occasion the leaves to contract a languid yellowish appearance ; however, in course of a week or ten days, they will be able to withstand any weather that may in reason be expected at this season ; unless it happens to be unusually violent, in which case it must be guarded against accordingly. 6704. The removal of insects, weeds, and dead leaves is the principal care they will require now for about a month or so, also casually tying up any that may want it, and watering ; in which last article, it must be observed, that as they now stand upon dry boards, and the air acting freely on every side of the pot, they must consequently be allowed an increase of water, to counterbalance its effect. The even- ing is the most proper time for watering at this season, as well as syringing, particularly when dry and warm ; for if administered in the morning, the rising heat of the sun exhales it, before it has time to de- scend to the lower roots ; and unless replenished frequently in course of the succeeding day, they are liable to much injury, by being left in an exhausted state until the following morning, and which, it is probable, may not prove more fortunate ; whereas, if administered in the evening, it refreshes them after the preceding day's drought, and having sufficient time to penetrate to the roots, they have the night to recruit themselves against the following dajj. Besides, in syringing, there is much more dan- ger of having the leaves scorched by the sun's rays, if done in the morning, than if done as here recom- mended : but as either extreme is dangerous, care must be taken to use no more water than is evidently necessary for the health of the plants: for if used to that degree that the earth becomes sour and de- prived of its vegetative powers, the consequences may be rather unpleasant 6705. By thus setting the plants in the green-house, it tends to prevent the increase of insects; also their too luxuriant growth during the summer months ; and by hardening and ripening the wood, ren- ders them strong and firm, and therefore more likely to bloom ; which is, in these ornamental plants, the principal object of the cultivator, besides that they are not so liable to be injured by the severities of the succeeding winter. 6706. Autumn treatment. Towards the latter end of August the natural beat of the atmosphere will be on the decline ; therefore, except on particular fine days, when a small portion of air may be given, the lights must be kept perfectly close ; but more especially so at night : as we have frequently at this season heavy chilling dews, and are also often surprised with unexpected showers of rain or hail ; to admit either of which might be very injurious to the plants ; however, by shutting up the house before the sun has withdrawn its influence entirely from it, and thereby warming the enclosed air, they may safely stand here some days longer. BOOK II. WOODY BARK-STOVE PLANTS. 927 6707. As soon as the month of September commences, it is time to think of getting the stoves ready for their reception ; first, a quantity of fresh tan should be provided, sufficient to raise the bed at least six inches above the kirb or wall of the pit, in conjunction with the best of the old already there, which is to be extracted by shifting. Let the new tan be spread out to dry in ridges, upon some clean airy spot, or con- venient yard, for two or three days, where it should be regularly turned twice or thrice a-day, and covered with mats at night ; while this is preparing, let the flues of the house be well cleaned and the walls white- washed ; an operation necessary to be done every year in these departments, where strong fires are kept for such a length of time ; likewise, let the old tan be sifted in the common way, with a pretty coarse sieve or riddle : some gardeners throw it entirely away, but the part sifted being mixed with the new, prevents its heating so violently as it otherwise would when first put in; it also tends to preserve a more regular heat in the other longer than it naturally would if used by itself; as it would be very violent at first, anil consequently, like most other things that are worked up above their pitch, liable to" be sooner exhausted in proportion to the first foundation. 6708. Having sifted and got away all the refuse of the old tan, let the fresh, if well dried, be immediately carried in, and both well mixed together in the pit ; still adding, until the bed is raised to the proper height ; this done, let the wood and glass-work, kirbs, passages, &c., in short, every part of the house be diligently washed ; for the twofold purpose of endeavoring to clear it as much as possible from insects, as well as to give it a cleanly appearance : being thus prepared, the plants may be removed from the green- house, observing to examine each of them diligently lest any of those plagues so often mentioned, should find their way back to the stove. 6709. The pots must not be plunged in the tan at .first ; as well on account of the danger of the violent heat injuring the roots, as because this early plunging might start them into a fresh growth ; winch, at this late season, would not be at all to their advantage. They must, therefore, be set on the surface of the tan in regular order, where they may stand twelve or fifteen days, or perhaps longer ; being guided in this particular by the state of the atmosphere abroad, as well as the internal temperature of the heat in the pit : by the first week in October, the heat of the external air will be considerably abated, and that in th most sides of the pit in regular order ; according to the form of the house, and the mode of arrangement , te pit sufficiently moderate. The time for plunging being fixed on, observe to have it done in the ost exact manner, placing the tall plants towards the back or centre, and the lower ones to the front or , adopted. If sawdust is used, it will contribute much to their cleanliness, and also make a more agreeable appearance than the tan. All being set to rights, and the passages, &c. swept clean, give the plants a good syringing to wash off whatever dust they may have acquired during their removal, which will com- plete the business for this time. The principal care afterwards for a few weeks, is to give them a reason- able share of fresh air and water, according to the temperature of the weather ; but it is more proper to perform the watering, syringing, and steaming, from this time to the beginning or middle of May, in the forenoon ; observing to do it while the rays of the sun fall so obliquely as to ensure the plants from being injured by it : should it be done in the evening, the air in the house would unavoidably get chilled, especially in frosty weather. It is even necessary that the water used for this purpose should be nearly of the same temperature as the air in the house. 6710. About the middle of October, it will be necessary to add a little fire-heat at night, beginning with slow fires at first, and regularly increasing them as the severities of the weather increase. Although a circulation of fresh air is at all times requisite to the health of plants, yet the heat of the external atmo- sphere will at this season be so much diminished that it will not be found convenient to admit it in any considerable quantity ; in fact, none should be given, except on particular fine days, when the front or end lights may be opened a few inches. They- should be shut early in the day, seldom permitting them to remain open longer than one o'clock ; thereby giving the sun time to warm the fresh-admitted air be- fore the chill of the night commences ; even this little indulgence cannot be allowed from about the end of October until the beginning of April : as the strong cold winds which generally blow during the winter months find of themselves but too many entrances. 6711. As to wateringin the autumn, discontinue it to those plants plunged in the pit, as the moisture of the tan, added to that which proceeds from the syringe, will be found quite sufficient for most of them ; on the contrary, those over the flues, or on the shelves or kirbs near the fires, will require an additional por- tion on account of the strong fires necessary to be kept when the weather happens to be severe. The use of the syringe and steam must also be stopped in the severest frosts, lest by that means the house should get over chilled ; however, they may both be used freely, when the weather proves moderately mild and fine; but by no means is it to be understood, that the house at this time is to be kept in a continual mist; or, on the other hand, that the plants are not to be carefully examined as usual, and watered liberally when in want of it. It is necessary to notice that those plants which are inclined to be deciduous, and also some of the more tender ones, will be occasionally dropping part of their leaves ; these should be picked off as soon as they appear, otherwise they will have rather a disagreeable appearance among the plants. 6712. Winter treatment. About the middle or end of December, it will be necessary to have the tan in the pit turned, and renovated with a little fresh well -dried bark to en- liven the heat, as the severest part of the season is still to be expected ; however, in per- forming this work, great care, is required that the plants are not chilled or injured by being removed out of the tan-bed at this cold season : therefore, the mildest weather must be chosen for performing this operation. The pit being cleared, immediately proceed to turn over and mix the old and new tan well together, in which, as soon as it is completed and levelled fit to receive the pots, they may be plunged without delay ; as there is not that certain danger of a burning heat ascending now as in the summer months, in which season the powerful action of the sun occasions it to ascend more violently. 6713. Plunging the pots. Should it not be convenient to have the whole plunged the same day, those left will require to be set on the surface of the tan during night ; lest by being left near the glass, or ex- treme parts of the house, they might be severely injured ere the morning by the cold air ; as it is therefore advisable to keep them as short a time as possible out of the tan at this season, they should without fail be plunged the next or following day at farthest : it will be also requisite to keep a pretty brisk fire-heat in the house, while the plants are out of the tan, and until the bottom heat in the pit becomes sufficiently strong; else they will be liable thereby to droop, and lose many of their leaves in consequence of being checked at this season. Should it happen that a series of clear fine weather follows this operation, the action of the sun may possibly occasion the heat to rise rather violent in course of a few days after being renewed : to this particular attention must be paid, and if any such symptom should appear, it must be immediately remedied by lifting the pots out of their places, and throwing into the holes a small quantity of the surface tan ; on which the pots may be again set in a loose manner ; thus, by permitting the heat to pass freely oft'by the sides of the pots, itprevents its burning the earth or roots, which would be certain death to the plants : when its violence has subsided, let the pit be levelled, and pots properly replunged ; but unless the weather, as already noticed, happens to be particularly cle,ar, in all likelihood this labor will not be encountered. 928 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. FART III. 6714. Watering ana cleaning. They will require from this time until about the beginning of March, nothing more than the usual care of watering when necessary, and cleaning them from all dirt or insects as soon as they appear ; also to keep the temperature of the enclosed air as near to its regular pitch as possible : to assist in compassing this object, when the weather sets in severe, it will be proper to use either shutters of canvass or bass mats to cover all the lowest parts of the house ; and in particular those at the greatest distance from the entrance of the fires every night; otherwise the frost will easily enter these remote parts, and chill the air through the whole house ; the consequence of which may be very inju- rious : on the other hand, if these precautions are not attended to, there will be a necessity of keeping up a very strong fire-heat, which will likewise be attended with pernicious effects. 6715. Insects. It is in these intervals that that destructive insect the red spider makes the most rapid progress, on account of the necessity there exists of keeping the houses close, and supporting a dry warm air, both of which circumstances are particularly congenial to its nature; therefore on all fine mild morn- ings, observe to raise a powerful steam in the house as already directed ; by the frequent repetition of which there will be a possibility of keeping them under control. 6716. Refreshing the bark-bed. As the internal strength and heat of the tan will now be much on the decline, in consequence of the length of time it has been in use, it will be requisite to turn it more fre- quently, so that about the beginning of March, it should be again stirred to at least half its depth ; which will afford a temperate heat, until the time in which the plants are usually shifted, when it is generally re- newed. Some gardeners make it a practice to have merely the upper .half of their tan-pits stirred at any time throughout the year, when the heat happens to be on the decline ; this is certainly a very proper method where there is plenty of time and hands to perform it ; as there is no danger of a burning heat arising; but it requires to be done so much the oftener, such heat seldom lasting above a month or six weeks ; it consequently will not answer where these conveniences are not to be had. The plants being regulated in proper order as before, let them have the usual treatment until the time of shifting. (Exotic 6717. SECT. II. Climbing Bark-stave Plants. CLIMBING BARK-STOVE PLANTS. MA'S. JUNE. JULY. AUGUST. SEPTEMBER. Pergularia odoratissima Aristolochia triloba, p. Aristolochia odoratiss. p. Grata; va tragrans Gronovia scandens, p. Pergularia minor Roxburghia gloriosoides Thunbergia fragrans, p. Abrus precatorius, p. Convolvulus speciosus,p. Jasminum hirsutum muljiflorum sambac flo. pleno monstru. Passiflora biflora quadrangularis. Convolvulus jalapa Jasminum auriculatum 6718. The propagation and culture adopted for green-house climbers, is equally so for those of the bar stove, the difference of temperature being taken into consideration. (See 6204. and 6253.) SECT. III. Bulbous-rooted Bark-stove Plants. 6719. All bulbous-rooted stove plants may, no doubt, be kept in the dry-stove ; but if it is wished that they should flower in any degree of perfection, they must be plunged in the bark-bed, when newly planted. The same remark will apply indeed to most of the dry-stove bulbs. 6720. BULBOUS-ROOTED BARK-STOVE PLANTS. MAY. JUNE. JULY. AUGUST. BEPTEMBE*. Allium gracile Amaryllis falcata - flexilis angustifolia Amaryllis ad vena _ blanda cruciata _ radiata _ radula Amaryllis Brunsvigii ~ cun-ifolia disticha undulata Amaryllis aurea crocea equestris latifolia orientalis Amaryllis brasiliensis marginata spectabilis Haemanthus quadrivalv. reginae Haemanthus albiflos iosephinae ornata reticulata _ carinatus longifolia undulnefolia iaemanthus coarctatus Ornithogalum arabicum caudatum pilosus pubescens Ornithogalum latifolium zeylanica Crinum americanum asiaticum Crinum amabile giganteum - latifolium J ancratium amboinense australe Hainan thus coccincu, 1 erubescens orbicularis Haemanthus longifolius Pancratium amocnum multiflorus calathinum Pancratium carolinean. fragrans mexicanum littorale SECT. IV. Perennial Herbaceous Bark-stove Plants. 6721. HERBACEOUS BARK-STOVE PLANTS. MAY. JUNE. JULY. AUGUST. SEPTEMBER. .Brides odoraturo, p. Lobelia surinamensis, p. Peliosanthes teta Buttneria scahra, p. I/obelia longiflora, p. Achyranthes porrigens Dionaea muscipula, p. Columnea hirsuta, p. scandens ^pinna'tTfidi 01 ^ Elephantopus scaber Gloriosa superba, p. Leea crispa macrophylla I 1 1 Ix>belra assurgens BOOK II. HOT-HOUSE AQUATICS. 929 6722. The propagation and culture of these need not be entered on, being essentially the same as for hardy or green-house herbaceous plants, the difference of temperature being taken into consideration. Such as have tuberous roots must be treated on the same principle as tubers in the open garden, as, for example, those of fumaria cava, erythronium, &c. which have their regular seasons of rest. 6723. The gloriosa superba, that grand, beautiful tuberous-rooted stove plant, for want of attention to the nature ot its roots and its habits of growth, seldom produces flowers in this country. " Its failure," John Sweet observes, " arises chiefly from the defective method in which its roots are preserved during their inaction, and from the want of proper treatment, when they first vegetate in the spring. Injured at these periods, the plants generally continue through the summer, weak and unpromising, throwing up only a few small stems, which do not flower in sufficient strength and beauty." Under the following manage- ment, Sweet has had perfect success, and has known a single root grow ten feet in the course of a season, with numerous blossoms upon it. When the stalks and foliage have decayed in the autumn, and left the root, like a well ripened potatoe, in a dormant state, the pot containing it must be removed from the bark- bed to the top of the hot-house flue, at some distance from the fire, all the warmth at this time necessary being merely what is sufficient to keep the earth in the pot free from damp ; and to prevent the waterings of the house, or other moisture, falling on the earth in the pot, it should be covered, by inverting upon it another pot of the same size ; or if larger, it will hang over its edges and more effectually exclude the wet. If the roots are small, two or three may be placed together in the same pot, whilst in their dormant state ; but if they are thus shifted, the mould must be well shaken down in the pot, in order to prevent the access of air to them ; the old mould in which they grew must also be used ; for fresh earth or sand would stimulate them to move too early. About the second week in March, the roots must be planted, putting one or two, according to their size, into pots measuring six inches over. The best compost for them is fresh loam, mixed with an equal quantity of bog-earth of good quality : the loam should be good, not over rich with dung, nor too heavy. The roots are to be covered about two inches deep, and care must be taken not to break them, unless nature has shown where it is practicable to divide them easily. The pots, when filled, must be plunged into the bark-bed, where the heat should be equal to ninety-five degrees of Fahrenheit's scale. Water is to be given very sparingly at first, and though, as they grow, they will re- quire a more liberal supply, yet it is necessary, at all times, to be very moderate in giving it. The heat must be well kept up, and as the shoots extend they must be supported by sticks, or trained in any direc- tion on wire or cords. (Hort. Tram. vol. iii. 23.) 6724. SECT. V. Annual Herbaceous Bark-stove Plants. BARK-STOVE ANNUALS. MAY. JUNE. JULY. AUGUST. SEPTEMBER. Amethystea caerulea, p. Calceolaria pinnata Amaranthus bicolor cruentus Celosia argentea cernua Campanula capensis Cassia chainsecrista rubicauhs tricolor cristata rub. dwarf, red tora Browallia demissa tall, buff Cleome pentaphylla, p. elata ceerulea dwarf spinosa viscosa Convolvulus pes caprae Crotolariajuncea Hedysarum gangeticum vespertillio flo. albo Buchnera capensis, p. - fcetida Campanula debilis Cardiospermum halica- cabum varieca. Clitoria brasiliana, p . ternata Heliophila integrifolia Heliotropiumindicum,p. Impatiens balsamina - -flesh-co.dble. Convolvulus nil. p. tridentatum Ipomoea phosnicea quamoclit flo. albo Crotolaria verrucosa Datura fastuosa, pi. flo. albo bizar, tall,dble. dwarf, dble. pur. str. dble. scarl.str.dble. Mesembryanthemum glabnim - - flo. albo Lobelia gracilis, p. Mimosa pudica sensitiva Sida cordifolia, p. Gomphrena globosa flo. albo flo.stri. Martynia proboscidea Mesembryanthemum erystallinum pinnatifidum Physalis prostrata, p. Sida dilleniana Pentapetes phoenicea, p. hastata Solanum melongena fruct.purp. 6725. Propagation and culture. They are all propagated from seeds, most of which ripen in this country ; but some few sorts are continued by cuttings for the sake of preserving particular variations. Sow in February or March in pots, to be plunged in a hot-bed ; prick out the plants into the smallest-sized pots, when they have attained one or two proper leaves, and shift them once or twice into pots a size larger in the manner recommended for the balsam (1653.) ; keeping the plants in hot-beds or pits till ready to blossom, when they may either be removed to such of the houses as are empty at the time, as the bulb- house, green-house, &c. or assembled in a house devoted to annuals. Some few of them, as the ice-plant (Mesembryanthemum crystattinum) and egg-plant (Solanum melongenum), may be plunged in a warm situation in the open garden. 6-726. SECT. VI. Aquatic Stove Plants. HOT-HOUSE AQUATIC PLANTS. MARCH. JUNE. JULY. AUGUST. SEPTEMBER. Arum venosum Cyperus altemifolius Menyanthes indica ovata Nymphsea pubescens Pontederia dilatata Aponogeton angustifol. distachyon Euryale ferox Nelumbium speciosum Nymphtea cterulea rubra stellata versicolor Philydrum lanucinosum Sagittana lancifolia Aponogeton monosta- chyon Damasonium indicum Nvmphsoa lotus Pontederia cordata Sagittaria obtusifolia 3SSF33ZS: 30 930 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 6727. Propagation and culture. 'Being-all herbaceous plants they are to be propagated as these generally are : some are raised from seeds, which in general should be sown as soon as ripe, and the pots plunged in shallow water ; when the plants come up, they may be transplanted into other pots, and shifted as they ad- vance in growth, till in a pot of sufficient size to admit their flowering, which will generally take place the same season. Instead of being kept in pots, the plants may be inserted in a bed of earth on the bottom of the aquarium. The most beautiful of the exotic aquatics, are the nymnhajas and nelumbiums ; these, with other genera, have been cultivated to a high degree of perfection by Kent, who, instead of a regular aqua- rium employs pans and small cisterns, plunged in hot-beds. Where a regular aquarium is not formed to be heated by flues (./*. 578, 579.) we should suggest the idea of a cistern (fig. 622.) to be 622 placed on pillars in the open air. When the season for forcing the nymphaeas com- mences, it may be surmounted by a hot-bed frame of the same diameter, and surrounded by linings of dung. By this means any re- quired degree of heat might be produced puring the flowering season, and if it were desired to continue any of the plants in a growing state durtng winter, the linings and frame could be continued ; if not, the plants migntbe removed to a reserve-aquarium, in the stove or propagation-house. 6728. Menyanthes, nymphcea, and euryale ferox (an annual, with singularly constructed leaves, often of thirty inches diameter), Kent has proved to thrive best in a close heat. Menyanthes requires only to be fresh potted in spring, and placed in a pan in a hot-bed, where it will flower the whole summer. The nymphajas having tuberous roots, he keeps, through the winter, in small pots (sixties), in a dormant state, in a small trough of water in the stove. Early in April, he prepares them for their summer culture, by placing these in small wooden cisterns, two feet long, fourteen inches wide, and six inches deep, and then placing them in any cucumber or melon frames which may be then in use. " In about a fortnight or three weeks a number of offsets or runners will be thrown from the bulbs. These are then separated and put into small pots ; and in the course of ten or twelve days a strong plant of each species is selected, and placed in the cisterns for flowering. The tender aquatics, especially the nymphaas, grow in a brick three- light frame, thirteen feet long, and six feet broad ; inside depth at back, five feet, and above the ground, four feet ; which is filled with tan. 1 have four wooden cisterns, lined with lead, four feet long, two feet six inches wide, and fifteen inches deep : they are plunged in the tan, and filled with strong rich loam, about six inches deep, the bottom part of which is rammed down ; and the plants placed in them, one or two in each, according to their habit of growth. The cisterns are then filled with water by degrees. As the plants advance in size, they must be replenished and cleared from conferva? as often as necessary ; and the heat in June produced the effect, although they were shaded from the sun's rays by matting, and the lights considerably raised. Where dung is used, there is like danger, from its heating. After being planted out, they will show flowers in the course of a month, and some of them will continue blooming through the season. As soon as the plants have done flowering, and perfected their seeds, they disappear, and form bulbs in the mud. These, in the month of October, I put into small pots (sixty to the cast), and place them in a trough of water, in the stove, where they remain dormant until the ensuing spring. The seeds are most likely to vegetate, if sown at the same time, and treated in the same manner. Nymphaea casrulea will flower in the stove ; but not so freely as in the frame. Nymphzea stellata seeds freely, but the root does not easily divide ; indeed it is best grown, when treated as an annual. Euryale ferox does well under similar treatment to that of the nymphzeas ; its seed should be sown about Christmas, and kept in the cistern of the stove." (Hort. Trans, iii. 34.) 6729. Nelumbium speciosum " is easily raised from seed, which will retain its vegetative power for forty years, and with every advantage, in a fair season, produce blossom the first summer. It is generally grown sown two months earlier. The leaves produced were about two feet in diameter ; but the plant went off in the winter, notwithstanding it was treated in the manner hitherto found the most successful ; which has been, to allow the tub to remain in the tan, and become nearly dry, giving it no more water than the other plants around it. At Canton, it seems, they drain the ponds wherein it grows, and use the roots for food ; but whether fibres of it are the parents of the ensuing crop, or the pots are replenished by seedlings, doe* not appear. Both are probable, as the roots, which have been kept nearly dry in our hot-houses, if but a very small piece has remained alive, have become vigorous blooming plants, as well as those from seed." (Hort. Trans, ill 36.) 6730. SECT. VII. Scitaminous, or Reedy Stove Plants. MARSH, OR REEDY HOT-HOUSE PLANTS. MAY. JUNE. JULT- AUGUST. SEPTEMBER. Alplnia allughas,March, occidentalis racemosa Amomumafzelii Kiempferia angustifolia Strelitzia reginse, v. - fertaosa *" Urania speciosa, March Cost us spicata, p. Curcuma zedoaria Mto.*p & _ parVifolia Canna glauca, p. fiidtca Heliconia bihai Olyra paniculate Costus arabicus, p. speciosus Curcuma longa Hedychium ansusttfo- liuin , p. coronarium Heliconia psittarorum "T^SSSff - speciosa Alpinia nutans Globba marantina, p. sessiliflora Maranta arundinacea Musa coccinea, Dec. paradisiara, NOT. rosacea sapientum Alpinia calcarata Zingiber officinalc purpureum zerurabit 6731. Propagation and culture. No plants are more easily propagated than those enumerated. In respect to. culture, they may for the most part be considered as marsh or bog plants, for even the sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum) and ginger (Zingiber officinale) are found in a wild state by rivers and in moist woods, and thrive best in the stove when their roots are liberally supplied with water. SECT. VIII. Selections of Bark-stove Plants for particular Purposes. 6732. Selections of bark-stove plants for particular purposes can be but few. A collec- tion may be made of such as are or have been most used in the arts ; of curious or bota- nists' species ; of such as are highly odoriferous, as asclepias, bignonia, clerodendron ; or night-smelling, as cestrum nocturnum, cactus grandiflorus ; of palms, as of the sago-palm (Cycas), of the cocoa-nut (Cocos), of the date-palm, (Phoenix) &c. ; or of any of the natural BOOK II. SELECTIONS OF BARK-STOVE PLANTS. 931 orders of such rare sorts as have not yet flowered. The following are some of the most remarkable of the economical tropical plants used either in their native countries or im- ported into this country. FOOD. Bengal quince (sEtfl marmelos) Sour-sop (AnmiiM muricatit) Alligator-apple (Amuma palustris) Cabbage-tree (Areca oleracta) ad frui .I) tit-tree (Artocarpus Jaca-tree (Artocarpns inic/f ' Akee-tree (Wiffkia sapida) Brjad-nut-tree (Rnunnum alictistrum) Cocoa-plum-tree (t'hrysolialanus icaa>) Cocoa-nut-ttee (CMOS nucijera) " Cotfee-tree (Cojfia aralnca) Garlic-iear (Cratnia tapia) Calabash-tree (Crescentia cucurbUiim) Sago-palm (Cvcus rei'uluta) l*e-chee (Dim<>car]nis litchi) Smooth-fruited lee-chee (fitMM.'lMMM) Date-plum (Diospyrus kaki) Malay apple (Eugenia jambos) (Garcinia mangostana) ^Griascaulftora) (Hibiscus eicuientuj) Otaheite chestnut (luucarptu edulis) Barbadoes cherry (Malpigkia angnsHjbl.) Mammee-tree (Mummea americana) Mango-tree (Man&ferii indica) Satfron-fruit (Mitmuia dutcis) Date-palm (Plmnix dactylijera) (iuava (Psidium pyrijerum, pomif. &c.) Jx>tus-tree (Rluimnus lotus) Tamarind- tree (Tamarindta indisa) Chocolate-nut-tree (Thetibromu cncao\ Sweet ]>otatoe (i;irol. battulas) ; climb. Granadilla (Passiflora quadrant;.) ; climb. Melon-thistle (Cjctut mammilaris) ; sue. Barbadoes gooseberry (Cactta perti.) ; sue. Black pepper (Piper nigrum) ; sue. Salsilla (Alstrameria saltilla) ; herb. fcatable arum (Arum etculentum) ; herb. ( Itaheite Salop ( Tacca intaf rifotfa) ; herb. Sacred Indian bean (Ncliunlnum siteci- osum); aquatic ( 'anlamom ( Anunnum cardamomum); reedy (jrains of Paradise (Amotnum granum parodist) ; reedy Arrow.root (Maranlaarundinacea) reedy Plantain-tree (Mtisa parndisiaca) ; reedy Banana-tree (Mum sapientum) ;. reedy Sugar-cane (Succ/ianim iiffldit,) ; reedy Ginger (Zin^ilier vfficinal). Cashew -nut (Anacurdinm occidentals) Areca-nut-tree (Arccha catechu) Ipecacuanha (Kiiphiirliiu ipecacuanha:) Papaw-tree ( Cartm papm t a) ; remarkable for its projierty of intenerating raw meat. Jesuits'-bark (Cincluma officinalis] Balsam of Capivi (Cojwifera officinalit) Gum-guaiacum (Giuiiacum ffi*iialt) Cassava ( Jatrophu maiMot) Cinnamon (I., turns cinnamomum) Cassia (Ltturus ciusia) Medicinal mimosa (Mimoia catechu) (ium- Arabic-tree (Mimosa mlntica) Pimento-tree (Myrtui pimento) Bitter of porter (Qnassiti umara) Poison-nut (Strychnot ntuvomica) Wild licorice (Ahna precatnrius) ; climb. Jalap-root (Cimvolvtiha, Jalapa.) ; climb. Gum-elastic (Echites clastica) ; climb. Vanilla ( ranilta aromatica) ; climb. Contrajerva-root (Dorstenta cuntrnjcrva) ; herbaceous Balsam-plant (Justicia cwnata) ; herb. ARTS. Jamaica ebony (Amerimmim elttnus) Itainbii (liamlnaii arimdinacea) Silk-cotton-tree (Bombax ceiba) Tallow-tree (Crutun lebifennn) )!!) palm-tree (Ktais K uineensis) Olive-wood (Elaodfitdrtm orientate) Indian rubber-tree (f'icvi elastica and Kchites elastica) ; climb. Cotton-tree (tiossiji>iiiin arliortum) Logwood (Bennauutylan campechinwim) Manchineel tree (Hippinnuw. manciuMi) Sandliox-tree (Huracretriiatui) St. Helena nil-wood (Mdluwia ery- throxtjlun) St. Helena ebony (Mrlhania meliinoxultm) Sponge-tree (Mimosa farnetiami) Supple-jack (Paullinia j^ph^la) (iround ratan (RhapisJIaldHfannii) Japan sumach (llhns succedamtm) Soapberry (Sapitulus sapotiaria) Mahogany-tree (Smietenia mahogani) Indian oak (Tectuna grandis) I>ance-wood (Untria lunceulaia) Indian madder (Oldenlandia innlcllata) ; herb. Some minds relish nothing that is not either immediately useful, or has some relation to utility : to such the foregoing list will be of some value as pointing out plants of great importance to mankind in other countries. From our connection with these countries, and the number of young persons that annually leave Britain to pass great part of their lives in them, it is desirable those plants should be known here also ; and hence a rational object for the patriot, who has wealth and leisure, to display them in a conservatory attached to hia castle, or palace, (fig. 623.) of suitable elevation and extent. 6733. In selections of rare or curious plants, or such as are sought after chiefly by botanists, the palms, the air plants, and the exotic ferns will be included ; and on the culture of these, we shall select some remarks from the Horticultural Transactions. 6734. The palms is a natural order of plants of great interest by their utility, both as fruit-trees, and as supplying other products ; and of much grandeur of appearance. The cocoa, sago, and date palms are well known ; upwards of fifty other species have been introduced into this country, and are to be found chiefly at Messrs. Loddiges. A number more remain to be procured, of which the dome-palm (Jig. 6^4.) is one of the most remarkable, being the only palm known to have a branched trunk like other trees. 6735. The culture of palms is less a matter of nicety, than expense. They require a powerful moist heat, a large mass of rich earth in the pot, tub, or bed, and ample space for the leaves. As they are of remarkably slow growth, a stove devoted to their culture does not require to exceed the common height at first, but to admit the tree-palms to display their character, it would require to have the roof elevated by degrees to 60, 80, or 100 feet. It is much to be wished that some spirited man of wealth would, in these times of peace and leisure, distinguish himself by palm culture, of which Messrs. Loddiges, much to their honor, have set the first example. It is a common opinion, that their growth is so slow, that little effect would be produced during a life-time: but this every gar- dener that has supplied his palms with abundance of space for the roots, and adequate heat in their atmosphere, can witness against. 6736. Parasitic stove plants. Maria Graham (Letters fro-m India) remarks, that she saw many of these flourish- ing in great luxuriance on the rough trunks of palms in the Calcutta botanic garden. At Kew, Spring Grove, and in the garden of the Horticultural Society, they have been 3 O 2 932 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. generally the roof < .rally grown in rough tan, closely pressed together in small pots 'or baskets, and suspended from roof of the hot-house. Messrs. Loddiges have established some specimens on the trunks of palms in the Indian or natural manner, and the Honorable and Rev. W. Herbert appears to have been equally successful. " I am informed," he says, " by a friend at Calcutta, that he cultivated with great ease, all the dendrobia aerides, and other parasitical plants, by tying them, with twine, to the stem of a tree, or to the under-side of a branch, and placing above them a *pot of water with a hole at the bottom, through which a string passed, nearly as large as the aperture, by which the water was gradually and continually conducted to the upper part of the parasitical plant, which requires to be constantly moist and shaded ; and that a tree with smooth bark answered the purpose best. He men- tions that dendrobium pieradii, fastened to a tree and irrigated in this manner, will,- in a little more than a year's time, produce pendulous racemes of flowers, from two to six feet long, and it appears likely to thrive with me under the same treatment I had previously found no difficulty in establishing epiden- dra on the stems of trees in the stove, by cutting a notch in the bark and inserting the plant like a graft, and tying moss about it to support it, till the young roots had attached themselves to the bark ; but from want of sufficient moisture, they have not made much progress, or flowered with me. I have now adopted the above-mentioned mode of irrigating them, with full confidence that it will succeed in our stoves, as well as it does at Calcutta ; and very soon after its application to a sickly epidendron, growing on the stem of sterculia balanghas, vigorous young fibres began to sprout from it on all sides. I am very much inclined to think, that mosl of such plants would attach themselves to the sides of a porous stone or vessel, or of a dead root, if constantly irrigated, and thrive upon them as well as upon a living tree, especially if the stone or root were covered with growing moss, for I have observed the fibres of more than one sort attach themselves strongly to the outside of the pot in which they are planted ; and I conceive that they might be beautifully cultivated, upon an ornamental cone of porous pottery, filled with water and furnished, on the outside, with niches, in which the plants might be fixed, with a little moss or peat to promote their growth in the first instance. I have found the parasitical plants in danger of perishing, from want of moisture, on a de- ciduous tree, during its season of inactivity, but that deficiency would probably be removed by constant irrigation. The neatest and most convenient vessels for that purpose, perhaps, would be little tubs, such as are sold at toyshops, which might be easily tied to a branch, and perforated with a small gimlet. A short string, of which one end is twisted round, or at least in contact with the plant, and the other inserted into a phial of water, will also be found to convey a regular, though less plentiful supply of moisture, acting in manner of a siphon. I have used it advantageously to nourish a graft, and promote its union with the stock. For the cultivation of parasitical plants in pots, I recommend placing the pots on a back flue, in a tin tray, about two inches deep, and half filled with wet sand, giving an abundant supply of water, but not sufficient to produce rottenness by its stagnation. I find the growth of crinums, which also like a moist heat, to be prodigiously rapid with that treatment ; I should suggest a mixture of porous stones, or bits of broken pots, with old tan, or such peat as contains a portion of half-decayed wood, and a garnish of moss to the pot, as preferable, for parasitical plants, to the loam which some of our books have recommended." (Hort. Tram. iv. 243.) All these parasites are included under the natural order of Orchideae are of herbaceous habits, and readily propagated by suckers or cuttings. 6737. The Rafflesia Arnoldi is the most extraordinary parasite known to botanists. It was discovered by the late Dr. Arnold, in Sumatra, in 1818, in a jungle or thicket, growing close to the ground under the bushes, and attached to the roots of a species of cissus or vites. The plant consists of the flower only, having neither leaves, branches, or roots ; the flower is a yard across ; the petals, which are subrotund, being twelve inches from the base to the apex, and it being about a foot from the insertion of the one petal to the opposite one ; the petals are from a fourth to three fourths of an inch thick, and the nectarium, it is supposed, would hold twelve pints. It appears to take its origin in some crack or hollow of the stem, and soon shows itself in the form of a round knob, which, when cut through, exhibits the infant flower enveloped in numerous bracteal sheaths, which successively open and wither away as the flower enlarges. A singular change takes place in the vessels of the root or stem on which it grows ; their ramifications are multiplied, and they take a direction so as to unite with and accommodate themselves to the base of the parasite to which they con- vey nourishment. The general appearance of the flower is that of Stapelia?, and its smell is also fetid. It is dioecious, and supposed by Brown to belong to the natural order of Asarineae. There is another species R. horsfieldii with the flowers not above three inches in diameter. Both, it is probable, may in time be in- troduced in our stoves. (See Lin. Trans, xiii. 201.) 6738. Exotic ferns. The tree-ferns, Humboldt informs us, are of singular beauty in their native sites. Only a few species of these, as dicksonia arborescens, davallia pyxidata, pteris aculeata, &c. have been introduced ; but the number of herbaceous ferns which are stove plants is considerable. They are pro- pagated from seeds which generally ripen freely in this country, and such as are received from abroad generally grow, however long kept ; they are also multiplied by dividing the roots. The best collection of exotic ferns is considered to be in the Liverpool garden : many of these have been raised from seed by Shepherd, the assistant curator ; and the following are his directions for this purpose : Having provided a common garden-pot, four and a half inches in depth, and three and a half wide, let the bottom part, to the height of one inch, be filled with fragments of broken pots by way of drain. Over these should be spread a stratum of such soil as is commonly used for potting green-house plants, of the depth of two inches ; the remaining half inch should be filled with brown loamy earth sifted through a hair sieve, the surface being made perfectly smooth, and on this the seeds are to be scattered as evenly as possible. Care must be taken that the wind be not suffered to blow the seeds away, leaving nothing but empty capsules. The seeds being sown, no other covering is requisite than a bell-glass, which should just fit within the rim of the pot, so as to exclude all air. The pot is then to be kept in a pan always half full of water, and set in a shady part of the stove or hot-house, being always regularly watered as above directed. When the young plants have acquired their second leaf, it is proper to give them a little air by placing a small piece of wood under the edge of the glass, at one side. In a short time afterwards the glass may be entirely removed. (Hort. Trans, iii. 338.) 6739. The seeds come up in two or three months, and the plants flower the following year. It is not known how long these seeds retain their vegetative Quality, but two plants of acrostichum calomelanus were raised from seeds brushed from a specimen of that fern in the herbarium of Foster, supposed to be near fifty years old. But the same success did not attend similar attempts with any other specimens from this herbarium. The soil for ferns should be of a soft fine texture to suit the very small fibres of their roots ; it requires also to be kept constantly moist in imitation of the native habitations of these plants ; which is generally under the shade of trees or rocks. Hence also they may be set in dark parts of the stoves where nothing else will thrive. BOOK [1. MONTHLY FLORICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. 933 SECT. IX. Selection 6740. H'oor/y plants. Bambusa arundinacea, Barringtonia speciosa, Carica papaya, Catesbtea spinosa, Clerodendrum fra- grans, Coccoloba cerifera, Cocos nuci- of Dry and Jiark-stove Plants, for such an have only one Hot-house to contain them. fera, Corypha umbraculifera, Chamas- rops humilis, Cycas revoluta, Phoenix dactylifera, Coffea arabica, Crotolaria , , pulchra, Datura arborea, Dillenia spe- ciosa, Dracaena draco, Flcus indica, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Ixora coccinea, Lagerstrcemia reginae, Mimosa ni- lotica, odoratissima, Myrtus pimenta, Neriuin coronarium, odorum, Nyc- taiitlies arbor tristis, Portlandia gran- diflora, Robinia violacea, Solandra grandiflora, Sterculta platantifolia, Tectona grandis, Vinca rosea, Volka- meria aculeata. HMHfb> Convolvulus speciosus, Cra- tffiva fragrans, Dolichos urens, Ipo- moea digitata, Jasminum sambac, Pas- siflora coccinea, alata, racemosa. Succulents. Agave vivipara, Aloe pel, lucens, Cactus grandiflorus, melocac-' tus, speciosus, Euphorbia clava, Pan- danus odoratissimus, Piper nigrum, Stapelia grandiflora. BnVis. Amaryllis reginae, josephinse, Crinum amaliile, erubescens, latifoU- um, Haemanthus coccineus, Pancra- tium amccHum. Herbaceous. ^Brides odoratum, Arum bicolor, Kpidendrum cochteatum, Gloriosa superba, Gloxinia maculata, Limodorum tankervillii, Phytolacca octandra, Polypodium aureum, Pteris grandiflora. Ai/uatics. Cyprus papyrus, Euryale fe- rox, Meniaiithes indica, Nelumbium speciosum, Nymphaea lotus, pubescens, rubra, Thalia dealbata. Reedy. Alpina racemosa, Canna glau- ca, indica, Heliconia bihai, Maranta arundinacea, Musa paradisiaca, sapi- entum, Saccharum ofncinarum, Stre- litzia reginee, Zingiber officinale. CHAP. XV. Monthly Catalogue of the leading Productions of Ornamental Horticulture. 6741. Our catalogue of monthly ornamental productions extends only to a few of the more generally known flowering plants and trees ; what respects the hot-house depart- ment is to he understood as referring to flower-gardens,* which contain at least a bark- stove, a dry-stove, one or more green-houses, and an adequate number of reserve-pits and frames. Those plants are marked (*) which may be produced from a small garden, where there is a green-house, flued-pit, and hot-beds ; not in any quantity, but suffi- ciently to keep up a hope and a fear for every month. The keeping up of this sort of hope and fear is much more conducive to the sort of happiness or interest which those who have small gardens expect to derive from them, than a grand display of two or three species of flowers, occurring only once or twice in the year. JANUARY. FLOWER-GARDEN. SHRUBBERY. HOT-HOUSE DEPARTMENT. The crocus, tulip, and some alliums, beginning to emerge from the ground. If mild weather, perhaps some choice plant in flower, as the Christmas rose, daisy*, but generally no flower is to be seen at this season. Evergreens display themselves to ad- vantage, especially the holly* with its coral berries. Calycanthus precox, red and white, and laurustinus* in flower. FEBRUARY In the green-house, the camellias* in full bloom, and some heaths and australasian plants. In the stove, strelitzia*, seven species and some other plants. From the pits and hot-beds in the re- serve-garden, forced roses, hyacinths, and other bulbs, mignonette, &c. placed in the conservatory, plant cabinet, or drawingroom. The snowdrop*, Christmas rose*, and winter aconite*, in flower ; the cro- cus, crown-imperial, and other bulbs, fast advancing, if the weather be favorable. The male flowers of the hazel*, yew- tree* ; those of erica carnea, and some shrubs, appear. The lark sings about the beginning of the month, and the thrush about the middle. MARCH In the green-house, camellias* and heaths in great beauty, and also sonu species of oxalis, protea, &c. In the stove, strelitzia*, and some bulb* and succulents. Forced articles from the pits as before Among florists' flowers, the crocus*, scilla*, some hyacinths* and crown- imperials*, and also the primrose* and polyanthus are in bloom in the latter half of the month ; saxifraga oppositifolia* among the alpines ; and viola odorata* in a warm border, or on rock-work. Some pines, poplars, and willows*, show their catkins ; the sloe*, corne- lian cherry*, mezereon* different varieties, daphne pontica and collina, the lonicera nigra*, and rosemary in flower. The ring-dove begins to coo m the first week. APRIL In the green-house, some camellias'! still in flower ; numerous heaths* in great beauty ; also aletris*, lachena lia*, oxalis*, some geranirc*, anc above a dozen other genera. In the stave, some scitamenae anc bulbs ; solandra grandiflora, plinia eugenia, andjusticia. Forced articles as before. The hyacinth*, narcissus*, auricula*, and polyanthus*, four of the most valued florists' flowers are in perfec- tion in the course of this month. Also, the scilla, fritillaria*, wallflower*, daisy* ; pulmonaria officinalis, cyno- glossum, omphaloides* various saxi- fragas, and other alpines. Most of the wild fruit-trees, as crabs*, pears*, cherries*, and their allied species, are now in flower: most of the willows, birches, elms, and oaks, show their catkins. Among shrubs, the honeysuckle, some robinias*, andromedas*, daphnes, ericas*, and zanthorrhiza, are in flower. MAY In the green-house, above thirty species of ericae*, and nearly as many of th* ixiae* family, with lachenalia, oxalis acacia, and various other genera ir perfection. In the- stove, dracsena*, bromelia*, kaempferia, stapelia, and some bulbs in flower. Abundance of forced articles, including annuals, as sweet peas, larkspurs, &c in flower. The auricula-stage still a fine object in the first week ; and the polyan- thi narcissi not yet over. The col- lections of tulips*, anemones*, and psEonies*, in full beauty from the middle of the month. Many showy herbaceous jslants, asstatice*, lych- nis*, philox*, &c. coming into flower. Among the aquatics, hottonia palus- tris, and ranunculus aauatilis*. The horse-chestnut*, hawthorn*, sor- bus*,mespilus*, and snowdrop-tree*, in great beauty. Among the American shnibs, several species of magnolia*, azalea* ; kalmia*, andromeda*, &c. and among common shrubs, the lilac*, spiraea*, guelder-rose*, honey- suckle*, the cinnamon, Scotch, bur- net-leaved, and monthly roses. Most of the singing birds in full note. 3 O 3 In the green-house, a fine display of ericse*, ixiae*, and gladioli*. Also so veral geranise, salvias, proteae, &c. In the stove, phytolacca decandra, pas'- siflora racemosa*, and other species, justicia, heliconia, and various genera. From the forcing-department, gera- niums and other green-house plants, hydrangeas*, balsams* and other tender annuals. 934 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. JUNE. PART 111, FLOWER-GARDEN. SHRUBBERY. HOT-HOUSE DEPARTMENT. Fhe collections of pseonies and ane- mones not yet faded ; those of ra- nunculus*, iris xiphium* and xi- phioide* ; and of the hardy gladioli* and ixiffi, in full beauty. Assortments of |>ink* and sweetwilliam*, in flower towards the end of the month ; he- merocallis*, aquilegia*, campanula*, veronica*, and many showy herba- ceous perennials; some biennials, as agrostemma, alvssum*. &c. ; annuals, as crepis, cucubalus ; aquatics, as bu- tomus*, hydrocharis, potamogeton ; viola, saxifraga*, and various alpines. The lime, laburnum, and fringe-tree*, In flower ; towards the middle of the month a number of the roses* ; of Americans*, andromeda, magnolia, rhododendron maximum and pon- ticum, azalea, &c. Of common shrul.s, cistus*, helianthemum, erica, dog- wood, elder, cytissus, spirea, loni- cera, &c. The goat-sucker, or fern-owl (Capri- mulgut eurvpaut), heard in the even- ing of the first week. Most singing birds leave oft" singing about the en5 of the month. JULY In the gretH'htntte, chiefly tender an- nuals from the reserve-garden ; tht pro|>er inhabitants being in the open garden, and there the heaths, gera. niae, cirrus tribe*, diosmae, protest, &c. in great beauty. In the itiii-t, amaryllis*, and other bulbs, aloe, piper, and other succu- lents; eugenias, epidendrons, cassia, castrum, &c. The pits filled with tender annuals, or other plants, in the course of propa- gation and rearing. The florists' flowers of this month are, the pink*, and carnation* ; the white martagon* and tyger lilies* ; the Brompton stock*, larkspurs*, lu- pines, and other biennials and an. nuals. More herbaceous plants are now in flower than in any other month, as chelone*, delphinium*, dictamnus*, gentiana*, statice*, philox*. silent*, sal via, veronica, saxifraga, Sic. The most showy of the aquatics, as nymphffia*, nuphar*, villarsia*, alisma, calla, stratiotes. myosotis*, &c. are now in flower, and various alpines. The tulip-tree*, magnolia* kalmia*, andromeda*, azalea*, erica*, several sorts, and some rhododendrons*, and other American or peat-earth shrubs in flower. Among the commoner sort, the roses* are now in full splendor. The white jasmine*, honeysuckles*, clematis*, spartium, gleditschia triacanthos, cistus, lyci. um, and a great variety of others of less note. Showy butterflies and moths appear in the beginning, and the dragon-fly towards the end of the month. AUGUST The ereen-houtc is now filled with tender annuals, as balsams, globe amaranthus, coxcombs, ice-plants, sensitive mimosas, &c. and probably with some of the stove plants. In the open air, the geranise will be in great beauty, nnd also erica*, me- sembryanthemum*, melaleuca*, me- trosideros*, protea, and numerous other genera. There are numerous tni whatever in these, or in any other soil saturated with water, and in a bleak exposed site. tor hedge-row timber, those kinds which grow with lofty stems, which draw their nourishment from the sub-soil, and do least injury by their shade, are to be preferred. These, according to Blakie, are oaks, narrow-leaved elm, and black Italian poplar; beech, ash, and firs, he says, are ruinous to fences, and otherwise inju- rious to farmers. (On Hedges and Hedge-row Timber, p. 10.) 6825. The common practice in planting is to mix different species of trees together, which is unavoidable where nurse or shelter plants are introduced ; where these are not wanted., the opinions of planters are divided on the subject. Mixing different sorts is most generally approved of. Marshall advises mixing the ash with the oak, because the latter draws its nourishment chiefly from the sub-soil, and the former from the surface. Nicol is an advocate for indiscriminate mixture (Practical Planter, p. 77.) ; and Pontey says, " both reason and experience will fully warrant the conclusion, that the greatest possible quantity of timber is to be obtained by planting mixtures." (Prof. Planter, p. 119.) 6826. Sang is " clearly of opinion, that the best method is to plant each sort in distinct masses or groups, provided the situation and quality of the soil be properly kept in view. There has hitherto been too much random work carried on with respect to the mixture of different kinds. A longer practice, and more experience, will discover better methods in any science. That of planting is now widely extended ; and improvements in all its branches are introduced. We, therefore, having a better knowledge of soils, perhaps, than our forefathers had, can, with greater certainty, assign to each tree its proper station. We can, perhaps, at sight, decide, that here the oak will grow to perfection, there the ash, and here again the beech ; and the same with respect to the others. If, however, there happen to be a piece of land of such a quality, that it may be said to be equally adapted for the oak, the walnut, or the Spanish chestnut, it will be proper to place such in it, in a mixed way, as the principals ; because each sort will extract its own proper nourishment, and will have an enlarged range of pasturage for its roots, and consequently may make better timber-trees. Although by indiscriminately mixing different kinds of hard-wood plants in a plantation, there is hardly a doubt that the ground will be fully cropped with one kind or other, yet it very often happens, in cases where the soil is evidently well adapted to the most valuable sorts, as the oak perhaps, that there is hardly one oak in the ground for a hundred that ought to have been planted. We have known this imperfection in several instances severely felt. It not unfre- quently happens, too, that even what oaks, or other hard-wood trees, are to be met with, are overtopped by less valuable kinds, or perhaps such, all things considered, as hardly deserve a place. Such evils may be prevented by planting with attention to the soil, and in distinct masses. In these masses are ensured a full crop, by being properly nursed, for a time, with kinds more hardy, or which afford more shelter than such hard-wood plants. There is no rule by which to fix the size or extent of any of these masses. Indeed, the more various they be made in size, the better will they, when grown up, please the eye of a person of taste. They may be extended from one acre to fifty or a hundred acres, according to the circumstances of soil and situation: their shapes will accordingly be as various as their dimen- sions. In the same manner ought all the resinous kinds to be planted, which are intended for timber- trees ; nor should these be intermixed with any other sort, but be in distinct masses by themselves. The massing of larch, the pine, and the fir of all sorts, is the least laborious and surest means of pro- ducing good, straight, and clean timber. It is by planting, or rather by sowing them in masses, by placing them thick, by a timeous pruning and gradual thinning, that we can, with certainty, attain to this object." (Plant. Kal. 162. 166.) 6827. Our opinion is in perfect consonance with that of Sang, and for the same reasons ; and we may add as an additional one, that in the most vigorous natural forests one species of tree will generally be found occupying almost exclusively one soil and situation, while in forests less vigorous on inferior and on watery soils, mixtures of sorts are more prevalent. This may be observed in comparing New Forest with the natural woods round Lochlomond, and it is very strikingly exemplified in the great forests of Poland and Russia. 6828. Whether extensive plantations should be sown or planted, is a question about which planters are at variance. Miller says, transplanted oaks will never arrive at the size of those raised where they are to remain from the acorn. (Diet. Quercus.) Marshall pre- fers sowing when the ground can be cultivated with the plough. (Plant, and Rur. Orn. i. 1 23. ) Evelyn, Emmerich, and Speechly are of the same opinion ; Pontey and Nicol practise planting, but offer no arguments against sowing where circumstances are suit- able. Sang says, " It is an opinion very generally entertained, that planted timber can never, in any case, be equal in durability and value to that which is sown. We certainly feel ourselves inclined to support this opinion, although we readily admit, that the matter has not been so fully established, from experiment, as to amount to positive proof. But although we have not met with decided evidence, to enable us to determine on the com- parative excellence of timber raised from seeds, without being replanted, over such as have been raised from replanted trees, we are left in no doubt as to the preference, in re- spect of growth, of those trees which are sown, over such as are planted." (Plant. Kal. 43.) He particularly prefers this mode for raising extensive tracts of the Scotch pine and larch (p. 430.), and is decidedly of opinion, " that every kind of forest tree will suc- ceed better by being reared from seeds in the place where it is to grow to maturity, than by being raised in any nursery whatever, and from thence transplanted into the forest," (p. 344.) Dr. Yule (Caled. Hort. Mem. ii.), in a long paper on trees, strongly recom- mends sowing where the trees are finally to remain. " It is," says he, " a well ascer- tained fact, that seedlings allowed to remain in their original station will, in a few seasons, far overtop the common nursed plants several years older." 6829. The opinion of Dr. Yule, and in part also that of Sang, seems to be founded on the idea that the tap-root is of great importance to grown-up trees, and that when this is once cut off by transplanting, the plant has not a power of renewing it. That the tap-root is of the utmost consequence for the first three or four years is obvious from the economy of nature at that age of the plant ; perhaps for a longer period BOOK III. FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 947 but that it can be of no great consequence to full-grown trees, appears highly probable from the fact, that when such trees are cut down, the tap-root is seldom to be distinguished from the others. The opinion that young plants have not the power of renewing their tap-root, will, we believe, be found inconsistent with fact ; and we may appeal to Sang and other nurserymen, who raise the oak and horse-chestnut from seed. It is customary when these are sown in drills, to cut off their tap-roots without removing the plants at the end of the second year's growth, and when at the end of the third or fourth year they are taken up, they will be found to have acquired others, not indeed so strong as the first would have been had they re- mained, but sufficient to establish the fact of the power of renewal. We may also refer to the experiment recorded by Forsyth, which at once proves that trees have a power of renewing their tap-roots, and the great advantages from cutting down trees after two or three years' planting. Forsyth " transplanted a bed of oak-plants, cutting the tap-roots near to some of the side-roots or fibres springing from them. In the second year after, he headed one half of the plants down, and left the other half to nature. In the first season, those headed down made shoots six feet long and upwards, and completely covered the head of the old stem, leaving only a faint cicatrix, and produced new tap-roots upwards of two feet and a half long The other half of the plants that were not headed, were not one fourth the size of the others. One of the former is now eighteen feet high, and fifteen inches in circumference, at six inches from the ground one of the largest of the latter measures only five feet and half in height, and three inches and three quarters in circumference, at six inches from the ground." ( Tr. on Fruit Trees, 4to edit 144.) The pine and fir tribes receive most check by transplanting ; and when removed at the age of four or five years, they seldom arrive at trees afterwards ; those we should, on most occasions, prefer to sow, especially on mountainous tracts. But for all trees which stole, and in tolerable soils and situations, planting strong plants, and cut- ting them down two or three years afterwards, will, we think, all circumstances considered, be proved preferable to sowing. 6830. On the subject of disposing the plants in plantations, there are different opinions; some advis- ing rows, others quincunx, but the greater number planting irregularly. According to Marshall, " the preference to be given to the row, or the random culture, rests in some measure upon the nature and situ- ation of the land to be stocked with plants. Against steep hangs, where the plough cannot be conveniently used in cleaning and cultivating the interspaces, during the infancy of the wood, either method may be adopted ; and if plants are to be put in, the quincunx manner will be found preferable to any. But in more level situations, we cannot allow any liberty of choice : the drill or row manner is undoubtedly the most eligible." (Plant, and Rur. Orn. p. 123.) Fontey considers it of much less consequence than most people imagine, whether trees are planted regularly or irregularly, as in either case the whole of the soil will be occupied by the roots and the surface by the shoots. Sang and Nicol only plant in rows where culture with the horse-hoe is to be adopted. In sowing for woods and copses, the former places the patches six feet asunder and in the quincunx order. " It has been demonstrated (Farmer's Mag. vii. 409:), that the closest order in which it is possible to place a number of points, upon a plain surface, not nearer than a given distance from each other, is in' the angles of hexagons with a plant in the centre of each hexagon. Hence it is argued, that this order of trees is the most economical ; as the same quantity of ground will contain a greater quantity of trees, by 15 per cent, when planted in this form than in any other." (Gen. Rep. ii. 287.) It is almost needless to observe, that hedge plants should be placed at regular distances in the lines, and also the trees, when those are introduced in hedges. Osier-plantations, and all such as like them require the soil to be dug every year, or every two years, during their existence, should also be planted in regular rows. 6831. The distances at which the plants are placed must depend on different circum- stances, but chiefly on the situation and soil. Planting thick, according to Nicol, is the safer side to err on, because a number of plants will fail, and the superfluous ones can be easily removed by thinning. " For bleak situations," he observes, " that from thirty to forty inches is a good medium, varying the distance according to circumstances. For less exposed situations, and where the soil is above six inches in depth, he recommends a distance from four to five feet. For belts, clumps, and strips, of a diameter of about one hundred feet ; the margin to be planted about the distance of two feet, and the interior at three feet. In sheltered situations of a deep good soil, he recommends a distance of six feet, and no more." (Pract. Plant.} 6832. According to Sang, "the distances at which hard -timber trees ought to be planted are from six to ten feet, according to the quality of the soil, and the exposed or sheltered situation. When the first four oaks are planted, supposing them at right angles, and at nine feet apart, the interstices will fall to be filled up with five nurses, the whole standing at four and a half feet asunder. When sixteen oaks are planted, there will necessarily be thirty-three nurses planted ; and when thirty-six oaks are planted, eighty-five nurses ; but when a hundred principal trees are planted in this manner, in a square of ten on the side, there will be two hundred and sixty-one nurse-plants required. The English acre would require five hundred and thirty-six oaks, and one thousand six hundred and ten nurses." (Plant. Kal. 163.) Pontey says, " In general cases, a distance of four feet is certainly close enough ; as at that space the trees may all remain till they become saleable as rails, spars, &c." 6833 The number of plants which may be planted on a statute acre = 160 rods, or poles, = 4840 yards = 43,560 feet, is as follows : Feet apart. No. of Plants. 43 560 Feet apart. No. of Plants. 1,210 Feet apart. No. of Plants. 193 889 16 2* 8 680 17 150 6 969 9 . . 537 18 154 3* 19 V556 11 360 20 .... 108 i* :::::::::: 2,722 12 302 25 $ ::::::::::. 1,742 14 222 6834. The size of the plants depends jointly on the site and the kind of tree ; it is uni- versally allowed that none of the resinous tribe succeed well when removed at four or more years' growth ; but if the soil is of tolerable quality, prepared by digging or sum- mer pitting, and the site not bleak, plants of such hard woods as stole may be used whose stems are an inch or more in diameter. 6835. Nicol is of opinion, " That generally trees three, or at most four, years old from the seed, and which are from twelve to twenty-four inches high, will, in any situation or soil, outgrow those of any size under eight or ten feet, within the seventh year." (Pract. Plant. 130.) 6836. Sang observes, " The size of plants for exclusive plantations must, in some measure, depend on their kinds ; but it may be said, generally, that the plants being transplanted, they should be from a foot to eighteen inches in height, stiffin the stem, and well rooted. Plants for this purpose should seldom be more than three years from the seed : indeed never, if they have been raised in good soil. Many of 3 P 2 9 48 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. them may be sufficiently large at two years from the seed ; and if so, are to be preferred to those of a greater age, as they will consequently be more vigorous and healthy. The larch, if properly treated, will be very fit for planting out at two years of age. A healthy seedling being removed from the seed-bed at the end of the first year, into good ground, will, by the end of the second, be a fitter plant for the forest, than one nursed a second year. The next best plant for the purpose, is that which has stood two years in the seed-bed, and has been transplanted for one season. This is supposing it to have risen a weakly plant ; for, if the larch rise strong from the seed the first season, it should never stand a second in the seed-bed. The ash, the elm, and the sycamore, one year from the seed, nursed in good soil for a second season, will often prove sufficiently strong plants. If they be weakly, they may stand two years in the seed-bed ; and then being nursed one season in good soil, will be very fit for planting out in the forest. The oak, the beech, and the chestnut, if raised in rich soil, and well furnished with roots at the end of the first year, and having been nursed in rows for two years, will be very fit to be planted out. But if they be allowed to stand two years in the seed-bed, and be planted one year in good ground, they will be still better, and the roots will be found well feathered with fine small fibres. The silver fir and common spruce should stand two years in the seed-bed. If transplanted into very good soil, they may be fit for being planted out at the end of the first year; but, more generally, they require two years in the lines. The Scots pine should also stand for two years in the seed-bed, and should be nursed in good ground for one year ; at the end of which they will be much fitter for being planted, than if they were allowed to stand a second year in the lines. They are very generally taken at once from the seed-bed ; and in land bare of heath or herbage, they succeed pretty well ; nevertheless, we would prefer them one year nursed. The above are the hardy and most useful forest trees ; and from the observations made, whatever respects the age or size of other kinds, may easily be inferred." (Plant. Kal. 158.) C837. According to Pontey, " the best general rule is, to proportion the size of the plants to the goodness of the soil ; the best of the latter requiring the largest of the former. Still on bleak exposures this rule will not hold good, as there the plants should never be large, for otherwise the greater part would fail from the circumstance of wind-waving, and of those that succeeded, few, if any, would make much pro- gress for several years; firs of a foot, and deciduous trees of eighteen inches, are large enough for such places. As in extensive planting, soils which are good and well sheltered but seldom occur, the most useful sizes of plants, for general purposes, will be firs of a foot, and deciduous trees of eighteen inches, both transplanted. None but good-rooted plants will succeed on a bad soil, while on a good one, Shel- tered, none but very bad-rooted plants will fail ; a large plant never has so good a root, in proportion to its size, as a small one ; and hence we see the propriety of using such on good soils only. Small plants lose but few of their roots in removal; therefore, though planted in very moderate-sized holes of pul- verised earth, soon find the means of making roots, in proportion to their heads. It should never be forgotten, that, in being removed, a plant of two feet loses a greater proportion of its roots than a tree of one, and one of three feet a greater proportion than one of two, and so on, in proportion to its former strength and height, and thus the larger the plants, so much greater is the degree of languor or weakness into which they are thrown by the operation of transplanting." (Prof. Plant. 161.) 6838. The seasons for planting are autumn and spring ; the former, when the soil and situation are moderately good, and the plants large ; and the latter, for bleak situations. Necessity, however, is more frequently the guide here than choice, and in extensive designs, the operation is generally performed in all moderately dry open weather from October to April inclusive. "In an extensive plantation," Sang observes, " it will hardly happen but there will be variety of soil, some parts moist and heavy, and others dry and light. The lightest parts may be planted in December or January ; and the more moist, or damp parts, in February or March. It must be observed, however, that if the ground be not in a proper case for planting, the operation had better be delayed. The plants will be injured, either by being committed to the ground when it is in a sour and wet, or in a dry parched state. At a time when the soil may be termed neither wet nor dry, the operation of planting is most successfully performed. The mould does not then adhere to the spade, nor does it run in ; it divides well, and is made to intermingle with the fibres of the plants with little trouble ; and in treading and setting the plant upright, the soil is not worked into mortar, which it necessarily must be, if in a wet state, evidently to the great detriment of the plants. It is therefore improper to plant 'on a retentive soil in the time of rain, or even perhaps for some days afterwards, or after a fall of snow, until it has for some days disappeared. Whereas, on a dry absorbent soil, it may be proper to plant in the time of gentle showers, immediately after heavy rains, or as soon as the snow is dissolved." (Plant. Kal. 157.) 6839. Pontey is a decided advocate for autumn preparation of the soil, and spring planting. " Autumn planting," he says, " is advisable only in few cases, while spring planting may properly apply to all." 6840. According to Sang, the proper time for planting the pine and fir tribes, and all evergreens, is April, or even the first fortnight in May. " Attention should be paid, that no greater number of plants be lifted from the nursery than can he conveniently planted on the same day. Damp weather is the best. When very dry, and the plants rise destitute of earth at their roots, their roots should be dipped in mud (puddle) so as to be coated over by it. In all cases, care should be taken not to shake on" any ad- hering earth from plants at the time of planting." (Plant. Kal. 341.) 6841. The operation of inserting the plants in the soil is performed in various ways ; the most general mode, and that recommended by Marshall and Nicol, is pitting ; in which two persons are employed, one to operate on the soil with the spade, and the other to insert the plant and hold it till the earth is put round it, and then press down the soil with the foot. Where the plants are three feet high or upwards, this is the best mode ; but for smaller plants modes have been adopted in which one person performs the whole operation. 6842. Sang describes three kinds of manual operation employed by him in planting, and in part in sowing trees : by pitting ; by slitting simply, or by cross, or T slitting ; by the diamond dibber ; by the planting-mattock ; and by the planter. In filling an area with plants, he first plants those intended as the final trees, and afterwards the nurses ; or one set of operators plant the former, while another follow with the latter, unless the time for removing the nurses, as in the case of evergreen pines and firs, should be later than that for planting the principals. (6832.) " The plants, if brought from a distance, should be BOOK III. FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 949 shouehcd, i. c. earthed ; or they may be supplied daily from the nursery, as circumstances direct. All the people employed ought to be provided with thick aprons, in which to lap up the plants ; the spadesmen, as well as the boys or girls ; the latter being supplied by the former as occasion may require. All of them should regularly fill their aprons at one time, to prevent any of the plants being too long retained in any of the planters' aprons. One man cannot possibly set a plant so well with the spade, unless in the case of laying as two people can ; nor, supposing him to do it as well, can he plant half as many in the same space of time as two can. A boy ten years of age is equal, as a holder, to the best man on the field, and can be generally had for less than half the money. Hence this method is not only the best, but the least ex- pensive." (Plant. Kal. 167.) 6843. By pitting. " The pit having been dug for several months, the surface will therefore be encrusted by the rains, or probably covered with weeds. The man first strikes the spade downwards to the bottom, two or three times, in order to loosen the soil ; then poaches it, as if mixing mortar for the builder ; he next lifts out a spadeful of the earth, or, if necessary, two spadefuls, so as to make room for all the fibres, without their being anywise crowded together ; he then chops the rotten turf remaining in the bottom, and levels the whole. The boy now places the plant perfectly upright, an inch deeper than when it stood in the nursery, and holds it firm in that position. The man trindles in the mould gently ; the boy gently moves the plant, not from side to side, but upwards and downwards, until the fibres be covered. The man then fills in all the remaining mould ; and immediately proceeds to chop and poach the next pit, leaving the boy to set the pi ant 'upright, and to tread the mould about it. This in stiff wet soil he does lightly ; but in sandy or gravelly soil he continues to tread until the soil no longer retains the impression of his foot. The man has by this time got the pit ready for the next plant, the boy is also ready with it in his hand, and in this manner the oper- ation goes on. On very steep hangs which have been pitted, the following rule ought to be observed in planting : to place the plant in the angle formed by the acclivity and sur- face of the pit ; and in finishing to raise the outer margin of the pit highest, whereby the plant will be made to stand as if on level ground, and the moisture be retained in the hollow of the angle, evidently to its advantage." (Plant. Kal. 167.) 6844. The slit method, either simply (2088.) or by the T method, is not recommended by Sang; but necessity may justify its adoption occasionally. " We would not recommend planting by the slit, unless where there is no more soil than is absolutely occupied by the fibres of the herbage which grows on the place. Excepting on turf, it cannot be performed ; nor should it be practised, if the turf be found three or four inches thick. By pitting in summer, turf is capable of being converted into a proper mould in the space of a few months ; and the expense of pitting, especially in small plantations, can never counter- balance the risk of success in the eyes of an ardent planter. The most proper time to perform the oper- ation of slitting in the plants, is when the surface is in a moist state. On all steeps the plant should be placed towards the declivity, that the moisture may fall to its roots ; that is to say, in planting, the spadesman should stand highest, and the boy lowest on the bank ; by which arrangement the plant will be inserted at the lower angle of the slit." (Plant. Kal. 170.) 6845. Planting with the diamond dibber, he says, " is the cheapest and most expeditious planting of any we yet know, in cases where the soil is a sand or gravel, and the surface bare of herbage. The plate of the dibber (fig. 635. a) is made of good steel, and is four inches and a half broad where the iron handle is welded to it ; each of the other two sides of the triangle is five inches long : the thickness of the plate is one fifth part of an inch, made thinner from the middle to the sides, till the edges become sharp. The length of the iron handle is seven inches, and so strong as not to bend in working, which will require six eighths of an inch square. The iron handle is furnished with a turned hilt, like the handle of a large gim- let, both in its form and manner of being fixed on. The planter is furnished with a planting-bag, tied round his waist, in which he carries the plants. A stroke is given with the dibber, a little aslant, the point lying inwards ; the handle of the dibber is then drawn towards the person, while its plate remains within the ground : by this means a vacuity is formed between the back of the dibber and the ground ; into which the planter, with his other hand, introduces the roots of the seedling plants, being careful to put them fully to the bottom of the opening : he then pulls out the dibber, so as not to displace them, and gives the eased turf a smart stroke with the heel ; and thus is the plant completely firmed. The greatest error the planter with this instrument can run into, is the imperfect introduction of the roots. Green, or unprac- tised hands, are apt to double the roots, or sometimes to lay them across the opening, instead of putting them straight down, as above directed. A careful man, however, will become, if not a speedy, at least a good planter in one day ; and it is of more importance that he be a sure hand; than a quick one. A person who is of a careless or slovenly disposition, should never be allowed to handle a dibber of this kind." 6846. Planting ivith the planting-mattock (fig. 635. 6) is resorted to in rocky or other spots where pitting is impracticable. " The helve or handle is three feet six inches long ; the mouth is five inches broad, and is made sharp ; the length from it to the eye, or helve, is sixteen inches ; and it is used to pare off the sward, heath, or other brush that may happen to be in the way, previous to easing the soil with the other end. The small end tapers from the eye, and terminates in a point, and is seventeen inches long." By this instrument the surface is skimmed off " for six or eight inches in diameter, and with the pick-end dug down six or eight inches deep, bring- ing up any loose stones to the surface ; by which means a place will be prepared for the reception of the plant, little inferior to a pit. This instrument may be used in many cases-, when the plants to be planted are of small size, such as one-year larch-seedlings, one year nursed ; or two-year Scots pines, one year nursed ; and the expense is much less than by the spade." (Plant. Kat. 385.) 6847. Planting with the forest-planter, (fig. 635. c) " The helve is sixteen inches long, the mouth is four inches and a half broad, and the length of the head is fourteen inches. The instrument is used in planting hilly ground, previously prepared by the hand-mattock. The person who performs the work carries the plants in a close apron } digs out the earth sufficiently to hold the roots of the plant ; and sets and firms it P 3 950 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. without heJp from another : it is only useful when small plants are used, and in hilly or rocky situations." (Plant. Kal. Pref. xxiv.) 6848. Pontey prefers planting by pitting, in general cases ; the holes being made during the preceding summer or winter, sufficiently large, but not so deep into a retentive sub-soil as to render them a receptacle for water. When the plants have been brought from a distance he strongly recommends puddling them __ipport a plant recently or immediately taken from the nursery, would, in the case of dried ones, prove so far insufficient, that most of them would die in it. The puddling here recommended may also be of great service in all cases of late planting where small plants are used ; my method is (after puddling) to tie them in bundles, of two or three hundreds each ; and thus send them, by a cart-load at once, to where wanted ; where such bundles being set upright, close to each other, and a little straw carefully applied to the outsides of them, may remain without damage in a sheltered situation any reasonable time necessary to plant them. Where loose soil happens to be convenient, that should'be substituted in the place of straw. 6849. A puddle for trees is made by mixing water with any soil rather tenacious, so intimately as to form a complete puddle, so thiCK that when the plants are dipped into it enough may remain upon the roots to cover them. The process of puddling is certainly simple, and its expense too trifling to deserve notice : its effects, however, in retaining, if not attracting moisture, are such that, by means of it, late planting is rendered abundantly more safe that it otherwise would be. It is an old invention, and hence it is truly astonishing that it is not more frequently practised. If we could but persuade people to adopt it generally in spring planting, I believe the prejudice in favor of autumn practice would soon be done away. (Prof. Plant. 167.) 6850. Pontey' s methods of planting are in general the same as those of Sang : he uses a mattock and planter of similar shape ; and also a two or three pronged instrument, which we have elsewhere denomin- ated the planter's hack. (1305. fig. 90.) " This instrument," he says, " has been introduced of late years as an improvement on the mattock and planter (fig 635. b, c), being better adapted to soils full of roots, stones, &c. ; they are likewise easier to work, as they penetrate to an equal depth with a stroke less violent than the former : they are also less subject to be clogged up by a wet or tenacious soil. The length of the prongs of both should be about eight inches, and the distances between them, when with three prongs, one and a half, and with two prongs, about two inches ; the two-pronged hack should be made somewhat stronger than the other, it being chiefly intended for very stony lands, or where the soil wants breaking, in order to separate it from the herbage, &c. These tools are chiefly applicable to plants of any size up to about two feet, or such as are generally used for great designs, where they are used as a substitute for the spade, in the following manner : The planter being provided with a basket holding the plants required (the holes being supposed prepared, and the earth left in them), he takes a tree in one hand, and the tool in the other, which he strikes into the hole, and then pulls the earth towards him, so as to make a hole large enough to hold all its roots ; he then puts in the plant with the other, and pushes the earth to its roots with the back of the planter; after which, he fixes the plant, and levels the soil at the same instant with his foot : so that the operation is performed by one person, with a degree of neatness and expedition which no one can attain to who uses the spade. It is known to all planters, that but few laborers ever learn to plant well and expeditiously in the common method, without an assistant : this method, however, requires neither help nor dexterity; as any laborer of common sagacity, or boy of fifteen, or even a woman, may learn to perform it well in less than half an hour. The facility with which these tools will break clods, clear the holes of stones, or separate the soil from herbage, the roots of heath, &c. (the former being previously mel- lowed by the frost,) may be easily imagined." (Prof. Plant. 173.) The adoption of a small mattock for in- serting plants, we recollect to have seen recommended in a tract on planting in the Highlands, by Mac- laurin, a nurseryman, published at Edinburgh upwards of twenty years ago. 6851. An expeditious mode of slit planting is described in the General Report of Scot- land, as having been practised for many years on the Duke of Montrose's estate. It is as follows : " The operator, with his spade, makes three cuts, twelve or fifteen inches long, crossing each other in the centre, at an angle of sixty degrees, the whole having the form of a star. (fig. 636.) He inserts his spade across one of the rays (a), a few inches from the centre, and on the side next himself; then bending the handle towards him. self, and almost to the ground, the earth opening in fissures from the centre in the di- rection of the cuts which had been made, he, at the same instant, inserts his plant at the point where the spade intersected the ray (a), pushing it forward to the centre, and assisting the roots in rambling through the fissures. He then lets down the earth by re- moving his spade, having pressed it into a compact state with his heel ; the operation is finished by adding a little earth, with the grass side down, completely covering the fissures, for the purpose of retaining the moisture at the root, and likewise as a top-dressing, which greatly encourages the plant to push fresh roots between the swards." (Vol.ii. p. 283.) CHAP. IV. On forming Plantations, in which Ornament or Effect is the leading Consideration. 6852. In designing ornamental plantations, the situation, form, the disposition of the trees, and the kinds employed, are the principal considerations. 6853. T/ie situations to be planted, with a view to effect, necessarily depends on the kind of effect intended ; these may reduced to three to give beauty and variety to ge- neral scenery, as in fonning plantations here and there throughout a demesne ; to give form and character to a country-residence, as in planting a park and pleasure-grounds ; and to create a particular and independent beauty or effect, as in planting an extensive area or wood, unconnected with any other object, and disposing of the interior in ave- nues, glades, and other forms. In the two first cases, the choice of the situation must always be relative to other objects ; as, for example, in ornamenting general scenery, to fields and enclosures, buildings, roads, &c. ; and to the mansion-garden and other parts of a residence, in laying out a country-seat : but in forming independent plantations the choice may be absolute, and guided by no other consideration than the effect to be pro- duced. One of the greatest beauties produced by planting, either on general scenery, or on the grounds of a residence, is that of varying the form of the surface of the country BOOK III. FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 951 or increasing the variations already existing. To do this with most effect, it is an ob- vious and long established principle, that, other circumstances being the same, the hills are to be more generally planted than the hollows, or even the plains. By planting a hill, or the least rise of ground, that hill or rise is increased in effect ; but by planting the low grounds between hills or protuberances, their effect is destroyed. It is to be ob- served, however, that the latter practice is often what we observe in natural scenery. In hilly tracts in a state of nature, and under the dominion of no other animals than cattle or sheep, the vales or dells (Jig. 637.) are generally filled with wood and the tops of the hills bare, which, however agreeable to those who view or study nature chiefly in detail, yet to the general observer it tends to confound form, and introduce monotony of surface. Art, therefore, when planting for general effect, or for heighten- ing the character of surface, adopts a contrary practice (Jig. 638.) to what is general in wild nature ; for few things in a wild state are suitable to the views of man in a state of civilisation and refinement ; and when he admires rude scenery, it is from views of its novelty or rarity in cultivated countries ; or with reference to some other art or object, or state of the same object. At the same time, a hill crowned with wood occurs in na- ture occasionally, both with and without naked hollows or plains at its base, and never fails to excite a superior degree of satisfaction or pleasure in the spectator. To plant hills, therefore, in preference to valleys, may justly be designated an imitation of one of the more interesting features of nature. 6854. With respect to form, it may be absolute, or independent of every consideration but the taste of the designer ; or it may be relative. It is absolute in plantations intended to create particular beauties within themselves ; as in labyrinths, woods pierced with avenues, stars, &c., in the geometric style ; or in com- positions and groups, thickets and glades in the interior of a wood, laid out in the modern manner. It is relative to the shapes of the ground and to existing objects in the forms adapted for improving general scenery ; and to these considerations, and to the situation and form of the mansion, gardens, waters, &c. in laying out the grounds of a country-residence. For either of these objects the general principles of operation are to heighten beauties already existing ; to conceal defects ; if possible, to create beauty ; and to connect detached objects, either in reality or appearance, so as the scenery, from whatever point it may be viewed, may appear a whole ; in short, the end is a harmonious and expressive whole, and the means are the grouping and connecting of the parts. Some tracts of country, or those parts of a demesne exte- rior to the park, may be deficient in woodiness ; there trees may be introduced in masses on elevated sites, or the sides of hills; in groups connected with buildings ; in thinly, scattered trees, in pastures, and by brooks ; and in rows in hedges, and by other fences or roads. Where disagreeable objects are to be con- cealed, the course is evident; and where nothing is interesting, attempts must be made to create interest. A road through a dreary country may often have much of its dulness taken away by one or two rows of trees on each side, the stems of which will break and vary the distant scenery. The lines may vary in form and direction, may swell into strips, or clumps, or thickets ; form recesses, or be interrupted, accord- ing to circumstances. The route through some of the most dreary tracts in Germany and Russia, and the well-known Strada di Campagna, in Italy, are in this way rendered tolerable. In all this, though the main object may be beauty, yet, utility must never be lost sight of. All plantations by arable lands should, as much as possible, be bounded by straight, or at least not very irregular lines, and connected with the hedges or other fences already existing ; few single trees or groups should be planted in the area of such fields. In pastures, the worst soils and most exposed situations should be chosen, and such forms adapted as may shelter the stock from all quarters, but especially from the storms and winds which more generally prevail. In planting near cottages and villages, care should be taken not to render the atmo- sphere unhealthy by stagnating the air, or to lessen the value of their yards and gardens by curtailing their extent, or by excess of shelter and shade. Roads or lanes should on no account be injured, nor the water of streams and ponds rendered dark, discolored by leaves, and unwholesome to men or cattle. In short, the planter, for effect, should never lose sight of utility, or plant in opposition to it ; for though he may produce particular sorts of beauty, and especially that lately so fashionable and justly admired disposition of objects, called picturesque, which may be admired by a number for a time ; yet there is a much more elevated and universal beauty, that of moral relation, or, in short, refined utility, which, while men 3 P 4 952 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. retain their social feelings, must ever be the most interesting lo mankind in general, and will therefore finally prevail. 6855. The outline of plantations, made with a view to the composition of a country- residence, is guided by the same general principles ; whether the trees are to be dis- posed in regular forms, avowedly artificial ; or in irregular forms, in imitation of nature, (jig. 639.) The first thing is, in both modes, to compose a principal mass, from which the rest may appear to proceed ; or be, or seem to be, connected. In common cases it answers best to include or connect with this mass the house, kitchen and flower- gardens (e) ; from these other masses and groups should proceed, either connected, or better, only seemingly so when viewed horizontally. Their forms should be such and so disposed, relatively to the ground and other objects, and to each other, as to throw the pasture surface into broad masses (a, b, c, d}, which become wholes in their turn, and their connection and variation is heightened by the variety in the glades between the masses and groups of plantation. Such would be the mode of procedure on a flat to be formed into a modern park ; regard being had to exclude or admit the view of certain parts of the distant scenery ; never to shut in, or leave without a third distance (as is the term in landscape-painting), any of the scenes within the boundary of the park ; and to other laws of perspective, optics, and composition, which will be more fullv entered on in treating of landscape-gardening. 6856. In the pleasure-ground, which, as far as respects the form or ground outline of plantations, is to be considered as a part of the park, the same principles are applicable. In neither the artificial or natural style, should their width be great ; but their form may be varied at pleasure, subject to general principles. Where the ground is irregular (Jig. 640.), only the modern style can be adopted with good effect; and there, by con- 640 ducting the walks, orforming the water chiefly in the hollows (a), and planting the emi- nences (6), varying the manner in which the outlines of these masses embrace the decli- vities, the happiest effects may be produced. Deviations from these general principles can only be justified by extraordinary circumstances. BOOK III. FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 953 6857. With respect to the extent, or area, occupied by ornamental plantations, as such, that need seldom be great. They are generally seen only in profile, and therefore a cir- cuitous outline (Jig. 641. a.) may on most occasions be contrived to have the same effect as planting a solid mass, which will occupy much more ground (6), show less exterior variety, and none within. The t'e-ct * "" case * s Different, however, $5- * * where the upper surface of a 9- I plantation is to be met by the reye, at a large angle, say up- wards of 35. In that case, to produce a grand and im- posing effect, real extent is wanting. Examples occur in .-=. > J ~ - \ i . ^^ <-#_ \ planting the steep sides of high ^^o^L-^8L.Jfi. V hills, to be seen from below ; \.;r~- or valleys or plains to be seen from great elevations. It must be confessed that these are among the grandest circumstances in which wood can be viewed ; pro- files of outlines, varied both as respects the sky and the ground, are beautiful and interesting ; and avenues and long rows of trees form imposing perspectives ; but tlie side of a range of mountains clothed with wood, seen at a certain distance, from a plain below or opposite hills, is one of the most magnificent of rural prospects. 6858. With respect to the dixj)osition of trees in a plantation where art is avowed or purposely displayed, the more regularly the plants arc placed the better is the end attained ; but, where na- ture is to be imitated, irregularity will best sustain tlie character. This should be studied in the larger as well as the smaller plantations, in the natural style ; but more especially in detached groups, which operate so powerful an effect 643 ^ ~ in laying out the grounds of a residence. The greatest beauty of a "4^ 1> ^ group of trees as far as respects their steins, is in the varied direc- tion these take as they grow into trees (Jig. 642.) ; but as that is for all practical purposes beyond the influence of art, all we can do is to vary as much as possible the ground-plans of groups, or the relative position which the stems have to each other, where they spring from the earth. _ 644 This is considerable, even where a very few trees are used, and of which any person may convince himself by placing a few dots on paper. Thus, two trees (Jig. 643.), or a tree and shrub, which is the smallest group, may be placed in three different positions with re- 642 ference to a spectator in a fixed point : if he moves round them they will first vary in form separately, and next (at b) unite in one or in two groups, according to the position of the spectator. In like manner three trees (Jig. 644.) may be placed in four different 646 positions; four trees may be placed in eight different positions (Jig. 645.); five trees may be grouped in ten different ways as to ground-plan (Jig. 646.); six may be placed in x twelve different positions (Jig. 647.) ; and so on. 6859. In planting groups it is not meant to be asserted, that the ground-plan of each should be studiously considered ; it will be sufficient if this is done in conspicuous situ- ations, by the sides of walks and roads, and in such places as require for shelter or shade, or to exclude some disagreeable object, a series of groups of nearly the same number of trees. For the ordinary purposes of grouping, such as varying the apparent outline of masses, connecting scattered objects, adding parts to such objects as are incomplete wholes, &c., it will be sufficient to introduce large and small groups; never to put two trees at exactly the same distance from each other ; three in the angles of an equilateral triangle ; four in those of a square ; five in those of an octagon, and so on. 954 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 6860. Scattered trees. It has been a very common practice among planters to intro- duce, in parks, great numbers of detached single trees (in vulgar technology, dotting), with a view of effecting, by them, what can only be done by groups. Excepting the clump, there is not a greater deformity in the grounds of British country-residences. Supposing these trees, planted on a level surface, all of the same sort, and all growing equally well, their insipid sameness of form and position must be evident to the mind's eye of every one. Suppose them on the same character of surface, but all, or chiefly, of different sorts (Jig- 648.), it is equally evident they will grow with different degrees of vi^or, and assume different characters of stem and head ; and consequently produce an appearance of the most discordant kind. It is only necessary to analyse a group, to be convinced of the variety of general form produced, even by trees of one species, but more especially by two kinds, and this, even by specimens that would be unsightly apart ; and to observe a portion of the scattered woody scenery, in the openings or glades of a natural forest, to be convinced how much more variety is produced by that manner of planting, than by distributing over a surface great numbers of single trees. It is ob- served by Uvedale Price, that in the numerous landscapes which compose the liber veritatis of Claude, there is not more than one single tree ; so highly did this artist value the principle of connection. A single tree, however, is not always to be condemned, even as such, for its form, age, or blossom, or some other accidental circumstance may com- pensate for its isolated situation ; and it may often exist singly as a tree, and yet in connection or grouped with other objects, as buildings, rocks, &c. ; and in these cases it is not to be condemned, because the grand object of grouping, connection, is maintained by the co-tangent object. 6861. Placing the groups. Another practice in the employment of groups, almost equally reprehensible with that of indiscriminate distribution, is that of placing the groups and thickets in the recesses, instead of chiefly employing them opposite the salient points. The effect of this mode is the very reverse of what is intended ; for, instead of varying the outline, it tends to render it more uniform by diminishing the depth of recesses, and approximating the whole more nearly to an even line. The way to vary an even or straight line or lines, is here and there to place constellations of groups against it (fig. 648. c) ; and a line already varied is to be rendered more so, by placing large groups against the prominences (a) to render them more prominent ; and small groups (6), here and there in the recesses, to vary their forms and conceal their real depths. 649 4k* 6862. In all plantations in the natural style above the size of a group, the same general principles are to be followed in the disposition of the trees ; the plants, whatever be their kinds, and whether the mass is finally to assume the character of a wood, grove, or copse, should be placed irregularly ; here thick, and there thin, as if they had sprung up from the accidental semination of birds or winds. " The effect of this arrangement will not be that composition of low and high, oblique and upright stems, and young and old trees, and low growths, which we find in forest scenery ; but it is all that can be done in imitation of it at the first planting ; and subsequent thinning, pruning, and cutting down, moving, renvcrsing, planting, and sowing, must be used from time to time to complete imitation or allusion, unless the owner will rest satisfied with an inferior degree of beauty." 6863. The general form of tree employed materially influences the effect of plantations. The capacities of different trees for producing effects in landscape, and the general division of trees into round-headed, oblong-headed, and spiry-topt, have been already pointed out (6795. et seq. ) It has also been observed (6857.), that the greater number of plantations are seen chiefly in profile ; and hence, that the outline which the tops of the trees form against the sky or the back-ground, is the most conspicuous feature in their aspect. The difference between this outline, when formed of s}riry-topt trees, as the firs, pines, &c. (Jig. 650. } ; of oblong-headed trees, as most of the willows, alders, poplars (Jig. 651. 6) ; and the round-headed sorts, as the oak, ash, elm, and most trees (Jig. 651. ) BOOK III. FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 650 955 is so considerable, as to merit the particular attention of the planter. Nothing can be more harsh and unvaried than the serrated outline of the fir tribe, whether planted in rows, strips, or masses ; whereas the rounded-headed trees, even in single rows, pro- duce some variety of sky outline. The difference is equally great between the face or 651 front surface of a row or mass of spiry and round-headed trees ; for the great regularity and similarity of the branches of the former, precludes the possibility of breaks in form, or light and shade, and presents one uniform surface of verdure, not unlike the side of a high hedge. The front surface of a row or mass of round-headed trees, on the contrary, from opposite qualities in the branches, produces prominences and re- cesses of different degrees of magnitude, and of different forms and relative positions. If we look on the upper surface of a plantation of each class, we shall find the difference equally great. 6864. The situations where spiry-topt trees have most effect is among rocks, and in very irregular surfaces ; and especially on the steep sides of high mountains (Jig. 652.), where their forms, and the direction of their growth, -seem to harmonise with their pointed rocky summits. Fir and pine forests are dull, gloomy, and monoto- nous in the sandy plains of Poland and Russia, but among the broken rocks, craggy precipices, and otherwise end- lessly varied surfaces of Sweden and Norway, they are full of variety. In tame countries they present most variety when planted so thin as barely to touch each other, and when a num- ber of them are kept low, where the whole are of different ages (Jig. 653.) But the variety produced, even by this disposition, is still far short of what would be effected by a similar arrangement of round or oval- headed trees (Jig. 654.), of different ages, or mixed with shrubs or low growths. The most suitable situation for spiry-topt trees, in ornamental scenery, is as single objects or in small groups (Jig. 655.), sparingly introduced ,in the margin of thickets or strips, or sprinkled along the bottoms of dells or dingles. In plantations which comprise masses of all the different species of hardy tree, there they may come in also in their proper place ; and in mountain and rocky scenery, they are in the places which nature seems to have intended for them. 956 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. G55 PART III. 6865. The oblongJwaded trees may be introduced much more frequently than the spiry- topt sorts ; the more obtuse summits blend well with the round-headed trees, and the more acute topt sorts which terminate in flexible flame-like shapes, as the Lombardy poplar, and cypress, form excellent contrasts to the round trees, and serve as transition forms to the spiry tribe. The round-headed trees, it need hardly be observed, are the most general in nature, at least in temperate climates, and are the most universally ap- plicable in ornamental planting. These considerations on the forms of trees refer to them chiefly as in independent plantations ; in connection with buildings, the choice, as to fopm, may often be influenced by that of the building, and also by the effect or object in- tended by planting them. 6866. With respect to magnitude, the grand division of woody plants is into trees and shrubs. The bulk and heights of the common trees and shrubs of the country being generally known, the eye estimates the magnitude of other objects by theirs ; consequently extraordinary magnitudes, whether large or small, should only be used under extraordinary circumstances. The apparent size, proportion, and distance of objects, might otherwise be deranged, and a discordant effect produced. Shrubs, which have the form of trees ; and low trees, as the mountain ash, the apple and pear, often produce this effect, when planted as single objects ; and unless their fruit is prized above every thing else, they should, when introduced for the sake of their flowers, either be planted in the margins of plantations, or grouped with trees of the or- dinary size. The finest small groups are of this description, or composed of common deciduous timber tiees and hardy shrubs, as oaks, chestnuts, hollies, thorns, &c. 6867. The choice of species must be made subservient to general effect, and to the particular purposes, for which different species are calculated. These have been already pointed out (chap, ii), as well as their uses (chap, i.), and both should be continually present in the mind of the planter. For the more general purposes of planting, the standard trees of the country, native or naturalised, are mostly to be preferred, as growing freely and preserving harmony ; for the purposes of distinction, foreign trees are more likely to answer the end. Foreign trees also contribute greatly to variety and interest, and therefore are indis- pensable in pleasure-grounds, or other scenes of much resort " Any number of species may be admitted into improved grounds ; commencing with the rare sorts near the house, as the centre of art and refine- ment, and ending with the common trees of the country, at such distances as the extent and style of the whole may suggest. The proportions of such trees as are only ornamental, and such as are valuable as timber, must be in some degree determined by the character of the place, but chiefly by the taste and view of the owner. Beauty alone, without utility, will not long please ; and a few single groups and plants of the rare species, in the grounds more immediately consecrated to man, will generally afford more satisfac- tion than a lavish display of exotics ; the former will always present a more luxuriant and thriving display of scenery than the latter, and sooner attain the maturity of beauty." (Edin. Encyc. art. Landscape Gardening.) 6868. Whatever number of species are used, one only should prevail in one place ; or if there be high or low growths, then one of each kind should prevail. Great attention should be had that the species which compose the groups and thickets, or other scattered woodinesses which border on masses, should consist almost entirely of the species which prevail in the masses : if this precaution is neglected, instead of these appendages producing connection and harmony, they will have a tendency directly the reverse. Thickets may next be considered in regard to their form, that is, the form of their ground-p'lan ; and with groups and single trees in regard to the choice of species. Thickets are produced by nature, by the inroads of cattle, or other animals, grazing or cropping the herbage, and with it the young trees in forest-scenery. On levels and sheltered situations, we find their form comparatively regular, because there appears no permanent or general reason to occasion their encroachment on one side more than on the other. But on varied surfaces and soils a preference is given by depasturing animals to certain natural plants, and the side on which they abound is penetrated more deeply than the other. The plan of the thicket, therefore, varies accordingly. In elevated grounds, exposed to a particular wind, the thickets will exceed in length, which will be found generally to be in the direction of the storm. The cause is too obvious to be pointed out ; but this effect, and every other observed in the groups and thickets of natural scenery, always merit study, and most frequently deserve imitation in creations of landscape-scenery. The species of tree ought obviously to be those of the part of the mass to which they belong ; for thickets, groups, and single trees, ought to resemble disjointed and broken fragments from those masses. But in particular cases, for rendering a prominence still more prominent, or increasing the depth of a recess, a few plants of similar, or not discordant growths, but of darker or lighter greens, may at a distance add to the effect of each. By the same process, with more contrasted species, where no other mode can be put in execution, the form- ality of a single row may in some degree be varied in its situation and contour. (Ed. Encyc. art. Land- scape Gardening.) 6869. The arrangement of the species to effect variety must evidently be by grouping or collecting them in masses ; for if all the species made use of were intimately mixed together in every part of a plantation, it is evident the eye would meet every where the same species ; so that, as far as variation from that source was sought for, it would be entirely wanting. Uyedale Price has treated this subject with much ingenuity ; and in reprobating the common practice of mixing as many different sorts as can be procured, in order to produce variety, observes, that " variety, of which the true end is to relieve the eye, not to perplex it, does not consist in the diversity of separate objects, but in the diversity of their effects when com- bined together in a difference of composition and character. Many think, however, that they have ob- tained that grand object, when they have exhibited in one body all the hard names of the Linnaean sys- tem ; but when as many plants as can be well got together are exhibited in every shrubbery, or in every plantation, the result is a sameness of a different kind, but not less truly a sameness that would arise from there being no diversity at all ; for there is no having variety of character, without a certain distinctness, without certain marked features on which the eye can dwell" (Essays on the Picturesque, vol. i.) 6870. Repton observes, " there is more variety in passing from a grove of oaks to a grove of firs than in passing through a wood composed of a hundred different species, as they are usually mixed together. By this indiscriminate mixture of every kind of tree in planting, all variety is destroyed by the excess of va- riety, whether it is adopted in belts or clumps, as they have been technically called : for example, if ten clumps be composed of ten different sorts of trees in each, they become so many things exactly similar; but if each clump consists of the same sort of trees, they become ten different things, of which one may hereafter furnish a group of oaks, another of elms, another of chestnuts or of thorns, &c. In like i BOOK III. FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 957 in the modern belt, the recurrence and monotony of the same mixture of trees of all the different kinds, through a long drive, make it the more tedious in proportion as it is long. In part of the drive at Woburn, in which evergreens alone prevail, which is a circumstance of grandeur, of variety, of novelty, and, I may add, of winter comfort, that I never saw adopted in any other place on so magni- ficent a scale, the contrast of passing from a wood of deciduous trees to a wood of evergreens must be felt by the most heedless observer ; and the same sort of pleasure, though in a weaker degree, would be felt in the course of a drive, if the trees of different kinds were collected in small groups or masses by themselves, instead of being blended indiscriminately." (Inquiry into Changes of Taste, &c. p. 33.) 6871. Sir W. Chambers and Price agree in recommending the imitation of natural forests in the ar- rangement of the species. In these nature disseminates her plants by scattering their seeds, and the off- spring rise round the parent in masses or breadths, depending on a variety of circumstances, but chiefly on the facility which these seeds afford for being carried to a distance by the wind, the rain, and by birds or other animals. So disseminated they spring up, different sorts together, affected by various circumstances of soil and situation ; and arrive at maturity, contending with other plants and trees, and with the brows- ing of animals. At last, that species which had enjoyed a maximum of natural advantages is found to prevail as far as this maximum extended, stretching along in masses and angular portions of surface, till circumstances changing in favor of some other species, that takes the prevalence in its turn. In this way it will generally be found, that the number of species, and the extent and style of the masses in which they prevail, bears a strict analogy to the changes of soil and surface ; and this holds good, not only with respect to trees and shrubs, but to plants, grasses, and even the mossy tribe. 6872. The most perfect arrangement of species in regard to va- /rf\_ C56 riety would be to employ every kind of tree and shrub that will grow * - - freely in the open air, and arrange them according to the natural system. We have already suggested (6144.) that a residence might be wooded in this way, so as in the smallest extent to obtain a maxi- mum of variety and beauty. In most cases, where grouping, or any systematic plan of arranging the species is to be adopted, the form of the groups (fig. 656. a, b, c, d, e) should be marked on the plan of the plantation, and the kinds for each form written down in a cor- responding list ; the small detached masses intended as thickets (/) should be similarly marked, the situation of groups indicated either by letters simply (g), or by figures (6, 2, 3) referring to a list of kinds; and where shrubs are to' be introduced in the groups, two figures may be used (?-, ^), one of which shall indicate the kind of tree, and the other the species of low growth or shrub. This mode we have al- ways adopted in furnishing plans for ornamental planting, and find it enables gardeners to execute them with perfect accuracy. 6873. The size of the plants used in ornamental planting should be as great as the soil and situation will admit, for two reasons : first, because an early effect is always de- sirable ; and secondly, because in planting detached groups, large and small plants, and a varied inclin- ation of their stem (fig. 642.) may be introduced in imitation of nature. Small groups on pastured lands, indeed, cannot be formed without trees whose stems are sufficiently high to raise their heads out of the reach of cattle, without enclosing so considerable a space round every tree as to render this mode both te. dious, unsightly, and expensive. 6874. Fences. Masses, in the ancient style of planting, were generally surrounded by walls or other durable fences. Here the barrier was considered as an object or permanent part of the scene, and for that reason was executed substantially, and even ornamentally. They were generally walls substantially coped, and furnished with handsome "gates and piers. The rows of avenues and small clumps, or platoons intended to be finally thrown open, were enclosed by the most convenient temporary fence. 6875. In planting in the natural style, a regular fence either of verdant or masonic materials, can never be the final part of perfect imitation, since no such thing is to be found in nature. But in planting in farm-lands, or for the purpose of improving the general scenery, some permanent fence is requisite ; and all that can be said is, that which promises in the end to be the most efficient and economical, will almost always be the best. The hedge, sunk fence, common wall, and wide water-course where it will be con- stantly nearly full of water, here present themselves as the most general kinds. Any fence, however, of which a large excavation, without water, forms a part, as the sunk fence, should be used with great cau- tion ; as there are none of this class but what look ill from at least one point of view, that is, when seen lengthways. 6876. In planting to form a park or residence, with the exception of the boundary fence, and that which separates the lawn or mown surface from the grazed scenery, no permanent barrier of a formal nature should ever be admitted. In very bleak situations, walls or mounds of earth, however unsightly, may be necessary for a time to shelter and draw up the plants ; but the final removal of these and all fences in parks, should be looked to as certain. Light palings, the rails coated over with tar or pyrolignous acid, and the posts charred by burning at the lower end, to render them durable, may be used in the greater number of cases ; and in many, where the plants are larger, and the soil and other circumstances favor- able to their growth, hurdles or other moveable rails or palings may be used. " The present improved state of the manufacture of iron offers a very desirable accommodation in this respect, affording the best guards for single plants and groups ; and iron hurdles, or lines of cast-iron standards and half-inch wires, as rails for masses, have a light and temporary appearance, highly congenial to the idea of their speedy removal. The lines of the fences conforming to the irregular shapes of the masses will not be disagree- able to the eye, if those of the latter are arranged with any regard to apparent connection ; for any ob- jects, whether lines or forms, however deficient in beauty of themselves, acquire a degree of interest, and even character, when connected and arranged in such a way as to form a whole. When a plantation is finally to be composed both of trees and undergrowths, thorns, sloes, hollies, berberries, and briars, may, in many cases prevail in the margin ; which, when the fence is removed, will form a picturesque phalanx, and protect the whole. Partial inroads, formed by cattle, will only heighten the variety and intricacy of such masses." (Edin. Encyc. art. Landscape Gardening.) In this way, as Price observes (Essays, voL i.), the planter may plant as thick as he chooses, and never think of thinning or future management, only taking care to introduce no more trees than what he intends to remain finally as timber. The great ma- jority of the plants being shrubs will soon be overtopped by the timber-trees, which, having abundance of head-room, will grow up in free and unconstrained shapes. The future care of plantations is so ge- nerally neglected, that this suggestion, under certain circumstances, well merits adoption ; though it cer-, tainly can have no pretension to be called a scientific or profitable mode of planting. It is what it pre- tends to be, a picturesque mode. 958 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. CHAP. V. Of the Culture and Management of Plantations. 6877. On the management of plantations, Pontey and Sang observe, that it is too common a case to consider a tree, when once planted, as done with ; though, as every one knows, the progress and products of trees, like those of other plants, may be greatly increased or modified by cultivating the soil, pruning and thinning. 6878. With respect to culture of the soil, it is evident that young plantations should be kept clear of such weeds as have a tendency to smother the plants ; and though this is not likely to take place on heaths and barren sites, yet even these should be looked over once or twice during summer, and at least those weeds removed which are conspicuously injurious. In grounds which have been prepared previously to plant- ing, weeding, hoeing by hand, or by the horse-hoe, and digging or ploughing, become necessary according to circumstances. The hoeings are performed in summer to destroy weeds, and render the soil pervi to the weather ; the ploughing and diggings in winter for the same purpose, and sometimes to prepare the soil for spring crops. These, both Pontey and Sang allow, may be occasionally introduced among newly planted trees ; though it must not be forgotten that relatively to the trees, the plants composing such crops are weeds, and some of them, as the potatoe, weeds of the most exhausting kind. 6879. In preparing land for sowing woods, Sang ploughs in manure, sows in rows six feet apart, and crops the ground between, with low-growing early potatoes, turnip, lettuce, or other green crops. He does not approve of cropping the intervals with young trees, as a sort of nursery, as they prove more scourging crops than esculent vegetables, nor with grain, as not admitting of culture, and being too ex- hausting for the soil. Marshall, and some other authors, however, approve of sowing the tree-seeds with a crop of grain, and hoeing up the stubble and weeds when the crop is removed. 6880. Pontey observes, " that wherever preparing the soil for planting is thought necessary, that of cultivating it for some years afterwards will generally be thought the same ; for where quick growth is essential, cleanliness of appearance is usually of consequence. Slight crops of potatoes, with short tops, or turnips, may be admitted into such plantations with advantage for two or three years, as they create a necessity for annually digging or stirring the surface, and tend very materially to accelerate the growth of the plants. It may be objected, that such crops must impoverish the soil, and no doubt but such is the fact, so far as common vegetables are concerned ; but as to the production of wood, its support de- pends, in a great measure, on a different species of nutriment ; and hence, I could never observe that such cropping damaged it materially." (Profit. Plant, p. 153.) Osier -plantations for basket-willows and hoops, require digging and cleaning during the whole course of their existence ; and so do hedge-rows to a certain extent, and some ornamental plantations. 6881. Filling up blanks is one of the first operations that occurs in the culture of plantations next to the general culture of the soil, and the care of the external fences. According to Sang, a forest plant- ation after pitting, either in the mass form or ordinary mixture, should remain several years after plant- ing, before filling up the vacancies, by the death of the hard- wood plants, takes place. Hard- wood plants, in the first year, and even sometimes in the second year after planting, die down quite to the surface of the ground, and are apparently dead, while their roots, and the wood immediately above them, are quite fresh, and capable of producing very vigorous shoots, which they frequently do produce, if allowed to stand in their places. If a tree, such as that above alluded to, be'taken out the first or second year after planting, and the place filled up with a fresh plant of the same kind, what happened to the former may probably happen to the latter; and so the period of raising a plant on the spot may be protracted to a great length of time ; or it is possible this object may never be gained. 6882. The filling up of the hard wood kinds in a plantation which has been planted after trenching, or sum- mer-fallow which has been kept clean by the hoe, may be done with safety at an earlier period than under the foregoing circumstances ; because the trees, in the present case, have greater encouragement to grow vigorously after planting, and may be more easily ascertained to be entirely dead, than where the natural herbage is allowed to grow among them. 6883. But the filling up of larches and pines may take place the first spring after the plantation has been made 5 because such of these trees as have died are more easily distinguished. In many cases when a larch or a fir loses its top, either by dying down, or the biting of hares and rabbits, the most vigorous lateral branch is elected by nature to supply the deficiency, which by degrees assumes the character of an original top. Pines and larches, therefore, which have fresh lateral branches, are not to be displaced, although they have lost their tops. Indeed, no tree in the forest, or other plantation, ought to be removed, until there be no room left to hope for its recovery. If the filling up of plantations be left undone till the trees have risen to fifteen or twenty feet in height, their roots are spread far abroad, and their tops occupy a consi- derable space. The introduction of two or three plants, from a foot to three feet in height, at a particular deficient place, can never, in the above circumstances, be attended with any advantage. Such plants may indeed become bushes, and may answer well enough in the character of underwood, but they will for ever remain unfit for any other purpose. It is highly improper, then, to commence the filling up of hard-wood plantations before the third year after planting ; or to protract it beyond the fifth or the sixth. March is the proper season for this operation. (Plant. Kalend. 295.) 6884. Pruning is the most important operation of tree culture, since on it, in almost every case, depends the ultimate value, and in most cases, the actual bulk of timber pro- duced. In the purposes of pruning, as for most other practical purposes, the division of trees into resinous or frondose-branched trees, and into non-resinous or branchy-headed sorts, is of use. The main object in pruning frondose-branched trees is to produce a trunk with clean bark and sound timber ; that in pruning branchy-stemmed trees, is prin- cipally to direct the ligneous matter of the tree into the main stem or trunk, and also to produce a clean stem and sound timber, as in the other case. The branches of frondose trees, unless in extraordinary cases, never acquire a timber size, but rot off from the bottom upwards, as the tree advances in height and age ; and, therefore, whether pruned or not, the quantity of timber in the form of trunk is the same. The branches of the other division of trees, however, when left to spread out on every side, often acquire a timber-like size ; and as the ligneous matter they contain is in general far from being so valuable as when produced in the form of a straight stem, the loss by not pruning off their side branches, or preventing them from acquiring a timber-like size, is evident. On the other hand, when they are broken off by accident, or rot off by being crowded toge- ther, the timber of the trunk, though in these cases increased in quantity, is rendered knotty and rotten in quality. BOOK ill. CULTURE, &c. OF PLANTATIONS. 959 6885. With respect to the manner of pruning, where straight timber is the object, both classes in their infancy, as Sang observes, should be feathered from the bottom upwards, keeping the tops light and '" i) The proportion of their tops should be gradually spiral, something resembling a young larch, (fig. 657. a) diminished, year by year, till about their twentieth year, when they should occupy a third part of the height of the plant ; that is, if the tree be thirty feet high, the top should be ten feet (6). In all cases in pruning off the branches, the utmost care must be taken not to leave any stumps sticking out, but to put them in to the quick. It is only by this means that clean timber can be procured for the joiner ; or sightly smooth-stemmed trees to please the eye. It is a very general practice to leave snags or stumps (c) ; before the bole can be enlarged sufficiently to cover these, many years must elapse ; the stumps in the meantime become rotten ; and the consequence is timber which when sawn up (d) is only fit for fuel. 6886. Pontey says, " The sap of a tree may be consi- dered as the raw material furnished by nature ; and man, the manufacturer who moulds it into the form most useful for his purpose. A moderate quantity of leaves and small wood is necessary to every tree ; but all above that quantity are of no use to the plant, and of little value to its owner." (Forest Pruner, 152, 153.) 6887. Pruning for ornament, or beauty must be guided in its operations by what that beauty is. If it is the beauty of art, then the trees may require to be cut or clipped into the shape of animals (Jig.345.) ; or inanimate natural objects, as mounds of earth, mushrooms ; or geometric forms, triangles, globes, cones ; or walls, columns, arcades, vases, arbors, temples, theatres, or other architectural or sculptural compositions, (fig. 658.) The dwarfing of tree* is also another kind of artificial beauty, much practised by the Chinese; and though the habit be kept up chiefly by withholding nourishment ; yet the dwarf is produced by ringing a branch; enveloping it in a ball of loam ; amputat- ing it when it has mnde roots ; and then pinching off all exuberance of growth so as to keep it into shape. (Livingstone, in Hort. Tram. iv. 224.) " 6888. If natural beauty is desired, then the pruning must be rather negative than positive ; the object being to let the tree assume its natural shape, or, as Sang de- scribes it, " express its own nature." All that man can do, therefore, in the way of pruning for this object, is to assist a plant of the tree kind to express the characteristics of a tree ; that is, a pow- erful trunk and ample spreading head, which distinguishes it from a shrub ; and ! this he does by clearing a part of the tree ' of its side branches ; and by avoiding to train up a shrub with a single stem like a diminutive tree. In attending to these instructions the great importance of the use of leaves must never be lost sight of: this is not, as Pontey asserts, to attract the sap, but to elaborate it when propelled to them, and thus form the extract or food taken in by the plant, into a fluid analogous to blood, and which is returned so formed by the leaves into the inner bark and soft wood. It must be a very nice point, therefore, to determine the quantity of branches or leaves that should be left on each tree ; and if no more are left than what are necessary, then in the case of accidents to them from insects, the progress of the tree will be doubly retarded. Experience alone can determine these things. Both Pontey and Sang agree that " strength "is gained as effectually by a few branches to form a head as by many." i found there is only 658 bleed as soon as the sap begins to move. In spri'ng pruning, desist'when this takes place." As a general rule, he thinks " summer preferable to winter pruning ; because, in proportion as wounds are made early they heal so much the more in the same season." (Forest Pruner, 236.) 6890. Sang suspends pruning from the end of February to the middle of July, but carries it on during every other month of the year ; the gean, or any other tree very apt to gum, he prunes only in July and August. (Plant. Kal. 268.) 6891. With respect to the implements to be used, Sang observes, " In every case where the knife is capable of lopping off the branch in question, namely, in the pruning of infant plants, it is the only instrument necessary. All other branches should be taken off by the saw. A hatchet, or a chisel, should never be used. Every wound on the stem, or bole, should be quite into the quick, that is, to the level and depth of the bark ; nor should the least protuberance be left. The branch to be lopped off by the saw should, in all cases, be notched or slightly cut on the under side, in order to prevent the bark from being torn in the fall ; and when the branch has been removed, the edges of the wound, if anywise ragged, should be pared smooth with the knife. If the tree be vigorous, na- ture will soon cover the wound over with bark, without the addition of any plaster to ex- clude the air. In the shortening of a strong branch, the position of which is pretty upright, it should be observed to draw the saw obliquely across it, in such a manner as that the face of the wound shall be incapable of retaining moisture ; and afterwards to smooth the edges of the bark with the knife." (Plant. Jfal. 181.) In every case where e pruned at so early an age as the non-resin- ous kinds. Sang commences about the sixth or eighth year, according to their strength or vigor, and removes no more than one or two tiers of branches at once. Pontey, when the plants are about eight feet high, gives the first pruning by " displacing two or at most three tiers of the lower branches ; after which, intervals of three years might elapse between the prunings ; never displacing more than two tiers at once, except more shall prove dead." (Forest Pruner, 204.) Sang judiciously observes, " Excessive pruning, either of firs, larches, or deciduous trees of any sort, is highly injurious, not only to the health of the plant, but to the perfection of the wood If a sufficient number of branches are not left on the young plant to produce abundance of leaves, perfectly to concoct its juice, the timber will be loose in its texture, and liable to premature decay." (Plant. Kal. 182.) The opinions of Nicol and Monteath are at variance with those of Pontey and Sang, as to pruning resinous trees. Nicol advises leaving snags (Pract. Plant. 213.), and Monteath (For. Guide, 45.) says, " Never cut offa branch till it has begun to rot, as the bleeding of a live branch will go far to kill the tree." 6893. Non-resinous trees, Sang observes, " should be pruned betimes, or rather from their infancy, and thenceforward at intervals of one or at most two years. If the pruning of young forest-trees is performed only at intervals of eight or ten years, the growth is unnecessarily thrown away, and wounds are inflicted which will ever after remain blemishes in the timber ; whereas, if the superfluous, or competing branches had been removed annually, and before they attained a large size, the places from which they issued would be imperceptible, or at least not hurtful to the timber, when it came to the hands of the artist. The pruning of all deciduous trees should be begun at the top, or at least those branches which are to be removed from thence should never be lost sight of. Having fixed upon what may be deemed the best shoot for a leader, or that by which the stem is most evidently to be elongated and enlarged, every other branch on the plant should be rendered subservient to it, either by removing them instantly, or by short- ening them. Where a plant has branched into two or more rival stems, and there are no other very strong branches upon it, nothing more is required, than simply to lop oft' the weakest clean by the bole, leaving only the strongest and most promising shoots. If three or four shoots or branches be contending for the ascendancy, they should, in like manner, be lopped off, leaving only the most promising. If any of the branches which have been left further down on the bole of the plant at former prunings have become very strong, or have extended their extremities far, they should either be taken clean oft' by the bole, or be shortened at a proper distance from it ; observing always to shorten at a lateral twig of consi- derable length. It is of importance that the tree be equally poised ; and therefore if it have stronger branches on the one side than the other, they should either be removed or be shortened. Thus, a pro- perly trained tree, under twenty feet in height, should appear light and spiral, from within a yard or two of the ground to the upper extremity j its stem being furnished with a moderate number of twigs and small branches, in order to detain the sap, and circulate it more equally through the plant. Trees of this size, standing in a close plantation, after being properly formed, will require much less attention ; indeed, subsequent prunings will mostly consist in keeping their leading shoots single. From the want of air, their lateral branches will not be allowed to extend, but will remain as twigs upon the stem. These, however, frequently become dead branches ; and if such were allowed to remain at all on the trees, they would infallibly produce blemishes calculated greatly to diminish the value of the timber : hence the im- propriety of allowing any branch to die on the bole of a tree ; indeed, all branches should be removed when they are alive ; such a method, to our knowledge, being the only sure one to make good timber. From these circumstances, an annual pruning, or at least an annual examination,, of all forests, is neces- sary." (Plant. Kal. 180.) 6894. Heading down such noris-resinous trees as stole we have already (6829.) stated to be an important operation. After the trees have been three or four years planted, Sang directs that such as have not begun to grow freely should be headed down to within three or four inches of the ground. The cut must be made with the pruning-knife in a sloping direction, with one effort. Great care should be taken not to bend over the tree in the act of cutting. By so bending, the root may be split, a thing which too often happens. The operation should be performed in March, and not at an earlier period of the season, because the wounded part might receive much injury from the severe weather in January and February, and the expected shoot be thereby prevented from rising so strong and vigorous. (Plant. Kcdend. 297.) BufFon, in a memorial on the culture of woods, presented to the French government in 1742, says he has repeated this experi- ment so often, that he considers it as the most useful practice he knows in the culture of woods. 6895. For the purpose of producing bends for ship-timber, various modes According to Pontey, " little is hazarded by say- could be got, boiling and a screw apparatus we experience, and in extensive practice, says, the value of the oak, the broad-leaved elm, and Spanish chestnut, depends a good deal on their being crooked, as they are all used in ship-building. He says he has seen trees successfully trained into crooked shapes of great value, in the following manner : " If you have an oak, an elm, or chestnut, that has two stems, as it were, striving for the superiority, lop or prune off the straightest stem ; and if a tree that is not likely to be of such value be standing on that side, to which the stem left seems to incline to a horizontal position, take away the tree, and thus give the other every chance of growing horizontally. At this time it will be necessary to take away a few of the perpendi- cular shoots off the horizontal branch ; and, indeed, if these branches, which is sometimes the case in these trees, seem to contend, take away most of them ; but if they do not, it is better at this time not to prune these trees over-much, except the crooked shoots on the horizontal branch, till they arrive at the height of fifteen or even twenty feet By this time it will be easily seen what kind of tree it is likely to form ; and, if it inclines to grow crooked, lighten a little the top of the tree, by taking offa few of the crooked branches on the straighter side, allowing all the branches to remain on the side to which the tree inclines to crook, to give it more weight, and to draw most of the sap or juice that way, and it will naturally incline more to the crook ; at the same time clearing away any other tree on the crooked side, that may be apt, with the wind, to whip the side of the tree to which it inclines to crook, also taking away such tree of less value as may prevent it from spreading out to the one side more than to the other." He adds, ship-timber, various modes of pruning have been proposed. ying, that if plenty of long, clean, straight, free-grown trees r ould form bends." Monteath, a timber valuator of great BOOK III. CULTURE, &c. OF PLANTATIONS. 961 " I have myself tried the experiment with several oak-trees at about twelve feet high that were a little inclined to crook, and that had also a main branch inclined to a horizontal position. In the course of less than twenty years I had the pleasure of seeing some of these very trees grow so very crooked that the branch would work in with the main stem or body of the tree, to a complete knee, or square, which is the most vttluabK' of all trees. And as ten trees of crooked oak are required for one straight one, it is of the most essential consequence to have crooked oak-trees ; and, besides, an oak-tree, properly crooked, that will answer for a large knee say the main branch, to be fit to work in with the body or trunk of the tree without much waste pf wood, is nearly double in value to the same number of straight trees ; and, indeed, knees of oak are extremely scarce, and difficult to be got." 6896. Pontey " knows of no way by which bends of tolerable scantlings (knees excepted) can be pro- duced with certainty and little trouble, but from a side branch kept in a bent position by the branches of another tree or trees overhanging its stem." (Forest Pruner, 174.) 6897. Coppice-woods, in so far as grown for poles or bark, require pruning on the same principle as timber trees, in order to modify the ligneous matter into stem, and produce clean bark. In as far as they are grown for fence-wood, fuel, or besom-spray, no pruning is required. 6898. Osier-holts only require the laterals to be pinched off the shoots intended for hoops ; those for the basket-maker seldom produce any. The stools also require to be kept free from dead wood and stinted knotty protuberances. 6899. Hedge-rows require side pruning, or switching, from their first planting, so as gradually to mould them into " the wedge shape, tapering from bottom to top on both sides equally, till they meet in a point at the top. Two feet at bottom is a sufficient breadth for a five-feet hedge : a greater or a less height should have the bottom wider or narrower accordingly. In dressing young hedges, either of the deciduous or evergreen kinds, the sides only should be cut till the hedge arrive at the proposed height, unless it be necessary, for the sake of shelter, to cut their tops over, in order to make the hedge thicker of branches. Such cutting of the upright shoots, however, is not of any very great use in this respect; because every hawthorn-hedge sends out a number of side shoots, which, if encouraged, by keeping the top narrow as above, will make it abund- antly thick." (Sang, 447.) In pruning hedges, some use shears; but the hedge-bill (Jig. 115.) is the most proper instrument, and prunes a smooth unfractured section, not so apt to throw out a number of small useless shoots as generally follow the bruised cut of the shears. (Jig. 125.) 6900. Hedge-row trees require to be pruned to a tall, erect, clean stem, as at once producing more timber and doing least injury to the ground under their drip and shade. 6901. Trees in strips for shelter, or screens for concealment, ought to be furnished with branches from the bottom upwards ; unless undergrowth supply this deficiency. Where this is not the case, care should be had that the trees be pruned into conical shapes, so as that the lower branches maybe as little as possible excluded from the influence of the weather by the upper ones. 6902. Trees for shade, where shelter from winds is not wanting, should be pruned to ample spreading heads with naked stems ; the stems should be of such a height that the sun's rays, at mid-day, in mid- summer, may not fall within some yards of the base of the trunk j thus leaving, under the tree, as well as on its shady side, a space for the repose of men or cattle. 6903. Trees in parks may be considered as chiefly ornamental ; and for this purpose should be left with larger heads than such as are grown chiefly for timber. The height to which the stems are cleared of branches should vary according to the kind of tree (Jig. 659. a to e] ; and hollies, thorns, and such shrubs as are left untouched, or that are protected by enclosure from the cropping of cattle (/, g), should be left entirely to themselves. In parks-, where no pruning whatever is given to the timber-trees by man, we find they are all pruned or browsed to a certain height by cattle : this adds to their character as trees, but in flat surfaces forms a disagreeable repetition of the horizontal line in which they stand. To break this browsing line, pruning is a simple, obvious, and flectual resource. 6904. Some trees in pleasure-grounds and lawns, where no cattle ever come, may be allowed to ex- tend their branches so as they may almost recline on the turf; others may be pruned to different heights, according to their natures. Limes, planes, cedars, and firs have a fine effect with their branches depend- ing from their trunks ; and give an idea of seclusion and exclusive consecration to man, highly charac- teristic of what is called pleasure-ground. 6905. The properly thinning out of plantations, Sang observes, " is a matter of the first importance in their culture. However much attention be paid to the article of pruning, if the plantation be left too thick, it will be inevitably ruined. A circulation of air, neither too great nor too small, is essential to the welfare of the whole. This should not be wanting at any period of the growth of the plantation ; but, in cases where it has been prevented by neglect, it should not be admitted all at once, or suddenly. Open- ing a plantation too much at once, is a sure way to destroy its health and vigor. In 3 Q 962 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. thinning, the consideration which should in all cases predominate, is to cut for the good of the timber left, disregarding the value of the thinnings. For, if we have it in our choice to leave a good, and take away a bad plant or kind, and if it be necessary that one of the two should fall, the only question should be, by leaving which of them shall we do most justice to the laudable intention of raising excellent and full-sized timber for the benefit of ourselves and of posterity ? The worst tree should never be left, but with the view of filling up an accidental vacancy." 6906. In thinningmixed plantations, the removing of the nurses is the first object which generally claims attention. This, however, 'should be cautiously performed ; otherwise the intention of nursing might, after all, be thwarted. If the situation be much exposed, it will be prudent to retain more nurses, although the plantation itself be rather crowded, than where the situation is sheltered. In no case, how- ever, should the nurses be suffered to overtop or whip the plants intended for a timber crop ; and for this reason, in bleak situations, and when perhaps particular nurse-plants can hardly be spared, it may some- times be necessary to prune off the branches from one side entirely. At subsequent thinnings, such pruned or disfigured plants are first to be removed ; and then those which, from their situation, may best be dispensed with. At what period of the age of the plantation all the nurses are to be removed, cannot easily be de- termined ; and, indeed, if the nurses chiefly consist of larches, it may with propriety be said, that they should never be totally removed, while any of the other kinds remain. For, besides that this plant is ad- mirably calculated to compose part of a beautiful mixture, it is excelled by few kinds, perhaps by none, as a timber-tree. 6907. But when the nurses consist of inferior kinds, such as the mountain ash and the Scots pine, they should generally be all removed by the time that the plantation arrives at the height of fifteen or twenty feet, in order that the timber-trees may not, by their means, be drawn up too weak and slender. Before this time, it may probably be necessary to thin out a part of the other kinds. The least valuable, and the Ijast thriving plants, should first be condemned, provided their removal occasion no blank or chasm ; but where this would happen, they should be allowed to stand till the next, or other subsequent revision. At what distance of time this revision should take place, cannot easily be determined ; as the matter must very much depend on the circumstances of soil, shelter, and the state of health in which the plants may be. In general the third season after will be soon enough ; and if the plantation be from thirty to forty years old, and in a thriving state, it will require to be revised again, in most cases, within seven years. But one invariable rule ought to prevail in all cases, and in all situations ; to allow no plant to overtop or whip another. Respect should be nad to the distance of the tops, not to the distance of the roots of the trees ; for some kinds require much more head-room than others ; and all trees do not rise perpendicular to their roots, even on the most level or sheltered ground. 6908. With respect to the final distance to which trees standing in a mixed plantation should be thinned, it is hardly possible to prescribe fixed rules ; circumstances of health, vigor, the spreading nature of the tree, and the like, must determine. Whether the trees are to be suffered to stand till full-grown ; which of the kinds the soil seems best fitted for ; whether the ground be flat or elevated ; and whether the situation be expose^ or sheltered, are all circumstances which must influence the determination of the ultimate distance afwhich the trees are to stand. It may, however, be said in general, that if trees be al- lowed a distance of from twenty-five to thirty feet, according to their kinds and manner of growth, they will have room enough to become larger timber. 6909. Plantations of Scots pine, if the plants have been put in at three or three and a half feet apart, wil\ require little care until the trees be ten or twelve feet nigh. It is necessary to keep such plantations thick in the early stages of their growth, in order that the trees may tower the faster, and push fewer and weaker side branches. Indeed, a fir or soft wood plantation should be kept thicker at any period of its growth than any of those consisting of hard wood and nurses already mentioned ; and it may sometimes be proper to prune up certain plants as nurses, as hinted at above for nurses in a mixed plantation. Those pruned up trees are of course to be reckoned temporary plants, and are afterwards to be the first thinned out: next to these, all plants which have lost their leaders by accident should be condemned ; because such will never regain them so far as afterwards to become stately timber; provided that the removal of these mutilated trees cause no material blank in the plantation. Care should betaken to prevent whipping; nor should the plantation be thinned much at any one time, lest havoc be made by prevailing winds ; an evil which many, through inadvertency, have thus incurred. This precaution seems the more necessary, inasmuch as Scots pine, intended for useful large timber, are presumed never to be planted except in exposed situations and thin soils. At forty years of age, a good medium dis- tance for the trees may be about fifteen feet every way. It may be worthy of remark, however, that after a certain period, perhaps by the time that the plantation arrives at the age of fifty or sixty years, it will be proper to thin more freely, in order to harden the timber ; and that, then, this may be done with less risk of danger, from the strength the trees will have acquired, than at an earlier period ; but still it should be done gradually. 6910. Plantations of spruce and silver firs, intended for large useful timber, should be kept much in the manner above stated, both in their infancy and middle age. As already remarked, planting and keeping them as thick as is consistent with their health, is the best means of producing tall, straight, clean stems, and valuable timber. When planted for screens or for ornament, they require a different treatment ; which will be noticed in the proper place. 6911. To larch-plantations, the above observations will also apply ; and indeed they are applicable to plantations of all kinds of resinous trees. It may be proper here to remark, that the exposed margins of all young plantations should be kept thicker than the interior. The extent to which this rule should be carried, must be regulated according to the degree of exposure of the situation, the age of the plants, the tenderness of the kinds, and other circumstances. 6912. The proper seasons for thinning are autumn, or very early in spring, where the trees are to be taken up by the root and replanted elsewhere ; and winter for thinning for timber and fuel ; but such trees as are valuable for their bark should be left untouched till the sap rises in April or May. Copse-woods require thinning when young, like other plantations, and when once established the stools require to be gone over the second year after cutting, and all superfluous suckers and shoots removed. This operation should be repeated annually, or every two or three years, in connection with pruning, till within three or four years of the general fall of the crop. 6913. Ornamental plantations require to be thinned on principles agreeable to the intention with which they were planted. In the artificial forms, the figure must be carefully preserved, as the main object ; and in plantations in imitation of nature, the principle of grouping and connection must be kept steadily in view. A thin part is to be rendered thinner, and a thick group, or constellation of plants not opened up, but < oerely deprived of such trees as are becoming smothered by the rest. , BOOK III. CULTURE, &c. OF PLANTATIONS. 963 6914. Improving neglected jjlantations. Though it has been more or less fashionable, for upwards of a century, to form plantations ; yet it has been also so generally the custom to neglect their future culture, that by far the greater proportion of the surface covered with trees in Britain may be considered as neglected or mismanaged. The ar- tificial strips and masses have generally never been thinned or pruned ; and the natural woods and copse-woods improperly thinned, or cut over. It is often a difficult matter to make much of such cases ; and always a work of considerable time. " Trees," Sang observes, " however hardy their natures may be, which have been reared in a thick plantation, and consequently have been very much sheltered, have their natures so far changed, that if they be suddenly exposed to a circulation of air, which under different circumstances, would have been salubrious and useful to them, will become sickly and die. Hence the necessity of admitting the air to circulate freely among trees in a thick plantation, only gradually and with great caution. To prevent a misfortune of this kind, a plantation which has become close and crowded, having been neglected from the time of planting till perhaps its twentieth year, should have only some of the smallest and most unsightly plants removed : one perhaps, in every six or eight, in the first season ; in the following season, a like number may be removed ; and in two or three years after, it should be gone over again, and so on, till it be sufficiently thinned. It will be proper to commence the thinning, as above, at the interior of the plantation, leaving the skirts thicker till the last ; indeed, the thinning of the skirts of such a plant- ation should be protracted to a great length of time." With thinning, pruning to a certain extent should also be carried on. " If the plantation," Sang observes, " con- sists of pines and firs, all the rotten stumps, decayed branches, and the like, must be cut off close by the bole. It will be needful, however, to be cautious not to inflict too many wounds upon the tree in one season ; the removing of these, therefore, should be the work of two or three years, rather than endanger the health of the plantation. After the removal of these from the boles of the firs and larches, proceed every two or three years, but with a sparing hand, to displace one or perhaps two tiers of the lowermost live branches, as circumstances may direct ; being careful to cut close by the trunk, as above noticed. In a plantation of hard wood, under the above circumstances, the trees left for the ultimate crop are not to be pruned so much at first as might otherwise be required ; only one or two of their competing branches are to be taken away, and even these with caution. If it be judged too much for the first operation to remove them en- tirely, they may be shortened, to prevent the progress of the competition ; and the re- maining parts may be removed in the following season ; at which time, as often observed, they must be cut close by the bole." (Plant. Kal. 467.) 6915. The operation of thinning and pruning, thickening or filling up, or renewing portions that cannot be profitably recovered, should thus go on year after year, as appearances may direct, on the general principles of tree culture. And for this purpose the attentive observation and reflection of a judicious manager will be worth more than directions which must be given with so much latitude. Pontey has noticed various errors in Kennedy's Treatise on Planting, and even in Sang's Kalendar, on the simple subject of distances, which have originated in their giving directions for anticipated cases, which had never come within their experience. " Most people," he says, " take it for granted, that if trees stand three feet apart, they have only to take out the half, to make the di they must take down three times as many as they leave. By the sai suppose, that twelve feet distance was only the double of six ; but the square of the latter is only thirty-six, and that of the former one hundred and forty-four, or four times the latter ; so that to bring six feet distances to twelve, three trees must be removed for every one left." (Profitable Planter, 256. ; Forest Pruner, 21.) 916. Copse-woods are sometimes improved by turning them into 6916. woods, which requires nothing more than a judicious selection and reservation of those shoots from the stools which are strongest, and which spring more immediately from the collar. But a greater im- provement of copse-woods consists in cutting over the overgrown and protuberant stools, by the surface of the soil (fig. 660. a, b, c, d], which has been found by Monteath completely to regenerate them. The operation is performed with a saw, in a slanting direction, and the young shoots being afterwards properly thinned and pruned, soon establish themselves securely on the circumference of large, and per- haps, rotten-hearted roots. (Forester's Guide, 60.) 6917. Hedge-rows are often neglected, and, like larger plantations, require renovation by cutting down and filling in vacancies, and by cultivating the soil at their roots. Hedges, Sang observes, which have been- long neglected, shoot up to a great height like trees, become naked at bottom, and occupy too much ground, at least for lands in a state of high cultivation. The best .method of reducing such to a proper size, and of forming them into an immediate fence, is by plashing. 6918. Plashing. This consists in selecting the strongest and straightest shoots. These are to be dressed up and headed down to four feet, and in such a way that the tops of the whole may range in a neat line. These are called the stakes ; and, when they are deficient, either in strength or number, recourse must be had to artificial stakes, which must be driven in to stand firm, and supply the deficiency of natural ones. Having proceeded thus far in preparing the hedge for plashing, the Ledger is to begin 3Q 2 964 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. at one end, and bend down as close as possible the remaining pliable branches, crossing them in the manner of basket-work. Such as are too strong to be bent, may be cut half through with the bill, which will render them pliable enough to be used ; and such as are not required for any of the above-mentioned purposes, must be cut off' close to the ground. After the plashing is finished, the hedge should be dressed smooth on both sides by the switching-bill or shears. There is another method of plashing, which has been suggested as an improvement upon the foregoing ; and that is, by not cutting any of the stems over as stakes, but weaving in die tops along with the other branches. This method will not have so immediate a tendency to bare the lower parts of the hedge by the growth of the top, as when any of the plants are cut over for stakes ; but still, at the bendings, the growth will rush out with vigor ; besides this plan is at- tended with more labor. Indeed, the best security against baring the bottom of a plashed hedge, is by cutting over by the surface as many of the plants as can be at all spared ; and the shoots arising from these will soon thicken the hedge at bottom. Plashing can only be effectually and handsomely performed, when there is a good por- tion of long, pliable, and well feathered branches, and where the hedge has, if not youth, at least vigor, on its side. After the plashing is completed, the ditch is to be scoured out, and the bottom of the hedge cleaned and dressed up, in the same neat manner as if all were new work. ' 6919. Cutting over old hedges is a much less expensive method of reclaiming or renewing, than any of the above ; and, perhaps, in most cases, may be a more eligible one ; saving when an immediate fence is the object. In cutting down an old hedge, there is certainly a very fit opportunity of laying the found- ation of a complete and durable fence. The nature of the cutting must be regulated by circumstances, ac- cording to the age, the strength, or the closeness of the hedge, and whether it have been planted in single or double rows. If the hedge in question be pretty vigorous and branching towards the bottom, and if the stems stand regularly and closely together, it may be brought into due subjection, without being cut down to the ground. In this case, the sides are first to be switched up with the hook, not altogether close to the stems, but within about a foot of them on each side at bottom, tapering up close at top, which should be four or five feet high, according to the general height of the hedge : but if the hedge be thin at bottom, it will be advisable to cut more in, in order to make it bushy from the ground upwards. If the hedge is not regularly close from end to end, but ragged, and full of gaps, the best method is to cut it over, within eight or ten inches of the ground, and to fill up the gaps with stout well rooted plants of the same kind ; or the gaps may be mended by the following method : Let one of the stoutest thorn-plants next to the gap be reserved uncut, and the space be digged over, or it may require to be filled up with rich earth to within three inches of the height of the top of the ditch. Then having cleaned the thorn-plant of all side branches or twigs, cut it half through at the height of the earth in the gap, on the side farthest from it, and lay it down upon the earth, securfng the most distant end from rising up by a hooked pin ; then cover it all over with rich earth, so as to make it the general height of the top of the ditch : and the thorn-plant so laid down and covered, will take root, and send up a profusion of shoots over its whole length. If one plant will not reach the whole extent of the gap, one at each side probably will The surface of the bank should be pointed up, and the ditch scoured as above directed in plashing. 6920. In other cases, when the hedge is getting thin below or too tall, and when the stems are placed regularly within eight or ten inches of one another, and where it is necessary to retain a fence and at the same time to cut so as to have a supply of young shoots from the bottom, the plan to be followed is to cut alternately the one part to within eight or ten inches of the bottom, and the other at four feet high, dressing the bank and scouring the ditch, as directed above In cases where two rows of quicks have been planted, the front one is to be cut bv the surface, and the other at four or five feet high, as circum- stances may require. 6921. Neglected hedgeirow timber may be improved by pruning according to its age. Blakey recommends what he calls foreshortening, or cutting in, as the best method both for young and old hedge-row timber. " This operation is performed by shortening the over-luxuriant side branches -^iV^i ft*^ \ fk P (Jig. 661. a), but not to cut them ^^T^^^M^^ 661 ^4 fir to a stump, as in snag pruning ; ~ ' ^\\\y.. on the contrary, the top only of the branch should be cut off, and the amputation effected imme- diately above where an auxiliary side shoot springs from the branch on which the operation is to be performed (6) ; this may be at the distance of two, four, or any other number of feet from the stem of the tree; and suppose the auxi- liary branch which is left (when the top of the branch is cut oiF) is also over-luxuriant, or looks unsightly, it should also be shortened at its sub-auxiliary branch, in the same manner as before described. The branches of trees pruned in this manner are always kept within due bounds ; they do not extend over the adjoining land to the injury of the occupier, at least, not until the stem of the tree rises to a height out of the reach of pruning, when the top branches can do comparatively little injury to the land. By adopting this system of pruning, the bad effects of close pruning on old trees, and snag pruning on young ones, will be avoided ; the country will be ornamented ; and the community at large, as well as individuals, benefited." BOOK III. CULTURE, &c. OF PLANTATIONS. 965 6922. Hedge-rows frequently require to be altered in direction to improve the form, or increase the contents of farm-enclosures. ( fig. 662.) Generally, and especially in 662 flat arable lands, this is done by eradicating such as are in unsuitable directions (a), and substituting others (6) in parallel, or at least in straight lines ; but in rising grounds, and where the surface will be improved by shelter, it frequently happens that a crooked hedge is superseded by two straight ones, and the interval (c) filled up with plant- ation. The advantage of straight-lined fields to a farmer is very considerable ; and when this object is procured in the latter way, an improvement is produced both useful and ornamental. 6923. Ornamental plantations are no less frequently neglected than such as are considered chiefly useful. Clumps, belts, and screens which have become thin, because they have not been thinned, are almost every- where to be met with. " In those neglected plantations," says Lord Meadowbank, " where daylight may be seen for miles, through naked stems, chilled and contracted by the cold, the mischief might, perhaps, be partially remedied, by planting young trees round the extremities, which having room to spread luxu- riantly, would exclude the winds, and the internal spaces might be thickened up with oak, silver firs, beeches, and such other trees as thrive with a small portion of light. When once the wind is excluded, the weakest of the old trees might be taken out, and the others left to profit by the shelter and space that is afforded." (Life of Lord Kaimes, by Tytler.} One of the most hopeless cases of improvement in this department is that of an old clump of Scotch pines (fig. 663.), from which scarcely any trees can be taken without risking ^ the failure of the remainder. The only way is to add to it, either by some scattered groups in one direction, or in various directions. Where a clump consists of hard * * wood, either entirely or in part, it may sometimes, if effect permits, be reduced to a group, by gradually reducing the number of the trees. The group left should be composed of two or three trees of at least two species, different in bulk, and some- what in habit, in order that the combined mass may not have the formality of the clump. 6924. Scattered trees in ornamental scenery otherwise of very good shapes, and very well managed as to pruning, destroying the browsing line, &c. individually, are often, from want of thinning in some places, and thickening in others, deficient in massiness Ct fl (Jig. 664.) ; the obvious remedy is to thin out some (a), and plant others, so as to de- stroy the straggling non-cooperating appearance which such trees present, and produce something of grouping, massiveness, and character. (Jig. 665.) 6925. Wounds, bruises, casualtie-s, and defects of frees. Small wuunds, such as are required to be made by judicious pruning, easily heal up of themselves ; large wounds, by amputations of branches, above six inches' diameter, should, if possible, never be made. Even wounds of six inches' diameter, or under, will heal quicker by the appli- cation of any material which excludes the air and preserves the wood from corruption; and we agree with Sang, in recommending coal-tar, or the liquor produced from coals 3 Q 3 966 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. in manufacturing gas. It is, however, less favorable to the progress of the bark over the wound than a coating of clay or cow-dung, covered with moss to keep it moist. Pontey recommends putty and two coats of paint over it. In case the wood, at a bruised or amputated place, have by neglect become already corrupted, the rotten or dead wood is to be pared out quite into the quick ; and the wound is then to be dressed with tar, or clay covered with a piece of mat, sacking, or moss. A wound, hollowed out as above, may at first appear an unsightly blemish ; but, in subsequent years, nature will lay the coats of wood, under the new-formed bark, thicker at that place ; and probably may, in time, fill it up to be even with the general surface of the tree. 6926. All fractures, by whatever means produced, are to be managed as the circumstances of the case require. If a large branch be broken over at the middle of its length, it should be sawn clear off close by the lateral which is nearest to the bole of the tree : but, if there is no lateral, or branch, capable to carry forward the growth, cut the main or fractured branch in quite to the bole. In both cases, treat the wounds as above recommended. 6927. Interior rotting, arising from the dampness of the soil, cannot by the art of man be cured ; though it might have been prevented by timeous draining. The hearts of trees frequently rot, where there is no excess of moisture, and especially such as have been produced from old roots left in the ground by a previous felling. Such roots, when in good ground, send up very great shoots with few leaves in pro- portion to their sizes ; by the absence of a profusion of these, properly to concoct the juices so abundantly supplied by the roots, the fibre of the wood is loose and imperfect ; the next season will supply more leaves in proportion to the supply of juices, yet not a sufficient number for making perfect timber ; several years may pass before this event arrive : thus crude and ill digested timber disposed to premature decay, is the foundation over which subsequent coatings of wood are laid : yet, however perfect these may be, they do not prevent the progress of decomposition going on in the interior. Nature teaches how necessary nume- rous leaves are to the proportion of the solid wood ; the cotyledons and subsequent leaves of a one-year- old tree are a thousand times greater, compared to its solid contents, than are the leaves to the solid "con- tents of the first year's shoots from roots like the above. 6928. Shakes often arise from the weight and multiplicity of top branches, and might have been pre- vented by timeous pruning. Shakes or rents in the boles of trees, however, often happen where there is no excess of tops. Sometimes the rain running down from the branches, wets one part of the bole, while the rest is comparatively dry. If this circumstance is succeeded by an intense frost, before the wetted side becomes dry, the bole maybe rent for a great length, and perhaps to the depth of the core. Shakes or rents, like the above, are difficult to cure. The best method of helping them, is to trace out their up- per extremity, caulk it up with oakum, and pitch it over, to prevent the rain descending that way in future. (Sang.) 6929. In cases of holloumess, Pontey recommends probing to the bottom, letting out the water, if any, with an auger, drying the cavity with a cloth, filling it with dry sand, plugging it with wood and oakum, and then painting it over. 6930. Dicorticated stems or branches by lightning, or otherwise, if the soft wood is not much injured, will heal over and become covered with bark ; and this the more certainly and rapidly if the air be ex- cluded by a coating of adhesive matter, as cow-clung and quick-lime, or tying on moss or bandages of mat or cloth. Pontey gives an instance in which such treatment was successful in the case of an apple- tree. (Pruner, 230.) We have witnessed it on an extensive scale on the trunk of a pear-tree ; and we are informed, on the best authority, of other cases now under progress, in the government garden of the Luxembourg at Paris, as matter of experiment, by Du Thuars, a most ingenious physiologist 6931. Withered or decayed tops may arise from age and incipient decay ; but also, as Pontey states, from improper pruning, or the want of it. We often see it from improper pruning of elms, which, after having been close pruned to their summits for many years, are left entirely to nature; in that case they branch out luxuriantly below, and the top withers. By neglecting to thin out the branches on the stems of non-resinous trees, the same effect may be produced. 6932. Stinted bushy tops show a deficiency of nourishment; on very tall naked stems it is from these circumstances; and on short stems from defects in the soil. Obliquely placed misshapen heads, in de- tached trees, commonly proceed from the same causes and want of shelter. Stinted growth, both in tops and stems, is also produced by ivy, and by lichens, mosses, the mistletoe, and other parasites. Ivy com- presses the bark, precludes its expansion, as well as excludes air and moisture, by which the outer bark becomes rigid and corky. Happily, both men and trees will live a long time under the influence both of deformity and disease. 6933. Excessive exudations of gum and resins are peculiar to resinous and some other trees when over- pruned, or pruned at improper times. Mildew, honeydew, and blight, three popular names applied to the effects of certain insects of the aphis kind, attack the oak, beech, poplar, and many trees: all that can be said is, if proper regimen has been regularly attended to, trees will overcome these and all other enemies. 6934. Insects and vermin. Almost every tree has its particular insect of the hemipterous and dipterous families, and many of the coleoptera family are common to all. The foliage of the small-leaved elm of hedges is often almost entirely destroyed in the early part of the season by tenthredinidse ; and those of the larch and Scotch pine have suffered materially in some seasons from aphides. The Aphis laricea, L. (Eriosomata of Leach) increased to an alarming extent from 1800 to 1802, on the larch, on account of three dry seasons following each other; but, though it retarded their growth, it ultimately destroyed very few trees. Sang says he has known it since 1785 ; that it dirties more than injures the tree, and is now (1819) thought little of. Indeed, almost every species of tree has been known to have suffered in some one or more seasons, and in particular districts from insects; for which, on so large a scale, there seems to be no applicable remedy but patiently waiting till their excess, or the increase of other vermin, their natural enemies, or a change of seasons, cause them to disappear. Trees, properly cultivated and managed, generally overcome such enemies. The hare is well known to be very injurious to young trees, and especially to laburnums, by gnawing off their bark. Coating their stems with dung and urine, fresh from the cow-house, is said to be an effectual remedy. It may be put on with, a brush about two feet high ; a barrow-load will suffice for a hundred trees, with stems of three or four inches in diameter ; and its virtue, after laid on, endures at least two years. (Bull, in Caled. Hort. Mem. iv. 190.) BOOK III. PREPARING TREES FOR USE OR SALE. 967 CHAP. VI. Of appropriating the Products of Trees, preparing them for Use or Sale, and estimating their Value. 69S5. Of the different products afforded by trees, the first is their leaves, which are or may be collected in close plantations for the sake of the manure they afford ; and in open groves, parks, and lawns, for that purpose, and to prevent their injuring the grassy sur- face. Leaves are also gathered on the continent as food for cattle. Though, at first consideration, leaves would appear to benefit pastures by sheltering the roots of the grass during winter, and afterwards rotting into manure ; yet experience proves, that in considerable quantities they impede the growth of the grass plants, by bringing on decay at their roots, in all probability owing to their exclusion of air. For this purpose, in well wooded parks, the leaves are carefully collected in the begin- ning of winter, and carried to rot-heaps in secluded situations, where in twa years from the time of gathering, they become the valuable mould so much in demand by the gar- dener. A very ingenious machine for sweeping together, and at the same time lifting up leaves into a box or receiver, has been invented by Snowdon, a London machinist, and has been partially in use in Windsor Forest and at Hampton Court ; it is also calcu- lated for cutting or wrenching off weeds, (as clean-cut weeds are found to grow again, the same season, while the roots of the others often rot,) or mowing and lifting the weeds or swarth into the cart ; but it is not yet sufficiently matured to enable us to describe it as completely answering all its intended purposes. Great credit, however, is due to the in- genious inventor, who has been occupied on it for upwards of two years, and who has spared neither time nor money. 6936 Prunings or spray are the next product of trees ; those which they afford at a very early period, and all clippings of hedges or artificial forms, are only fit to be used as leaves ; the larger prunings may be used for some of the various purposes to which copse-wood and the lop of trees are applied. On the continent, and especially in Sweden and Norway, spray of all kinds is carefully faggotted in summer, dried and slacked for the use of cattle in winter. This was also the practice of the Romans, who preferred the spray of the elm, as the Swedes do that of the birch. 6937. The thinnings, when not beyond a suitable age, and taken up properly (6905.) and at a proper sea- son, may be replanted in other situations, or as single trees and groups ; or they may be used as hoops, hop-poles, poles for garden-training, for fencing, for props in coaleries, and for a great variety of pur- poses ; those whose barks are useful for tannin should not be cut down or rooted up till May, but the others at any time during winter. It is common to sort them into lots, according to their kind or size ; and to faggot up the spray for fuel, besom-stuff, or for distilling for bleachers' liquid. See Copse-woods. (6940.) 6938. The seeds of trees in general cannot be considered of much use beyond that of continuing the species, and therefore, in very particular cases, where it is desired a tree should attain bulk as rapidly as possible, the flowers should be pinched off as they appear. The seeds of the oak, beech, and sweet chestnut, however, are valuable for feeding swine, and where they abound may either be swept together after they drop, and carried away and preserved dry in lofts for that purpose ; or if other circumstances are favorable, *wine may be driven under the trees to collect them. These, and other seeds, as the haw and holly, are also eaten by deer. The seeds of the trees mentioned, and of all the resinous tribe, are in general demand by the nurserymen for the purposes of propagation. The seeds of almost all other trees and shrubs are also in limited or occasional demand ; or may be collected for private sowing. They generally ripen late in the season, and are to be collected in the end of autumn or beginning of winter, with the exception of a few, such as the elm, poplar, willow, and one or two others, which ripen their seeds in May or 6939. In osier. grounds, willows, whether intended for the basket-maker or cooper, should not be cut till the second season after planting, in order to strengthen the stools ; but by the third autumn the crop will be fit for the basket-maker, and the fourth, plantations intended for the cooper (hoops requiring the growth of two years) will be ready. The seasons for cutting are November and March ; after the former period the wounds are apt to be injured by frost, and after the latter the sap is too far advanced ; some is lost by bleeding, and the buds are developed too suddenly to admit of proper strength in the shoots. The cut should be made within three buds of the point whence the shoot issued, in a sloping direction, and the section on the under-side. (1885.) In cutting hoop-willows, the swell at the bottom of the shoot only should be left, that being furnished with abundance of buds for future growth. After being cut, the hoops are trimmed from any side shoots, and tied up in bundles of a hundred, of six scores each, which, in 1820, sold for from four shillings to five shillings a bundle. The willows are sorted into three sizes, and tied in bundles two feet in circumference, within a foot of the lower ends. When to be peeled, they are immediately after cutting set on their thick ends in standing water, a few inches deep, and there they remain till the growth ascends freely, which is commonly by the end of the succeeding May. " The apparatus for peeling is simply two round rods of iron, nearly half an. inch thick, sixteen inches long, and tapering a little upwards, welded together at the one end which is sharpened, so as that it maybe easily thrust down into the ground. When thus placed in a piece of firm ground, the peeler sits down opposite to it, and takes the willow in the right hand by the small end, and puts a foot or more of the great end into the instrument, the prongs of which he presses together with the left hand, and with the right draws the willow towards him ; by which operation the bark will at once be separated from the wood ; the small end is then treated in the same manner, and the peeling is completed. Good willows peeled in the above manner, have been sold for some seasons past, at from six shillings and sixpence to seven shillings the bundle of four feet in circumference. After being peeled, they will keep in good condition for a long time, till a proper market be found." 6940. Copse.woods are generally cut over when the shoots of the stools have attained from three to five inches' diameter at their bases ; some grown chiefly for hop-poles, and ware or stuff for crates, hampers, or wattled hurdles, are cut over earlier, and others, where small timber for fencing and other country purposes is wanted, are left later. In some parts of Herefordshire, where the oak grows with great rapidity, copse-woods are cut over every twelve years ; in the highlands of Scotland, where it grows much slower, the time varies from twenty to twenty-five or thirty years. " The bark is there considered as having arrived at its utmost perfection, and at its highest value, at the age of between twenty and thirty years : under that age, its virtues are weak ; above it, the bark becomes coarse and loses its sap. Another important reason for cutting down oak coppice-wood about the above period, is suggested in the Stirling- 3 Q 4 968 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. thire Report, p. 218. ; namely, ' that it is a fact established by experience, that it will not renew itself, if it remains uncut, beyond the space of about forty years.' " (Gen. Rep. of Scotland, 218.) Where there is a considerable tract of copse-wood, it is common to divide it into portions, in number according to the period of cutting. These are to be cut in rotation, so that when the last portion is cut over, the first is again ready for cutting. 6941. The season for cutting the kinds of trees whose barks are not made use of, is winter and early in spring; but the oak and other trees which are peeled, are left till the middle of April or May. Birch and larch woods will peel nearly a month earlier than the oak. Should there be no frost, birch and larch may be peeled about the beginning of April ; but the birch is commonly allowed to stand till July, and the peeling of it is commenced after that of the oak has been completed ; and the reason is, there is an outer skin upon birch-bark which requires to be taken off, as it is of no use to the tanner, and renders that part which is of use more difficult to be ground, and the month of July is the only time at which the two barks can be separated with ease, as at this time the juice or sap has made its circulation through the tree and bark, and this circumstance renders the separation more easy. From the beginning of May to the middle of July is the usual time for barking the oak. The earlier in the spring this oper- ation is performed on the oak, both for the growth, if a natural wood, and for the bark, the better. When the sap has begun to rise, the bark will easily be detached from the wood, and it ought then to be taken off without loss of time ; and if the whole could be taken off before the leaf is completely deve- loped, the bark would be better. After the sap has arisen to the leaf and new growth, the bark becomes more dry, and requires more beating to separate it from the wood. And when what is called the black sap is descending the tree, the bark taken off is black, and loses its original color ; and at this time also the bark begins to throw off a scurf, more especially young bark without much cork on it ; this outer skin having less of the proper sap or juice, and being much drier when taken off, will weigh less, and consequently will not be so valuable. If possible, oaks should be barked by the middle of June, as every ton of bark taken off after the first of July will be deficient two cwt. per ton, compared with the same quantity taken off in May or early in June. 6942. The termination of cutting is generally fixed for the fifteenth day of July, and after this date there should not be a single stool of oak wood cut that is intended for the growth ; and as soon as possible after the fifteenth, the whole of the wood and bark should be carried away, that the young growths may not be disturbed or injured, as at this time they will have made considerable progress ; at any rate, there should neither be wood nor bark remaining within the new cut hag after the first of August ; nor should either horse or cart be permitted to enter it after that period, for after the beginning of August, oaks make what is termed a lammas growth, and the future prosperity and health of the coppice, in a great measure, depend on the first year's growth, as far as regards form and vigor of the shoots. (Forester's Guide, 69.) 6943. The best mode of cutting is evidently that of using a saw, and cutting the shoots over in a slanting direction close by the surface. When the stool, after having been cut several times, has acquired con- siderable diameter, it is customary in the midland counties, Marshall states, to hollow it out in the centre, from a notion that by rotting away the central roots, the circumferential stems will grow more vigor- ously, and become as it were separate plants. This is in fact the case in very old copses. For several cuttings, however, it must evidently be the safer policy to keep the stool highest in the middle to throw off the rain, and preserve it sound. 6944. Monteath says, " It will be found, upon experiment, perfectly evident, that stools dressed down to the surface of the ground, (taking care always not to loosen the bark from the root, or allow it to be peeled off in the smallest degree below the earth, but rounded down level to it,) that these stools will send forth the most vigorous shoots, and stand the weather, and be the stoutest and best throughout the age of the coppice." (Forester's Guide, 61.) From the late season at which the trees to be barked are generally cut, they often receive considerable injury, both from that circumstance, and the manner in which the operation is performed. Monteath appears to us to have furnished the best directions for executing the work in a safe manner. He first sends a person furnished with an instrument with a sharp cutting edge (fig. 140.) through the copse, whose business is " to trample down the long grass or foggage all round the root, and then, to make a circular incision into the bark so deep as to reach the wood, at about an inch above the surface of the earth ; thus the bark when taken off, will injure no part of that which is below the circular incision." 6945. The root of the tree being thus prepared, the cutters ought to proceed to their part of the work, not with an axe, however, as is most generally recommended, but with a saw, because, in cutting with the axe unless the root of the tree be so small in diameter as to be severed in one or two strokes at most, the axe loosens the root to such a degree, that it not only loses the present year's growth, but often fails altogether to grow. Therefore if the diameter of the root be six inches, or upwards, it should always be cut with a cross-cut saw ; entering the saw about half an inch above where the circular incision has been made into the bark, if a small tree ; but if the tree be ten or twelve, or more inches in diameter, the saw ought to be entered two inches above it 6946. There are two advantages to be derived from cutting with the saw; it has no tendency to loosen the root of the tree, but leaves it in such a condition as to be more easily and properly dressed ; it also saves a portion of the wood that would otherwise be destroyed by the axe. On no pretence should oaks of six inches' diameter be cut with an axe, but always with a saw. Having cut through the tree with a saw, take a sharp adze, and round the edges of the stool or root, going close down to the surface of the earth, taking with the adze both bark and wood, sloping it up towards the centre of the stool, taking particular care always that the bark and wood both slope alike, as if they formed one solid body, being sure always that the bark be not detached from the root An objection has been made to this mode of cutting with the saw, as taking up too much time ; but I have found that two men with a cross-cut saw, kept in good order, will cut as much as two men will with an axe. (Forester's Guide, 58.) 6947. The disbarked timber is prepared for sale by being sorted into straight poles of the largest size, stakes and other pieces fit for palings, faggots, fuel, &c. The unbarked wood is similarly sorted, and affords, where there is much hazel or ash, cord-wood or bundles of clean shoots for making packing crates, ham- pers, &c., poles for hops, larger poles for fences, rails, paling-stakes, stakes and shoots for hurdles, besom- stuff, spray for distillation, and a variety of other objects according to the local demand, or the oppor- tunity of supplying a distant market by land-carriage. The brush or spray of non-resinous trees is called in some places ton-wood, and is used for distilling the pyrolignous acid used in bleach-fields and calico print-works. " When wood of this description is sent to Glasgow, where there are extensive works for the purpose of distilling it, it sells readily at from IL 2s. to II. 10s. per ton ; but when there are large cuttings, particularly of young woods, it is worth while to erect boilers near the wood to distil it, as these boilers can be erected at no great expense, and in this case the b'quid is easily carried in casks to where it is consumed, at less expense than the rough timber could be ; of course it will pay much better. Small wood of this description is also used for charcoal : but in distilling it, there is part of it made into char- coal, which will supply the demand of that article, so that it is by far the most profitable way, when there is any great quantity to dispose of, to erect boilers and distil it ; unless where the local situation of the wood will admit of its being shipped at a small expense, and carried to where the works mentioned are carried on. All kinds of wood will give the extract in question, excepting fir ; but oak, ash, Spanish chestnut, and birch, are the best," (Forester's Guide, 155.) Where the oak grows slow, as in the high- lands, the but-ends of the poles are used for spokes for chaise-wheels. " Long spokes are from thirty to thirty-two inches by three inches and a half broad, and one inch and a half thick, and the short ones for the same purpose, from twenty-two to twenty-four inches long, and the same sizes otherwise. Cart- BOOK III. PREPARING TREES FOR USE OR SALE. 969 wheel spokes, from twenty-six to twenty-eight inches long, four inches broad by two inches thick, ihese are the sizes they require to stand when rough-blocked from the axe. Small wood when sold for this purpose, brought, in 1820, 2s. a cubic foot, measured down to three inches square." (Monteath ) 6948. In some cases copse-woods are sown with grass-seeds, and pastured by sheep, horses, arid cattle. Some admit the animals the fifth year after the last cutting, others not till the eighth : but Monteath thinks this should never be done till the fifteenth year. If the ground is properly covered with trees it can seldom be advantageous to admit any species of stock unless during a month or two in winter. 6949. In the operation of barking trees, "the barkers are each furnished with light short-handled mallets, made of hard wood, about eight or nine inches long, three inches square at the face, and the other end sharpened like a wedge, in order the more easily to make an incision in the bark, which is done all along the side of the tree which hap- pens to be uppermost, in a straight line : and as two barkers are generally employed at one tree, it is proper, that whilst the one is employed in making an incision with the mallet, as above, the other being furnished with the barking-bill (Jig. 140.), cuts the bark across the tree, in lengths of from two feet six inches to three feet. Having thus made the incision in the bark, both ways, the barkers being also each furnished with peeling- irons (Jigs. 136. to 139.), if the tree or piece of timber to be barked is such as the two barkers can easily lift one end of it, this is placed on two pieces of wood, three feet long, and called horses ; these are about the thickness of a paling-stake, and have a forked end on each about six inches long, the other end sharpened to go into the ground ; two of these horses are placed in a triangular form against one another, one end of the piece to be peeled being raised on the horses, the two barkers standing opposite to each other, and entering the peeling-irons into the incision made by the mallet, and pressing the iron downwards between the bark and the timber. In this way it will be found very easy to take the bark off in one whole piece round the tree ; and, if possible, let these pieces be as long as the incisions made in the bark. In some cases, where there is not much sap, the bark may require a little beating with the square end of the mallet, to cause it to separate easily from the wood ; but the less beating with the mallet the better, as it has a tendency to blacken the bark in the inside, or fleshy part of it, so that when the tanner sees it, lie supposes it to be damaged, and undervalues it. The branches of the tree be- ing previously all lopped off with the axe, the persons, in number according to the extent of the work, with the bill smooth all the branches, cutting them in lengths of from two feet six inches to three feet, down as small as one inch in circumference. The barkers, principally women, are each provided with a smooth hard stone of about six or eio-ht pounds weight, beside which they sit down, and having collected a quantity of saplings, branches, or twigs, they hold it on the stone with one hand, and with the mallet in the other, they beat the piece till the bark be split from the wood, from the one end to the other, and taking it off all the length of the piece, if possible, then lay it regularly aside, till a bundle of considerable size is formed." 6950. Drying the bark. " The point most particularly to be observed in this art is,_putting the bark up to dry ; which is done by putting the bark upon what is called the lofts or ranges. These are erected by taking forked pieces of the loppings, called horses, the one three feet long, the other two feet six inches, and driving each about four inches into the ground, opposite one another, about two feet asunder in the breadth, and as much betwixt them, lengthways, as will admit long small pieces of wood to be put upon them, and as many of these must be put together as will hold the bark of every day's peeling. These ought to be erected in as dry and elevated a spot as can be found in the margin of the wood or better out- side of it. The bark being carried and laid on this loft, with the thick ends of it all laid to the high side of the range, and the small bark laid on to the thickness of about six inches ; and the bark taken off the largest of the wood laid regularly on the top, which serves for a covering, and the lofts or ranges having a declivity of about six inches, the rain will run off them readily, and if properly put up in this manner, they will keep put a great deal of rain. After it has lain in this state for three days, if the weather is good and dry, it ought to be all turned over, and the small bark spread out, so as not to allow it to sit to- gether, which, if much pressed, it is apt to do ; and if it does so with the natural sap in it, it has a chance of moulding, which is extremely hurtful to the bark, and both lessens it in weight and in value. After the bark has stood on the ranges about eight or ten days, if the weather be good, it may either be put into a house or a shed, or if intended to be put up into a stack, it may now be done." A stack of bark ought never to exceed eight feet in width, and twelve or fifteen feet in height, raised in the middle like a haystack. If it is to stand any length of time in the stack, it ought to be thatched, and in that state may remain all winter. The greatest care ought to be taken to preserve the color of the inner parts of the bark, because the color of it is generally looked to as a principal criterion of its value, and the mer- chant or tanner judges of its value chiefly by its color. Before being put into the stack, the natural sap ought to be dried out of it, in order to prevent its fermenting; because if a fermentation takes place in one part of the stack, it generally goes through and spoils the whole. The same mode of treatment will do for all kinds of bark as well as the oak ; but the birch has an outer or shredy skin upon it, that is of no use, and rejected by the tanner, and, as already observed, must be peeled off 6951. Chopping the bark. " When the bark is ready for the tanner, it has to undergo the work of chop- ping, which is done by driving in two or more stakes into the ground, with a fork on the upper end of each, leaving them about two feet six inches from the ground, and laying a long small piece of wood across between the two, where a number of people stand, and the bark is carried and laid down behind them, which they take up in their hands and lay on the cross tree, and then, with a sharp whittle or bill in the other hand, they cut it into small pieces, about three inches in length ; when this is done, it is trampled into bags, which hold about two hundred weight each, and in these bags it is weighed when sold by the ton, in tons, hundred weights, quarters, and pounds, and in the above manner delivered to the merchant or tanner." (Forester's Guide, 199.) 6952. Pollard-trees, which may be considered in most cases as injurious deformities, are lopped at stated periods like copse-woods, and the lop, whether to be barked or otherwise, is to be treated in all respects like that of copse. 6953. The period at which trees are felled, for the sake of their timber, is determined by various causes. By maturity of growth, or where the annual increase is so trifling as 970 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. to render their standing no longer worth while in point of profit : when wanted for pri- vate use or sale ; or when defects in the tree, or new arrangements, in its situation, point out the necessity of its removal. " A timbered estate," Marshall observes, " should frequently be gone over by some person of judgment; who, let the price and demand for timber be what they may, ought to mark every tree which wears the appearance of decay. If the demand be brisk and the price high, he ought to go two steps farther, and mark not only such as are full-grown, but such also as are near perfection." In trees, as in the human species, there are three stages, youth, manhood, and old age. In the period of youth, the growth is rapid ; in manhood, that growth is matured ; and in old age, it begins to decay. 6954. The most profitable season for felling timber is at what may thus be termed the beginning of man- hood. After that time, though the tree may appear sound and healthy, its annual increase is so little, that it would be more profitable to cut it down and replant. The number of years that a tree may stand, before it arrives at this period, must vary in different soils and situations ; but the period itself may easily be ascertained by the annual shoots the state of the bark and by taking the circumference of the tree at the same place for two or three successive seasons, and comparing the difference. In the view of pro- fiting from timber produce, it is of great consequence to cut down plantations at maturity. Many trees will stand half, others a whole century, after they are full-grown, appear quite healthy, and, at the same time, make little or no increase of timber. But there are particular cases, arising from the nature and state of the markets, where it may even be more profitable to cut timber before it is arrived at a full growth. (Treat, on Countr. Res. ii. 577.) 6955. Preparations for felling It has been strongly recommended to disbark trees a year or more be- fore they are taken down in consequence of the result of certain experiments commenced by Buffbn in 1737. In May of that year, he disbarked three oak-trees, forty feet in height, where they stood. In the course of three years they died, and, on cutting them down, the outer wood was found hard and dry, and the internal wood moist and softer. After trying its strength, &c. he concludes, that " timber which has been disbarked and dried while standing, will weigh heavier, and prove stronger than timber cut in its hark." Bosc, and other French authors, (in Cours Compl. cTAgr. &c. art. Aubier, Bois, Quercus, &c.) strongly recommend this practice, which is followed in some places on the continent, and in this coun- try with the oak and larch ; but not, as far as we have learned, with any other tree. Montcath finds it by far the most efficient way of seasoning larch-timber. He barked some trees in spring, and did not cut them down till autumn, and others stood in the peeled state for two years. After various and exten- sive trials, he is " decidedly of opinion, that the larch treated in this way at thirty years of age will be found equally durable with a tree cut down at the age of fifty years, and treated in the ordinary way." (Forester's Guide, 152.) 6956. As the dry rot (Merulius destruens, Sow.) is found to arise in a great measure from want of season- ing, or at least to proceed with the greatest rapidity in timber not well seasoned, this practice seems to deserve adoption in that point of view. (Encyc. Brit. Suppl. art. Dry Rot.} In some parts of the north of Europe, the trees are divested of their bark for one or two feet in height from the ground a year or more previous to that on which they are to be felled. We saw this done in Poland and Lithuania ; but though we made diligent enquiry in Sweden, we could not learn distinctly the extent to which it was practised in that country and Norway. It is occasionally practised in both for the ostensible purpose of hardening the soft wood : but also accompanied by a deep incision made for the purpose of extracting tar ; a .practice obviously injurious to the timber, and therefore generally in these countries kept out of view. When trees stand close together, a very obvious preparation to felling is lightening the tops of such branches as would do injury in falling to the trees that are to be left, or to other adjoining objects. 6957. The season of felling is commonly winter, for timber not to be disbarked; but some for the resinous tribe recommend summer as being the season in which it is generally felled in the north of Europe and in the Alps. But the summer season is there adopted from necessity, as in winter the woods are so filled up with snow that felling is hardly practicable. As the timber of these countries is generally squared for the market ; the soft wood is chiefly removed, so that the season of felling does not seem as to them to be of much consequence. Besides, the timber is never so full of sap in sum- mer as it is in spring and autumn, and therefore, next to mid-winter, midsummer may be the next best time for felling all kinds of timber-trees. Where the trees are disbarked at the base a year or more before felling, the soft wood will be partially hardened ; but this practice is by no means general in the north. 6958. Knowles, in a recent work on preserving the British navy, the dry rot, &c. after collecting the opinions of all the ancient and modern authors who have written on felling timber, concludes, that the common notion that trees felled in winter contain less of sap or of the vegetable juices than those cut down at any other season of the year, is not true ; and that the method of barking standing trees in spring, and not felling them till the succeeding winter, has not in any way realised the expectations formed of the plan. After describing all the different modes that have been adopted for seasoning timber, he concludes, that the best mode of seasoning is to " keep it in air, neither very dry nor very moist ; and to protect it from the sun and rain by a roof raised sufficiently high over it so as to prevent by this and other means, a rapid rush of air." (Inquiry into the Means of preserving the British Navy from Dry rot, $c. by Knowles, Sec. to the Com. of Surveyors, chap, iii.) 6959. The operation of felling is performed either by digging an excavation round the stem, and cutting the roots at two or three feet distant from it, or by cutting over the stem at the surface. By the former mode the root is obtained for use, and the ground more effectually cleared and prepared for the roots of other adjoining trees, or whatever crop is to follow. Where the tree is intended to stole, which can very seldom be advis- able in the case of cutting full-grown timber, or where there is some nicety in taking it down so as not to injure other trees or adjoining objects, it is cut or sawn over, and the root, if to be removed, dug out afterwards. " In cutting large trees, in order to make the tree fall the way required, enter the cross-cut saw on that side of the tree it is intended to fall, and cut it about a third part through ; then enter the saw at the other side, and when it is cut so far as to admit a wedge, place the wedge exactly opposite the way you BOOK III. PREPARING TREES FOR USE OR SALE. 971 want the tree to fall, and keep driving it slowly till the tree is nearly cut through." (Monteath. ) 6960. Disbranching. The tree being felled, is next divested of its branches, which are sorted into fence-wood, fuel, ton-wood, &c. according to the kind of tree ; and the trunk is generally preserved as entire as possible for the purchaser. Sometimes it is cut in two, and the root-cut, or but-end, being the most valuable, sold for one class of purposes at a higher price, and the top-cuts for others somewhat lower. Sometimes timber is purchased by private contract by the foot or load in a growing state, or after being cut down ; in other cases regular sales are made annually, and the produce exposed for sale by auction. It is measured by the cubic foot, fifty of which are a load ; and the calculated tables and Measurer's Guide generally resorted to, are those of Hoppus. 6961. The roots of trees are the last product we shall mention. These should, in almost every case, be effectually eradicated ; to aid in which, in the case of very large roots, splitting by wedges, refting by gunpowder (1941.), tearing up by the hydrostatic press (Jig. 211.), or by a common lever and triangle (Jig. 666.}, may be resorted to. Some compact ash or oak roots are occasion- ally in demand by smiths, leather- cutters, and others; but in general roots should be reduced to pieces not exceeding three feet long, and six inches in diameter, and put up in stacks not less than three feet every way, but commonly containing two cubic yards. These, when dry, are sold for fuel, or reduced to charcoal on the spot. In eradicating and stack- ing up coppice-woods, it is common to allow a certain sura per sack, something for every acre of ground cleared ; and if there are no trees to bark, the allowances are also made for the poles, faggots, &c. so that no part of the operation is performed by day- work. 6962. The usual method of charring wood is as follows : 6963. The wood being collected near the place intended for the operation, and cut into billets, generally about three feet in length, the pits or stacks are usually formed in this manner : A spot, adapted to the purpose, of from about fifteen or twenty feet in diameter, of a conical form, is selected, and after being properly levelled, a large billet of wood split across at one end, and pointed at the other, is fixed in the centre of the area, with its pointed extremity in the earth, and two pieces of wood, inserted through the clefts of the other end, forming four right angles; against these cross-pieces, four other billets of wood are placed, one end on the ground, and the other leaning against the angles. A number of large and straight billets are afterwards laid on the ground, to form a floor, each being, as it were, the radius of the circular area ; on this floor, a proper quantity of brush or small wood is strewed, to fill up the in- terstices, when the floor will be complete : and in order to keep the billets in the same position in which they were first arranged, pegs or stumps are driven into the ground, in the circumference of the circle, about a foot distant from one another ; upon this floor a stage is built, with billets set upon one end, somewhat inclining towards the central billet, and on the tops of these another floor is laid, in a horizontal direction, but of shorter billets, as the whole is intended, when finished, to form a cone. The whole is then coated over with turf, and the surface generally plastered with a mixture of earth and charcoal-dust. 6964. Previous to the operation of setting fire to the pile, the central billet in the upper stage is drawn out, and pieces of dry combustible wood substituted in its place, to which the fire is applied. Great atten- tion is necessary during the process, in the proper management of the fire, and in immediately covering up the apertures through which the flame obtrudes itself, until the operation be concluded, which is generally effected in the space of two or three days according to circumstances. When the charcoal is thought to be sufficiently burnt, which is easily known from the appearance of the smoke, and the flames no longer issuing with impetuosity through the vents ; all the apertures are to be closed up very carefully, with a mixture of earth and charcoal-dust, which, by excluding all access of the external air, prevents the coal from being any further consumed, and the fire goes out of itself. In this condition it is suffered to remain, till the whole is sufficiently cooled ; when the cover is removed, and the charcoal is taken away. If the whole process is skilfully managed, the coals will exactly retain the figure of the pieces of wood : some are said to have been so dexterous, as to char an arrow, without altering even the figure of the feather. (Encyc. Brit. vol. v. art. Charcoal.) 6965. The method of charring wood, for the making of gunpowder, according to an improved system, adopted not many years ago, is however a much more costly operation, though the expense attending it is amply compensated by the superior excellence of the article when manufactured. It is done in iron cylinders, and in so complete a manner, that every particle of the wood is charred. The oily or tarry matter is also preserved, and may, so far as the quantity goes, be made use of instead of foreign tar or pitch. This mode of charring wood for making gunpowder, is carried to the greatest perfection, near Petworth in Sussex, and there is a manufacture of a similar nature near Chester. (Gen. Rep. for Scotland, j-ol. ii. p. 332.) 6966. The valuation of trees forms a distinct profession, and can only be acquired after much experience ; like other valuations of property, it depends on a great variety of con- siderations, some of a general, but the greater part of a local nature. All we shall here attempt, is to give a few general ideas which may be of use to the private cultivator or forester. 6967. In valuing any plantation, the first thing is to know its contents in acres ; if this cannot be done, the number of plants must be counted. If a young plantation, the trees of which are unfit for present use as timber, is to be valued, then its value at any distant period, not exceeding twenty or twenty-five years, must be estimated ; and whatever sum that estimate amounts to, the present value of that sum will give an idea of the value of the plantation, allowing liberally for accidents to the trees and other unforeseen circum- stances. Thus, suppose a plantation of oaks, intended as copse, or actually established as 972 PRACTICE OF GARDENING PART III. such, to have grown four years, its present value would be next to nothing ; but if arrived at its twentieth year, it would fetch fifty pounds per acre. Then the question is, required the present value of fifty pounds, due sixteen years hence, the market price of money being five per cent. ? and this, according to any of the modern annuity tables (say Bailey's, 4to. 1808. tab. iv.) is 22/. 18s. This principle is applicable to all kinds of valuing by anticipation ; and there is no other mode of valuing applicable to young plantations. The benefits derived from the trees in the way of shelter and ornament, are to be estimated in valuing the territory, and are foreign to the present purpose, which has for its object tree- produce only. 6968. In valuing saleable trees of any kind, their number per acre, or their total number by enumeration being ascertained, and the kinds and sizes classed, then each class is to be estimated according to its worth as timber, fence-wood, fuel, bark, &c. " In a coppice-wood which cannot readily be measured, the readiest method of counting the stools is, to cause two men to take a line, say about a hundred feet long, or more, and passing the line round as many of the stools as it will enclose, the one man standing still while the other moves round a new number of stools, and count always the stools betwixt the two lines, causing the one man to move the one time with the line, whilst the other man stands still, and so on alter- nately. The valuator at the same time taking care to average every twenty stools as they go on, before losing sight of the counted stools. This way, too, is a very speedy and sure method of counting the num- ber of trees in any plantation. Or, the stools of a coppice-wood may be counted and averaged by two men going parallel to each other, and the person valuing going betwixt them ; the two men putting up marks with moss, or pieces of white paper, on a branch of the stools ; the one man going always back by the last laid marks, and the valuator always counting and averaging the stools betwixt the newly-laid and the late- laid marks; counting and averaging the stools always as the men go on, taking only twenty, or even ten stools at a time. To those who have been in the practice of doing this frequently, it will be found very easy, and will be done very speedily, and with a very considerable degree of accuracy. The proper method of learning to do this correctly is, when a person cuts an oak wood for the first time (or, even were the work repeated several times), he should then, in order to make himself perfectly acquainted with ascer- taining the average quantity of bark that a stool, or even a stem of a stool will produce, go before the peelers, and select a stool or stem : after having examined it narrowly, he supposes it to produce a certain quantity of bark, and marks this down in his memorandum-book. He then causes a person to peel it by itself, dry it, and carefully tie it up, and weigh it, and compare it with the weight he supposed it to pro- duce, and he will at once see how near his calculation comes to the truth. A stem of oak from a natural stool, suppose it to measure in girth two inches, by seven feet long, will contain two solid inches and one third of an inch, according to the measurement of Hoppus This stem or shoot will produce two pounds two ounces of bark. Again, a stem or shoot of natural oak, measuring four inches in girth, by nine feet in length, will be found to contain one solid foot of wood, and will produce thirteen pounds and a half of bark." (Forester's Guide, 170.) 6969. When growing trees are valued, an allowance is made from their cubic contents for the bark. The rule given by Monteath is, " when the girth or circumference is any thing from twelve inches up to twenty-four inches, then deduct two inches ; from twenty-four to thirty-six, three inches ; from thirty- six to forty-eight, four inches ; from forty-eight to seventy-two, five inches ; and above seventy-two, six inches." These deductions, he says, " will be found to answer in almost all trees ; unless in such as are very old, and have rough and corky barks or barks covered with moss, when an extra allowance is to be made," (Forester's Guide, 180.) " Many persons," the same author observes, " in valuing measurable oak-trees, proceed on the data that every cubic foot of timber will produce a stone (sixteen pounds) of bark. This," he says, " is not always correct ;" and he states the following facts from his own experience, with a view to assist beginners in ascertaining the quantity of bark from various trees. " An oak-tree, about forty years old, measured down to four inches and a half side of the square, and weighing only the bark peeled off the timber that is measured, without including any of the bark of the spray, &c. every foot oi measured timber will produce from nine to eleven pounds of bark. An oak-tree, of eighty years old, weighing only the bark peeled off the measurable timber, as above, every foot will produce from ten to thirteen pounds of bark. Every foot of large birch-timber, peeled as above, will produce fourteen pounds of bark. Every foot of mountain ash, as above, will produce eleven pounds and a half of bark. Every foot of the willow, unless a very old tree, will produce from nine to eleven pounds. Everj foot of larch fir, not exceeding thirty years old, will produce from seven to nine pounds of bark. The timber of trees, particu- larly the oak, is peeled out, every branch and shoot, down as small as an inch in circumference." (Forest- er's Guide, 189.) The price of timber, like that of every other article in general use, varies with the supply and demand ; and is easily ascertained from the timber-merchants at the different Sa-ports ; as is that of bark, charcoal, and fire- wood from the tanners and coal-merchants. 6970; To facilitate the measuring of standing timber, Monteath has invented a very in- genious machine. (Jig. 667.) It consists of a wheel, or perambulator, about eight inches in diameter, with a bell fa) on the end of ^ its axle ; at the end of every foot gone over by the serrated circumference of the perambulator, this bell is struck by means of a spring (6) ; the sound of this bell will be heard from the top of the highest tree. A forked handle (c) works on the top of ; the main axle on each side of the wheel ; one of a set of connecting rods (e, h) goes into it, and is fixed with a screw making a swivel joint, and by screwing the nut firm, the wheel can be set to any position, and it will work equally well any way. A small hand (d), in the circle of the triangular spring, points to the inches or quarters of an inch on the wheel, and tells what exceeds the inch after a lesser spring (ccies, Sept. Corylus avellana, October. 7005. Gathering and keeping. These being gathered, if circumstances permit, should be immediately sown ; but where this cannot be done, or where they are to be sent to a distance, they should be thinly spread in an airy loft till thoroughly dried, when they may be preserved till spring in bags or barrels, or sent off to any distance in these or other packages. When the seeds of the ash, sycamore, platanus, and hornbeam, are only to be kept for the purpose of spring sowing, the best plan is to take them to the rotting- ground (6979.), mix them with their bulk of dry sand or ashes, spread them in a stratum of ten inches in thickness, in the form of beds, cover with sand to the same thickness, and leave them in that state till wanted for spring sowing. 7006. Sowing. The bedding-in manner (2091.), or by drills, may be adopted for all the kinds. Acorns, horse and Spanish chestnuts, almonds, and hazel-nuts, should be sown in February, in strong loam, in good heart and well comminuted : the seeds should be placed half an inch apart, and covered two inches thick. Walnuts require a similar soil and covering, but should be placed two inches nut from nut. Ash-seeds will come up in soil of middling quality, but it should be well dug, and in an open situation, that the plants may not be drawn. Place the seeds half an inch apart, and cover one inch. Sycamore-plants when young being liable to be killed by the frost, the seeds should not be sown till the end of March or beginning of April ; they should be sown in exposed, dry, sandy soil, an inch apart, and covered one inch in thickness. On rich moist land they will rise so tall and soft, that the extremities of their shoots will not ripen in autumn, and the plants will in consequence be unfit for use. Beech-plants, when newly risen, are still more tender than those of the sycamore kind, and therefore should generally be sown in April, but not later than the middle of the month ; for if very dry weather set in, they will not rise till the following spring, and so have a great chance of them perish- ing by the frost. The soil should be tender and rich, previously under a culinary crop with dung ; and it should receive a small dressing of well rotted manure previously to digging for semination. The seeds should lie an inch apart, and be covered a full inch. The best time for sowing the hornbeam is in October; but it may also be sown in Fe- bruary : the soil should be light, but not very rich : the bed form answers best : the seeds should lie half an inch apart, and be covered half an inch in thickness. The plant is seldom raised from seeds ; but when this is done, a soft peat-earth soil is the best, and the covering should not be more than a quarter of an inch. The seeds of the bladder-nut, if sown as soon as gathered, will come up the following spring ; if not, a part will not rise till the second year : sow in light rich soil, and cover an inch and a half deep. 7007. Transplanting. The operation of loosening the plants, sorting them into sizes, and pruning their roots and tops, require to be first performed. As these plants have generally long and strong tap-roots, these require to be cut in the operation of loosening ; which, for this purpose, must be performed with a sharp spade, and care taken in thrusting it down, that the root is not cut too high ; care should also be taken to pre- serve uninjured all the lateral fibres. In sorting the plants into two or three sizes, the fractured tap-root of each must be cut smoothly off with a sharp knife, and any side shoots on the stem cut close off. If the plants cannot be immediately planted, they may be laid in by the heels, or shoughed ; that is, thickly bedded in the bedding-ground (6979.) till wanted. Here they may remain in layers not more than three or four inches thick, for a month or two in the winter season ; and for a week or two even in February and March. None of the kinds should remain in the seed-bed longer than two years ; but in drills they may remain three years ; and more especially if ths operation of tapping be performed ; that is, cutting through their tap-roots about eight inches below the surface. " This is most effectually and readily done by two men with 3 R 978 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. sharp spades ; rutting or cutting the ground obliquely with their spades, on each side the line at once, and exactly opposite to each other. After this operation has been performed, the plants should be made firm, by a person treading the rows with a foot on each side. These kinds, so tapped, will, in the course of the following season, in consequence of being thus root-pruned, push many more fibres on the upper part of their roots, than they otherwise would have done ; and thus will the plants be better fitted for being transplanted into shallow soils, or indeed into any soil, than they would have been by being allowed to remain in the ground untapped till the time of lifting." (Plant. Kal. 135.) 7008. Trench-planting is decidedly the best for all plants to be placed in lines ; but more especially for ligneous sorts. Dibbing in is an easier and more rapid mode ; but by trench -planting the fibres are spread out and regularly disposed on each side of the main root ; whereas, bv dibbing, as Sang observes, they are " huddled together into a hole probably not more than an inch and half in diameter." Dibbing, however, may be adopted in the case of such seedling trees as have been robbed of most of their fibrous roots, by being pulled out in thinning beds intended to stand for two years. 7009. The age at which most of these sorts should be transplanted is one year ; and the soil most desirable for removing them to, is the same as recommended for the seed-bed. The distances between the lines and the plants in the line depend partly on their kinds, but principally on the length of time they are to stand before retransplanting or final removal. The larger-growing broad-leaved sorts, as the chestnuts and walnuts, to stand only one year, should not be nearer than eighteen inches by six inches ; and the oak, ash, beech, &c. not nearer than fourteen inches by three inches ; if to stand for three years, the in- terspaces may be two or three inches more : something depends on the openness of the situation, and a good deal on the soil. The judicious nursery-gardener will consider all the circumstances, and adopt such variations of the ordinary distances as shall produce plants with well ripened shoots, and numerous fibrous roots. 7010. Pruning, culture, and taking up for final planting. When the plants are to remain two or more years in the nursery lines without removal, dig the ground between the rows in winter. At midsummer cut close off the lower side shoots ; some defer this work till winter ; but, besides the loss of sap avoided by midsummer pruning, the wounds heal the same season. In taking up for final planting, such plants as have been trench-planted must be loosened on the side which was solid at planting ; if they have been in training for several years they should be lifted by throwing out a trench on one side, fully to the depth of the roots, and then putting in the spade on the opposite side, so as to get below all the roots. SECT. III. Trees and Shrubs with berried Stones, their Solving and Rearing. 7011. The principal hardy trees with berried stones are the following : Sorbus aucuparia, August domestica, November Ilex aquifolium, November Pyrus torminalis, November _ aria, September Taxus baccata, November Prunus cerasus, J domestica , U October. Rhamnus frangula, September communis, November Laurus nobilis, November Rosa, various species, October Prunus padus, August lusitanica, September virginiana, August spinosa, October Hedera helix, April Daphne laureola, June mezereon, June Viburnum tinus, June Phillyrea angustifolia, February Mespilus oxyacantha, October azarolus, October pyracantha, November Shrubt. canadensis, August amelanchier, November Rhamnus alaternus, October laurocerasus, September | Juniperus communis, October. 7012. Rotting. The whole of these when gathered, require to be taken to the rotting- ground ; mixed with their bulk of dry sand or ashes, laid in beds of ten inches in thick- ness, and then covered with ten inches of sand, light sandy earth, or ashes. Here some sorts, as the holly, will require to remain two years ; the haw, mountain ash, and yew, one year ; and the other sorts, one winter, or till the following February. During this time the beds of each kind should be uncovered, carefully turned over, and the covering replaced. The advantage of rotting off their exterior covering in heaps rather than in the soil, where they are to germinate, is the saving of ground ; for though some of the holly and haw, for example, will come up the* next or the second season after sowing, yet, by keeping them one or two years in the rot-heap, we are sure all the seeds will ger- minate the same spring in which they are committed to the soil. To the above general remarks, the gean forms an exception ; for if sown immediately after being gathered in July, it will come up the following spring ; but it will keep in the rot-heap a year. When any of these seeds are to be sent to a distance, instead of being carried to the rot-heap, they are spread thin in lofts, dried and packed in barrels; great care must be taken that they are sufficiently dried, otherwise putrescent fermentation will commence, and the ve- getative principle will be destroyed by the heat evolved. 7013. Sowing. The season is generally February, and the manner by bedding in, as before. The haw, the most important of this class, should be sown in the lightest rich- est land in the nursery ; and if not very rich, some dung may be added. Sow in beds three feet four, or three feet six inches apart ; the seeds should lie within a fourth of an inch of each other, and be rolled with a roller of fifty or sixty pounds' weight, and exactly the breadth of the bed, previously to covering, which should be one inch deep. If the seeds are too moist to admit of drawing a roller over them, beat in the seeds with the back of the spade. This operation of rolling in seeds not only fixes them in their places, so as to admit of applying the covering with greater freedom, but by consolidation is cal- culated to retain moisture, exclude too much air, and thereby promote germination. Holly and yew seeds should be sovrn on rich friable soil, shaded by a wall or by wattled BOOK III. CULTURE OF A TREE-NURSERY. 979 hurdles, or other means, from the mid-day sun. The distance is the same as for haws ; they should be rolled, or beat in, and covered not more than half an inch. If previously rotted for two years, they will all come up the following May ; but if only one year in the rotting-bed, a part will not come up till the second year : in this case they should be sown thin, as the growing plants will impede the others in breaking through the soil. Mountain ash seeds require a fine and rather rich soil ; the seeds should not lie nearer than an inch, and the covering should be only a quarter of an inch. The gean should be sown, as soon as gathered, in deep sandy loam, the pulp being previously bruised ; it need not be very rich, but must be dug deep before sowing : place the seeds an inch apart, and cover three quarters of an inch thick. Gean-stones, which have been preserved in the rotting-ground for spring sowing, will not come up regularly the summer follow- ing, but a part will lie till the second spring. The advantage of sowing as soon as ga- thered, is therefore obvious. Great care should be taken not to sow the cherry for the gean, as the former is not nearly so well calculated for a timber-tree. The seeds of the common and Portugal laurel, laurel-bay, mezereon, spurge-laurel, phillyrea, and the like, should be sown as soon as gathered, in rich soft soil, on a dry bottom : the seeds should be an inch apart, and be covered an inch. During the severest weather of win- ter, it will be advisable to protect them by hoops and mats. The seeds of the service, buckthorn, bird-cherry, and other species of prunus, rhamnus, and mespilus, may be treated like those of the laurel, but will not at all require so deep a covering, nor will any of them require protection in winter. 7014. Transplanting. What has been advanced on transplanting plants from nuts, keys, &c. will apply here. Most of these species being smaller, will not require so great distances between the rows and plants. All the deciduous sorts may be transplanted in February or early in March ; and all the evergreen species from the middle of April to the middle of May, and during the month of August. The greatest care will be requi- site in lifting evergreens from the seed-bed, where they have been already once moved, so as not to injure their fibres ; and on no account should more be taken up at a time than what can be planted the same day. Select for them the soils most suitable to their natures (6974.), as far as the limits of the nursery will permit; and in general, rather prefer a shady situation, especially for the holly, yew, and all the laurels. Hollies hav- ing few fibrous roots should be frequently transplanted ; but this is not necessary with the yew, which has fibres in greater quantity. In transplanting the deciduous sorts, prefer narrow spaces between the lines, and wider intervals in the rows, to wide rows, and plants crowded in the row. One year's seedling thorns, for instance, to be nursed one year, may stand nine or ten inches by two inches ; if for two years, twelve or fourteen inches by three or three and a half inches. 7015. For pruning, culture, and lifting for final planting, see nut-bearing trees, &c. (7004.) SECT. IV. Trees and Shrubs bearing Berries and Capsules with small Seeds. 7016. The principal hardy berry and capside bearing trees are the following : Tilia europsea, November Pyrus communis, October malus, October. Shrubs. Berberis vulgaris, September Buxus sempervirens, September Cornus mascula, October virginiana, October Sambucus nigra, September racemosa, September canadensis, September Lonicera, various species, August Jasminum fruticans, October Ligustrum vulgare, October Euonymus latifolius, November europseus, November Viburnum lantana, September opulus, October Ribes fprossularioides, September. 7017. Gathering and keeping. As this class of seeds are only wanted in small quan- tities, the most convenient way of preserving them is in the seed-loft or root-cellar in dry sand. They should be frequently turned over to separate the seeds from the pulp and husks, and cleaned by sifting and fanning early in February. For sending to a distance, they are to be treated like berried stones ; or they may be separated and cleaned previ- ously to deportation. 7018. Sowing. All of them require a soft and rather moist soil, with the exception of the box, which should have a soil rather sandy and dry. They may be sown in Febru- ary, in beds, and covered not more than a quarter of an inch ; and when the seeds first begin to vegetate, it will be an advantage to shade them from the sun, by wattled hur- dles ; place them across beds which lie north and south, and along those lying in a di- rection east and west. 7019. Their transplanting and future culture are the same as for the foreign division. SECT. V. Trees and Shrubs bearing leguminous Seeds, their Solving and Rearing. 7020. The principal hardy leguminous trees are as follow : Cytisus alpinus, October Robinia pseud-acacia, November. Shrubs. Robinia caragana. November Colutea arborescens, October cruenta, October pocockii, November _ media, October Coronilla emerus, October Cytisus nip-jeans, September sessilifolius, October austriacus, September toinentosus laburnum, ,, September October. 7021. Gathering and keeping. These being collected are to be dried thoroughly in an 3 R 2 980 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. airy loft, and the pods being afterwards threshed or opened, the seeds may be preserved in bags or boxes till spring, or sent to any distance. 7022. Sowing. The season for sowing all of them is February ; the soil should be light, deep, and sandy, and the seeds placed an inch apart, and covered three quarters of an inch thick. This should be particularly attended to in the case of the laburnum, the seeds of which, being generally sure growers, if they rise thick, they lose their leaves about midsummer, become mildewed, and die. Attention should be paid not to inter- mix the tree-laburnum (C. alpinus, W. en.) with the shrubby sort. SECT. VI. Trees and Shrubs bearing small soft Seeds, their Sowing and Rearing. 7023. The principal hardy trees with small seeds are as under : Cistus. various species, September Philadelphia coronarius, October Salix pentandra, August babylonica, June Rhus cotihus, and other species, July. Ainu* glutinosa, November Betulus alba, October Ulinus campestris, June glabra, June Fopulus nigra, M tremula. "May Populus alba, May tacamahaca, May Salix alba, June. Shnibt. Syrlnga vulgaris, October 7024. Gathering and keeping. All these require to be gathered as soon as ripe, other- wise some are apt to drop out of their capsules, as the alder, birch, and lilac ; and others to be blown away and lost, as the elm, poplar, willow, and sumach. They should be gathered perfectly dry, and spread thin in a airy loft, till fit to put up in bags or boxes, for keeping or deportation. 7025. Sowing. Most of the sorts may be sown immediately after being gathered, in which case they will be more certain of germinating ; and a number of elms, poplars, and willows, will come up the same autumn. But as protection during winter will, in that case, become requisite, the better way, in general, is to defer sowing till March or April, when all the sorts may be sown in light rich earth, rather moist, and covered not more than half an inch. The principal tree of this class is the broad-leaved elm, which, where intended for two-year seedlings, which, in most cases, is the preferable age for trans- planting, should be sown to rise at least two inches apart, as the plants grow with great vigor even the first year. 7026. Their transplanting and future culture are the same as directed for berried stones, keys, &c. SECT. VII. Culture common to all the Classes of Tree-seeds. 7027. Insects and vermin. New-sown seeds of most kinds are greedily devoured by various descriptions of vermin. Mice attack " acorns, sweet chestnuts, hazel-nuts, wal- nuts, and holly-seeds. They not only eat them on the spot, but they carry to their re- treats great numbers of the seeds of which they are most fond. The cheapest, and per- haps the most effectual trap for their destruction, is the well known but neglected fourth figure trap. (Jig. 668.) The new-sown haws and mountain ash berries are a prey to the chaffinches, green linnets, and other birds. If the quantity sown be not great, the beds may be hooped over and co- vered with small-meshed nets. But if a great breadth of ground be sown, it must be constantly watched after sowing. If the watching be vigilantly attended to, for a few days immediately after sowing, the seed will not need much more attention till they begin to break the ground ; at which period the watching should be closely and regularly continued. As they are always the strongest and best-ripened seeds which rise first; it is therefore of much importance to prevent these from being picked up." (Plant. Kalend. 250.) 7028. Weeds. Before the tree-seeds come up a crop of weeds will probably have made their appearance ; these are to be removed when young, otherwise drawing out their roots will materially disturb the vegetating seeds. " It not unfrequently happens, that the land in which fir and larch seeds have been sown, becomes battered by heavy rains. This will certainly happen if rain fall immediately after sowing before the surface become dry ; but if it once be fully dried after sowing, and before the rain fall, it will seldom or never batter. Suppose, however, the seed-beds are battered, so that the tender seeds cannot rise with freedom, the best way to relieve them is to draw over them a wooden roller, stuck over with lath-nails at half an inch distance, and driven in so as to remain half an inch beyond the wood of the roller. The roller should not be more than thirty inches long and not more than thirty pounds weight. By drawing this roller along the one side of the battered bed, while walking in the alley, and returning with it over the other, an ordinary-sized bed will be completely relieved. Some people rake their battered beds, in order to enable the seeds to rise. This is a most dangerous and destructive method of relieving vegetating plants. From their tender state, the smallest twist breaks them over, and consequently destroys them. We have experienced much advantage from using BOOK III. CULTURE OF A TREE-NURSERY. 981 the light armed roller, here recommended. It is, however, much better when no such are required. The surest way to guard against the need of such means, is to work the land when it is in a proper condition, and to sow the seeds in such weather as that the surface after sowing will be fully dry before rain come on. There is no dispensing with this precaution, when it is wished to secure an equal and good crop of seedlings." (Plant. Kal. 367.) 7029. Birds. In May the pines and firs will begin to pierce the ground with the husks of the seeds still on their tops, and then watching the birds becomes of the utmost importance ; not one ought to be allowed to light on the beds ; to prevent which will require unremitting attention from break of day till sunset, for five or six weeks, till the plants are all up, and have thrown off their husks. After the nuts, mast, and haws have come up, they are no longer in danger from mice, but they may be attacked by snails, and grubs of beetles and cockchaffers at their roots. These are to be hand-picked. 7030. Watering and shading. In June severe droughts very often set in, and these are very prejudical to small seeds, especially those of the resinous tribe, when rising through the soil. At this time watering and shading may be applied with great advantage, pro- vided the former is accompanied by the latter, and daily attended to from the time it is commenced till rain falls. The best mode of shading is by the wattled hurdle. By the end of July the seedling plants of most sorts will be out of danger, and excepting a few of the tender sorts specified as requiring protection in winter, or by a hand-glass or cold- frame, will require no other care but weeding till fit to be transplanted. SECT. VIII. Of propagating Trees by Layers, Cuttings, Suckers, Grafting, fyc. 7031. Layering is next to rearing from seeds the most general mode of propagating hardy trees and shrubs. The more common species of forest trees to which this mode is applicable, are the Acer Platanoides, pseudo-platanus, tartaricum, dasycarpum, opalus, negundo, and other species ; Betula lenta, populifolia, and rubra ; Fagus fer- ruginea ; Platanus occidentalis and orientalis ; Populus grseca, monolifera, and cane- scens ; Tilia alba, americana, europsea, and pubescens ; and Ulmus campestris, ne- moralis, and suberosa. Some of these, as the poplars and planes, are also propagated by cuttings ; but layers make the strongest plants. Whenever seeds can be procured, how- ever, it is best to propagate in that way, as likely to produce the largest trees. The other trees propagated by layers, will be found in our Encyclopaedia of Plants, and in the agricultural catalogue ; and also all the shrubs so propagated. The situations and dis- tances for planting stools in the nursery have been already mentioned (6981.) ; and, as there is nothing peculiar in the operation of layering timber-trees or shrubs, we have merely to refer to the general directions as to layers and stools. (1993.) The young or preceding year's shoots of all the sorts above enumerated, if layered in autumn or winter, will be fit for being detached and planted in nursery lines by that time twelve months. They should be transplanted into well comminuted soil, as far as practicable, suitable to the nature of each ; the distances should be regulated by the size of the layers and the time they are to be nursed. For ordinary purposes layers need not be nursed more than two years ; but for single trees and ornamental plantations, they should be several times removed, and close pruned, till they have attained six or eight feet in height Evergreen trees and shrubs, as being more tender than the others, should be layered in March and April, and from August to October. Some sorts root most freely when the wood is in a succulent state ; and of such the current year's shoots are laid about midsummer. This is practised with Stuartia, Arbutus, Andromeda, Kalmia, Azalea, Magnolia, Alaternus, Phillyrea, Laurus nobilis and sassafras, Zanthoxylum, Pyrus japonica, &c. The same practice is adopted with other free-growing sorts that it is wished to multiply as rapidly as possible; as the Rosa (6546.), Hibiscus, Lonicera, Aristotelia, Mespilus, &c. Layers of the last sorts made during summer from the same year's shoots, will be fit to detach by the winter or the following spring ; of the other sorts seldom sooner than the second August or autumn ; but even then a season is gained, as the layers of those plants made in autumn, generally require to remain two years before they have made suf- ficient roots. The layers of all evergreens should be removed at the proper seasons for pruning, laying, or transplanting that tribe ; that is, in April and May, and in August and September. 7032. By cutting is the next most general mode of propagating trees and shrubs, and the common forest trees generally so multiplied are as follow : Platanus occidentalis and orientalis ; Populus angulata, balsamifera, dilatata, graeca, monolifera, nigra, pendula, and trepida ; Salix all the tree species ; and Sambucus nigra. These are also propagated by layers, and a few of them by seeds ; which last, it should never be forgotten, is by far the best mode where timber-trees is the object. The numerous tribe of shrubs propagated by cuttings, will be found in the Encyclopedia of Plants already referred to. 7033. The manner of forming and planting cuttings has been already described. (2063.) The season for deciduous and evergreen woody plants are the same as for layering ; and as in the latter mode of 3 R 3 98 H PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. propagation, so in multiplying by cuttings, some sorts succeed best when the current year's wood is taken at midsummer ; as for example, Laurus sestivalis, benzoin, and sassafras, Bignonia, Euphorbia, Phlomis, Rosa, Santolina, &c. Cuttings of some of these sorts, made of year-old wood in spring or autumn, re- quire* to stand two seasons before they have made sufficient roots to admit of their removal ; by midsum- mer cuttings one year is gained. The same practice may be applied to deciduous sorts ; but the plants produced are not so strong as by cuttings of ripened wood. All cuttings require to be planted in a shady situation, and sandy soil, dry at bottom ; but kept somewhat moist by occasional watering in dry weather; their lengths are generally made in proportion to the length of the year-old wood, but seldom exceed- ing six or eight inches. The shoots of some sorts, as poplar, willow, "honeysuckle, &c., are divided into several cuttings of this length. An inch of the former year's wood is often preserved in autumn-made cuttings ; but this is not essential ; as more important points are, making a smooth horizontal section at a bud, and in planting, pressing the earth very firmly to the lower extremity of the cutting. Midsum- mer cuttings should in almost all cases be covered with hand or bell glasses. The alder, most willows, the Lombardy, and some other poplars, will grow from cuttings or truncheons of several feet long, and of several inches in diameter. " This method is occasionally adopted, when it is requisite to fortn expe- ditiously some rough plantation, to serve as a hedge or screen along an outward boundary. Cuttings for this purpose may consist of long slender rods of one or two years' growth, or as well of large trun- cheons or stakes from three to six feet in length. Further, the willow, in particular, will increase from large pole-cuttings of from six to ten feet, planted out at once to form either pollard-stems, or be trained into full standards." (Abercrombie.) 7034. The season for transplanting struck cuttings into nursery lines, are those already mentioned as the most fit for moving deciduous and evergreen trees, originated by other modes. (6983. to 7023.) 7035. By wickers. A few common trees, and a number of shrubs are propagated by suckers. The timber-trees are the Ailanthus gidndulosa, Robinia pseud-acacia, Populus canescens, alba, and tremula, and Ulmus campestris. Of hedge plants, the common sloe and other wild plums, crabs, and pears, are, or may be so propagated. Various shrubs are propagated by suckers. Suckers make better trees than plants raised from cuttings, and also very good hedge plants. To induce a tree to send up suckers, the horizontal roots may be laid bare, notched in different places, and the earth mixed with sand and replaced ; a powerful co-operative would be to cut the tree over by the surface, by which means all the sap would be employed in root-shoots. At the end of one, but sometimes not till the end of the second season, the suckers will be fit to slip off, or to separate by the knife with a part of the parent root attached ; they may then be pruned as required, and planted in nursery lines. 7036. Grafting, budding, and inarching, are modes applicable to a few hardy trees and shrubs. The common forest trees are the Fraxinus americana, Populus candicans, heterophylla, and laevigata, Pyrus Aria, Quercus exoniensis, and Ulmus campestris and suberosa. These, and the ornamental trees and shrubs so propagated, are worked on stocks of the more hardy species of the same or of the next allied genus ; and, probably, make as durable plants for timber-trees as layers ; by which mode the above enumerated sorts are also propagated. The stocks should be at least one year established, previously either to grafting or inarching : the operation for deciduous sorts is performed in spring at the rise of the sap. (2010.) Evergreens are almost always inarched either in April, or May, or August. Budding is performed in June and July, and is chiefly used in pro- pagating the rose. (6553.) Some inarched sorts require two seasons before the scion can be detached from the parent plant. 7037. General culture and management of a private nursery. There is nothing ma- terial to be advanced on this head, but what has been already recurred to in this chapter, or in treating of the general management of the kitchen-garden. The first grand point is so to arrange the rotation of crops, that a crop of culinary vegetables shall intervene between every crop of trees, where that crop remains on the same soil two or more years ; and between every two or three crops, where the crop of trees is lifted annually or the second year. The next thing is changing the surface of the soil, as in horticulture (2557.), weeding, stirring the surface, watering, shading, pruning, training, staking, and protecting. The important points of management are to procure the proper quanti- ties of seeds or stools requisite to produce the quantity of trees to be annually furnished ; to proportion the number of plants taken up daily to the number replanted in the nur- sery or forest the same day, and to attend to general order and neatness. CHAP. IX. Arboricultural Catalogue. 7038. In our arboricuUural catalogue we mean to enumerate, and shortly describe, the principal timber-trees which may be cultivated with advantage as such, in the climate of Britain, and also the most useful plants for hedges. We shall arrange the whole as resinous, hard-wooded, and soft-wooded trees ; including in each section the hedge plants belonging to it, and in the last, the willows proper for osier-plantations ; the general culture of the trees contained in each of these sections, has been given in chapters III. IV. VII. and VIII. BOOK III. RESINOUS OR CONIFEROUS TREES. 980 SECT. I. Resinous or Coniferous Trees. 7039. The resinous forest trees are comprised in three genera belonging to- the natural order of Coniferea:, J ; viz. Pinus and Cnpressus, Moncec. Monad. L., and Juniperus, Diccc. Monad. L. The trees which are valuable as timber are comprehended under the genus Pinus, which comprises the three subdivisions of pines, larches, and firs. The first is distinguished by fasciculated leaves in different sheaths, but proceeding from the same sheathing base ; the second by fasciculated leaves from solitary sheaths ; and the third by solitary leaves. The branches of the whole genus are frondose or spreading, and caducous : those of the pine tribe spread the least ; those of the larch tribe rather droop ; and those of the firs are thin and much spread, and are peculiarly frondlike. 7040. The wild or Scotch pine, erroneously de- nominated Scots fir, is the Pinus sylvestris, L. (Lam. pin. 1. t. 1 .) Pin, Fr. ; Keifer or Fohre, Ger. ; and Pino, Ital. (Jig. 669. a) It is an evergreen sub-conical tree ; the foliage inclining , to dark-blue or grey ; shorter and broader than those of the stone pine (6) ; it is common in most parts of Europe, particularly the northern coun- tries, and is the only species of the genus indigenous c to Britain, being a native of Scotland, and natu- ralised in England and Wales. Under favorable circumstances it attains the height of seventy or eighty feet : it flowers in May, and the cones are fit to gather in December. The finest pine-woods in Britain are at Inver- cauld, in Invernesshire, and Gordon Castle, in Aberdeenshire. 7041. Use. The timber of this tree is the red or yellow deal of the north of Europe, and is the most durable and valuable of any of the genus, unless we except .the common larch. The universality of its application is known to every one. The Highland pine, Sang states to be not inferior to any imported, either in cleanness or durability, when it has been grown on a proper soil, and to a sufficient age. " But the planted Lowland pine," he adds, " is seldom applied to offices higher than that of roofing sheds or huts, lining of carts, lathing, or making of packing-boxes ; while the natural or self-sown is fit for the finest purposes." Pontey considers the English-grown wild pine, if properly pruned and grown to a sufficient age, as likely to equal that of foreign growth. The tree is of great value as a nurse-plant; being next to the common birch and bastard mountain ash, or mountain sorb (Pyrus hybrida], the most hardy timber-tree. Among its minor uses we shall only mention the production of tar by incision. 7042. Varieties. Of these, several have been noticed by botanists, and some consider the P. maritima (sp. WUld.} as nothing more. According to Sang, the variety commonly cultivated is least worth the trouble. " The P. sylvestris, var. montana," he says, " is the variety which yields the red wood : even young trees of this sort are said to become red in their wood, and full of resin very soon. The late dis- tinguished Don, of Forfar, exhibited specimens of cones of each variety to the Highland Society of Scotland, and likewise to the Caledonian Horticultural Society. The variety preferred by Don, is distinguished by the disposition of its branches, which are remarkable for their horizontal direction, and for a tendency to bend downwards close to the trunk. The leaves are broader and shorter than in the common kind, and are distinguishable at a distance by their much lighter and beautiful glaucous appearance. The bark of the trunk is smoother than in the common kind. The cones are thicker, and not so much pointed. The plant is more hardy than the common sort, grows freely in almost any soil or situation, and quickly arrives at a considerable size." Sang says, he has seen trees of this variety at Caristoun and Brechin Castle : and it is much to be wished that he or some other competent nurseryman, in that quarter, would collect the seeds, and propagate it extensively. Thouin (Notes sur la Culture de Pins, 8vo. 1819,) mentions a variety, which he calls P. syl. var. pin de riga, as affording the best timber. Whether the pine which forms the extensive plantations along the sea-coast at Bourdeaux, and is called by foreign authors, Pinus maritima, be a variety of P. sylvestris or a distinct species, does not appear to be ascertained. The plant is tender, and easily killed by frost when young ; but its timber is said to be of excellent quality. (RadcliSTs Flanders, 250.) 7043. Soil and native site. " This tree is naturally the inhabitant of mountainous districts, and of rocky, gravelly, or poor sandy soils, where its timber becomes most valuable and durable. On the sides of moun- tains, in dells and hollows, among stones and rocks, beside rapid rivulets or mountain torrents, it is found in high perfection ; and if it stand single, it is of great beauty. In many parts of the Scots Highlands, where the soils are extremely various, and much mixed, the Scots pine has arrived at a good size, and often attained remarkable dimensions. In any kind of soil from a sandy to a clay, provided the substra- tum be rubble or rock, it will grow and flourish ; but in wet tilly soils, it ought never to be planted ; because whenever the roots have exhausted the turf or upper soil, and begin to perforate the sub-soil, the tree languishes and dies." (Plant. Kal. 65.) 7044. Insects. The larva of Noctua Pinastri, L. (Xylena, Hub.) are deposited in the leading buds, and often perforate the young shoots, and leave the tree without a leader. The aphis pint infests the tender shoots ; and various dermestidtB live in the bark, and perforate the soft wood. 7045. The Corsicanpine (P. laricio, P. S.) is a native of the mountains of Corsica and is nearly allied to the Scotch pine. There is a specimen in the Paris gardens, planted in 1784 and 56 feet high in 1821, thus described by David Don. "P. laricio is a much handsome and finer tree than P. sylvestris with which however it in some respects agrees. It is of a more pyramidal habit, and its branches are shorter and more regularly verticillated. Its leaves are a third longer, and of a lively green, with their sheaths nearly entire.'* Its cones are shorter, ovate and quite straight, with depressed scales : and its bark is finer and much more entire. The enlightened Professor of Agriculture informed us, that it is equally hardy with P. sylvestris, and that its wood is much more weighty and resinous, and consequently more compact, stronger, and more flexible. It grows wild on the summits of the highest mountains in Corsica. It seems to bear cones very freely, which ripen nearly about the same time as those of P. sylvestris. 7046. The pitch or red Canadian pine (P. resinosa) (Lam. pin. 20. t. 4.) is an Ameri- 3 R 4 9S4 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. can tree, introduced in 1 756, not unlike the Scotch pine, and " receives its name from the color of the bark. From the high geographical range of this pine, it is well adapted to associate with the P. sylvestris. It has been imported in the form of masts into this country. Like the P. sylvestris, it affords an inferior timber on a damp and unsuitable soil." (Caled. Hort. Mem. v. 367.) 7047. The pinaster or duster-pine (P. pinaster, L.) (Lam. pin. 9. t. 5.) (Jig. 669. b) grows to the height of fifty or sixty feet, with broader, thicker, and longer leaves than the common pine (a) : the branches are also farther apart, and grow more horizontal than in that tree. As the tree advances in age it becomes naked and unsightly below ; but the top grows highly picturesque, and may readily be distinguished in the landscapes of the Roman and Florentine painters. It grows naturally on the mountains of Italy and the south of France ; in Switzerland it is cut into shingles for covering their houses, and also for making pitch. It flowers in April and May, and the cones are fit to be gathered in December. It was introduced in 1596, but never much cultivated, being less hardy and much less valuable as a timber-tree than the common pine. It is very picturesque, and well merits culture in that point of view. There are some large speci- mens at Culzean Castle, on the sea-coast of Ayrshire. 7048. The stone pine (P. pinea) (Lam. pin. 11. t. 6, 7, 8.) (Jig. 669. c) grows to a considerable height, with a straight stem and rough bark. The leaves are not quite so long as those of the pinaster, and are of a greyish or sea-green color. The cones are five inches in length, round, thick, and obtuse ; the kernels are large, and frequently served up in desserts during the winter season in Italy and the south of France, and they are also much relished by the Chinese, for the same purpose. It is a native of the south of Europe ; very common about Ravenna, and forming a distinguishing ornament of the villas of Rome and Florence. It was introduced here in 1570 ; but as the wood is not so resinous as most of the other sorts, it has been only cultivated for ornament. 7049. The swamp, Georgia, pitch, or long-leaved pine (P. palustris'} (Lam. pin. 27. t. 20.) (fig. 669, d) is a valuable and a lofty tree in America, affording planks, which, imported in this country, are valued 20 per cent, higher than any other American tim- ber excepting the black larch. The leaves are a foot or more in length, produced in tufts at the ends of the branches, and having a singular appearance. It grows in a warmer climate than most other pines ; and if it were found to produce equally valuable timber in the low warm situations of England, which it does in America, it would be a most valuable tree. It was introduced in 1730, but has been very little cultivated. 7050. The Weymouth or New England larch, commonly called Weymouth pine, (P. Strobui) (Lam. pin. 31. t. 22.) (Jig. 670.) forms the con- necting link between the pine and larch tribe. It is one of the tallest of the genus, attaining in America the height of 100 feet and upwards. The bark is smooth and delicate, and the leaves soft and of a bluish green. Vast quantities of the timber, under the name of the white pine, are imported from America ; but the tree seems to be of so delicate a habit, as to prevent our expecting it ever to become a large or valuable tree with us, especially in exposed situations. It was introduced in 1705, and has been a good deal cultivated, having formerly been supposed the most valuable tree of the genus, next to the common pine. The largest specimens are at Mersham-hatch, Sir E. Knatchbull's seat in Kent, and at Whitton Park in Middlesex. 7051. The cedar-larch, or cedar of Lebanon, is the P. cedrus, L. (Lam. pin. 59. t. 37.) Cedre, Fr. ; Cederbaum, Ger. ; and Cedro, Ital. It is distinguished from all other trees of the genus by its strong ramose branches, which, in some cases, deviate from tl>e common character, and become irregular in shape, and permanent in duration. The general character of the shoot, even when the tree is young, is singularly bold and pic- turesque, and quite peculiar to the species. The tree is a native of the coldest part of the mountains of Libanus, Amanus and Taurus ; but it is not now to be found in those places in great numbers. Maundrell, in his journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem in 1696, could reckon only sixteen large trees, though many small ones: one of the largest was twelve yards six inches in girth, and yet sound ; and thirty seven yards in the spread of its boughs. The forest of Libanus never seems to have recovered the havoc made by Solomon's forty score thousand hewers : so that we have now, as Pro- fessor Martyn observes, probably more cedars in England than there are in Palestine. Th tree is supposed to have been introduced here in 1683. The oldest specimens are Boox III. RESINOUS OR CONIFEROUS TREES. 985 two in Chelsea-garden ; but there are more magnificent ones at Whitton Park, Zion House, Pains-hill, Warwick Castle, and other places. 7052. Use. The tree has been very generally planted for ornament, and from its branchy head, and its aversion to pruning, it is not likely ever to become a valuable timber-tree in this country. When planted for that purpose, it should, as Sang recommends, be sown in groves, and thus by proximity drawn up with few branches. Much has been said of the timber which borders on the miraculous ; as far as experience has gone, itis greatly inferior to that of the common larch, or the wild pine. Its great use is as a single tree in lawns, where it combines beauty and singularity in a degree not to be found in any other tree. It has also an excellent effect in the margin of plantations, and one or two plants will give force and character to the dullest front of round-headed trees, and effect a great deal even in the fronts and sky outlines of plantations with spiry tops. (fig. 560.) 7053. The common larch is the P. larix, L. (Lam. pin. 53. 35.) Lariv or Meleze, Fr. ; Lerchenbaum, Ger. ; and Laricio, Ital. It is the only species of the genus, the leaves of which are deciduous ; it rises to eighty or a hundred feet high, forming a nar- row cone of small white-barked caducous, pendulous branches, with delicate drooping spray. It is a native of the Alpine mountains, on the north sides of which, in hollows and chasms, it attains to its greatest height and thickness, and most durable timber. In returning from Italy, by the Simplon, the silver fir will be found in great perfection in the hollows on the south side, the common Scotch pine on the summit, and the larch in descending to the Vallais. It appears to have been cultivated by Parkihson in 1629; and Evelyn, in 1664, speaks of a tree of good stature, " not long since to be seen at Chelmsford, in Essex, (also mentioned by Harte,) which sufficiently reproaches our not cultivating so useful a material for many purposes." Harte, in his excellent essays, published in 1715, gives a figure of the larch, and strongly recommends its culture. It was first introduced into Scotland by Lord Kames in 1734 (Lam. pin. t. 35.), and afterwards in 1741, planted by the Duke of Athol at Dunkeld, and these last trees have prospered so astonishingly, and the timber produced from such as have been cut down, has so fully answered all the eulogiums that have been bestowed on it, that the larch is now considered on the whole, as decidedly the most valuable timber-tree, not even ex- cepting the oak. Some of the first-planted larches in the low grounds, near Dunkeld, have grown to the height of one hundred and twenty feet in fifty years, which gives an average of two feet four and a quarter inches a-year. It is stated by the Duke of Athol, in a communication to the Horticultural Society, made in June, 1820, that on moun- tainous tracts, at an elevation of fifteen or sixteen hundred feet, the larch, at eighty years of age, has arrived at a size to produce six loads (300 cubic feet) of timber, ap- pearing in durability and every other quality, to be likely to answer every purpose, both by sea and land. (Hort. Trans, iv. 416.) Professor Martyn (Miller s Diet, in loco) has brought together a mass of valuable information respecting the history of the larch in this country, and its uses in others. That singularly accomplished agricultural writer, Dr. Anderson, did much to promote its increase by his essays and other works from 1750 to 1790; and subsequently the Bishop of Llandalf, Marshall, Nicol, Pontey, and Sang, have each, in practice, and by their popular publications, contributed to spread the tree ; and now several millions are annually planted in the mountainous dis- tricts of the empire. The larch, Sang observes, passes all other timber-trees, for the first ten or twenty years after planting, and will arrive at a timber size in almost any situation or soil. It bears, he says, " the ascendency over the Scots pine in the follow- ing important circumstances : that it brings double the price, at least, per measurable foot ; that it will arrive at a useful timber size in one half or a third part of the time, in general, which the fir requires ; and, above all, that the timber of the larch, at thirty or forty years old, when placed in soil and climate adapted to the production of perfect timber, is in every respect superior in quality to that of the fir at a hundred years old. In short, it is probable that the larch will supersede the Scots pine in most situations in this island, at no very distant period." The finest specimens of this tree are at Dun- keld, Blair, and Monzie, in Perthshire. 7054. Use. Much has been said of the durability of larch-timber in Italy : its resistance to fire, accord- ing to some (Matthiolus), and its great combustibility, according to others (Du Hamel) ; its durability under water (at Venice), and its not being liable to warp (Harte). We shall confine ourselves to its uses as experimentally proved in Britain ; and perhaps we shall do this with most effect by stating that it may be used for all the purposes for which the best foreign deal is applied ; for many of those of the oak ; and that it is more durable than any other timber when placed in a situation between wet and dry, especially if the bark be not removed, it being still more incorruptible than the wood. The bark is also of consider- able value in tanning ; a circumstance of great importance, since it is found that disbarking a year or more previously to felling is the best mode of seasoning the timber (6955.), and preventing it from warping, or being attacked by the dry or wet rot (5927. and 6926.) One property almost peculiar to the larch j^s, that the timber is exceedingly valuable at every period of its growth ; so that a dead hedge of larch.feotighs, or a hurdle wattled with larch-spray, will last longer than dead hedges or wattled hurdles of any other species of tree. Planted in rows in exposed gardens it forms a useful hedge plant in point of shelter ; but in this respect is deficient as a fence, and gets soon naked below. Rods, stakes, pales, rails, posts, and especially gate-posts, of this tree, are therefore more valuable than of any other ; the spruce fir approaching the nearest to it in these respects. Turpentine is extracted from it in the Tyrol ; but that being always injurious to the timber, can never be recommended for adoption in this country: it is also peculiarly valuable as a nursing-tree. 7055. Varieties or species. Of the P. larix, there is a variety with red and another with white flowers, one with cinereous bark, called the Russian larch, and one with pendulous branches. There are also the 986 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART 111. black larch (P. pciulula) and red larch (P. microcarpa), natives of America, by some considered distinct species; the timber of both of which is said to be harder than that of the common white larch. As these trees are only to be met with in the nurseries, originated by layers, they cannot be recommended to be planted as timber-trees. There are, however, -a few large specimens at Uunkeld and other places ; and from these the trees will probably soon be propagated by seed, and a practical estimate be formed of their merits. There are some trees of the red larch on the Athol estates, but they do not contain one third as many cubic feet of timber as the white larch at the same age. The wood is so ponderous that it will scarcely swim on water. (Hart. Trans, iv. 416.) . 7056. Soil and site. The larch will grow and attain a large size in every soil and situation, excepting in standing water ; but a certain elevation of surface, or coldness of climate and inferiority of soil, is abso- lutely necessary to produce the timber in perfection. The quality of the timber of all trees is more or less affected by climate and soil ; but that of the resinous tribe particularly so. We pointed out several instances in 1806. (Treatise on Country Residences, ii.) Sang mentions a number as having occurred since 1812 (Plant. Kal. 59.), and observes generally that he has " known it in many places make the most rapid progress for 30 or 35 years, and though there was no external signs of disorder, yet, when it was felled, the wood had begun to rot in the hearts of the trees ; so that there was scarcely a sound tree over a large extent of ground ; yet here, the oak, the chestnut, the elm, and the ash, amongst which the larch had been used as a nurse, are not only in the utmost vigor, but their wood is perfectly sound. Some larches in a similar soil and situation had attained seven feet each, and were quite hollow a good way upwards." 7057. Insects. The Coccus laricea, and the others mentioned as inhabiting the common pine. 7058. The Norway fir, or common spruce fir, (P. Abies, L. (Lam. pin. 73. t. 25.) Sapin, Fr. ; Fichte, or Tanne, Ger. ; Abiete, Ital.) is the first species of that section of pinns in which the leaves are solitary. It is one of the tallest of European trees, attains from 100 to 150 feet in height, with a very straight but not thick trunk, and throwing out its spreading frond-like branches so as to form an elegant narrow cone of vivid green. It is a native of the north of Europe, and particularly abundant, as the name imports, in Norway : its timber being the white deal received from that country and the Baltic. It is supposed to have been introduced about 1548, and has been, and still is, more cultivated than any species of the genus, excepting the common pine and the larch. Some of the finest specimens are in Harefield Park, at Blenheim, and at Temple Newsham. 7059. Use. The timber is inferior to that of the common pine in durability and bulk ; and being often knotty, is not proportionally strong for horizontal bearings with that timber. White Norway deal, how- ever, is used for a great variety of purposes in building ; and the entire trees are more prized than any other for masts for small crafts, for spars both for marine purposes and on land. What constitutes the value of this fir is, that its timber is equally durable at any age, like that of the larch ; and what renders it peculiarly adapted for masts, spars, scaffolding, poles, &c. is its habit of almost in every case, whether standing single or detached, growing perfectly erect and straight. The tree may be cut for rods, stakes, and scythe or other implement handles, when the trunk at the base is not more than two inches in dia- meter, and the bark being kept on it, it will prove almost as durable as the larch. Pontey says, that poles of spruce are so far inferior to those of the larch, that they are more apt to crack when exposed whole to the influence of the sun and air; but in all other respects it is nearly equal to it, and in straightness sur- passes it. The tree is peculiarly valuable as a nurse, from being evergreen, and closely covered with branches, by which radiating heat is retained ; from its conical shape and rigid stem, by which it does not suffocate or whip the adjoining trees ; from its being valuable at whatever age it is thinned out ; and from its being an excellent shelter for the most valuable game. It will not, however, grow in situations where the common pine and larch will flourish. It is also an excellent hedge plant for shelter, but is deficient in point of defence and durability. By incision, it yields a resin, from which, by various pre- parations, turpentine and Burgundy pitch are formed. The tops or sprouts (spniytsen, Ger.) give the flavor to what is called spruce-beer. 7060. Varieties and species. Linnams has five varieties of P. abies ; but the principal are, the white (P. alba} (Lam. pin. 39. t 26.), the red (P. rubra) (Lam. pin. 43. t. 28.), and the black (P. nigra). (Lam. pin. 41. t. 27.) These are all natives of N. America, and their timber, which is white, possesses nearly the same properties as that of the European species. The white spruce rises only to 40 or 45 feet, with pale bluish-green leaves. The black spruce is reckoned the most durable of the tribe. " In America, the black spruce is used for knees in ship-building, where neither oak nor black larch can be easily obtained : these knees are not prepared from two diverging branches, as in the oak ; but from a portion of the base of the trunk connected with one of the largest diverging roots. The timber of the red is universally pre- ferred throughout the United States for sail-yards, and indeed imported for this purpose into Liverpool from Nova Scotia, where it is also used for constructing casks for salted fish. It is chiefly from the decoc- tion in water of young shoots of the black, and not exclusively from those of the white spruce, as sup- posed by Lambert, that the celebrated beer is prepared by fermentation, with a due proportion of sugar or molasses. The essence of spruce of the dealers is prepared by evaporating this decoction to the con- sistence of honey." 7061. Soil and site. Pontey says it grows rapidly on every description of soil, from a very stiff loam, and such as possess a very considerable degree of humidity, to a very dry sand, provided the situation be not very much exposed. Sang says it luxuriates much in deep low situations : in shallow soils and ex- posed places it never succeeds. It " should never be planted for the sake of its wood, excepting in masses or groves by itself ; otherwise its timber is so coarse and knotty, that it is hardly worth working : but in the mass way, if planted thick, and properly pruned and thinned afterwards, it may be trained to tall clean timber." 7062. Insects. TJie Coccus abtetcs, and occasionally the others which infest the common pine. 7063. Tlie silver fir (P. Pkea) (Lam. pin. 46. t. 30.) (Jig. 671. a) is a lofty ever- green tree, forming a cone broader at the base, in proportion to its height, than the spruce, and displaying a more stable and majestic figure than any of the other firs. It is more thinly covered with frond-like branches than the spruce, and differs from it also in regard to the frondlets, which, when they grow old, and begin to decay, do not droop down as in that tree, but remain rigid till the last. The upper surface of the leaves is of a fine vivid green, and their under surface has two white lines running length- wise on each side of the midrib, giving the leaves that silvery look, whence has arisen the name. It flowers in May, and the cones are ripe in December. It is a native of the Alps and Germany, was known here in 1603, and has btcn a good deal planted BOOK III. HARD-WOODED NON-RESINOUS TREES. 671 as an ornamental tree. It grows faster for the first twenty or thirty years of its growth than any other tree of the genus, excepting the larch. Some of the finest specimens in England are at Woburn, in the evergreen-drive, planted by Miller. The tree called the grand silver fir there, measured, in 1810, nine feet ten inches in diameter, at four feet from the ground ; it has a clean-pruned stem of seventy- five feet, and the estimated height is upwards of. 110 feet. 7064. Use. The timber is reckoned inferior to that of the common pine, and is not of much value till of forty or fifty years' growth. According to Sang, though till of late years planted only as an ornamental tree, " yet there is, perhaps, none of the genus more worthy of cultivation for the sake of its timber." It is more prolific in resinous matter than any of the fir kind. 7065. Its soil and site are nearly similar to those most desirable for the common spruce ; but it requires a climate rather milder, and a more loamy earth. On poor sands, where the common pine and larch will thrive, it dies off in a year or two after planting. None of the genus are more majestic on a lawn j but its characteristic or natural situation, is in dells, and on the sides of sheltered rocky steeps- 7066. The balm of Gilead fir (P. Balsamea) (Lam. pin. 48. t. 31.) (fig. 671. 6) is an American tree of much smaller stature, and more delicate habits than the silver fir. Its timber is of little value ; nor can the tree be reckoned very ornamental, though fre- quently planted for the sake of variety. The balm or resin procured from it possesses no medical properties superior to those of common turpentine ; but the tree during sum- mer sends out a pleasing terebinthinate odor. 7067. The hemlock-spruce, or hemlock-fir, (P. Canadensis) (Lam. pin. 50. t. 32.) ( fig. 671. c) is a drooping, low, evergreen tree, which may be considered as entirely ornamental. SECT. II. Hard-wooded non-resinous Trees. 7068. Of hard-wooded trees we shall give a few descriptive traits of the principal species ; the most important of which are the oak, ash, elm, chestnut, and beech. 7069. The oak is the Quercus, L. Moncec. Polyan. L. and Amentaceee, J. Chene, Fr.; Eich, Ger.; and Quercia, Ital. The following species and varieties are planted for their timber. 7070. The common oak (Q. robur) (Eng. Bot. 1845.) is a native of Britain. It grows to the height of fifty or sixty feet when in a heavy loam ; flowers in- April, and ripens its acorns in October and November. The most valuable variety of the common oak is said (Caled. Hart. Mem. iii. 376.) to be the pedunculata (Eng. Bot. 1342.), or the stalk-fruited ; by some considered a distinct species. It is distinguished from Q. robur by the marked circumstance of the acorns being placed on long fruit-stalks, whilst those of the robur are nearly sessile. Besides, the superior utility and hardiness of the timber, the pedunculated oak is, in fact, the more magnificent of the two British sorts. Miller says, this variety of the Q. robur (and which he calls the fcemina,) is more rare than the sessile-fruited ; but Professor Martyn says, this is not the case, and that the pedunculated is equally general as the other. It is observed by Du Hamel, that oaks in forests being propagated from the acorn, there are so many varieties that it is difficult to find two resembling each other in every respect. Professor Martyn observes, that the figures in ancient authors have the fruit uniformly on foot-stalks, which shows that that variety had been most common : and Ray considers it as the common oak of England. Du Roi affirms, that the timber of the sessile-fruited is red- dish, and brittle, whilst that of the stalk-fruited is whitish and hard. From these and various accounts, as well as our own observation, we consider ourselves justified in recommending to nurserymen and others, who gather acorns for seeds, to take effectual precautions that only the stalked sort be gathered. 7071. The Turkey oak (Q. cerris) (Du Roi, 2. t. 5. f. 1.), a native of the south of Europe, introduced in 1735. This species is distinguished by oblong, pointed, and frequently lyrate leaves, jagged, and a little hoary on the under side. The acorns are small, and have rough prickly cups. The tree grows from forty to sixty feet high. There are several varieties, but the best is that called the Devonshire or Luccombe, from the name of the person who raised it from seeds, saved from a tree of the Turkey oak grown in Devonshire. 7072. Other oaks. There are about forty species of exotic oaks introduced in this country, which may be considered as timber-trees, and are such in effect, in their native countries. Of these the greater part are natives of America ; and it has been recommended (Caled. Mem. iii. 378.) to cultivate the Q. tinctoria or Quercitron on account of its bark, which affords a valuable yellow dye ; all these species, however, arc either too tender, or too scarce, or too dwarfish, and slow-growing, to warrant us in considering any other than the common and Luccombe oaks, as fit for the purposes of profitable planting, 7073. Use. The oak cannot be considered so valuable a tree for general purposes as the common pine and larch; but its great strength and durability will probably maintain its superiority in Europe, and thef^s?^ ' -**~<*z^frlM>j l 'MZZ~^'ty~ "3 ~~J?^'J other temperate regions of the globe, as^=%^\s- ^ -^ ^m ',, ., y/pp v / *=C*\/ a material for naval architecture. Thel&'C,^ *&..' JlEUAJi^ VA V JT*J?VX timber is useful at every age, and more dur- able when of small diameter than that of any other of the hard woods ; the value of the bark of young trees is greater than that of such as are old" 7074. Soil and site. It grows best in a deep clayey loam, not beyond a moderate elev- ation above the sea ; but it will grow in any soil not marshy, not attaining, however, a large size in poor sands or at a considerable elevation. 672 988 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 7075. Insects. The eggcr moth (Phaltena Qucrcus, L. ; Lasiocampa, Leach) (fig. 672.) inhabits all the species, and its larva? sometimes denude entire branches. The small gnat ( Cynips Quercus folii, L. Diplalepis, Leach) (Jig. 673.) pierces the leaves with its sting, and deposits its eggs in the wound; the extravasated juices rise round it, and form a gall, which be- comes hard, and in this the larva lives and feeds, and changes to a pupa. The oak- galls of commerce are so formed : the best are imported from Turkey and Greece. 7076. The ash is the Fraxinus, L. Polygam. Dicec. L. and Oleints, B. P. Frcne, Fr. ; Asche, Ger. ; and Frassino, Ital. There are two species which may be considered as forest trees. 7077. The cowman ash (F. excelsior, L.) (Ens. Bot. 1692.) is a native of Britain, and grows from sixty to eighty feet in height, with a straight stem. It nas pinnate leaves, which come out late in spring, generally from April 22d to May the 15th, and fall early in autumn ; it flowers in April and May, and the female and hermaphrodite plants ripen their seeds or keys in November. Of this there is a variety, the simple-leaved (simplicifolia), possessing no advantages as a timber-tree, and rather to be avoided by the profitable planter, as generally propagated in the nurseries by layers. Raised from seeds it produces pinnate leaves. 7078. The white or American ash, F. Americana, W. (Mich. Arb.) This is a lofty tree like the other, distinguished by the whiteness of its bark, narrow leaves, and smaller seeds. It is found in Jersey and Pennsylvania, where it attains the height of eighty feet, with about three feet in diameter at the base. It is patient of cold, thrives in deep fresh soil, by the banks of rivers, and unites all the good properties of the common ash. There are two varieties, the red and blue : by some accounted distinct species. They are smaller trees, and present no advantages to the profitable planter over the two species mentioned. 7079. Use. The ash is unquestionably the most valuable indigenous timber next to the oak ; anil in some places, as copse, is more valuable than that tree. It is more especially used by the coachmaker and agricultural carpenter. The wood is useful when the stem is only three inches in diameter. Toughness and elasticity seems to be its characteristics, and for this purpose, the faster the tree grows the better. Timber from a tree of slow growth, and considerable age, is uniformly found to be more or less brittle, and therefore more or less unfitted for the purposes to which this tree is applied, especially shafts or poles of carriages. As underwood, it is fit to cut every seven years for crate-ware for the potteries, hoops, and hop- poles, requiring for those products little or no thinning or culture, but merely periodical cutting. It forms excellent fuel, burning when green or new better than any other tree. " A" few ash-pollards," Professor Martyn observes, " will produce many loads of lop, which makes the sweetest of all fires." The ashes af- ford more potash than those of most trees ; and the bark is used occasionally for tanning, and will dye yellow. 7080. Soil and site. It will not thrive on thin soils, where the bottom is wet, nor in mossy earth or gravel ; but in most others it will do well : and above all, in a hollow, where a friable loam has accumu- lated from the debris of surrounding rocky heights, and is drained by a rivulet Such rocky dells and dingles abound in Perthshire and Fifeshire, and in them the ash is to be found in great perfection. It will not thrive at a great height above the sea, nor in bleak situations anywhere. 7081. The elm is the Ulmus, L. Pentand. Dig. L. and Amentacea;, J. Orme, Fr. ; Ulmebaum, Ger. ; and Olmo, Ital. There are two species which may be regarded as tim- ber-trees. 674 7082. The English or narrow leaved elm, U. Campestris. (Eng. Bot. 1886.) (fig. 674. a) It is considered a native, or naturalised in England, by Sir J. E. Smith and others ; but Dr. Walker considers it as brought originally from the Holy Land. It would be difficult to pointoutany situation whereithas the appearance of having sprung up from seeds ; though it is said to be common in the woods of the north-west of England. It is certainly the loftiest of the deciduous trees of this country, be- ing often found upwards of eighty feet high It flowers in April and May, and ripens its seed in a fortnight or three weeks after the decay of the flower. This species requires a dry soil, rather good than indifferent, and also a good cli- mate. It does not thrive in the north of England or in Scot- land, unless in good soils and moderately sheltered places. Professor Martyn says, it is not found north of Newark on Trent. It grows to a great size in a short time. Evelyn says, in little more than forty years it will arrive to a load of timber. Marshall says, the largest narrow-leaved elms he has seen, are in the Vale of Gloucester, and of these, the best is Piffe's elm, near the Baddington oak. At five feet high it girts sixteen feet ; at ten feet it throws out large arms, which rise seventy or eighty feet Some of the elms in the mall of St. James's Park are upwards of 200 years old. Boutcher says, that he sold a line of English elms, above sixty in number, which at twenty-four year's growth were about eighteen inches in diameter, a foot above ground, and forty feet high. 7083. The Dutch elm (introduced with King William), U. major (E. B. 2161.), U. suberosa, W. It is chiefly remarkable for its fungous rough bark, large rugose leaves, and rapid growth. The timber is of little use. 7084. The Scotch or smooth-barked elm (U. glabrd) (E. B. 2248) (fig. 674. A) is readily distinguished by its smooth dark lead-colored bark, and by its leaves, which are nearly smooth on the upper surface. It is the most useful timber-tree of the genus, and is almost the only tree of the elm kind planted in Scotland, where it also forms stocks for grafting the Dutch and English elm. A new variety of this species has at- tracted notice at Downton, which Sabine (Hort. Trans, vi. 146.) proposes calling the Downton elm. A x very rapid-growing variety, called the Scampston elm, is in vogue in Durham and Northumberland. (Agr. Surv. of Durham, ch. x.) 7085. Other species. The genus ulmus, like salix, is one of those whose species are so nearly related as to be often confounded. Linnaeus considered all the European elms as forming only one species. At present botanists make five British species, besides an equal number from America. The U. campestris and glabra, however, are the only sorts worth cultivating for their timber. (Don, in Hort. Tour, 539.) 7086. Use. Elm-timber is used in all works where it may be continually dry or wet ; as, for water-pipes, pumps, water-wheels, &c. It is also very generally used for weather-boarding, and for common cabinet- work. The knotty parts like those of the ash, are used for naves and hubs. The lop and top make good fuel and charcoal. 7087. Soil and site. The narrow-leaved elm requires a light dry soil and warm situation, and will do little good in sand or gravel, in exposed places ; but the smooth-barked sort is a very hardy tree, and will grow in thin clayey soil on retentive substrata better than most others. It will also thrive in situations elevated and exposed on all sides. BOOK III. HARD-WOODED NON-RESINOUS TREES. 989 7088. The. beech is the Fagus sylvatica, L. (Eng. JBot. 1846.) Moncec. Poll/an. L. and Amentacece, J. Hetre, Fr. ; Biiche, Ger ; and Faggio, Ital. It is a native of Eng- land, and grows in its natural soil and situation to sixty or eighty feet high. It is found congregated in forests, in chalky flinty soils, thrives well in sheltered bottoms : but not where it is exposed to the west. There are fine specimens of this tree at Castle Howard, Woburn, Newbottle, and Dalkeith Park. It is not so long-lived as the elm, nor will it grow in situations so much elevated as will the Scotch elms. 7089. Use. The timber is brittle, and decays soon in the air ; but under water it is more durable. It is used by the millwright, turner, carver, last and wheel maker, chair and cabinet maker, and more or less in other branches. It is much used by bakers and in glass-houses as billet-wood ; and the stack -wood forms an excellent charcoal. 7090. Soil and site. Dryness and some degree of calcareous matter are the characteristics of the soil in which the beech delights ; and the declivities of hills facing the east or south are its favorite situations. 7091. The common hornbeam is the Carplnus Setulus, L. (Eng. Sot. 2032.) Moncec. Polyan. L. and Amentacete, J. It is a native tree, nearly allied in habits and ap- pearance to the beech, but is less lofty, and thrives in colder stiffer soils, and in rather more elevated situations. It flowers in April, and ripens its seeds in November. " Although Evelyn is perhaps too partial to the hornbeam, yet, raised from seed, it forms a tree of the first rate, equalling the common beech in magnificence ; but unfortunately the hornbeam, like several of our best forest trees, may with ease, almost at any period of the year, be propagated from layers, and the usual consequences of this practice, fol- low, a stinted, bushy, dwarf-like progeny. This tree, however, retaining its decayed, shrivelled, pate-russet leaves during winter, like the common beech, forms most valua- ble shelter planted in hedges." (Cal. Mem. ii. 397.) 7092. Use. Chiefly in turnery, being white and tough as tne name imports. It is frequently nsed as a substitute for the beech. 7093. Soil and situation. A dry soil is essential, whether cold or chalky. It is a social tree, and found in natural copse-woods, as in Hertfordshire j but never at any great height above the level of the sea. 7094. The Spanish chestnut is the Castanea vesca, W. ; Fagus Castanea, L. (Eng. Sot. 886.) Moncec. Polyan. L. and Amentacece, J. It is the Chataignier of the French; Castanienbaum of the Germans ; and Castagno of the Italians. It is one of the most magnificent of European trees, exceeding the oak in height, and equalling it in bulk and extent. It is doubtful whether it be a native of Britain, though it ripens its fruit in sheltered valleys even in Scotland. It seems a very long-lived tree, of which the best proof is the specimen on Mount Etna, two hundred and four feet in circumference. Boutcher says, the shade of the chestnut, like that of the ash, is injurious to other plants. The leaves which continue late in autumn are not liable to be eaten by insects like those of the oak. The Spanish chestnut has been already described as a fruit tree. (4745.) As a timber-tree it is used for the same purposes as the oak ; though by some con- sidered as more brittle when old. The roof of Westminster Abbey, and that of the Parliament House in Edinburgh, with many other antient works, are said to be con- structed of it ; but considering that it is not a native tree, this is extremely improbable ; and it is much more rational to suppose, with Professor Martyn and Daines Barrington, that what is by many taken for chestnut, is only oak of a different grain. It is used by the cabinet-maker and cooper ; makes an excellent coppice-tree for poles and hoops ; the bark is equal in astringency to that of the larch and mountain-ash for tanning ; and the leaves and nuts afford food both for men and deer. 7095. Soil and situation. The soil in which it thrives best is a deep sandy loam, and the situation one somewhat sheltered. In Calabria, and on the Apennines between Florence and Bologna, where we have seen it in abundance, it does not attain a great size on the higher and more exposed parts of those moun- tains, but is, as Sang observes, a surprisingly magnificent tree in the hollows. Pontey says, " on sandy soils, where the oak would make but slow progress, I have seen the chestnut grow extremely quick, and therefore, in such cases, the latter should be used instead of the former." 7096. The walnut (Juglans regia) has been already treated of as a fruit-tree. (473.) Its timber, when of mature age, is valuable as a cabinet wood, and for gun-stocks, being light, hard, and durable. 7097. The common sycamore is the Acer Pseudo-platanus, L. (Eng. Sot. 303.) Polyg. Moncec. L. and Acerea, J. It is one of our hardiest native trees, and equal in mag- nitude with, though more tame in its outline and form than, the oak. It flowers in April and May, and ripens its keys or seeds in November. Its foliation is earlier than that of most trees, and its decadence is next to that of the ash. It is a quick grower, will endure the sea-breeze better than most trees, and is not liable to grow to one side when exposed to winds that blow chiefly in one direction. 7098. Use. The timber is chiefly used by the turner and millwright, and formerly, when earthenware was less common, it was in great request for trenchers and other table and household utensils. It affords a saccharine juice, like the sugar and other American maples, from which a wine may be made. 7099. The Norway maple (A. platanoides) is a tree common in the native woods of Li- thuania ; and in Norway it clothes the hills from the sea-shore to their summits. It grows to a large size, and its leaves die to a golden color. Its timber does not differ ma- terially from that of the sycamore. 990 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 7100. Soil and situation. Both thrive best in a soil similar to that preferred by the ash, but will grow in all inferior soils, and exposed to the sea-breeze as well as at a great height above the level of the sea. 7101. The mountain ask is the Pyrus aueuparia, E. B. (Eng. JBot. 337.) /cos. Di- Pentag. L. and Rosaces, J. It is a low and very hardy native tree, attaining the height of twenty or thirty feet, with a straight, clean, erect stem, and globular compact head. It flowers abundantly in April and May, and ripens its berries in August or October, according to the situation. 7102. Use. In profitable planting it is chiefly valuable as a nurse-tree, growing very fast when young, and enduring the most severe exposures. The timber is used by wheelwrights, and for other common country purposes : the bark is used by tanners ; and the berries afford a dye. As an undergrowth itafibrds tolerable poles and hoops. 7103. Soil and site. It will grow in any soil, dry or wet ; and as to situation, it is found on the sea- shore, and near the tops of the highest mountains. It seems to thrive best on the sides of most rocky dells and dingles. 7104. The whitebeam-tree (Pyrus aria) (Eng. Sot. 1858.) is a very hardy native tree, growing to the height of thirty or forty feet, with an erect stem. Its uses and culture are the same as those of the mountain-ash. Its white leaves, and coral berries mealy to the taste like those of Pyrus torminalis (4768.), have a fine effect in autumn. 7105 The acacia, or locust-tree. Robinia pseud-acacia, L. (Schmidt, arb. 1. t. 32.) Diadelph. Decan. L. , and Leguminostz, J. This is a thorny fast-growing tree, of mid- dling stature, a native of America, of no great beauty as a tree, but ornamental when young, and very well adapted for copse-wood and rough timber. It flowers in June and July, and ripens its seeds in September. The leaves come out late in spring, and fall off early in autumn like those of the ash. 7106. Use. The timber is much valued in North America, and said to be superior to that of the labur- num ; " being close-grained, hard, and finely veined ; and in America more valued by the cabinet- maker than any other native timber whatever. Pursh, in his late valuable Flora, asserts, that being nearly incorruptible, it is equally useful for posts and gates. We are informed by a friend, that gate-posts of this timber, on a property near Baltimore, have remained fresh for nearly a century. The finely pin- nated leaves, and pendulous white odorous flowers, add greatly to its beauty. Its value is scarcely known in this country." (Gated. Mem. ii. 414.) 7107. Soil and site. It prefers a deep sandy soil, and rather sheltered situation; being very apt to throw up suckers from the running roots, and as it stoles freely, it seems peculiarly calculated for cop- pice-woods. Beatson (Com. to Board of Agr.) has cultivated it in this way to great advantage. 7108. The birch is the Betula, L. Moncec. Poly. L. and Amentacea, J. Bouleau, Fr. ; Birchenbaum, Ger. ; and Betulla, Ital. There are two species which may be con- sidered valuable as timber-trees. The common birch (B. alba, var. pendula) (Eng. Bot. 2198.) is a middle-sized native-forest tree, distinguished by its white bark, fragrant leaves, and graceful pensile form. It grows in the coldest regions of the north, and farther up the sides of the British mountains than any other timber-tree. In the swampy grounds of Sweden and Russia it grows to a much greater size than in the more temper- ate climate of this country. It is of importance to cultivate the pendulous variety as a taller and more rapid-growing tree independently of its variety. 7109. The American birch, mahogany-birch, mountain ma- hogany, or cherry-birch of Canada, is the B. lenta. (Mich, arb. 2. p. 145. t. 4.) (fig. 675.) This is a more lofty tree than the common birch, with a brown-colored bark spotted with white. "It abounds most in the middle states of Pennayl-* vania, New York, and the Jerseys, where it attains a height of seventy feet ; but disappears altogether in the higher lati- tudes of the northern states, and is scarcely to be found in Nova Scotia. It is therefore likely to succeed with us in the moist and deeper soils of our Highland valleys, especially when closely associated with other trees. The probability of this is heightened by various facts already ascertained. The value of the timber, is well known to our cabinet-makers ; and we have seen tables, bed-posts, and other articles of fur- niture made of it, equalling in beauty those of mahogany, which it resembles, when some time exposed to the light, the newly wrought boards being of a rose-color. Although of an exceeding quick growth, the grain ,being naturally close, it takes a fine polish in cabinet-work. We add to this, that the leaves, which appear early in spring, are said to possess a peculiar fragrance, which they retain when dried by means of a stove, affording, on infusion of boiling water, an agree- able diluent, superior to some of the common teas of com. merce." (Caled. Mem. ii. 380.) 7110. The poplar-leaved birch (B. popultfolia} (fig. 676. a) and Hudson's birch (P. HudsonU] (fig. 676. b) are elegant rapid-growing trees, and when once they are so common as to be propagated from seed, will deserve culture as timber-trees. 7111. Use. The timber of the common birch in England is chiefly used as fence-wood, fuel, and occa- sionally for harrows, &c. and other agricultural implements, the tree being most frequently planted as a nurse to others for coppice or variety. This tree, like the mountain ash, will grow in almost every kind of soil and situation. 7112. The wild cherry is the Prunus avium, L. (Blachv. t. 425.) /cos. Di^Pentag. L. and Rosaceee, J. Guigne, Fr. ; Wild Kirsclien, Ger. ; and Ciriegio Sttvatico, Ital. It is a native tree above the middle size, the timber of which is of considerable value. It thrives best in dry sandy loams ; and in such situations, Sang observes, its timber becomes of most value. It is of peculiar beauty in spring when in flower, in August BOOK III. HARD-WOODED NON-RESINOUS TREES. 991 when in fruit, and in autumn when its leaves change to a beautiful red and yellow. Its timber is chiefly used by the cabinet-maker and chair- maker. 7113. The tree-laburnum. Cytisus alpinus, W. en. (Sot. Mag. 176.) Dindelph. Decan, L. and Leguminous, J. It is a low tree, a native of Switzerland, cultivated chiefly for ornament, but affording also a valuable timber. For this pur- pose the variety or species (C. alpinus), with broad leaves and long racemes, is decidedly to be pre- ferred, as being much more of a tree than the other. Sang says, it has a full claim to the cha- racters of useful and ornamental ; is beautiful when in flower, and may, in a grove, be trained to a fine stem of very considerable size. 7114. Use. The 'timber (the false ebony of the French) is much prized by cabinet-makers and turners, for its hardness, beauty of grain, and durability. The tree is frequently sown in plantations infested with hares and rabbits, who will touch no other tree as long as a twig of laburnum remains. " Though eaten to the ground in winter," as Boutcher observes, " it will spring again next season, and thus afford' a con- stant supply for these animals, so as to save the other trees till of a size to resist their attacks. The timber has been sold for upwards of half a sovereign per foot." It becomes most valuable in light loams and sandy soils. 7115. The holly is the Ilex aquifolium, L. (Eng. Sot. 496.) Pent. Monog. L. and Rhamniy J. Houx, Fr. ; Stechbaum, Ger. ; Agrifogtio, Ital. It is an elegant, shining, evergreen tree, rising from twenty to thirty feet high, affording a timber of considerable value, and much in use as an ornamental hedge plant. It is a native of Britain, of great longevity, and found growing in woods and forests, as an undergrowth to the oak, beech, ash, and fir. It thrives best in a free deep loam^ rather light, as in Need- wood Forest, in Staffordshire, and the fir-forest of Blackball, near Aberdeen. It is a cheerful-looking tree from its shining leaves and coral berries, and peculiarly fit for ornament. 7116. Use. The timber, which is as white as ivory, is chiefly used in inlaying and veneering, and by turners and mathematical-instrument-makers. The straight shoots, of five and six feet in length, make excellent coachmen's whips. Birdlime is made from the bark by washing and separation of the woody fibre. Sheep and deer eat the croppings. It is the best of all hedge plants. It thrives best in cold loamy soils, and rather sheltered situations. 7117. The hazel (Corylus avelana), already treated of as a fruit-shrub (4752.), forms a hardy useful undergrowth in most situations, supplying hoops, crate-ware, basket-stuff, walking-sticks, rods, poles, withies, fence-wood, fuel, &c. ; besides the fruit, where the soil is tolerable, is worth something, and an excellent charcoal is made from the stack-wood. 7118. The box-tree (Buxus semper vir ens, L. (Eng. Sot. 1341.) Moncec. Tetran. L. and EuphorbiacetB, J. Buis, Fr. ; Buchsbaum, Ger. ; and Bosobo, Ital.) has some claims to attention as a valuable timber, being in considerable demand for inlaying, turnery, mathematical instruments, and wood-engravers' blocks. It thrives in any light soi 1 and under the drip of trees. Raised from the seed it will attain the height of twenty or twenty-five feet, and be fit to cut down in thirty years. (Miller's Diet, in loco.) As an ornamental undergrowth and edging plant, it is of the greatest value. 7119. The elder-tree (Sambucus nigra), already treated of as a fruit-tree (4627.), forms an excellent nurse-plant in exposed situations, and a rapid hedge in most places. The wood is very hard, and used by the toy-makers and turners. When grown as a nurse, or for timber, it should always be raised from the seed. 7120. The hawthorn. MespUus oxyacantha, E.B. (Eng. Bot. c. ic.) Icos. Di-Pentag.L,. and Rosacece, J. Aubepine, Fr. ; Hagedom, Ger. ; Branca spino, Ital. It is a native shrub, of great importance as a hedge plant, and is also frequently introduced into nar- row plantations as an undergrowth. It will not grow, however, under the drip of trees, and therefore, in a profitable point of view, is only to be considered as affording the impermeable, close, durable, and easily raised fences, called quickset-hedges. The timber of such plants as grow singly, and attain a tolerable size, is valued by the mill- wright and turner, and the roots by the cabinet-maker. It is often spoiled, Sang ob- serves, through inattention after cutting ; if it be allowed to lie in entire logs or trunks, it soon heats, and becomes quite brittle and worthless ; it therefore ought to be in- stantly cut up into planks, and laid to dry. The haws and foliage afford excellent food for deer. 7121. Soil and site. It will not thrive in a wet soil, nor one very dry and poor, much elevated or much shaded ; a free deep loam in an airy situation suits it best. For hedges it may be raised from cuttings of the roots, planted where they are finally to remain. Such cuttings are only to be procured in quantities 992 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. where an old hedge is to be removed, and the labor of selecting and preparing them falls little short of the price of good two-year seedling plants ; so that unless in a season when thorn-plants are scarce and dear, few advantages attend this practice. 7122. The yew is the Taxus baccata, L. (Eng. Sot. 746.) Polyg. Monoec. L. and Conifera, J. If, Fr. ; Eilienbaum, Ger. ; and Tasso, Ital. It is a low, bush-like, dark, evergreen tree, of great longevity, slow in growth, and affording a hard, white, valuable timber. It flowers in April and May, and its berries are ripe in November. It is found in a wild state in bleak situations, and on a variety of soils, dry and moist. It is very common in ancient churchyards, in many of which it has attained a great size and age. Evelyn, and after him, Professor Martyn, have referred to a great number of examples of notable trees of this species. 7123. Use. The timber is used by the cabinet-maker for inlaying, and by the mathematical-instru- ment-maker, and whipmaker. It is sometimes used as a substitute for box and other hard woods, and every one knows it was formerly used for bows, and the spray as palm-leaves by the ancient Christians. It forms one of the best hedge plants for gardens, topiary work, &c. and for this purpose was much em- ployed when tne geometric style of gardening prevailed. 7124. Soil and situation. Almost any soil, not over-wet, will suit the yew, and it will grow on the bleak sides of mountains, and under the drip of trees. SECT. III. Soft-wooded Trees. 7125. The soft-wooded timber-trees may be considered as characterised by great rapidity of growth, comparatively limited duration, and timber of inferior value. 7126. The horse-chestnut (jEsculus hippocastanum, L. (Schmidt, arb. 1. t. 38.) Hep- tand. Monog. L. and Acere find in such a book, after the publication of the works of Wheatley, the two Masons, De Lille, Price, and Knight, such a passage as the following : " If any general principles could be established in this art, I think they might be deduced from the joint considerations of relative fitness or utility, and comparative proportion or scale ; the former may be referred to the mind, the latter to the eye." (Ubs. on L. Gardening by H. Rejrton, Esq. Introduction, p. 2.) While we disapprove of this disingenuous mode of writing, the frequency of which we must regret in this artist's works, we willingly pay tribute to his practical good taste, and more especially in architecture. 7180. As an illustration of the theory of landscape-gardening, which we have adopted, we subjoin a slight analysis of the principles of a composition, expressive of picturesque and natural beauty. For this purpose, it is a matter of indifference, as far as respects pic- turesque beauty, whether we choose a real or painted landscape ; but, as we mean also to investigate its poetic or general beauty, we shall prefer a reality. We choose then a per- fect flat, varied by wood, say elms, with a piece of water, and a high wall, forming the angle of a ruined building ; it is animated by cows and sheep ; its expression is that of melancholy grandeur ; and, independently of this beauty, it is picturesque in expression ; that is, if painted it would form a tolerable picture. 7181. Unity is the first obvious principle which pervades this picture. No ideas of gaiety or prettiness are excited by such a scene. All the parts unite in forming a whole, which the eye can comprehend at once, and examine without distraction. " La vue," says Girardin, " le plus vagabond de tous les sens, a besom d'etre fixtie pour jouir avec plaisir et sans lassitude." Were this principle not prevalent, the groups of trees, the lake, and the building, would only please when considered separately, and the result would be as poor a production as a machine, the wheels of which are accurately finished and nicely polished, but which do not act in concert so as to effect the intended movement. 7182. It is true to nature ; that is, the objects or materials are what they appear to be. The trees, which are neither very old nor very young, though in the distance diminished by their remote situation, we dis- cover by their trunks and contour, to be still trees. They are not shrubs placed near the eye, with a view to produce a false perspective ; nor is the fragment of building merely a disguised wall, because it has open- ings which have once been windows, and is crowned in one part by battlements. The water is natural, its surface being below the level of the adjoining ground, not raised above it, as is often the case in artificial waters. This completes the truth or reality of the scene. The necessity of adhering to truth is still greater in painting, in which all objects must appear to be natural, not only in forms and color, but also relatively to the forms and colors around them. Objects, especially those whose forms and dimensions are familiar to us, as men or horses, painted of different heights in the same plane ; as, for example, in the distance, of the same magnitude as that in which they appear in the foreground, would, from the acquired habit of measuring unknown by known objects, give a falsehood to the scene, and appear as animals of a different (queries, or as monsters. It seems to be from the same principles of being true to nature, that a gradation of scene, or what is called distance, is required, or at least is so satisfactory in landscape. The mind, after being impressed with the effect of a whole, delights in examining its parts in succession ; the more simple and obvious the arrangement of these parts, therefore, the more readily does the mind acquiesce in their effect. The eye of the artist, seizing on the nearest and most remote parts of a scene, readily marks an in- termediate or middle distance ; no given extent seems necessary for this purpose : " To make the landscape grateful to the sight, Three points of distance always should unite; And howsoe'e* the view may be confined. Three marked divisions we shall always find." Tht Landtcapt, by KNIGHT. 7183. The disposition of the parts is the next object of analysis, and the enquiry is how in this respect they concur in forming a whole. 1. As to forms, we find that their disposition is in groups or masses. The largest group, for example, is placed towards one side of the picture in the foreground, another to- wards the opposite side of the middle distance, including the building and adjoining lake ; and the remote, or third distance, consists of a low line of wood, with projecting groups or masses. 2. As to colors, we find only different shades of yellow and green on the trees and ground. 3. As to the light, we find one large and principal light near the middle of the view, diverging into shade as it approaches the sides ; the clearest part is the water, and the next clearest the building, and the third light spreads over a broad space of ground, near the water. The groups in the foreground are all in a deep shadow. One of these, near the water, partakes of the principal light, and those in the third distance are distinguished by a sort of neutralisation of light, color, and shade. Such is the disposition of the groups or parts, in order, in a com- plex view of the whole, to fix the eye, and prevent it from being distracted by scattered lights, confusion of forms, and inharmonious color. 7184. The connection which subsists between these different parts is a subordinate but important con- sideration. 1. They are connected in each distance by a real nearness of situation ; and, 2. In the view as a whole, from the one group coming in part before the other, so as to produce connection by apparent proximity. Suppose the reverse to be the case, and that the groups were unconnected either by real or apparent'distance of situation, the consequence would be, that each group being surrounded by light, would become a distinct object. The eye would have no resting place, and the assemblage would not com- pose a whole. 7185. The relation which subsists between the parts, composing each individual group, is next to be ex- amined. 1. In regard to the form of the parts of each group, as they are all groups of the same sort of tree, we find one elementary form prevalent, but differing in magnitude, and in combination, by their con- trasted disposition, to such a degree, that each group differs in form from the others, without at the same time being of opposite forms. 7186. In regard to color, the same kind of color prevails in each and in all of the groups, but is varied in degree by the same contrasted disposition. In some parts a yellowish-green prevails, in others a greenish- yellow, in others a russet or red-green, and occasionally a bright-green, as on that part of the turf where the light strikes with the greatest force. 7187. In regard to light and shade, those parts of the groups which rise above the horizon, and are backed by the sky, are dark, and generally darker than such as are backed by the ground, or by other adjoining groups. The prominent parts of eacli group are lighter than the retiring parts or recesses among the spray and leaves. These prominent and retiring parts, in the near groups, are very numerous ; in the distance they are lost in the general aerial shade of the group. It may be observed, as a general principle, that trees, from their rough surface, and consequent imperfect reflection of light, arc always comparatively darker than water, buildings, or ground. In creating real landscape, they serve in some measure as shades, as the other materials mentioned serve as lights. 7 188. The sky, the cows, and the sheep, must be noticed in order to complete the sketch. Suppose, then, that the sky is merely grey and cloudy, and the cattle and sheep grouped in the middle distance, BOOK IV. BEAUTIES OF LANDSCAPE-GARDENING. 1001 what will be the expression of the view ? We think it would express very little to general observers ; but there being nothing glaringly offensive in the arrangement, it would be expressive of some beauty to him who had bestowed some attention to the subject of landscapes ; for though it exhibits but little harmony of forms and colors, light or shade, it still possesses enough of these ingredients to render it worth looking at as a picturesque view. 7189. The general or natural expression of melancholy and grandeur remains to be accounted for. For this purpose, let the building be the ruins of an ancient castle, whose lofty quadrangular form may be readily imagined from the walls we mentioned, as composing a part of the scenery. The character of grandeur, then, is not in this instance communicated to the picture, by the picturesque effect of the walls, which have no variety of form, light, or shade, in themselves, but by the mental associations to which they give rise in a cultivated mind. 7190. As another example of picturesque, and poetic, or sentimental expression, imagine the cattle and sheep removed, the surface of the ground covered by smoothly mown turf, and the luxuriant branches of some of the foreground trees nearly reclining on the ground. The first expression would be that of beautiful, or elegant picturesque ; the next that of stillness, and consecration to man, stillness, as being without animals or moving objects ; and consecration to man, from the mown surface, greatly heightened by the circumstance of the branches of trees reclining on the ground, which never can happen where sheep or cattle are admitted, and which forms the leading visible distinction between a group of trees in a park, and a group on a mown lawn. It is not from the smoothness of the turf, or any particular mix- ture of light and shade in the reclining branches, that this expression is produced, but from reflecting on the cause of this appearance. 7191. As a third example, imagine, instead of the smooth turf, uncouth rough ground, covered in some places with furze, briars, brambles, and tangled thickets ; the water fringed with rushes, and partially concealed by aquatic shrubs ; and wild horses and deer forming the animated part of the.scene. The ex- pression would be eminently picturesque ; but there woukl also be an expression of wildness, not result- ing from the picturesque qualities as such, but from mental reflection on the difference between this scene and one of cultivation. 7192. As a fourth example, imagine the view deprived of the lake and the building, and consisting only of the wood and ground, with the heads of a straggling row of willow-trees appearing in the middle dis- tance, and the sound of a distant waterfall heard through the trees. Here, to picturesque beauty we have an idea of water of an immense body of it in the lake or river which supplies the waterfall and of the rocks, which oppose their powerful obstruction to a body of water. The reader will here remark, how much of the sublime beauty of this scene depends on sound, which can never be included under pictur- esque beauty. The leading expression is that of sublimity, accompanied by various associations of dignity produced by the rocks, and ot grandeur suggested by the stream, after the waters have renewed their tranquil course, and rolling, as we may imagine, majestically along under the shade of the line of willow- trees. 7193. Other examples, of a more striking nature, might be adduced; but these in- stances we consider as better adapted to show the difference between a composition merely picturesque, and one expressive of general or natural beauty, and to prove our position, that both poetry and painting enter into the principles of imitative landscape- gardening. They will also show, how very little the production of natural beauty is within the power of the landscape-gardener. He may display it to more advantage. In the first example of expression, for instance, the building, or such parts of it as more obviously show its real character, might be displayed by the removal of some over-ob- truding branches ; and in the second, a garden-seat, and some garden-trees, as the lime, cedar, &c. might add to the idea of consecration to man. In the third, a corn-field or a barn in the distance, would aid the effect by contrast ; and in the last, a bridge would determine the situation and reality of the river. But to attempt effecting these expres- sions by building a ruin, placing a garden-seat in a paddock, or erecting a bridge where there was no water, would, however common in the infancy of the art, be now justly considered ridiculous. Much more, it is true, might be done in improving the pictur- esque beauty of each of these scenes, provided the trees were already grown to ma- turity, and too numerous rather than too few ; but if the trees are yet to plant, it is evident that only the ground-plans of the masses and groups of trees, and of the breadth of the lawn, could be formed by the artist, 7194. A very common error, since the introduction of the modern style, has been to sup- pose that picturesque beauty is the only beauty to be aimed at in laying out grounds ; but so far from this being the case, it will often happen that the alterations required for 681 1002 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. the purposes of convenience and character, will lessen that beauty, whilst it increases that of dignity, refinement, and appropriation to man. As an example, we may refer to Rivenhall Place, in its state before being Improved by Repton (Jig. 681.), and the 682 same residence subsequently to improvement, or as intended to be improved. (Jig. 682.) Every one will allow that its unimproved state (jig. 681.) presents the most picturesque landscape ; while its dressed state is the more dignified and desirable as the landscape of a considerable country-residence. CHAP. II. Of the Materials of Landscape- Gardening. 7 1 95. The materials of landscape-gardening with which we work in order to obtain the desired effect, are the same whatever style we adopt. Those of nature, are ground, wood, water, and rocks ; to these, art has added buildings, roads, walks, fences ; and animated or moving objects, sounds, &c. may be considered as accompaniments only partially under our control. SECT. I. Of operating on Ground. 7 1 96. The operations of art on this ponderous material are necessarily of a very limited description. The most extensive and costly operations, to restore or create natural sur- faces, even when attended with the desired effect, afford less permanent gratification to personal feeling than most other improvements. If a deformed space has been restored to natural beauty, we are delighted with the effect, whilst we recollect the difference between the present and the former surface; but when this is forgotten, though the beauty remains, the credit for having produced it is lost. In this respect, the operations on ground under the ancient style, have a great and striking advantage ; for an absolute per- fection is to be attained in the formation of geometrical forms, and the beauty created is so entirely artificial (Jig. 683.) as never to admit a doubt of its origin. Long, therefore, after the improvement is finished, the j'l credit and the beauty remain to jjj gratify and charm the owner. Improvements on surfaces, what- ever be their object, ought to be made in scenes which are near the eye, or intended to be fre- quently seen ; at a distance they are lost if the effect be on a small scale, and often better effected by wood, if on one of consider- able magnitude. Attempts to remove distant inequalities, by lowering heights and 683 BOOK IV. OPERATING ON GROUND. 1003 filling up hollows, very seldom are attended by results sufficient to justify the expense incurred ; but when art is employed to heighten distant eminences the success is greater : in the last case art may be said to act positively, in the former negatively to produce or increase a beauty, instead of only removing or lessening a deformity. All operations on ground may be included under, 1. Those which have for their object the beauty of art or design ; and , 2. Those where natural beauty is intended to be produced. 7197. Operations with a view to relative or artificial beauty. The forms in use for this purpose are few and simple. They originate in, and are influenced by, those of the house ; and are, for the greater part, bounded by right lines ; and the surfaces are levels or slopes of different degrees of abruptness. The magnitude as well as form of each of the figures in the ground immediately adjoining a house, or in a detached walled en- closure, should be regulated chiefly by the magnitude of the mansion, or extent and grandeur of the whole place, though they are often obliged to conform, in some degree, to the natural surface. When the ground slopes from the house in all directions, narrow parallelograms will be the prevailing forms both of the levels and slopes. The broadest level, and greatest perpendicular depth of slope, will generally be placed next the house, and the next broadest level, &c. in succession, till, after three or four levels, and as many slopes are obtained, the artificial surface shall finally blend with the natural ; unless, as is frequently the case in the geometric style, a kitchen-garden wall, or some similar work of art, forms the termination. In this case, separation by some architectural or other accompaniment, will, by forming a break in the order of forms, admit of adopting, in continuation of the artificial surface, such levels and slopes as the character of the scene may require, or a due regard to economy dictate. When the mansion, or scene of oper- ations, is on a surface naturally flat, the levels will be of greater dimensions, the slopes smaller, and both fewer in number. But though parallelograms are the common figures employed, sections of polygons, trapeziums, circles, and curvilinear figures, are fre- quently admitted. They are used in architectural elevations, and in fortifications, which are the prototypes of this part of ancient gardening ; and, therefore, when apparent in the mansion, should be reflected, as it were, by the grounds. (Jig. 684.) The forms to be used, however, is a matter easy to determine. The principal difficulty is to arrange them together, so that they may con- cur in producing a whole, or a good effect. In disposing, connecting, re- lating, and contrasting them for this purpose, the artist will preserve regu- larity and uniformity in the complex view of the whole, varying and har- monising the detail according to the degree of beauty and variety he intends to produce. If he has duly prepared his mind by theoretical studies, and practised architectural and landscape drawing, his own feeling of their impression will suggest when he has attained the desired effect ; for the models of artificial surfaces which remain of ancient gardens are poor productions compared to what might be created in this way, through the judicious application of the principles of relative beauty. A good deal depends on adjusting the extent of geometrical or architectural surface to the size of the house and surrounding grounds ; and in this matter much depends on the regularity or irregularity of the ground plan of the former, and on the evenness or vari- ation of the surface of the latter. A square house on a level, or on a gentle swell, will require least extent of architectural platform around it, and a straggling gothic castle on an irregular declivity the greatest extent of terraces, angles, ramps, and slopes. 7198. Natural beauty of ground. "-As the right lines and geometrical forms of the architect, take the lead in grounds of artificial beauty, so the flowing and broken lines, and undefined forms of the landscape-painter, take the lead in those of natural beauty. To create them in ground, is generally impracticable and unadvisable ; but where they exist concealed by accidental deformities, or incomplete in expression, through dulness in their leading features, art may relieve from the impediments to beauty, even though the situation is at some distance from the eye. In recluse scenes immediately under view, art may aspire to create beauty even from a tame flat, but especially from its op- posite, a flat abounding with deformities. In effecting all those purposes, the same principles apply. The first thing to fix in the mind is the desired surface, or that style of natural ground which is best to be imitated. The next thing is to examine on what parts, forms, and lines, the natural beauty of this ground chiefly depends ; if undulating, whether the concave or the convex prevails ; if broken ground, whether horizontal and perpendicular, or curved and inclined lines prevail. These are then to be imitated in the improvement, ever keeping in view the important principle of a whole as the end of the connection, and harmony of the parts of which it is Composed. 1004 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 7199. The removal of accidental deformities forms one of the commonest operations on ground. Old quarries and other pits, useless cattle-ponds, open drains, mounds of earth, marks of ridges, are to be considered of this description. As they have been raised by art, so in dispersing them, the best general rule is to restore the natural surface ; but sometimes the remains of fences are so numerous, that advantage may be taken of the earth to be removed, and some variety given to a surface otherwise dull and featureless. If the fence consists of a great number of turns of different lengths, by removing both the mound and part of the surface on each side of the drain, a small winding hollow or vale may be formed : the effect of which may be heightened, by placing the earth re- moved on adjoining indications of natural eminences ; not so as to form knolls, but so as to connect and harmonise with the prevailing idea of expression. The most simple and obvious improvement of exhausted quarries and dry pits, is to plant them ( fig. 685.) ; this, though it will form a series of pleasing scenes, is not always consistent with the general expression to be created, and such groups as would arise from these spots, might destroy breadth of light and connection, independently of excluding distant objects. In this case, they must be filled up by under-growths, or by lowering the adjoining surface in such a way as not to interfere with general effect, or a sufficient descent for the surface- water. Where broken ground enters into the idea of the composition to be effected, open drains, or hollow pits, afford fine sources of picturesque beauty, especially if the ground is dry, or can be readily under-drained. This character, however, can seldom be intro- duced as an original feature ; but in ground naturally leading to abrupt and broken lines, it may be more desirable to improve this expression, than attempt creating a more polished surface. In cases of this sort, almost every thing depends on the introduction of wood, copse, and verdant roughnesses, to harmonise the broken surface ; for mere broken ground, without a character of luxuriance and wildness communicated by wood, is seldom better on a smaller scale than a surface deformed by scars. 7200. Natural bumps or excrescences (Jig. 686. a), as well as pits (6), are not un- common in many grounds which have not been subjected to agricultural improvement. When these are not large, the process of fallowing with the plough will remove them ; when they are of some magnitude, they may often become sources both of polished and picturesque beauty. If they are numerous and favorably distributed, by the removal of some, and the enlargement through that means of others, they may give an impres- sion of undulation, especially if situated on a naturally irregular surface. If on a de- clivity, and covering rocks or huge stones, a mixture of flowing lines with abruptnesses may be happily introduced. 7201. A varied but yet dull surface may often be improved by a skilful artist. By studying the character indicated by nature, it will generally be found, that the defi- ciency of expression is owing to the hollows being in part clogged up, either naturally or by long continuation under the plough ; and the swells lowered in a corresponding de- gree by the same process. In this case, the obvious improvement is to remove earth from the hollows, and place it on the eminences, ever keeping in view the natural ex- pression, and avoiding to end the improvement, by leaving the hollows gutters, and the eminences pointed ridges. This sort of improvement is not a very obvious one, though often attended with surprising effects, for every foot of depth taken from a hollow, and laid on an adjoining hill, adds two feet to the height of the latter. All these observ- ations will be understood as referring to grounds near the house. 7202. Distant scenes of a park, as hills, or mountains (Jig. 687.), are only to be im- proved by wood ; and these remarks, in so far as they extend, will suggest not what is to be removed, but what must be concealed. Many excellent hints on this part of the subject are to be found in the picturesque tours of Gilpin, referring to ranges of BOOK IV. OPERATING WITH WOOD. 1005 hilly scenery in different parts of the country, of much of which he has given views. With respect to ground, as respects garden-scenery, almost the only writer who has treated of it at length is Wheatley, whose excellent book, so frequently referred to by all succeed- ing writers on gardening, ought to be in the hands of every man of taste. In the chapter on ground in that work, the author concludes with a salutary caution, which ought ever be taken in connection with the wisest rules ; " a caution which has more than once been alluded to, must always be had in remembrance ; never to suffer general considerations to interfere in extraordinary great effects, which rise superior to all regulations, and perhaps owe part of their force to their deviation from them. Singu- larity causes at least surprise, and surprise is allied to astonishment. These effects are not, however, attached merely to objects of enormous size ; they frequently are produced by a greatness of style and character, within such an extent as ordinary labor may modify, and the compass of a garden include. The caution, therefore, may not be useless within these narrow bounds ; but nature proceeds still farther, beyond the utmost verge to which art can follow, and, in scenes licentiously wild, not content with contrast, forces even contradictions to unite. The grotesque, discordant shapes which are often there confusedly tumbled together, might sufficiently justify the remark. But the caprice does not stop here ; to mix with such shapes a form perfectly regular, is still more extra- vagant ; and yet the effect is sometimes so wonderful, that we cannot wish the extrava- gance corrected." (Obs. on Mod. Card. p. 23.) SECT. II. Of Derating with Wood. 7203. Wood produces almost all the grand effects in both styles of improvement ; for trees, whether in scattered forests, thickets, or groups, or in compact geome- tric squares, avenues, or rows, constitute the greatest charm of every country. Trees improve the most varied outlines of buildings (Jig. 688.), and without them the grounds 688 of a residence (Jig. 689.) would often be nothing more than an unmeaning profusion of winding roads or walks. A tree in itself is, indeed, the noblest object of inani- mate nature ; combines every species of beauty, from its sublime effect as a whole, to the individual beauty of its leaves ; exhibits that majestic uniformity and infinite variety which constitute the essence of relative beauty ; and the natural expressions of individual species are as various as are their forms and magnitude, their utility to man, and the situations, soils, climates, and other general and accidental circum- stances of which they are indications. 7204. The effect or expression of trees, individually and in masses, has been entered on at length in the preceding book ; we shall here, therefore, confine ourselves to a few general observations on the effect of planting in the geometric and modern manners. 7205. In planting in the geometric style, the first consideration is the nature of the whole or general design ; and here, as in the ground, geometric forms will still prevail, and while the masses reflect forms from the house, or represent squares, 1006 PRACTICE OF GARDENING PART III. triangles, or trapeziums, the more minute parts, charac- terised by lines rather than forms, such as avenues, rows, clumps, and stars, &c. are contained in parallelograms, squares, or circles. In regard to the parts, masses and ave- nues should extend from the house in all directions, so far as to diffuse around the character of design ; and as much farther in particular di- rections as the nature of the surface admits of, the distant beauties suggest, and the cha- racter of the mansion requires. In disposing these masses, whether on a flat or irregu- lar surface, regard will be had to leave uncovered such a quantity of lawn or turf as shall, at all events, admit a free circulation of air, give breadth of light, and display the form of the large masses of wood. Uniformity and variety as a whole, and use as well as beauty in the parts, must be kept constantly in view. Avenues, alleys, and should serve as much le as roads, walks, lines of fences, or screens of shelter or shade ; but where this is not the case, they should point to some distant beauties, or near artificial objects, to be seen at or beyond their termi- nation. The outer extremities of artificial plantations may either join natural woods, other artificial scenes, culti- vated lands, or barren heaths or commons. 7206. When artificial plant- ations join natural woods, the avenues, alleys, and circular glades of the former may be con- tinued a certain length in the latter, so that the point where the natural wood begins, and the artificial plantation ends, may not be discoverable. In aid of this effect, the sort of tree which prevails in the natural scenes, should also prevail in the adjoining parts of the artificial wood. When artificial scenes join other artificial scenes, nothing can be easier than by the reciprocal continuation of avenues, strips, or masses, so far to unite the two seats, as to conceal the boundaries of each, while the two mansions will thus each borrow a splendor from the other. There are still existing proofs of the attention paid to this subject in former times, an instance of which occurs in the apparent connection by avenues between Blenheim, Ditehley, and Heythrop, though the last mansion is nearly ten miles distant from the first. 7207. When artificial scenes join cultivated lands, if those lands are enclosed, broad strips, hedge-rows, square or round clumps in the angles of the fields, with such reci- procal disposition of lines or forms as the case may suggest, will continue the character of artificial plantation ; and where roads are necessary, if utility does not forbid, they should be formed in part as avenues, in continuation of those within the artificial scene. 7208. Wlien artificial plantations are bounded by barren heaths or commons, all that can be done is to advance beyond the boundary of the place portions of avenues, and rows of trees of different lengths. Sometimes an inequality, crowned by a clump or thicket, BOOK IV. OPERATING WITH WOOD. 1007 may promote the idea. On other occasions, where the heath or waste may be so bleak as to convey no agreeable expression, and therefore is, of course, struck out entirely from the improved scene, a sort of connection may be given, by advancing strips or rows from the boundary plantation into the heath. Even single or scattered trees, if they can be protected in that situation, will have a tendency to produce that sort of con- nection required; and, while it gratifies the proprietor's love of appropriation, will please the eye of the traveller, who views the country as a whole, and delights to observe the harmony and beauty of its principal features. Having disposed of the whole, and of the parts, as far as respects their general effect and connection, what remains to be considered is, the sort of tree, manner of disposing the plants, fences, and future management. 7209. When the object in view is the exjwession of art and design, the propriety of employ- ing species of trees different from those which are natural to, or most abound in the surrounding country, is obvious. In a country of common pine, the spruce and silver firs and cedar afford a choice. In a country of oaks or elms, chestnuts, limes, and planes, form suitable contrasts. Where the plantations are extensive, the value of the timber must always be a principal object ; and, therefore, the contrasted trees should be chosen accordingly. Some species, however, are so happily adapted for this style, and as orna- mental trees in both styles, that they ought seldom to be omitted excepting near the house : such for example, as the horse-chestnut, lime, Spanish-chestnut, plane, luccombe oak, cedar, stone pine, c. As the four last species mentioned are, in exposed situations, liable to injury from extraordinary severe winters, a few hardier sorts, resembling them in general appearance, should be intermingled in the plantation, to preserve the larger masses in case of accident, but to conform with the general effect in color and style of foliage, as well as in form. Different species ought not in general to be mixed together in the masses ; one, or at most two, conforming varieties are sufficient ; more would de- stroy the breadth of color of the mass, and the character of its surface. Different masses, avenues, and more minute parts, may, however, be planted with different spe- cies of trees ; rare sorts may be also introduced in lines, along the front of many of the masses, ranged along stars, crosses, &c. The snowdrop-tree, from its beautiful blossoms, and the birch and hazel, for the display of their catkins during winter, are well calculated for walks adapted to that season of the year, and should be planted in front of pines, or other evergreens. Such also is the principal situation for flowering shrubs, and no plants can be more showy than the horse-chestnut, common lilac, acacia, guelder-rose, Portugal laurel, holly, bird-cherry, pyrus, mespilus, and laburnum, in similar situations, and for general purposes. In distributing the species of tree in extensive masses, the same general principles of composition must be attended to, which we have pointed out, as far as respects form. The colors and character of the heads of the trees must be connected, and, at the same time, to a certain degree contrasted, in order to produce an artificial and yet harmonious effect. 7210. Whether the new va- rieties of American and other I "^ trees, obtained since the intro- y duction of landscape-garden- ing, are to be admitted under this style of improvement may be questioned by some. We answer, certainly, unless where the object is the imitation of an ancient residence (Jig. 690.)'; * and there can be no doubt that where such is the object, exotic trees will destroy part of the allusion ; but we do not con- tend for the revival of the an- cient style solely as producing imitations and allusive charac- ters, or on account of its an- tiquity, but as a distinct mode of gardening. We would therefore not copy its faults or study its defects, but add to its beauties from all the resources furnished by the pre- sent improved state of the arts of design, as well as by the continued accession to our stock of trees and shrubs. If however a positive imitation of an ancient residence is intended, then the species of tree should be limited to those used in ancient times, as well as the forms and lines of their disposition. 721 1 . Tlie manner of disposing the plants is influenced by the same principle of avowed 1008 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. art ; in rows, equidistant masses, in squares, or in quincunx, and in every case so as never to be mistaken for trees or shrubs sprung up accidentally. 7212. Fences. Here the ancient style has a grand advantage over the modern, in which, as far as respects the imitation of nature, all fences are to be considered as tem- porary, and, therefore, to a certain degree, looked on as nuisances to be afterwards re- moved. Besides, their irregular and circuitous line is displeasing to many who do not understand ground-plans, with a view to picturesque beauty, when the trees are grown up. But in geometric gardening, fences are to "be considered in many cases as objects, and when not regarded in this light, their directions and limits are so minutely pointed out by the determined outline of the plantations, that the eye acquiesces in their situ- ation and use. Fences of any common and economical description are employed to protect the trees of open avenues, open groves, and single open rows. But the more common kind are walls, which in the prominent parts ought to be well built of shaped stone, and substantially finished by raised or flat copings, bearing some relation to the copings of the simpler parapets of the house. The gates necessary in these walls, as well as in some sorts of permanent verdant fences, supply occasion for such architectural forms and lines, as are advantageous in reflecting those of the mansion, and strengthening the prevailing idea of dignity, art, and design. Every sort of fence belonging to the modern style, may be occasionally employed in the ancient ; and besides walls, half-sunk walls, and raised mounds with a walk at top, we may enumerate hedges of holly, yew, laurel, and other shrubs, either simple or chequered, by alternate deciduous or evergreen species, varied by arcades and standards, shorn into shapes, or in their natural growth. Hedges of flowering shrubs may also be introduced ; of creepers on open palisades ; and various others of great beauty may be invented, or are to be found in books on this style of gardening. 7213. Management. In this respect also, the advantage is greatly in favor of the ancient style ; for as all operations of pruning and thinning in the other should be done under the eye of the landscape-gardener, so all these operations here may be performed by any laborer ; the object being simply to produce a straight, upright, smooth stem, to a certain height according to circumstances, and allow each particular tree to attain its full size. Shearing or clipping is always a mere mechanical operation ; plain hedges and close alleys require only a line for a guide ; and in the case of arcades or verdant sculpture, there is, or always should be, a frame of trellis-work of correct design to guide the operator. From the comparative brevity of this view which we have taken of plant- ing under the ancient style, the reader will perceive, that we are far from supposing it to take the lead of the natural method to which we now proceed, referring for more particular information to Le Blond, and other French authors ; and to Switzer's Icfmo- grapkia Rustica. 7214. In planting with a view to natural beauty, the effect of the whole is here also the first and the grand consideration. All planting, as respects the formation of a country-residence, must necessarily be materially influenced by the character and situation of the house, as the capital feature in the composition. To this feature, the leading masses of wood and lawn, answering the end of light and shade in painting, must invite and direct the eye in the general view of the place. (Jig. 691.) Each must em- brace it on one or on more sides, and diverge from it in masses suitable to its magnitude and the extent of the grounds, and in forms and characters of woody surface, suitable to the na- tural situation and the expression to be created. If the mansion is on a decli- vity, the principal light should embrace the front which looks down, rather than those which look up, or on either side. The views from the windows suggest this arrangement, and will point out in every other situation, whe- ther a flat, a hill, or an irregular sur- face, on which side or sides the leading masses are to have their origin. To deteimine their magnitude, form, and number, would be impossible, without 691 BOOK IV. OPERATING WITH WATER. 1009 a particular case to refer to. To point out their style is sufficient, which must always be irregular like nature ; generally stretch along such rising ground as the situation affords ; and, like her, always combine a certain degree of uniformity or recognisable shape, even amidst the greatest seeming deviations from this quality of figures. As the house indicates the commencement of the masses, the character of country surrounding the scene of improvement must determine the limits and style of their termination. If the lands are laid out in regular enclosures, bounded by hedges and hedge-rows, frag- ments of these (jig. 692. ) must prevail in the margin of the park ; at least in as many 692 693 places, and to such a degree, as will produce connection ; and, if possible, as much farther as will harmonise the scene within, with the country without. If it is entirely or in part surrounded by forest scenery, the termination is easily and completely effected, by attending to the style of wood and species of tree prevailing without, for a moderate distance within the boundary. If bounded by the sea, or a large lake, an abrupt termination will be as natural as it would be formal on the margin of a cul- tivated surface. Abrupt terminations, however, are often unavoidable, as in examples of villas, where the owner having no demesne, has no control beyond his boundary fence. All that can be done, therefore, in such cases, is, to create as much beauty and in- terest as possible within the given limits. Where one villa joins another, this sort of isolated abruptness is avoided or lessened ; and, in the case of suburban villas (jig. 693.), it is seldom felt as any deformity, though, even here, connection and general harmony with what is exterior, will add beauty to what is within. 7215. The details of planting in this style have already been given at length in the preceding book. SECT. III. Of operating with Water. 7216. Water is a material of so captivating and interesting a description in the differ- ent characters in which it occurs in nature, that no view can be reckoned complete in which it does not compose a feature. It forms a part of every garden in the ancient style, in the various artificial characters which it there assumes of oblong canals, ponds, basins, cascades, and jeux-d'eau (Jig. 694.) ; and in modern improvement, such is the 694 3T 1010 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. value attached to its effect, that no place is deemed perfect without a river or lake ; and such the indiscriminate desire of obtaining them, that nature has been too frequently dis- regarded in their form and situation. Of the characters which water assumed under the geometric style, we can only observe, that their names convey, in a great degree, an idea of the forms. Their situations were near the mansion ; and their marginal accom- paniments of masonry, turf walks, and hedges, were determined by the architectural forms and lines of the capital feature in the scene. The choice, from the most intricate and curious fountains to the plain oblong canal, depended on the splendor of the general design ; very little on natural situation. The supply was generally obtained from some concealed reservoir. 7217. To imitate lakes, rivers, or rills, and their accompaniments, is the object of land- scape-gardening ; and of each of these natural characters we shall remark the leading circumstances in the originals and the imitations. All water is either running or stag- nant. Lakes, ponds, and pools, are of the latter class ; rivers, rivulets, and rills, of the former description. In certain situations, lakes may be created where their supply is moderate ; rivers and rills only when it is abundant. Both characters, when they exist in nature, may be improved by studying the natural characteristics of each species. 7218. Situation, relatively to the character of the ground's surface, is the first consider- ation respecting water, in whatever form it may appear. No situation in which this material may be supposed to exist and expand itself into a body, can be truly natural, that is not a vale, plain, or hollow. Mountain streams are out of the question ; and small lakes or pools, in hollows or elevated grounds, are more to be considered as accidental than as general nature. Even artificial lakes or rivers on a considerable scale, to be natural must either be, or seem to be, situated in the lowest part of the landscape then under the eye. If otherwise, if placed on the side of a declivity over which the eye can range at the same time, it may be attractive to a stranger at first view ; but the want of truth or fidelity to the thing to be imitated, will soon bring on an increasing aversion in the mind of genuine taste. 7219. Ponds in different levels, seen in the same view, are very objectionable on this principle. The little beauty they display as spots, ill compensates for the want of pro- priety ; and the leading idea which they suggest, is a question between their present situation and their non-existence. The choice, therefore, as to the situation of water, must ever depend more on natural circumstances than proximity to the mansion. Is then all water to be excluded that is not in the lower grounds ? We have no hesitation in answering this question in the affirmative, so far as respects the principal views, and when a lower level than that in which the water is proposed to be placed is seen in the same view. But in respect to recluse scenes, which Addison compares to episodes to the general design, we would admit, and even copy the ponds on the sides or even tops of hills, which may be de- signated accidental beau- ties of nature. In con- fined spots they are often a very great ornament (Jig. 695.) ; as a proof of which, we have only to observe some of the sub- urban villas round the metropolis, where a small piece of water often comes in between the house and the public road with the happiest effect. 7220. A beautiful lake, or part of a circuitous body of water, considered as a whole, will be found to exhibit a form, characterised by breadth rather than length ; by that degree of regularity in its outline as a whole, which confers that, which, in common language, is called shape ; and by that irregularity in the parts of this outline, which produces variety and intricacy. Supposing the situation to be fixed on for the imitation of a lake (Jig. 696.), the artist is to consider the broadest and most circuitous hollow as his principal mass or breadth of water, and which he will extend or diminish according to the ex- tent of aquatic views the place may require. From this he BOOK IV. OPERATING WITH WATER. 1011 may continue a chain of connected masses of water, or lakes of different magnitudes and shapes, in part suggested by the character of the ground, in part by the facilities of planting near them, and in part by his own views of propriety and beauty. The outline of the plan of the lake is to be varied by the contrastedposition of bays, inlets, and smaller indentations, on the same principles which " we suggested for varying a mass of wood. To the irregularity of outlines so produced, islands and aits (Jig. 697.) may be added on the same principle, and for the same objects as thickets and groups. This will complete the character and beauty of the plan of the water. 7221. But the grand effect of water in land- scape, depends on wood as its accompaniment. The \ variety and intricacy of outline, the reflection of forms and colors, the shady recesses and flicker- ing lines of light, all depend on trees. These are not to be sparingly or indiscriminately scattered around the margin, but liberally in some places, for the sake of a contrasted mass of grateful color or shade, to relieve the brilliancy of the water ; and with discrimi- nation everywhere to mark the beauties, and heighten the variety of the outline, without destroying breadth of effect, or a whole, either as respects the water alone, or the entire residence. 7222. The marginal banks of water in nature, are tame or bold, gravelly or sedgy, stony or rocky, according to the character of the surrounding ground. Art, therefore, must imitate each in its proper place, not always by a studious picturesque arrangement of the marginal accompaniments in each case, but by excavating the ground-work, planting the trees and shrubs, and leaving the rest to the motion of the waves of the water. After the effects of one winter, stones or gravel may be deposited in spots suit- able for stony or gravelly shores. But to enter into this, and many other circumstances in the imitation of lakes, would exceed the proper limits. We add two cautions : the first is, in all cases of the beautiful picturesque, so to arrange by puddling and under- draining, that a marshy appearance may not surround the lake ; and that rushes, and such aquatic plants, may not extend farther than a few feet or yards from the margin of the water. The other respects islands, which are the greatest ornaments to lakes. But that island which is placed in the centre, or in any situation where it does not connect with other islands, or with the shore, so as to form part of a prominence or recess, is injurious to the effect of the whole inversely as its beauty, when properly placed. 7223. Rivers and rills, we have said, are rather to be improved than created ; for we cannot sympathise with that taste which directs the mimicry of so noble a character as a river, or is satisfied with a nearly stagnated rill. We do not consider the river at Blenheim as an exception, because that piece of water was formed by widening a considerable brook. We allude to those wavy serpentine canals, which are never mistaken for natural scenes, and, in almost every case, might be advantageously exchanged for a lake. A rill, however, may have its course rendered more varied, may be expanded at proper places into regular shapes, and all the alterations accounted for and harmonised by plant- ing- (Jig- 698.) 7224. Progress and impetuosity are the two leading ideas which belong to running waters. The first expression may be heightened by counteracting any tendeircy to ex- pansion ; by removing some of the circuitous and oblong projections of earth or stone in the banks ; and sometimes by deepening its bed, or by substituting a more direct line for a circuitous course. The idea of impetuosity is indicated by its effects, in reverberating against high banks, or common banks, on which trees are situated, and may be increased by augmenting the cause or the effect, and thus either digging and undermining the trees, cutting down the high banks on which the water acts, or placing very slight piers as jetties on the opposite shore. Picturesque additions to the marginal accompaniments both of 3 T 2 1012 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. rivers and rills will readily suggest themselves. Cascades and waterfalls may sometimes be created ; and the occasional expansion of natural brooks into pools, affords a fine hint for imitation, when this form of water comes within a scene of improvement. One of the greatest improvements that can be made in many places laid out in Brown's time, and subsequently, consists in widening in some places, and varying the margin in others, of those tame serpentining canals, then so much in fashion. By this means, and by adding islands and trees, they may often, without deranging the place as to other details, be rendered highly beautiful at a moderate expense. ( fig. 699. ) 7225. A waterfall, or cascade, is an obvious improvement where a running stream passes through a demesne (Jig. 700.), and is to be formed by first constructing a bank of masonry, presenting an inclined plane () to the current, and ren- 700 dering it impervious to water by puddling( 1 720. ) or the use of proper cements, and next varying the ridge (i) and under side (c), with fragments of rock, so chosen and placed, as not to present a charac- ter foreign to what nature may * be supposed to have produced there. The adjoining ground generally requires to be raised at such scenes, but may generally be harmonised by plantation. 7226. Where running water is conducted m forms belonging to the geometric style of gar- dening, waterfalls and cascades are constructed in the form of crescents, flights of steps, or wavy slopes ; all which have ex- cellent effects of their kind when appropriately introduced, as at Chatsworth, Hatton, and many other places. 7227. A natural stream may sometimes be improved by altering its direction, and bringing it, through a more interesting part of the grounds; and we have known an admirable effect pro- duced by bringing a distant river close to the house, even so much so as to wash the base of its terrace-wall. (Jig. 701.) BOOK IV. OPERATING WITH ROCKS. 1013 SECT. IV. Rocks. 7228. The imitation of rocks forms no part of the geometric style of gardening, and are a material of the natural style, equally unsuitable to be created. But though rocks cannot readily be imitated, their expression may sometimes be heightened when desirable, and concealed when disagreeable. 7229. The character of rocks may be savage, terrific, sublime, picturesque, or fantastic. By attending to the forms of the milder characters, and their connection with ground and trees, we shall discover whether, and to what extent, they may be improved. Savage rocks are too inhospitable to be permanently admitted, in any extent, near the eye. All rocks convey something of this idea that are not accompanied by vegetation ; and, there- fore, planting among or near them is, in every case, an improvement where trees do not exist. All rocks are expressive of dignity ; those eminently so, are not greatly varied by projections from their surface : their beauty is to be augmented, either by increasing their surface in height or depth, or by connecting it if too scattered. The removal of a few feet of earth, or part of the bushes or trees from the bottom of a precipice or ridge, and the emplacement of a line of wood along its summit, will increase its real and appar- ent height ; a similar process, with respect to the sides, will add to the idea of stability and continuation. If the parts are too much scattered, a few trees placed before, or bushes or creepers planted in the intervals between the parts, will connect them, and give the idea of a whole, partly concealed. But in this case, a considerable breadth of surface is necessary, at least in one place, otherwise dignity must give way to picturesque beauty. But the least indications of rocks that are not very fantastic in their form, even including such whose chief expression is picturesque beauty, are, to a certain degree, expressive of dignity. The slightest indication of a stratum or ledge appearing above the surface, con- veys something of this idea, and ought not to be neglected. When they are discovered by alterations in the ground with a view to the formation of roads, fences, and water, or to the erection of buildings, occasional advantage may be taken of their appearance. A road across a declivity may be accompanied by a ledge of rocks instead of a bank of earth. Grounds which are broken and picturesque, will display a more sufficient reason for the appearance. The walls of a terrace evidently in part founded on a rock, will give an idea of dryness, dignity, and security to the house ; and the margin of a stream displaying even large stones, increases the idea of impetuosity ; or, in lakes, of the action of water in washing away the earth. Among imitations of wild scenery, detached stones heighten the illusion, and carry back the mind to the aboriginal state of the country. Loose or de- tached fragments of rocks may often aid the effect of real or supposed masses. The ap- pearance of a large rude stone near a wooded steep, unless of one evidently rounded by water or art, always leads the mind to the larger mass up the acclivity from which it has been broken and rolled down ; if partly sunk in the ground, and concealed by vegetation, the fertility of the imagination considers them as parts of magnitudes which lie buried under the surface. All this, however, can only be successfully accomplished in a coun- try which, by the character of its general surface, does not preclude the idea of rocks. On a flat or a champaign country, the want of truth, or seeming truth, would render them disagreeable ; and, indeed, did rocks exist in such a landscape, they should be hidden rather than displayed, unless of such extraordinary magnitude and effect, as to form an exception to general principles. 702 7230. The judicious distribution of stones, in situations where they are not evidently foreign to the character of soil and surface, may greatly heighten wildness and picturesque beauty. ( fig. 702.) Every thing, however, will depend on the manner in which this is done; they must not be merely laid down at random on ^__ ^ 703 the surface (a), or formally joined together (6), or merely connected, which, however, is better (c) ; but grouped with taste (d~), and partially concealed by vegetation and sunk in the soil. (/, g). 7231. Fantastic stones (Jig. 703. a) should be avoided in all cases, unless in some peculiar scene ; and where there are already indications of stratified or regular masses of j rock (b , it can never appear natural to place near them round, water-worn stones (c). Where angular and laminated stones are near ; or where 3T 3 1014 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. such as can be quar- ried in forms suitable for building may be procured, grand ef- fects may be pro- duced ; either by using them in form- ing imitations of na- ture, or by combin- ing them in a mixed style of artificial form and natural conglo- meration. (Jig.104.) 704 SECT. V. Buildings. 7232. Buildings, as materials of scenery, are entirely under the power of man ; and, from that circumstance, were carried to an unwarrantable excess in the decline of the ancient, and the infancy of the modern style. Improvements on ground are forgotten by their effect ; that of planting may be accounted too distant or too slow by ordinary minds ; but a building is complete the moment it is finished. It affords immediate satisfaction to the owner ; and being known as a costly object, full credit is given to him for the expense incurred. Thus wealth, confiding in its powers, multiplied garden- buildings to an excess, which ended in creating a disgust, still existing, in some degree, at their appearance in improved scenery. Before proceeding further, it may be proper to offer some remarks on the style or architecture of buildings. 7233. It is a common error to consider nothing as architecture but what is Grecian ; to fancy that all architecture must have what are called orders ; and to consider the Gothic, Chinese, or Hindoo modes of building, as mere barbarous compositions. But nothing can be more unphilosophical than this mode of viewing the subject ; and it may just as well be said that there is no true language in the world but the Greek ; that every lan- guage ought to correspond with it in the tenses and moods of the verbs ; and that every other mode of speech is mere jargon. A style of building, and mode of oral communi- cation, must have a sufficient claim to be considered as complete, when they answer the purposes for which they are intended ; and, applying this principle to the architecture and language of different countries, we shall find that each is complete relatively to those countries. That any style of building, or any language can be universally suitable, is to suppose that the same climate and the same degree of civilisation prevails over the whole globe. Thus, as there are different languages, and different manners and customs, so there are different styles of architecture ; and though we may prefer the Grecian, as having been used by the most refined nations of antiquity, let us not hastily reject every other style as devoid of congruity, or unsuitable for being applied to constructions of use or beauty. 7234. The origin of the different styles of architecture are usually traced to imitations of temporary structures formed of timber or of rough trees ; and thus the Grecian column, with its, capital ornamented with foliage, has been called an imitation of the trunk of a palm, with the petioles of its recently dropped leaves still adhering ; the Gothic arches and tracery have been likened to wicker-work, or the intersecting branches of an a\3nue ; and the Chinese style to the imitation of a tent supported by bamboo. But the imitation of nature is the last thing that occurs in the progress of improvement ; and though the above opinions may not be without their use as a sort of hypothesis for composition ; yet it appears much more probable that styles of building have taken jjjK 705 their origin, jointly from the ma- Bull - , terials the country afforded, and the wants of the people. Ac- cording to this hypothesis, the Grecian may be considered as founded on the use of planks of stone, in the same way as beams of timber (Jig. 705. o) ; the Gothic, by the use of small stones, held together by their position (6) ; and the Hindoo, by the use of small stones, held together by superincumbent weight (c). The Doric temple (Jig. 706.) is easily traced in this way to its prototype of wood ; but though the idea be supported by the authority of Vitruvius, it should never be considered as any thing more than mere conjecture. 7235. Tlie progress which architecture has made in Britain, in modern times, is matter of greater certainty ; and Repton, with his usual taste, has furnished an ingenious BOOK IV. OPERATING WITH BUILDINGS. 706 vignette (Jig. 707. }, which indicates that the most remote style of domestic architecture, was that of the castellated Gothic ; to which succeeded the ecclesiastic Gothic ; next the style prevalent in the seventeenth century, being a mixture of Gothic and Grecian, com- monly called the Elizabethean style ; after that the Grecian ; and last of all, the Hindoo, just coming into notice, and which he con- siders (Designs for the Pavilion at Brighton, &c. 1810) as likely to become fashionable. The most suitable style for domestic purposes in Britain, he considers to be the Gothic, as admitting every description of interior form and arrangement, an un- bounded variety in the external forms and lines, and as being favorable to future additions, without deranging the effect or ordonnance of the original composition. 707 7236. With respect to the effects of buildings, as component parts of verdant scenery, Shenstone observes, that a landscape, to him, is never complete without a building or rocks ; and certainly, considering it merely in the light of a picturesque view, a building, in addition to merely verdant scenery, forms a better picture, by giving a desirable feature or resting-place for the eye. Considered, however, in the light of natural expression, the meanness of root-houses and grottos, the absurdity of hermits' cells, heathen temples, triumphal arches, mock chapels, &c. ; and the inutility of all of them, render them positive deformities in scenes of natural or picturesque beauty. They break in upon repose, simplicity, and all allusion to natural scenery by their frequency, and suggest ideas of ostentatious vanity in the owner, rather than of propriety and elegance of taste. But though their excess is so general and so obnoxious, the occasional introduction of some sorts may be made with propriety. Garden- seats are necessary for shade or shelter; bridges, for communication between the banks of rivers or rills ; cottages, gate or entrance lodges (Jig. 708-.), as abodes for laborers; and open sheds as places of resort for cattle. Even a prospect-tower is a desirable object in a flat country, affording no other means of obtaining a bird's-eye view. A temple, after all, is in many cases but a garden-seat ; and if beautiful in itself, and judiciously placed, we can see no objection to its introduction in the garden-scene of a princely mansion ; certainly none to more than one of them, under the geometric style of planting. To raise a monument in memory of a great public character, or consecrate an urn to private friendship, or paren- tal memory, can hardly be offensive to any mind. A sundial is both a useful and an agreeable object ; and statues and busts, in highly polished scenery, by the contrast in the kind of beauty displayed, recall the mind for a moment, from contemplating the wide range of nature, to admire the hand of art concentrated in a single point. In this view there are various objects of this description admissible in the more polished scenes of gardens, &c., as marble fountains, fragments of antiquity, &c. But when simplicity and natural-like beauty are the prevailing idea, all works of art must interfere more or less with the idea; and unless they can raise up and maintain a more interesting ex- pression, they must be regarded as injurious rather than beautiful. 7237. But simplicity and nature, continually repeated, become tiresome in their turn, and man is then pleased to recognise the hand of art, if judiciously exercised, even 3 T 4 1016 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. on an artificial ruin (Jig. 709.); but then the execution must be such as to silence every idea as to its history ; it must be so like truth as to interest by the likeness, not by deception, which is disgusting. Artificial ruins, however, need seldom be resorted to while there are so many other architectural and sculptural decorations to which we can have recourse. Nothing gives more general satisfaction than a neat and comfortable picturesque cottage (Jig- 710.), with a good garden in neat order and cul- tivation ; and such buildings may always be applied to some useful purpose, even in the grounds of small villas or formes ornees. In more extensive scenes, cottages of 709 710 different styles may be introduced from that of the Greenlander or Norwegian to the Hindoo ; and there can be no reason why a proprietor, if he chooses to go to the expense, should not ornament the dwelling of an upper servant in any style he pleases, even that of a Chinese mandarin. (Jig. 711.) 7U SECT. VI. Of the Accidental Accompaniments to the Materials of Landscape. 7238. Of accidental accompaniments the first are roads ; and of roads, the principal is the apjrroach. The approach, or road to the house, ought to display to advantage the beauties of that part of the place it passes through, and as many other beauties as may be displayed without showing the principal, which are generally those of the garden- front. In both styles, it ought to ascend to the house rather than descend, and pass along a flat or hollow rather than over inequalities of surface. 7239. The approach in the geometric style was generally a wooded avenue, in one or in several lines. In the modern, it is generally a bold, free, gently waving line ; every turn of which is, or seems to be, produced either by some gentle variation in the surface, or by the position of a group of trees. It may pass through wood only, or through forest-like scenery. The first view obtained of the house ought to be as favorable as possible, and not of any particular front, but rather an angular view, bosomed in trees. The second, or if there are two or more, the last view, on a nearer approach, should be distinct, and show the en- trance-front, and porch, or portico ; the road approaching it at such a distance, obliquely, as that the eye may now readily comprehend the whole, and to the greatest advantage. 7240. In conducting the spectator to view objects, whether by approaches, roads, or walks, it is a matter of some nicety to determine a priori, the exact distance at which he should bu permitted to obtain a full view. There is a certain point of distance from whence very object appears at its greatest magnitude. The apparent height of any object will BOOK IV. ACCIDENTAL ACCOMPANIMENTS. 1017 713 vary according to its distance, the inclination it makes with the horizon, and our rela- tive elevation or depression. A correspondent of Repton states, that " any two of the above three things continuing the same, the apparent magnitude will decrease with the third, though not in exact proportion to it. Thus, the object being perpendicular to the horizon, and our elevation remaining the same, its apparent height will decrease with the distance. Our elevation and the distance remaining the same, the apparent height of the object will decrease with its inclination to the horizon. The inclination and distance being the same, the angle, or apparent height, will decrease with our elevation or de- pression, supposing our height was at first the middle point of the object. This last being liable to some exceptions, the general rule is, that the distance from the object, measured by a perpendicular to it, the point at which its apparent height will be greatest is, where the perpendicular from the eye falls upon the centre." 7241. The difficulty in this subject is to know what the conception is that we shall form of the height and magnitude of an object according to different circumstances ; its apparent height, as well as its real height, remaining the same. This cannot be reduced to rules, but depends chiefly on a careful comparison of particular instances. One cause, Repton considers, may proceed from the position of the eye itself, which is so placed in most foreheads as to view a certain portion of the hemisphere without any motion of the head. This portion has been variously stated at from sixty to ninety degrees. The eye surveys more in breadth than in height, and more below the axis of vision (fig. 712. a) than above it. Much depends on the pro- jection of the forehead and eyebrows, prominency of the eye, &c. in different individuals ; yet the upper angle (a 6) will seldom be greater than one half of the lower angle (a c) ; and Repton ascer- tained that he could not distinguish objects more than twenty eight degrees above his axis of vision, though he could distinctly see them fifty-one degrees below it. From hence, he concludes, " that the distance at which an object appears at its greatest height is, when the axis of vision, and the summit of the object, form an angle of about thirty degrees ; be- cause, under this angle, the eye perceives its full extent without moving the head." Thus, supposing the eye (fig. 713. a) to be five feet six inches from the ground, a tall object (6), at thirty feet distance, will be seen to the height of twenty feet ; at fifty feet distance (c), to the height of thirty feet; at seventy feet distance (d), to the height of forty feet ; at eighty-seven feet distance (e), to the height of fifty feet ; and at a hundred and five feet dis- tance (/), to the height of sixty feet. (Observ- ations on Landscape Gardening, p. 21.) 7242. The approach in the modern style was well understood by Repton, and the fol- lowing excellent observations by this artist seem to sum up every thing that can be said on the subject : The road by which a stranger is supposed to pass through the park or lawn to the house is called an approach ; and there seems the same relation betwixt the approach and the house externally 'hat there is internally betwixt the hall or entrance and the several apartments to which it leads. If the hall be too large or too small, too mean or too much ornamented for the style of the house, there is a manifest incongruity in the architecture, by which good taste will be offended ; but if the hall be so situated as not to connect well with the several apartments to which it ought to lead, it will then be defective in point of convenience : so it is with respect to an approach ; it ought to be convenient, interesting, and in strict harmony with the character and situation of the man- sion to which it belongs. First. It ought to be a road to the house, and to that principally. Secondly. If it is not naturally the nearest road possible, it ought artificially to be made impossible to go a nearer. Thirdly. The artificial obstacles which make this road the nearest ought to appear natural. Fourthly. Where an approach quits the high road, it ought not to break from it at right angles, or in such a manner as robs the entrance of importance, but rather at some bend of the public road, from whence a lodge or gate may be more conspicuous ; and where the high road may appear to branch from the approach rather than the approach from the high road. Fifthly. After the approach enters the park, it should avoid skirting along its boundary, which betrays the want of extent or unity of property. Sixthly. The house, unless very large and magnificent, should not be seen at so great a distance as to make it appear much less than it really is. Seventhly. The first view of the house should be from the most pleasing point of sight. Eighthly. As soon as the house is visible from the approach, there should be no temptation to quit it (which will ever be the case if the road be at all circuitous), unless sufficient obstacles, such as water or inaccessible ground, appear to justify its course. (Enquiry into the Changes of Taste in Lands. Card. p. 109.) 7243. Walks are the next accompaniment to home scenes, without which they cannot be viewed but in particular states of the weather and the surface. They were straight, angular, or in regular curves, in the geometric style, and are in easy natural-like lines in the modern manner. Though avowed objects of art, they ought always to bear a cer- tain analogy to the scenes they pass through ; with formal-kept hedges in highly finished scenery, and edges blending with the gravel in the picturesque manner, recommended by Price in more wild scenes. Taste must determine their general course, from the range of beauties to be displayed ; and their particular turns, from local beauties and ac- 10 18 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. cidental circumstances. The principle of a sufficient reason ought never to be lost sight of in laying out walks and roads ; that is, no deviation! from a straight line should ever appear, for which a reason is not given in the position of the ground, trees, or other ac- companying objects. 7244. The finest description of hill or mountain walk is where the path is carried along the declivity on a perfect level, or where it winds round the hill by a gradual and regular ascent, here crossing a smooth slope and there forcing its way through rugged rocks, always preserving the same easy ascent or descent. When the views from such walks are grand and extensive, and especially if they include part of a river, a lake, or the sea seen through a proper foreground of trees, nothing of the kind can be more noble. 7245. Of valley walks, one on the wooded banks of a winding river, with cascades, or running over a rockv bed, the path sometimes accompanying the stream, at other times both retiring or separating from each" other, till the sound of the water is scarcely heard through the wood, and then meeting again, accompanied by open glade or meadow, with the other variations of which such scenery is susceptible, may be reckoned among the finest of the kind. 7246. Fences are accompaniments common to both styles of landscape ; they are either permanent or temporary, and, in both cases, have been treated of in considering the subject of planting (6820.) and wood. (7203.)' 7247. Animated nature. Deer, wild and tame hares, cattle, sheep, game, singing birds, all belong to a residence, and are necessary to complete its beauty. Pheasants and other game, ranging un- dismayed by man, in garden- scenes, give a high idea of se- clusion and removal from com- 714 mon nature ; the finer sorts may be retained in appropriate structures (fig. 714.), and the common left to themselves, but liberally supplied with food. The cawing of rooks,the shriek- ing of the owl, the screams of peacocks, the notes of birds, are all desirable circumstances in certain situations, and ought to be attended to, by intro- ducing such trees or plants as ^ are favorable to their increase. The smoke of a cottage or a farm-house, the view of a distant village, the spire of a church, a water-mill, or a ruin, all become interesting in certain cases ; and with a thousand other instances of natural expression, in a great measure beyond the reach of art, will be sought for, and turned to account by the judicious artist. CHAP. III. Oftlie Union of the Materials of Landscape- Gardening, in forming the constituent Parts of a Country- Residence. 7248. Having applied the principles of natural and relative beauty to the materials of gardening separately, we shall next apply the same principles to the formation of those scenes of use, convenience, or elegance, which form the constituent parts of a country-residence. 7249. The mansion and offices first demand attention, as the central feature of art and refinement. What relates to the design of these groups of buildings belongs to archi- tecture ; but the situation, aspect, style, and accompaniments are within our province. In determining the situation, a great variety of circumstances, some of a general, and others of a local or peculiar nature, require to be taken into consideration. Natural shelter, dry sub-soil, the view of the house from a distance, and the distant prospect seen from the house, belong to the former ; and removal from the boundary of a public road, suitableness of the adjoining grounds for the garden-scenes which accompany mansions. trees already there, or so situated as to aid the effect, &c. belong to the latter. Accord- ing to Repton, the choice of a situation ought to be founded on, " First, The natural character of the surrounding country : Secondly, The style, character, and size of the house : Thirdly, The aspects or exposure, both with regard to the sun and the prevalent winds of the country : Fourthly, The shape of the ground near the house : Fifthly, The views from the several apartments : and, SixMy, the numerous objects of comfort ; such as a dry soil, a supply of good water, proper space for offices, with various other conveniences essential to a mansion in the country ; and which in a town may sometimes be dispensed with, or at least very differently disposed." "2-50. To arrange these considerations according to their respective weight or influence is hardly possible ; this muit depend on a comparison of one with the other, under a variety of circumstances ; and even oir BOOK IV. FORMING THE SCENERY OF RESIDENCES. 1019 the partiality of individuals, in affixing different degrees of importance to each consideration. Hence it is obvious, that there can be no danger of sameness in any two designs conducted on principles thus estab- lished ; since in every different situation some one or more of these considerations must preponderate ; and the most rational decision will result from a combined view of all the separate advantages or disad- vantages to be foreseen from each. It was the custom of former times, in the choice of domestic situa- tions, to let comfort and convenience prevail over every other consideration. Thus the ancient baronial castles were built on the summits of hills, in times when defence and security suggested the necessity of placing them there; and difficulty of access was a recommendation : but when this necessity no longer existed, (as mankind are always apt to fly from one extreme to the other,) houses were universally erected in the lowest situations, with a probable design to avoid those inconveniences to which lofty posi- tions had been subject ; hence the frequent sites of many large mansions, an J particularly abbeys and mo- nasteries, the residence of persons who were willing to sacrifice the beauty of prospect for the more solid and permanent advantages of habitable convenience ; amongst which, shelter from wind, and a supply of water for store fishponds, were predominant considerations." (Enquiry, &c. p. 83.) 7251. In hilly countries, or in any country where the surface is varied, the choice is neither made in the bottoms (Jig. 715. a), nor on the summits of the eminences (c), but bait 717 generally on the south-east side of the latter (6), on a raised platform, the rising grounds behind being planted both for effect and shelter. 7252. The field of vision, or portion of landscape which the eye will comprehend, is a circumstance frequently mistaken in fixing a situation for a house ; since a view seen from the windows of an apartment will materially differ from the same view seen in the open air. Much evidently depends on the thickness of the walls (fig. 716.), the width of the windows (a), and the distance of the spectator from the aperture. Near the centre of the room (6), the spectator will not enjoy above 20 or 30 degrees of vision; \ ' but close to the window (c) his eye will take in from 70 to \ 100 degrees. Hence, to obtain as much of the view from a __ \ room as possible, there should not only be windows on two " sides of a room, but one in the angle, or an oblique or bow- window on each side, instead of the common form. (Obs. on Landscape Gardening, p. 24.). 7253. The aspect of the principal rooms deserves particular attention in every case, and most so in bleak or exposed situations. The south-east is most commonly the best for Britain (Jig. 717.); and the south, and due east, the next best. The south-west, Rep- ton considers the worst, because from that quarter it rains oftener than from any other ; and the windows are dimmed, and the views obstructed, by the slightest shower, which will not be perceptible in the windows facing the south or east. A north aspect is gloomy, be- cause deprived of sunshine ; but it deserves to be remarked, that woods and other verdant objects look best when viewed from rooms so placed, because all plants are most luxuriant on the side next the sun. " The aspect due east," he considers, " nearly as bad as the north, because there the sun only shines while we are in bed ; and the aspect due west is in- tolerable, from the excess of sun dazzling the eye through the greatest part of the day. From hence we may conclude, that a square house, placed with its fronts duly opposite to the cardinal points, will have one good and three bad aspects." (Fragments on Land- scape Gardening, &c. p. 108.) 7254. A mansion for the country, if a mere square or oblong, will thus be point of aspect, and certainly in picturesque beauty, or variety of external forms, lights, and shades. An irregular plan, composed with a combined view to the situation, dis- tant views, best aspects to the principal rooms, effect from different distant points, and as forming a whole with the groups of domestic offices and other architectural appendages or erections, will therefore be the best ; and as the genius of the Gothic style of architec- ture is better adapted for this irregularity than the simplicity of the Grecian, or the regularity of the Roman styles, it has been justly considered the best for country-resi- dences. Another advantage of an irregular style is, that it readily admits of additions in almost any direction. 1020 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 718 7255. Convenience, as well as effect, require that every house ought to have an entrance- front, and a garden-front ; and, in general cases, neither the latter, nor the views from the principal rooms, should be seen fully and completely, but from the windows and garden-scenery. Not to attend to this, is to destroy their contrasted effect, and cloy the appetite by disclosing all, or the greatest part of the beauties at once. The landscape which forms the back ground to a mansion, the trees which group with it, and the archi- tectural terrace which forms its base, are to be considered as its accompaniments, and in- fluenced more or less by its style. The classic pine and cedar should accompany the Greek and Roman architecture ; and the hardy fir, the oak, or the lofty ash, the baronial castle. 7256. Terrace and conservatory. We observed, when treating of ground, and under the ancient style, that the design of the terrace must be jointly influenced by the mag- nitude and style of the house, the views from its windows, ; that is, from the eye of a person seated in the middle of the principal rooms,) and the views of the house from a distance. In almost every case, more or less of architectural form will enter into these compositions. The level or levels will be supported partly by grassy slopes, but chiefly by stone walls, harmonising with the lines and forms of the house. These, in the Gothic style, may be furnished by battlements, gateways, oriels, pinnacles, &c. ; or, on a very great scale, watch-towers may form very picturesque, characteristic, and useful additions. The Grecian style may, in like manner, be finished by parapets, balustrades, and other Roman appendages. 7257. The breadth of terraces, and their height relatively to the level of the floor of the living-rooms, must depend jointly on the height of the floor of the living-rooms and the sur- face of the grounds or country to be seen over them. Too broad or too high a terrace will both have the effect of foreshortening a lawn with a declining surface, or concealing a near valley. The safest mode in doubtful cases is, not to form this appendage till after the prin- cipal floor is laid, and then to determine the details of the terrace by trial and correction. 7258. Narrow terraces are entirely occupied as promenades, and may be either gravelled or paved : and different levels, when they ex- ist, connected by inclined planes or flights of steps. Where the breadth is more than is requisite for walks, the borders may be kept in turf with groups or marginal strips of flow- ers and low shrubs. In some cases, the ter- race-walls may be so extended as to enclose ground sufficient for a level plot to be used as a bowling-green or a flower-garden. These are generally connected with one of the living-rooms or the conservatory, and to the latter is frequently joined an aviary and the entire range of botanic stoves. Or, the aviary may be made an elegant de- tached building, so placed as to group with the house and other surrounding objects. An elegant struc- ture of this sort (fig.TlS.) was designed by Repton for the grounds of the Pavilion at Brighton. 7259. The Jloiver-garden should join both the conservatory and terrace ; and, where the botanic stoves do not join the conservatory and the house, they, and also the aviary and other appropriate buildings and decorations, should be placed here. (See 6076. and 6161.) 7260. The kitchen-garden should be placed near to, and connected with the flower- garden, with concealed entrances and roads leading to the domestic offices for culinary purposes, and to the stables and farm-buildings for manure. (See 2382.) 7261. The situation of the orchard should, all other circumstances being suitable, be near to the kitchen-garden ; and between them may be very properly placed the garden- er's house, connected with the furnace, sheds, fruit-rooms, &c. (See 2527.) 7262. The lawn, or that breadth of mown turf formed in front of, or extending in dif- ferent directions from, the garden-front of the house, is, in the geometric style, varied by architectural forms, levels, and slopes ; and in the modern by a picturesque or painter-like disposition of groups, placed so as to connect with the leading masses, and throw the lawn into an agreeable shape or shapes. In very small villas the lawn may embrace the garden or principal front of the house, without the intervention of terrace- scenery, and may be separated from the park, or park-like field, by a light wire fence ; but in more extensive scenes it should embrace a terrace, or some avowedly artificial architectural basis to the mansion, and a sunk wall, as a distant separation, will be more dignified and permanent than any iron fence. The park may come close up to the terrace-garden, especially in a flat situation, or where the breadth of the terrace is considerable. 7263. The shrubbery generally connects the house and flower-gardens, and forms, strictly speaking, a part of the pleasure-ground scenery. It is a scene in which the ob- ject is to arrange a collection of foreign trees and shrubs in a dry border, generally on the north side of a walk, or in dug groups and patches. One very principal consider- ation is, to connect, partly in appearance only, the dug patches. The distinct uncon- nected obtrusion of such scenes is justly reprobated by Price, who gives excellent in- BOOK IV. UNION OF CONSTITUENT SCENES. 1021 structions for creating the beautiful picturesque among dug groups, and preserving all the polish and appearance of high keeping with the most delicate culture of the plants. (See 6187.) 7264. The pleasure-ground is a term applied generally to the kept ground and walks of a residence. Sometimes the walk merely passes, in a winding direction, through glades and groups of common scenery, kept polished by the scythe, and from whence cattle, &c. are excluded. At other times it includes a part of, or all the scenes above mentioned ; and may include several others, as verdant amphitheatres, labyrinths, (jig. 7 1 9. ) a Linnsean, Jussieuean, American, French, 719 or Dutch flower-garden, a garden of native, rock, ^; = = = = :z: = i = :'=: = :::::; = mountain, or aquatic plants, picturesque flower-gar- den, or a Chinese garden, exhibiting only plants in J[ flower, inserted in the ground, and removed to make |[ room for others when the blossom begins to fade, &c. j> 7265. The park is a space devoted to the growth '' of timber, pasturage for deer, cattle, and sheep, and for adding grandeur and dignity to the mansion. On its extent and beauty, and on the magnitude and architectural design of the house, chiefly depend the reputation and character of the residence. In the geometric style, the more distant or concealed parts were subdivided into fields, surrounded by broad stripes or double rows, enclosed in walls or hedges, and the nearer parts were chiefly covered with wood, enclosing regular surfaces of pasturage. In the mo- dern style, the scenery of a park is intended to resem- ble that of a scattered forest, the more polished glades and regular shapes of lawn being near the house, and the rougher parts towards the extremities. The paddocks or small enclosures are generally placed between the family stables and the farm, and form a sort of intermediate character. 7266. The farm, or that portion of agricultural surface, retained in the hands of the owner for private cultivation, was, in both styles, placed without, but adjoining the park ; and when circumstances admitted, near to the paddocks. In some cases, on a moderate scale, part of the park constitutes the whole, or a part of the farm, and is kept in aration. The trees in this cultivated space are arranged in natural-like masses, so as to give the idea of part of a forest-scene subjected to the plough. When the park is extensive and truly forest-like, the effect of the whole is much improved by the contrast, and recalls to mind those charming scenes in the woody districts of Germany, where cultivation smiles in the glades and recesses of eternal forests. 7267. The riding, or drive, is a road indicated rather than formed, which passes through the most interesting and distant parts of a residence not seen in detail from the walks, and as far into the adjoining lands of wildness or cultivation, as the property of the owner extends. It is also frequently conducted as much farther as the disposition of adjoining proprietors permits, or the general face of the country renders desirable. 7268. Original arrangement. Though the above arrangement of the component parts of a residence will be found, in general, the most convenient on a flat surface, or one gently varied, we are far from recommending its universal adoption. Situations are always fertile in suggesting new ideas, which " Start even from difficulties, strike from chance ;" and a mind already stored with a knowledge of every part of the subject, works from principles, and fortuitous suggestions, rather than models. We would rather see an original idea attempted than the most beautiful arrangement imitated. CHAP. IV. Of the Union of the constituent Scenes informing Gardens or Residences of particular Characters; and of laying out Public Gardens. 7269. To complete a country-residence is the end of all landscape-gardening, whether imitative or geometric. In the preceding chapter" we have given a general idea of the parts or scenes, and their connection, which enter into a complete residence of the first order. We have now to notice their arrangements in different gradations of residences 1022 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III, and these, we must previously acknowledge, are so intimately blended, that we hardly know how to separate them, and give a distinctive character to each ; every country- gentleman, from the occupier of the palace to the cottage, adopting such luxuriant scenes as suit his particular taste, without reference to any thing but his own desires ; and this happy circumstance contributes, perhaps, as much as the difference of situations, to the variety in the beauty and style of British country-residences. Mansions, villas, tempo- rary residences, cottages, and public gardens, may be said to include the leading dis- tinctions. Public gardens are much less various than private ones, because there are fewer publics than individuals. SECT. I. On laying out Private Gardens, or Residences. 7270. The sjiecific distinctions of private residences may be considered as the mansion and demesne, the villa, the farm, the temporary residence, and the cottage ; but each of these branches out into a number of subspecies and varieties. 7271. The mansion and demesne. The characteristic of the mansion and demesne, is the demesne or surrounding lands in tenancy. Any residence of which the dwelling-house is of a higher character than that of the mansion and demesne, as the castle, abbey, and palace, has the same general arrangement in the grounds, and differs chiefly in extent, and in the" arrangements of the courts and other exterior ap- pendages of the house. 7272. As a specimen of this style, we shall give the arrangement at Michel Grove in Sussex, the residence of R. Walker, Esq. from the works of Repton : 7273. In determining the situation for a large house in the country, there are other circumstances to be considered besides the fences and appendages immediately contiguous. These have so often occurred, that I have established in imagination certain positions for each, which I have never found so capable of being realised as at Michel Grove. 7274. I would place the house, with the principal front, towards the south-east. 7275. I would place the offices behind the house ; but as they occupy much more space, they will of course spread wider than the front. I would place the stables near the offices. I would place the kitchen- garden near the stables. I would put the home-farm buildings at rather a greater distance from the house ; but these several objects should be so connected by back roads as to be easily accessible. 7276. I would bring the park to the very front of the house. 7277. I would keep the farm or land in tillage, whether for use or for experiment, behind the house ; I would make the dressed pleasure-grounds to the right and left of the house, in places which would screen the unsightly appendages, and form a natural division between the park and the farm, with walks- communicating to the garden and the farm. 7278. The villa may be nothing more than a park with a house of smaller size than that of the mansion and demesne, surrounded by a pleasure-ground, and with the usual gardens. Moderate extent and proximity to other villas, constitute the cha- racteristic of this class of residences ; but though adjoining lands are not necessary to the character, they do not, where they exist, change it, unless their extent be con- siderable. Two villas joined together often mutually aid each other in effect, especially as to water and trees, (jig. 720.) 7279. The villa farm. A villa being originally a farm-house, we think that the Roman arrangement, in which the farm-offices were joined to, or at least so near, as to form with it and the domestic offices^pne group of buildings, might be adopted as the characteristic distinction of this class of residences. The farm-buildings should, in tha* case, be dignified with more architectural design than when placed at a distance ; bui. i?ooc IV. PRIVATE GARDENS, OR RESIDENCES. 1023 still in due subordination to the man- sion. Instead of deer, sheep may graze the park on the garden -front, separated from the house by an archi- tectural barrier, or in some situations, with a platform of gravel, and walks and knots of flowers. A glacis of turf, with a light fence below the slope, will be sufficient protection from sheep or cattle, and not impede the view of the lawn from the win- dows. The entrance-front may be approached through grass fields, not separated with common hedges, but with picturesque fences (Jig. 721.) in the modern, and double hedges and slips of planting in the geometric style. All or any part of the other constituent parts of a mansion and demesne residence, such as hot-houses, gardens, orchards, pleasure-grounds, &c. may or may not be added, ac- cording to its extent, and the parti- cular taste of the proprietor. 7280. Theferme ornee differs from a common farm in having a better dwelling-house, neater approach, and one partly or entirely distinct from that which leads to the offices. It also differs as to the hedges, which are allowed to grow wild and irregular (Jig- 722. ), and are bordered on each side by a broad green drive, and sometimes by a gravel-walk and shrubs. It differs from a villa farm in having no park. A dry hilly soil is best suited for this description of residence, of which there are some fine examples in Surrey, Kent, and the Isle of Wight. 7281. Temporary residences, as marine villas, sporting or shooting boxes, seldom con- 1024 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PART III. 723 tain much land attached. No hot-houses, and but little pleasure-ground is here re- quired. What land there may be, should be applied to use rather than to beauty. Speaking of hunting-boxes, Marshall observes " a suit of paddocks should be seen from the house ; and if a view of distant covers can be caught, the back ground will be com-, plete. The stable, the kennel, the leaping-bar, are the apppendages, in the construc- tion of which simplicity, substantialness, and conveniency should prevail." 7282. j4 cottage ornee, we think, might be characterised by the garden-front opening into a picturesque orchard ; or a lawn, varied by groups of fruit-trees, instead of a lawn or park planted with forest trees. It may contain any part of the scenes of the villa, at the will of the owner. If the situation of the house is elevated, so as to give a view from the principal rooms of a great part of the farm, it will be the more desirable. A desirable foundation for this improvement is an old English farmhouse ; by adding to which one or two principal rooms, a very interesting group may be formed at little expense. 7283. Cottage en verger. An agreeable va- riety of this species sometimes adopted in France, consists in surrounding an enclosed space of one or two acres, with an irregular strip of walnut, cherry, chestnut, and other tall-growing trees (Jig, 722. a) which produce both fruit and timber ; and then planting the interior space (6) with the finer sorts of fruit-trees, especially pears and plums, as standards, on turf. Winding walks are led through the whole, and groups of flowers and kitchen-vegetables introduced. 7284. The citizen's villa (Jig. 723.) is a spot of one or more acres laid out in lawn and shrub- bery, but without a kitchen-garden. As the space contained is very limited, and often under an acre, only the most select trees, shrubs, and flowers should be employed ; and great part of the trees and shrubs should be evergreens. Seats and other decorations may be introduced, of the most se- lect designs, and best workman- ship ; and what is of the last con- sequence, none but a good gar- dener should be employed in or- der to preserve the whole in the highest order and keeping, at every season of the year. Gar- dens or residen- ces of this sort are almost pecu- liar to the neigh- borhood of Lon- don ; and the occupant pro- cures his culinary productions and fruits cheaper and better than he can grow them, from that first of all gardens, Covent-garden. 7285. The suburban villa (Jig. 724.) is of limited extent, but contains a small kitchen-garden and stables, with a field planted either in the ancient style (a), or mo- dern style (6) ; with a neat lawn, and groups of flowers (c). Such villas are occupied more by professional men and artists, than by the lesser merchants and rich tradesmen, who (those of the metropolis at least) prefer the citizen's villa. When two or more of such villas can be formed adjoining each other, the happiest effects may be produced if BOOK IV. PRIVATE GARDENS, OR RESIDENCES. 1025 their owners act in concert at their first planting ; and a sort of community of scenery may be enjoyed, without lessening individual privacy and comfort. On the contrary, a gain might result to each proprietor rather than otherwise ; for if two villas, adjoining each other, are laid out in the modern style, then by placing the masses of wood of the one, against the masses of the other, less ground ...> A \'Ms^>^\m i vv m *i m . 725 would require to be occu- pied in plantation by each. Office-buildings might be placed against, or near office-buildings, so as to be shut out, or partially concealed with less than the usual quantity of trees, and so on. In the ancient style, avenues and vistas might be con- trived to pass through each other's grounds, and the ornamental objects which formed their ter- mination, serving both parties, only half the usual number would require to be erected by each. 7286. The suburban house (Jig. 725.) is a large commodious dwelling, in a village- like collection of houses, or streets, on the outskirts of the metropolis, or of large towns ; and occupied as the constant residence of wealthy professional men or merchants. It has a carriage-entrance to the house and stables in front, and a small kitchen-garden behind. 7287. The house with carriage-entrance (Jig. 726.) occurs very commonly in the suburban streets of large cities ; it contains a small gar"-