_ 
 
 
 
 
 THE ORIGIN 
 
 of the 
 
 TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 LC 
 
 UC-NRLF 
 
 I 
 
 17 72M 
 
 BY 
 
 BROTHER JOHN J. SCHUETZ, S. M. 
 
 A DISSERTATION 
 
 Submitted to the Faculty of Philosophy of the Catholic University 
 
 of America in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements 
 
 for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy 
 
 .TON, D. C. 
 
EXCHANGE 
 
THE ORIGIN 
 
 of the 
 
 TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 BY 
 BROTHER JOHN J. SCHUETZ, S. M. 
 
 A DISSERTATION 
 
 Submitted to the Faculty of Philosophy of the Catholic University 
 
 of America in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements 
 
 for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy 
 
 * * 
 
 WASHINGTON, D. C 
 1918 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 PART I 
 
 THE ORIGINAL TEACHING BROTHERHOOD. 
 
 Page. 
 
 1. 1379. Brothers of the Common Life 9 
 
 PART II 
 
 BROTHERHOODS ORIGINATING IN FRANCE. 
 
 1. 1681. Brothers of the Christian Schools 19 
 
 2. 1702. Brothers of St. Gabriel 36 
 
 3. 1709. Brothers of St. Anthony 43 
 
 4. 1817. Brothers of Christian Instruction of Ploermel 43 
 
 5. 1817. Marist Brothers of the Schools 52 
 
 6. 1817. Brothers of the Society of Mary 59 
 
 7. 1817. Brothers of Christian Doctrine of Nancy 72 
 
 8. 1820. Brothers of Holy Cross 72 
 
 9. 1820. Brothers of the Cross of Jesus 76 
 
 10. 1821. Brothers of the Sacred Heart 76 
 
 11. 1821. Brothers of Christian Doctrine of Strasburg 79 
 
 12. 1824. Brothers of St. Joseph of Amiens 79 
 
 13. 1824. Brothers of the Holy Family 80 
 
 14. 1839. Brothers of St. Viator 81 
 
 15. 1842. Brothers of Mercy 84 
 
 16. 1858. Brothers of the Holy Union 84 
 
 PART III 
 
 THE COMMUNITIES OF IRELAND, BELGIUM AND HOLLAND. 
 
 1. 1802. Christian Brothers of Ireland 85 
 
 2. 1808. Patrician Brothers 91 
 
 3. 1818. Franciscan Brothers 92 
 
 4. 1826. Presentation Brothers 93 
 
 5. 1839. Xaverian Brothers 94 
 
 6. 1844. Brothers of Tilburg 97 
 
 7. 1849. Brothers of St. Aloysius 97 
 
 PART IV 
 
 TEACHING COMMUNITIES IN MISSIONARY COUNTRIES. 
 
 1. Brothers of Our Lady of the Annunciation, (Africa). 
 
 '2. Brothers of St. Joseph, (India). 
 
 3. The Catechists of Anduc, (West Cochin-China) . 
 
 4. The Teaching Brothers of Our Lady, (China). 
 
 5. Brothers of St. Joseph, (Ceylon). 
 
 tf. The native Brothers of St. Joseph, (French Congo) 98 
 
 387772 
 
4 CONTENTS 
 
 PART V 
 
 BROTHERHOODS INCIDENTALLY ENGAGED IN TEACHING. 
 
 Page 
 
 1. 1807. Brothers of Charity, (Belgium). 
 
 2. 1830. Brothers of Our Lady of Lourdes, (Holland). 
 
 3. 1835. Brothers of St. Joseph, (Oullins, France). 
 
 4. 1839. Brothers of St. Francis of Assisi, (France). 
 
 5. 1840. Brothers of the Immaculate Conception and St. Vincent de 
 Paul, (Holland). 
 
 6. 1845. Brothers of St. Vincent de Paul, (France). 
 
 7. 1850. Brothers of St. Francis Regis, (France). 
 
 8. 1851. Brothers of Our Lady of Seven Dolors, (Holland). 
 
 9. 1855. Brothers of the Holy Infancy and Youth of Jesus, (U. S.) . 
 
 10. 1864. Brothers of St. Joseph, (Germany) 99 
 
 Conclusion 100 
 
 Bibliography 102 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 By the term Teaching Brotherhood as herein employed, is under- 
 stood a religious body of men, either lay, or partly clerical and lay, 
 and who, first, ordinarily take the simple vows of religion; secondly, 
 are designated by the name of Brother; and thirdly, assume as 
 special object the education of youth. 
 
 The writer has endeavored to present a detailed account of the 
 origin of the different "Teaching Brotherhoods" as they appear 
 in the History of the Church. He has, wherever possible, tried to 
 trace the foundation from the earliest conception in the mind of 
 the founder, and to follow this idea in its development and final 
 realization. Above all, his endeavor has been to discover any 
 relations or connections existing between the communities, especi- 
 ally in regard to the origin of their respective rules and constitu- 
 tions. 
 
 These Brotherhoods appear for the first time during the latter 
 part of the 14th century, at a time too, when their existence is 
 absolutely needed. The Church, it is true, has always exercised 
 the greatest solicitude for the education of youth, which fact is 
 clearly evident in her repeated promulgation of decrees of different 
 councils and synodal enactments relative to this phase of her mis- 
 sion. Her efforts too, in this respect, have been nobly and gener- 
 ously seconded everywhere and at all times by the clergy, as may 
 be substantiated by reliable documentary proof. But, withal, a 
 time came when, owing to increasing population and political 
 disturbances, the task of providing for the proper instruction of the 
 young became more and more difficult, and, as the clergy alone 
 could no longer meet the demand made upon them, numerous 
 religious communities of laymen sprang up to aid in this general 
 apostolate of Christian education. Fundamentally, their origin 
 was due to a religious motive, but, as we cannot dissociate educa- 
 tion from religion, we may regard the educational needs of the 
 time as sufficient reason for their appearance. Furthermore, it 
 has been noticed that the element of competition or rivalry cannot 
 be adduced as a cause for the origin of a single congregation. 
 Aside from the purely religious or educational motive actuating 
 the individual founders, instances may be cited in which some have, 
 with true noble-hearted disinterestedness not only evinced their 
 
6 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 willingness to aid in the introduction and propagation of another 
 community, but have actually taken steps to this effect. Not the 
 slightest trace of jealousy, therefore, is discernible in any of the 
 foundations. 
 
 As will appear in this study, a large number of Teaching Brother- 
 hoods have sprung into existence in response to the needs of the 
 times. France especially has been most productive, and far excels 
 Ireland, Belgium and Holland, which have also contributed in 
 this respect. 
 
 All the Brotherhoods without exception have been the strongest 
 advocates of popular education. The children of the poor have 
 appealed to every founder, and in many cases the very endeavor to 
 make provision for their proper instruction has resulted in the 
 founding of some Brotherhood. In fact, many of the diocesan 
 congregations were founded expressly for this purpose. 
 
 It is to be emphasized that the Rules of St. de la Salle have 
 undoubtedly served a number of congregations as the basis upon 
 which to frame their own individual mode of life; but, apart from 
 this particular influence, each is absolutely independent of the 
 other. In matters of internal government there is no interde- 
 pendence whatever; each community enjoys its autonomy and 
 has its special characteristics. The only bond uniting them all is 
 the common brotherhood of faith and the fundamental aim of 
 Christian education of youth. 
 
 With few exceptions all the Brotherhoods are composed exclu- 
 sively of lay members. In such as are partly clerical and lay, 
 generally the lay division is the larger, and it is furthermore worthy 
 of mention that in regard to these mixed congregations both classes 
 always form together one corporate body, all the members indis- 
 criminately being entitled to the spiritual privileges of the com- 
 munity, as well as to a common share in its administrative func- 
 tions. 
 
 Notice too has been taken of the fact that most of the congrega- 
 tions have been founded by clergymen, even those of purely lay 
 membership. In the latter case it was often stipulated that after 
 the death of the founder the government and direction of the com- 
 munity be taken over entirely by the lay members. 
 
 The great majority of the congregations in the first years of their 
 origin were limited to a narrow radius of activity, due not only to 
 scarcity of members, but often also to the action of the State, which 
 
INTRODUCTION 7 
 
 either delayed the necessary legal authorization, or granted licen- 
 ses only for a small area. This was the case particularly in France. 
 However, when once a community obtained a legal status, its con- 
 sequent expansion was greatly facilitated. Very much, therefore, 
 depended upon State recognition. A fair personnel was also, of 
 course, a necessary requisite for extending the work of any particu- 
 lar institute. But, besides these two conditions cited, another was 
 naturally required, viz., the demand for teachers. With these 
 prerequisites secured, the expansion of any Brotherhood was cer- 
 tain. It has been shown that nearly all the congregations have 
 gradually extended their activities, and that many of them eventu- 
 ally spread to foreign lands, where they often became more pros- 
 perous than in the country of their origin. 
 
 Lastly, it remains for us to make reference to the specific treat- 
 ment of the subject. Only such Brotherhoods have been given 
 special attention with whom teaching is either an exclusive voca- 
 tion, or at least the chief aim and purpose. Others who teach but 
 incidentally are merely mentioned. With but one exception all 
 are still in active service. At least this is presumed as long as there 
 is no positive statement to the contrary. 
 
 The plan of procedure was to include in the account of each 
 Brotherhood in so far as the material was available a short 
 sketch of the founder, embodying therein the origin of the respec- 
 tive congregation, its special sphere of educational activity, togeth- 
 er with the mention of its legal recognition, the approval by the 
 Holy See, and if possible a reference to present statistics. 
 
 The more or less detailed treatment of the different Brotherhoods 
 has been, of course, in proportion to the amount of data on hand. 
 Two of the congregations, however, the " Institute of the Brothers 
 of the Christian Schools," and the "Society of the Brothers of 
 Mary," have been given more than ordinary space, the first because 
 of its importance as the leading community in size and influence; 
 the second, particularly for the reason that the writer himself is 
 one of its members, and consequently had most abundant material 
 to work with. 
 
 The congregations have been grouped together as much as possi- 
 ble under their respective countries, the chronological order being 
 followed throughout. 
 
 Attention is directed to the promiscuous use of the terms: con- 
 gregation, institute, community and society. No specific dis- 
 
8 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 tinction is intended and a frequent interchange is therefore notice- 
 able. 
 
 The sources for the greater part of this dissertation have been 
 drawn directly from the communities concerned. Even in regard 
 to the references in the Catholic Encyclopedia, for example, it is to 
 be noted that the articles therein contained, are almost invariably 
 written by members of the respective congregations, and, therefore, 
 most reliable and authentic. The writer herewith also takes occa- 
 sion to express his deep appreciation of the kindness and generosity 
 shown by the superiors of the different communities in furnishing 
 the necessary material for the present work. 
 
PART I 
 
 THE ORIGINAL TEACHING BROTHERHOOD 
 
 BROTHERS OF THE COMMON LIFE (1379) 
 
 Gerard Groot, the learned and saintly founder of the above 
 named Brotherhood, was born at Deventer, Netherlands, in the 
 year 1334 of wealthy and devout parents. His childhood and first 
 years of schooling were passed in his home town, after which he 
 was sent to the University of Paris. 
 
 He made unusual progress in his studies, due both to natural 
 talent and to an almost insatiable longing he had for worldly honor 
 and fame. 1 At the age of eighteen he had obtained the Master's 
 degree. He remained at Paris, however, some years longer to 
 perfect himself in theology, and shortly afterwards returned to 
 Deventer. 2 But the ambitious young man had higher intellectual 
 aspirations, and before long, we again find him at his books, this 
 time at the University of Prague. 
 
 On the completion of his course he took up his abode at Cologne, 
 where he had secured for himself two canonries, apparently not so 
 much prompted in the acceptance by religious zeal, but rather as a 
 means of enhancing his own reputation and satisfying his desire for 
 public esteem. His manner of life was not at all in keeping with his 
 office. Thomas a Kempis, his biographer, tells us: "He walked in 
 the broad ways of the world, not being yet inspired, until by the 
 mercy of God he was changed into another man." 3 
 
 In fact, Divine Providence evidently had designed this soul to be 
 the instrument of untold good in the Church, especially for the 
 Netherlands and Northern Germany. Brought almost to death's 
 door by a severe illness, 4 Gerard bethought himself of his spiritual 
 condition and signs of conversion very soon appeared. His com- 
 plete transformation was accomplished through the instrumentality 
 of one of his intimate friends and school companions. 5 As he had 
 been formerly eager for the praise and applause of men he now 
 
 *A Kempis, Thomas, IAve& of Gerard Groot and his Followers, trans, by J. P. 
 Arthur, 7, St. Louis, 1905. 
 
 'Schoengen, M. Die Schule von Zwolle, 3, Freiburg, Schweiz, 1898. 
 3 A Kempis, ibid., 7. 
 4 Schoengen, ibid., 4. 
 6 A Kempis, ibid., 10. 
 
 9 
 
10 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 sought as eagerly to humble himself and despise all worldly amuse- 
 ments and earthly glory. Even his profane studies in which he 
 had always taken such keen and all-absorbing delight, he now 
 either entirely discarded or retained them only in part and for 
 higher and spiritual motives. And, as a presumable guarantee of 
 future fidelity to the first impulses of grace, he withdrew from all 
 worldly distractions, and within the cloistral walls of the Carthu- 
 sian monastery of Monichuysen, set himself to learn at the foot of 
 the cross, the science of the saints. 
 
 It was here that he first imbibed the pure and unalloyed sweets 
 of mystic contemplation. Here it was too that, docile to the 
 promptings of grace and the counsel of the good monks, after having 
 received the sub-deaconate, 6 he determined to enter upon a sort of 
 apostolate, to work for the regeneration of society. 
 
 That existing conditions afforded ample opportunity for the 
 exercise of his zeal and devotedness in this regard may be gleaned 
 from Thomas a Kempis, his contemporary. " At that time partic- 
 ularly," says he, "the disposition of the world seemed to be on all 
 sides turned to evil, so that there were few who preached the Word 
 of Life both by example and precept, and fewer still who followed 
 the rule of continency; and this was above all things lamentable, 
 that those who professed the name of Holy Religion and the state 
 of the Devout Life through lack of inspiration followed but lamely 
 in the footprints of the Fathers who had gone before." 7 
 
 Groot therefore devoted himself to missionary work, but with 
 wise and prudent forethought he soon realized that, if he expected 
 his mission to be permanently successful, he would have to gain 
 the clergy. 8 Whilst endeavoring to improve prevailing conditions 
 his strongest hope lay in the rising generation; he purposed to 
 build up from below, to labor incessantly and patiently at creating 
 a purer, a nobler and a more capable priesthood, 9 a practice which 
 his followers adhered to as one of their chief concerns. 10 
 
 We notice that Groot acting in accordance with the above 
 resolve, before long acquaints himself with the school authorities 
 whenever and wherever it is possible, with the double purpose of 
 
 6 Grube, Karl, Gerhard Groot und seine Stiftungen, 12, Koeln, 1883. 
 7 A Kempis, ibid., 9. 
 "Grube, ibid., 21. 
 9 Schoengen, ibid., 7. 
 
 10 Leitsmann, E. Ueberblick ueber die Gesch. und Darstellung der paedag. 
 Wirksamkeit der Brueder des gem. Lebens, 56, Leipzig, 1886. 
 
BROTHERS OF THE COMMON LIFE 11 
 
 lending his assistance and influence towards promoting the Chris- 
 tian education of youth, and fostering the priestly and religious 
 calling, as is clearly evidenced in his intimate relationship with the 
 schools of De venter and Zwolle. 11 
 
 Slowly but certainly various forces began to manifest themselves, 
 whose combined influence brought about a common end as planned 
 in the Divine economy. We thus perceive in the tendency of 
 Groot to interest himself in youth, one of the prime factors in the 
 formation of the institutes whose spiritual father he became. 
 Furthermore, by his preaching he drew around him a number of 
 souls both lay and cleric who desired to place themselves under his 
 spiritual guidance. Among these were several elderly and 
 advanced students, mostly clerics, from the city school, whom he 
 employed in transcribing for him numerous books and manuscripts 
 of a spiritual nature. He even invited these young men to come 
 to his house, an invitation which, as subsequent events proved, 
 they most readily accepted. He paid them for their work but as 
 a Kempis says: "With Godly prudence he did not pay all their 
 wages at one time, but divided the money into several portions, in 
 order that they might often come." The chief purpose of Gerard 
 was to speak to them the "Word of God to win some of these 
 writers to Christ." 12 He had unconsciously prepared the ground 
 and planted the seed that was soon to fructify. In this little gath- 
 ering of docile and devoted souls we recognize indeed a community 
 as it were still in embryo, but which, by a process of internal devel- 
 opment and eventually by aid of an external agency, suddenly 
 burst forth as an actuality. 
 
 Among the most fervent disciples of Groot was one, Florentius 
 Radewin, who assisted in the management of this little group of 
 copyists, and even acted as a substitute for his master whilst the 
 latter was away on the missions. Florentius it was who, having 
 faithfully acted in this capacity for some time, one day conceived 
 the idea of proposing to Gerard the feasibility of sharing their 
 mutual profits and living in common. "Beloved master," said 
 he, "what harm would it be if I and these clerics, who already 
 manifest such good will, put together our weekly income and live 
 in common?" "In common, in common"! answered Gerard. 
 "The mendicants will certainly not tolerate it; with all their 
 
 "Schoengen, ibid., 17, 82. 
 12 A Kempis, ibid., 21. 
 
12 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 strength they will oppose it." "But what harm would there be/' 
 continued Florentius, "if we at least make the attempt? Perhaps 
 God will grant us success." After some moments of reflection 
 Gerard answered: "In the name of God begin. I shall be your 
 defender and faithful protector against all who shall try to hinder 
 or molest you in your undertaking." 13 
 
 Thus in the year 1379 was laid the foundation of the Institute of 
 the Brothers of the Common Life, an institute which, though it 
 flourished but for a short time, exerted a most powerful influence 
 for the educational and cultural uplift of society throughout the 
 whole of the Netherlands and Northern Germany, an influence 
 indeed which far exceeded the most sanguine expectations of the 
 founder. 
 
 Nowhere in the writings or sermons of Groot do we find evi- 
 dences of any intention on his part to found a religious community, 
 and from the tenor of the above conversation with Florentius we 
 must conclude that the idea was indeed foreign to his mind. On 
 the other hand though he apparently hesitated before giving his 
 consent, this could not be construed as a sign of weakness or of 
 opposition to the project; his decisive and determined answer 
 would prove otherwise. He was certainly aware of the possible 
 consequences of the step taken, but with unflinching trust in 
 Providence he would begin, animated like another St. Paul, who 
 said: "I can do all things in Him who strengtheneth me." 14 
 
 The task of drawing up a body of rules and regulations devolved 
 upon Florentius, everything being done of course with the advice 
 and approval of Gerard. Among the most distinguishing charac- 
 teristics of the new institute may be mentioned: " (1) community 
 life without the religious vows; (2) general maintenance of the 
 house by individual labor; (3) all property to be held in common; 
 (4) voluntary obedience to one among them chosen as superior; 
 and (5) chief aim and purpose their own personal sanctification 
 and the moral regeneration of society." 15 Their main source of 
 income was the copying of books and manuscripts. 
 
 As is clear from the above, the chief end and purpose of the 
 Brotherhood, as originally conceived, was entirely spiritual; there 
 was no provision made for educational work strictly so called. 
 
 "Grube, ibid., 66. 
 
 "Phil. IV, 13. 
 
 "Recdencyklopaedie, Herzog, III ed., Vol. Ill 478, Leipzig, 1897. 
 
BROTHERS OF THE COMMON LIFE 13 
 
 Both Groot and Florentius did indeed keep in close touch with the 
 schools, 16 and particularly did all in their power to improve condi- 
 tions among the students by providing for many of them board 
 and lodging with respectable and pious burghers of the town, their 
 purpose being to safeguard the virtue and morals of the young. 
 As time went on they were enabled to erect separate boarding 
 establishments (Konvikte) for their accommodation, which phase 
 of development tended more and more towards inclining the 
 Brothers to engage in purely educational activities. 
 
 Besides the community of priests, clerics and lay members, 
 Groot also had the direction of a community of pious women (Sis- 
 ters) who followed practically the same mode of life as that of the 
 Brothers, except that they employed themselves in work more con- 
 genial to their sex, for example, in sewing, spinning, weaving, 
 etc." 17 
 
 The kind of life adopted by the Brothers was not altogether a 
 novelty in their day. Similar communities existed throughout the 
 country, such as the Beghards and Beguines, of men and women 
 respectively, whose purpose was to lead a pious and more or less 
 retired life. They were semi-monastic institutions having no 
 binding vows nor strictly religious rule; each house was an inde- 
 pendent community. Having no general superior however, and 
 subject to no particular ecclesiastical authority, they gradually 
 lost the religious spirit, fell into error, and eventually some of the 
 houses were closed for a time and others were even condemned. 18 
 
 That these institutions influenced Groot and Florentius in regard 
 to the rules and regulations drawn up for the Brothers, seems very 
 probable judging from the characteristic traits above mentioned. 
 The Brother-houses newly founded, though they conformed to the 
 general regulations, had in certain particulars their own self- 
 government. Later the practice was introduced to hold regular 
 annual meetings of the rectors of the different communities, to 
 guarantee general conformity to the basic statutes of the congre- 
 gation, and secure unity and cooperation. 19 
 
 As the community of Deventer increased and developed, Groot, 
 aware of the danger of attack by the evil-minded and the suspici- 
 ous, determined to forestall any such movement by placing his 
 
 "Schoengen, ibid., 12, 26 ff, and a Kempis, ibid., 134. 
 17 Grube, ibid., 76. 
 
 Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. II, 389, New York, 1907-12. 
 'Realencyklopaedic, ibid., 502, and Leitsmann, ibid., 9. 
 
14 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 institute under the protection of some powerful religious order. 
 After due deliberation and particularly through the influence of his 
 intimate friend and counsellor, Blessed John Ruysbroeck, prior of 
 the monastery of Canons Regular at Groenendael, near Brussels, 
 he decided to found a house of the Canons Regular of St. Augus- 
 tine. 20 But before the project could be realized he was called to 
 his reward, falling a victim to the plague in the year 1384, at the 
 early age of forty-four. 
 
 Florentius thenceforth took the work in hand, but it was only 
 after two years, in 1386, that he succeeded in establishing the first 
 house of Regulars near Windesheim, about twenty miles from 
 De venter, and which, in time, became the mother-house of the 
 famous Windesheim congregation. Its first members were 
 Brothers selected from the community of Deventer, among which 
 number was one named John Haemerken, the brother of Thomas 
 a Kempis. The latter himself, during the seven years that he 
 attended the public school at Deventer, 21 was under the spiritual 
 direction of Florentius, and in time also became one of the Broth- 
 ers. After about a year 22 he joined his brother as Canon Regular, 
 and for seventy years sought by labor and prayer to exemplify in 
 his own life what he so admirably expresses in his incomparable 
 little work "De Imitatione Christi." 
 
 Gerard Groot had thus founded two separate institutes, one, the 
 Brothers and Sisters of Common Life, and the other, the Canons 
 Regular of St. Augustine. Both may be regarded as concrete 
 embodiments of the spiritual revival originally set on foot by 
 Groot, and commonly known as "The New Devotion." Winde- 
 sheim confined its activities to the restoration of monastic disci- 
 pline, the strict observance of the vows and rules in religious 
 communities: the Brothers, by nature of their rule being more at 
 liberty in their intercourse with the public, directed their activities 
 especially along cultural and eventually also along educational 
 lines. 
 
 Florentius was regarded as superior of both branches, 23 but after 
 his death, in 1400, Windesheim became the mother-house, and its 
 prior, the superior general of all the disciples of Gerard Groot. 
 
 20 A Kempis, ibid., 45. 
 
 "Scully, Dom Vincent, Life of Thomas b Kempi*, 25, N. Y., 1901. 
 
 a A Kempis, ibid., 257. 
 
 M Grube, ibid., 87. 
 
BROTHERS OF THE COMMON LIFE 15 
 
 It shall be our purpose henceforth to restrict our treatment to a 
 consideration of the Brothers, in order to indicate the causes that 
 gradually led them to accept purely educational work. It may be 
 well, however, first to point out to what extent the Brotherhood 
 was acknowledged and approved by the Church authorities. 
 
 A formal bull of canonical approbation, as far as known, was 
 never issued, but we know that a1\the Council of Constance 
 (1414-1418), the Brothers were given spe>eiaj^attention and consid- 
 eration as the result of accusations brought forwarthby a Domini- 
 can Friar, Mathew Grabo, who had written a book against the 
 followers of the "New Devotion." The Canons of Windesheim 
 took up the defense, and the unanimous verdict of the assembled 
 prelates was a glorious vindication and an unqualified approval of 
 the life and practices of the Brothers and their associates. Among 
 their stanchest supporters were many distinguished church digni- 
 taries, notably, John Gerson, Chancellor of the University of Paris, 
 and Peter d'Ailly. 24 Furthermore, in the decision of the Council 
 was implied the approval of the Holy See, as the proceedings were 
 held under the immediate and personal direction of the newly 
 elected pontiff, Martin V. His successor, Eugene IV (1431-1447) , 
 also virtually sanctioned the mode of life of the Brothers in so far 
 as he took them under his protection. 26 Indeed there is no dearth 
 of instances to prove that the Brotherhood was held in highest 
 esteem by the ecclesiastical authorities. 
 
 Hence, in the face of these repeated manifestations of sanction 
 and commendation, the charges brought against the Brothers that 
 they were forerunners of the Protestant Reformation, are utterly 
 unfounded. That during the Reformation certain individual 
 members turned over to Protestantism, may have been possible, 
 but on the other hand, it is admitted even by Protestant writers 
 of recognized authority, that the Brotherhood as a whole remained 
 loyal to the Church. 26 As to the causes of its dismemberment and 
 final dissolution there are ample and justifiable grounds of de- 
 fence, for example, (1) the invention of printing, which eventually 
 
 ^Scully, ibid., 143 ff, and cf. Leitsmann, ibid., 35. 
 
 *Gieseler, J. C. I., Text-book of Eccl Hist., Vol. Ill, 305, Phil. 1836. Also 
 cf . bull addressed by Pope Eugene IV to all the bishops of Germany relative 
 to the various regular fraternities, among which certainly the Brothers of 
 Common Life were included. The bull referred to, however, was not to be 
 considered as confirming the state of the Brothers as a religious congregation, 
 ("statum praedictorum, ut ordinem religionis approbatae"). 
 
 *Leitsmann, ibid., 27, 54, and Realencyklopaedie, ibid., 505 ff. 
 
16 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 did away with the copying of books and manuscripts, till then the 
 chief source of revenue for the Brothers; (2) the founding of educa- 
 tional institutions similar to theirs in which very often some of 
 their pupils successfully competed with them; and (3) the intro- 
 duction of the Jesuits whose schools became more and more popular 
 at the expense of those of the Brothers. 27 
 
 We shall now endeavor to trace the development of the institute 
 in regard to teaching and the management of schools. Groot and 
 Florentius, though exceptionally brilliant men and well versed in 
 the learning of the day, considered educational work as secondary 
 in comparison with heavenly wisdom and personal sanctification. 
 Their followers were to be imbued with the same religious senti- 
 ments. 
 
 Besides this purpose, however, there was the other of almost 
 equal importance, viz., the reformation and regeneration of society. 
 And, as has already been touched upon, both Groot and Florentius 
 realized that one of the best and quickest means of attaining this 
 end would be to gain the young. Accordingly the Brothers, after 
 the example of their founders, adopted the practice of immediately 
 establishing relations with the schools wherever they located. 
 Many of the students attending these schools came from afar and 
 consequently they boarded out wherever they could find accommo- 
 dations. The Brothers tried to meet this need by erecting board- 
 ing establishments in some of the cities. Some schools had two, 
 three, and at times even five of these institutions. 28 
 
 They were intended to provide besides board and lodging suita- 
 ble religious instruction, which, in conjunction with the prevailing 
 discipline, afforded the young men an excellent moral and religious 
 formation. It is even probable that during times of the plague, 
 when the schools were temporarily closed, the Brothers in charge 
 devoted themselves more and more to general instruction. 29 
 
 Later on towards the middle of the 15th century, when Human- 
 ism appeared in the North, we notice a marked influence in all 
 educational circles. The Brotherhood too was powerfully affected. 
 The humanistic influence was felt within the commnnities by a 
 more liberal pursuance of literary and classical studies, 30 the 
 
 "Arthur, J. P., Introduction to & Kempis's Lives, xl. 
 28 Schoengen, ibid., 22. 
 
 29 Gem, S. H., Hidden Saints, 113, London, 1907. 
 30 Leitsmann, ibid., 54. 
 
BROTHERS OF THE COMMON LIFE 17 
 
 Brothers in turn being reckoned before long among the strongest 
 advocates of the Renaissance movement in Northern Europe. 31 
 
 About this time also we find the community taking a more direct 
 and active part in school affairs; here and there a Brother is 
 furnished as assistant in the city school, or acts in the capacity of 
 principal. Finally, communities are founded with the express 
 purpose of organizing schools over which the Brothers have full 
 control, like those of Herzogenbusch and Liege. 32 
 
 This last phase of educational activity unquestionably places 
 the Brotherhood within the category of teaching communities, and 
 in its one hundred and fifty years of existence it has indeed most 
 honorably and nobly fulfilled the mission it was destined to accom- 
 plish for the glory of God and the good of religion. 
 
 "McCormick, P. J., History of Education, 184, Washington, D. C., 1915. 
 ^Heimbucher, M., Die Orden und Kongregationen der Kaiholischen Kirche, 
 Bd. Ill, 408, Paderborn, 1908. 
 
PART II 
 BROTHERHOODS ORIGINATING IN FRANCE 
 
 BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS (1681) 
 
 As a fitting prelude to our treatment of the disciples of St. John 
 Baptist de la Salle it may be well to sketch in brief the educational 
 status of the times just previous to the foundation of the institute. 
 
 It is a fact borne out by very reliable documentary evidence that 
 schools existed everywhere in Christian Europe as regards both 
 elementary and secondary education. Of the two, the secondary 
 schools seem at this period to have been better attended to as a 
 whole, since they appealed more readily to the clergy, who were, of 
 course, the leading authorities in educational matters. Thus, 
 universities were to be found in every country of Europe, eighty- 
 one already being in flourishing condition before the Protestant 
 Reformation. 33 Colleges and higher schools were likewise estab- 
 lished everywhere, for example, those of the Jesuits, whose special 
 mission was in fact to meet this particular need. 34 In regard to 
 elementary education, though, in accordance with and in response 
 to provincial decrees, laws and regulations, there were schools 
 existing in almost every parish, 35 the crying need of the 17th cen- 
 tury was competent and exemplary teachers, 36 particularly laymen. 
 As an instance of the foregoing may be cited the declaration of 
 M. Damia, the director of the schools in Lyons, France, about the 
 year 1670. He says: "The greater number of mistresses are 
 ignorant not only of the best method of reading and writing, but 
 of the very principles of religion; amongst the masters there are 
 heretics, impious men who have followed infamous callings, and 
 under whose guidance the young are in evident danger of being 
 lost" 37 Again, in a pastoral letter of the bishop of Angers for the 
 
 "McCormick, ibid., 134. 
 
 "Schwickerath, R. Jexuit Education, 105, St. Louis, 1903. (The institu- 
 tions of learning conducted by the Jesuits at the end of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury numbered 769, ibid., 145.) 
 
 "Cf. Rayelet, Armand, Blessed John Baptist de la SaUe, 66, 67. Paris, 
 1888; Allain, L'Abbe\ L 'instruction primaire en France avant la Revolution. 
 49 ff, 55-59, 63, 70, 79 ff, Paris, 1881; Buisson F., Dictionnaire de Pedagogic, 
 1766, Paris, 1886. 
 
 *Ravelet, ibid., 70. 
 
 "Ibid., 72. 
 
 19 
 
20 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 year 1668, we have a seemingly fair estimate of the character of the 
 schoolmasters of the time: "We have the consolation of possessing 
 primary schools in many parishes where the masters and mistresses 
 do a great deal of good by the teaching they give the children; but 
 we have also the pain of seeing many in other places who are of 
 hardly any use for their salvation. These teachers content them- 
 selves with merely showing the children how to read/' 38 
 
 The cause of this apparently deplorable condition was the lack of 
 trained teachers. Evidently a reform was needed, and we notice 
 before long noble self-sacrificing efforts being made to supply 
 teachers properly qualified for their profession. It was a task 
 reserved for the religious congregations, and indeed, they alone 
 proved themselves able to cope with the difficulty. 
 
 Numerous congregations of women devoting themselves to ele- 
 mentary education, sprang into existence during the 17th and 18th 
 centuries, France alone producing fifty Sisterhoods within less than 
 a hundred and fifty years. 39 But the like could not be said of men 
 devoted to the same cause. Repeated attempts at organizing 
 teaching-bodies of men, consecrated to the interests of popular 
 education, had been made in France, but without avail. 
 
 We have seen in the foregoing chapter the noble undertaking of 
 Groot and his followers. Elementary education constituted a very 
 important phase of their educational work, and their particular 
 solicitude for the poorer children was one of their special character- 
 istics. It is very probable too, that their schools must have served 
 as models to later teaching communities, for in the opinion of 
 Ravelet, Groot had " sketched out the work of St. de la Salle." 40 
 
 In 1597, St. John Calasanctius organized in Rome public free 
 schools for the instruction of poor and ignorant children. The 
 teachers were gathered chiefly from among the clergy, and the 
 organization became known as the Order of Piarists. Their 
 schools, which at first were apparently opened exclusively to the 
 poor and confined to primary education, in time included also 
 secondary training. They became, in fact, colleges. 
 
 About this time too (1593), the Yen. Cesar de Bus founded in the 
 diocese of Avignon the Fathers of Christian Doctrine (Peres de la 
 Doctrine Chretienne), for the instruction of youth. Their schools 
 
 "Ibid., 75. 
 39 Ibid., 76, ff. 
 84. 
 
BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS 21 
 
 were free and flourished especially in Southern France. But 
 eventually they also developed into higher schools and colleges. 41 
 
 The aforementioned M. Demia in 1664, whilst inspector- 
 general of schools in the diocese of Lyons, conceived a project of 
 forming a teaching-body of men and women, respectively known 
 as Brothers and Sisters of St. Charles. It was the wish of abbe 
 Demia to have only priests as schoolmasters, and accordingly he 
 founded, at his own expense, a seminary in which young men were 
 to be trained for both the office of curate and that of primary 
 school-teacher. Gradually, however, this institution assumed the 
 character of an ordinary seminary, and only the community of 
 Sisters, which had been founded for the education of girls, survived, 
 and is still flourishing. 42 
 
 It may be asked whether any attempt had been made at found- 
 ing purely congregations of laymen previous to that of St. de la 
 Salle, and devoted solely to primary education. 
 
 St. Peter Fourier (1565-1640) founded in 1598 the Congregation 
 of Notre Dame, for the education of poor girls. He likewise 
 formed a community of men to teach the poor boys of the city and 
 villages. But the latter proved a failure. He could not get it 
 approved in Rome, and the young men whom he had gathered 
 together, left him and returned to the world. 43 
 
 In 1652 and about 1660 similar projects were undertaken, but 
 results did not meet expectations; the work would not spread. 
 
 At Rouen, Rev. Nicholas Barre a religious of the order of 
 Minims, founded in 1678 the Congregation of the Ladies of St. 
 Maur (Sceurs de I' instruction charitable du St. Enfant Jesus, dites de 
 St. Maur), for the teaching of poor girls. This proving successful 
 he decided to open a seminary for the training of schoolmasters. 
 The congregations were respectively known as the Brothers and 
 Sisters of the Christian and Charitable Schools of the Child Jesus. 
 Both branches lived in community, and, although no vows were 
 taken, they followed to some extent a mode of life similar to that 
 of professed religious. Everything looked bright and hopeful at 
 the start, but before long the young men became self-conceited and 
 finally ended in abandoning the work altogether. The Sisterhood, 
 however, continued. 44 
 
 "Ibid., 85. 
 < 2 Ibid., 87. 
 "Ibid., 90. 
 
 "H61yot, R. P. & Badiche, Dictionnaire des Ordres Religieux t. II, 122 (col- 
 lection Migne) Paris, 1847; Heimbucher, ibid., 298, 549. 
 
22 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 In the above enumeration we notice that there was certainly no 
 lack of earnest and noble-hearted endeavor to meet the educa- 
 tional needs of the times. The founders in question must have 
 fully realized the absolute necessity of a reform in elementary 
 education, and surely they spared no pains in employing every 
 means in their power to secure proper educational advantages for 
 the young, especially the poor and neglected. 
 
 These men were, one and all, prompted by generous and disin- 
 terested motives, an evidence of which is the fact that, in most of 
 the projected foundations, instruction was to be gratuitous. 
 This was entirely in accord with the earnest desire of the Church, 
 which had at different times in the past, insistently advocated free 
 elementary education. 45 
 
 All things considered, therefore, it is surprising that the provi- 
 sions made for schoolmasters, should have resulted in such singular 
 failure. Viewing the matter, however, in the light of later events, 
 it would seem that the unsuccessful efforts made, providentially 
 served as a preparation for the great work to be accomplished by 
 the one whom the Lord had preordained. It was reserved for St. 
 John Baptist de la Salle to bring to a successful issue what the 
 others could not. accomplish. By his genius and cooperation with 
 Providence he inaugurated the reform which was to revolutionize 
 modern popular education, not only in France but throughout the 
 world. It was by means of the great body of teachers, of which he 
 was the founder, that he was enabled to achieve his grand purpose 
 of raising the educational standards of the lower classes of society, 
 by teaching children gratuitously, with special preference for the 
 poor. 46 
 
 In the following pages a short account is given of the life of de la 
 Salle together with the origin of his institute. 
 
 The Saint was born at Reims April 30, 1651. From early youth 
 he manifested a deep piety and great contempt for the world. 
 Besides he was gifted with keen intelligence, remarkable discern- 
 ment and judgment, all which clearly presaged a very promising 
 future. 
 
 KX. Migne, Pat. Lot. cv. 196; Wilkins, Concilia Magnae Brittaniae et 
 Hiberniae i, 270, Londini, 1737; Leach, A. F., Educational Charters and Docu- 
 ments 39, Cambridge, 1911; Mansi, Collectio Amplissima ConcUiorum. Tit. 
 5, Cap. 1. Parisiis, 1901. 
 
 Cf. Rides of the Brothers of the Christian Schools Bull of approbation V, 
 Paris, 1905. 
 
BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS 23 
 
 When about eight years of age he was sent to the University of 
 Reims, and very soon made such progress in his studies as to win 
 the admiration of all his teachers. His conduct too was most 
 edifying. 
 
 At the time of his First Communion he manifested a special 
 inclination towards the ecclesiastical state, and as his parents 
 would not in the least interfere with his vocation, he received the 
 tonsure March 11, 1662. 47 
 
 On January 17, 1667, he was favored with an appointment as 
 canon of the Chapter of Reims, a most exceptional privilege indeed 
 for a young man who had not yet attained his sixteenth year. 
 
 The position, entajled many arduous duties, but he still managed 
 to continue his studieX.at the university, and in 1669 obtained the 
 degree of Master of Arts. The doctorate was to follow later. 
 
 In 1670, he entered the seminary of Saint-Sulpice, Paris, to 
 study for the priesthood. His parents died, however, after about 
 a year and a half, and de la Salle, being the oldest of a family of six 
 children, was accordingly obliged to interrupt his studies and 
 return home to take over the management of the household. 48 
 
 For six years he was faithful to his trust, all the while uncon- 
 sciously acquiring that experience and skill which later proved so 
 helpful to him as founder and organizer. As his own counsellor 
 and director, he chose one among the canons of the cathedral, 
 Nicolas Roland, priest and theologian, noted for his great virtue 
 and experience. In any serious difficulty de la Salle always had 
 recourse to his friend, and there grew up between them an inti- 
 macy which had its influence in shaping subsequent events regard- 
 ing the Brotherhood. 
 
 M. Roland, like many of his contemporaries, had resolved to 
 devote himself exclusively to the education of youth, particularly 
 in founding free schools for girls. To provide teachers for the 
 work he solicited and secured the cooperation of Father Barre". 
 The latter sent M. Roland two or three Sisters, who, in addition to 
 several pious young women, formed a community which took the 
 name of Sisters of the Child Jesus (Sceurs de l'Enfant-J6sus). 49 
 The Sisters rapidly increased in numbers and the good work they 
 accomplished in Reims attracted general attention. 
 
 "Annales de I'lnstitut de* Freres des Gcoles chretiennes, t. i., 3, (1679-1719) 
 Paris, 1882. 
 
 "Cf. Ravelet, ibid., 119. 
 "Heimbucher, ibid., 299, 549. 
 
24 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 But with progress also came trials, contradictions and oppres- 
 sions from both civil and ecclesiastical authorities. The little 
 community could not secure legal recognition. M. Roland's 
 health too, was poor, and to safeguard the very existence of his 
 undertaking, he looked about for one to whom he could entrust 
 its interests in case he should die. He appealed to St. de la Salle, 
 and endeavored to awaken within him the same sentiments of zeal 
 and ardor for this kind of work which animated his own soul. Nor 
 were his overtures fruitless. De la Salle, on his part, also tenderly 
 loved little children, in imitation of Jesus his Divine Master. And 
 when in April, 1678, M. Roland fell seriously ill, and death seemed 
 imminent, he appointed de la Salle as his executor, and prevailed 
 upon him to take care of his community of Sisters. 50 
 
 M. Roland died, and thus de la Salle became director of the con- 
 gregation. He was now a priest, having been ordained two weeks 
 before the death of his friend. He had faithfully pursued his 
 theological studies at the University of Reims with this end in 
 view, all during the years that he looked after the interests of his 
 brothers and sisters. Now, in compliance with the dying wish of 
 his former director, he had taken upon himself another responsi- 
 bility, which, though not very much according to his natural incli- 
 nations, he would nevertheless try to meet honorably. 
 
 Within a year the community was established on a firm and 
 secure basis, put in possession of all legal rights, and placed under 
 the guardianship of a priest who acted in the capacity of sole 
 administrator. 
 
 De la Salle had accomplished his work of charity, and he with- 
 drew to follow in quiet his habitual form of life. He could not, 
 however, resist the grace of God, and he found himself being drawn 
 more and more towards taking interest in the education of youth. 
 His acquaintance with M. Roland and especially his work in con- 
 nection with the Sisters, evidently influenced his tastes and inclina- 
 tions. We could regard this as the initial stage in the develop- 
 ment of his vocation as religious founder. The next advance 
 involves a rather complicated process. Various influences, which, 
 in the beginning seemed to act independently, are brought finally 
 to converge towards a common end, namely, the systematic estab- 
 lishment of the Institute of the Christian Schools. We shall now 
 endeavor to trace the process of this development. 
 
 60 Ravelet, ibid., 126. 
 
BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS 25 
 
 Among the educational movements, besides that of M. Roland, 
 which just at this time attracted general attention, was the one 
 inaugurated by Father Barre, already referred to. The latter 
 was well known as a missionary, and as a man of consummate 
 wisdom and eminent virtue. His success at Rouen was greatly 
 due to the noble generosity and active zeal of Madame de Maillefer, 
 a lady of great wealth who, by a singular grace of God, had been 
 converted from a life of vanity and pleasure to one of penance and 
 devotion to works of charity. 51 She was a native of Reims, and a 
 relative of de la Salle. 62 According to the Divine will, she was 
 to provide the first means for the establishment and maintenance 
 of the Christian Schools. To her, indeed, is credited the honor of 
 being the immediate cause of the great life-work of de la Salle. 
 
 Madame de Maillefer was living in Rouen at the time Father 
 Barre* founded his schools there. His success inspired her to assist 
 in establishing schools also in her own native city of Reims. And, 
 as she contributed so liberally to founding schools for girls, she 
 desired to do the same for boys. To this effect she sought the 
 cooperation of M. Roland whom she incidentally met on one of his 
 visits to Rouen. He fully accorded with her idea, but death inter- 
 vened and seemingly put an end to the project. 
 
 Madame de Maillefer, however, was not to be diverted from 
 carrying out her resolution. Nor was she obliged to wait very long 
 before an opportunity for the exercise of her zeal presented itself. 
 
 A pious layman then living in Rouen, named Adrian Nyel, had 
 already for some time, more or less, interested himself in educa- 
 tional matters. He was commissioned by the city hospital author- 
 ities to give instruction in Christian doctrine to the young men of 
 the establishment, and also teach them reading and writing. In 
 time, he extended his activities, and included a certain class of 
 children. He even persuaded a number of fellow laymen, despite 
 the meagre remuneration received, to enlist in the same good cause. 
 
 The little group called themselves Brothers, though apparently 
 they did not at first live in community. They made no vows. 
 Their actuating motives were simply piety and love for the work. 
 We cannot, however, fail to recognize in this pious association the 
 nucleus of the future Brotherhood. 
 
 51 Ibid., 1:10 
 "Ibid., 135. 
 
26 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 As soon as Madame de Maillefer therefore heard about M. Nyel 
 and his work, she hastened to propose to him her intentions. He 
 accepted her offer, and agreed to set out for Reims at once. She 
 promised him the necessary financial assistance, and before his 
 departure, gave him letters of introduction, one to de la Salle and 
 another to the superioress of the Sisters of the Holy Child Jesus. 
 
 Thus did God achieve His purpose in bringing together the two 
 men, each of whom was to contribute his share in the establishment 
 of schools. Neither M. Nyel nor St. de la Salle had the slightest 
 idea or presentiment of the stupendous undertaking in which they 
 were about to engage. 
 
 By a mysterious coincidence they both met at the house of the 
 Sister superioress, and in the interview that followed, de la Salle 
 offered to house M. Nyel for a few days, suggesting that he could 
 thus study up the situation at his leisure. 
 
 Though de la Salle most cheerfully tendered his cooperation in 
 the proposed undertaking, he knew not just how to proceed. But 
 having consulted God in prayer, he decided to submit the matter 
 to a number of his ecclesiastical friends. Meetings were held at 
 different times, and the members of the council finally agreed to act 
 on the opinion of de la Salle, namely, to entrust the venture to M. 
 Dorigny, parish priest of St. Maurice. 
 
 No better choice could have been made, as the worthy pastor 
 had himself been contemplating for some time the founding of a 
 public free school, and he of course most heartily accepted the 
 welcome proposition. He even insisted that M. Nyel and the 
 companion who accompanied him, board and lodge at the paro- 
 chial residence. Madame de Maillefer 's yearly allowance covered 
 all the expenses. The school was opened April 15, 1679, and in a 
 short time was in most flourishing condition. 63 
 
 De la Salle, having thus brought about the successful issue of the 
 enterprise, desired to withdraw from further notice. But this was 
 impossible. The heroic disinterestedness of the servant of God, 
 coupled with an unusual sagacity, only drew upon him more and 
 more the attention of others. M. Nyel regarded him as his chief 
 counsellor, and frequently called upon him in his difficulties. De 
 la Salle, on his part, always received him most kindly and rendered 
 him whatever services he could. 
 
 When some months later, Madame de Croyeres, a lady of great 
 fortune, desired that a similar school be opened in her parish of 
 
 "Annales de 1'Institut, ibid., 8. 
 
BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS 27 
 
 Saint-Jacques, the holy canon was again induced, though rather 
 reluctantly, to assume the role of organizer. God seems also to 
 have given visible sign of His approval, for just at this time three 
 young men offered themselves to assist in the work. 54 
 
 Hence, M. Nyel was able to open the school in September, 1679. 
 He himself took charge of it, having provided another master to 
 replace him at St. Maurice. 
 
 The new school was soon as flourishing as the first. But not- 
 withstanding the fact that the two schools were successful, they 
 did not fully come up to expectations, especially they were not ac- 
 cording to de la Salle's conception of what a perfect school implies. 
 Before long it became apparent that the teachers lacked the disci- 
 pline and regularity so indispensably necessary not only for success 
 in their daily work, but above all for their very existence as a 
 united teaching-body. 
 
 M. Nyel, their nominal superior, though evidently well-inten- 
 tioned and capable in certain respects, had not the requisite 
 stability of character and tact properly to direct his fellow- 
 teachers. His frequent absence, for example, was undoubtedly a 
 cause of disorder and irregularity. 55 Then too, with the increase in 
 teachers, the funds required for the general maintenance became 
 altogether insufficient. 
 
 Discouragement was the inevitable consequence, and most prob- 
 ably had it not been for the kind attention and generosity of de la 
 Salle, who could not refrain from interesting himself in their wel- 
 fare, the teachers would have disbanded. 
 
 The holy priest offered to defray the balance of their expenses, 
 and, on his suggestion, they rented a house near his own where he 
 supplied them with food from his own kitchen, thereby reducing 
 their cost of living. Besides, he furnished them a daily time-table, 
 thus regulating their hour of rising, taking of meals, retiring, etc. 
 
 Practically he was their superior, though he himself regarded his 
 benevolent acts as mere exterior tokens of consideration. As yet 
 he harbored no idea of assuming absolute control over them, and 
 still less had he any desire of sharing their mode of life and becom- 
 ing one of them. Being himself a man of exceptional culture and 
 refinement, he could not but feel a sort of natural repugnance for 
 these men comparatively unattractive and uncouth in manners. 
 
 "Brother Noah, Life and Work of the Yen. J.B.dela Salle, 54, N. Y., 1883. 
 "Ibid., 56; cf. Annales, ibid., 10. 
 
28 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 His own words most candidly express his state of mind and feelings 
 toward them: "If I had ever thought that what I did out of pure 
 charity for the poor school-teachers would make it incumbent upon 
 me to live with them, I would have given it up at once." 56 And 
 again: "I imagined that my relations with these masters required 
 me simply to direct their external conduct, to provide for their 
 wants, and to see that they fulfilled their duties faithfully." 57 
 
 It is not to be supposed that de la Salle occupied himself with the 
 masters to any great extent. His duties as canon as well as his 
 own household affairs, and above all his theological studies at the 
 university, left him very little time for anything else. The fact 
 that he even passed for his doctorate about this time (1681), 
 clearly shows what was uppermost in his mind. 
 
 But, as his interest in the schoolmasters gradually increased, he 
 felt the necessity of giving them more attention, and to economize 
 time, he had them come and take meals at his own house. He 
 utilized the occasion in giving them further advice and wholesome 
 direction for their own personal and individual good, as well as 
 practical suggestions as to the management of their classes. 
 
 This general surveillance, while certainly benefiting the masters 
 personally, must also have indirectly aided very much towards 
 popularizing their schools, for in a short time demands came in 
 from different quarters asking for teachers. The first of these was 
 from Guise, a city near Reims. 
 
 M. Nyel, true to his arduous and impetuous nature, was in favor 
 of immediate acceptance. De la Salle, however, was altogether 
 opposed to the idea, and he tried by various arguments to dissuade 
 his friend from undertaking the venture, but all to no avail. The 
 opportunity was too promising for M. Nyel, and he could not 
 resist. He accordingly left for Guise during Holy Week (1681), 
 secretly reckoning on de la Salle to replace him in his absence. 
 But after about a week he returned depressed and disappointed; 
 the venture had failed. 58 
 
 While he was away de la Salle had occasion to come into closer 
 contact with the young teachers, and to observe how deficient they 
 
 B6 Catholic Encyclopedia, ibid., Vol. VIII, 444; cf. M. l'Abb6 J. B. Blain, 
 La Vie du Ven. Serviteur de Dieu, Jean Baptist de la Salle, Instituteur des 
 Freres des ficoles Chretiennes, 85, Rouen. 1733. 
 
 "Brother Noah, ibid., 58. 
 
 "Ravelet, ibid., 146, 147. 
 
BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS 29 
 
 were in certain particulars. In fact, their condition was such that 
 there was little hope of their long surviving if in his charity and 
 goodness he had not taken the matter personally in hand. M. 
 Nyel was aware of conditions but knew not what remedy to pro- 
 pose. 59 
 
 On his return from Guise he noticed a very marked improvement 
 in his confreres, and it is not surprising therefore that he should 
 have begged de la Salle to take them into his own house and 
 assume entire responsibility for the future. 60 
 
 This was rather a serious proposition, and the holy man fully 
 realized what it meant for him should he consent. He had grad- 
 ually and unconsciously grown to love the poor teachers and the 
 noble work in which they were engaged. It is true, they were men 
 of little culture and learning, but he could not help admiring their 
 sincerity and good will. To abandon them, seemed to him cruel 
 and heartless. But then too, he was certain to arouse bitter 
 opposition on the part of the members of the household should he 
 bring in the young men to live with him. 
 
 In his perplexity he determined to seek the advice of his spirit- 
 ual director, Pre Barre, who was then at Paris. He went to see 
 him, and, with childlike simplicity and candor, exposed to him his 
 predicament. Father Barre*, after hearing all, felt convinced it 
 was God's will that de la Salle should devote himself to the educa- 
 tion of youth, and that he should continue the work already so 
 well begun. "Take your teachers," he told him, "lodge them in 
 your private residence, provide them with food and clothing: in a 
 word, become their superior and their father. 61 
 
 De la Salle no longer hesitated. The words of Father Barre* 
 were to him as the voice of Heaven, and he decided then and there, 
 to follow the promptings of his own good nature, regardless of 
 whatever others would say or think. Accordingly, on June 24, 
 1681, the feast-day of his patron, St. John the Baptist, the entire 
 community was transferred to his own residence. 61 
 
 As he suspected, his action stirred up the bitterest feelings in the 
 family, and called forth unfavorable comments and even the ridi- 
 cule on the part of others, but he would not alter his course. 
 
 "Brother Noah, ibid., 60. 
 Ravelot, ibid., 147. 
 "Brother Noah, ibid., 62. 
 Annales, ibid., 14. 
 
30 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 
 All the time he could possibly spare, he devoted to the intellec- 
 tual and religious formation of his teachers; thus inuring them 
 gradually to the rule and strict discipline of a regular religious 
 community. Not all, however, could conform themselves to this 
 new regime. A few among them manifestly had no vocation, and, 
 as a matter of course, withdrew from the group. 
 
 In consequence, conditions for a time became somewhat pre- 
 carious, and the good work seemed almost on the point of dissolu- 
 tion; the outlook was anything but encouraging. Nevertheless, 
 de la Salle did not lose heart; he prayed and toiled on bravely with 
 firm trust in Providence, hoping for better days to come. Nor 
 was he disappointed. New members gradually presented them- 
 selves, and the community again assumed normal conditions. 63 
 
 In June, 1682, de la Salle had the teachers removed from his own 
 residence to one more quiet and secluded, situated in the vicinity 
 of the rue Nueve, and which, it is claimed, the Brothers have 
 retained ever since. It could truly be regarded as the berceau of 
 the Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools. 64 
 
 De la Salle had thus advanced another step towards the final 
 goal by his partial separation from home and relatives. Uncon- 
 sciously he was strengthening more and more the bonds which were 
 uniting him to his life-work, already begun at the time he first 
 incidentally met Adrian Nyel on the threshold of the Sisters' 
 convent. He had as yet no definite plans, and was altogether 
 uncertain of the future. But he was not disturbed. He felt he 
 was in the hands of God who, in His own good time, would most 
 assuredly manifest His Divine will. Meanwhile he patiently and 
 diligently labored in the interests of his beloved schoolmasters. 
 
 The number of schools had in time increased, a few of these being 
 outside the city of Reims, for example, those of Rethel, Chateau- 
 Porcien and Laon, all free schools and founded during the year 
 1682. M. Nyel negotiated affairs, and he did indeed acquit him- 
 self most admirably of the task entrusted to him, without seeming 
 in the least to appropriate to himself any undue credit, whereas he 
 was always most enthusiastic in praise of his beloved master and 
 director. Besides, he was greatly instrumental in the recruiting 
 of new members, thus indirectly aiding in the foundation of new 
 schools. 66 
 
 "Ravelet, ibid., 150. 
 "Annales, ibid., 20. 
 "Brother Noah, ibid., 64. 
 
BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS 31 
 
 As time went on de la Salle felt more and more convinced that 
 it was God's will he should devote all his time and energy to the 
 direction of his teachers and their schools, in short, that he must 
 make it his life-work. 66 On the other hand he realized too, what 
 sacrifices this would entail: the relinquishing of his canonry, and 
 all further prospects of ecclesiastical honors and dignities, the total 
 and irrevocable severance of all family ties, and in return, a life 
 of renunciation, hardship and trial. 
 
 These were indeed questions of momentous importance and 
 worthy of most serious consideration. Hence he sought in prayer 
 and consultation with others the necessary light and counsel to 
 direct himself properly. "In the choice I am about to make," he 
 writes, "what should determine my resolution? Certainly, the 
 greater glory of God, the service of the Church, my perfection, and 
 the salvation of souls. But if I consult these motives, so befitting 
 a priest of the Lord, I must determine to renounce my canonry, 
 to give myself entirely to the care of the schools, and to form good 
 teachers. Moreover, God, who conducts all things wisely and 
 gently, who forces not the inclinations of men, wishes me to devote 
 myself entirely to the care of these schools; He directs me toward 
 this end, in an imperceptible though rapid manner, so that one 
 connection after another has attached me to a vocation I had 
 not foreseen." 67 
 
 After deliberate reflection and earnest prayer he finally decided, 
 despite every opposition, to make the sacrifice. Accordingly in 
 July, 1683, he resigned his canonry, which act he later supple- 
 mented by the heroic renunciation of his entire patrimony in the 
 interests of the poor. 
 
 All earthly ties were thus broken, and he could now reckon him- 
 self as one among his beloved disciples. As expressed in the 
 Annales, the holy founder, "devenu enfin pauvre lui-mtme et 
 depouille de toute dignite eccttsiastique, il parut heureux au milieu 
 de ses discipks, en les assurant que des&rmais tous ensemble ne 
 formeraient qu'une seule Jamille**" Their joys and sorrows were 
 to be his. All his energies were to be henceforth employed in the 
 interest of his rising institute and the furtherance of Christian 
 schools. 
 
 Annales, ibid., 22. 
 "Brother Noah, ibid., 65. 
 Annales, ibid., 24. 
 
32 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 In becoming, therefore, the head and soul of the community, de 
 la Salle's first care was to provide his Brothers with a more or less 
 detailed rule, which would unite them as one body and establish 
 them on a firm foundation. To this end, he called a general meet- 
 ing at Reims, May 9, 1684, of all the directors of the principal 
 schools. There were twelve in all, including those of the local 
 house. 
 
 During their deliberations it was decided: " (1) to form an asso- 
 ciation, to which they gave the name of Society of the Brothers of 
 the Christian Schools (Societe des Freres des Ecoles chretiennes) ; 
 
 (2) to take each a name of religion, preceded by the word Brother; 
 
 (3) to wear a uniform costume, regarding which St. de la Salle was 
 asked to determine the color and the form." 69 Other important 
 questions, such as the vows, regulations of the day, and of meals 
 were likewise dwelt upon and at least provisionally outlined. There 
 was no written rule; it was only after eleven years that this was 
 thought of. In the meantime the Brothers were to follow the 
 verbal prescriptions which their holy founder committed to them. 
 
 Some among the most fervent present at the meeting wished 
 to consecrate themselves to the society by perpetual vows, but 
 their prudent director, aware of the fickleness of human nature, 
 wisely moderated their zeal. In the discussion that followed it 
 was agreed that the twelve Brothers present would take the vow 
 of obedience and stability in the society for three years, to be 
 renewed annually. The appropriate ceremony took place Trinity 
 Sunday, May 27, 1684. 70 The younger members were attended 
 to later on. 
 
 In virtue of this solemn act of religion the community could 
 henceforth, in all truth, regard itself as a religious congregation, 
 even though there was not as yet any official recognition from 
 either the Church or the State. The Brothers experienced as a 
 result a renewed vitality and an assurance of the divine protection 
 in their work of charity. Animated with a generous spirit and in 
 union with their holy founder, they determined to labor both for 
 their own sanctification and the eternal interest of the little ones 
 entrusted to their care. 
 
 Shortly after the above ceremony de la Salle founded his novi- 
 tiate at Reims, and in the same year (1684), in response to the 
 
 "Ibid., 27. 
 
 70 Ravelet, ibid., 183, and cf. Annales, ibid., 28. 
 
BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS 33 
 
 earnest solicitations of several pastors from the rural districts in 
 the neighborhood of Reims, he instituted his seminary (normal 
 school) for the training of country school-teachers, the very first 
 mentioned in the annals of public instruction. 71 As he had not a 
 sufficient number of Brothers, and besides having made a rule 
 never to send less than two of them to teach in the schools, he 
 received young laymen furnished him by the cure's, trained them 
 in his seminary for a few years, and then sent them back to teach 
 in the schools of the villages and country places. 
 
 There were, therefore, three different communities at Reims 
 under the direction of de la Salle, namely, that of the Brothers, the 
 novitiate, and the seminary of the country school-teachers, in all 
 about fifty persons. Providence blessed the work, and it flourished 
 for the time being despite the unavoidable inconveniences and the 
 occasional petty jealousies of outsiders. 
 
 Toward the end of the year 1685, Adrian Nyel, who had had till 
 then almost exclusive control of the schools other than those of the 
 city of Reims, withdrew himself from further connection with the 
 Brothers. He had not the vocation, in fact, never really reckoned 
 himself as one of them. De la Salle certainly regretted very much 
 to lose the man who had been, after God, the one most instrumental 
 in founding the institute, and who had worked so zealously in its 
 behalf. He returned to Rouen where he was reinstated as super- 
 intendent of schools of the poor, which office he held till his death 
 in 1687. 
 
 By his departure the institute was assured centralization of 
 government, together with a more definite unity of organization. 72 
 Henceforth all responsibility rested with de la Salle, as every phase 
 and detail relating to the institute depended now upon his direct 
 management. The honor of being superior was, however, not at 
 all according to his desires, and thinking the occasion opportune, he 
 made overtures to free himself from the heavy burden, and actually 
 succeeded in persuading the Brothers to elect one from their 
 midst, Brother Henri L'Heureux, as head of the community. 
 
 As we may readily judge, this abnormal state of affairs could not 
 endure very long, for as soon as the ecclesiastical authorities be- 
 came aware of conditions, they insisted and prevailed upon the 
 holy founder to resume his position as superior of the Brothers. 
 
 "Ravelet, ibid., 106. 
 "Annafes, ibid., 42. 
 
34 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 With all that, de la Salle clung to his idea, 73 and to this effect he 
 afforded Brother Henri the opportunity to study for the priest- 
 hood, with the intention of installing him some day as his successor. 
 But again he was disappointed, for the good Brother took sick and 
 died when just about ready for ordination. It was indeed a heavy 
 blow, but de la Salle, after a night spent in prayer and reflection, 
 also recognized in this sad incident a clear indication of the Divine 
 will that the society was not to include priests among its members, 
 and in consequence he furthermore most explicitly determined, in 
 regard to this matter, that a Brother could not even aspire to the 
 priesthood. 74 
 
 In 1691, the founder together with two of the most influential of 
 the Brothers, Nicholas Vuyart and Gabriel Drolin, took perpetual 
 engagements, vowing to maintain and further the interests of the 
 institute as far as lay in their power, thus guaranteeing, at least 
 humanly speaking, its permanent existence. 
 
 Four years afterwards (1695), de la Salle submitted to the Broth- 
 ers the first draft of the rules as written by himself. It was re- 
 ceived as the expression of the will of Heaven, and conduced very 
 much toward strengthening the bonds of union among the mem- 
 bers, as well as inspiring greater love for the institute. 75 
 
 Yet the community had its periods of trial and suffering. Be- 
 sides deaths and defections among the Brothers, which at times 
 considerably reduced their number, persecution and calumny 
 eventually threatened destruction and ruin. The most bitter 
 attacks emanated from a certain guild of secular teachers, the 
 schoolmasters and writingmasters who, seeing their field of activity, 
 more or less, affected by the schools of the Brothers, adopted every 
 possible means to destroy their influence, even appealing to the 
 civil courts to achieve their purpose. 76 Occasionally also among 
 ecclesiastics were to be found some who were a source of trouble 
 and vexation, either in openly maligning the founder, 77 or other- 
 
 "Ravelet, ibid., 222. 
 
 74 Ibid., 223, and cf. Rules of the Brothers, ibid., ix-7; (quoting the bull of 
 approbation we read: "Quod nullus e Fratribus Sacerdoatium mbiat, aut ad 
 Or dines ecclesiasticos aspiret"). 
 
 76 Cf. Annales, ibid., 97. From all accounts the Rules of de la Salle were 
 largely the fruit of his own prayer, study and reflection. Only at the time of 
 their revision toward the end of his life, did he consider it necessary to add cer- 
 tain sections taken partly from the constitutions of St. Ignatius. (Ravelet, 
 ibid., 406-409.) 
 
 "Ravelet, ibid., 215 ff, and cf. Brother Noah, ibid., 152 ff. 
 
 "Annales, ibid., 60. 
 
BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS 35 
 
 wise interfering with the organization and government of the 
 institute. 
 
 The persecution apparently reached its culmination when in 
 1702, Cardinal de Noailles deposed the founder and provided 
 another priest, M. Bricot, to substitute him as superior of the 
 Brothers. 78 Evidently the prelate had been misinformed and 
 mislead into a decision which he very soon regretted. The Saint 
 was again placed at the head of his community, only to continue 
 struggling as before. 
 
 Still, whilst engaged in defending his own interests, and vindi- 
 cating his honor and the good name of the Brothers, he devoted 
 himself with untiring zeal in extending the works of the society. 
 Year by year the community increased in membership, and schools 
 sprang up everywhere throughout the country. The institute 
 seemed thus an assured fact, but in the mind of the founder only 
 one thing was yet necessary to ensure its lasting stability: the 
 installation of a Brother as superior general. 
 
 To this effect he called a general chapter in 1717, and having 
 at last convinced the Brothers that it would be most expedient for 
 the society that he surrender his authority to another, th$ assembly 
 proceeded in the election of a new superior. The unanimous choice 
 was in favor of Brother Barthelemy, the one most highly esteemed 
 for his virtue and ability. 79 
 
 His great mission accomplished, de la Salle could now peace- 
 fully and calmly look into the future, feeling certain that his 
 institute would stand the test of time; and that his beloved disci- 
 ples would, with the blessing of Heaven, continue the glorious 
 work of education, in which cause he had labored and endured 
 so much. 
 
 At his death two years later (1719), the institute numbered 
 two hundred and seventy-four Brothers, with twenty-six houses 
 in France and one in Rome. In 1725, the new congregation was 
 the recipient of two singular favors: one the legal recognition 
 by the State, and the other the approbation by the Holy See. 80 
 
 The spirit of the founder still lives in his spiritual children, with 
 the same freshness and vigor as when he sojourned among them. 
 Truly the mustard seed has grown to a mighty tree whose branches 
 
 "Ravelet, ibid., 266 ff. 
 
 79 Ibid., 403-407, and cf. Brother Noah, ibid., 243 ff. 
 
 "Ravelet, ibid., 439 ff. 
 
36 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 spread over the world. Establishments of the Brothers dot the 
 map of every country on the globe. Thus, according to the de- 
 tailed figures available up to 1888, the year of the beatification 
 of de la Salle, there were 1896 communities: Europe 1625 (1427 
 in France alone), Asia 39, Africa 56, and America 176. 81 In 1900, 
 the institute could muster a total membership of well-nigh 15,500, 82 
 a glorious testimony indeed of the energizing spirit that permeates 
 the life and work of the Brothers. 
 
 Beyond question they are the most numerous among the teach- 
 ing Brotherhoods, and most certainly, too, their influence has 
 affected every subsequent teaching organization, which fact will 
 become more and more evident as we proceed. 
 
 BROTHERS OF ST. GABRIEL (1702) 
 
 This congregation, originally called the Brothers of the Holy 
 Ghost, (Freres du St. Esprit), was founded by the great French 
 missionary, Blessed Grignion de Montfort, at the beginning of the 
 eighteenth century, twenty years after that of St. de la Salle. 
 Its early activities were confined to northwestern France, especially 
 Brittany and Vendee, where de Montfort spent the greater part 
 of his missionary career. 
 
 Louis-Marie Grignion de Montfort was born at Montfort-sur- 
 Meu, in Brittany, January 31, 1673. From early childhood he 
 gave evidence of singular piety, and in particular, a most extraordi- 
 nary love for the Mother of God, which became, in fact, one of his 
 distinctive characteristics. In the words of M. Blain, 83 a school 
 companion and life-long friend, "the love of Mary was as born 
 with him ... He was the zealous panegyrist of the Blessed 
 Virgin, the faithful promulgator of her privileges and her great- 
 ness, the indefatigable preacher of her devotion, in short, one of 
 the greatest devotees of the Mother of God the Church has ever 
 seen." 84 
 
 When twelve years of age he was sent to study at the college 
 of the Jesuits at Rennes, where he gave the example of rarest 
 
 "Ibid., 621. 
 
 ^The Catholic Editing Company, The Catholic Church in the U. S. of Amer- 
 ica, Vol. I, 89, New York, 1912. 
 
 "The same who later on became the spiritual director of the Christian 
 Brothers, and the first biographer of St. de la Salle. 
 
 M Fonteneau R. P., Vie du Bienheureux L. M. Grignion de Montfort, 4, 
 Paris, 1887. 
 
BROTHERS OF ST. GABRIEL 37 
 
 diligence and virtue. At the age of nineteen he left for Paris to 
 enter upon his theological course, in preparation for the ecclesiasti- 
 cal state, and at twenty-seven he was ordained priest. 
 
 In his ardent zeal for souls he shortly afterwards offered to ac- 
 company an expedition to America, to labor as missionary among 
 the savages of Canada, but was withheld from embarking through 
 the intervention of his spiritual director. Later, this same in- 
 clination to labor in foreign fields manifested itself, when, on a 
 visit to Rome, he petitioned the Holy Father to allow him to work 
 among the infidels. He was told on the occasion that France 
 was a field vast enough for the exercise of his zeal. 86 And cer- 
 tainly his after career proved how valuable was the advice of the 
 pope. 
 
 For three years he filled the position of chaplain of the General 
 Hospital in Poitiers, in which capacity he greatly endeared himself 
 to all, especially the patients. It was also during this period that 
 he conceived various projects which were to aid in perpetuating 
 the work of evangelization in which he was to engage, namely, 
 three foundations: one, a congregation of women who were to be 
 employed in hospital work, and in teaching poor girls; another, a 
 body of priests to give missions; and a third, a community of 
 Brothers who were to aid the missionaries in their apostolic labors, 
 perform manual work, and also teach school. 86 
 
 The Daughters of Wisdom (Filles de la Sagesse) , as the first were 
 called, originated about this time (1702). They still flourish, and 
 in 1900 ''numbered five thousand, with forty-four houses, and 
 gave instruction to 60,000 children." 87 The second, or Company 
 of Mary (Compagnie de Marie), was organized only a year or two 
 before the death of the founder. The third group, or Congrega- 
 tion of Brothers of the Holy Ghost, was formed by de Montfort in 
 the course of his apostolic tours. 
 
 In the year 1705 the first member of the Brotherhood was re- 
 ceived, and that under most extraordinary circumstances. A 
 young man from Bouille'-Loret had come to Poitiers with the inten- 
 tion of entering the Capuchin order. De Montfort accidentally 
 met him in one of the churches of the city, and was deeply im- 
 cd by his respectful and devotional bearing. He called the 
 
 Tonteneau, ibid., 165. 
 "Ibid.. :;><>. 
 Vutholic Encyclopedia, Vol. IX, 384, and cf. Heimbucher, ibid., 552. 
 
38 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 young man, and having learnt the purpose which had brought him 
 to the city, the servant of God, as if by Divine inspiration, addressed 
 to him the words of Christ : "Follow me." And indeed, marvelous 
 to relate, he was immediately obeyed. 88 The young candidate, 
 afterwards known as Brother Mathurin, thus became the first 
 member of the society. He was faithful to his new master, and 
 for a number of years frequently accompanied him on his missions. 
 
 As we study the life of the holy missionary, and follow him from 
 mission to mission, we discover that, at times, different Brothers 
 accompany him for a while and then apparently are lost from 
 view. It is possible that these were detained in certain localities 
 as assistants to the parish priests in teaching catechism, or even 
 holding class, as we shall see later. 
 
 In his endeavor to preserve the fruits of his labors, de Montfort 
 was wont to establish certain practices, such as the recitation of 
 the rosary, and to found confraternities or associations of the Bl. 
 Virgin, but above all was he solicitous as to the education of the 
 children, and the care of the sick. He manifested a particular love 
 for little children, and, like his Divine Master, felt happy to see 
 himself surrounded by the little ones, to whom he would teach the 
 elements of Christian doctrine. In all his missions his principal 
 care was to provide the parishes with good teachers for both boys 
 and girls. As mentioned by M. Grandet, his first biographer: 
 "The first occupation of M. Grignion de Montfort was to estab- 
 lish in the course of his missions, Christian schools for the boys and 
 the girls, and he wished that the masters be clothed in black, at 
 least in soutane, to inspire greater respect, and the mistresses to 
 wear a hood, and a cloak reaching to the feet." 89 
 
 Now, it is evident that the holy missionary could not have 
 employed only his own teachers, the Brothers and Sisters, as they 
 were comparatively few in number twelve Brothers and a few 
 Sisters at the time of his death; therefore he must have been 
 obliged to have recourse to outsiders. He does not state expressly 
 that he employed the Brothers in this capacity, but still, this 
 should not argue against the fact that the Brothers did actually 
 teach, even if only "d'unefagon passagere," as during the missions. 90 
 
 88 Fonteneau, ibid., 152. 
 M Ibid., 361. 
 
 90 Frfcre J. d. P. Les Freres de St. Gabriel dans UAmerique du Nord Notice 
 Historique, 11, Roulers, Belgique, 1913. 
 
BROTHERS OF ST. GABRIEL 39 
 
 M. Grandet, in speaking of Brother Mathurin, says: " During all 
 the time that he lived with M. de Montfort, he taught catechism, 
 held class, and most piously attended to the choir." In another 
 part of his writing the same historian mentions that "the Brothers 
 instituted by de Montfort were assiduous in teaching the catechism, 
 and school. 1 ' 91 And again, in the testament of the founder, written 
 on the eve of his death, his wishes are clearly manifested in regard 
 to the question of the Brothers teaching school. There is mention 
 of a "small house situated at Vouvant, given by a pious lady on 
 condition that, if there are not funds sufficient to build, the 
 Brothers of the Community of the Holy Ghost could dwell there, 
 pour faire I'ecole charitable." 92 
 
 Besides, it is claimed that the Brothers taught "defa<;on perma- 
 nente" in the schools of La Rochelle and St. Laurent, 93 but whether 
 or not this was during the lifetime of the founder, is uncertain. 
 However this may be, there is no doubt about the fact that, in the 
 first years following the death of de Montfort (1716), one of the 
 Brothers taught school at St. Laurent. Therefore, one must evi- 
 dently conclude with the esteemed author of the life of the holy 
 founder that "le bienheureux Grignion de Montfort a reellement 
 fonde un groupe de freres enseignants." 94 
 
 As referred to above, there were only about twelve Brothers at 
 the time of his death, in April, 1716, but the seed had been sown, 
 and it slowly grew throughout the succeeding years. The Brothers 
 remained true to the original purpose conceived by de Montfort, 
 and, while some engaged in teaching, others devoted their time to 
 manual labor in the interior of the community, or assisted the 
 missionaries in their work of salvation. They were under direc- 
 tion of the superior of the Company of Mary until 1842 when they 
 assumed self-government by electing one of their own as head of 
 the community. 96 
 
 From all accounts the Brothers were never very numerous during 
 the 18th century, and in the period of the French Revolution they 
 were almost on the verge of annihilation. A number of them fell 
 victim to the ferocity and cruelty of the revolutionists, 96 and there 
 
 91 Fonteneau, ibid., 362. 
 w lbid., 405. 
 
 "Frfcre J. d. P. ibid., 11. 
 
 M Laveille Mgr., Le Bienheureux Louis-Marie Grignion de Montfort et set 
 famines religieuses, 341, Tours, 1916. 
 *Fonteneau, ibid., 415. 
 "Laveille, ibid., 421. 
 
40 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 were no more vocations to fill the ranks of those missing. Yet, 
 despite the losses and suffering sustained by the little community, 
 it survived the tempest; and thus the connecting link joining the 
 two periods of its existence was secured. 
 
 When calm was finally restored we find one of the members of 
 the community, Brother Elias, resuming the work of teaching at 
 St. Laurent. He was still teaching in 1821, when the priests of the 
 Company of Mary returned to continue their missionary work. 97 
 The superior at the time, M. Gabriel Deshayes, was a man en- 
 dowed with inexhaustible energy, and imbued with the most ardent 
 zeal for the propagation of works of charity and education. Be- 
 sides being co-founder of a certain Brotherhood, he was also found- 
 er of the Sisters of Christian Instruction of St. Gildas, of the Sisters 
 of the Holy Guardian Angel, and of the Brothers of Agriculture of 
 St. Francis of Assisi. 
 
 In becoming superior general of the religious families of Bl. de 
 Montfort, he undertook to resuscitate the Community of Brothers 
 of the Holy Ghost, to reorganize it, and place it on a firm and last- 
 ing foundation. 
 
 Before his arrival at St. Laurent, and while vicar-general of 
 the diocese of Vannes and cure of Auray, he had founded next to his 
 presbytery, a novitiate of the Brothers of Christian Instruction 
 (Ploermel), at the same time that his esteemed colleague, Jean- 
 Marie de Lamennais conducted one at Saint-Brieuc. When he 
 left the parish, ten of these young men followed him to join the 
 Brothers of the Holy Ghost." 
 
 The community counted only eighteen members all told in 1821, 
 but before the end of the following year, the number of Brothers 
 almost reached forty, chiefly due to the zeal and energy of the new 
 superior. 
 
 Fully in accord with the project of de Montfort regarding 
 Christian instruction for the poor, M. Deshayes at once set him- 
 self to prepare some of his Brothers for the task of primary teaching, 
 having in view the sore needs of the poor country children 100 of the 
 
 97 Fonteneau, ibid., 441. Besides Brother Elias who taught the little boys 
 of the parish, there were three other Brothers employed in the service of the 
 community. 
 
 "Heimbucher, ibid., 359, 556, 568. 
 
 "Laveille, ibid., 425; the remaining novices united with those of Saint- 
 Brieuc. 
 
 100 Cf. ibid., 410, 425. 
 
BROTHERS OF ST. GABRIEL 41 
 
 Vendee. 101 He divided the Brothers into two groups: one, inclu- 
 ding those who manifested a special aptitude for teaching, Freres 
 de classe, and the others, Freres de travail, who were to attend to the 
 temporalities. The distinction, however, was not so rigid as to 
 dispense the teachers from manual work, nor on the other hand, to 
 deprive the working-brothers of study if they so desired. Both 
 followed the same rule, 102 lived together under the same roof, and 
 always formed but one family. 103 The method of teaching was 
 that borrowed from the Christian Brothers. 104 
 
 The community seemed favored of God and man for it prospered 
 both in membership and in number of schools, so much so that in 
 1823 the institute was approved for Western France by royal ordi- 
 nance, under the name of the Congregation des Freres de I' Instruc- 
 tion chretienne du Saint-Esprit, and as a charitable association for 
 the instruction of youth. 105 Two years later (1825), M. Deshayes, 
 while on a visit to Rome, obtained from the Holy Father a Brief of 
 commendation for the institute. 
 
 Its progress was, however, momentarily retarded by the Revo- 
 lution of 1830, and the Law of 1833 relative to primary teaching; 106 
 but the community soon adjusted itself to the new requirements, 
 and continued on its course more effective than before. 
 
 With the constantly increasing number of Brothers it became 
 apparent that more spacious and appropriate accommodations were 
 needed, at least for the teaching Brothers. A building belonging to 
 the Daughters of Wisdom was secured for the purpose, and during 
 the month of October, 1835, thirty-three Brothers of the Holy Ghost 
 established themselves in their new home. The house was placed 
 under the protection of St. Gabriel, in grateful recognition of their 
 beloved superior whose baptismal name was Gabriel. 
 
 101 Laveille, (same author as above) Jean-Marie de Lamennais, Vol. I, 355, 
 Yannes, 1011. 
 
 102 This rule was in great part derived from the Brothers of Christian In- 
 >tnictioii i IMoermel), who in turn based theirs on that of St. John Baptist de 
 la Salle, (Laveille, de Lamennais, Vol. I, 333, 343) ; the Brothers of the Holy 
 Ghost (St. Gabriel), observed the above rule until 1888, (ibid., 356). 
 
 103 Laveille, (Bl. Gr. de Montfort) ibid., 426. 
 
 I04 Rule of 1830, Chap. I, Art. 1, (noted by Laveille, p. 426). 
 
 105 Laveille. ibid., 426. 
 
 106 " Until then it sufficed for a member of a teaching congregation, approved 
 by the State, to present to the rector of the Academy, a letter of obedience, 
 in order to obtain a teacher's certificate. By the Law of 1833 every individual 
 who wished to open a school was obliged to present to the mayor of the com- 
 mune when- he desired to establish himself, a certificate of efficiency, obtained 
 by examination; and also a certificate of good conduct obtained from the 
 commune or communes where he had lived during the foregoing ten years." 
 (Fonteneau, ibid., 443.) 
 
42 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 In time the name passed from the house to that of the Brothers 
 themselves, who thus became known as "Brothers of St. Gabriel" 
 (Freres de Saint-Gabriel) , to distinguish them from the Brothers of 
 the Holy Ghost. The latter retained their primitive name, and 
 continued to reside at the mother-house. 107 
 
 The separation, however, did not sever relations between the 
 two, for they both continued to live under the same regime as 
 designated in the statutes of 1830, drawn up by M. Deshayes, and 
 which explicitely state " that the superior of the missionaries should 
 always be the superior of the teaching Brothers as well as the 
 others; that they should have, however, a Brother director who 
 should attend to them in a special manner, and that the procurator 
 be likewise a missionary who should occupy himself specially with 
 the direction of the Brothers engaged in manual labor." 108 
 
 M. Deshayes had also stipulated in the statutes that after his 
 death the Brothers were to be governed by one of their own. 
 Accordingly when he died in 1841, the matter was taken up for 
 consideration, and during the vacation of the following year (1842), 
 the community elected Brother Augustine as superior. 109 
 
 Henceforth the Brothers of St. Gabriel assumed a separate and 
 independent existence. Yet, though they were obliged to modify 
 somewhat their relations with the other branches of de Montfort, 
 they always held them in affectionate esteem, and ever preserved 
 the tenderest recollections of their common origin. Bl. Grignion 
 de Montfort has been preeminently regarded by all as spiritual 
 father and founder; but the Brothers of St. Gabriel, on their part, 
 intimately associate with him also the name of M. Deshayes, who 
 undoubtedly merits an equal share of their veneration. He was 
 truly the second founder of the Brotherhood, as he had by skillful 
 management and judicial exercise of power and authority, saved 
 the institute from threatened ruin, infused new life and spirit 
 among its members, and thus assured it a bright and promising 
 future. 
 
 107 Fonteneau, ibid., 444; the Brothers of the Holy Ghost adopted the name 
 of Coadjutor Brothers of the Company of Mary, (Freres-Coadjuteurs de la 
 Compagnie de Marie), at the time this institute was approved by Rome. 
 
 108 Layeille, ibid., 428: "que le supe>ieur des missionnaires serait toujours 
 le supe>ieur des Freres de ^instruction comme des autres; qu'il y aurait cepen- 
 dant parmi eux un frere directeur qui s'en occuperait d'une fagon parti culiere, 
 et que le procureur serait un des missionnaires, qui se chargerait spScialement 
 de la direction des Freres de travail manuel." These regulations were strictly 
 observed until the death of M. Deshayes. 
 
 109 Ibid., 431. 
 
BROTHERS OF ST. ANTHONY 43 
 
 In 1853, the congregation, under the name of "Brothers of St. 
 Gabriel," was legally recognized for the whole of France and its 
 dependencies; and in February, 1910, Pius X granted it his final 
 approbation. 110 
 
 The number of Brothers throughout the world for the year 1900, 
 reached a total of almost 2,000, distributed in more than 200 
 houses. 111 Surely no additional evidence is needed to prove the 
 prosperous condition of the Brotherhood. The patient labors of 
 de Montfort have at last borne abundant fruit. 
 
 BROTHERS OF ST. ANTHONY (1709) 
 
 Shortly after the Brothers of the Christian Schools had estab- 
 lished themselves in Paris, a pious priest, M. Tabourin, cure* of 
 St. Marguerite, founded thea bove community for the purpose of 
 furnishing gratuitous instruction to the poor children of the city 
 and also the suburbs. 
 
 A special feature of the organization is that the members are 
 partly secular and religious : secular, in the sense that they take no 
 vows, nor have any distinctive costume; religious, in that they 
 recite in common the daily canonical hours, and also perform to- 
 gether various other exercises of piety. 
 
 Their educational system is based on the pedagogical princi- 
 ples of St. de la Salle. 
 
 The association was authorized by royal ordinance January 23, 
 1823. 112 
 
 BROTHERS OF CHRISTIAN INSTRUCTION OF 
 PLOERMEL (1817) 
 
 By the present treatment we enter into a period immediately 
 following the French Revolution, a time in which religion and 
 education were indeed at a very low ebb, and there was need of 
 a general renovation. The Catholic schools had been closed and 
 all the religious teachers dispersed at the time of the great political 
 upheaval. 113 In consequence when more peaceful days returned, 
 there were not wanting zealous and heroic souls willing to labor, 
 
 Cf. ibid., 432. 
 "'Frere J. d. P. ibid., 15. 
 
 H1 Buisson, Dictionnaire de Pedagogic, ibid., Pt. I, Vol. I, 88, 1115; Allain, 
 ibid., 290. 
 113 An instance may be cited of the Brothers of the Christian Schools who 
 
44 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 with God's help, at the reconstruction of Christian France. An 
 evidence of this is the remarkable fact of the great number of 
 religious-teaching congregations founded in the country during 
 the first half of the century. Among the first of these to be men- 
 tioned is that of the " Institute of the Brothers of Christian In- 
 struction of Ploermel " (L'Institut des Freres de V Instruction 
 Chretienne de Ploermel) founded by two priests, Jean-Marie de 
 Lamennais and Gabriel Deshayes. As the former is generally 
 credited with the title of founder, and, in fact, assumed the prin- 
 cipal role in the government of the institute, more details will be 
 given regarding his life and the origin of his foundation. 
 
 Jean-Marie Robert de Lamennais (or de la Mennais), brother 
 of the distinguished writer, was born at Saint-Malo, in Brittany, 
 on September 8, 1780. Having lost his mother when he was 
 seven years of age, he and his younger brother Felicite* were en- 
 trusted to the care and direction of their uncle, M. des Saudrais, 
 a resident of La Chenaie, situated two leagues from Dinan. It 
 was here that the two boys received their early education, which, 
 owing to the ravages of the Revolution, depended, to a great ex- 
 tent, on the personal services of their kind patron, and on the as- 
 sistance of two friends of the family, M. Carre*, and Tabbe" Louis 
 Vielle, one of the proscribed priests. 
 
 Jean-Marie very early manifested an inclination to the priest- 
 hood, and as the ecclesiastical colleges had been suppressed, the 
 good abbe" volunteered to direct his theological studies. 114 Later 
 on (1797), animated with zeal for the interests of the Church, the 
 young man joined the Society of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, 115 and 
 in 1804 he received holy orders. 
 
 were teaching at the time 40,000 pupils. Despite a general admission by the 
 Revolutionary faction as to the commendatory state of the Brothers' schools, 
 the decree of 1792 declared that "a free state should not suffer the existence 
 of any corporation, not even of those which, being devoted to public instruc- 
 tion, had merited well of the country." As a result, the Brothers to the num- 
 ber of nearly a thousand were dispersed, and their schools closed. (Cf. 
 Ravelet, ibid., 473 ff, and Bro. Noah, ibid., 329.) 
 
 U4 Auvray Auguste, Le Venerable Jean-Marie Robert de la Mennais, 8, 
 Vannes, 1912. 
 
 116 This was a religious association founded in 1790 at Saint-Malo by Rev. 
 P. Picot de Cloriviere, a former Jesuit. The society was chiefly composed of 
 priests who, though making profession of the evangelical counsels, lived a 
 separate and independent life, without any exterior mark to distinguish them 
 from their fellow- men. They effected much good, particularly during the 
 Revolutionary times. (Laveille R. P., Jean-Marie de la Mennais, Vol. I, 
 27 ff, Vannes, 1911.) 
 
BROTHERS OF CHRISTIAN INSTRUCTION OF PLOEMEL 45 
 
 He continued to reside at La Che'naie, where he and his brother 
 spent the greater part of their time in study, and in the production 
 of a series of polemical works appropriate to the then existing needs 
 of the Church. 116 They did not, however, remain very long in 
 seclusion, as they were both commissioned to teach at the 
 Ecclesiastical College of Saint-Malo, which position they held till 
 its suppression by the imperial authorities, November 11, 1811. 
 
 Fe'licite* returned immediately to his former place of studies, 
 and Jean-Marie left for the paternal home. The latter was re- 
 solved henceforth to live a retired life; accordingly, he devoted 
 himself, with absorbing interest, to the study and writing of 
 apologetic works. But again he was disappointed in his plans, 
 for within three years (1814), he was induced by the bishop of 
 Saint-Brieuc to act as his private secretary. And on the death of 
 the prelate the year following, he was unanimously elected as 
 vicar-general of the diocese. 
 
 Then it was that his marvelous talent and consummate skill at 
 organization and administration displayed itself. He founded 
 colleges, seminaries and schools, as well as numerous associations 
 of men and women. In fact, it could be said that every movement 
 in the diocese which promoted the honor of the Church and the 
 general renewal of Christian life, was either initiated by him per- 
 sonally, or won his hearty support. 117 
 
 He was also alert in combating whatever tended to impede the 
 progress of religion or destroy Christian faith and morals. The 
 very origin of the Brotherhood may be traced to a struggle against 
 a movement which was to exert a very baneful influence on the 
 education of the young. 
 
 The movement in question was the introduction of the Lancas- 
 terian method of teaching 118 into the schools of France. 119 M. de 
 
 "Laveille, ibid., 71 ff. 
 
 1I7 Cf. Auvray, ibid., 40; and Laveille, ihid., Vol. 1, 273. 
 
 "It was also known as the "Method of Mutual Instruction" (L'Enseigne- 
 ment Mutuel), or the "Monitorial System." (Cf. Buisson, ibid., Pt. I, Vol. 
 II, 1998.) 
 
 H9 Carnot, appointed by Napoleon as Minister of the Interior during the 
 "Hundred Days," had presented to the emperor a report on the organization 
 of primary instruction. De Lamennais had obtained possession of a copy of 
 the document, and made a critical study of it. The whole program appeared 
 to him dangerous, and in it too the above system received special mention and 
 commendation. (I^aveille, ibid., 232; and cf. Buisson, ibid., 1998.) It is 
 true, the Empire collapsed with the downfall of Napoleon, and before any 
 legislative action was possible, but the vicar-general felt certain that the project 
 as outlined, would serve as a basis for future regulations; and so it proved. 
 Carnot's ideas were eventually carried into effect. One proof of it was that the 
 advocates of the Monitorial System were free to act. (Cf. Laveille, ibid., 229, ff.) 
 
46 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 Lamennais was entirely adverse to its adoption, particularly from 
 a religious point of view. He declared it to be antireligious in 
 tendency, and, at its very first appearance, he opened a bold and 
 spirited attack against it both in speech and writing. 120 However, 
 despite all opposition, it spread very rapidly throughout the coun- 
 try, 121 and also threatened the province of Brittany. 
 
 It was then (1817) that M. de Lamennais thought of negotiating 
 for Brothers of de la Salle, with the intention of having them open a 
 school at Saint-Brieuc. He would thus forestall any movement 
 on the part of his opponents, and at the same time guarantee to 
 the children of the city a thorough religious education. 
 
 The great difficulty was, however, in securing Brothers; there 
 was such a general demand for them. 122 Besides, the vicar-general 
 was informed that for the time being there were no Brothers to be 
 had, and that he would consequently be obliged to wait. 
 
 In his anxiety he requested the pastor of Roche-Derrien, M. 
 Tresvaux, a man in whom he placed the greatest confidence, to 
 procure for him three virtuous and intelligent young men. The 
 good cure* promptly responding, sent him three courageous young 
 Bretons, who on their arrival placed themselves at once at the dis- 
 position of their ecclesiastical superior. They did not in the least 
 surmise for what purpose they had been called. Neither could 
 they, for the reason that he who had summoned them knew not as 
 yet himself just how they were to be employed. Nevertheless, 
 they were to constitute the first members of a great religious fam- 
 ily, and M. de Lamennais, by this preliminary action, had un- 
 consciously opened the way for the foundation of his future 
 institute. 
 
 The young men boarded and lodged with him, while at the same 
 time he gave them instruction in French, of which they hardly 
 understood a word. And when finally the Brothers arrived, they 
 too, without the least prejudice on their part, kindly offered to aid 
 them in the acquisition of certain branches of study. It was 
 clearly evident that they were being prepared to assist in teaching. 
 The Brothers' classes were rapidly increasing in attendance and 
 something would soon have to be done to meet the congestion. 
 
 120 Cf. Laveille, ibid., 240 ff. 
 
 121 Fifteen hundred schools had adopted the system before the year 1820. 
 (Monroe Paul, Cyclopedia of Education, Vol. IV, 296, N. Y., 1913). 
 
 122 In the beginning of the year 1818 there were 132 cities that desired 
 Brothers, but were unable to receive any. (Laveille, ibid., 243.) 
 
BROTHERS OF CHRISTIAN INSTRUCTION OF PLOERMEL 47 
 
 Suddenly one of the group died, another shortly withdrew, 
 leaving but one, Yves le Fichand, upon whom M. de Lamennais 
 had to base all his hopes. The future looked precarious, yet he 
 did not despair. He kept his only postulant, and by the following 
 year having received an increase, he was able to follow out his 
 plans. 
 
 His new teachers were before long ready for service, but there was 
 no thought of opening a school in the small residence of the vicar- 
 general. He therefore purchased a building which had formerly 
 served as a convent annex, and there he installed himself with his 
 improvised teachers. Within the inner court he hastily constructed 
 two or three classes. They were hardly completed when more than 
 two hundred pupils presented themselves begging for admission. 
 
 The people of the neighboring country districts hearing that the 
 vicar-general had opened a new free school, immediately availed 
 themselves of the opportunity of sending their children to be 
 properly instructed. 
 
 Very soon the new building also was taxed to its utter capacity 
 and consequently many pupils had to be refused. The reverend 
 director had made a regulation to accept only such children whose 
 parents were resident in Saint-Brieuc. But, on the other hand, he 
 could not help being deeply touched in seeing so many young souls 
 abandoned to themselves without hope of receiving the blessings 
 of a Christian education. And, as he mentally viewed the sur- 
 rounding country districts which he had visited while attending to 
 his ministerial duties, a plan suddenly occurred to him. There 
 were few establishments of Brothers and several monitorial schools in 
 the principal cities, but as regards free primary schools for the boys 
 of the country districts, not a single one existed at that time in the 
 whole province of Brittany. 123 Many of the communes were so 
 very poor that there was no thought of supplying them with lay 
 teachers, because of the expense of maintenance; and neither 
 was it possible to secure Brothers of de la Salle, since their rule did 
 not permit them to work singly. 124 Therefore, when the cure's from 
 the environs of Saint-Brieuc pressingly implored the vicar-general 
 not to refuse the children sent him, the following idea suggested 
 
 m Laveille, ibid., 321 ff. That such schools, however, existed throughout 
 Brittany prior to the Revolution may be amply substantiated by very reliable 
 evidence. (Cf. Allain, ibid., 109 ff.) 
 
 lM See above, p. 33. 
 
48 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 itself to his mind, namely, that if these good pastors were so desir- 
 ous about having teachers for their little boys, would they not be 
 willing to make some sacrifices in behalf of the former? They 
 would, no doubt, consent, in consideration for a light indemnity, 
 to house at least one teacher, who, besides keeping class, could be 
 of some extra service to them. 
 
 Furthermore, in following up this line of thought, de Lamennais 
 concluded that, as the above seemed feasible, he could easily form 
 a regular religious community of men whose life would be conse- 
 crated to this humble task. Thus had he finally arrived at a clear 
 conception of the Brotherhood. 125 
 
 Without delay he put his project into execution, and before long 
 was able to furnish teachers to the most needy country parishes 
 immediately surrounding Saint-Brieuc. His object was not to 
 establish schools in every commune, and in proportion to the num- 
 ber of his teachers; but, on the contrary, he founded schools only 
 in certain district centers and in the principal communes, for the 
 double reason: (1) many localities could not bring together a 
 sufficient number of pupils to render the school self-supporting; 
 and (2) he desired to keep a number of teachers in reserve. 
 
 By these precautionary measures de Lamennais expected to 
 meet all reasonable demands, but the plans did not wholly mate- 
 rialize. His supply of teachers was soon exhausted, and as the 
 number of requests still increased, he became more and more 
 embarrassed as how best to relieve the situation. He saw no 
 prospects of meeting the difficulty until Providence came to his 
 assistance. 
 
 While on one of his missions he met the vicar-general of the 
 diocese of Vannes, M. Gabriel Deshayes, and in course of conver- 
 sation discovered that they had exactly the same idea regarding 
 the question of free primary schools. Their individual projects 
 seemed to have been executed along exactly parallel lines. In 
 parting at the time, they entertained the hope of some day uniting 
 their interests. 126 
 
 M. Deshayes, whom Providence had destined to be the auxiliary 
 of de Lamennais, was born at Beignon (Department of Morbihan, 
 Brittany), December 6, 1767. He was sent to college in early 
 youth, and though not exceptionally brilliant in intellectual pur- 
 
 1S5 Cf. Laveille, ibid., 323. 
 126 Cf. Ibid., 325. 
 
BROTHERS OF CHRISTIAN INSTRUCTION OF PLOERMEL 49 
 
 suits, lie distinguished himself the more so in moral qualifications. 
 He also studied for the priesthood and at the outbreak of the Revo- 
 lution he escaped to England where he was ordained. Immedi- 
 ately after he returned to the continent, and throughout the entire 
 period of his country's political and social agitation, he bravely 
 faced death in the exercise of his sacred ministry. 
 
 After the Revolution he was still more active in the work of 
 reparation and general re-awakening of the Christian spirit among 
 souls. But it was especially when appointed vicar-general of 
 Vannes that, like his distinguished colleague of the North, he 
 accomplished the most good. He also founded works very much 
 analogous to those of M. de Lamennais, and in a similar manner 
 extended his zeal beyond the limits of his diocese. As referred to 
 above, he was instrumental in the foundation of a number of com- 
 munities of men and women, 127 and thus in every way labored for 
 the restoration of the kingdom of Christ among his countrymen. 
 He too had introduced the Brothers of de la Salle into his own 
 parish of Auray, but he could not at the same time remain insen- 
 sible to the constant and earnest entreaties of the neighboring 
 country cure's in regard to the education of the children under their 
 charge. And, again, just as M. de Lamennais, he had acted on 
 the idea of forming an association of teachers for this especial 
 apostolate. 128 
 
 The five young men with whom he began (1816) resided with 
 him in the same dwelling, and were prepared for their future work 
 by the conjoint efforts of himself and the Brothers. All, however, 
 did not persevere. Three of the number decided to leave, and a 
 fourth, having proved altogether incapable, had to be returned to 
 his parents: the fifth, named Mathurin Provost, alone remained 
 faithful. 
 
 Six months passed before another candidate presented himself; 
 but this latter was almost immediately followed by a number of 
 others, and in a short time the little community was firmly estab- 
 lished. As a rule of life M. Deshayes adopted a form based on the 
 Rules and Regulations of the Institute of St. de la Salle. 129 
 
 By September, 1817, the number of teachers had reached seven, 
 and soon the founder could provide one or the other poor parish 
 
 .thovr, p. 40. 
 lS8 Cf. L:ivoill(% ibid., 330. 
 '"Ibid., 331. 
 
50 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 with the needed help. The resources of the worthy cure, however, 
 were very limited, and the time arrived when he was at a loss to 
 tell how he could any longer maintain his little novitiate. 
 
 It was at this juncture that he made the acquaintance of M. de 
 Lamennais, as noted above. Both had recognized that it would 
 be to their mutual advantage to combine their efforts. However, 
 before any definite steps were taken, they reciprocally aided one 
 another according to their respective means. What one lacked 
 the other was able to supply. For example, M. Deshayes fur- 
 nished his associate with a number of teachers, while M. de Lamen- 
 nais, on his part, provided the necessary pecuniary assistance. 
 
 Thus matters proceeded until June, 1819, when the founders 
 again met at Saint-Brieuc to discuss the question of the final union 
 of the two works. After eight days' deliberation they concluded 
 by drawing up a written agreement according to which the double 
 institute was to be provisionally governed. Besides defining the 
 general purpose of the congregation already stated 130 the docu- 
 ment contained the following principal points: (1) The two novi- 
 tiates, one at Auray and the other at Saint-Brieuc, were to be under 
 the direction of M. Deshayes and M. de Lamennais, respectively; 
 (2) the novices were to follow as much as possible the Rules of the 
 Christian Brothers, and also use their method of instruction; (3) 
 each superior was to have jurisdiction over all the Brothers in his 
 own diocese, as also over such as he would place in any other; and 
 (4) in due time one of the Brothers was to be chosen as superior 
 general of the institute. 131 The paper was duly signed by both 
 superiors, and dated June 6, 1819. 
 
 As the above-mentioned rules appertained only to the daily order 
 of exercises observed by the two communities, de Lamennais later 
 added certain articles on internal government, in the formulation of 
 which he again drew his inspiration from the Rules of Government 
 of the Brothers of the Christian Schools. 
 
 In September, 1820, de Lamennais, desirous of creating a more 
 common feeling of brotherhood among the members, and also of 
 guaranteeing to the congregation greater firmness and stability, 
 assembled all the Brothers they numbered then about fifty of 
 both dioceses at Auray for the exercise of a general retreat. The 
 
 30 See p. 47. 
 M1 Laveille, ibid., 333. 
 ""Ibid., 343. 
 
BROTHERS OF CHRISTIAN INSTRUCTION OF PLOERMEL 51 
 
 name of " Brothers of Christian Instruction" (Freres de V Instruc- 
 tion chretienne) was officially adopted, and on the closing day of 
 the meeting all the Brothers were solemnly invested with the 
 religious habit, while at the same time some of the members took 
 the vow of obedience for one year. Thus another religious con- 
 gregation was added to the Church. 133 
 
 The Brothers afterwards returned to their various posts of duty, 
 and continued to labor in the interests of the institute. Nothing 
 apparently impeded its progress, until suddenly an event occurred 
 which, while it greatly affected existing conditions, also seemed for 
 the moment to endanger the spirit of union that prevailed among 
 the members. M. Deshayes had been selected January 12, 1821, 
 as superior of the community of Brothers of St. Gabriel 134 and in 
 March he left for his new field of labor. The formal separation 
 from the Brothers of Christian Instruction took place during the 
 month of May following. All the members of the institute met at 
 Auray, and after making a retreat, the former novices of M. 
 Deshayes were divided into two groups. Some were to follow 
 their superior to la Vende*e, and the others were ceded to M. de 
 Lamennais. 
 
 Although M. Deshayes had thus outwardly severed his connec- 
 tions with his former colleague, their contract of 1819 still held 
 good, at least as far as the nominal superiorship was concerned. 
 De Lamennais, of course, was henceforth regarded as the actual 
 superior, and he accordingly took over the entire management of 
 the community. M. Deshayes, on his part, always retained the 
 tenderest attachment to the Brothers, and every year presided 
 with de Lamennais at their general retreat. 
 
 On the first of May, 1822, the institute was legally authorized. 
 Two years later (1824), the central novitiate of Josselin was trans- 
 ferred to Ploermel (Department Morbihan), which place became 
 in time the principal seat of government in the society; by it too, 
 the Brotherhood was popularly known. 135 
 
 The Holy See recognized the congregation by Brief of commen- 
 dation, dated February 1, 1851. 
 
 lM Cf. Ibid., 346. 
 lM See above, p. 40 ff . 
 
 Auvray, ibid., 67; Laveille, ibid., Vol. II, 2 ff, and Catholic Ency- 
 clopedia, Vol. VIII, 776. (The Brothers are also often designated as the 
 "Lamennais Brothers" or the "Brothers of Ploermel.") 
 
52 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 De Lamennais survived the occasion by almost ten years, his 
 death occurring December 26, 1860, and as he had provided, one 
 of the Brothers (Frere Cyprien) was elected superior general 
 shortly afterward. 
 
 In March, 1891, Pope Leo XIII accorded the institute the 
 canonical approbation, and finally Pius X definitely approved its 
 constitutions. 
 
 The Brotherhood at present is in very flourishing condition, and 
 by its educational activities exerts a marked influence, particularly 
 among French-speaking peoples. According to the personnel of 
 1903 the congregation counted 3,000 members, with 460 estab- 
 lishments, and gave instruction to more than 75,000 pupils. 136 
 
 MARIST BROTHERS OF THE SCHOOLS (1817) 
 
 The same need that called forth the institute treated above, is 
 also clearly evident in regard to the origin of the present one, the 
 " Congregation of the Marist Brothers/' or, as commonly known, 
 the "Little Brothers of Mary" (Les Petits-Freres de Marie), whose 
 founder was the Ven. Joseph Benedict Marcellin Champagnat, 
 a priest and member of the Marist Fathers of the diocese of Lyons, 
 France. Aware of the lamentable ignorance prevailing among the 
 poor peasant children, especially in matters of religion, he was 
 prompted to found his society to meet this particular need. 
 
 The holy priest was born May 20, 1789, at Marlhes, in the 
 department of the Loire. Though very pious from early youth, 
 it was only later when about 16 years of age that he showed any 
 inclination for the higher life. Accordingly in 1805 he entered 
 the seminary of Verrieres with the intention of studying for the 
 priesthood. He had some difficulty at the start, but with close 
 application and persevering effort he was able in time to make 
 considerable progress. 
 
 On the completion of the course (October, 1812), he was trans- 
 ferred to the diocesan seminary of Lyons. 
 
 It was while here that M. Colin, a fellow-student of his, initiated 
 the idea of founding the Society of Marist Fathers. M. Cham- 
 pagnat at once tendered his hearty cooperation, and soon a little 
 band of chosen seminarists formed the nucleus of the future founda- 
 
 136 In 1910 the province of Canada, for example, had a membership of 225 
 Brothers. 
 
MARIST BROTHERS OF THE SCHOOLS 53 
 
 tion. The idea of Teaching Brothers constituting a separate 
 Branch of the society was a suggestion of M. Champagnat; he 
 insisted that they would be not only useful to the missionaries but 
 even necessary. "We must have Brothers," he would often 
 repeat, "we must have Brothers to teach class and instruct the 
 children. . . . My first education was defective because of 
 the lack of competent teachers; I shall be happy to procure for 
 others what I myself have been deprived of." 137 
 
 The origin of his idea of the Brotherhood may be traced to two 
 sources: (1) the direct inspiration of Providence; and (2) his own 
 observation and experience in teaching the children in the neigh- 
 borhood of his home during the seminary vacation time. He fre- 
 quently had occasion to bear witness to the almost total lack of 
 religious knowledge existing in some of the homes of the poor 
 country people; 138 hence his incessant appeals for Brothers. 
 
 His companions at the seminary finally answered him as he was 
 so insistent about the matter: "Since you have the idea, it is for 
 you to bring about its realization." 139 And he did indeed from 
 this day forth devote all his energy toward having his plans 
 incorporated in the new society. 
 
 Shortly after his ordination (July 22, 1816), he was appointed as 
 curate of Lavalla, a little mountain village of about two thousand 
 population, situated near St. Chamond (Loire). He acquitted 
 himself with great zeal and devotedness in the exercise of his parish 
 duties, but especially did he attend to the instruction of the chil- 
 dren. 
 
 He was thus unconsciously developing and strengthening more 
 and more the idea of his future undertaking. In fact, he constantly 
 kept it in mind, and only waited until Providence would furnish 
 the occasion and the means to put his project into execution. This 
 was not long delayed, for soon an event occurred which brought 
 Father Champagnat to take action in the matter. Called to hear 
 the confession of a little boy who was very dangerously ill, he dis- 
 covered that the lad knew hardly anything about God or religion. 
 And for two hours the good priest had to instruct the poor boy 
 before he was sufficiently prepared to receive the sacrament. He 
 died almost immediately afterwards. 
 
 l>1 Life and Spirit of J. B. M. Champagnat (by a Marist Brother), 22, N. Y. 
 1887; and Le Tres Reverend Pere Colin, Vol. V, Pt. II, 397, Lyons, 1895. 
 '"Life of Father Champagnat, ibid., 16 ff. 
 l39 Li/e of the Venerable Father Colin (by a Marist Father),288, St. Louis, 1909. 
 
54 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 The incident made such an impression on the future founder 
 that he resolved then and there to begin the work. A very pious 
 young man, named Jean-Marie Granjon, whom Father Cham- 
 pagnat had selected a long time before as a possible future subject, 
 was asked whether he would consent to become a member of the 
 proposed society. Jean had learned to regard his spiritual father 
 with particular affection and feelings of gratitude, for he had been 
 taught by him how to read and write, as well as instructed in 
 religion with more than ordinary care and attention. It is not 
 surprising, therefore, that the young man should have expressed 
 his willingness to comply with the wishes of the founder. "I am 
 at your service," he answered, "do with me as you will." 140 
 
 Very much encouraged by this first success, Father Champagnat 
 fervently prayed Almighty God to send him further assistance. 
 His patience was soon rewarded. One day a boy, Jean-Baptiste 
 Audras by name, called at the rectory to see him. He related how 
 he had for some time harbored the idea of entering the religious 
 life, and that he had actually attempted to join the Brothers of 
 St. de la Salle, but was told that he was too young. Disappointed, 
 but not discouraged, he had thus come to seek the advice of his 
 confessor. 
 
 For a moment Father Champagnat seemed in doubt how he 
 should answer the boy. But suddenly as if inspired he suggested 
 to him that he come and be the companion of Granjon, who was 
 then living next to the presbytery. And with the promise of 
 receiving further instruction, the little fellow left to obtain the 
 consent of his parents. 
 
 The latter made no objection to the proposal of Father Cham- 
 pagnat, as they regarded his action as a special mark of kindness on 
 his part; besides it afforded them an excellent means of educating 
 their son at very little expense. 
 
 After some time the founder disclosed to his young postulant the 
 object and purpose of the society he intended to found, and asked 
 him if he desired to join. Without the least hesitation he was 
 answered : " You may do with me what you think fit, provided I be 
 a religious." 141 The second member of the future institute was 
 secured. 
 
 140 Life of Father Champagnat, ibid., 43. 
 ., 45. 
 
MARIST BROTHERS OF THE SCHOOLS 55 
 
 Father Champagnat's next thought was to provide suitable 
 accommodations for his young community. With this intention 
 he bought a vacant building near the presbytery, which he himself 
 put in proper repair for habitation. 142 When he had at last 
 furnished it with whatever was absolutely necessary, he had his 
 two young novices occupy the place. And thus on January 2, 
 1817, was laid the foundation of the Institute of the Little Brothers 
 of Mary. 
 
 In the beginning the little community employed the day chiefly 
 in labor and study, interrupted occasionally by a few simple pious 
 practices. 
 
 By spring one more postulant arrived. At this time too, the 
 parents of Jean-Baptiste Audras becoming aware of the real 
 nature of the life their son had adopted, desired him to return home. 
 They were, however, unsuccessful in their endeavors to induce him 
 to renounce the choice he had made, and he was finally allowed to 
 remain. Not only this; he had the great pleasure of seeing his 
 elder brother also become a member of the institute. 
 
 The number of subjects gradually increasing, Father Cham- 
 pagnat deemed it necessary to introduce a kind of government and 
 organization which would be more comformable to religious life. 
 He did not at first regularly live with the community. Hence a 
 Brother director was chosen to act in his stead ; a uniform costume 
 was adopted ; and a daily rule prescribed which regulated the time 
 to be devoted to the various spiritual exercises, as well as the other 
 occupations of the day. 143 The following act of consecration and 
 promises constituted for the time being their engagements to the 
 society: " For the greater glory of God and the honor of the august 
 Virgin Mary, Mother of our Lord Jesus Christ. We, the under- 
 signed, certify and declare that we freely and willingly consecrate 
 ourselves to God in the humble Association of the Little Brothers 
 of Mary for five years, beginning from this day, for the purpose of 
 laboring continually, by the practice of every virtue, for our own 
 sanctification and the Christian education of country children. 
 We therefore purpose: (1) To seek only the glory of God, the honor 
 of the august Virgin Mary, Mother of our Lord Jesus Christ, and 
 the good of the Holy Roman Catholic and Apostolic Church. 
 
 Cf . ibid. 
 "'Ibid., 49. 
 
56 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 " (2) We engage to teach gratuitously all the poor children whom 
 the parish priest may send us; and to instruct them, and all the 
 other children confided to us, in catechism, prayers, reading, 
 writing, and the other branches of primary instruction, according 
 to their needs. 
 
 " (3) We promise implicit obedience to our superior, and to all 
 those who shall be appointed by him to guide and direct us. 
 
 " (4) We promise to observe chastity. 
 
 "(5) We shall share everything we have in common." 144 
 
 Father Champagnat also longed for the time when his Brothers 
 would be able to assume control of the school at Lavalla. Mean- 
 time he had them assist at the classes, and thus learn the methods 145 
 of teaching by personal observation. Their first real attempt at 
 instruction was in the poor hamlets of the parish. They would 
 teach in these places during the day and return home in the evening. 
 
 After a year's experience the Brothers took charge of the Lavalla 
 parish school, and though they may have been lacking in extensive 
 knowledge and refinement, they more than compensated for these 
 deficiencies by the excellent discipline they maintained, as also by 
 the thorough religious instruction they imparted to the children. 
 The reputation that the Brothers thereby acquired was soon made 
 evident by the number of schools they established in different sec- 
 tions of the surrounding country. Their work as teachers seemed 
 assured. 
 
 As referred to above Father Champagnat could not always be 
 with the Brothers; but this condition was altered in 1824, when at 
 last he was released from regular parish duties. Henceforth being 
 free to live with the community he could devote his undivided 
 attention to the formation of his subjects and to the general inter- 
 ests of the society. He was not, however, without his trials. A 
 number of defections among the Brothers together with intense 
 opposition on the part of certain ecclesiastical superiors at one 
 time even threatened the existence of the institute. 146 
 
 The departure of some of the members of the community con- 
 vinced the founder that it would be more conducive to the sta- 
 bility of the Brothers if they were allowed to take the religious 
 vows. Therefore, at the close of the retreat of 1826 they were 
 
 144 Ibid., 114. 
 
 145 The form of instruction was that of the "Simultaneous Method" of St. 
 de la Salle, which the Brothers later adopted throughout their schools. 
 146 Life of Father Champagnat, ibid., 108 ff. 
 
MAKIST BROTHERS OF THE SCHOOLS 57 
 
 granted the privilege of taking the temporary vow of obedience; 
 the vows of chastity and poverty were added later when assuming 
 perpetual engagements. 147 
 
 The rules of the institute, it would seem, were chiefly the work 
 of the founder; nothing is mentioned specifically in reference to 
 their origin. 
 
 Father Champagnat, as stated in the beginning, had always 
 desired the Brothers to be one with the Marist Fathers. Accord- 
 ing to him both Fathers and Brothers were to constitute two 
 branches of the same society under one superior. However, his 
 own superior, Very Rev. Father Colin, 148 believed that the Broth- 
 ers should have a separate existence, and their own superior, rules 
 and government. He advocated, therefore, that the Brothers 
 make choice of a successor to Father Champagnat, and that very 
 soon, as the latter 's health was rapidly failing. Accordingly, in 
 1839 an election was held and Brother Francois was named supe- 
 rior general, with two other Brothers as first and second assis- 
 tants. 149 And as expected, in June the following year (1840) 
 Father Champagnat died. 
 
 The new superior, Brother Francois, immediately assumed full 
 control of affairs, and his first important action was the fusion of 
 the Congregation of Brothers of Christian Instruction of Saint-Paul- 
 Trois-Chdteaux (diocese of Valence, Dauphin^) with his own insti- 
 tute. The former, also a teaching congregation, was founded 
 November, 1821, at the little city above named, and had for its 
 purpose the instruction of the poor children of the province. It 
 originated with the cure* of the parish, M. Sollier de Lestang, who 
 had succeeded in inducing a number of young men to consecrate 
 their lives to this noble work. An old Dominican convent served 
 as their first home. The good pastor could not, however, attend 
 properly to both the parish and his new undertaking, so he confided 
 the young men to the care of an arduous and zealous priest, M. 
 
 I47 lbid., 115. 
 
 " 8 The foundation of the Society of Marist Fathers dates from 1816, but 
 only in 1836 (the year of its canonical approval by Rome) did the members 
 t:ikr first religious engagements. At this time, too, the founder, Rev. Father 
 Colin, was elected superior general. The year following he officially appointed 
 Father Champagnat as superior of the Little Brothers of Mary. (Cf. Life 
 of Rev. Father Colin, ibid., 117, 129.) 
 
 14 The question of union between the two societies had been agitated for 
 some time, by both Father Champagnat and the Brothers. Rome, however, 
 definitely decided (1845) in favor of separation. (Cf. Le Tres R6v. Pere 
 Colin, ibid., 414 ff.) 
 
58 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 Mazelier, with the understanding that he convert the little group 
 into a regular pongregation. 
 
 Some months after this transfer M. de Lestang died, and (1827) 
 1'abbe" Mazelier was appointed his successor. But, as in the former 
 case, the additional burden of pastoral duties proved a great 
 hindrance to the development and progress of the community. 
 Neither did the fact of its being legally authorized (June 11, 1823) 
 tend to better its condition. M. Mazelier was eventually con- 
 vinced that he must seek a union of his Brothers with some other 
 congregation. While determined on this course of action he prov- 
 identially became acquainted (1833) with the founder of the Little 
 Brothers of Mary, and a regular correspondence was begun in 
 view of the possible fusion of the two bodies. No definite action 
 was taken, however, until April, 1842, when, according to agree- 
 ment, the union was concluded on the following basis: 
 
 " (1) That the Brothers, when united, should have but one and 
 the same object, one and the same rule, one and the same govern- 
 ment. 
 
 "(2) That the Brothers of Saint-Paul-Trois-Chateaux should 
 acknowledge the authority of Brother Frangois, and submit to 
 him in all things, according to rule; that they should adopt the 
 costume and rule of the Little Brothers of Mary; in a word, that 
 the two communities should form one body, and should have the 
 same superior general." 
 
 At the time of the fusion the community of M. Mazelier counted 
 forty Brothers, thirteen establishments and twelve postulants. 150 
 
 Two years later (1844), a second congregation united with the 
 Marist Brothers, namely, the Brothers of Christian Instruction of 
 Viviers, founded in 1810, by the Venerable M. Vernet, at Notre- 
 Dame-de-Bon-Secours (diocese of Viviers, Languedoc). It, too, 
 was a teaching organization, and likewise approved by the State 
 (1826). 
 
 Neither did this Brotherhood make any progress, one great 
 cause of weakness being the absence of vows. And to save it from 
 utter disappearance the founder solicited and obtained its amalga- 
 mation with the Little Brothers of Mary. Like the first men- 
 tioned it also had forty Brothers, thirteen houses and twenty 
 novices. 151 
 
 * 60 Life of Father Champagnat, ibid., 137, 195; also cf. Laveille (Lamennais), 
 ibid., Vol.11, 137 ff. 
 
 161 Life of Father Champagnat, ibid., 195 ff. 
 
BROTHERS OF THE SOCIETY OF MARY 59 
 
 One reason which induced the Little Brothers of Mary to enter 
 into alliance with the above congregations was the fact that the 
 latter were both sanctioned by the Government : a fact also which 
 greatly facilitated relations between the combined Brotherhood 
 and the State authorities, at least to a certain extent. 152 
 
 Father Champagnat had repeatedly made attempts to obtain 
 legal recognition for his institute, but witout success. 163 The favor 
 was finally granted June 20, 1851; the authorization besides 
 included the whole of France. 
 
 The papal approbation of the institute was obtained January 
 9, 1863. 
 
 Such was the growth of the congregation that in 1910 it num- 
 bered upwards of 6,000 members, with establishments spread 
 throughout Europe and other parts of the world. 154 
 
 BROTHERS OF THE SOCIETY OF MARY (1817) 
 
 The members of this society are commonly known as the Broth- 
 ers of Mary, or Marianists, as distinguished from the "Marist 
 Brothers," or "Little Brothers of Mary" treated above. The 
 present congregation had as founder the Very Rev. William Joseph 
 Chaminade, Missionary Apostolic and Honorary Canon of the 
 Metropolitan Church of Bordeaux, a man who takes rank among 
 the foremost leaders of the religious and educational reform move- 
 ment in France during the early nineteenth century. 
 
 He was born at Pe>igueux, in the province of Pe"rigord, France, 
 April 8, 1761, the last of thirteen children. His first years were 
 passed in the atmosphere of a home blessed by the practical 
 Christian faith and example of parents, brothers and sisters. 155 
 
 In time he was sent to the neighboring city of Mussidan to pur- 
 sue his classical studies at the college in which his brother John was 
 employed as professor. 156 Another brother of his, Louis, had pre- 
 
 l "One effect of the union was that the members of the whole institute were 
 exempted from military service. (Ibid., 197.) 1M Ibid., 136, 158 ff. 
 
 lM In 1903, just previous to the enforcement of the "Law of Secularization," 
 the society had 750 schools in France alone. In North and South America 
 the Brothers conduct at the present time more than 150 educational estab- 
 lishments embracing colleges, academies and common schools. (The Catholic 
 Church in the U. S., ibid., 307.) 
 
 1&6 Among the boys two of the oldest, John and Blaise, entered religion, one 
 became a Jesuit, and the other joined the order of Recollects. 
 
 "After the suppression of the Jesuits in 1762 he returned to Perigueux, 
 was ordained priest, and shortly afterward took service at the above college. 
 He was Doctor of Divinity, and' remarkable besides for his extraordinary piety 
 and austere penitential life. 
 
60 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 ceded him by two years, and thus both followed the same course 
 preparatory for the priesthood. The thorough Christian spirit 
 that reigned in the college was a guarantee that the education the 
 boys were to receive would be fully in keeping with the funda- 
 mental religious principles first inculcated in the home. 
 
 Joseph 157 Chaminade was truly a privileged soul. From earliest 
 childhood he had already evinced that singular piety which was to 
 shed such lustre on his after career. He received his First Holy 
 Communion at the college, and it was then that the grace of God 
 seemed to manifest itself in a special manner. One day after hav- 
 ing communicated he felt a strong impulse to consecrate himself 
 to the Lord, and, docile to the spiritual direction of his brother, he 
 generously and unreservedly offered himself to his Divine Master, 
 placing at His disposal every aspiration of his heart and even his 
 very life. He seemed assured that his offering was accepted, and 
 that God had destined him for His service. Not content with 
 merely the practice of the ordinary virtues, he at the same time 
 endeavored to observe the evangelical counsels. His brother 
 gradually initiated him into the practice of mental prayer, and 
 finally permitted him even to take private vows of poverty, chas- 
 tity and obedience, until such time his definite life-work would be 
 providentially indicated. 158 
 
 As one may judge, his application to the profane studies was in 
 accordance with the high motive he had conceived of working 
 solely for God and the good of his fellow-man. It is hardly neces- 
 sary, therefore, to add that his success was very marked. 
 
 Before entering upon the study of philosophy he desired to 
 fulfill his promise of entire service to God, and accordingly he 
 looked about for some monastery to which he could retire. But 
 as none could be found that would answer his purpose, he decided, 
 on the advice of his brother John, to become, meanwhile, a member 
 of the Society of St. Charles, which was a semi-religious association 
 composed largely of the professors of the college, and devoted to 
 missions and education of youth. 
 
 At the completion of his course at Mussidan, Joseph and his 
 brother Louis left for Bordeaux, in pursuance of higher studies 
 preliminary to the doctorate and final ordination. While here, 
 the former once more made trial of entering a religious community, 
 
 167 He chose the name of Joseph at the time of his confirmation, and in honor 
 of the spouse of Mary he ever after took that name in preference to William. 
 
 1B8 Rousseau, Henri, Guillaume- Joseph Chaminade, Fondateur des Marian- 
 isles, 9, Paris, 1913. 
 
BROTHERS OF THE ROCIETY OF MARY 61 
 
 hut again he was disappointed; God had evidently reserved him 
 for another work which would be revealed to him in due time. 
 
 The two young men did not remain in the city as long as they 
 had contemplated, but went to Paris to place themselves under 
 direction of the Sulpician Fathers. At the end of the course at 
 St. Sulpice they were ordained, and, while Louis remained in Paris 
 for some time, Joseph returned to Mussidan. 
 
 In 1785, we find the three brothers again united as professors 
 at the above college. All proceeded smoothly until the outbreak 
 of the Revolution in 1789. However, at the first indications of the 
 approaching storm, Joseph had gone to Bordeaux to study up the 
 political situation, and prepare for any eventuality. The city, 
 would afford him safer shelter than at the college. 
 
 With the passage of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, by the 
 Assembly of July 12, 1790, he was obliged to leave Mussidan some 
 time afterwards, and it was then that he took up his secret lodging 
 in Bordeaux, with the noble purpose of administering to the spiri- 
 tual wants of the faithful. 
 
 Like the great majority of the clergy he had courageously 
 refused to take the oath of fidelity to the new Constitution, and 
 was thus in constant danger of arrest, proscription and even death. 
 Yet he succeeded so well in evading every detection by means of 
 various shrewd disguises and skillful management, that he was 
 able to remain in the city all through the Reign of Terror. 159 
 
 Peace at last returned, and in February, 1795, liberty of worship 
 was again restored. But the period of tranquillity was to be of 
 short duration. In October of the very same year, the laws against 
 non-juring priests were renewed, and for two years more were 
 Kvnacted many of the scenes of the Reign of Terror. Father 
 Cham made was once more forced to hide himself from public 
 notice, and secretly resume his former charitable services under 
 similar conditions as before. 
 
 His special care during all the time he labored in Bordeaux was 
 in the interests of youth. The pernicious influence of the ration- 
 alistic doctrines of Rousseau and the atheistic philosophy of Vol- 
 taire was glaringly evident in the frightful excesses of the revolu- 
 tionary mob. And hence Father Chaminade wisely resorted to 
 what seemed to him the only means of saving the faith in France, 
 and that was the proper instruction and religious formation of the 
 younger generation. This was to be his vocation. He had not as 
 
 "Simlor, ,1. (linlltiumt -Joseph Chaminade, Fondateur de la SocitU de Marie 
 el de I'lnstitut /, x FiUes de Marie, 49, Paris, 1901. 
 
62 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 yet any thought of a general apostolate or distinctive religious 
 community. What he did was to select a few men and young 
 women whom he individually instructed and trained to be apostles 
 of the future. 160 It was in germ the beginning of the work which 
 ultimately led to the formation of separate congregations. 
 
 In 1797, freedom was again granted to the Church, but almost 
 immediately there was a political reaction; persecution opened 
 anew for the third time. So sudden was the blow that the holy 
 priest was taken unawares, and having been served with notice of 
 deportation he was forced to leave the country. 
 
 He sought refuge at Saragossa, in northern Spain, where many 
 faithful fellow-priests had already preceded him. It was in that 
 city, the seat of the ancient basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar, that 
 Father Chaminade was inspired to become the religious founder, 
 and the apostle of Mary Immaculate. At the foot of the statue of 
 Our Blessed Mother he learned the precise nature of the great work 
 he was to accomplish. Through Mary he had received the Divine 
 call, and, though he had always cherished a tender love for her, he 
 now more than ever felt himself drawn to devote his life to her 
 service. The chosen souls whom he was to enlist in his future 
 project, were like him to chose the Blessed Virgin as their heavenly 
 patron, to labor in spreading her devotion, and finally, in their 
 battle against the modern heresy of skepticism and religious indif- 
 ference, lead souls to Christ through Mary. 161 
 
 It is not positively known in what manner the above revelation 
 was made, but that it consisted in more than a mere natural 
 prescience or premonition of some coming event, is certain from 
 the founder's own words repeatedly expressed in his later corre- 
 spondence, as well as in the conferences he held at times with his 
 spiritual children. In his humility he would refrain from ever 
 entering into details, but generally contented himself with merely 
 alluding to the event by dwelling rather on the " Divine origin of 
 his foundations/' of the " inspiration received from above," that 
 "Mary Immaculate had conceived the idea of the society," and 
 that "she had laid its foundation," etc. Only on one occasion did 
 he deign to give his first disciples a faint idea of what passed be- 
 tween himself and Heaven during the hours spent at the blessed 
 shrine. "Such as I see you now before me," said he, "such I saw 
 you long before the foundation of the society." 
 
 160 Rousseau, ibid., 42. 
 161 Cf. Simler, ibid., 117. 
 
BROTHERS OF THE SOCIETY OF MARY 63 
 
 As a result of his prayer and reflection there finally became 
 fixed in his mind three fundamental ideas, which he resolutely set 
 himself to realize; they comprised, in fact, the forecast and pro- 
 gram of his future work, namely these: (1) that his mission was to 
 be placed under the name and auspices of the Virgin Immaculate, 
 to whom had been reserved the triumph over past and present 
 heresies ; (2) his apostolate was not to be individual and transitory, 
 but was to exercise itself in associations, which, in turn, were to be 
 maintained in their original spirit, by means of a society of relig- 
 ious, properly so called the crowning of all his works; and (3) 
 this apostolate was to assume a form which would permit it to 
 reach most easily all classes of society: a religious institute so 
 pliant as to be able to adapt itself to all conditions and circum- 
 stances of time and place, in so far as the Church would approve. 162 
 
 Father Chaminade did not, however, depend only on prayer and 
 Divine inspiration, but he availed himself of his three years' sojourn 
 in exile (1797-1800) to study carefully the life and observances of 
 the various religious orders represented in Saragossa and envi- 
 rons. 163 He learned a great deal which he undoubtedly incorpo- 
 rated to some extent into his own later institutes. 
 
 Permanent peace having at last been established in France (1800), 
 Father Chaminade returned to Bordeaux and immediately took 
 measures to carry out his preconceived plan. At the first oppor- 
 tune moment, therefore, he gathered about him a chosen band of 
 young men who formed the nucleus of a sodality of the Blessed Virgin. 
 Their primary object, it is true, was their own sanctification and 
 salvation, but in addition to this they contracted to do all in their 
 power by word and example to bring others to the practice of their 
 religion, and to spread the cult of Mary; in short, to be missionaries 
 according to the conception of their spiritual director. 
 
 There were many other works to which Father Chaminade 
 devoted his attention, 164 but his chief concern was, of course, the 
 development and progress of his sodality, since from it was to issue 
 the future Society of Mary. 
 
 1M Ibid., 118, and cf. Rousseau, ibid., 61. 
 
 1M Among these were Benedictines, Franciscans Dominicans, Augustinians, 
 Hermits of St. Jerome, Carmelites, Trinitarians, Trappists, and Fathers of 
 the Pious Schools. 
 
 164 He was active in giving missions and retreats, and in various ways as- 
 sisted his fellow-priests, while at the same time he was administrator of a 
 diocese (Bazas). In cooperation with a very pious and devoted lady of 
 Bordeaux, Mile, de Lamourous, he founded "La MiseYicorde," a home for 
 fallen women. He had also been appointed as Penitentiary to the constitu- 
 tional pri< 
 
64 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 After some months he also organized a sodality of young ladies 
 similar to that of the young men. 
 
 Both branches developed very rapidly, and were so productive of 
 good as to win the admiration of all Bordeaux. They appealed to 
 all classes of society. In the young men's sodality, for example, 
 were represented men of various trades and professions, and even 
 a number of priests, some of these among the most prominent in 
 Bordeaux. 165 A year after its inception it counted one hundred 
 .professed members, and during the period from 1804 to 1809 the 
 number reached three hundred. 166 
 
 This extraordinary success was due, after God, to Father Cham- 
 inade's own charm of personality, as well as his thorough knowl- 
 edge and understanding of human nature, especially that of youth 
 so intensely susceptible to every impression. He knew how to 
 attract, win the affection, and by captivating the heart gain the 
 whole man. And all for the glory of God and the salvation of 
 souls. 
 
 The mission received at Saragossa was ever before his mind, and 
 it was the mainspring of all his activity. What he did for the young 
 men's sodality was but in preparation for the culminating event 
 which was to take place later. 
 
 The archbishop, Mgr. d'Aviau, entirely approved of his under- 
 taking, and warmly supported him on every occasion, which 
 undoubtedly must have been a source of great encouragement and 
 a further stimulant to the future founder. 
 
 However eager and desirous he may have been to see the accom- 
 plishment of his designs, he would not anticipate the will of Prov- 
 idence. He felt certain that the work in hand was according to the 
 divine plan, and that he would succeed; hence he could wait. 
 
 Not until about the year 1814, however, was there any indica- 
 tion that the time had at last arrived, and after two more years 
 (1816) there emerged from the sodality of young ladies the " Insti- 
 tute of the Daughters of Mary" (VInstitut des Filles de Marie). 1 * 1 
 
 From the first years of the existence of the sodalities a great 
 number of the most regular and devoted members withdrew to 
 
 165 Of these may be mentioned R. P. Rauzan, a famous orator, who later 
 founded the "Missionaries of France," and R. P. Boyer, administrator of 
 the archdiocese of Bordeaux (cf. Rousseau, ibid., 90 ff.). 
 
 "Cf. Simler, ibid., 208 ff. 
 
 167 Strictly speaking the institute originated from a branch sodality at Agen, 
 a city near Bordeaux. 
 
BROTHERS OF THE SOCIETY OF MARY 65 
 
 enter religious life. Thus the young men either left for the semi- 
 nary, or joined the Institute of the Christian Brothers. Naturally 
 Father Chaminade became somewhat anxious, and to assure the 
 permanence of the work, he organized within the sodality a select 
 body who pledged themselves to devote their whole life to the good 
 of the cause. Some took the vow of obedience, and others bound 
 themselves with the additional vows of chastity and zeal. 
 
 The obligations were assumed privately, and only the members 
 of the group knew of them. The young men continued their 
 services in the sodality as usual without being accorded any special 
 distinction or privilege. On the contrary they were expected and 
 supposed to constitute the mainstay and life-giving principle of the 
 entire body. 
 
 They were in a certain sense religious living in the world and 
 pursuing their ordinary occupations. This idea of Father Chami- 
 nade, if not original with him, may possibly have been borrowed 
 from R. P. de la Cloriviere and his society of religious, referred to 
 above. 168 Father Chaminade, undoubtedly, was very much in- 
 clined to favor such a mode of life. 
 
 By the above means the sodality was wonderfully strengthened, 
 and the young men in question did indeed prove themselves 
 worthy of their calling. Without any provocation whatever the 
 Imperial Government in 1809 suddenly suppressed the work; yet 
 in 1814, when public meetings and services were resumed, it was 
 found that the sodality was as numerous and flourishing as ever, 
 due, in great part, to the loyalty and devotedness of these zealous 
 laborers. 169 In 1816 they numbered fifteen, known at the time 
 apparently among themselves as the "Society of Fifteen" 
 (Societe des Quinze). 
 
 Under the direction of Father Chaminade, and with the assist- 
 ance of his special aids, the sodality had grown almost beyond con- 
 trol. There were a number of affiliated sodalities outside the city 
 of Bordeaux, and the thought was impressing itself more and more 
 on the mind of the reverend director, that if the work was to survive 
 liim he would need co-laborers whose whole time and energy 
 would be consecrated to this specific vocation. But it needed very 
 little reflection to convince him that this was possible only by 
 means of a religious society "which would never die." This con- 
 
 W8 See note. p. 44, above; also Rousseau, ibid., 162. 
 "'Father Chaminade designated them as his "Staff." 
 
66 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 elusion was in perfect harmony with another conviction of his, 
 namely, that only through the religious orders was it possible to 
 re-establish Christianity in France. 170 
 
 It was therefore in accordance with these considerations that 
 Father Chaminade, prompted by Divine Providence, at last 
 decided to plan a religious society of a definite and permanent form, 
 comprising a body of workers devoted entirely to the kind of 
 apostolate he had inaugurated with his sodality. He first intended 
 to found a congregation of religious, living in the world, and having 
 all in common like the First Christians; but he very soon realized 
 that such a form would be altogether impracticable, and hence he 
 determined that they should live in community. The time, also, 
 seemed favorable. Still he would not take the initiative, but, 
 while earnest in prayer, he patiently awaited developments. 
 
 Finally, on May 1, 1817, one of the members of the "Fifteen," 
 Jean-Baptiste Lalanne, who had for some time been seriously con- 
 sidering the choice of a state of life, came to Father Chaminade 
 declaring his intention to consecrate his life to the kind of work 
 his spiritual director was engaged in. The young man he was 
 twenty-two at the time himself tells about the interview: "When 
 I had finished, Father Chaminade was in tears of joy and he ex- 
 claimed : ' It is just what I expected long ago, God be praised! He 
 has made known His holy will; the time has come at last to put 
 into execution a plan that I have had in mind for twenty years, a 
 plan which God Himself revealed to me!' " 
 
 M. Lalanne immediately gained one of his friends, and Father 
 Chaminade shortly after induced another member to join the first 
 two. With these three secured, he regarded his foundation as 
 established. Moreover, he believed that he could now freely 
 propose the undertaking to all those who were well-disposed and at 
 liberty to follow their vocation. As a result two additional young 
 men from among the "Fifteen" offered themselves at once. 171 
 
 After a considerable delay the five candidates made a decisive 
 retreat, at the close of which (October 2, 1817) 172 they offered them- 
 selves unreservedly to their spiritual director, begging him to grant 
 
 170 Rousseau, ibid., 179 ff. 
 
 in The following are the names of the five: Jean-Baptiste Lalanne (22 yrs.), 
 Jean-Baptiste Collineau (21 yrs.), Auguste Brougnon-Perriere (28 yrs.), Louis 
 Daguzan (28 yrs.), and Dominique Clouzet (28 yrs.); the first two 'mentioned 
 were clerical students who became priests after some time. 
 
 17a This day has always been regarded in the society as the day of its origin. 
 
BROTHERS OF THE SOCIETY OF MARY 67 
 
 them the favor of making the three vows of religion. Although 
 Father Chaminade did not at the time accede to their wishes, he 
 assured them that he would henceforth depend upon them, and 
 that before long he would provide the means to unite them in 
 community; the society was at last a reality. 173 
 
 Within a month the little group had increased to seven, and on 
 Thursday, December 11, they pronounced their first vows. A 
 house was rented for their use, but Father Chaminade would not 
 as yet permit them to follow a regular community life. He in- 
 sisted that they pursue their ordinary occupations in the world, 
 and come together only whenever possible. 
 
 This manner of procedure was to be maintained for a year, during 
 which period the founder expected to have ample opportunity to 
 test the members, and study the form his young institute was to 
 assume. He himself could not regularly live in community with 
 his religious brethren, as his other undertakings also demanded his 
 time and attention. He did, however, take the title of superior 
 general of the society, and attended to its needs as far as it was 
 possible under the circumstances. 
 
 The object in founding the institute was "to enroll into the 
 service of God and the Church under the patronage of Mary, a 
 body of religious soldiers who should combine a truly interior life 
 with the exercises of an active zeal ; which should unite in one body 
 men of both the clerical and the lay apostolate, and devote all its 
 energies to the work of ' increasing the number of real Christians/ ' 
 The society has thus a very wide field of activity. In fact, it can 
 undertake any work of zeal, as long as it furthers the interests of 
 this general evangelization, and which, of course, is authorized by 
 the Holy See. 174 
 
 As regards its organization it was to be particularly remarkable 
 for its extensive adaptability. For example, in external appear- 
 ance and practices there was nothing to attract attention; there 
 
 l "Simler, ibid., 376. 
 
 174 Father Chaminade persistently adhered to his original idea of universality 
 of aim in matters of zeal, declaring that "the Society of Mary excludes no 
 species of work, but adopts the means which Providence offers it in order to 
 attain the ends that it proposes to achieve, (la SodeU de Marie n'exclut 
 aucun genre d'ccumes: elle adopte tous les moyens que la divine Providence lui 
 donne pour atteindre les fins qu'elle se propose.) 11 Simler, ibid., 687. Accord- 
 ing to the requirements of canon law the constitutions specify certain works; 
 yet it mentions that " if some work of zeal not foreseen, were to present itself, 
 it could not be undertaken without the authorization of the Sacred Congrega- 
 tion of Bishops and Regulars." (Constitutions of the Society of Mary, Art. 
 285, Dayton, 1892.) 
 
68 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 was no special costume prescribed; 175 the members refrained from 
 addressing one another with the title of Pere, Frere, or Superieur, 
 but simply used the term Monsieur; 176 the priests and lay members 
 were to form one corporate whole, and, excepting the specific duties 
 of the sacred ministry, both were to be equally associated in the 
 works of the society ; m the lay members were to be employed accord- 
 ind to their capacity, either in the work of instruction or in the care 
 of temporalities; the vows were those of poverty, chastity and 
 obedience and what seems unique in the society with the addi- 
 tion of a fourth, namely, that of stability, corresponding to the 
 vow of "zeal taken by the sodalists, the force of which was, in each 
 case, "to renounce the right ever to choose another religious rule." 
 
 The dominant trait or characteristic impress of the institute was 
 to be "filial piety toward Mary." "This new order," as Father 
 Chaminade remarks, "takes the name of the Society of Mary (the 
 name of Family would better express its nature), because all who 
 belong to it now or who are to belong to it in future should : first, 
 consecrate themselves to Mary; second, look upon Mary as their 
 mother and upon themselves as her children; third, endeavor to 
 form themselves within the bosom of her maternal tenderness into 
 a resemblance of Christ; fourth, to take up the labors of the insti- 
 tute with a supreme confidence in the protection of the august 
 name of Mary and with the sole desire of glorifying her." "Per 
 Matrem ad Filium," "through the Mother to the Son," was to be 
 their method and their motto. 178 
 
 The year of probation having passed, Father Chaminade called 
 the members of the community together for the exercises of a gen- 
 eral retreat. On the closing date, September 5, 1818, six of them 
 
 175" The costume of the members of the society differs little from that of 
 seculars. Nothing is sought for in it but cleanliness and modesty. (Const. 
 
 Art. 198.) If in certain countries this costume would prove seriously 
 
 inconvenient, the superior general could permit the necessary modifications. 
 (Art. 199.) The ecclesiastics are dressed like the exemplary priests of 
 the diocese in which they reside Modesty and simplicity are the only 
 exterior signs of their holy state." (Art. 202.) 
 
 176 The founder was the "Good Father," which appellation is still retained 
 by the superior general. 
 
 mThe Society of Mary is composed of priests and lay members, forming 
 one and the same congregation, in which all equally enjoy the title and pre- 
 rogatives of members of the society, and in which all may be equally called to 
 any employment, with the exception of certain functions expressly reserved 
 in the constitutions, some for clerical, others for lay members." (Art. 306.) 
 
 178 The gold ring worn by the members was to be the exterior sign of their 
 sacred alliance with the Queen of Heaven, and by the vow of stability they 
 pledged inviolable fidelity to her service. (Cf. Simler, ibid., 404.) 
 
BROTHERS OF THE SOCIETY OF MARY 69 
 
 took perpetual engagements, three made vows for three years, 
 while four others were to start their novitiate. It was on this 
 occasion too that the reverend director proclaimed in the name 
 of the Archbishop of Bordeaux the official and acknowledged 
 existence of the society. 179 
 
 Henceforth the members were to live habitually in community, 
 and to follow the rules which had been prepared by Father Chami- 
 nade and verbally approved by Mgr. d'Aviau. One of the Broth- 
 ers, M. Auguste Perriere, was appointed superior. 
 
 Much of the work of the previous year had been in connection 
 with the sodality, but now the members desired to engage in some 
 other occupation. After a brief consideration of the question they 
 all agreed that the work of education would afford them splendid 
 opportunities for the exercise of their apostolic mission. Father 
 Chaminade, on his part, encouraged the idea. He seems not origi- 
 nally to have singled out this particular employment for his religi- 
 ous, but as soon as it was proposed he entered into the work with 
 all the ardor of his soul. 180 It certainly was included in his com- 
 prehensive plan for the increase of Christians, and, from the very 
 beginning, it proved the chief work of his institute, as enunciated 
 in the constitutions: "The Society devotes itself to divers works 
 of zeal, principally to the education of youth." 181 As we proceed 
 it will become the more evident with what energy and consummate 
 wisdom the founder directed his Brothers in their new undertaking. 
 
 The latter determined to begin at once. With the aid of one of 
 their former fellow-sodalists, M. Estebenet, who conducted a 
 private and very flourishing boarding-school in Bordeaux, they 
 secured the lease of the building adjoining his own establishment. 
 And, as he himself intended to move shortly to another locality, 
 the Brothers were thus free to open their school. There was much 
 delay before they obtained the requisite authorization, and the 
 school-year was already drawing to a close; nevertheless they 
 opened classes with the expectation of being better prepared for 
 the following term. 
 
 At the re-opening in October it was learned that M. Estebenet 
 would not be able to transfer his school as promised. Neither of 
 the parties desired that the establishments exist side by side. They 
 
 l79 Simler., 387. 
 180 Cf. Ibid., 474. 
 lsl Const., ibid., Art. 5. 
 
70 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 agreed, therefore, that the two schools combine, with Brother 
 Auguste in full control, and the other members of the little com 
 munity constituting the faculty. 182 
 
 On the advice of Father Chaminade they first limited themselves 
 to receiving only younger pupils, the idea being that these young 
 souls would at the completion of their course be better prepared 
 for the work of spreading Christianity. 183 It was not, however, the 
 intention of the founder to restrict or confine his Brothers within 
 specified limits in educational work; on the contrary, they could 
 engage in it to any extent, provided there was no interference on 
 the part of the civil powers. 184 At that time there did not as yet 
 exist a law granting freedom in education. Therefore, in the above 
 instance, though the Brothers very much desired to give a complete 
 secondary course (college), they were unable to do so because of 
 the various limitations imposed by the university authorities. 
 
 Yet despite these conditions the school gained a great reputation 
 for the excellent discipline that prevailed, and the thorough religi- 
 ous and secular training it imparted. And as the society became 
 more widely known, applications came from different parts of the 
 country asking for Brothers to open schools. Thus, in a few 
 years, establishments were founded at Agen, Villeneuve-sur-Lot, in 
 southwestern and eastern France, but especially in the provinces of 
 Alsace and Franche-Comte*. They were schools, too, of great diver- 
 sity in character and grade, e. g., schools for the poor, public, and 
 boarding-schools, elementary and eventually secondary, nor- 
 mal, 185 and professional. 
 
 This marvelous expansion in number of establishments presup- 
 poses an extraordinary internal growth and development within 
 the Brotherhood itself. In fact, its membership increased very 
 rapidly, and the society assumed such large proportions as to 
 guarantee lasting stability. Father Chaminade was ever its soul 
 
 182 M. Estebenet received, in compensation for his concession, a life annuity 
 of 1,500 fr. (Rousseau, ibid., 252.) 
 
 183 Simler, ibid., 482. 
 
 184 This freedom of action in the field of education is clearly stated in the con- 
 stitutions: "The Society devotes itself to the education of the youngest 
 children, with a special love for the poorer class; it, however, does not exclude 
 the children of a more advanced age, or of a higher condition in society. (Art. 
 
 262.) ; Consequently, the principal works of the Society of Mary relate 
 
 to instruction in every form and grade." (Art. 263.) 
 
 186 Father Chaminade was especially solicitous in establishing normal schools 
 for the preparation of State teachers, his underlying motive, of course, being 
 that the teachers thus thoroughly trained would serve as missionaries. 
 
BROTHERS OF THE SOCIETY OF MARY 71 
 
 and inspiration in the attainment of the two chief ends for which 
 he had instituted it. 186 
 
 In 1825, he solicited and obtained the legal recognition of his 
 institute for the whole of France. 
 
 The future looked bright and hopeful, until suddenly, at the 
 outbreak of the Revolution of 1830, the young society was brought 
 to face the first critical period in its history. Certain deplorable 
 defections, together with financial difficulties and a more or less 
 general opposition to the management of the society, for a time, 
 bitterly grieved and embarrassed the founder, but happily did not 
 seriously affect the works he had inaugurated. 
 
 Immediately following the return to normal conditions (1834), 
 he published the first part of his constitutions; and, on the comple- 
 tion of the work in 1839, he submitted a copy to the Holy See in 
 expectation of papal approbation for it and both his institutes. 
 His hopes were partly realized, as a decree of commendation was 
 issued April 12, 1839, approving his two foundations, but only 
 provisionally accepting the constitutions. 187 
 
 At the beginning of the year 1841 he resigned from the office of 
 superior general, and spent the remainder of his life mostly in 
 retirement. He died January 22, 1850, in the 89th year of his age. 
 
 By the Brief of approbation dated August 11, 1865, the society 
 was recognized and approved by the Church as a canonical insti- 
 tution, and on July 10, 1891, it obtained the final and complete 
 approbation of its constitutions. 
 
 The Society of Mary at present has establishments in almost 
 every country of the world, and in 1900 had an enrollment of 
 2,500 members. 188 True to the principles and ideals set by the 
 founder, it still endeavors, in the multiplicity of its works espec- 
 ially in the education of youth to form missionaries who are to 
 lead souls to Christ through the medium of His Blessed Mother. 
 
 'These two ends according to the constitutions are: (1) "To raise each 
 of its members to evangelical perfection; and (2) to work at the salvation 
 of souls." (Const. Art. 2.) 
 
 187 The constitutions of the Brothers were adaptations of those of the Insti- 
 tute of the Daughters of Mary. In both instances, they were the fruits of 
 the founder's own originality of conception, experience, and study of the 
 ancient orders, particularly the Benedictines. (Cf. Simler, ibid., 388, 685 ff.) 
 
 188 The clerical body in the society approximates six per cent of the total 
 membership. In this country there are 500 Brothers, divided into two pro- 
 vinces with central-houses at Dayton, O., and Clayton, Mo. Though chiefly 
 engaged in parochial school work, they also conduct several flourishing high 
 schools and colleges. 
 
72 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 BROTHERS OF CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE OF NANCY 
 
 (1817) 
 
 This diocesan congregation was founded about the year 1817, in 
 Lorraine, France, by Dom Frechard, former Benedictine of 
 Senones Abbey, then cure" of Colroy, in the diocese of Nancy. 
 The object of the foundation was to provide Christian teachers for 
 the neighboring country districts. 
 
 For years the institute was in most precarious condition, and at 
 the time of the Revolution of 1830 it was completely disorganized. 
 It was revived, however, some years afterward. A firmer and 
 more stable organization and form of administration was then 
 introduced, which, by infusing renewed life and vigor within the 
 Brotherhood, assured its future existence. 
 
 Its members take the vows of religion, both temporary and per- 
 petual; the latter, though, are permissible only to subjects of tried 
 virtue and mature religious life. 189 
 
 According to regulations the Brothers may be sent out teaching 
 either singly or in groups, as necessity and circumstances require. 
 
 In numbers, the congregation today counts two hundred sub- 
 jects and twenty establishments. 190 
 
 BROTHERS OF HOLY CROSS (1820) 
 
 The above congregation, composed of Priests and lay Brothers, 
 originated in France, and is a combination of two distinct commu- 
 nities, one, the Brothers of St. Joseph of Ruille (Loir), and the 
 other, an association of Auxiliary Priests of Mans. 
 
 The founder of the Brothers, Rev. James Francis Dujarie, was 
 born at Sainte-Marie-des-Bois (dept. Mayenne) December 9, 1767. 
 Having inclinations to the priesthood he was sent to pursue his 
 classical studies successively at the colleges of Lassay (near 
 Mayenne), Saint-Ouen, Ernee (Dumfront), and lastly in 1787 he 
 entered Le Grand Seminaire (Angers). 
 
 He was interrupted in his preparation by the outbreak of the 
 French Revolution, which obliged him to leave the seminary; but 
 instead of fleeing the country he preferred to remain, and by means 
 of various disguises he was able to exercise his goodness and charity 
 
 189 Cf. H%ot, ibid., Vol. IV., 398. . 
 190 Laveille (Lamennais), ibid., Vol. II., 461 ff. 
 
BROTHERS OF HOLY CROSS 73 
 
 in behalf of the sick and needy. Availing himself of the first brief 
 period of calm (1794), he continued his clerical studies at Ruille", 
 and the following year he was ordained in Paris at the hands of 
 Mgr. de Saint-Papoul. 
 
 In October, 1796, the horrors of the Revolution broke out anew, 
 with such suddenness too, that many faithful priests, who had till 
 then escaped detection, were forced into exile. Father Dujarie* 
 somehow or other succeeded in evading discovery, and for three 
 years he secretly and with heroic devotedness attended to the 
 duties of his priestly office. 
 
 When durable peace finally returned, he was appointed (1803) 
 cure* of Ruille", in which capacity he immediately entered upon the 
 work of remedying the evil effects and influences of the Revolu- 
 tion. With all the energy of his soul he labored to revive the 
 faith among his people, and to bring them back to God and religion. 
 But it was especially the poor children that appealed to him, for 
 they were truly the most neglected and helpless. 
 
 As a first result of his endeavors there eventually developed a 
 society of pious women who pledged themselves to devote ;their 
 lives to the education of poor girls. 191 
 
 One portion of his flock was thus provided for; but another, that 
 of the boys was next to solicit his attention. He could not secure 
 Christian Brothers for reasons already stated; 192 and the other 
 teaching Brotherhoods being generally limited to a very narrow 
 radius either a diocese, or at most a province could not supply 
 the necessary assistance. And even if these congregations had 
 been willing to oblige, they would not have been able to do so, as 
 nearly all of them were of recent date, and hence were not suffi- 
 ciently developed to meet the great demand made on them. 
 
 The only alternative, therefore, left to Father Dujarie 1 was to 
 take the matter in hand himself. His idea was to form, if possible, 
 an association of teaching Brothers whose rules would allow them 
 to teach singly or in groups, according as the parishes needed them. 
 
 While deliberating upon the question, he sought the advice of 
 others, particularly the Bishop of Mans, Mgr. Claude Madeleine 
 de la Myre, who in time (1820) authorized Father Dujarie" to pro- 
 ceed to the execution of his design, i. e., to found a community of 
 Brothers destined for the parishes of the diocese. 
 
 191 Trahey, J. J., C. S. C., The Brothers of Holy Cross, 15, Notre Dame. 
 l See above, p. 33. 
 
74 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 The founder at once took measures to begin the work. Of the 
 five young men who presented themselves in the course of the year 
 (1820), two Andre^Pierre Mattais (Brother Andre), and fitienne 
 Gauffre (Brother fitienne) remained faithful. They lodged with 
 Father Dujari6, shared his meals, and spent the day in study, 
 manual labor and in the performance of certain religious exercises. 
 
 Toward the end of the year the little community had increased 
 to four members. At this time, too, Brother Andre* and Brother 
 Utienne were sent to Mans, to prepare directly for the religious 
 life and undertake special studies at Le Grand Seminaire. 
 
 The year after they returned to Ruille, when Brother Andre was 
 appointed assistant novice-master, and Brother fitienne was com- 
 missioned to open the first school at Saint-Denis d'Orques (Novem- 
 ber 9, 1821). A number of schools followed, and by the end of 
 1822 the society had control of eight establishments. 
 
 At the annual retreat of this same year the Brothers took religi- 
 ous engagements, consisting of the three essential vows of poverty, 
 chastity and obedience. They were temporary, either for one, 
 two or three years; no perpetual vows it seems were taken for the 
 time being. 193 
 
 With the intention of completing his work Father Dujarie took 
 steps to obtain for his community a legal standing. He apparently 
 had no difficulty as his wishes were very shortly complied with. A 
 decree authorizing the institute under the name of "Brothers of 
 St. Joseph " (Freres de St. Joseph Sarthe) was issued June 23, 
 1823. 194 
 
 Despite the fact that the congregation rapidly developed during 
 the next few years, it seems to have lacked the true stamina requi- 
 site for permanent stability. Beginning about 1828 the commu- 
 nity started slowly to disintegrate; it was saved from absolute ruin 
 only by the loyal devotedness of a small band of faithful members 
 who solemnly agreed (1831) to sustain the Brotherhood come what 
 may. 195 
 
 In 1835, the holy founder, feeling that his strength would no 
 longer permit him to continue to govern the society, resigned from 
 the office of superior. He was succeeded by Father Basil Anthony 
 Moreau, a former friend of the Brothers, who willingly and gladly 
 accepted the charge. 
 
 193 Trahey, ibid., 26. 
 1M Ibid., 27. 
 1 *Cf. ibid., 29. 
 
BROTHERS OF HOLY CROSS 75 
 
 This worthy priest had at an early date undertaken the work of 
 preaching retreats, and with such success that the Bishop of Mans 
 urged him to found an association of ecclesiastics who would aid 
 him in this particular calling. Accordingly, with six priests 
 Father Moreau laid the foundation of his society, the "Auxiliary 
 Priests of Mans,'* the same year (1835) in which he took over the 
 direction of the Brothers of St. Joseph. 196 
 
 For a time both societies continued their respective work: the 
 Brothers taught their schools, while the Fathers engaged in giving 
 retreats. But Father Moreau thought of uniting the two bodies; 
 to his mind they could thus accomplish much more good. The 
 union was also shortly effected, and the institute thus formed was 
 called the " Association of Holy Cross." 197 
 
 As the first fruit of the coalition Father Moreau founded (1836) 
 the College of Holy Cross at Mans, in which both the Fathers and 
 Brothers were employed. No better evidence could have been 
 produced of the unity and harmony that existed among the mem- 
 ers. The adjustment of both divisions of the congregation in this 
 particular instance also served as a model for the future. 198 
 
 During this year, too, the ceremony of perpetual profession was 
 introduced among the Brothers. In regard to the Fathers no 
 definite step was taken in this respect until 1840, when they also 
 were permitted to take perpetual vows. 199 
 
 These sacred engagements were certainly clear indications of the 
 strength and vitality that pervaded the entire body, and which at 
 the same time gave assurance of future permanency. 
 
 In 1855 and 1856, respectively, the congregation was favored by 
 the Holy See with laudatory briefs, and in 1857, Rome definitely 
 and fully approved its rules and constitutions. 
 
 Today, the Brotherhood in this country numbers one hundred 
 and fifty Fathers and about two hundred Brothers. Its educa- 
 tional activities are confined chiefly to the college and university. 200 
 
 1 "Though Father Dujarte had severed his connections with both the Brothers 
 and Sisters, he apparently continued to reside with his spiritual children, and 
 also died among them. (Cf. Trahey, ibid., 35.) 
 
 ltT The designation "Holy Cross," which the members of the congregation 
 adopted as their distinctive name, was derived from Holy Cross commune, 
 a suburb of the city of Mans. (Ibid., 37.) At the time of the fusion, the 
 Brothers of St. Joseph numbered about sixty. 
 
 1M At the present time, for example, a very similar arrangement exists: 
 The Fathers direct the educational institutions assisted by the Brothers. (Cf . 
 ibid., 68, 117.) 
 
 "The congregation in 1840 counted eighty members, thirty-nine establish- 
 ments, and forty-five novices. 
 
 200 Cf. Trahey, ibid., 68, 117; and The Catholic Church in the U. S., ibid., 162. 
 
76 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 BROTHERS OF THE CROSS OF JESUS (1820) 
 
 These Brothers were founded in 1820 at Lyons, France, by Rev. 
 C. M. Bochard, vicar-general of the diocese. 
 
 Until 1873, the principal houses were directed by priests, who 
 were members of the community. As the Fathers were withdrawn 
 at the time to attend to parishes, the congregation has since been 
 composed exclusively of Brothers. 
 
 A province of this commmunity exists in Canada, where at 
 present the Brothers conduct a number of colleges. 201 
 
 BROTHERS OF THE SACRED HEART (1821) 
 
 Pere Andre* Coindre, the founder of this community, was a 
 prominent member of the Society of Missionaries of France. He 
 was a native of the city of Lyons, and was born February 26, 1787. 
 
 At the time of his ordination to the priesthood (June 14, 1812), 
 he was placed at Bourg as chief curate of the parish. The people 
 in general had not as yet been brought back to the regular practice 
 of their religion. But the fervor and zeal of the new abbe" soon 
 made itself felt. His forceful eloquence especially, inspired as it 
 was solely by love of God and the practice of virtue, proved a very 
 powerful means in this general apostolate. 
 
 It is natural, therefore, that mission-work must have appealed 
 to him; and when in 1816 Cardinal Fesch, Archbishop of Lyons, 
 invited his cooperation in a society of missionaries which he had 
 reestablished in the diocese, the young priest at once most gladly 
 accepted. 202 From this time forward he consecrated his life to the 
 missions, preaching not only within his own diocese (Lyons), but 
 also in those of Puy and Blois. 
 
 While in the course of his labors at Lyons, his attention was 
 drawn to the great number of homeless and neglected boys whom 
 he met on the streets. Their spiritual condition particularly 
 aroused his deepest feelings of pity and commiseration. And to 
 save them he founded his first " Providence," an asylum in which 
 these poor waifs, while being initiated into useful labor, received 
 at the same time a good education. By the year 1820 their num- 
 ber had increased to such an extent that a larger building was fitted 
 
 301 Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. IV., 539. 
 
 Annuaire de I'lnstitut des Frbres du Sacre-C&ur, No. 4, 18, Renteria 
 (Espagne), 1910. 
 
BROTHERS OF THE SACRED HEART 77 
 
 out for the purpose, the whole establishment becoming known as 
 Le Pieux-Secours. 
 
 Since the very beginning of the project Pere Coindre had been 
 employing lay teachers in the work, but all things considered 
 these did not meet his expectations. He thought that if his under- 
 taking was to last, he must build it on a firm and solid basis; and 
 this, he finally concluded, could only be done by a body of religious 
 teachers devoted exclusively to education. 
 
 Acting on this conviction he one day drew aside two of his most 
 exemplary co-workers, and exposed to them his intention of found- 
 ing a congregation for the purpose in view, asking whether they 
 would offer themselves as members. One of them replied that he 
 had not the inclination for the kind of life proposed. The other, 
 Guillaume Arnaud, immediately responded to the wishes of the 
 founder and answered: "I know the world. Vanity, pleasures, 
 riches, are the chains of slavery. My happiness would be to con- 
 secrate myself without reserve to the service of God. 203 " He was 
 the first Brother of the Sacred Heart, known afterward as Brother 
 Xavier. 
 
 Some months afterward he was joined by two other youths, 
 Claude Melinond and Frangois Porcher, later respectively known as 
 Brother Francois and Brother Paul. And this number was shortly 
 increased by the addition of several more. While on a mission 
 to Saint-fitienne the founder made the acquaintance of a group 
 of seven young men, who had the laudable practice of mutually 
 sharing the profits of their labor. On the invitation of Pe*re Coin- 
 dre they all followed him. 
 
 With these ten disciples the founder was to begin his work. The 
 first definite action taken to this end was the retreat of September 
 24, 1821, on the closing day of which (30th) he conducted his 
 spiritual children to the venerated sanctuary of Our Lady of 
 Fourviere, and consecrated them to the Blessed Mother. The 
 Institute of the Brothers of the Sacred Heart was a reality. 204 
 
 After the retreat the founder apportioned an employment to each 
 of the Brothers, for example, to one he assigned the direction and 
 management of Le Pieux-Secours, to another, the adjoining work- 
 shop; and in time, others were sent to open schools in different 
 parishes. 
 
 ao3 Annuaire, No. 5, 11. 
 
 2 <"Cf. Annuaire, No. 4, ibid., 25. 
 
78 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 In 1824, the members took religious vows, and at this time, too, 
 Pe*re Coindre organized the government of the institute. The 
 rules were based upon the rule of St. Augustine, and the constitu- 
 tions were modeled after those of St. Ignatius. Besides, the 
 Brothers elected from among their number a director general, 
 with two assistants, and a procurator. The founder was to remain 
 superior general until his death, after which his brother Vincent, 
 who was chaplain of Le Pieux-Secours, was to assume the office; 
 then only was the government of the society to pass over into the 
 hands of the Brothers themselves. 205 
 
 Circumstances, however, somewhat altered this arrangement. 
 Pre Coindre was appointed in 1825 as president of the diocesan 
 seminary of Blois, and being thus obliged to resign from his 
 office of superior, his brother, of course, immediately succeeded 
 him. 
 
 The founder, nevertheless, kept in touch with the Brothers by 
 regular correspondence, and even found time to work at their 
 rules. But he did not complete the task, for he died the following 
 year (1826). 
 
 Despite the best intentions the new superior unfortunately erred 
 in matters of administration, and thereby greatly hindered the 
 development and progress of the congregation. At one time when 
 a financial crisis was threatened it was only the timely action of 
 one of the Brothers that saved the situation. 206 
 
 Finally, in 1841 P&re Vincent, realizing that the Brothers could 
 henceforth direct their own affairs, resigned from the superiorship, 
 and one of the Brothers (Frere Polycarpe) was elected as his 
 successor. 207 
 
 The congregation was approved by the Church in 1897. 208 
 
 Its development has been very rapid ever since the Brothers 
 assumed self-government. An idea of it may be had from the 
 fact that in 1901 France alone numbered 1,100 Brothers, with 150 
 schools under their direction, spread throughout twenty dioceses. 20 ' 
 
 206 Ibid., 27. 
 
 206 Cf . Annuaire, No. 5, 22 ff . 
 
 207 Annuaire, No. 7, 27 ff. 
 
 208 The institute had been legally authorized (March 10, 1825) under the 
 name of Freres de VInstruction Chritienne au Paradis-pres-Le-Puy Hte- 
 Loire. 
 
 ao *The provinces of the United States and Canada in 1907 reckoned together 
 a total of 460 Brothers, with forty-eight establishments. (Catholic Ency- 
 clopedia, Vol. XIII, 305.) 
 
BROTHERS OF CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE OF STRASBURG 79 
 
 BROTHERS OF CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE OF STRASBURG 
 
 (1821) 
 
 The founder of this congregation, Tabbe" Ignace Mertian, desir- 
 ous of procuring for the youth of his diocese the blessings of a 
 Christian education, laid the foundation of his Brotherhood in 
 1821, by the establishment of a novitiate at Ribeauville", province 
 of Alsace, France. 
 
 The undertaking was so fraught with difficulties, especially in 
 regard to the formation of subjects, that the founder was finally 
 constrained to dissolve the community in 1826. 210 It was reestab- 
 lished, however, in 1843 through the instrumentality of the two 
 brothers of the original founder, M. Louis and Tabbe" Eugene, whose 
 great fortune was utilized in furtherance of the work. L'abbe" 
 Eugene, truly the second founder of the congregation, became its 
 first superior general, and it thenceforth prospered although very 
 slowly. 
 
 The Brothers besides being employed in teaching are often 
 assigned to the duties of sacristan and organist. All take the 
 temporary or perpetual vows of religion, to which they add a 
 fourth, that of devoting themselves to the care of poor children. 
 
 At the present time the community numbers 150 Brothers, and 
 30 novices and postulants. 211 
 
 BROTHERS OF ST. JOSEPH OF AMIENS (1824) 
 
 The origin of this institute is generally ascribed to the Rt. Rev. 
 Bishop of Amiens (France), Mgr. de Chabons, but its actual 
 accomplishment was due to M. Lardeur, a layman. The bishop 
 had had the desire for some years to found a diocesan congrega- 
 tion to take charge of his schools; yet he saw no opportunity of 
 doing so until he secured the assistance of the pious layman 
 referred to. 
 
 A community was provisionally established at Longueau, near 
 Amiens, February 2, 1824, and the following year, on March 19, 
 the first six postulants took the religious habit. Later, M. Lar- 
 deur purchased the old abbey of St. Fuscien nearby, which place 
 very shortly became the permanent home and central-house of the 
 congregation. Its members, known as the Brothers of St. Joseph 
 
 J10 Cf. Simler (Brothers of the Society of Mary), ibid., 497, 566 ff. 
 ^Helyot, ibid., Vol. IV, 395; Heimbucher, ibid., 362. 
 
80 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 (or Josephites of St. Fuscieri), directed a number of schools of the 
 diocese until the Revolution of 1830 forced the Brothers to suspend 
 all work, thereby almost ruining the entire community. It revived, 
 however, as soon as more peaceful days returned, and continued its 
 former labors, confining itself principally to the diocese of Amiens. 
 
 The members of the congregation are divided into three distinct 
 groups, viz., teachers, priests, and coadjutor Brothers. They all 
 make profession to observe the evangelical counsels, together with 
 the vow to extend the cult of the Most Holy Hearts of Jesus and 
 Mary, above all in devoting themselves to the education of youth. 
 
 The congregation secured its legal existence by royal ordinance 
 of December 3, 1823, authorizing its formation. 212 
 
 BROTHERS OF THE HOLY FAMILY (1824) 
 
 This congregation, composed of teachers and lay Brothers, was 
 founded in 1824, by Gabriel Taborin, in the diocese of Belley, 
 France. A first attempt at foundation was made in the diocese of 
 Saint-Claude (Jura), where Taborin lived at the time. The young 
 man had had inclinations toward the religious life, but could not 
 decide which order he should enter. He then thought that per- 
 haps he himself could found a congregation which would answer 
 his purpose. At first he rejected the idea, believing himself alto- 
 gether unworthy of the honor and incapable of undertaking such a 
 task. Yet he could not banish the thought from his mind. In his 
 doubt and indecision he consulted the bishop, who immediately 
 approved of the project in contemplation, and urged him to begin 
 the work. 
 
 In compliance with the desire of the prelate, Taborin gathered 
 about him five young men with whom he formed the first commu- 
 nity. According to regulations the members employed themselves 
 in teaching and in the service of the cathedral as chanters and 
 sacristans. The kind of life and work, however, soon grew irk- 
 some and monotonous to the associates of Brother Gabriel, and 
 they all left him. The latter shortly afterward (1827) returned 
 to his native diocese of Belley, where he once more took up the 
 work, but this time with better success. His first permanent 
 novitiate was founded at Belmont (1829), and later (1840), in 
 concert with the bishop, Mgr. Devie, he transferred it to the city of 
 Belley. 
 
 212 H61yot, ibid., Vol. IV, 1304. 
 
BROTHERS OF ST. VIATOR 81 
 
 The following year (1841) Gregory XVI approved the congrega- 
 tion by decree of August 18, and by Brief the 27th of the same 
 month. 
 
 The community is directed by a Brother general who is elected 
 for life. With the three customary vows of religion the Brothers 
 take also the vow of stability, the four being at first temporary for 
 five years, and perpetual thereafter. Priests are admitted as 
 members of the congregation but only so many as are absolutely 
 needed for fulfilling the functions of chaplains in the novitiates, 
 including even the offices of provincial, master of novices and 
 prior, all subject, however, to the Brother general. 
 
 The Brotherhood was legalized by the French Government under 
 name of " Frtres de la Ste-FamiUe," a Belley (Am) January 10, 
 1874. 213 
 
 BROTHERS OF ST. VIATOR (1835) 
 
 Among the religious congregations founded in the diocese of 
 Lyons, France, that of the Viatorians, or Clerics of St. Viator, 
 occupies an important place. The community, composed of 
 clerical and lay members, was founded in 1835 by the Very Rev. 
 Louis Joseph Querbes, parish priest of the little village of Vourles, 
 southwest of the city of Lyons. He was born in the above me- 
 tropolis August 25, 1793, at a time when the country was in a state 
 of political turmoil, and many of the faithful were deprived of the 
 consolations of religion. 
 
 Happily, however, his education was not interfered with. His 
 parents and teachers cooperated in their endeavors to give him a 
 thorough religious training, with the result that he grew up to be 
 a very pious young man. One evidence of this is the fact that 
 shortly before his First Communion he had made the vow of per- 
 petual chastity. 214 
 
 As the priesthood, therefore, naturally appealed to him, he 
 availed himself of the first opportunity to enter upon his prepara- 
 tion for this particular state of life. In due time he received the 
 various minor orders, and on December 17, 1816, he was ordained. 
 
 After being employed a short time in different capacities, he was 
 finally (October 31, 1822) appointed as pastor of Vourles, a village 
 of about 1,200 souls. The great majority of its people had grown 
 
 ., 482; cf. Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VII, 408. 
 ! "Rivard, E. L., C. S. V., St. Viator and the Viatorians, 141, Chicago, 191 
 
82 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 callous to all religious influence, and a general renovation of the 
 whole parish was absolutely necessary. Abbe* Querbes was not 
 daunted by the almost hopeless task before him; on the contrary, 
 with fullest confidence in the Divine assistance, he opened a sys- 
 tematic attack on every existing evil. Neither were his efforts 
 fruitless. Within a year his work of reform had made itself felt 
 in every part of the parish, and conditions were very much 
 improved. 
 
 From the very beginning Father Querbes became aware of the 
 deplorable state of the schools. He had introduced the Sisters of 
 St. Charles to attend to the girls, but as regards the boys, the matter 
 was more difficult. He could not obtain Brothers, so he contented 
 himself for the time being with accepting the services of a lay 
 teacher. 
 
 The situation in other isolated parishes was not more favorable 
 to the religious education of youth. A question that the good cure 
 often put to himself was how to devise some means to meet this 
 all important need. Lay teachers there were in some of the out- 
 lying districts, but many of them either lacked the necessary 
 training, or were indifferent in matters of religion, to say the least; 
 often they directly opposed the interests of the Church. 215 
 
 With these facts vividly brought to mind, Father Querbes 
 ardently desired an increase of Christian teachers. He thought of 
 establishing a kind of normal school, or teachers' seminary, in 
 which secular teachers could be properly instructed and prepared 
 to assist the pastors of parishes in their work of educating the 
 children. 
 
 To this effect, he communicated with the ecclesiastical author- 
 ities of Lyons, explicitly declaring at the same time that his inten- 
 tion was not to form a religious congregation, properly so called; 
 his society, as he wrote June 10, 1829, was "to be in a Christian 
 sense a confraternity and in a legal sense a charitable corporation, 
 nothing more." 216 
 
 Though he received at the start very little encouragement he 
 nevertheless determined to carry out his design. He bought a 
 building near the presbytery, and here he gathered the young men 
 who volunteered to engage in this educational movement. 
 
 216 Ibid., 155. 
 2W Ibid., 157. 
 
BROTHERS OF ST. VIATOR 83 
 
 The number of subjects gradually increasing, Father Querbes 
 deemed it advisable to solicit for his association both the ecclesias- 
 tical and civil authorization. He secured at first its legal existence, 
 January 10, 1830, under the name of "Charitable Society of the 
 Schools of St. Viator/' 217 and shortly afterward the institute re- 
 ceived the diocesan approval. 
 
 In course of time the reverend director realized that he would be 
 obliged to deviate from his original purpose, if his society was to 
 survive. To ensure its stability, therefore, he finally decided to 
 erect it into a religious community. The necessary preparations 
 were made, and on October 21, 1835, all the members took the 
 vows of religion. 
 
 In 1838, Pope Gregory XVI favored the community by defi- 
 nitely approving its statutes (constitutions). 
 
 As regards the establishment of schools the society filled the 
 demands in proportion as it had Brothers to dispose of. 
 
 Its membership which in 1840 reached over one hundred, was 
 later sensibly augmented by the addition of two Brotherhoods, 
 viz., the Brothers of St. Odilon, about the year 1841, and that of 
 the Brothers of St. John, in 1854, both diocesan foundations. An 
 impetus was thereby imparted to the whole society, which was 
 particularly noticeable in its rapid expansion throughout the 
 center and south of France. Such was its growth that at the time 
 of the founder's death (September 1, 1859), the community 
 counted three provinces in Europe and one in America (Canada). 
 
 At present, the number of Fathers and Brothers in Europe is 
 over three hundred, in Canada four hundred; and in the United 
 States (Chicago province), according to the personnel of 1915, 
 there are thirty-four Fathers, twenty-five Brothers, six novices and 
 twenty junior students. 218 
 
 M7 Since the association had as double end "the Christian education of youth 
 and the service of the altar," Father Querbes appropriately selected St. Viator 
 (A. D. 360), the young catechetical lector at Lyons, as patron of his new 
 society. (Rivard, ibid., 161.) The legal sanction above noted was limited 
 to the department of the Rhone; later, in 1851, the sanction was extended to 
 the whole of France and the colonies. (Ibid., 178.) 
 
 218 The Catholic Church in the United States, ibid., 162. It may be added 
 that the Fathers and the Brothers of the community are employed in teaching, 
 and that, as religious, they are in every respect on an equality: both follow 
 the same rule and live the same common life. (Ibid., 224.) 
 
84 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 BROTHERS OF MERCY (1842) 
 
 This community of teaching Brothers was founded in 1842, at 
 Mountbourg, France, by M. Delamare, one of the vicar-generals 
 of the diocese of Coutance. Its educational activities are confined 
 to the province of Normandy, the principal establishments being 
 located in the department of Manche. The congregation num- 
 bers about 120 Brothers with 21 schools. 
 
 It was legally authorized September 4, 1856, under the designa- 
 tion of Freres des Ecoles chretiennes de la Misericorde, a Monte- 
 bourg (Manche). 219 
 
 BROTHERS OF THE HOLY UNION (1858) 
 
 A congregation of this name was founded in France about the 
 year 1858, and devotes itself to education. Apparently the 
 Brotherhood has not developed to any great extent. There exists 
 but one community of 12 Brothers, situated at Douai (Nord). 220 
 
 219 Cf. Laveille (Lamennais), ibid., Vol. II, 146; Marchand, Alfred, Moines 
 et Nonnes, Vol. II, 238. Paris, 1880. 
 ^Marchand, ibid., 258. 
 
PART HI 
 
 THE COMMUNITIES OF IRELAND, BELGIUM AND 
 HOLLAND. 
 
 CHRISTIAN BROTHERS OF IRELAND (1802) 
 
 The history of the education of the Catholic people of Ireland 
 during the century preceding their emancipation, is a record of a 
 mighty and incessant struggle to throw off the shackles of repres- 
 sion and bigotry that thwarted their educational progress. To 
 the iniquitous penal laws may be ascribed the almost general 
 illiteracy and misery which prevailed among the great bulk of the 
 Irish people during the two centuries in which this code of restric- 
 tion was enforced. Its direct object, according to Lecky, was "to 
 reduce the Catholics to a condition of the most extreme and brutal 
 ignorance." And again: "The legislation on the subject of Cath- 
 olic education may be briefly described, for it amounted simply to 
 universal, unqualified and unlimited proscription." 221 "Education 
 at least the elementary was in consequence mostly confined to 
 two sources, that of the priest, and the "hedge" schoolmaster, 
 both of whom, too, were in constant danger of forfeiting their life 
 while in the exercise of this function. 222 
 
 Toward the latter part of the eighteenth century the enforcement 
 of the penal code somewhat abated, and Catholics could breathe 
 more freely. Gradually new laws were enacted allowing more and 
 more liberty in educational matters. 2 * 3 Schools were opened, and 
 multiplied rapidly. However, nearly all of them were pay-schools, 
 and only the well-to-do or middle-class could avail themselves of 
 the opportunity. By far the greater mass of the people, the poor, 
 were left pretty much to shift for themselves and to obtain knowl- 
 edge as best they could. 224 
 
 m Lecky (as quoted in the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XIII, 576). 
 
 i^Cf. Thebaud, Rev. Aug. J., S. J., The Irish Race in the Past and Present, 
 318, New York, 1873. 
 
 M3 Thus, the law of 1782 granted to Catholics the privilege of opening then- 
 own schools, with the restriction however of obtaining a license thereto from 
 the Protestant bishop of the district. Ten years later (1792), the restriction 
 in question was removed, and the Catholics were left entirely free in the mat- 
 ter. (Cath. Encycl. Vol. XI, 616.) 
 
 M4 Often the poor children would meet in some private dwelling, situated in 
 an alley or lane, and for a few pence a week, be taught by persons frequently 
 unqualified for the work. 
 
 85 
 
86 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 It is true, the hierarchy made heroic efforts to provide the neces- 
 sary means for educating the poor of both sexes. 225 The Ursulines 
 and Presentation nuns also aided considerably in the education of 
 indigent girls. But instruction for, the poor boys proved woefully 
 inadequate. 226 Their condition excited the sympathy of a noble- 
 hearted merchant of Waterford, who became God's instrument in 
 the founding of the congregation which shall be the subject of the 
 following pages. 
 
 The Christian Brothers of Ireland (popularly known as the Irish 
 Christian Brothers) was the first congregation of laymen in the 
 country to devote itself to the education of youth, with 
 special regard for the poorer class. Its founder, Edmund Ignatius 
 Rice, was a man of humble pursuit in life, but richly endowed with 
 the sterling qualities of mind and heart which eventually led him 
 to the accomplishment of the noble task designed for him by 
 Providence. 
 
 He was of a very respectable ancestry, and was born in June, 
 1762, at Westcourt, near Callan, in County Kilkenny. After 
 enjoying a comparatively thorough elementary education in his 
 home-town, he was sent to the city of Kilkenny to complete his 
 studies. The nature of his education was more or less in prepara- 
 tion for a business career. Accordingly when he was about seven- 
 teen years of age he left for Waterford to take service with his 
 uncle, a rich and influential merchant of the place. 
 
 The young apprentice acquitted himself so well in his new pur- 
 suit that the business prospered beyond all expectations. Yet, 
 though he was apparently very deeply engrossed in these affairs, he 
 did not allow them to interfere in the least with his ordinary 
 spiritual duties. By his generosity to the poor, and his zealous 
 participation in various charitable works, he won the esteem and 
 respect of all with whom he came in contact. 227 
 
 In time the entire business of his uncle passed into his own hands, 
 and with it prosperity and wealth seemed to increase day by day, 
 a fact which, instead of having a demoralizing effect, only made 
 him more humble and thankful to the Almighty, and more com- 
 passionate to the poor. He became one of the most active mem- 
 
 example, The Charitable Society of the city of Cork was founded 
 (1791) to meet this particular need. (Cf. A Century of Education, by a Chris- 
 tian Brother, 91, Dublin, 1916.) 
 
 ^Ibid., 11. 
 
 Life of Edmund Ignatius Rice (by a Christian Brother), 9, Dublin, 1916. 
 
CHRISTIAN BROTHERS OF IRELAND 87 
 
 bers of an association founded in Waterford for the relief of the 
 destitute. The nature of the work brought him in close touch 
 with human misery, and aroused in him those deep religious senti- 
 ments which later appeared so conspicuous in his life as founder. 228 
 
 It is not surprising, therefore, that God should have inspired him 
 with the desire to consecrate himself to a more perfect life. He 
 had already for some years harbored this thought, and even al- 
 though the business had developed to such an extent as to absorb 
 almost all his time and attention, the inclination seemed now 
 stronger than ever. The example of his younger brother, John, 
 who had entered the Augustinian order, also tended very much 
 to confirm him in his resolution of abandoning the world and 
 retiring to some monastery. 229 
 
 But he was undecided which to select. His first thought was to 
 join his brother, but the latter, from all accounts, instead of 
 encouraging Edmund in his proposed step, advised him to remain 
 in the world, to attend to his business concerns, and pursue the 
 charitable and edifying life he had been following all along. 
 
 The good man, however, would not desist. Being naturally of 
 a cautious and deliberative turn of mind, and at the same time 
 wisely distrustful of his own individual judgment in the matter, he 
 resolved to seek further counsel and advice. 
 
 Among those whom he intended to consult was a certain Miss 
 Power, who, besides being a personal and esteemed friend of his, 
 was a lady of extraordinary piety, and possessed of unusual 
 sagacity in the discernment of character. In all confidence, there- 
 fore, he manifested to her his intention of withdrawing from busi- 
 ness, to leave for the continent and join some religious community, 
 possibly in the city of Rome; but, to his utter surprise, she was 
 altogether opposed to the idea. She could not understand that he 
 should think of leaving his country, of concealing himself in some 
 far-off monastery, and having merely his own personal salvation 
 in view, when right here, in his native land there were so many 
 youths in most dire need of instruction in the knowledge of God 
 and religion. And directing his attention to a rude set of boys just 
 then passing by, she exclaimed: "What! would you bury yourself 
 in a cell on the continent rather than devote your wealth and your 
 life to the spiritual and material interests of these poor youths?" 230 
 
 K8 Ibid., 10. 9 Ibid., 11. 
 
 ""Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XIII, 40. 
 
88 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 Rice was deeply impressed by the interview, and he felt inclined 
 to believe that God had thus manifested His will through the 
 medium of this good woman. There were great difficulties, to be 
 sure, which he would have to encounter if he should undertake the 
 kind of work proposed; yet, he was encouraged and consoled by 
 the thought that, if God so ordained he should enter upon a life 
 of teaching, he certainly ought not have any apprehension of the 
 future. 231 In fact, the more earnestly he prayed and reflected, and 
 the oftener his attention was attracted by the sight of neglected 
 boys, the more deep-rooted became his conviction that instruction 
 of youth was to be his future work. 
 
 Before acting, however, Rice desired the opinion and possible 
 approval of the hierarchy. He accordingly first called on the 
 bishop of his native diocese, Rt. Rev. Dr. James Lanigan, who, 
 besides being most heartily in favor of the project, encouraged his 
 client to dispose immediately of his property, and to invest the 
 proceeds in the purchase and endowment of a school and dwelling 
 which would meet the requirements. The bishop of Waterford 
 and Lismore, Rt. Rev. Dr. Hussey, likewise expressed his 
 approval of the idea, and in blessing the future founder, dismissed 
 him with the assurance of his ever-generous cooperation. Lastly, 
 Rice sought the advice of Rev. John Power, the future successor to 
 Dr. Hussey, and brother of the lady who had broached the subject 
 to him. The good priest was very enthusiastic in praise of the 
 undertaking, and unhesitatingly promised his friend every possible 
 support. His decisive and convincing arguments dispelled every 
 vestige of doubt and hesitation that still lingered in the mind of the 
 founder, who, unquestionably certain now of his vocation, hence- 
 forth determined to make the venture, implicitly trusting in 
 God for success. 232 
 
 He was forty years old, when in 1802, with the assistance of two 
 young men, he opened his first school in a building improvised for 
 the purpose. It was soon crowded with boys of various ages, the 
 greater majority of whom were rather unwilling to conform to the 
 rules of strict discipline. Order and good conduct, however, were 
 soon attained and while the boys were being taught the rudiments 
 of religion and profane knowledge, they also learned to revere and 
 respect their new masters. 233 
 
 '"Life, ibid., 12. 
 ^Ibid., 13. 
 2 Cf. ibid., 15. 
 
CHRISTIAN BROTHERS OF IRELAND 89 
 
 It seems to be a principle with Almighty God that all who under- 
 take a work for His greater glory, must invariably have their 
 periods of adversity and trial, before they can hope that their 
 efforts will be crowned with success. Such was to be the experi- 
 ence of the present founder. His two assistants after some time 
 grew impatient and dissatisfied with teaching, and finally an- 
 nounced their intention of abandoning the work altogether. No 
 inducements could prevail upon them to remain. Their action 
 was indeed a severe blow to Mr. Rice as he was obliged to take over 
 the direction of all the children himself; nevertheless, he did not 
 lose heart. He bravely held to his post earnestly praying God to 
 come to his relief; nor did he pray in vain. Two intelligent young 
 men Thomas Gravenor and Patrick Finn from his own native 
 town, volunteered their services, and thus relieved the situation. 284 
 
 The school seemed to assume a new life, and its influence for 
 good became more manifest to the citizens of Waterford and sur- 
 roundings as time went on. 
 
 In 1803, Rice and his two confreres transferred their school and 
 residence to a more commodious building especially constructed 
 for their use. It occupied a slight elevation of ground, and in the 
 blessing ceremony the bishop appropriately referred to it as 
 " Mount Sion," which name it has retained ever since. 235 
 
 Both bishop and clergy were unanimous in their praise of the 
 community. And not only this; they also provided financial 
 assistance, either by personal contribution, or by influencing 
 wealthy laymen to give of their abundance. 236 By this means two 
 additional establishments were founded, one in the town of Car- 
 rick-on-Suir (1806), and another in Dungarvan (1807), making 
 thus far three flourishing communities within the diocese. 
 
 By the year 1808 the number of members had increased to 
 eight, and the founder thought it about time to consider the 
 question of vows, as well as the adoption of a mode of life conform- 
 able to a regular religious community. Accordingly, at a general 
 meeting held at " Mount Sion" (Waterford), the matter was given 
 thorough consideration; and on the Feast of the Assumption fol- 
 lowing, all the members took annual engagements at the hands of 
 Bishop Power. As regards rules and constitutions, they provi- 
 
 15. 
 16. 
 2 *Cf. ibid., 16. 
 
90 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 sionally adopted a modified form of those of the Presentation 
 nuns. 237 The year after, while again assembled at the same place 
 for the general retreat, seven of the group made perpetual vows 
 and received a distinctive costume. 
 
 They could now truly regard themselves as a religious congrega- 
 tion, and, indeed, the name " Brothers," by which they were 
 henceforth known within their own circle as well as by the public, 
 also exteriorly designated them as such. Their numbers increased 
 with their reputation, and in time, the founder now known as 
 Brother Ignatius was enabled to extend his schools even beyond 
 the diocese. Thus, important establishments were founded at 
 Cork, Dublin, Limerick and other places. 
 
 It must be noted here that, although the Brothers generally made 
 their novitiate at Waterford (Mount Sion), and faithfully recog- 
 nized Brother Ignatius as founder of the institute and common 
 father, yet, he was not their superior; each house was independent, 
 and only under the direct jurisdiction of the bishop of the diocese 
 in which it was located. A change, however, came about event- 
 ually as we shall see further on. 
 
 No very definite form of life had as yet been adopted, and no 
 specific attempt had been made to that effect until the year 1817, 
 when, at the earnest solicitation and advice of Dr. Murray, coad- 
 jutor archbishop of Dublin, Brother Rice assembled the different 
 local superiors at Mount Sion for the purpose of finally deciding the 
 question. The rules and constitutions of the Brothers of the 
 Christian Schools (France) served as subject for discussion. 238 
 After seven days' deliberation it was unanimously decided that 
 "they adopt a form of government similar to that outlined in the 
 
 M7 This congregation was founded in Cork (1756) by Miss Nano Nagle, and 
 had for object the gratuitous instruction of poor girls. (Cf. Heimbucher, 
 ibid., 554.) 
 
 238 Bishop Murray, with whom the founder had very intimate relations, 
 was one of the most zealous advocates and active promoters of Catholic edu- 
 cation in Ireland. While on a visit to Rome in 1816 he met Rev. Father 
 Kenny another esteemed friend of the Brothers and also the superior 
 general of the Christian Brothers (France). Both the bishop and Father 
 Kenny had frequent conversations with the Brother, and obtained valuable 
 information regarding the organization and government of his institute. On 
 the return trip the bishop stopped a short time with the Brothers in Paris, 
 and he thus had opportunity to come in closer touch with them, to observe 
 their life in community, and also learn their particular methods of teaching. 
 Before leaving they presented him with a copy of their rules and constitutions. 
 And on his arrival home he acquainted Brother Rice with all he had heard and 
 seen, while, at the same time, he handed him the book with the suggestion 
 that he study it carefully in view of possible guidance in drawing up his own 
 rules and regulations. 
 
PATRICIAN BROTHERS 91 
 
 Brief of the French Institute, with rules and constitutions suited 
 to their own country, and partly based on those of the above men- 
 tioned Brothers. 239 It was furthermore agreed that a petition be 
 sent to the Holy Father requesting his approbation of the insti- 
 tute. This was accordingly done; but it was only after a period of 
 three years in 1820 that Pope Pius VII finally approved the 
 new association of "Fratres Monachi" as a religious congregation, 
 and extended to it the Brief by which in 1725 Benedict XIII had 
 confirmed the Institute of the Brothers of St. de la Salle. 240 
 
 According to the tenor of the Brief the scattered communities 
 were henceforth consolidated, and at a general chapter held in 
 1822 the first in the institute Brother Ignatius was unani- 
 mously elected superior general. Only one house was not repre- 
 sented in the general union, namely that of Cork. The bishop, 
 Right Rev. Dr. Murphy, seemed contented with the old arrange- 
 ment, and would not permit his Brothers to join their confreres; 
 however, in 1826, the prelate finally granted them liberty, and 
 they, too, united with the general body. 241 
 
 The institute being thus firmly established, with a central gov- 
 ernment and definite organization, it spread and developed more 
 rapidly than ever. Its founder, Brother Ignatius, ruled as sup- 
 rior for many years, until 1838, when, owing to advanced age and 
 weakening health, he committed the office to another. His death 
 occurred in August, 1844. 
 
 The Brothers have since established themselves in various parts 
 of the world, 242 and their work in the field of education is worthy of 
 special commendation, including in its activities numerous schools, 
 colleges and academies, together with several technical and indus- 
 trial institutions. 
 
 PATRICIAN BROTHERS (1808) 
 
 This congregation, known also as the " Brothers of St. Pat- 
 rick," was founded in 1808, by Right Rev. Dr. Delaney, bishop of 
 Kildare and Leighlin, at Tullow, County Carlow, Ireland. Its 
 object is the secular and religious instruction of youth. 
 
 M9 Life, ibid., 21, 22; cf. Ravelet, ibid., 530. 
 
 ""Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XIII, 41, 576. 
 
 M1 Only one of the community preferred independent service with the bishop. 
 (A Century of Catholic Education, ibid., 21 ff.) 
 
 "'For example, in the United States and Canada, which form the Ameri- 
 can province, there are at present five houses in each, with a total of eighty- 
 five members. 
 
92 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 As first members of the foundation, Bishop Delaney selected 
 seven young men from among the catechists of the Sunday schools. 
 With these he began the work. Under personal instruction and 
 direction by the bishop and his successor, Dr. Doyle, the young 
 community was gradually formed into a diocesan institution. As 
 the congregation increased in membership, separate communi- 
 ties were founded in different dioceses, each directly subject to the 
 ordinary. 
 
 Thus matters proceeded until September 8, 1893, when Rome, 
 in approving the rules and constitutions, permitted the adoption 
 of a central government in the Brotherhood; henceforth all the 
 different houses came under direction of one superior general. 
 
 The community, in its educational activities, embraces a wide 
 area, ranging from the primary grades to the university. Espec- 
 ially to be noted, are its schools in foreign parts, for example, 
 those in India and Australia, where the Brothers conduct a number 
 of flourishing colleges. 243 
 
 FRANCISCAN BROTHERS (1818) 
 
 The Third Order of St. Francis, as originally founded (122*1), was 
 intended only for people living in the world. Yet, almost from its 
 very inception, many pious souls, actuated by a generous impulse, 
 took upon themselves, besides the observance of the ordinary 
 rules, also that of the obligation of the three vows of religion. 
 They were henceforth designated as the Regular Tertiaries of St. 
 Francis, commonly known, too, as the Brothers and Sisters of the 
 Third Order Regular. 
 
 Congregations rapidly sprang up in every country of Europe, 
 each independent of the other, and, though all observed a common 
 rule, 244 each had its own constitutions. 
 
 In 1818, a branch of this order was founded in Ireland, at Mount 
 Bellew, county Galway (archdiocese of Tuam), by Brothers 
 Michael Dillon and Bonaventure Lee. The object and purpose 
 of the foundation was to make provision for the education of youth. 
 
 At first, the community was under obedience to the superior of 
 the Friars Minor. In 1830, however, the Brothers petitioned the 
 
 M3 Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XI, 553, and cf. Heimbucher, ibid., 357. 
 
 '"Originally the members observed the rule of Nicholas IV; now, they all 
 follow that of Leo X. (The Catholic Church in the United States, ibid., 
 249.) 
 
FRANCISCAN BROTHERS 93 
 
 Holy See to be placed under the dependency of the ordinary of 
 Tuam. After due examination of the constitutions, Pope Pius 
 VIII granted their request by a rescript, dated November 19, of 
 the same year. 
 
 In time the community founded several houses in the United 
 States, for example, at Loretto, Pa., Brooklyn, N. Y., and Spald- 
 ing, Neb. The first was opened in 1847 on request of Bishop 
 O'Connor of Pittsburgh. A group of six Brothers established 
 themselves at Loretto, where they founded a monastery and col- 
 lege. The year after their arrival (1848), they obtained a re- 
 script from Rome placing them under the immediate jurisdiction 
 of the bishop. 
 
 On May 31, 1858, two Brothers from the same Irish congrega- 
 tion were invited to Brooklyn, by Right Rev. Bishop John Lough- 
 lin. As the community increased in numbers, it also was granted 
 (December 15, 1859) the privilege of autonomy, and became an 
 independent congregation directly subject to the bishop. 245 
 
 The Spalding community was a branch of the Brooklyn congre- 
 gation. 
 
 In 1906 and 1908, respectively, the Spalding and Loretto com- 
 munities merged into the Italian congregation of the Fathers of 
 the Third Order Regular. 246 
 
 The Brooklyn branch, however, has continued its separate exis- 
 tence, and devotes itself exclusively to education. It numbers at 
 present sixty-seven Brothers, and has under direction: one col- 
 lege, two academies, one select school, one summer school, and 
 fourteen parish schools. 247 
 
 PRESENTATION BROTHERS (1826) 
 
 This congregation, an outgrowth of the Irish Christian Brothers, 
 originated at Cork, Ireland, about the year 1826. 
 
 Until 1889, the Brotherhood was constituted on a basis similar 
 to that of the parent stock, viz., all the individual communities 
 were diocesan foundations. About the time mentioned, new con- 
 stitutions were framed, and the different houses united under one 
 superior general. 
 
 Rules and Constitutions of the Community, Introduction, 3 ff., Brooklyn, 
 New York. 
 
 24 *The Catholic Church in the United States, ibid., 248. 
 
 "'Constitutions, ibid., Art. I, and The Catholic Church in the United 
 States, ibid., 251 ff. 
 
94 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 Its constitutions were confirmed and approved by Leo XIII. 
 
 Since that time, the institute has made remarkable progress, 
 which is especially evidenced by the great number of educational 
 establishments founded in Ireland, England and Canada. 
 
 In its range of activity are included : primary schools, colleges, 
 technical and industrial schools and orphanages. 248 
 
 XAVERIAN BROTHERS (1839) 
 
 This Brotherhood, also known as the Congregation of the Broth- 
 ers of St. Francis Xavier, was founded in 1839, at Bruges, Belgium, 
 by a pious layman, Theodore James Ryken. He was born August 
 30, 1797, at Elshout, a little city in North Brabant, Holland. 
 Having lost his parents in early youth, he was brought up by his 
 uncle, a man noted for his piety and uprightness of character. To 
 him in a special manner young Ryken owed that firm will power 
 which distinguished him throughout his after career, and which 
 also greatly aided him in the accomplishment of the designs of God 
 in his regard. 
 
 At the age of nineteen he devoted much of his time to the teach- 
 ing of Christian doctrine, a practice which, while it apparently 
 suited his disposition, also gave indication of his trend of mind. 
 This became more evident six years later when he volunteered his 
 services as assistant to the celebrated convert and writer, LeSage- 
 ten-Broek, who shortly before had founded an asylum for orphans 
 and destitute boys. 
 
 During the four years in which Ryken labored in this capacity 
 there developed within him an inclination toward a life especially 
 devoted to the education of youth. He felt the call of God, and 
 with characteristic firmness and generosity he determined to 
 found a congregation of men who would aid him in this under- 
 taking. 249 
 
 He patiently waited, however, until Providence manifested the 
 time and opportunity to carry out his idea. To establish a com- 
 munity whose sphere of activity would be solely confined to his 
 own country seems to have been foreign to his mind, for his 
 thoughts turned toward the New World. He accordingly visited 
 America in 1831, and before his return to Europe three years later, 
 
 248 Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XII, 399. 
 
 ^'Brother Cajetan, History of the Xaverian Brothers, 10, Baltimore, 1911. 
 
XAVERIAN BROTHERS 95 
 
 he had arrived at the conclusion that he would make this country 
 the principal seat of his labors. 250 On his second visit in 1837, he 
 had an interview with the bishop of St. Louis, Missouri, the Rt. 
 Rev. Mgr. Rosati, who, besides encouraging him in his proposed 
 undertaking, advised him to establish his community in the Cath- 
 olic country of Belgium, where he undoubtedly would have the 
 best prospects of success. 
 
 Having obtained the venerable prelate's written recommenda- 
 tion, as well as additional testimonial letters from several other 
 bishops of the country, he left for Belgium, and on his arrival he 
 immediately presented himself to Mgr. Boussens, the bishop of 
 Bruges. His project was very favorably regarded, but he was 
 told that before any action could be taken in the matter he would 
 be obliged to pass a year's novitiate with the Redemptorist Fathers 
 
 at St. Trond. 251 
 
 His time of probation over, he was authorized by the bishop 
 (June 5, 1839) to begin the work. But no sooner had Ryken 
 revealed his intention and design to the public, when opposition 
 and difficulties confronted him on all sides. Yet he adhered to his 
 plan. 
 
 After he had succeeded in securing a building for his purpose, he 
 tried to obtain worthy subjects. His first two attempts at re- 
 cruitment did not materialize, but still he courageously persevered 
 in his endeavors, especially placing his confidence in St. Joseph. 
 Nor was he disappointed in his hopes. On the occasion of a visit 
 to his native district in Holland, he chanced to meet two young 
 men who consented to join him. As both, however, could not be 
 accepted immediately, the question of choice was to be decided by 
 lot. Anthony Melis, afterward Brother Ignatius, was the one 
 selected ; the other, who was to follow three months later, changed 
 his resolution by that time and remained in the world. Further- 
 more, the two travelers while on their way to Bruges stopped off 
 at St. Trond, where they were joined by another young man who 
 had expressly called at the monastery in quest of advice about en- 
 tering some religious institute. Together the three arrived at 
 Bruges, June 11, 1840, and without further delay entered upon 
 their life of retirement. 
 
 250 Ibid., 13, 56. 
 
 ^Brother Francis Xauier (Theodore James Ryken) A Life Sketch, by two of 
 his first disciples, 6, Baltimore, 1904. 
 
96 ORIGIN OF THE TEACHING BROTHERHOODS 
 
 With the assistance of a friendly Jesuit, Rev. Father Van Kerk- 
 hoven, a constitution and rule was drawn up, according to which 
 the little community was to regulate its government and form of 
 life. 252 Its present name was also adopted, with St. Francis 
 Xavier as special patron. 
 
 In December, 1843, some of the members of the community 
 received the religious habit and also their name of religion. 
 
 During the year following (1844), the founder henceforth 
 Brother Francis Xavier was able to open his first school at 
 Bruges, known then as "ficole Primaire," an establishment which 
 later, under the name of St. Xavier's Institute (now St. Xavier's 
 College), assumed such an importance as to rank among the first 
 of its kind in the country. 253 Other educational institutions fol- 
 lowed in the course of time. 
 
 Finally, on October 22, 1846, the Brothers took religious vows, 
 thereby conferring upon the congregation the indelible impress of 
 religion and firm establishment. 
 
 On January 25, 1860, the founder resigned from further active 
 participation in the government of the institute. He thenceforth 
 lived more or less in seclusion until his death, which occurred 
 November 26, 187 1. 264 Under his successor, Brother Vincent, the 
 congregation was honored (1865) by Pius IX with a Brief of 
 encouragement, which, of course, is tantamont to approval. 255 
 
 In regard to the development of the congregation it is remarka- 
 ble how early it extended its educational activities. Thus, in 1846, 
 the Brothers were called to England, and eight years after (1854), 
 the founder himself with six companions started for America. In 
 the latter country especially, the congregation has had its greatest 
 expansion. For example, at present there are in the United States 
 about 300 Brothers in control of various educational institutions 
 comprising colleges and academies, together with a number of 
 parochial and industrial schools. 
 
 2S2 The constitutions received episcopal approbation in September 1840, and 
 the bishop's approval of the congregation is dated the October following. 
 (Brother Cajetan, ibid., 14, 16.) 
 
 ^Ibid., 18. In this connection it may be noted that according to the con- 
 stitutions of the congregation, the members are not limited to any particular 
 line of educational work. (Cf . Const, and Holy Ride of the Xaverian Brothers, 
 Art. 1, 3, p. 3, 4, Bruges, 1900.) 
 
 ^Cf. Brother Cajetan, ibid., 27 ff. 
 
 M6 Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XV, 728. The congregation from its very 
 inception has been and is still under the direct jurisdiction of the bishop of 
 Bruges. (Const., Art. 1, p. 5.) 
 
BROTHERS OF TILBURG 97 
 
 BROTHERS OF TILBURG (1844) 
 
 This institute, often referred to as the "Brothers of Charity of 
 our Lady, Mother of Mercy," was established at Tilburg, Holland, 
 by Rev. J. Zwijsen, later archbishop of Utrecht. The Brothers, 
 to the number of 600 (among these 25 priests), are spread through- 
 out the Netherlands with several educational institutions under 
 their direction. 2 * 6 
 
 BROTHERS OF ST. ALOYSIUS (1849) 
 
 This congregation was founded at Oudenbosch, Holland, in 
 1 849, by the Cistercian Father, Rev. William Hellemons, with the 
 assistance of Rev. Vincent Huybrecht. Its purpose is chiefly 
 educational, and among its establishments especially to be noted, 
 is a very flourishing high school 257 in Amsterdam. The Brother- 
 hood has also been active in the apostolic vicariate of Batavia ever 
 since 1862. 
 
 Its statutes were approved by the Holy See, April 2, 1887.* 8 
 
 "Heimbucher, ibid., 361. 
 
 * 7 The grade of the school in question most probably is equivalent to that 
 of the German ober-realschule. 
 "Heimbucher, ibid., 361. 
 
PART IV 
 
 TEACHING COMMUNITIES IN MISSIONARY COUNTRIES 
 
 The following teaching Brotherhoods are employed on the mis- 
 sions, and as hardly any data is available, a mere mention of them 
 must suffice: 
 
 (1) Brothers of Our Lady of the Annunciation, a congregation of 
 teaching Brothers, native to the diocese of Oran, in Algeria, 
 Africa, with mother-house at Misserghin. 259 
 
 (2) Brothers of St. Joseph (India), founded at Bangalur (My- 
 sore), British India, by Rev. J. A. Chevalier, vicar-apostolic of the 
 above State. 
 
 (3) A congregation of Catechists of Anduc, West Cochin-China. 
 
 (4) The Teaching Brothers of Our Lady (China), founded by 
 Rev. V. Garnier, S. J. (fl898), vicar-apostolic of Kiang-nan. 
 
 (5) Brothers of St. Joseph (Ceylon), established by Rev. C. E. 
 Bonjean, O. M. J., later archbishop of Colombo (fl892). 
 
 (6) The native Brothers of St. Peter Claver, among the missions 
 of the Fathers of the Holy Ghost (French Congo). 260 
 
 ^'Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XI, 266. 
 5SO Heimbucher, ibid., 364. 
 
 98 
 
PART V 
 
 BROTHERHOODS INCIDENTALLY ENGAGED IN 
 TEACHING 
 
 The communities mentioned below have as their special object 
 spiritual and corporal works of mercy, and take up teaching, 
 properly so called, only as a secondary matter. 
 
 (1) 1807. Brothers of Charity. 961 Founder, Rev. P. J. Triest, 
 Ghent, Belgium. 
 
 (2) 1830. Brothers of Our Lady of Lourdes. Rev. E. M. 
 Glorieux, Renaix, Belgium. 
 
 (3) 1835. Brothers of St. Joseph. L'abbe* J. Rey, Oullina, 
 France. 
 
 (4) 1839. Brothers of St. Francis of Assisi. L'abbe* G. Des- 
 hayes, Saint-Laurent-sur-Sevre, France. 
 
 (5) 1840. Brothers of the Immaculate Conception and of St. 
 Vincent de Paul. Rev. L. Rutten and B. Hoecken, Maastricht, 
 Holland. 
 
 (6) 1845. Brothers of St. Vincent de Paul. M. Le Provost, 
 Paris, France. 
 
 (7) 1850. Brothers of St. Francis Regis. L'abb6 de Bussy, 3. J., 
 Le Puy, France. 
 
 (8) 1851. Brothers of Our Lady of Seven Dolors. Rev. P. 
 Hessefeld and Rev. A. Frentrop, Amsterdam, Holland. 
 
 (9) 1855. Brothers of the Holy Infancy and Youth of Jesus 
 Rt. Rev. Bishop Timon, Buffalo, United States. 
 
 (10) 1864. Brothers of St. Joseph. Right Rev. Bishop Ket- 
 teler, Klein-Zimmern, Germany. 
 
 "This community has a number of educational institutions in Holland and 
 Belgium, most of them of primary grade, two establishments in Canada, and 
 one in Boston, Mass. 
 
 "These Brothers have a house of studies and boarding school at South Park, 
 Wash. 
 
 "The central-house of this congregation is located at Lackawanna, N. Y. 
 
 Cf. Heimbucher, ibid., 356 ff.; Marchand, ibid., 349, 369. 
 
 99 
 
CONCLUSION 
 
 Anyone can readily understand why the Catholic Church should 
 maintain its own schools, but why there should be such an array 
 and diversity of teaching organizations does not seem equally 
 clear. The existence of so many different Teaching Brotherhoods 
 at the present time almost thirty has been found to be due to 
 various reasons: (1) Some have been called into being to meet a 
 national need, e. g. certain of the communities that arose in France 
 in the beginning of the 19th century; (2) others answered to some 
 diocesan need, e. g., a number in France, and those of Ireland; and 
 (3) a few originated in response to some rural need. Each country 
 in which they arose had necessities in this respect which could be 
 met by no other existing order or congregation of teachers. France 
 affords an instance in point: the great number was there called 
 forth as a means of counteracting the evil effects of the Revolu- 
 tion of 1789. Diocesan foundations were especially numerous, 
 and as each bishop exercised an independent jurisdiction in his 
 diocese, we can see how it was possible that many Brotherhoods 
 should have thus originated. In time, of course, most of these 
 spread beyond the limits of their original sphere of action. 
 
 The Catholic Church, too, has been exceptionally tolerant in 
 regard to these foundations. She has left her children perfect 
 freedom in the matter, and has never interfered nor limited the 
 number of teaching communities. It is but another proof of her 
 progressive spirit and unlimited capacity to adjust and adapt 
 herself to various needs that may arise. 
 
 We may further draw attention to the fact that the existence of 
 this great number of teaching bodies far from being a source of 
 weakness as a divided force, is rather just the contrary since each 
 contributes to the general influence by its distinctive individuality, 
 its characteristic organization, dominating spirit, methods of 
 teaching, etc. One, for example, is imbued with animating zeal 
 for the revival and extension of popular education, another is 
 actuated by truly altruistic motives in generously and heroically 
 laboring for the regeneration of society. No two are exactly alike. 
 Yet all of them have ultimately the same spiritual end in view : the 
 sanctification and eternal happiness of their constituent members, 
 as well as that of youth entrusted to them; they differ only in the 
 application of the Catholic principles underlying true happiness 
 and prosperity here and hereafter. We must therefore conclude 
 that in the convergence of these individual forces toward one and 
 the same final goal, there is imparted to the Catholic School System 
 throughout the world, a power for good which redounds to the 
 welfare of both the individual and the social body, and leads to the 
 attainment of the highest ideal of culture and civilization. 
 
 100 
 
CONCLUSION IQl. 
 
 Yet despite the most convincing evidence and facts that are 
 indisputable, these teaching bodies are not given due credit by 
 certain noted historians of education. Whatever breathes the air 
 of Catholicism is to some always liable to suspicion, if not to open 
 hostility. They ask for example, how it is possible that men lead- 
 ing a celibate life and more or less estranged from society, especi- 
 ally direct family intercourse, can have any thorough knowledge of 
 child-nature. Without entering into detail it may be mentioned 
 that like the celibate clergy the members of these teaching asso- 
 ciations adopt this form of life as a permanent state of existence; 
 they make teaching their life-work, and thus devote all their time 
 and energy to this special calling. We know from statistics rela- 
 tive to elementary education, that the great majority of public 
 school teachers and these mostly young and inexperienced 
 women retain their position until the marriageable age, on an 
 average, therefore, of only three or four years, with the conse- 
 quence "that between four and five million boys and girls in our 
 public schools receive all of their formal education from teachers 
 who are scarcely more than boys and girls themselves." 286 One 
 can readily infer that the advantages are overwhelmingly in 
 favor of the above religious communities. 
 
 Candidates for the public teaching profession are often advised, 
 for example, by such historians as those referred to above, to make 
 a thorough study of Rousseau's Emile, as being a standard work in 
 child psychology, and yet everyone knows what little intimate 
 relations the author himself had with his own offspring. Surely 
 no further argument is needed to prove that there exist ample 
 opportunities throughout the school-day for the proper psycholog- 
 ical study of childhood in the case of those not permitted the op- 
 portunity within the family circle. And taking facts as they are, the 
 Church is evidently willing that the products of her schools be 
 compared with those of the State institutions; she has learned to 
 fear nothing from the comparison. The system of pedagogy in use 
 among the religious congregations is by no means "afraid of life 
 and liberty," nor is it "one which reduces teacher and pupils to 
 mere machines," as Compayre* would have us believe. 268 His 
 unfounded attacks are directed especially against the Brothers of 
 the Christian Schools, but indirectly affect every Catholic teaching 
 body. The unprejudiced historian, however, will find no convinc- 
 ing ground to support them. On the contrary, a careful study of 
 the teaching organizations such as those treated above, will give 
 him another intimate view of the comprehensive and intensive 
 character of the educational work of the Catholic Church. 
 
 "Bagley, W. C. School Discipline, 24, New York, 1915; cf. Monroe, P. 
 Cyclopedia of Education, Vol. IV, 514. 
 
 * 6 Compayr6, G. History of Pedagogy, trans, by W. H. Payne, 266, Boa- 
 ton, 1910. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
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 BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS. Annales de Vlnstitut des Freres de* 
 
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 102 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 103 
 
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VITA 
 
 Brother John Joseph Schuetz, S. M., was born in Toledo, Ohio, 
 October 22, 1874. He was educated in St. Mary's parochial school 
 (Jesuits) in the same city. In 1889, he entered the Society of the 
 Brothers of Mary, Dayton, Ohio, and after due normal training 
 was employed in the capacity of teacher. From 1893 to 1905 he 
 taught in the parish schools under direction of the Brothers, in 
 the cities of Chicago, 111., and San Francisco, Stockton and San 
 Jose, California. For three years (1905-1908) he was instruc- 
 tor in the normal department of his community. From 1908 to 
 1914 he was principal of St. John the Baptist School, New York. 
 In January, 1915, he entered the Catholic University of America, 
 and the following year (1916) received the degree of Master of 
 Arts. He has pursued courses in Education under Drs. Shields 
 and McCormick; Philosophy under Dr. Turner; Apologetics under 
 Dr. Aiken; French under Professor Teillard; and German under 
 Dr. Gleis. 
 
 The writer avails himself of the opportunity to acknowledge 
 his indebtedness to all these for the constant and generous as- 
 sistance given, especially to Dr. McCormick, under whom the 
 major course was followed, and who, in the preparation of this 
 dissertation, has been most helpful by his friendly criticism and 
 valuable suggestions. 
 
 104 
 
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