IP * ; ^^3^^'^'i'^^V ^^"^i::^^^'. ft^^S^ ^ ' -;t% \^&^c^W : ^ v^^.^^c?^^'"-"'" "'^ V ^'^.IV I A ,77 x g ;: - C. C. N. S. SERIES. FORM LESSONS. To prepare for and accompany the study of number. W. W. SPEER, Teacher of Mathematics, Cook County Normal School. Price, 75 cents. "An excellent book." .FRANCIS W. PARKER. ORDER OF EXERCISES IN ELOCUTION. Follows the Delsarte System of Expression. Price, $1.00. FRANK STUART PARKER, Teacher of Elocution, C. C. N. S. HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY AND ORDER OF EXERCISES IN ELOCUTION. Price, $2.25. Address FRANCIS W. PARKER, Englewood, 111, C. C. N. S. SERIES HOI TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY FRANCIS W. PAEKEE PKEPAKED FOB THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING CLASS OF THE COOK COUNTY NORMAL SCHOOL. PUBLISHED BY FRANCIS W. PARKER, PRINCIPAL COOK COUNTY NORMAL SCHOOL, ENGLEWOOD, ILL. v Copyright 1888. BY FRANCIS W. PARKER. EDUCATION PRESS OF EAGLE PRINTING CO. 22-24 FOURTH AVENUE. CHICAGO, ILL. INDEX. GRADE. PAGE. I. INTRODUCTION. Motive . , I. Theory V. Method XIII. Difficulties XVII. II. PREPARATION FOR TEACHERS .... 13 Study of a River Basin .... 13 Structure of Continents ... 13 North America 26 South America 35 Eurasia 42 Africa 48 Australia 51 The World as a Whole .... 52 Distribution of Heat .... 55 Ocean Currents 59 Winds 59 Distribution of Moisture ... 62 Distribution of Vegetation . . . 63 Distribution of Animal Life . . 67 Distribution of Races .... 68 Distribution of Minerals and Metals . 70 Political Divisions 71 Commerce and Manufactures . . 73 III. OUTLINE OF COURSE OF STUDY OF ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY: First Grade 76 Second Grade 77 Third Grade 78 Fourth Grade 79 Fifth Grade 80 Sixth Grade 82 544370 Seventh Grade 83 Eighth Grade 83 IV. SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS: One Direction 85 History 86 Curiosity . . . . . . 87 Maps 90 Relief Maps 94 Map Drawing 99 The Art of Questioning .... 101 Language 105 Reading and Study 114 Number and Arithmetic . . . 116 Seasons' 1 119 Field Lessons 121 The Part and the Whole . . , 123 Concentration 130 V. NOTES UPON THE COURSE OF STUDY: First Grade 134 Second Grade 138 Third Grade 141 Fourth Grade 143 Molding in Sand 144 Suggestions for Elementary Lessons . 145 Lessons upon Occupations . . . 152 Lessons upon Hills .... 153 River Basins 161 Coast Lines 179 Fifth Grade ...... 183 Molding Continents .... 183 North America ...... 185 South America 218 VI. EURASIA . 224 Europe and Asia 224 Africa 264 Australasia 273 Australia 273 The Earth as a Sphere .... 277 General Review and Comparison of Con- tinents 281 Mathematical Geography . . . 285 VII. DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT 301 Effects of Heat upon the Atmosphere . 307 The Winds and Moisture ... 307 Uses of Winds 312 Ocean Currents 312 Distribution of Heat by Ocean Currents and Winds 314 Distribution of Moisture . . . 315 Regions of Greatest Rainfall ... 317 Distribution of Soil and Vegetation . 320 Distribution of Vegetation by Zones . 323 Distribution of Vegetable Products In Re- lation to their Uses . . . 325 Plants used for Shelter .... 327 Distribution of Animals . . . 330 Distribution of Races of Men . . . 334 Distribution of Minerals and Metals . 337 VIII. DISTRIBUTION OP NATIONS 338 Subjects of Lessons Forms of Govern- ment; Political Divisions . . 339 Civil Government 343 Descriptions of Political Divisions . 345 Occupations of Men 351 Cities 357 Bibleography 359 Spring Studies, by E. D. Straight . 376 Herder's Speech on Geography . . 381 Method of Modeling Relief Maps . 387 PREFACE. IK beginning this book I proposed to write a pamph- let of one hundred pages, more or less, for the use of the teachers of the C. C. N. S., but the work grew to its pres- ent size, and I am obliged to allow some faults in type and arrangement to remain. The book has been written in the odds and ends of a busy schoolmaster's time. There is, no doubt, much in it for friends to criticise adversely and much that needs the sharp lance of others not so friendly. / dedicate the book to all teachers who thoughtfully and thoroughly prepare every lesson. FRANCIS W. PARKER, INTRODUCTION. MOTIVE. There is but one question in this world : How to make man better; and but one answer: Education. Education presents the conditions for man's complete development. To find the highest law of human life is the central problem in the philosophy of education; that law which determines the highest function of a human being. The central problem in the art of education is to train and develop that function in each and every human being; and as an essential sequence, the develop- ment of each and every power of mind and soul. Man was made for man, and his one God-like function is to take knowledge from the eternity of truth and put it into the eternity of human life. There is a perfect recon- ciliation between the application of unlimited altruism and the most complete education of the being who holds and fully applies it : for the knowledge of the needs of man, and the human acts which supply those needs, are in turn the essential means of the all-sided development of each human being. It is self-evident that the knowledge of the needs of man embraces all knowledge, and the ap- plication of that knowledge all proper human activities. The explanation of human life, then, is that it gives, and just in proportion to the value of that which it gives it grows. All we have to know is the needs of mankind; all we have to do is to supply those needs. ii INTRODUCTION. True education concentrates upon the development of the highest motive. Upon this basis, the absolute and relative value of any branch of knowledge, the fundamental reasons for its teaching, the proportion of time and effort given to it, must be determined by the influence of such knowledge upon the outworking of God's design of the human being into character. The knowledge of life comprehends all knowledge, and therefore the study of life comprehends all studies. Inorganic or inanimate matter is the material basis of all animated organisms, and the purpose of the study of all the sciences that pertain to inorganic matter is to gain a knowledge of the preparation for life, its substantial basis, and the explanation of the laws and conditions of life. Life is in itself a unit of evolution from the lowest germ of the plant up to the highest development of human con- sciousness. The study of any item or detail of life, or of the prepa- ration for life, becomes of vast importance when we appre- ciate its relations to the grand totality of life. There are no trifles in real teaching; the child studying the root, stem, leaves, flowers and fruit of a plant is gaining essen- tial elements in all knowledge. What he learns is organ- ically related to all truth ; through the life of a simple plant he may one day see something of the complete unity of life. This beautiful truth adds great dignity to to all real teaching and study. All sciences, though isolated in name, are the organic factors of one great whole, each is intrinsically related and bound to all; perfect knowledge of one means a per- fect knowledge of all. No science can be learned by itself. The true value of one science is found in its relations- to the universal INTRODUCTION. iii whole. Botany, zoology and physiology find a common term in biology; biology is the basis and explanation of anthropology and ethnology. These sciences grow into philology, psychology and philosophy all find their cul- mination in history. History is the record of human acts, and in this record are to be found the laws and rules of human conduct; that is, in the knowledge of ages of human actions, the principles of human growth and progress are discoverable. Any valuable knowledge of his- tory is impossible unless the environment that educates or degrades is first understood. Geography is the study of the material basis, the primary conditions and explanation of life and the substantial prep- aration for it. Structure and climate are the two halves of one great whole in which life has its roots, environment and material causation. Again, plant and brute life is one half of another whole, of which man's history forms the complementary and completing half. The structure, climate and inferior forms of life explain the life and growth of man up to the stage in which his en- hanced intellectual and moral development enables him to turn upon nature and make it his instructor and serv- ant. Geography gives us the key to both the degrading and elevating influences of structural and climatical en- vironment, and, also, the limitations of this powerful agent. One direct ethical outcome of this knowledge is to soft- en and restrain the otherwise harsh judgments dictated by the absolute rules of human conduct. " The quality of mercy" is a just sequence of a comprehension of the cir- cumstances which make men what they are. We tolerate the low, base and degrading in human beings, who are made what they are by unfavorable natural environments without the elevating influences of right human teaching. On the other hand the same knowledge creates a great iv INTRODUCTION. reverence for the prolonged struggles to overcome the im- mense obtstacles which have been placed in man's path- way of progress. Geography explains and illuminates history; by it, laws tendencies and motives are understood ; through it we learn to be merciful in regard to human weaknesses, and to ap- preciate all efforts in the right direction. To know the world is to love the world: some comprehension of the causes and effects of truth and error, which are ever acting and reacting upon man, the perception that divine law and divine love moves in all and controls all, creates in the soul a truth ideal of life and living. To know and love the whole world is to become subjectively an integral factor in all human life; the resulting emotion arouses the only true patriotism, the patriotism that makes the world and all its children one's own land and nation. Geogra- phy is one essential means of bringing the individual soul to an appreciation of the universal and eternal. The study of geography, elementary and scientific, cul- tivates, systematically, the faculty of imagination, and the products of this faculty arouse and develop at every step, emotions of beauty that culminate in the emotion of grandeur. The mentally pictured hill is "a thing of beauty, 1 ' which, in time, towers up into the grand image of the lofty mountain. The lake is the inception of a picture of "old ocean's solitary waste." Gradually, under skillful teaching, hills, mountains and plains, oceans and continents are united in one sublime image of the round world. Life-bearing and life-giving it stands out before the exalted imagination. No one can study real geography without a deeper reverence and higher adoration of Him whose thought is expressed by the universe. The greater includes the less, the highest law and the noblest motive co-ordinates, arranges and adapts all the INTRODUCTION. v subordinate laws, expedient motives, and inferior uses which lie between the inception and the end. "Seek first the Kingdom of God and His righteousness and all things will be added unto you." Thus the so-called practical uses of geography, know- ledge of commerce, trade and the like, fall into their pro- per places and highest uses, just in that degrea, in which the one motive of man's broadest development is kept in view, as the single aim of education. To the teacher who stands facing even a glimmer of glory which the grandest law of human life and the noblest motive of human action reflects, comes the divine inspiration that leads her to turn eager faces of the children to the blessed light of truth. THEORY. Geography is a description of the earth's sur- face, and its inhabitants. This good old-fashioned defini- tion is thoroughly sound and true: it covers the whole ground. "And its inhabitants," includes anthropology, ethnology and history, sciences by themselves (if history may be called a science ) ; therefore these sciences cannot be included in a scientific definition of geography, as a simple science, or a science in itself not including other sciences. A definition of geography pure and simple is u a descrip- tion of the earth's surface." -If we include in the defini- tion the forces which act on and under the earth's surface we enter the realm of physics, chemistry, geology and mineralogy. The discussion, then, of the theory of teaching geography, should be concentrated upon the de- scription of the earth's surface. The primary purpose of teaching geography is to de- velope in pupils minds a concept corresponding to the earth's surface. This states subjectively that which a de- vi INTRODUCTION. scriptioii of the earth's surface presents objectively : the two statements are counterparts. The psychological basis of a description is a mental picture or image. No one can describe the earth's sur- face, or any part of it without having a concept which corresponds to the surface described. These facts are very simple, their importance lies in the solemn truth that very much so-called geographical teaching consists of descriptions of the surfaces of maps which have (in pupils minds) no relation whatever to the reality. Of what does the surface of the earth consist, or in other words what form or forms are to be described in teaching geography? If the earth were a perfect sphere or spheroid, that is if its surface were perfectly smooth, a description of the earth's surface would be extremely simple, but the remem- brance of localities would be extremly difficult indeed, well nigh impossible. Places could be located, only as they are upon the broad ocean, by latitude and longitude. The smooth surface would present no character, in it there would be no distinctive features to form anything like a clear mental picture; there would be nothing salient upon which the mind could fix. A chaotic irregularity of surface would present the same difficulties of localization ; for instance in the Bad Lands of the West, the broken surface present ;. great difficulties to travelers who try to thread the mazes of that chaotic formation. The first beautiful truth that comes to the student of geography is that the surface of the whole earth is ar- ranged in slopes, as an organism, not of life, but for life. The earth's surface is broken into long and wide inclined surfaces. These great slopes, meeting at their lower edges form the vast depressions, in which are held the oceans of INTRODUCTION. . vii the globe. The same slopes meeting at their upper edges form the great upraised masses of land called the conti- nents. Each continent consists of two slopes divided by an axis. The two slopes which form the continent are sub-divided in the Americas by secondary axes. Accord- ing to a law of the mind, the first mental view of a conti- nent, the first clear generalization must be of these broad all-embracing slopes. By the simplest and easiest act of the mind this triangular pyramidal solid is cognized. There is no confusion of details to obstruct the mental vision. The analysis of any primary slope reveals its ex- treme complexity ; broken into immense river basins by meeting slopes; the basins of the tributaries are formed in turn, by other slopes, so we can follow the complications of meeting slopes down to the basins of tiny brooks and still smaller inclinations whose meeting lines are not covered by running water. All these meeting slopes present the features we may call character in surface. Any two joined inclinations of surface, either at upper or lower edges, have a distinctive character, differentiated from all other surface features. It has an individual appearance, an appearance that rises in the consciousness when the name of a locality recalls it. This character of surface is the essential, specific and indispensable basis of the remembrance of places and events ; it makes possible the greatest economy of mental ac- tion. By it every event of history, past or present, ancient or modern, is instantly localized. The association of an event (a march of armies, anew railroad, an impending revolution) with a distinct image of surface features fixes it in the memory forever. Noth- ing " schwebt in der Luft " the study of history becomes a living reality. Fixing events in space is the essential viii INTRODUCTION. means of fixing them in time and thus organizing a knowl- edge of history. A clear image of any part of the world intensifies inter- est in all that happens there. The eye strikes, in the headlines of a newspaper article, the name of some place in which we have been, or the geography of which we have carefully studied, and we generally read the article with interest, barren though it may be in itself, because the pictures it arouses fill us with pleasing recollections and emotions. The concept of the broad outlines of a con- tinent, with its joined slopes meeting the oceans at their lower edges, is the basis of all growing knowledge of the land surface. Each modification of the outlined whole river basin, or plateau, as it is studied, falls into its place with the whole concept, becomes related to it and is explained by it. Gross errors in descriptions may thus be changed to truth in the same way. A few years ago the English people, who only study the countries they conquer, believed that the Hindu Kush pushed its mighty wall westward so as to form an almost impenetrable obstruction between the Caspian Sea and the coveted Khyber Pass. A man on horseback rode easi- ly across the supposed mountain wall, and dissipated that geographical fancy. The student who has a mental pic- ture of the whole can easily modify it in accordance with the newly discovered fact. The most practical re- sult of the study of geography is the clear concept of the outline vertical and horizontal of the whole continent. The continents are the abodes of men, the vast oceans furnish the life blood of the firm land; the immense body of atmosphere that surrounds and incloses both water and land is the breath of the world, the means of interchange of moisture, or the life bloc 1 of the continents. But the INTRODUCTION. ix firm land, the ever moving waters, and their vast envelope would ever remain in lifeless stillness, in eternal death, were it not for the infinite energy imparted by the sun. Under the mighty influence of heat the waters of the oceans move in vast currents, rivers in the ocean ; the at- mosphere is filled with moisture hy the same inexhaustible power; immense volumes of air sweep regularly from tropic to pole, bearing its precious freight of vapor to pour in life-giving rain upon the long slopes, which bear it through soil and in surface floods back to the ocean again but not until it has done its marvelous work in covering the land when it falls with vegetable life. The distribution of heat depends upon the inclination of the axis and the rotation and revolution of the earth, but the use of the heat to the land in furnishing the conditions for the life of man, depends fundamentally upon the nature and arrangement of the inclined surfaces; here we get a glimpse of what is meant by organism for life. The uses of slopes in the economy of world life may be summed up: 1. The character of joined slopes is the basis for the remembrance of all that has taken place on the land. 2. The inclined surfaces distribute the soil; physical forces crack off, break, abrade and grind up the solid rock ; the sloping land distributes under the law of gravitation the ground up masses of soil over its surface. The upper parts of slopes are the store-houses of soil material for all the surface below. 3. The amount of rainfall depends largely upon the height and arrangement of slopes. 4. The distribution of heat is modified by height. 5. Drainage depends entirely upon the arrangement of land surfaces in slopes. Water percolating through x INTRODUCTION. soil down inclined surfaces gives rise to vegetation, and upon vegetable life animal life depends. 6. The upraised masses of land determine the coast lines. A knowledge of structure (pure geography) is the indispensable foundation of all geographical knowledge; without this knowledge the science of geography is im- possible. Tlte purpose of learning structural geography, it may be repeated, is the acquisition of a concept or mental picture which corresponds to the surface structure of the earth in general outlines and prominent features. Proceeding de- ductively, from the highest generalization downward, a knowledge of structural geography consists of: 1. Concept of the whole earth as a sphere. 2. Positions of the continents on the globe and their relations in position to the oceans. 3. Position of the oceans and their relations to the continents and islands. 4. GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE CONTINENTS. a. Great slopes. b. Continental axis. c. Land masses. d. Secondary axis. e. Great rivers basins. f. River systems. g. Coast lines. 5. DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT. a. Movements of the earth. b. Inclination of axis. c. Zones. d' Distribution of heat, modified by height. INTRODUCTION. xi 6. MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 1. Latitude. 2. Longitude. 3. Time. 7. OCEAN CURRENTS. a. Cause. b. Effects upon Atmosphere. c. Upon Distribution of heat. 8. ATMOSPHERE. a. Movements. b. Causes. c. Regular winds. d. Distribution of moisture. e. Condensation. f. Rainfall. g. Effect of winds upon distribution of heat. 9. DISTRIBUTION OF SOIL. 10. DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION. 11. DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 12. DISTRIBUTION OF RACES OF MEN. A concept of the earth with all these factors organ- ically arranged and related is the basis of political geogra- phy. The prevailing mode of teaching geography makes this department of the subject, the central and neafly the sole aim of the school work. What does a pupil study when he divides up the continents into political divisions, without a concept of the structural basis ? The answer is not far to seek; he studies a map without the slightest relation to the continents themselves. With the concepts, above outlined, political geography is the division of the (to him) real earth into its artifi- cial regions by natural boundaries. The work under these xii INTRODUCTION. conditions becomes plain, simple and even beautiful. A map of the world, before him on the blackboard, is full of meaning, and glowing with life. The crayon as it shows the boundary of a political di- vision, shows, also, the relation of that division, structur- ally, to the whole world. He can describe the structure of the divisions, he knows its soil, climate, vegetation, ani- mals, races of men, and is fully ready to study the struc- ture particularly, to know more of its vegetable products, animal life, races, and to begin the study of its history. This is true of all political divisions, what he thus learns, every new detail enters into an organic body of knowledge; there is no isolation, no need of cramming ; the memory grows as the mind grows. That which he learns cannot be forgotten. He enters upon the study of each division with re- newed emotions of pleasure. To illustrate, a structural map of Asia is before the pupils; the subject of study is India. With the basis above outlined already in their minds, the pupil can readily see, 1. India is a part of Eurasia. 2. It is a part of the short slope of Eurasia. 3. It is one of the six great peninsulas on the short slope. 4. The horizontal form of the peninsula is triangular. 5. It is enclosed by the Indian Ocean, the Plateau of Iran, the Himalaya mountains and the mountains that form the upper part of left slope of the Brahmaputra. Structurally it is divided into two distinct regions; the Plateau of Deccan and the plain formed by the basins of the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputta. This briefly indicates only a small part of that which pupils will know of one political division. A few weeks, well INTRODUCTION. xiii spent in studying political geography, after the founda- tion is laid, will give pupils an excellent general knowl- edge of all political divisions. GEOGRAPHY is THE OPEN DOOR TO ALL THE SCIENCES. The day is slowly coming when all the elementary sciences with history and literature will be essential factors in teaching from the beginning to the end of the common school course. Wise and thoughtful teachers will, after due deliberation, drop some of the isolated spelling, tech- nical grammar, and figure reckoning to make room for the direct study of life and the preparation for life. It will be gradually discovered that reading, spelling, gram- mar, numbers, drawing can be best taught as immediate aids to the study of the thoughts of God in nature. The science of geography is the real inception, the true beginning of the study of all the natural sciences. The knowledge of structure leads directly to the study of the history of the construction of the earth, geology : mineralogy, and its kindred sciences are involved in geol- ogy. Trained observation of the effects of force in any direction, of erosion, moving air and water, or the vitaliz- ing energies of heat makes the study of physics a neces- sity. The more subtile changes in organic and inorganic matter open the wonders of chemistry, the percolation of water through the soil, giving life, as it goes, to plants, carries the learner directly to the study of botany. It is but a step from the study of plants to the study of ani- mals, and to the highest animal, man. Thus the knowl- edge of the material basis of life is not only the element- ary study of all life, but it unites all the natural sciences makes them one grand unit. THE METHOD. The activities of the human being may be described. 1. The unconscious activities ; phys- ical activities not under direct control of the will. 2. xiv INTRODUCTION. The sub-conscious activities, the hrain activities that pre- pare ideas by a process of mentation for consciousness. 3. Conscious activities. 4. Automatic activities ; those activi- ties which after passing repeatedly through states of con- sciousness are released by repetitions from direct volition education presents conditions that arouse and direct all these activities to the end, that the human being may be developed into the greatest possible use to his fellow men. Teaching has to do with the conscious activities ; it may be defined as the presentation of those conditions which arouse, sustain, intensify and concentrate conscious activi- ties which directly induce growth and development. The definition of teaching includes the definition of method. The method of teaching a subject or branch of knowledge consists: 1. In the arrangement cf the details or particulars of the branch in that order and manner best adapted to the development of the mind; it follows necessarily that the order and arrangement best adapted to the mind's action and growth is also the best for the acquisition of knowl- edge. This arrangement of details is called a course of study. 2. The presentation of the details in time, and stage of growth, so as to use the conscious activities in the most economical way; or, in other words, the adaptations of the subjects and objects of thought to conscious activities in such a manner as to concentrate all the powers of the be- ing upon them. The human being acquires knowledge and power by the action of immutable laws; no matter what external con- ditions may be presented to the teacher, the mind grows and acquires knowledge in its own unchangeable way, fol- lowing undeviatingly its own divine laws. The presenta- tion of conditions not adapted to the laws of the mind, in INTRODUCTION. xv its stage of growth, obstructs mental action and tvastes aicryies. The mind may grow, however, in spite of ob- structions, but the growth will be natural, according to natural laws. In order to understand a method a teacher must know the laws of mental development and the means (subjects and objects of thought) of the development; under this knowledge the method (adaptation of means to develop- ment) may be studied. In teaching any arbitrary adherence to an order of time, regardless of the order of growth, is fatal to devel- opment. Any teacher who pretends to have a perfect method of teaching any subject is a quack. Perfection in method is a pure ideal, far beyond the reach of present knowledge. The course of study here presented is di- vided into two distinct parts, namely, the elementary and the scientific. The purpose of the elementary part of the course is the collection by observation, investigation, read- ing, hearing language, and study of the psychic material indispensable to the inbuilding of an organic body of truth in the scientific course. The elementary course is sug- gested for the first four grades. The process of thought in these grades is mainly inductive. The mental powers to be constantly exercised are those of synthesis and analysis the later used at all times to enhance the strength of the former. Color, form and number are the essential factors of synthetic power. Observation, hearing, language and reading are the three mental processes conditioning the presence of ob- jects and symbols. Curiosity and fancy are the innate tendencies to be used by skillful teachers, in making fleeting impulses steady and constant. Lastly, to intensify, enhance, concentrate and compact xvi INTRODUCTION. all the conscious activities, are the various modes of ex- pression: making, modeling, painting, drawing, oral and written language. The agents of teaching just named are common to all teaching. The choice of subjects and objects of thought makes the method of teaching geogra- phy distinct from the teaching of all other branches. The main purpose of scientific geography is to build by the fac- ulty of imagination the mental pictures of the continents and then to synthetize them into an image of the round world. The principal work, then, in the primary grades, is to collect sense-products needed for work of the gram- mar grades. Field lessons, observations and investigations, that develop these ideas, should form the essential part of the course. This work has been outlined in the course of study and in the "notes." The architect who designs one part of an edifice must know its relations to the whole ; so the teachers in the lower grades should know the purpose and end of every subject and object of thought. A science is one organic whole of truth, at each step each inference and generalization involve all preceding knowledge; each science, in turn, is only a part of one great science, the science of life and living. Scientific geography illustrates this great truth in a beautiful way. The study of one continent requires all the most careful teaching the lower grades can furnish; one continent is the measure of another, and so on; the last generaliza- tion in the study of civilization demands for its thorough exposition every fact, inference and generalization that precedes it. To the teacher who watches with great eager- ness and insight the growth of her pupils in geography never need to hesitate in regard to the new conditions that should be immediately presented. It may be argued against the arrangement of subjects presented in the course of study that there is not enough INTROCUCTION. xvii of political geography in the six grades from the lowest up ; that pupils who leave school in these grades will not have as much knowledge for practical use as they would if political geography were the principal aim of the work. Several answers may be made to this apparently import- ant objection. The study of history which should run parallel with the geography will supply pupils with all the information upon political geography that they are capa- ble of understanding. DIFFICULTIES. Children have very clear mental pic- tures of the houses in which they live and of the scenery that surrounds them. These objects they can easily describe from their mental images. It is easy to lead them to imagine scenes and landscapes that lie beyond their sense-grasp by the relation of stories. The novelist understands this power to picture scenery, he places his readers in mount- ains, valleys and plains at will; landscapes are made clear and often vivid. The modern historian, like Curtius, takes his readers into Greece, and they travel with him over the hills, mountains, and valleys of that wonderful penisula. The task of the teacher of geography is precisely the same in kind ; the inference in theory at least, seems a safe one, that what the novelist and historian can do, can also be done by the skillful teacher, that the great, simple out- lines of continental structure can be made as clear to pu- pils as a mountain ridge in Italy, Greece or Palestine. This, seemingly simple, plain and practicable theory is met and opposed by the facts of long experience; the application of the theory has not often met with the de- sired results. Careful examinations, prove that very few pupils after years of study, have acquired the elementary and substan- cial basis for the study of history, the power to think the xviii INTRODUCTION. world as a whole, differentiated by the simple analysis, into upraised forms, and inclined surfaces. Arguing from such and similar tests, many a teacher might conclude that the theory is wrong, that it is not adapted to the mental powers of children. Failure in application of a theory does not always prove that the theory is false; there have been countless failures in the application of the Golden Rule, or in the principles of temperance, yet no one dares to deny the truth of the theories. The question is, does the difficulty lie in a false theory or is it to be found in the unskillful ap- plication of a true theory ? The inclination is a very strong one to believe that the difficulty is in unscientific teaching and not in the mental powers of children. A great number of careful and prolonged examina- tions of candidates for teacher's positions, coming as grad- uates from high schools and colleges, show conclusively that anything like a fundamental knowledge of geogra- phy, after long years of study, is the exception and not the rule. Teachers cannot teach that which they do not know, Jacotot to the contrary notwithstanding. If teachers know little else but mental pictures of maps and an iso- lated mass of conglomerated facts they cannot teach (/( j ne Mississippi are formed by the horizontal movement Some rivers make most of their basins by erosion The source slope. Eeviev questions. What slope determines the length of a river ? What determines the rapidity of the current ? Where will the current be swift ? Where very slow? Ho^ are rapids, cataracts and falls made ? What is the difference in the slope of a river bed between rapids and Vails? Illustrate with molding and drawing. Show pictures of and tell pupils about Niagara Falls. Describe ^ow the rock is slowly wearing away ; show pictures of the steep banks below the falls, and ask how they werv made. What will be the result when the falls cut their way back to Lake Erie ? Tell pupils about the /alls in the Zambesi, the cataracts of the Nile, and tne Dalles of the Columbia. Krvers which rise in highlands rush down the com- NOTES FOURTH GRADE. 175 paratively abrupt slopes, and flow slower over what may be called the middle course, and still more slowly over the lowest part of the course. Thus most rivers have three distinct divisions in the source slope : (1) an upper course, where the current is rapid ; (2) a middle course in which the current is slower than it is in the upper course ; (3) a lower course, in which the river creeps over a very slight grade of surface in- clination. Some rivers are very rapid in their flow from the source to the mouth, while others, following gentle inclinations throughout their courses, are, there- fore, sluggish all the way. Uses of rivers. Tell me all the uses of rivers that you can think of. . Have pupils discover such uses. Manufacturing ; navigation ; furnishing canals used for transportation with water ; moving logs ; cutting the earth in their basins so that railroads can be easily built ; irrigation , natural and artificial ; water supplies for cities ; preparing land for cultivation ; making har- bors or sea coasts ; furnishing land and gravel for build- ing purposes ; furnishing food (fish) ; cleansing the land by carrying off impurities ; supplying ice. Manufacturing. What kind of rivers are used for manufacturing ? Which course of a river (upper, mid- dle, lower,) is generally best adapted to manufacturing purposes ? On what parts of a river are mills, factories and other manufactories built? Name articles that 176 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. are manufactured by machinery driven by water and steam. Why are mills and factories built near falls or rapids ? What is a dam ? How is it built ? For what is it used ? How is the canal built which drives the big wheel? Describe the factories at Lowell, Manchester and Lawrence. Navigation and commerce. What kind of rivers are used for navigation? In navigable rivers which course (upper, middle, lower,) is generally best adapted to navigation ? What in a river usually stops navigation ? Canals are sometimes used to take steamboats around falls. Describe the commerce on the Mississippi river and its tributaries. Thirty years ago there were many more steamboats and flatboats in use upon the Missis- sippi than now. There are greater quantities of goods transported now than there were then. How do you account for this change ? Tell pupils how loose logs and log-rafts are carried down rivers Mississippi, Merrimack, Penobscot. Railroads. How does the wearing of land (ero- sion) assist in building railroads ? Union Pacific Kail- road. Canals. What is a canal ? What is the difference between a canal and a river? How are canals made? What supplies canals with water? What are canal locks ? What is the use of locks ? What are the uses of canals? Manufacturing, transportation. How are NOTES FOURTH GRADE. 177 boats moved on canals? Before railroads were built people traveled upon canal boats called packet boats. Describe the Erie canal, Suez canal, the proposed Hen- nepin canal, Panama canal. Irrigation. What is irrigation? How does the water in rivers irrigate the soil ? Some rivers receive their water from the upper or mountainous parts of the slopes or river basins. Why ? Why, in some slopes or river basins, does rairi fall only upon the upper edges or mountainous parts ? What is the effect of such con- ditions upon the lower parts of the river basins or the valley of the river? Mold a river basin and illustrate the conditions above given. Lead pupils to discover a plan by which the dry soil of the river valley may receive moisture enough for vegetation. How could the main ditch or canal be made ? The smaller ditches ? How do land slopes assist in irrigation ? A few years ago the basin of the Platte river in Colorado, just east of the Eocky Mountains, was a desert covered with alkali; the land was worthless. There is plenty of water in the river and plenty of water in the mountains, for their snowy tops wring the moisture out of the clouds forced over them by the winds. But the cold tops of the mountains left little or no rain for the plains below, so some thoughtful and enterprising men built canals or ditches in which to carry water from the upper course of the river, 178 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. like this (illustrate). From this main ditch run little ditches which are filled with water to irri- gate the farms (ranches they are called in the West). By artificial irrigation the desert is made to "blossom as the rose." Wheat, oats, barley, potatoes and vegetables are now raised there in great abundance. Some farmers say that they prefer irrigation to rain. Why? For irrigating purposes water is sometimes raised from rivers by pumps. Show pictures; Nile. Windmills are often used to fill irrigating ditches. Many years ago great plains in Asia west of Hindoo Koosh and other great plains in Africa west of the mountains of Abyssinia were made fertile by irrigation. Now these plains are deserts. Why? Harbors. The shores of the ocean in some places are building coasts. The currents of the ocean and the waters of the rivers bring and pile up sand (form sand-bars), and in time plants and trees grow upon these sand-bars and change them into islands. What effect do these sand-bars have upon navigation and commerce? On zvearing coasts, where the waves and tides are ever eating into the rocks, there are generally good harbors ; why ? What constitutes a good harbor ? Where do you find good harbors on building or sandy coasts ? Why do you find them at the mouths of large rivers ? James, Cape Fear, Savannah. NOTES FOURTH GRADE. 179 Coasts and coast lines. ?.Iold land sloping down to the ocean. Where is the coast? What is a coast? What is the coast line ? How wide is the coast line ? Mold a coast with hills and mountains close to the ocean. Describe the tides. Tell pupils about the waves that beat against the coast. What is the effect of the tides and waves upon this (rocky) coast ? Where does the ocean cut into the land? Make a change in the molded coast so as to form a bay ? What is a bay ? Mold the gulf and peninsula of California. Show how the waters of the Pacific fill up the valley between the mountain ranges. What is a gulf ? What is the differ- ence between a bay and a gulf? Mold bays, gulfs, seas, harbors, inlets, fiords, estuaries, bights; have pupils describe, draw and mold the same. Have pupils discover how these indentations were formed, and tell their uses. Mold wearing coast ; illustrate how such a coast is made. Describe the formation of sand-bars washed up by waves and tides, and how marshes are formed between the sand-bars and the mainland ; how both become part of the mainland and then h*w new sand-bars are formed. Tell them about the Tide Water Region on the Atlantic coast of North America. Draw, mold and compare that portion of the Atlantic coast north of the mouth of the Hudson with that y>rtion south of it. Mold and draw a peninsula after field lesions . 180 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. This is a peninsula ; what is a peninsula ? Why u as not this land washed away by the water with the hind around it ? Change this peninsula into an island. What is an island ? What is the difference between a penin- sula and an island. Why are peninsulas and islands nearly always locky, hilly or mountainous? Some islands look as if they had been broken off from mount- ain ranges Great Britain from the Scandinavian mountains, Sicily from the Appennines. Mold and draw a promontory. What is the differ- ence between a promontory and a peninsula? Mold and draw a coast with a peninsula, a promontory, an island and a cape. What is this? (pointing to a cape.) What is a cape? What is the differ- ence between a cape and a peninsula? How many capes can you see on this coast ? Have pupils mold coasts with all the indentations and projections ; a pen- insula, promontory, island, cape, delta, bay, gulf, sea, inlet, estuary, fiord. Tell pupils about (draw, mold and show pictures of) fiords of Norway ; the ice bound coast of the Arctic ocean ; how glaciers enter the ocean and are broken off by the waves and sail away as icebergs ; the islands of the Southern Pacific coast of South America. A lesson upon islands should be given. De- scribe continental islands and oceanic islands ; volcanic islands, coral formations, atolls, reefs, Floridas. NOTE. The plans ar^. hints above given are in- NOTES FOURTH GRADK. 3 Si tended to suggest lines of work. Many of the ques- tions are, no doubt, far too difficult for pupils of the fourth grade. The skillful teacher will readily dis- criminate between questions which are and those which are not adapted to her pupils' mental powers. The questions that are too difficult for present use will sug- gest the necessity of cultivating the power to answer them in the next or higher grades. Reading. "Seven Little Sisters, " "Each and All, " "Aunt Martha's Corner Cupboard," Scribner's "Geo- graphical Keader, " "Little People of Asia," Dodge's "Stories of American History," together with stories of travels over mountains, plains and sea coasts. Language. Writing should continually be used in giving the substance of lessons. Have pupils describe something in writing each day. Number. Many problems should be made with the purpose of gaining clear ideas of distance, areas, heights and relative proportions. This slope from the sea coast (pointing to molded slope) is fifty feet above the sea level at the foot of the hill ; the hill is 250 feet above the sea level ; what is the height of the entire slope ? How much higher above the sea is the top of hill than the slope at the base of the hill ? If the sea should wash away the slope up to the foot of the hill, how high would the hill be then ? It is five miles in a straight line from the coast line to the base of the hill ; l82 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. what is the average inclination of the slope to the mile ? What is the average grade of inclination to the mile from the sea to the summit of the hill? Here is a river basin (molded) ; it is 100 miles, in a straight line, from the source to the mouth; the river is 175 miles long ; how many miles does the river wind ? The right slope, in the longest part, is twenty-five miles from the water-parting to the river ; the left slope, opposite the longest part of the right slope, is thirty-seven miles long ; how much longer is the left slope than the right slope ? How far is it on this line, from water-parting across the basin, to water-parting ? The source is 500 feet above the mouth ; the river is 175 miles long ; what is the average grade of slope to the mile ? If the river flows two miles in an hour, how long would it take a drop of water to go from the source to the mouth ? The highest part of the water-parting on the left slope is 250 feet high ; the highest part of the source slope is 500 feet high ; the highest part of the right slope is 150 feet high ; how much higher is the right slope than the left slope ? The right slope than the source slope ? Each problem should lead pupils to imagine height, distance, area or proportion. The weather. Keep a daily account of the weather upon the blackboard. 1. Direction of the wind. 2. Force of the wind. 3. Degree of heat ; pressure of atmosphere in barometer. 4 . Eain or snow. 5 . Sun- NOTES FIFTH GRADE. 183 shine. Have pupils read weather reports and notice whether the predictions prove true. FIFTH GRADE. Review thoroughly all the work of the previous grades. The more carefully the elementary work is done the better and quicker the science of geography can be taught. All the concepts of natural features are to be brought together, combined, mingled and blended into one great whole ; that is, a concept is to be formed in the pupils' minds which corresponds generally to the real continent of North America. The teaching of the first continent should be very carefully done, as the other continents, one by one, will be compared with it ; it will, indeed, be the principal means of teaching all the other continents. There is no good reason why North America should be preferred to South America in begin- ning, except the fact that it is our own continent. Molding in sand, drawing, and descriptions both oral and printed, are the means by which the concept is formed. By molding the fundamental concept of the upraised mass is made clear. Still the warning given must be repeated molding, although an excel- lent means, may become an end, and the pupil's mental vision be limited almost entirely by it. Oral and writ- ten descriptions assist very much in avoiding this, the 184 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. main difficulty. Lead pupils to see beyond the sand, else the work is useless. There are several plans of teaching continents by molding. (1.) Draw the outline upon the large molding table and cover the surface within the outline with a thin layer of sand. Upon this layer of sand build the great western mass of land, crowned by the Eocky Mountain system ; follow this by the eastern or lesser land mass with the Appalachian system. From this go to river basins and river systems. (2.) Mold the Eocky Mountain system first, then add the slopes, one to the Pacific ocean, the other to the Mississippi and Mac- kenzie rivers ; follow this by molding the Appalachian system and the slopes to the Atlantic and toward the west. (3.) Mold the entire continent before the lesson, and have pupils describe what they see, taking, of course, the most prominent features first. The fourth way is to begin with the simplest gen- eral whole, to-wit : the two slopes which form the entire continent, the long slope and the short slope. Present these unmodified by counter slopes and river basins. Mold a rough outline (coast line) around the two slopes, giving a brief description as you mold. Then mold and describe the most prominent modification of the long and short slopes. The line of procedure in this plan and, indeed, it should be in all devices, is from the most prominent, natural divisions (those embracing the NOTES FIFTH GRADE. 185 largest areas) to the next in importance and size. Mold in the general whole each natural division as you teach it. Some teachers, lacking in technical skill to mold, may shrink from the work. Of course the more thorough the preparation you make, other things being equal, the more economically you can use time in teaching. Yet, if you haven't the skill, have the courage to begin ; "the way to resume is to resume." If you haven't a good relief map from which to copy, you can interpret in sand good physical maps like Guyot's and Stanford's, or you can use pictures of relief found in Swinton's Geo- graphies and others. The fourth plan is illustrated below. Only a meager description is given and very few questions are asked compared with the number a skillful teacher will easily think of. Avoid too many details ; teach those facts only in these first steps, which assist in making clear the general whole. Keep steadily before you the purpose of building in the mind the continent as a whole with its content of general features. When a clear general picture has been acquired, details without number may be filled in. NORTH AMERICA. A pile of dampened sand lies upon the molding table. Be careful not to have the sand too damp ; just enough water should be mixed with it to make it work 1 86 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. easily. Mold the two slopes of North America. I want you to think of a great mass of rock raised above the ocean level. Here (pointing) is the Pacific ocean ; here the Atlantic, and here the Arctic ocean. This mass of upraised rock is 5,700 miles long. How long would it take you to travel on foot the entire length of this continent, if you traveled twenty miles a day ? How long would it take you to ride over it on a railroad train, if you rode thirty miles an hour? This continent is 3,000 miles wide from East to West in the widest place ; how long would it take to go on the cars from New York to San Francisco at the rate of thirty miles an hour? The area of the con- tinent in square miles is 9,349,585. How many farms of 640 acres could the whole continent be divided into? Would all the land make good farms ? Why not ? If 20 people lived on a square mile, how many inhabitants would North America have? Write all these figures upon the board. Make other problems. How many slopes do you see ? What is the difference between the slopes? This slope (the long one) is 2,200 miles long; how long is this slope ? (the short one.) Compare the two slopes. Into what ocean would the water on the long slope flow ? On the short slope ? Point out the line of meeting of the two slopes. How long is this line? This line is called the continental axis; What is a line ? How is a line formed ? How wide is NOTES FIFTH GRADE. 187 the continental axis ? The teacher molds the outline of the continent, describing each part. Here is the out- line of what? Peninsula of Alaska. Just across this strait is Asia, another continent. This is the coast line of what ocean? Pacific. Here are several islands which look as if they had been broken off, some day, from the continent. What would break them off? Queen Charlotte's island, Vancouver s island. The water which separates Vancouver's island from the main land is called Puget's Sound. What is a sound? How does it differ from a gulf? Here is a very long bend or curve in the coast. These mountains (coast mountains) cause the coast line to curve. Mold the peninsula of California. Here is a long low range of mountains ; between this range and the next range is a depression lower than the ocean level; the lower end of this de- pression opens upon the ocean; what ocean? What would we find in this depression ? How far does the ocean flow into this depression ? What does the water form ? Gulf of California. Which way does the coast line curve now? Toward the east. Now the coast line curves out from the main land, and now it curves into the main land, and then out again. What have I molded? In what general direction does the coast line run ? What determines where the coast line must be? Now I will begin at Bering strait and mold the 1 88 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. northern coast line of the continent. The coast line of what ocean ? Arctic ocean. . The outline of this coast, in all its parts, is very imperfectly known. Why? Very cold climate. Never has been surveyed. Why has it not been surveyed ? When can ships come here ? Why not in winter ? The water is frozen most of the year. Great masses of land have been broken off from the main land, forming what ? This (molding) is Bank's land ; this Prince Albert, and here is Baffinland. Tell pupils of Sir John Franklin, Dr. Kane, Lieut. Greeley. Here is a great depression in the continent filled with water Hudson's Bay. Now the coast line moves south- east, broken by this point, Cape Chudleigh. What does this land form ? A peninsula. What water is on the eastern side ? What on the northern side ? Here the coast line turns toward the south and here begins the Atlantic ocean. A narrow strait separates the main- land from a large island New 7 Foundland. Why do you think it is called by this name ? What is this ? Gulf of St. Lawrence. What are these ? Two islands Prince Edward and Cape Breton islands. Mold Nova Scotia. What is this ? The water, which here separ- ates the peninsula of Nova Scotia from the .main land, is called the Bay of Fundy. The tide rises in this bay to a great height. Now the coast line curves in, and here is a curious form like a fish-hook Cape Cod. Right across this little bay the Pilgrims landed in ? NOTES FIFTH GRADE. 189 There is a sharp turn around Cape Cod, and the coast line runs toward the west. This is Long Island Sound ; and this island is Long Island. Now the line moves toward the south ; the water of the Atlantic enters the land in two places, you see Delaware Bay and Chesa- peake Bay. Then follows a curve. Long sand-bar islands are found here. Can you tell me anything about them ? This peninsula was made by little bits of animals which lived and died and left their bones to build islands and peninsulas like this Florida. Now we are in the Gulf of Mexico, a great, deep, broad de- pression, filled with water. Here at the entrance is a long, narrow island Cuba. East of it is another island Hayti, and east of that a little island Porto Rico. North of these large islands (West Indies) are a great number of small islands Bahama Islands. South of the West Indies is the Carribean Sea. This sea is a part of a great ocean current that comes across the Atlantic from the hot shores of Africa. It pours an immense flood of warm water between -the West Indies and the northern shores of South America and the shores of this isthmus. (Mold all forms mentioned.) What is an isthmus ? Then a part of it moves on be- tween Cuba and Yucatan, through the Yucatan channel in the Gulf of Mexico. What is a channel? How does a channel differ from a strait ? In this gulf the Gulf Stream turns around (why?) and flows between 190 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. Cuba and Florida, up the coast ; then it crosses the Atlantic to warm the shores of Great Britain and Scan- dinavia. Illustrate by drawing. Now we have traveled on the coast line around North America. Bound this continent. Write a description of the coast line I have molded. Take your pans and mold North America with its two great slopes. Trace the continental axis. Bound the long slope ; the short slope. Bound by natural lines. How long is the long slope (from east to west) ? How broad is it (from north to south) ? Where is it the shortest ? Where the longest ? The long slope is in- clined toward what ocean ? It does not slope all the way like this. Mold in the long slope, the Appalachian mountain system and the southern and western water- parting of the Hudson Bay system. Mold the slopes of this land mass. Where will the water on the long slope flow now ? Mold the Mississippi river basin, i. e., change the general form of the slope. Where will the water flow in this basin? Why? Trace the main river Mississippi. Why does the river flow over that line ? How much land does this river drain ? Mold the Mac- kenzie basin. Which way does the water flow hero? Into what ocean? Why? Trace the river. Mold the Saskatchewan basin. What change do the basins of the Mississippi, Mackenzie and Saskatchewan rivers make in the long slope ? Lead pupils to see the great central NOTES FIFTH GRADE. 191 valley of North America. Trace on molded map the Mississippi river from its mouth to its source. What causes this river. Two slopes meeting at their lower edges. Show me the slopes. Trace the Mackenzie river in the same way. Show me the slopes this river drains. What separates the Mississippi basin from the Mackenzie basin? Saskatchewan basin. Trace in molded map the lowest line (above the sea level) from the mouth of the Mississippi to the mouth of the Mac- kenzie. Into what does this line divide North America ? Which is the larger mass of land? Which is the smaller ? In which is the continental axis ? The larger mass we will call the primary land mass ; the smaller the secondary land mass. By what is the primary land mass divided ? Into what does the continental axis divide the primary land mass? Bound the western slope. The eastern slope. Which is the longer ? (east- ern or western.) Where do most of the rivers rise in the western slope? The eastern slope? Secondary land mass. How many slopes has the secondary land mass? Where do most of the rivers rise in the western slope ? In the eastern slope ? Trace the line that divides the two slopes. This line is called the secondary axis of North America. Mold the St. Lawrence basin. What effect does this basin have upon the secondary land mass ? The river separates it into two parts. Which part is the larger? Mold the Appa- 192 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. lachian mountain system. These mountains begin where? (St. Lawrence basin) and extend in what direction ? nearly to what ? Gulf of Mexico. I must tell you something about mountains and mountain systems. Mountain systems are the upper or highest parts of great land masses. They look very large because they rise so abruptly from the general level of the land, but they form really a very small part of a great land mass. If all the mountains were ground up to fine powder and spread over the rest of the land they would form a very thin coating. You must think that a mountain system is the upper part of the land mass. A mountain system consists (is made up) of several ranges or chains, which extend in the same general direction. These ranges are sometimes called parallel, but they are not really parallel. Illus- trate by molding. A mountain range, like a coast line, curves and bends so as to form a very crooked line. From the Susquehanna river (mold) down nearly to the Gulf of Mexico the Appalachian mountain system con- sists of the so-called parallel ranges. Here is the Blue Ridge, one of the ranges. It is called a ridge, I sup- pose, because, for a long distance, this range is really a ridge; that is, it has one continuous crest like this (mold). Over the Blue Ridge runs the secondary axis; several rivers break through it. West of the Blue Ridge, and nearly parallel with it, is the Allegheny NOTES FIFTH GRADE. 193 range. Between the Blue Eidge and the Allegheny range is a long valley. It is not a continuous valley, however, for several small ranges run, laterally, in the same general direction as the Blue Kidge and the Alle- ghenies. These ranges often come together and form knots which obstruct the valleys. The upper end of this long valley is called the Valley of the Shenandoah ; it was made famous in the Civil War ; the lower end is the Valley of the Tennessee, out of which the river Tennessee rushes. Just where the Tennessee river flows out of this valley is Chattanooga. What do you know of Chattanooga? North of the Susquehanna river the mountain ranges are not so regular. Here are the Catskills, and south of them the Palisades on the Hudson. North of the Catskills is a comparatively level country, although there is a gradual slope to the Atlantic. Just north of the level land are the Adirondacks, so famous for fishing and hunting. Then comes a long, deep depression or break through the mountain system, which extends from the St. Lawrence basin to the ocean. The northern part of this depression is partially filled by Lake Champlain. Down through the southern part flows the beautiful Hudson. The eastern side of this long valley has the Green and Housatonic mountains for walls. The Green mountain range extends (under other names) to the St. Lawrence basin and there forms the upper part of the 194 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. right slope of that basin. East of the Green mount- ains, across the Connecticut river, is a bunch or knot of mountains called the White Mountains. Thus we have had a glance at the Appalachian system. Tell me all you can about it. Write a description of it. The St. Lawrence Kiver, I have said, separates what ? The northern part of the secondary land mass is north of the St. Lawrence Kiver, and is called the Peninsula of Labrador. A mountain range runs through it from south to north. The eastern slope pours its waters into the Atlantic, the western into Hudson's bay. From these small mountains, which are called wrinkles or folds of the earth's crust, we will turn to the mountains which form the upper part or crest of the great primary land mass of the West. We have traced the continental axis the entire length of the continent ; now I will begin at the narrowest part of this immense mass of rock and try to show you, by molding, how these mountains look. Here in this isth- mus of Panama, only fifty miles from ocean to ocean, there is one low range of mountains, at the lowest point only 150 feet high. Who is trying to dig a canal here? How would this canal help commerce ? There is only one range until we reach this high mountain Popo- catapetl 17,784 feet high. From this point there are two immense mountain ranges, which extend to the frozen ocean, more than 5,000 miles. (Eoughly out- NOTES FIFTH GRADE. 195 line the two ranges in the sand.) Between these two ranges is a vast plateau. What is a plateau ? Here in Mexico the plateau is wedge-shaped with very high mountain walls on the west ; but on the eastern edge of the plateau there are few mountains. If you were on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico (pointing) you would see, to the west, what would seem to be a high mount- ain ridge. If you were to climb up the steep slope you would find on the top a comparatively level plateau. In the northern part of this plateau of Mexico, and on the eastern edge, the great range of the Eocky mount- ains begins to rise. It runs nearly due north for more than 500 miles. Here the Eio Grande breaks through the range, then the range curves to the west. This curve is about 450 miles long. Not far from the western slope of this long curve flows the Eio Grande, and at the foot of the eastern slope of the range flows the Rio Pecos, which unites with the Eio Grande near where the lat- ter river breaks through the mountains. Now this great Eocky mountain range, instead of continuing as a single range, breaks up into all sorts of wonderful forms ; it turns, bends, twists and knots up in such a way that it is very difficult to mold or describe it. These curious mountain knots extend in a northerly direction for more than 500 miles. I can describe it best by molding and telling you about the wonderful Eocky mountain parks. These parks are 196 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. in this range. (Mold San Luis valley by itself.) Im- agine a valley, as level as a table, nearly 8,000 feet above the ocean level, 140 miles long and from thirty- five to forty miles wide, walled in by snow-capped mountains. It is drained by the upper course of the Kio Grande. Northeast from the San Luis valley, just over a high mountain range, is the South Park fifty miles long, twenty-five miles broad and in shape like an ellipse. This magnificent park is in one place 10,000 feet above the ocean level. North of South Park is Middle Park, and north of that is North Park. Farther north are the plains of Laramie, drained by the North Platte river, which breaks through the Eocky moun- tains. North of this break the range bends toward the west, in which direction it runs for nearly 300 miles ; then it bends to the north again. About 100 miles from this curve of the range is the wonderful Yellowstone Park. Can you tell me anything about this park? Show pictures. Teachers should collect a large number of pictures of mountain scenery. From the curve in which we find the Yellowstone Park the Eocky mountains move steadily in a northerly direction to the Arctic ocean. Very little is known of them after they enter the frozen regions of the North ; there may be more wonderful parks and some high peaks that are yet to be discovered. Now we will begin again at the narrow isthmus NOTES FIFTH GRADE. 197 and see how the great western wall of the plateau looks. This range, which runs in the same direction as the Eocky mountains, has several names. We will call it by the best known name of Sierra Nevada. Sierra means saw, and Nevada a heavy fall of snow. Why do these mountains have this name ? Kising from the low mountains of the isthmus of Panama the range reaches a very great height, just opposite (west of) the southern coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Here we find Popocatapetl and a knot of very high mountains. This is a volcanic region. What is a volcano ? In these mountains, eighty miles from the Pacific ocean (point), happened something very wonderful in 1759. How many years ago ? From comparatively level land, 2,800 feet above the ocean, sprang up all at once a volcano (Jorullo), 4,205 feet above the ocean; how high above the plain ? This range is called the Sierra Madre here ; it curves to the west and then to the north. From Cape Corrientes (here) this range extends in a northerly direction (a little west of north) for 500 miles to where the Colorado river breaks through it in its mighty struggle to enter the Gulf of California. Here the range separates into two ranges. One is the Wasatch range, which extends to the northeast diagonally across the great plateau, and joins the Eocky mountain range, where it turns toward the north, sending out straight toward the east a spur called the Uintah mountains. At 198 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. the Colorado river the western wall sinks into a great desert or plateau called the Mohave Desert, in which is the famous Death Valley, 100 feet below the level of the Pacific. Why does not the ocean cover this valley? Across the parched and barren Mohave Desert, in the northeast, this range rises again into towering, snow- capped mountains (the true Sierra Nevada range). In- clined toward the east this range extends in a northerly direction for 450 miles. It is the buttress of the great plateau and the eastern wall of the Valley of Cali- fornia. The waters which drain its steep slopes cut out from the hard rock bits and nuggets of gold. The upper course breaks through the range just south of Mt. Shasta (show pictures), and the range turns slightly toward the east ; 280 miles more and the Columbia river dashes through the lofty mountain walls. The range north of and including Mt. Shasta is called the Cascade range. Why ? Here we find glaciers on Mt. Tacoma 14,444 feet high, just two feet higher than Mt. Shasta, on which there is also a glacier. Now we find a long curve from the ocean (nearly 500 miles). At the foot of the abrupt slope of the range (here) lies Puget's Sound ; across this sound is Vancouver's Island. Here the mountains continue in their northerly direc- tion to Mt. Fairweather (15,500 feet), and Mt. St.Elias (19,500 feet), the highest peak in North America. At these lofty peaks the range bends almost directly to- NOTES FIFTH GRADE. 199 ward the west and extends hundreds of miles out into the waters of the Pacific ocean (Alaska peninsula). Coast range. For a very long distance the Cas- cade and Sierra Nevada mountains do not descend directly to the ocean. This range, or these ranges, have foot hills, or they might better be called foot mountains. I will mold them, beginning here at Vancouver's Island. The valley between the coast range and the higher range is filled with water (Puget's Sound). This range runs close to the coast toward the south ; in fact, it de- termines the coast line. How ? It extends in the same direction as the Sierra Nevada range, although much lower. It makes a great sweeping curve into the Pacific ocean. Here (pointing) the coast range on the west and the Sierra Nevada on the east inclose the basins of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. The Sacramento flows toward the south ; the San Joaquin toward the north. The two rivers unite nearly opposite the Golden Gate of the Pacific Ocean. These two basins form the wonderful and magnificent Valley of California. A little southwest of the Golden Gate, 150 miles in the Sierra Nevadas, is the famous Yosemite Valley, the great rival, in wonders, of the Yellowstone Park. (Show pictures.) In the southern boundary of the San Joa- quin basin the coast range unites with the Sierra Nevada range, and sends out a long branch or spur to the south, which forms the peninsula of California. 2OO HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. Now, as we have had a glimpse of the huge mount- ain walls or buttresses of the great plateau, we will look at the plateau itself. The southern part comprises the plateau of Mexico. It is wedge-shaped with high mountain walls on the west side and an abrupt slope to the gulf on the eastern side. This part of the great plateau really extends toward the north for more than 2,000 miles, enclosed on the east by the Eocky mount- ain range, on the west by the Sierra Nevada and Waw- satch mountains, and shut in on the north by that section of the Kocky mountain range which runs east and west. The northern part of this plateau is the upper basin of the Colorado, and the middle portion is drained for the greater part by the Eio Grande. Now comes the Great Basin, shaped like an ellipse, 600 miles in breadth, 900 miles from north tt) south, and enclosed by the Sierra Nevada, Wawsatch and Eocky mountains ; drained in the north by the Snake river, in the south partially by the Colorado, while a large space in the center has no outlet. The water flows in streams (Humboldt) and loses itself in sinks. I thought once that plateaus were level like prairies. This is very far from the truth ; indeed, this plateau is a great mass of mountains, range upon range, extending in a general direction from north to south. (Eead descriptions.) If you were to travel on any one of the railroads that run over this vast plateau to the Pacific you., would not NOTES FIFTH GRADK. 2OI think that a plateau is level. 'Mountains, mountains everywhere, on the right and on the left. Great, arid, treeless expanses ; no vegetation except sage bushes and prickly pears, growing out of dry soil covered with alkali. Miles and miles of villages inhabited by prairie dogs. The houses in these villages are little mounds of earth, the doors are holes, at the entrances of which the inhabitants (prairie dogs) sit and watch the passing trains. Wherever water can be obtained from the snowy-topped mountains this desert may be made fer- tile. The Mormons in Utah have changed dreary wastes to rich fields. No doubt there are millions of acres yet to be reclaimed from sage bush, prickly pear and prairie dog by irrigation. The teacher should mold the continent again and have pupils mold upon pans, following the teacher and describing natural divisions as they mold. Ask the pupils many questions relating to the work done about North America. Put aside maps and ask questions. Test, continually, your pupils' power to picture the conti- nent without the presence of maps. Have pupils draw maps of the continent on the blackboard from the molded form. Lead them to im- agine the coast as they draw it ; tell whether they are wearing or building coasts, and why. What mountains do you see ? Why can you not see the mountains from this part of the coast ? Too far off. How far ? What 2O2 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. islands? How were they made? What peninsulas? How made? Bays, gulfs, mouths of rivers, etc. Do not be afraid of very crude results at first ; lead pupils to criticise their own work, and try again. The only use of either drawing or molding is to picture the conti- nent; drawing maps is a worthless process unless it makes the concept clearer. Have them begin, for in stance, with the peninsula of Alaska, and draw the coast line of the Pacific ocean. Have very little detail at first. How was this peninsula formed? By what mountains? What islands do you see? How do the coast mountains look ? Where are the Sierra Nevadas ? How far away ? Draw first the Arctic coast line. De- scribe this coast, then follow with the Atlantic coast line, and lastly with that of the Gulf of Mexico. Draw continental axis, secondary axis, and indicate mountain ranges. Mississippi basin. Before the molded map. Bound the Mississippi basin. Have pupils discover the bound- aries. The use of bounding natural divisions is to stimulate the power of close observation. Bound always by natural lines. The Mississippi basin is bounded upon the west by the continental axis, and the water- parting of the Texan river basin system ; on the north by the water-parting of the Saskatchewan or the Win- nipeg basin, and the water-parting of the St. Lawrence basin ; on the east by the secondary axis nnd the water- NOTES FIFTH GRADE. 203 parting of the Alabama river basin system. Bound the right slope of the Mississippi river basin. What great river basins are there in this slope? Which is the largest? Describe the upper part of this slope; the middle ; the lowest part. What mountains are entirely in this slope? Ozark. Bound the left slope. What are the great river basins in this slope ? Mold as you ask questions. Describe the upper part of this slope ; the lower part. Compare the right slope with the left slope. Which is the larger? The higher? Which contains the larger number of river basins ? Compare the basin of the Missouri with the basin of the Ohio ? What and where has this river basin the greatest breadth? The least breadth? The greatest length? What and where is the greatest height of water-parting ? The least height ? Where in this basin is the richest soil ? Why is it found here ? Describe the prairies ; the alluvial soil. Draw on the blackboard the water- parting of this basin. Indicate the different bound- aries, continental axis, secondary axis, water-parting of the Winnipeg basin, etc. This basin contains 1,256,- 000 square miles of land, most of which is fertile. How many States of the size of Ehode Island (1,250 square miles) could be made out of this basin ? How many States as large as New York (49,170 square miles) ? How many countries as large as Great Britain and Ireland (121,603 square miles) could be made out 204 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. of the Mississippi basin ? If a hundred people lived on each square mile, how many inhabitants would this basin have ? If this basin were divided up into farms of 640 acres (a section), how many farms would there be? If there were raised on each farm 1,820 bushels of wheat, how many bushels would be raised in the whole basin ? Draw (pupils) the water-parting and in- dicate the mountains ; draw the rivers. How high is the source slope? How high above the ocean level must one be in order to step over the Mississippi water- parting into the Winnipeg basin ? Write a description of the Mississippi basin. Mold North America (pupils) and put in all the modifications just learned. Mackenzie basin. Bound. Draw (pupils) water- parting. Bound the left slope. The right slope. De- scribe the upper part of the left slope. The lower. The upper part of right slope. Compare the right slope with left slope. Draw water-parting and trace the rivers. What lakes are in this basin ? What effect has the frozen river upon the lakes ? Where, in spring or summer, does the snow melt first ? Why ? What effect has the freshet upon the river valley ? What do you think about the vegetation in this valley? The area of this basin is 442,000 square miles ; how much larger is the Mississippi basin? How many times larger? Compare the Mississippi basin with the Mac- NOTES FIFTH GRADE. 205 kenzie basin. In what do they resemble each other? In what do they differ ? Hudson's bay basin. Bound. Describe the right slope. Bound the left slope. What river brings the most water to Hudson's bay? Bound the Winnipeg basin (including the Saskatchewan), Red river of the North, Lake Winnipeg and Nelson river basins. How is Lake Winnipeg connected with Lake Superior? What can you say of the vegetation of this basin ? St. Lawrence river basin (embracing the lake basins). Bound the right slope. The left slope. De- scribe the upper part of the left slope. Of the right slope. Where has the water-parting the greatest alti- tude ? The least ? What connection have the waters of this basin with the waters of the Winnipeg basin ? How have the lakes been connected with the Missis- sippi ? With the Hudson river ? By two canals. How many lakes in this basin? How do you think they were made ? How will the lakes, in time, be changed to a continuous river? Describe Niagara Falls. When the falls reach Lake Erie, what will be the result? In what ways are lakes, in river basins, changed to dry land ? Can you give any good reason why these lakes have not yet been filled up with sediment? What would be the effect if the waters of the Winnipeg basin flowed into Lake Superior? Describe -^e St. 206 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. Lawrence basin. Compare it with the Mississippi basin ; the Mackenzie basin. The area of the St. Law- rence basin is 298,000 square miles. How much smaller than the Mackenzie basin? The Mississippi basin ? How many times smaller than the Mississippi basin? In the upper part of the left slope of this basin are the Laurentian hills. Geologists tell us that this range was the first land which appeared above the ocean. One peculiarity of the St. Lawrence basin is that, for a large river, its water-parting is on the aver- age very low. The upper part of the basin, above the outlet of Lake Ontario, is nowhere above 1,600 feet. Most rivers, you know, were once strings of connected lakes, which, by erosion and the filling up by eroded earth, have slowly changed the lakes to rivers and the lake beds to fertile land. But the St. Lawrence basin seems to be one great exception to this change, and the fact may be accounted for by the shortness of the slope and the low altitude of the water-parting. Possibly if the waters of the Winnipeg basin were turned into Lake Superior through the string of lakes which now connect it with Lake Winnipeg, immense quantities of silt from the Kocky mountains would, in time, transform the beds of the great lakes to dry land. The result of such a change is evident ; the lakes would be filled, in time, with silt and one mighty river would flow from the Western highlands to the Atlantic ocean ; a river NOTES FIFTH GRADE. 2O/ similar to the Amazon. Commercially, the St. Law- rence river, with its lakes, is of great importance to North America. When the proposed Hennepin canal is made, great ships will sail from what point to what point? What would they carry? Mold (pupils) the continent and put in all the modifications as now under- stood. Draw from the molded forms. Atlantic system of river basins. We have so far studied all the great river basins of the continent. We will now study the river basin systems. What is a river basin system? Several river basins joined by water-partings, and forming one continuous slope, which is drained into one body of water. Bound the Atlantic river basin system (south of the St. Lawrence basin). Describe the upper part of the slope ; the lower part of the slope. Compare the lower part of the slope, north of the mouth of the Hudson, with the lower part south of that point. De- scribe the tide water region. The coast from the St. Lawrence basin to the Florida peninsula. Why are the harbors south of the Hudson very few and very poor? Where do you find the harbors south of the Hudson ? What are the principal river basins in this slope? To what purpose are the rivers north of the Hudson adapted? What parts of the courses of the rivers south of the Hudson are adapted to manufactur- ing purposes ? Why ? In the study of United States 2C>8 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. history you will learn how very important a knowledge of this slope is. This long, narrow depression (point- ing), containing Lake Champlain and the Hudson river, was the scene of several battles. Here are Fort Ticon- deroga, Saratoga Plains and Stony Point. The Poto- mac breaks through the Blue Eidge at Harper's Ferry here. Do you know anything about Harper's Ferry ? What do you know about James river? What is Florida? (peninsula.) How was it made ? Tell pupils about the swamps, everglades, keys and reefs. Alabama system of river basins. This slope is in reality an extension of the Atlantic slope, broken by the peninsula of Florida. Bound. Describe. Of what river basins does this slope consist ? In what direction do the rivers flow? Describe the upper part of the slope. What is the soil of the lower part of the slope ? How do you think this comparatively level plain was formed ? Tell pupils about the Gulf stream ; draw it. Texas system of river basins. (This includes the slope of the plateau of Mexico.) Bound. What river basins make this slope? Which is the largest river basin? Describe the Kio Grande river basin. The staked plain. Why are the rivers very short south of the Eio Grande basin? Compare the Texan system with the Alabama system. The Pacific river basin system. Bound. Describe NOTES FII^TH GRAD3. 209 the upper part of this slope. The Sierra Nevada mountains. The great plateau. The enclosed basin. Describe the lower part of the slope. What mountains keep the ocean from washing the base of the Sierra Nevada range? What are the principal river basins that form this slope? Describe the basin of the Columbia. The basin of the Colorado. Show pictures of the canyons. Describe the Sacramento and the San Joaquin basins. In the united valleys of these rivers is the fertile land of California. Compare this system with the Atlantic system. What are the most prom- inent differences ? If this great slope formed the eastern part of North America, what do you think the effect would have been upon the early settlements ? Review of the structure of North America. Name the natural divisions of North America. Which is the largest ? The smallest ? Bound the primary land mass. Bound the secondary land mass. Eeview the boundaries of all the natural divisions. Be sure to have pupils bound from their mental pictures and not from memorized words. In which two natural divisions do you find the most resemblances? In which two the greatest differences? Which one con- tains the most fertile land ? Which the most barren land ? Which natural divisions have the highest water- partings ? Which the lowest ? 210 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. Highlands are surfaces 1,000 feet above the ocean level; lowlands are, of course, surfaces below 1,000 feet. Draw a map and color it to show highlands and lowlands. Of what do highlands consist? Mountain ranges, plateaus and the upper parts of long slopes or terraces. Of what do lowlands consist ? Generally of plains. There are often hills and low mountains in low- lands. The Ozark mountains are below 2,000 feet in height. Describe the western highlands ; the eastern highlands. From what point to what point could you make the longest journey on lowlands in North America, traveling in one general direction ? How many great plains are there in this continent ? One. The valleys of what river basins form this plain ? If the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico should rise 500 feet, what parts of North America would be flooded? See physical map. What two large islands would be formed? Continental islands. Mold with continent West Indies, Bahama islands, New Foundland, Cape Breton island, Prince Edward's, Anticosti, Queen Charlotte's and Vancouver's islands. How do you think these islands were formed? Rivers. What rivers are useful for commerce? What for manufacturing? Name the longest river. What rivers flow in their entire course through high- lands ? What rivers flow their entire course through NOTES FIFTH GRADE. 211 lowlands ? What large rivers rise in highlands ? In lowlands ? Have pupils mold North America ; draw it, putting in all the natural divisions ; then have them write very carefully a description of the continent. In writing descriptions train them to write. Climate and soil. Without going much into de- tails, teach pupils something of heat and cold, the changes from one to the other, and the causes of the changes. Also teach the direction and changes of the winds ; the evaporation and condensation of moist- ure; the rainfall and all the essentials in climate which assist vegetation. Lead pupils to discover, through the structure and climate, the different kinds of soil. Where is the very fertile soil ? What is alluv- ial soil? Where is the fertile soil? Arable soil? Barren soil? Tell the causes of each kind of soil. In what part of the Mississippi basin do you find the most fertile soil? Why? Why is not the lower part of the Atlantic slope as fertile as the lower parts of the Mississippi slopes ? Slopes of what kind deposit great quantities of alluvium? Why? Vegetation. Give lessons upon the principal veg- etable products used for: 1. Food. 2. Clothing. 3. Shelter. 4. Manufactured articles. 5. Med- icine. 6. Fuel. 7. Luxury. Have pupils tell you, 212 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. first, of all the staple food plants. Which food plant- is used the most? Why do you think so? What plant stands next in order? Next? How is wheat prepared for use ? Corn ? Have pupils find localities (areas of land) best adapted to raising wheat, corn, rye, oats, barley, grass, potatoes, sweet potatoes, peanuts, sugar cane, sorghum, beans, peas; fruits, like the apple, peach, orange, fig, grape, etc. What kind of soil is adapted to each ? Draw a map on the board and write the name of each product upon the locality where it is raised. What plants are used for clothing? Where is cotton raised ? Sea island cotton ? Where are flax and hemp raised ? How is cotton cloth manufactured ? Where is it manufactured ? Before the subject of shelter is taken up, it is neces- sary to examine the mineral wealth of the continent. Tell me all the materials used for building purposes. Write the list. What kind of material is used the most? Discussion. What kinds of wood? Locate the forests on the map. What are the principal woods used in building ? Where do you find the most pine ? Oak? Maple? For what are maple trees used except for building and fuel ? Name the articles of house furni- ture. Write list.. Of what are they made ? Tell pupils of the great trees of California, the pines of Michigan, Maine and the Southern Atlantic coast, and of the live oaks and palmettos. For what purpose is cedar used ? NOTES FIFTH GRADE. 213 What are the ornamental woods ? Where are mahog- any, rose wood, gum wood, black walnut found ? What kinds of minerals are used for building? What mineral is the most used ? How are bricks made /' Of what use is clay, except in making bricks ? What kinds of stone are used? How is building stone quar- ried? Draw a map and locate minerals. Have speci- mens of woods and minerals. Where is granite found ? Limestone ? Marble ? (Of what is marble composed ?) Slate? Sandstone? For what is limestone .used? Name all the metals. Have specimens. What metal is used the most? Locate -iron mines. Give me all the uses of iron. How are railroads built and equip- ped ? What is steel ? What is the Bessemer process of making steel? For what is copper used? Tin? Zinc? Quicksilver? Locate all the useful metals. How are they mined ? Show pictures. What are the precious metals ? Describe the gold and silver mines of the Pacific slope, and the different kinds of mining ; hydraulic, cradle, mining quartz, etc. The map should show by different colors the areas in which each min- eral is found. What materials are used for fuel? What is coal? Tell the story of the "Stored up Sun- light." Show specimens with ferns, etc. What are the different kinds of coal? Mark off the areas where coal is found. In what localities are iron and coal found? Why is it very important to find them to- 214 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. gether? Visit a rolling mill if convenient. Describe the iron furnaces and coal mines of Pennsylvania. What is petroleum? Where is it found? How ob- tained? What is gas? How is it made? What is natural gas ? Where found ? Tell pupils how natural gas is conveyed long distances in pipes to be used for heating, cooking, etc. Write a list of the most im- portant manufactured articles. What article used with food is found in mines ? How is the salt made that is not found in mines ? For what purposes is paper used ? Of what materials is paper made? How is paper made ? Tell pupils of paper car wheels. What plants are used for luxury? Where is tobacco raised? Coffee ? Kaisins ? What plants are used for medicines ? Animals. Write a list of all the wild animals you can think of. Write a list of domestic animals. What domestic animals are used for food ? What wild animals are used for food ? What animals are raised for food ? Draw map and indicate the localities where the animals live. The flesh of what animals is used the most for food ? Tell pupils of the buffaloes of the prairies and how they have disappeared ; of the great cattle and sheep ranches of the West ; of hog raising and packing houses ; of the fisheries on the Great Bank of New Foundland ; of the salmon fisheries of Oregon and Alaska. What staple articles of food are furnished NOTES FIFTH GRADE. 215 by the hog? What other articles are manufactured out of bristles, bones, etc. ? Name all the animals used for clothing. What animal gives more in the way of clothing to man than any other ? How is wool manufactured ? What articles are made of wool? What kinds of hair are used for clothing? Name all the kinds of skins that are used for clothing. For what article of clothing is the greatest quantity of skins used? The skins of what animals are used to make leather? How is leather manufactured ? What articles except boots and shoes are made of leather? What do birds do in the way of helping us to clothing ? Name all the animals used for transportation. What animal is used more than any other for transpor- tation ? What is the most useful animal for transpor- tation next to the horse ? Describe the horse ranches of the plains. Political divisions. The best way to teach the political divisions is to wait until the structure of all the continents has been taught and then teach them all together. The history of the United States is taught in this grade, and all special political geography should be taught in connection with that subject. Boundaries, cities, colonies, states, should be taught as the subject is developed. Before leaving the structural teaching of 2l6 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. North America, the political boundaries of the Domin- ion of Canada, United States, Mexico and Guatemala may be profitably taught. Indicate boundary lines by putting a colored thread upon the molded map. Draw the map on the board and mark off the boundary lines by red crayon. Over what do the boundary lines run ? Where do political boundaries coincide with natural lines ? What is a political division ? What is the use of a political division? Tell the government of each. Describe, by writing, (pupils) each political division; highlands, lowlands, mountains, plains, river basins, lakes, rivers, coasts, coast line, climate, soil, vegetable products, minerals, natural advantages for commerce and manufactures. These descriptions will be an excellent test of how well you have taught the continent. The usual form of map questions may be used very profit- ably, providing pupils answer from mental pictures and not from memorized words. When there is any indica- tion of this fatal habit, change your questions so that pupils will be compelled to think of the reality. Where is Hudson's bay ? Isthmus of California ? Locate the Sierra Nevada mountains; the Hudson river, Lake Superior, etc., etc. Language. It seems needless to refer to the innu- merable opportunities presented for teaching language, both oral and written. The habit of perfect accuracy NOTES FIFTH GRADE. , 217 should be cultivated by training pupils to be accurate in every sentence, written or spoken. Each new word should be written on the blackboard in the best hand writing the moment your pupils obtain the appropriate idea. Have many written descriptions. Train pupils to describe from their own mental pictures. Have them give the general first, following it with the main particu- lars in the general. Train pupils to use the dictionary and to know when they do not know a word, and never to write a word unless they know its meaning. Put simple rules for punctuation and use of capitals on the board and have pupils apply them. If a paper has a single mistake upon it, hand it back and have the paper re- written. If pupils write in a painful, cramped hand, they will never enjoy writing; the beautiful, graceful and easy arm-movement should always be used. Number. Teachers can get a glimpse from the foregoing suggestions of the great necessity for using numbers in measurement and comparison of measure- ments in developing their pupils' ideas of distance, heights and areas. Many problems should be made involving such measurements. There is no use in memorizing distances and areas; the problems, if prop- erly used, will be sufficient. Drawing. Have pupils draw continually. A good 2l8 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. test of your teaching would be to place on the wall (for the first time) a good physical map, after the continent has been taught, and have pupils describe the continent from the map. Stanford's and Guyot's are the best physical maps now in use. Reading. A carefully selected list of reading mat- ter is given elsewhere. Guyot's Common School Geog- raphy is the best text-book on geography to read with the study of structural geography. A great part of the reading may be profitably given to descriptions of the continent taught. SOUTH AMERICA. The best test of the power acquired by the teach- ing of a subject is the zest and ability with which pupils take up the succeeding step. If North America has been well taught, it will furnish both the power and the means of studying all the continents. Test your pupils by placing a well-molded map of South America before them, and have them analyze and describe it, giving them the names as they discover the natural divisions. Ask questions only as pupils need them to quicken their observations. If this plan should fail, try the one given in Notes Upon North America. Mold the continent. Where is the continental axis ? Trace it. Compare it with the continental axis of North America. Into what does it NOTES FIFTH GRADE. 219 divide South America? Compare the short slope of South America with the short slope of North America. Which is the longer slope ? (east and west.) What in North America resembles Chili? What resembles Patagonia ? To what in North America can you com- pare the Isthmus of Panama ? The western coast of Patagonia has many islands that once formed a part of the mountain range; what resembles this in North America ? What is the greatest difference between the two short slopes? Give any other differences. Draw the Pacific coast line of North America and near it the Pacific coast line of South America. Compare. Com- pare the long slope of South America with the long slope of North America. Give all the resemblances you can. Have pupils see resemblances without assist- ance ; if they do not, ask questions such as the follow- ing: Compare La Plata basin with the Mississippi basin. Main tributary of Panama, on left slope, with the Ohio. Amazon basin with St. Lawrence basin. Madeira basin with the Missouri basin. Marajo island with New Foundland. Orinoco with Mackenzie. Gulf of Venezuela and Lake Maracaibo with Hudson's bay. Brazilian river basin system with the Atlantic river basin system. Guiana system with the Labrador-At- lantic slope. Guiana slope with the Atlantic slope south of Hudson river. Patagonian system with the Texan system. Magdalena river basin with the Yukon 220 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. river basin. Compare the great western highlands of the two continents. Length, 4,550 miles; how much longer are the North American highlands ? "What have the Andes to compare with the parks of the Eocky mountains*? Compare the Brazilian highlands with the Appalachian highlands. Guiana highlands with the Labrador highlands; with the Appalachian high- lands. The Atlantic coast lines of the two continents. The coast line of the Caribbean sea with that of the Arctic ocean. The lesser Antilles with Baffinland. The great central plains of the two continents. South America is 3,200 miles broad ; what is the difference between the breadth of South America and North America? Name ten resemblances between North America and South America. Name ten differences. By these comparisons, if skilfully conducted, the pupils will soon acquire a clear picture of South America. A detailed study may be made as suggested in studying North America. In teaching, mold each natural division as the study proceeds. Amazon basin. La Plata basin. Orinoco basin. Brazilian system. Long Slope. Guiana system. Patagonia system. Brazilian highlands. Guiana highlands. Great Central plain. NOTES FIFTH GRADE. 221 {Coast ranges. Slope of Patagonia. Sloje of Chili Desert of Atacama. Ranges. Knots. Peaks. Andes Mountain System. Yolcanos. Enclosed basins. Source of Amazon. Magdalena river basin. Maracaibo basin. Bound, describe, mold, draw, icrite. The story of the Incas and the Conquest of Peru by Pizarro may be read to add interest to the study of the Andes. Tell pupils about the mountain knots and valleys in the Andes, about the silver mines, etc. De- scribe the three divisions of the great central plain ; llanos, selvas and pampas. Mold the basin of the Orinoco. Describe the right slope. A mountainous slope ; the river runs close to the Guiana highlands. Bound the left slope. Compare the surface of the left slope with the surface of the right slope. The lower part of the left slope is a very large level plain. It was once, they say, the bottom of a gulf. The ocean flowed in here (pointing) and flooded this de- pression or valley. Slowly the ground-up rock (silt) was washed down from the mountains on every side by the rain, the brooks and the rivers, and up from the ocean by the waves and the tides until the land was 222 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. raised above the level of the sea. By and by the marsh grasses, bulrushes and flags began to grow and the land grew firmer. Then meadow grass and flowers sprang up, and the bottom of the gulf became a vast plain covered with tall grass and bright flowering plants. It is very warm here ; indeed it is hot, for the great sun shines, twice in the year, right over the plain. We say that the sun's rays are vertical. What is a vertical line? The great heat of the vertical rays takes up from the ocean into the air (evaporates) a great quan- tity of water, which becomes so heavy up in the clouds that it tumbles back in rain, The rain gives the grass roots plenty to drink and they grow fresh, green and tall. Vast herds of horses and cattle fatten upon the grass and run and gallop over the plains to show how happy they are. The great river is swollen by the floods and thousands of alligators play in its waters. Tortoises are as plenty as blackberries ; they lay their eggs in the muddy bank for the hot sun to hatch. All is full of life and joy. Then the sun moves away from overhead. The rays slant a little and the rain ceases to fall. What happens then ? The grass, with no water to drink, dries up ; the vast plain becomes brown with dead grass ; the poor horses with no grass to eat, no water to drink, run from place to place, their tongues lolling, seeking in vain for food and water. Thousands of them fall down and die, leaving their bones to bleach NOTES FIFTH GRADE. 223 in the torrid sun. The swollen river grows smaller and smaller, leaves its banks and flows over a far nar- rower bed. The alligators and tortoises are fastened securely in the hard, dry mud and all is still still as death, waiting for the vertical rays to come again and give them water and life. The sun comes ; slowly over head the ball of fire moves ; the rain pours down again ; the grass springs up ; the horses neigh for joy ; the huge creatures open their eyes and crawl out of the mud. Everywhere is teeming life. A description of the forests of the Amazon would interest pupils. The tangled woods, tropical plants, the caoutchouc tree and the gathering of the gum, the monkeys, parrots, etc. The pampas with its tall grass and vast herds of cattle ; Brazil with its diamond mines and coffee plantations ; Patagonia and the Land of Fire ; Guiana with its building coasts ; the llamas and condors of the Andes ; the wonderful Cassiquiare river ; the portages between the basins of the Amazon and the La Plata are all very interesting subjects and de- scriptions of them will assist in making the mental pict- ures of the structure clearer. Follow the same plan as in North America in re- gard to teaching climate, soil, vegetation, animals, mines and manufactures. Draw a map on the board and divide the continent into its political divisions; have pupils describe the structure, river basins, climate, 224 HOW To STUDY GEOGRAPHY. soil, vegetation, mines, advantages for commerce and manufactures of each division. Compare Brazil with the United States ; the Argentine Republic with Mexico ; Chili with California. Draw North America and South America in their relative positions and then compare them. Elementary lessons in physics should be given in this grade ; lessons upon air, water and heat, such as evaporation, condensation, movements of air (winds), density of air, deposition of sediment, effects of frost, erosion, etc. SIXTH GRADE. Review very thoroughly all previous work. EURASIA. Europe and Asia, forming one continent, should be taught as one great mass of land. It is far more diffi- cult to teach than either North or South America owing to two facts; (1) the land mass is in itself more com- plex; (2) comparatively little of the highest parts of Asia is accurately known. It is not easy to trace the continental axis, as this line from Bering strait to the Pamir has not been topographically surveyed. Author- ities differ in many particulars. Mold the map of Eurasia and indicate, in sand, the continental axis. NOTES SIXTH GRADE. The following description is presented as a guide to the teacher's study in preparing lessons. The continental axis. Kising out of the Frozen Ocean at Bering strait, hardly thirty-six miles from the American continent, is the beginning of this long axis, extending 10,000 miles from East Cape to Cape Finis- terre (end of the land). It is nearly as long as the con- tinental axis of North and South America taken to- gether. From Bering Strait it is borne on the crests of the Stanavoi and Yablanoi ranges (Yablanoi means apple tree) for a long distance. These ranges extend in a southerly direction, skirting the sea of Okotsk and turning a little toward the west. Just west of the mouth of the Amur the Yablanoi mountains run along the coast of the sea of Okotsk about 600 miles. One branch of these mountains joins the Altai, while another, broken by the basin of the Amur, extends to the south. This branch or range is called, south of the Amur basin, the Great Kingan; there are probably many other names. South of the Amur basin the Kingan mountains form the western enclosing wall of the great central plateau and the upper part of the slope toward the coast line of the Pacific. The Chinese wall crosses it and runs for 400 miles upon its eastern flank. Through this range breaks the Golden river (the Hoang-Ho). This range extends in a south- westerly direction for nearly 1,500 miles from the 226 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. Amur basin, where it joins the mighty mountain range which extends nearly due west from the Pamir (the Eoof of the World). This massive range is called the Kuen Lun. From the Kingan, or the southern extension of the Kingan, the Kuen Lun range runs west for more than 1,500 miles, when it comes to that meeting of mountain ranges, the Pamir. The Kuen Lun walls in the high plateau of Thibet and separates it from the vast plateau of Gobi on the north 1,500 miles of snow, ice and towering peaks. It has been supposed for a long time that the Himalaya range supports this continental axis, but later explorations show that the Kuen Lun range has that honor. It has a higher aver- age height than the Himalayas. The Kuen Lun, Him- alaya and Thian Shan ranges come together and form an immense mass of mountains, the Eoof of the World. From the Pamir the Hindu Kush, a range worthy of the Pamir, pushes its way toward the west and then sinks down in a comparatively low mountain range until it rises in the great Mount Demavend, just south of the Caspian sea. The mountains over which the con- tinental axis runs, from the Pamir to Asia Minor, form the northern wall of the plateau of Iran and the Armen- ian highlands. There is a question about this line of the continental axis; some authorities would send it south from the Pamir along the Solyman mountains to the Arabian sea and then east on the southern rim of NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 227" the plateau. As the mountain range (Elburz and Taurus) enters the peninsula of Asia Minor it seems to bend to the south, where it slopes directly into the Mediterranean sea. Just at the foot of this slope (pointing) Alexander the Great nearly lost his whole army trying to pass between the mountains and the sea. The mountains of Asia Minor sink into the Jilgean sea, rising again into many beautiful islands. Just where the continental axis runs from the Taurus to the Balkan mountains is not known. The Dardanelles break the continuity of the mountain mass, but only for a very short distance. (Stories of Leander and of Xerxes.) The Balkan mountains take up the continental axis west of the Dardanelles, and joining theDinaric Alps reach the great highland of Europe, the Alps. It is nearly 800 miles from the Dardanelles to the eastern terminus of the real Alps. This great mountain mass trends toward the west and then curves toward the south, form- ing a mighty arch that protects Italy from the cold north winds and from invading hordes. The continental axis runs over the southern rim of these highlands, which overlook the rich fields of the Po. The Alps curve toward the south and send off a long spur or branch, which runs down in a southwesterly direction into the Mediterranean sea, forming the boot-shaped peninsula of Italy. The continental axis sinks into the basin of the Ehone, to rise again in great prominence 228 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. in the Pyrenees, which form the northern protecting buttress of the peninsula of Spain. The range of the Pyrenees extends westward in the Cantabrian range, which projects out into the Atlantic and forms Cape Finisterre (the end of the land). Trace the continental axis of America and Eurasia from Cape Horn to Cape Finisterre ; give the mountain ranges over which it runs. Compare the continental axis of America with the continental axis of Eurasia. This continental axis divides Eurasia, as you see, into two great slopes. How broad is each slope? East and west? Compare the long slope with that of South America. With the long slope of North America. Compare the short slopes. The Highlands of Asia. You see, at once, how this immense land mass differs from the primary high land of the Americas. The main difference, however, is in breadth and height. We will begin on the Eoof of the World (Pamir). Here the great mountain ranges of Asia have a grand meeting, narrowing the immense highland to something like an isthmus. On the south the land sinks into the basin of the Indus ; on the north into the basin of the Amoo Daria (the ancient Oxus). From the Pamir the snow-crowned Himalaya range extends toward the east in a magnifi- cent curve, presenting its arc to the basins of the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra, while its convex side walls NOTES vSIXTH GRADE. 229 in the loftiest and grandest plateau of the world, Thibet, which is from 10,000 to 11,000 feet above the level of the Indian ocean. The mighty curved wall of the Himalayas is the southern buttress of Thibet. Through these towering, snow-clad mountains three great rivers make their way, gathering the ice-cold waters from the northern slope of the range. The Indus breaks through at the western end of the plateau, after flowing 450 miles along the base of the northern slope. The Sutlej or Ghara, a tributary of the Indus, rises near the source of the Indus and plunges through the mountain wall 350 miles east of the place where the Indus reaches the plain. But the grandest plunge of all these remark- able rivers is made by the Brahmaputra, 200 miles from the eastern end of the plateau. The Sanpoo, the upper course of the Brahmaputra, rises near the source of the Sutlej and flows east under the awful heights of the Himalayas for more than TOO miles, then it turns to- ward the mountain which supplies its torrents and plunges over precipices and roars through the yawning chasms until it reaches the level plain below. The Ganges takes its floods from the southern slope of the Himalayas. You see that these immense mountains are something more than grand objects to behold ; their snow-covered tops and vast rivers of ice make the hot plains of India capable of supporting many millions of inhabitants. Indeed, there is but little doubt that the 230 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. ground-up rock of the mountains, carried down by the swollen rivers, made the plain itself. The Himalayas guard some wonderful secrets. Very little is known of the people who dwell north of their icy walls, or of their mysterious religion. The secret of the Sanpoo was guarded for ages hy a race of warlike men, living in the mountain fastnesses where the Sanpoo joins the Brah- maputra. It is only within a few years that this fact has been discovered. The northern enclosing wall of Thibet is the Kuen Lun range, over which runs the continental axis. The northern slope of this range descends to the plateau of Gobi, at least 6,000 feet below the plateau of Thibet. From the western end of the latter plateau a vast range runs easterly nearly through the plateau. This range is called the Karakoruin mountains. Thus we have the high plateau of Thibet enclosed by the Himalayas on the south, the Kuen Lun on the north and penetrated by the Karakorum range. Cold winds sweep this lofty mountain plateau, with little rain except that which the snow-capped peaks send down. Now we will go back to the Eoof of the World again. The united ranges which form the Pamir ex- tend north for nearly two hundred miles. From this point the Thian Shan range sends out its great mount- ain mass toward the northeast. The Thian Shan mountains join the Altai mountains, and together they NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 23! form the northern enclosing wall of the great plateau Gobi. The Altai mountains. join the Yablanoi range in the northeast. We should make a great mistake if we should imagine the Thian Shan and Altai to be a regu- lar range like the Sierra Nevadas or the Andes. All the way from the Pamir to the Stanavoi mountains, the mountains which form the northern fringe of Gobi send out into the Siberian plain great mountainous penin- sulas. Deep trenches are torn out of the flanks of the plateau edge like huge railroad cuts. It may be that the trenches were cut by the spring torrents that flood the river basins below and carry down immense quan- tities of bowlders, gravel, sand and torn up trees ; or it may be that the waves of the Arctic ocean once made these trenches as the Atlantic is now cutting the fiords in Norway. The plateau of Gobi is much lower than Thibet ; it is from 5,000 to 2,000 feet above the ocean level ; a vast dreary waste of mountains, bowlders and sand. The plateau (Gobi and Thibet taken as one) is en- closed by the Himalayas on the south, Thian Shan and Altai mountains on the northwest, and the Kingan mountains close the triangle on the east. It forms a continent within a continent ; and indeed, if you will look closely, you will observe its shape to be very much like that of South America. The primary Highlands of Europe. The primary 232 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. highlands of Europe are in some respects the primary highlands of Asia in miniature. Put the Alps down at the southern base of the Himalayas and they would seem like foothills ; take them alone as the highlands and they are very grand. We have already traced the continental axis. Eising from the Dinaric Alps that look down upon the waters of the Adriatic, the great mountain mass of Europe towers above the valley of the Po and the plateau of Central Europe. About 350 miles in extent and from seventy-five to 100 miles in width, these grand mountains, their tops covered with snow, their flanks furrowed with glaciers, form the pro- tecting wall for Italy and furnish the fertile basin of the Po with plenty of moisture from their white crests. They form also the buttress of the plateau which ex- tends north from the foot of their abrupt slopes. Tho Himalayas, you notice, curve toward the peninsula they guard, while the Alps curve from the peninsula of Italy. The Danube drains the northern slope of the Alps, Dinaric Alps and Balkan mountains from the Black Forest to the Black Sea. The Alps, like the Himalayas, have a plateau to the north of them. Just here (pointing), where the Danube breaks through the mountains, rises a range called the Transylvanian Alps, which curve and extend in a northwesterly direction under the name of the Carpathian mountains, then the range takes the names of the Sudetes mountains, Giant NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 2fo mountains, Erz mountains (copper mountains), and lastly comes the famous Thuringian Forest. At the western extremity of the Thuringian Forest the mount ains sink into hills, but you can trace them over the Main river, and where they form the upper part of the right slope of the Ehine, down to the Black Forest, in which the range rises again to join across the Ehone the famous Jura with its deep transverse gorges. On the opposite slope of the Ehine from the Black Forest are the Yosges mountains, which sink into hills along the right slope of the Ehone, rise again in Cevennes and form an acute angle with the mountains of Au- vergne. The Transylvanian Alps, Carpathians, Su- detes mountains, Giant mountains, Erz mountains, Thuringian Forest, the connecting hills, the Black Forest and the Jura, the Harz north of the Thuringian Forest on the east, north and west, with the Alps, Dinaric Alps and an extension of the Balkans on the south, form the great enclosing wall or outer rim of the plateau of Central Europe. This plateau extends from the water-parting of the lower course of the Danube, in a northwesterly direction, about 700 miles to the Ehine ; it is 250 miles broad. The eastern end is called the Transylvania Table Land. East of this table land the plateau sinks below 500 feet in the basin of the Theiss, a tributary of the Danube. This lowland in the plateau is nearly 250 miles long and 150 wide, including the 234 HOW To STUDY GEOGRAPHY. valley of the Theiss and a strip of the valley of the Danube. East of this lowland is the plateau of Bohe- mia, a Table Land shaped like a kite with its southern apex near the Danube. The Erz mountains, the Giant and Sudetes mountains form respectively the two sides of the northern triangle ; the Bohemian forest and the Moravian mountains the longer sides of the southern triangle. The plateau of Bohemia is shut in by mount- ains. Here is Austerlitz, here Wagram ; not far off on the Iser is Hohenlinden ; north is Dresden and north- east Jena. With what terrible battles had these mountains to do ? You must understand the structure of a country before you can understand how great armies march and where they must fight. The struc- ture is the key to the whole situation ; for instance, up the valley of Blue Danube came . the vast hordes of Asia, which once conquered and laid waste all Europe. The eastern end of the plateau of Central Europe may be called generally the plateau of Bavaria. The Dan- ube basin includes by far the greater part of the plateau of Central Europe. The Elbe breaks through the apex of the northern triangle of the "kite,-" the Weser takes the water from the northern slope of the Thuringian Forest; the Khine drains the southern and western slopes, the mountains and hills including the Black Forest. The upper course of this beautiful river plunges between the Black Forest and the Jura, taking its waters SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 235 from the southeastern part of the Bavarian plateau. The Ehone rises in a glacier between the southern and higher range of the Alps and the Bernese range, dashes down a dark valley between lofty mountains, spreads out in Lake Geneva, and then pours its waters down between the Jura and the principal range of the Alps, where, joining the main river, it takes the waters on its right slope from the Cevennes, broadening and deepen- ing until it reaches the Mediterranean. Compare the Alps with the Himalayas ; the plateau of Central Europe with Thibet and Gobi. Long slope of Eurasia. The continental axis divides Eurasia into two great slopes ; the slope to the north we call the long slope. It is much easier to analyze this than the shorter slope south of the con- tinental axis, for there is one great plain from the hills west of the Stanavoi mountains to the base of the Pyrenees, almost ten thousand miles. Ten thousand miles of plain, two-fifths of the distance around the globe ! This vast plain is shaped like a triangle, its base being the coast line of the Arctic and Atlantic oceans, its southern apex nearly where the Eussians have lately pushed a railroad out into the desert, Merv. Would it be too great a stretch of fancy to say it looks like a mighty eagle with out-spread wings ; the feet, one on Demavend, the other on Hindu Kush ; the tip of its 236 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. right wing at the base of the Pyrenees and the tip of its left wing touching the Stanavoi mountains ; its backbone and neck the Ural mountains, while its head is Nova Zembla? This great northern plain of Eurasia may be divided into three parts, (1) the plain of Siberia ; (2) the great depiession or the basins of the Black, Caspian and Aral seas ; (3) the plain of Northern Europe. The plain of Siberia. The Ural range separates the plain of Siberia from the plain of Northern Europe ; the water-parting of the Aral and Caspian basin is the line of division of the plain on the southwest; the Thian Shan, Altai and Yablanoi mountains enclose the plain on the south and the coast line of the Frozen Ocean on the north. The plain of Siberia consists prin- cipally of the basins of the Obi, the Yenesei and the Lena, three vast river basins. Between these basins and east of the Lena basin are the basins of a large number of smaller rivers, which flow into the Arctic ocean. The Obi basin (1,360,000 square miles, length 2,674 miles), the Yenesei basin (999,000 square miles, length 3,688 miles), the Lena basin (775,000 square miles, length 2,766 miles), cover a surface of 3,134,000 square miles and aggregate in length 9, 128 miles. Thus the surface of these basins is almost as large as the whole of Europe (3,928,252 square miles), while the SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 237 whole country, including the smaller rivers and islands, is 4,826,168 square miles, or 897,916 square miles larger than Europe, and 1,223,178 square miles larger than the United States. The population, however, is not so great as the State of Pennsylvania (4,282,891) ; the population of Siberia is only 3,911,200. Why is this ? The Siberian slope may be divided into three parts corresponding to the three courses of a river ; (1) upper part ; (2) middle part ; (3) lower part. The mountains open their broad and deep ravines or trenches into a comparatively fertile, well- wooded plain. The upper or southern part of the plain is inhabitable, the middle part is a vast, cold steppe, the lower part con- sists of "immense level frozen swamps or tundras. The lower courses of the three great rivers are frozen except from seventy-six to one hundred days in the year. In summer the returning sun thaws the snow and ice upon the mountains, and immense floods swell the mountain lakes and streams and dash and roar down through the trenches, taking with them vast quantities of earth, bowlders and torn up trees ; the frozen mouths obstruct the river courses and the debris, the spoils of the flood, spread out over large areas ; the frozen rivers open their mouths under the influence of the warmer sun, the freshet pours out into the ocean, leaving the products of its devastation to. cover the land. The water-partings between the river basins are very low ; 238 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. in fact, one can travel in boats from the basin of the Aral sea nearly to the water-parting of the Amur by drawing the boat over short portages. The basins of the Black, Caspian and Aral seas. This vast basin, taken as a whole, extends from the Pamir to Black Forest, east and west ; from the con- tinental axis at the foot of the Caspian sea to the low water-parting which divides the northern plain of Europe and this basin. The continental axis of Eurasia is its southern water-parting with the exception of the divide on the Caucasus mountains ; the northern boundary runs from the Black Forest, in a very irregu- * lar line, over the water-parting of the left slope of the Danube basin, and then over the divide of the Car- pathian mountains, in a northeasterly direction over the water-parting on the Valdai hills to the Ural mount- ains, where the water-parting of the Irtish takes it up and carries it to the continental axis again. Most of this vast depression, with the exception of the basins of Amoo Daria and Sir Daria, slopes generally toward the continental axis. This region has a marvelous geolog- ical history. It may have been, one day, that this enormous depression, like the plain of Siberia, sloped toward the northern ocean, borne upon the shoulders of high mountains, which extended from the Pamir to the Balkans, and of which the Caucasus is left as a monu- NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 239 ment. Who knows ? The southern slope of this depres- sion is very short, excepting the slope toward the Aral sea. The Alps form the right slope of the Danube ; the Anti- Taurus turn the waters of their northern slope into the Black sea ; the northern slope of the Caucasus gives its waters to the Black and Caspian seas ; the Elburz slopes abruptly to the Caspian sea ; the Amoo Daria (Oxus) takes its current from the Pamir and Hindu Kush; the Sir Daria from the Thian Shan. The northern slope, of this great combination of basins, consists of a magnificent river basin system, beginning in the west with the Blue Danube, which drains the plateau of Central Europe, followed by the basins of the Pruth, Dniester, Dnieper and Don, with several smaller intervening basins. But the climax of river basins is reached in the mighty Volga, that depends less upon mountains for its floods than any other great river in the world ; joined on the east to the Volga basin is the basin of the Ural, and then the depression narrows and the water supply comes from the southeast. The greater part of this basin has no outlet into the ocean. Where do the waters of the Caspian and Aral seas go? There are many exceed- ingly interesting facts about these great inland sea basins ; interesting in structure, history and the prospects of future development. The black earth north of the Black sea, which rivals the Mississippi 240 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. valley in the production of wheat ; the broken and de- stroyed irrigating ditches and canals of the Amoo Daria, which make that river second only to the Nile in its capabilities of making land fertile ; the open way over level land from near the gates of India to the western entrance of Central Europe and up the Danube, is the Black Forest, a route by which Asia gave Europe its conquerors, inhabitants, religions and civilization ; all these tell of the direct relation of structure to the prog- ress and development of mankind. Then the future; millions of square miles of arable land are kept from productive farming, and the making of happy homes, by the vast hordes of savage and half- civilized nomads (pasturing people) that have wandered for ages over the basins of the Amoo Daria and Sir Daria, and away to the west over the vast steppes of Siberia. There is no chance to cultivate a farm or make a nice home when any morning a fierce band of Tatars of Kirghis may appear, kill or drive you away and feast their herds upon your growing crops. For countless ages this has been the case over far more than half of Eurasia. People can never be- come civilized unless they have homes, and you will find that permanent homes were possible in earlier ages only where the Creator had walled in by mountains and deserts some fertile portions of this great world like Palestine, Egypt, Greece, Italy, Spain and India, NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 241 or had separated land like Great Britain from the con- tinent. Now the great civilizer of mankind has come, the Iron Horse, and to-day the steam engine takes Bus- sian bayonets from the shores of the Caspian sea to Merv; to-morrow, or within twenty years, no doubt, trains of cars will take millions of poor emigrants from the over-crowded cities of Europe and China and scatter them all along the arable tract from the Caspian sea to the Amur basin. The trained armies of Kussia will make the nomad life unpleasant, and the fierce cowboy of the steppe will settle down to farming. Much of the land which should supply hungry mouths with plenty of food is kept from cultivation by the nomad and the aristocrat the uncivilized and the ultra civilized. Which is the worse? Northern Plain of Europe. We now come to the third great division of the Eurasian plain, bounded on the west and north by the coast lines of the Atlantic, the English channel, North sea, Baltic sea, Gulf of Finland, divide of Finland and the coast line of the Arctic ocean. Its western boundary is the divide of the Ural mountains ; the southern boundary we have already traced, with the exception of the line over the depression between the Alps and the Pyrenees. This plain stretches from the Ural mountains to the Pyre- nees, nearly 2,500 miles; it is nowhere much more 242 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. than 400 miles wide; it is the narrowest where the Valdai Hills slope toward the Gulf of Finland and widest at its eastern termination. It is, in fact, one regular slope, the highest part of which is in the west- ern portion of the Alps, where the Ehine takes its waters. The northern slope of Europe consists of a large number of river basins, divided by very low water-partings. Beginning at the Pyrenees we have the Garonne basin, the Loire, the Seine, the Ehone, the Weser, the Elbe, the Oder, the Vistula, the Nieman, the Duna, the short Neva, the Onega, the Dwina, and Petchora basins. You need not learn the names of these rivers, but it is important to know their situation and structure, as many of their basins, like that of the Khine, have played a very important part in history. The rivers of northern Eussia, in Europe, creep over low plains to the ocean, while the upper courses of the other rivers flow swiftly down the abrupt slope. The Ehine is the longest and grandest of them all. It takes its waters from the northern slope of the Alps, spreads out in Lake Constance, breaks through the ranges of the Jura and Black Forest, turns abruptly to the north, flowing through beautiful mountains until it reaches the broad alluvial plain. Look closely, for every square mile of this basin is crowded with wonderful events in history. The slope of Northern Europe may be divided like the SUGGESTION AND DIRECTIONS. 243 long slope of Asia, into three divisions, upper, middle and lower. The upper part is filled with forests on the flanks and terraces of the mountains ; the middle consists generally of low fertile hills ; the lower has the same formation as the tundras, flat, alluvial and swampy land. The shores of the Baltic generally consist of sand dunes and swamps ; the flat, alluvial peninsula of Denmark stretches toward the Scandinavian peninsula ; the swamps of Oldenburg, the mud walls of flat Holland and the marshes and billowy sand hills of the Landes are characteristic of the lower part of the slope. Three areas on the long slope remain to be men- tioned ; (1) the great enclosed basin in the plateau of Gobi ; (2) the Scandinavian peninsula ; (3) Great Brit- ain. Very much of the surface of Gobi is not drained, at least by surface water, into the ocean ; the great Tarim river drains the eastern slope of the Pamir, flows east and sinks into the Lob Nor, a marshy lake. Compare with Humboldt river. The enclosed basin cannot now be bounded, as very little is known of how much surface the rivers on all sides, that flow to the oceans, drain. Scandinavia is separated from the northern slope of Europe by the low granite floor of Finland. A well defined axis (nearly 1,000 miles long) divides the pen- insula into a long and a short slope ; the long slope is drained by many short rapid streams ; the short slope presents a rocky barrier to the fury of the waves of the 244 HOW T0 STUDY GEOGRAPHY. north Atlantic, which, with glaciers, have cut for miles inland long, deep, narrow ravines or gorges called fiords. Brittany is formed of low mountains, jutting out into the Atlantic between the basins of the Loire and Seine. Great Britain, with Ireland, seems like a broken con- tinuation of the Scandinavian range, while the English channel makes another break in the continuity by separating Great Britain from Brittany. The narrow straits of Dover have done more to make England a mighty nation than all the monarchs from King Alfred to Queen Victoria. Great Britain, like Scandinavia, has one axis running north and south through Scotland and England, dividing it into a long and short slope, while mountainous Wales seems to be a repetition of Brittany. Ireland has a special structure, differing from the structure of most large islands. It has a rim or fringe of highlands, while the inside of the coast rim is filled for the greater part with lowlands. Compare the plain of Eurasia with the plain of North America ; with the plain of South America. The rivers of Siberia with the Mackenzie. The Danube basin with the basin of the St. Lawrence. The Yolga basin with the La Plata basin. The plain of Siberia with the northern plain of Europe. The northern plain of Europe with the Atlantic slope of North America. The lower part of the plain of northern Europe with the tide water region on the Atlantic slope of North SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 245 America. Let pupils see resemblances and differences between any two natural features previously studied, e. g., Ehine and Hudson basins. Analysis of short slope of Eurasia. This slope, although comparatively short, is rich with peninsulas, mountains and river basins, and still more rich in history. We will begin by molding this slope at the northeastern corner of Eurasia. Here we find a long, lance -shaped peninsula, Kamchatka; it extends to the south 800 miles, then the mountain range which makes the peninsula, partially submerged by the Pacific, seems to extend the whole length of the eastern coast of the continent. First, we see the long curve of the Kurile islands, with a multitude of mountain tops rising out of the ocean; second, the Empire of Japan, Yesso, Niphon, Kiusiu and Sikokf, great mountainous islands; third, the Loo Choo islands curving like the Kuriles ; fourth, Formosa, followed by a great archipelago called the Philippine Islands ; fifth, the great island of Borneo ; then there rises what seems like an immense submerged continent. Now we will go back to Kamchatka again. Here is the sea of Okotsk, shut in by Kamchatka and the Kurile islands, with the inner walls of the Stanovoi or Yabolonoi mountains, over which the continental axis 246 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. runs. Here is the Sagalien island, long, narrow and full of mines. Just here at the head of the strait, which separates Sagalien from the main land, the coast line makes a long curve outward, walled by a coast range which bends inward opposite Niphon, and then follows the coast for 300 miles or more, curves toward the east, and running out into the ocean forms the peninsula of Corea, which is 350 miles long; it looks like Florida, but it is much larger. The Japan islands shut in the Japan sea, which is shaped something like a long pear, its stem formed by the Gulf of Tartary. The coast range here slopes toward the great basin of the Amur ; the river is turned to. the north by this range. The country on this slope is called Manchuria and it consists mostly of the basin of the Amur. Between the Corea and the mouth of the Yang-tse Kiang is a very long and deep inden- tation called the Yellow sea, shut in by Kiusiu, one of the Japan islands, and the Loo Choos. The Shantung mountains send a peninsula into the Yellow sea and aid in walling in one of the most wonderful alluvial plains in the world. This plain is a delta ; it was made by the silt brought down from the Hoang Ho and the Yang-tse Kang rivers ; the former, however, has had the most to do with it. These are two remarkable rivers; their united basins cover an area of 1,085.200 square miles. The Hoang Ho rises (they say) in the NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 247 eastern part of the Kuen Lun mountains and flows for 2,200 miles in the mountains. The delta is crossed and recrossed by a system of canals. One hundred miles south of the mouth of the Yang-tse Kiang begins another curve, very much like the curve which forms the inner boundary of the Japan sea; it curves to the south for nearly 1,000 miles and ends in a short peninsula, which, with the island of Hainan, very much resembles the peninsula of Corea. This curve, like the one on the Japan sea, is formed by a coast range which sends many rivers to the sea from its outer slope ; the inner slope gives its waters to the Yang-tse Kiang The island of Hainan and the short peninsula partially enclose the Gulf of Tonquin, which is an arm of the China sea, shut off from the Pacific by the Philippine Islands. We now come to the first of six wonderful pen- insulas, all trending toward the south, all mountainous, and all but one have been the nest-places of civiliza- tion. This peninsula is formed of mountain ranges running north and south, with valleys between them, through which flow the Cambodia or Mekeong, the Menam, the Salwen and the Irawaddy rivers, all taking their waters from the southeastern base of the great plateau. One of the ranges, which make this peninsula, extends more than 900 miles farther south than the others, and forms the Malay peninsula, which, like 248 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. Kamchatka, is shaped like a lance, or perhaps you will think it looks like a great club ; the people there are savage enough for both. Just over Malacca strait is the long island of Sumatra, which, like Ceylon and Sicily, seems to have dropped off from the end of the peninsula. Now we cross the broad bay of Bengal, which indents the continent as India projects into the Indian ocean; the peninsula and the bay seem like counterparts of each other. Here is the second of the great peninsulas, formed by the plateau of Deccan, walled in on the west by the steep Ghauts (gateways), high mountains, the upper part of a slope which in- clines over a plateau eastward to the coast line ; along the coast a low line of coast mountains keeps back the waves of the bay of Bengal. The Vindhya range par- tially walls the Deccan on the north. Just south of this range the land inclines eastward, and carries the Nerbudda 600 miles, and the Taptee 400 miles to the Arabian sea. The Deccan is shaped, you see, like a triangle. Enclosed by the Himalayas on the north, the Solyman and Hala mountains on the west, and the western wall of Indo-China on the east, is a vast allu- vial plain. From east to west across the plain it is 1,900 miles ; from the northwest corner of the plain to the base of the Vindhya mountains it is 800 miles. If the Indian ocean should rise 600 feet it would flood the entire plain to the base of the Himalayas, leaving the NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 249 Deccan an island. This plain consists almost entirely of the basins of three wonderful rivers, the Brahma- putra, the Ganges and the Indus ; indeed, it is believed that these three rivers made the plain by bringing down silt from the mountains. The Ganges and Brahma- putra unite their deltas and form probably the largest delta in the world ; it extends 200 miles inland and has a coast line of more than eighty miles. These two rivers bring down immense quantities of ground-up rock from the lofty mountains, sending a stream of colored water sixty miles into the bay of Bengal, al- though most of the sediment is deposited close to the shore, building the delta every year farther and farther out into this arm of the Indian ocean. Look just north of the Himalayas and you will see where the Brahmaputra and the Indus get the immense quantities of earth which builds their deltas, spreads out upon the broad plain and is gradually filling up the bay. The Sanpob drains the eastern part of the two steep and lofty slopes of the Himalayas and the Kara Korum ranges and then breaks through the highest mountain range in the world. Kuen Lun has a greater average height. The Indus, with its tributary, drains the western slopes of the same mountains. You can think of these snow- clad mountains. (Himalaya means snow- clad.) You can think of countless rivers of ice (glaciers) furrowing the precipitous slopes. Every year 250 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. when the sun moves toward the north and shines upon the vast fields of white snow and upon the rivers of ice the snow melts ; the ice leaves huge piles of rocks, gravel and sand at the ends of the glaciers (terminal moraines), which the melted ice takes up and hurls down to the river floods below. The swift current grinds up the pebbles in its rocky bed and carries the fine silt down until the slowly flowing river on the plain below drops its burden, which now builds new land or deepens and enriches the soil. The soil is not always richer, however, for in many places there is altogether too much sediment for healthful vegetation. Look at the right slope of the Indus basin ; the river with its branches brings down an immense amount of earth, and added to this, the Solyman and Haly mount- ains pay no small tribute of ground-up rock to the valley below; the result is, this part of the plain is nearly if not quite a desert dark jungles for wild beasts and broad expanses of barren sand, not only upon the right but also upon the left slope. There is one thing very wonderful about this plain ; a traveler can go from the mouth of the Ganges in a northeast- erly direction to the Punjab, and then down the Indus to its mouth without seeing a pebble as large as the end of your finger. The stone mills in the mountains must do their work well. The upper part of the Indus basin is called the NOTOS SIXTH GRADE. 251 Punjab or Five Waters, because several tributaries flow in the same general direction and form between them a peninsula-shaped region. The lower part of the Indus basin is called the Sinde. The Godavery, Kistnah, Pennair and Cauvery rivers rise in the west- ern Ghauts, cross the Deccan and flow into the Bay of Bengal. India, from the base of the Himalayas to Cape Cormorin is, in its horizontal form, an equilateral triangle, 1,900 miles on each side. Walled in by mount- ains, it may be called one of the regions especially adapted by its structure for a nest-place of civilization. This area is 1,490,000 square miles, larger than the combined areas of Great Britain, France, Spain, Por- tugal, Germany, Austria, Italy, Denmark, Norway and Sweden; 252,000,000 people live in India. The long plateau. From the right water-parting of the Indus to the waters of the Archipelago' or J^geaii sea and the Dardanelles stretches toward the northeast, one unbroken plateau. It is enclosed on the north by the Black, Caspian and Aral depression ; on the south by the Mediterranean sea, the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates, the Persian gulf, Gulf of Oman and Ara- .bian sea ; on the west it sinks into the ^Egean sea to rise again in many beautiful islands, which connect this plateau with another plateau in Europe, that reaches to the Alps. This plateau is 2,500 miles long 252 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. and nearly 800 miles broad from the valley of the Amoo Daria to the Arabian Sea. It is surrounded by a rim of mountains. At one place it is connected with the Caucasus mountains by a narrow isthmus of high- lands ; at another a range of mountains runs along the Mediterranean coast and connects with the plateau and peninsula of Arabia. Although one land mass, it may be divided into the plateau of Iran, the Armenian High- lands and the peninsula of Asia Minor or Anatolia. Iran is divided into Afghanistan, Beloochistan and Persia. With the exception of Asia Minor and the Armenian highlands the greater part of this plateau is a desert. On the slopes of the enclosing rim there are many very fertile spots, as the high mountains in the plateau catch ' rain enough from the nearly dry atmosphere to make some beautiful oases. The Helmund river, like the Tarim and Humboldt rivers, sinks into a vast marsh. Asia Minor is a great tangle of mountains in which there seems to be no order. The eastern slope bears several fine rivers to the ^Egean sea. Here is the ancient Mean- der, a winding river from which we get the word meander- ing. You will learn much about this slope when you study the very interesting history of Greece. Here is ancient Troy ; here Ephesus ; over this strait (Helles- pont, bridge to Greece,) Leander tried to swim ; and here is the Golden Gate (Bosphorus, ox-ford,) that Eussia ccvets so much. Why? NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 253 The whole plateau itself constitutes the greater part of the world that Alexander the Great conquered. Between the rim of the plateau and the Syrian desert (a part of Arabia) is the famous valley of the Euphrates and Tigris, or valley of Mesopotamia. Here Paradise was located (it is said) ; here was Babylon, Chaldea and here are the ruins of several ancient cities. Asia Minor, I have said, is connected with Arabia by a range of low mountains running along the shore of the Mediterranean sea. In all the past of this world, probably, no mountains ever were so full of wonderful history as this range. Not far from the place where this coast range starts from Asia Minor is Tarsus ; then follows the land of the ancient Phoeni- cians, the first commercial nation known in history. Here are the mountains of Lebanon on which grew the famous cedars ; but here is a land more wonderful in its history than all the lands in the world. Do you see this little river sixty miles long? This sea so small that I can scarcely mold it on this map, this sea supplies the meandering river with water and this sea receives the river ; sea of Galilee, the river Jordan and the Dead Sea ! The Jordan valley is a deep ditch or moat, to defend from invaders a little mountainous land, bounded on the west by the Mediterranean ; on the south by the Desert of Sin, which the wandering Israelites crossed ; on the north there is a little plain, the one weak spot 254 H W TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. in this mighty natural fortress. In ancient times there were wandering tribes and nomads whose trade was war. Let a people settle down to farm life and these savage foes to progress would drive out the farmers and de- stroy their homes. Just over the desert of Syria, in the valley of Mesopotamia, lived in those days the great nation of Assyrians. The Israelites, after they crossed the dreary desert and fought their way up the deep, dark ravine or mountain gorge which led to Jerusalem (for this land is Palestine), could have held their conquered lands but a short time were Palestine not a great natural fortress, surrounded by a deep moat, a sea and a desert. This little patch of land, so small on the map, held a people who had more to do with the civilization of man- kind than all the rest of Asia together. I tell you this to show how much the structure of a country has to do with its civilization. The coast range which bears Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth and Hebron leaves the coast of the Mediterranean and extends southward, forming the small triangular peninsula of Sinai, en- closed on the west by the Suez canal and the Gulf of Suez, and on the east by the Gulf of Akabah, which lies in the same depression as the Dead sea and the river Jordan. The Mediterranean coast range, which includes ancient Phoenicia, Palestine and Sinai, is the northwestern rim of the peninsula and plateau of Ara- bia. This peninsula is of a quadrangular shape, widen- NOTES SIXTH GRADK. 255 ing in the southern part. It is 1,800 miles long with an average width of 600 miles. Taking the river Euphrates as one of its enclosing bodies of water, the isthmus connecting it with Asia Minor between the Gulf of Scanderoon and the upper waters of ' the Euphrates, is less than 100 miles wide. Arabia is enclosed by the Suez canal, Bed sea, Gulf of Aden, Arabian sea, Persian gulf and the Euphrates. It is described as a rainless, treeless plateau of sand and rocks ; still it is said that two-thirds of the land is arable. The southern escarpment or slope of the rim toward the Indian ocean is quite fertile. Here (pointing on molded map) is Mecca and here Mocha. Every one knows what they are noted for. The central portion of Arabia is called the Nejd (highlands). The mountains here catch the rain and there are many fertile oases. Look on the map ; not one river is given for all this vast expanse. Arabia has very much in common, in shape and general description with the plateau sep- arated from it by the valley of Mesopotamia and the Persian gulf, the plateau of Iran. Notwithstanding Arabia is so dry and sandy it has a wonderful history in the world's civilization. The science of mathematics had its birth in this land; our figures in arithmetic are called, you know, the Arabic system of notation. Peninsula of Greece. The Taurus and Anti- Taurus mountains sink into the ^Egean sea or Archi- 256 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. pelago and mark their track to Greece by many beauti- ful islands ; islands whose names are preserved in myths and history. The sailors of ancient Greece, at the time ocean navigation was in its infancy, when on their way from Europe to the shores of Asia Minor were never out of sight of some lovely island or islet in the ^Egean sea. After the Phoenicians had made commerce a great power, Palestine fell, for that country had no good harbors, and its people no commercial spirit. Civilization moved westward along the northern shores of the Mediterranean. Of all the peninsulas of the world the peninsula of Greece has the most remark- able history : It is walled in on the north by the Bal- kans and the Dinaric Alps, as the Himalayas wall in India and the Alps, Italy; protecting them alike from the cold north winds and the invasions of savage foes and giving from their cold tops an abundance of moisture. The Balkans and Dinaric Alps cannot be called a range of mountains ; they form a great maze of mount- ains similar to Asia Minor. The northern slope of this mass of mountains is drained by the Danube. These mountains, under the general name of Balkans and Dinaric Alps, fill up and form the broad northern or Balkan portion of the peninsula. They reach from the head of the Adriatic to the Black sea, bounded on the NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 257 north, almost its entire extent, by the Danube river; on the west roll the waters of the Adriatic ; on the east are the Black and ^Egean seas. The Dinaric Alps send a long spur southward down into the Mediterranean, which, with numerous spurs, forms the peninsula of Greece proper. This lower peninsula is cut nearly in two by a deep fiord-like indentation called the Corinthian gulf. The part thus cut off is called the peninsula of Morea ; once it was called Peloponnesus. The range sent southward from the Dinaric Alps has several short spurs ; between these spurs are pleasant, fertile valleys. In Morea there is a plateau called Arcadia. In mythology you will read much about this well-wooded table land. To the student of Greek history every mountain, hill, val- ley and harbor in this sea-girt land recalls some mar- velous story. Here is Mount Olympus (pointing), from whose top the god Jupiter, or Zeus, sent down the lightning ; here are the Parnassus, Helicon and Cith- seron mountains ; along this shore is a long, narrow island (Negropont), the ancient Euboea, separated from the main land by a narrow sound. Between this sound and the mainland is the famous pass of Thermopylae, a few miles south of this pass is the battle ground of Marathon. Here is the city of Athens, the ancient seat of learning. It is named for the Goddess Athene or Minerva. The forest plateau of Arcadia sends out 258 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. four spurs to the southeast ; between the two longest spurs is the river Eurotas, on the right bank of which was the unwalled city of Sparta unwalled because it was defended by its brave sons. This land of Greece may be called the most won- derful and the most interesting country in all the round world. Away back in ancient times, before the days of written history, tales of gods and goddesses, nymphs and satyrs were told. Jupiter thundered from the mountain heights, Neptune plowed the sea, Vulcan had his forges on one of the beautiful islets in the ^Egean sea ; here Apollo shot his fatal arrows and Hercules, the hero, performed his wonderful feats of strength. Here the blind poet, Homer, sang his interesting stories of the taking of Troy and the wanderings of Ulysses. Then came the true history, more wonderful than the myths. Plato, Socrates, Pericles and Phidias, all names renowned in history, were inhabitants of this land of song, poetry, music and art. The political in- stitutions under which you live had their birth here. The Peninsula of Italy. Fierce wars drove colon- ists from Greece to Italy. ^Eneas with his father, Anchises, came from burning Troy. This peninsula has a history hardly less wonderful than that of Greece. You may have read something of the history of the KomaE Empire that once conquered Greece, NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 259 Palestine and Egypt. The arched Alps form a mighty wall on the north; a wall that guarded the Koman Empire against its foes for centuries. Over the snowy tops of these mountains came the army of Hannibal with its elephants ; over the same heights centuries later came Napoleon with an army that knew not de- feat. Caesar crossed the same mountains as he came from Kome to conquer Helvetia (Switzerland) and Gaul (France). From the southwestern end of the mount- ain arch a long compact range of mountains runs south- east down into the Mediterranean for 600 miles. At the southern end the Appenines separate and form two spurs between which is the Gulf of Taranto. The eastern spur forms the heel of a well-defined boot, while the western branch is the instep and toe. The toe is directed toward the island of Sicily. On the Adriatic is a spur to the boot, so that Italy may be called the boot-shaped peninsula. A distinct axis run- ning the entire length of Italy marks the division of the peninsula into two short slopes ; the united length of both is nowhere more than 100 miles. The Adriatic or the eastern slope is the shorter. Short streams drain the two slopes ; on the west the Tiber and Arno are the largest and most important. On the banks of the Tiber stands Kome ; on the Arno, Florence. The lower part of the western slope above and for a short distance below the mouth of the Tiber is very marshy. 260 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. Here is Vesuvius, a great volcano looking down upon the beautiful city and bay of Naples. Between the axis of the northern part of the Ap- penines and the axis of the Alps' is the basin of the Po. The valley of the Po is a level plain of alluvial soil. Once, it is said, the waters of the Adriatic filled this entire valley. The Alps and Appenines contributed the soil to fill up the sea. Like the Ganges, the Po is now constantly building land out into the Adriatic. Venice, the city on the sea, is built upon the marshy coast of this plain. I wish that I could take you all on a trip from Switzerland over the snow-crowned Alps, down into sunny Italy. In Switzerland the climate is cold, the soil rough, rocky and not very fertile ; vines cling to mountain sides and grass grows on steep de- clivities. One day's ride over the Simplon by Napo- leon's road and you drop down into a land laughing in the sunshine, sparkling waters, luxuriant vines, bright flowers and lakes so beautiful that they seem more like dreams than reality. The valley of the Po has many groves of mulberry trees, whose leaves feed the silk worms. The mild-eyed, long-horned Eoman oxen are used to plow the rich soil brought down the steep and rugged slopes of the Alps and Appenines. Some day, I hope soon, you will learn what a great part this boot-shaped peninsula has had in the history of the world. NOTES SIXTH GRADE: 261 Leaving the shores of Italy you must glance at Genoa, the birthplace of the discoverer of America. Here, on a little island called Elba, south of the mouth of the Arno, the great conqueror of Europe, Napoleon, was confined. Just east from Elba is his birthplace, the island of Corsica-; south of Corsica and separated from it by a narrow strait the larger island of Sardinia ; the two islands seem to form one mountain range. Between the western coast of Italy and the last pen- insula of the famous six is a wide stretch of waters curving up to the base of the Alps and the mouth of the Ehone. Peninsula of Spain or the Iberian Peninsula As the Himalayas guard India, the Balkan and Dinaric Alps, Greece, and the Alps, Italy, so do the Pyrenees lift their lofty walls across the broad isthmus between the Mediterranean and the Bay of Biscay, stretching away to the Atlantic in the Cantabrian range. The peninsula of Spain is enclosed by the Pyrenees, Medi- terranean, Atlantic and the Bay of Biscay. Its shape is an irregular square, each side 500 miles in length, the whole square containing 228,000 square miles. From the middle of the southern side there is a pro- jection -of land which nearly meets a corresponding projection from Africa. Between the two projections are the straits of Gibraltar the Pillars of Hercules 262 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. as the stone walls of the straits were called by the an- cients ; this to them was the end of the world. The famous Eock of Gibraltar forms the point or promon- tory of the projection from Spain. This peninsula is filled with mountain ranges extending east and west, with narrow valleys between them. There is a short slope to the Mediterranean and a long slope to the At- lantic, with one notable exception. The Ebro basin, the largest in Spain, slopes to the Mediterranean. The long slope is principally composed of the Douro, Tagus, Guadiana and Guadalquivir. There is a strik- ing resemblance between the drainage of the Deccan or peninsula of India and the drainage of Spain. The Ebro corresponds to the Nerbudda, and the other rivers of Spain flowing westward correspond to the rivers of the Deccan flowing eastward. Spain is a plateau like the Deccan ; a large part of it is dry table land. The basin of the Guadalquivir (Andalusia) is very fertile and very beautiful. The history of the Spanish peninsula is not so important as that of Greece or Italy, still it has played no small part in the world's history. The Moors crossed from Africa and held this country, especially the southern part of it, in subjection for many years. NOTE. It is proposed to make a course of history embracing the ancient history and some of the modern history of these great nest-places of civil- ization. This course is to run parallel with the course in geography. NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 263 Washington Irving has told us much about Spain and the Moors. Review the Malay peninsula, India, plateau of Iran, Armenian Highlands and Asia Minor, valley of Mesopotamia, Palestine, Arabia, Greece, Italy and Spain. Compare. Find resemblances. Which two countries are the most alike ? In which two countries are there the greatest differences ? Which was the best adapted to ancient civilization ? Why ? Which is the best adapted to modern civilization? Why? Review the general description of Eurasia, slopes, highlands, plains, river basins and peninsulas. Draw and describe Asia by itself and then draw and describe Europe. Compare the two grand divis- ions. At this stage of the work it may be well to put off the study of climate, soil, vegetation, animals, races of men and political divisions until the structure of Africa and Australia has been learned. If, how- ever, the teacher wishes to teach these subjects here, the same general plan can be followed as that given in the notes on North and South America. NOTE. To make assurance doubly sure, it is explained that this some- what extended description of the general features of Eurasia is given to aid the teacher in forming the concept corresponding to this, the largest con- tinent in the minds of his pupils. The bits of history are presented to arouse an interest in the study of structure. Never tell pupils that which they can tell you, and demand that they tell you all that you tell them. Molding, drawing, reading, writiny should be constantly used to aid in the concept building. 264 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. STRUCTURE OF AFRICA. The structure of the continent of Africa differs very much from the structure of all the other continents, with the one exception, Australia. It may be called a great unorganized mass of land. It is not divided into slopes nor great river basins. It is a vast plateau, 5,000 miles long and 4,600 miles broad, containing nearly 12,000,000 square miles, surrounded by 16,000 miles of coast line. It is very slightly broken by projections and indentations. The continent as a mass of land may be divided into Northern Africa and Southern Africa. The northern part is the great mass extending east and west, a distance of 4,600 miles, the southern part extends from the north- ern part southward, ending in the Cape of Good Hope. The great plateau continent is walled in by a rim of mountain ranges. Beginning on the coast of the Mediterranean, just west of the Suez Canal, we find a low range of mountains sloping toward the Red Sea. This range expands and in- creases in height in the plateau of Abyssinia, the highest land in Africa. The same mountain mass (Plateau of Abyssinia) extends southward under other names, and culminates in the high peaks of Kenia and Kilimanjaro. From this mountain mass a lower plateau extends out into the Indian Ocean, just south of Arabia, in a tri- angular-shaped peninsula. South from Kenia and Kili- manjaro the mountain ranges run along the coast to the Cipe of Good Hope. These ranges have many names, but NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 265 they may be looked upon as one great range or mountain mass, sloping to the Indian Ocean, and enclosing a series of plateaus. The slope is generally very short. The Abyssinian plateau drops abruptly 7,000 feet to the coast line of the Red Sea. The inner or western slope sends its waters for 3,000 miles to the Nile. One part of the mountain mass holds the great lakes, Victoria N'yanza, Albert N'yanza, and Tanganyika, the reservoirs of the most wonderful river in the world. South of the Nile basin, a plateau formed of Njesa mountains, holds Lake Nyassa, which sends its waters southward to the Zambesi, that breaks through the mountains on its way to the Indian Ocean. The Limpopo basin joins the Zambesi basin en the north. In and south of the Limpopo basin is a very inter- esting region in modern history. The lower part of the short slope is a comparatively level plain, the home of the Zulus. The Continental axis, or line of highest points, runs over this continuous mountain mass from the Medi- terranean to the Cape of Good Hope, but there is no long slope reaching westward to the Atlantic, as in the other continents. Most of the land in Eastern Africa is drained into the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean by the Nile, the Zambesi, and the Limpopo. On the western coast a range or ranges of mountains may be traced from the Cape of Good Hope northward to the Mediterranean. The mountains, are lower than those 011 the eastern coast. At the Bight of Benin the mountains turn directly to the west and here rise to their greatest heights. Here is the Gold Coast, the southern slope of 266 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. the Kong Mountains. From this coast millions of poor, ignorant and helpless men and women have been carried off into slavery to toil for more highly civilized beings. Along the western edge of the Desert of Sahara there are no high mountains, at least there are none upon the maps. Through the mountains from the C; pe of Good Hope to the western extremity of the Kong Mountains, the Orange, the now famous Congo, the Ogewai, and the Niger rivers cut their way to the Atlantic. The mountains of Barbary slope to the Mediterranean, extending from the Atlantic to the Gulf of Cabes. Here we find an inset or indentation 600 miles long between the mountains of Barbary and the plateau of Barca. A low line of mountains extends along the coast nearly to the Nile. Thus we see Africa is a great plateau walled in by mountains. The slopes and river basin that can be de- scribed with some degree of clearness are: 1. The Nile Basin. 2. The Barbary Slope 3. The Gold Coast. 4. The short eastern slope of Southern Africa. The portions of Africa which can be described, in a very indefinite way only, are : 1. Desert of Sahara. 2. The Soudan region. 3. The Great African Plateau. 4. The Kalahari Desert. It may be well to mold and describe the larger and partially explored regions first. NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 267 The Desert of Sahara. This, the largest desert in the world, is bounded on the west, north and east by the Atlantic Coast Iin3, the axis of the Barbary Mountains, the coast line of the Mediterranean, and the line which bounds the narrow strip of alluvial soil on the Nile; the southern boundary, to present knowledge, is very indefinite ; it is marked approximately, by an irregular line extending eastward from the mouth of the Senegal across the con- tinent to the Nile basin. Any attempt at more than a very general description of the great desert would be useless. It would be a very great mistake to imagine it a plain, for it is filled with mountains, mountains of rock and mountains of sand. It would be a still further mistake to call Sahara a barren waste, as there are many fertile oases, together with many mountain ranges, which lift their crests high enough to catch the moisture and to make the valleys below quite fertile. The Plateau of Air and Asben, nearly in the center of the Desert, is said to be excellent land for culti- vation. Sahara is a riverless region. In the northeastern portion is the Wady Draa, over whose bed water runs from the southern slope of the Barbary Mountains for a part of the year. South of these mountains are the great sand dunes, or shifting piles of sand, heaped up like huge snow drifts by the wind. Probably the most desolate portion of the Desert is in the eastern part south of the oases of Anjilah and Siwah. This is called the Libyan Desert; great mounds of drifting, shifting sand, high as 268 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. high hills, are piled or scattered at the mercy of the winds; an ocean of sand billows that drift past the pyra- mids, over the wheat-fields of Egypt. There are three depressions in Sahara which are lower than the ocean level. One is northwest from the great hend of the Niger, 150 miles from Timbuctoo; it is said to be filled with rock salt. Another depression is the oasis of Twat, which is the valley of a wady basin sloping from the Barbary Mountains. The largest de- pression lies south of the Mediterranean coast, between the Nile and the Gulf of Sidra. This depression is 500 miles in length and breadth, and from 150 to 200 feet be- kw the level of the Mediterranean. A canal seventy-five miles long from the Gulf of Sidra would change this de- pression into a great inland sea. Many parts of the Desert are now irrigated by artesian wells. (Tell stories of caravans, wandering tribes of Arabs, and the "Ships of the desert," camels. ), Soudan and the great African Plateau. Rising from the southern edge of the Desert is a higher plateau, which is sometimes called the Great African Plateau. This land is watered by the aid of heights and favorable moist winds. Trees are found on the edges of the higher plateau, but the land is generally marked upon the maps as a steppe or prairie region. The northern slope of the Kong mountains is well wooded and very fertile. South of the area of grassy plains is a great tropical forest land, a vast expanse extending almost across the NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 269 continent. It embraces the entire basin of the Congo, and the upper part of the Nile basin. Here Livingstone, Stanley and Baker made their important explorations, the most important result of all these being the discovery of the source of the Nile. South of the forest region is a vast steppe, part of which is very fertile ; and south of the steppe is the Kala- hara Desert, like the Sahara, a great sandy plain. Still further south we find the basin of the Orange River, the Karoo Desert, and the mountains on the coast. Nothing like an accurate map has ever been made of this vast re- gion which stretches between the Mediterranean and the Cape of Good Hope, 4,500 miles. It is well to accept certain well-known facts. The time which children sometimes spend in learning the imaginary boundaries of so-called political divisions, might as profitably be spent in bounding the mountains in the moon. The Nile Basin. In all the earth's structure there is nothing more wonderful than this wonderful river basin. I have told you about the right slope of this basin and 3,000 miles of the continental axis which forms its water parting. The left slope, if we may trust the maps, gives the Nile very little water; there are only three small tributaries on this slope, the largest of which is the Djur, which enters the Nile just opposite the southern extremity of the Abyssinian Plateau. In the great mountain mass on the eastern side of the central forest region, are three great lakes, Victoria 2/0 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. N'yanza, Albert N'yanza, and the Tanganyika, the im- mense reservoirs of the Nile. From this same mountain mass flow two tributaries into the Nile, one of which is the Sobat ; these two rivers, together with lakes, furnish the main current of the Nile, which flows the year round. But the torrents that make the floods, and carry the rich stores of ground-up rock, come from the lofty Abyssinian mountains down through the deep gorges and ravines, which are furrowed in the abrupt slopes of the plateau. Two great tributaries, the Blue Nile and the Atbara or Black Riter, in the rainy season, pour immense quantities of water into the main river. From the mouth of Atbara clear to the Mediterra- nean, for 1,200 miles, the Nile has not a single tributary, nor does its basin receive a drop of rain; indeed it has no basin for this long distance. It dashes over five cataracts, and plows its way through land, which without it would be a part of that desert of deserts, the barren and desolate Libyan sand ocean. The hot sun of the tropics robs it of its floods, the thirsty hot sand drinks it but on it goes, bearing its precious burden of rich soil down to the valley below, where it changes a desert into the most fruitful land in the world. Had this wonderful river turned into the Red Sea or been lost in the desert, instead of pyramids, temples, ruins of ancient cities, and a mar- velous history, the record of Egypt would have been that of the Libyan Desert and nothing more. Protected by deserts, supported by a green strip of rich earth, the gift of the Nile, the grandest empire of ancient times rose, NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 271 flourished through many centuries and to day, though dead, yet speaketh in the wonders of antiquity. We have India, Palestine, Greece, Italy and Spain, the nest places of human civilization, but this little Egypt, dependent upon the waters of one river for its growth and development, seems to be the most wonderful of them all. (Describe the pyramids and temples of Egypt.) The Barfoary Slope. From the Atlantic to the long indentation of the Mediterranean, a distance of more than 1,300 miles, there is a mass of mountains and plateaus, which slope toward the latter ( the Mediterranean ) on the north, and the Desert of Sahara on the south. The principal range is the Atlas, named after the god who, according to the ancients, bore the world upon his shoul- ders. The northern slope has three distinct divisions; the lower part next to the sea is called the Tell, and consists of cultivable land; the middle part is steppe land, good for grazing; and the upper or mountainous part is dry and partially barren, containing many brackish lakes or sebkhas. The southern slope sinks into the countless sand dunes of the Desert. It rains on the northern slope nearly five months in the year (October to February), while on tho southern slope it rains only one month. The date palm grows here close to the borders of the Sahara. On the coast of the Mediterranean, southwest from Sicily, was once the ancient city of Carthage. 272 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. The Gold Coast. South of the Barbary mountain mass, sloping to the Gulf of Guinea, is another similar mountain mass, of nearly the same length and breadth. The principal range is the Kong Mountains. Along the coast, like the Tell, is a narrow strip of level and very fertile land, which broadens at the delta of the Niger. North of the level plain is a rich and very densely wooded country, mountainous and inhabited by fierce tribes of black men. Here dwell the Ashantees and the cruel savages of Dahomey. For centuries civilized nations have tried to soften the savage hearts of these fierce barbarians by stealing the inhabitants for slaves. The Short Eastern Slope. From the mouth of the Zambesi to the Cape of Good Hope is a short abrupt slope, embracing on its lower edge a narrow plain. This plain is very fertile, and the steeper slopes above furnish excellent pasturage. The Dutch colonized this slope many years ago, and you will notice that most of the names of moun- tains are Dutch. The English, who claim the right to conquer all the weaker portions of the earth, tried to mas- ter this slope. They .conquered the Zulus, but the sturdy Dutchmen held their ground. There is hardly a mile of definite boundaries of politi- cal divisions accurately known outside of the Barbary States, with the exception, it may be, of Sierra Leone and Liberia. After the structure of all the continents has been learned, it may be well to study the climate, soil, vegetation, animals and races of men. NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 273 AUSTRALASIA. We have now, for our last description, a wonderful world of islands; a vast submerged continent; or it may be a continent rising from the Pacific Ocean. You re- member the long mountain range, partially under the ocean, that extends from Kamchatka all along the eastern coast of Asia, Kurile, Japan, Loo Choo, and Formosa islands, ending in the Philippine Islands. The coast of Asia turns to the west opposite these islands but the islands themselves continue, stretching away for thousands of miles to the south and east, girt by the green waters of the peaceful ocean. The eastern extremity of this greatest of all archipelagos, is the long narrow island of Sumatra, which, with Java, and other smaller islands, extends to the east. From the northeastern end of Suma- tra this island world stretches away to the east for nearly 9,000 miles. From the Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands southwest to the little Emerald Island, may be reckoned the breadth of Australasia, as this great mass of islands is now called. Australasia covers a surface much larger than all of Eurasia. The western part of Australasia contains by far the largest islands. Sumatra, Java, Borneo, (three and a half times larger than Great Britain); Celebes, which looks like some gigantic insect; the Molucas or Spice Islands, and New Guinea, are the principal ones, if we ex- cept Australia, the largest of them all. It is an open ques- tion whether to regard Australia as a continent or an island. 274 H w To STUDY GEOGRAPHY. It is not worth your time to learn the names of all the groups of islands in this mighty Archipelago, you can learn the names of the constellations easier, but when you read of travels or explorations here you can find on the map the places visited. Here are Fiji Islands, Cook Islands, named after the famous explorer, Society Islands, and Samoa Islands; you have read perhaps that Germany is laying claim to the latter group. New Zealand, the largest island in the southern part of Australasia, is made up of several islands separated by narrow straits; it is as large as Italy and Sicily, and is in shape very much like Italy; the toe of the boot, however, points toward the northwest. The Sandwich Islands are best known to us, as they are nearest our continent. Some day you may read of the wonderful things in these islands, of the coral formation, of the atolls, the volcanoes, the animals, the vegetation, and the human beings that live here. AUSTRALIA. Australia is the largest island and the smallest conti- nent in the world; its area is 2,983,200 square miles. It has 8,000 miles of coast line, is 2.500 miles in length from east to west, and 1,950 miles in breadth from north to south (mold as you describe). Australia differs very much from all other continents. It is thought by geologists to be a mass of islands which have been joined by lowlands that have risen out of the ocean during a late geological period. Where once, it is said, was a great number of islands like other portions of Australasia, is now one solid NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 275 body of land. If the level of the ocean were raised 500 feet the lowlands would be flooded, and the continent would return to its supposed former state, an archipelago. Australia may be described generally as a vast expanse of lowlands, enclosed by a rim of hills and mountains, with highlands here and there rising from the lower levels. The conventional shape of this continent is an oblong. The coast line is very regular, having only two great indentations, the deep Gulf of Carpentaria and the opposite bay, the Australian Bight: Spencer Gulf, Encoun- ter Bay, and Cambridge Gulf (pointing) are smaller inden- tations. The Gulf of Carpentaria lies between two large land projections, the long, narrow, pointed peninsula of York, and the broad land mass of Arnheim. Off the eastern coast of Australia, from York Cape,, the extremity of York Peninsula, there extends southward for 1,200 miles, a remarkable coral formation, called the Great Bar- rier Reef. It has only one safe entrance for ships. This reef is from 20 to 150 miles from the main land; the waves of the Pacific break against it, forming a long line of white foam. The eastern side of Australia, next the ocean, is a mountain mass extending the entire length of the coast, from Torrens Strait to Bass Strait, 1,700 miles, from which point the mountain ranges turn to the west. This mountain mass is composed of several parallel ranges which are drained on the ocean side by short rivers, the longest being not more than 200 miles. These rivers cut 276 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. their way to the ocean through deep gorges seaming the flanks of the mountain slopes. Australia contains only one great river basin, the basin of the Murray, with its tributary basins of the Darling, Lachlan, and Murrumbidgee. The left slope of the Dar- ling and Murray is the long inward slope of the eastern mountain mass. This basin seems to be the only exten- sive organization for life in the lowland continent. The upper part of the basin is fertile; grassy cultivable lands abound, but the lower part is a dreary waste. The long river flows through a desert, and sinks into an immense marsh before it reaches the ocean. West of the Murray basin is a vast lake region. Lakes Gardner, Torrens and Eyre are great bodies of brackish water surrounded by desolate, rocky, barren plains. The northern, western and southern edges of the continent contain few elevations that may be called mountains. Many rivers flow down the short low slopes. In the northwest there is some fer- tile land; with this exception it is believed by explorers that the western half of Australia is little less than a bar- ren wilderness. As late as 1860 the government of Australia offered $50,000 to any one who would travel the entire breadth of the continent from north to south, west of the Murray basin. In 1862 a man by the name of Stuart succeeded in doing this after a terrible struggle through the almost impenetrable wilderness. Thousands of square miles are covered by dense jungles or bushes; the principal shrub is a kind of Enca^'^'is, which grows eight or NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 277 ten feet high, and covers the ground in matted tangled masses. This shrub, which sends its roots down into the soil for long distances in search of moisture, will grow and nourish where another plant would perish. The Alfalfa, (a sort of clover) is largely cultivated in the sandy regions of our own continent for the same reason. Around Lake Eyre grows a hard, coarse, spiry grass in clumps or tussocks, "covering the arid plains for hundreds of miles." This grass is so hard and sharp that it wounds the feet of horses. (See Stanford's Compendium, Aus- tralasia, page 21.) The plants and animals and aboriginal races of men differ very much from those of the rest of the world. The leaves of the trees hang down and furnish little or no shade ; some trees are practically leafless ; one animal has a duck's bill and four legs; and finally, the Bushmen are the lowest order of savages known. Once England sent many of its criminals here, (to Botany Bay) but after the discovery of gold (1851) the inhabitable portions of the continent were very rapidly colonized. A large island (Tasmania) lies south of Bass Strait, which sepa- rates it from the. continent. (Read Cook's Voyages.) The Earth as a Sphere. If the work laid down in this course of study has been thoroughly done, pupils are now prepared to form a mental picture of the whole earth as one spherical body. A globe may be profitably used from the beginning of the work, but if the well-known laws of synthesis are true, the mind cannot be prepared for any- thing like a clear concept of the whole earth until the 278 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. parts of which the whole consists are mental products. These products are the concepts of continents, which are to be arranged and related in the mind in correspondence to the reality. For the first step a good device is to mold in putty the different continents and islands upon a small paper glohe (costing 20 cts.). While molding the continents in this way there should be a thorough review of all previous work. The relation of the continents to the oceans should be carefully studied, and the whole picture fixed in the mind. Questions. What land slopes to the Pacific Ocean? To the Indian Ocean ? To the Mediterranean Sea? To what oceans do the short continental slopes incline? Nearest to what oceans do you find the continental axes? To what oceans do the long slopes incline ? What land slopes toward the Atlantic Ocean? The Arctic Ocean? What points in the Continental axes are farthest from the oceans ? What points are nearest the oceans ? Into what oceans do the peninsulas project? What highlands protect the conti- tinents from being worn away by the waves of the ocean ? What coast lines have no such protection? Why? What peninsulas have a mountainous structure? What penin- sulas are lowlands ? What islands seem to have been parts of continents? From what highlands were they broken off? What islands partially enclose seas? What seas, bays and gulfs lie between peninsulas ? What peninsulas extend in a southerly direction? What peninsulas extend NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 279 in a northerly direction? What in a westerly direction? Easterly? Relation of Drainage to the Oceans. What ocean receives the most water from the land? What the least? Into what oceans do the longest rivers flow? The short- est ? Name the longest and shortest rivers received by the Pacific Ocean. The Atlantic Ocean. The Arctic Ocean. The Indian Ocean. What areas of continents are not drained into the ocean? What rivers flow directly into the ocean? What rivers flow into seas, gulfs and bays? What is the largest river in the world, whose waters are not received by the ocean? The next largest? Areas, Breadth and Length of Oceans. What ocean has the largest area? The next largest area? At what points are the continents joined ? At what points do they approach each other the nearest ? What distance on the ocean must you travel in going from Cape Horn to the Cape of Good Hope? What ocean is the widest, (East and West)? What ocean has the most indentations seas, bays and gulfs? What ocean the fewest? What inden- tation extends the farthest into the land? Name all the indentations of the Pacific in order, from Cape Horn to the Malay Peninsula. Of the Indian Ocean. Name the indentations of the Atlantic from Cape Horn to the Cape of Good Hope. Of the Arctic Ocean from Bering Strait eastward to Bering again. What indentations extend in a northerly direction into the land ? In a southerly direc- 280 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY,, tion ? In an easterly direction ? Westerly ? What ocean lias the longest coast line ? The shortest ? What ocean has the most regular coast line? The most irregular? What ocean has the most islands ? The largest islands ? Put this table on the blackboard. AREAS OF CONTINENTS COMPAEED WITH LENGTHS OF COAST LINES.* AREA. LENGTH OF COAST LINE. Asia 16,216,600 sq. miles 19,800 m. Africa 11,314,300 " " 16,200 " North America . . 8,261,900 " " 27,700 " South America . . . 6,887,500 " " 15,500 " Europe 3,565,200 " " 19,800 " Australia 2,948,300 " " 8,760 " Problems. What is the combined area of all the con- tinents? What is the combined length of coast line of all the continents? What is the area of Eurasia? What is the length of coast line of Eurasia? Which continent has the longest coast line ? Which the shortest ? What is the difference in length between the longest and the shortest ? What is the proportion of square miles to a mile of coast line in each continent? Which continent has the great- est area to a mile of coast line ? Which the smallest ? How many square miles of land are there to a mile of coast line in the world? There are 196,900,143,000 square miles of surface on the globe: what is the difference between the land surface, and the ocean surface ? What is the propor- tion in squaremiles of ocean surface to continental surface ? * Taken from Guyot's Physical Geography, page 23. It will be seen that esti- mates of areas differ according to authorities. NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 28l General Review and Comparison of Continents.* Name, in order, all the mountain systems over which the continental axes pass from Cape Horn to Cape Finisterre. Name the mountain ranges over which the continental axes pass from Cape Horn to Cape Finisterre. Name the mountain ranges over which the continental axis of Africa passes from near the Isthmus of Suez to the Cape of Good Hope. By what mountain mass is the continental axis of Africa connected with the continental axis of Asia? Name five of the highest elevations over which the continental axes pass. Five of the lowest elevations. Describe the primary highland masses of each continent. Where in each continent are the primary highlands the widest? Where the narrowest? Where is the widest highland mass in all the continents? Where do the primary highlands consist of a single range ? What primary highlands are enclosed hy two ranges ? Name the ranges that enclose each primary system? Name the principal mountain ranges in the primary highlands that run in nearly parallel directions with the continental axes. Which of these ranges are the highest ?f Name the plateaus, which form parts of the primary mountain sys- tems. Give them in order from Cape Horn to Cape Finis- terre; from the Isthmus of Suez to the Cape of Good Hope. * Anything like the mere memorizing of names would defeat the whole plan. These questions are to assist in the clearness and growth of the mental picture. Uave pupils answer without maps if possible. If there are indications of word memorizing, change the questions so as to demand the presence of the pictures in consciousness. tThe heights of a few of the most lofty peaks in each primary mountain sys- tem might be put upon the blackboard for reference and comparison. 282 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. By what mountain ranges is each plateau enclosed? Which plateau has the greatest area? The second great- est? Which of these plateaus are in the long slopes? Which in the short slopes? What are the principal river basins in these plateaus? What river basins are entirely included in them? What great rivers rise in them? By what mountain ranges is the great plateau continent (Africa) enclosed. What primary mountain sytems have no large plateaus? In what direction do the different mountain systems extend? What systems extend North and South? East and West? What relation has the direction in which the primary mountain systems extend, to the general direction in which the continents extend? Review of Long Slopes. Bound the long slope of South America, of North America, of Eurasia, of Asia, of Europe. Name all the parts of primary highlands that are wholly within these slopes. Give them in order from Cape Horn to Cape Finisterre. Name mountain ranges and pleateaus on the long slopes, in the same order. Name the secondary land masse^ on these slopes or elevated land masses, in which the mountain masses are separated from mountains of the primary land masses by broad plains. What long slope has no secondary land mass? What long slopes have two secondary land masses? Name the upper parts or mountain ranges in these secondary land masses. Name in order as above, the projections, of the long slopes. Drainage of Long Slopes. Name all the river NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 283 basins 011 the long slopes, (except those which are wholly contained in the secondary land masses,) from Cape Horn to Cape Finisterre. Name all the rivers which flow the entire length of one of the long slopes. Which of these rivers do not have their sources on the lines of the continental axes? Name all the rivers whose general course is at right angles with the continental axes. Name all the rivers whose courses are in the same general direction as the continental axes. What very long river does not drain one of these long and broad slopes? Where are parts of these long slopes very short ? Plains on the Long Slope. Name the plains on the long slopes from Cape Finisterre to Cape Horn. How many plains are there on the long slopes ? Which of these plains is the largest? Describe the plain of South America, of North America, of Eurasia. Parts of what river basins form these plains ? How high must the ocean rise in order to flood these plains? How would the continents look if the ocean should rise 1,000 feet? What rivers in the long slopes flow toward the continent- al axes? What river basins on these slopes are not drained into the ocean ? Enclosed basins. Locate Steppes, Selvas, prairies, llanos, pampas, tundra, Valdai Hills, Ural Mountains, Guiana Highlands, Brazilian Highlands ; basin of the Black, Caspian and Ural Seas. Bound the Danube river basin. Compare Amazon, Mississippi, Lena and Volga river basins. 284 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. Review of Short Slopes. Name the mountains that form the upper parts of the short slopes from Cape Horn to Cape Finisterre. Name all the plateaus in the primary highlands of these slopes. Do the greatest mountain masses helong to a long slope or a short slope ? In what continents are these slopes the shortest ? The long- est? Name all the peninsulas on, this slope. Of what mountain ranges and plateaus does each peninsula con- sist? What peninsula is on both slopes, long and short? What peninsulas contain plateaus? What peninsulas are made up of several mountain ranges? What peninsula consists principally of one range? What peninsulas are enclosed, on one side, by very high moun- tain ranges? Drainage of Short Slopes. Name all the river basins on the short slopes from Cape Horn to Cape Finisterre. On what short slope are the longest rivers? The shortest? What river basins contain plains formed by alluvial deposits? Parts of what river basins are in the primary high- lands? What rivers on these slopes do not rise in the primary highlands? Which way does the land slope in the peninsula of Spain ? In the Deccan ? What penin- sula is comparatively riverless ? What slope does the short eastern slope of Africa re- semble? What other river basin does the basin of the Nile resemble? Review of all the Continents. Locate the Rocky NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 285 Mountains, Andes, Himalayas, Kuen Lun, Alps, Pyrenees, Cantabrian. Locate Brazilian Mountains, Appalachian, Guiana, Scandinavian, Ural, Kong, Atlas, Blue Mountains-. Locate plateaus of Thibet, Gobi, Great Basin of N. A. Iran, plateau of Central Europe, Kalahari. Name all the principal rivers which flow to the west, north, south, east. Locate Zambesi, Congo, Yukon, Columbia, Amur, Danube. What river basins have large alluvial plains in these valleys ? Locate Hoang Ho, Yang-tse Kiang, Po, Orinoco. What river basins have their longer courses in pri- mary highlands ? By what rivers is the Brazilian land mass drained? The Guiana? Appalachian? Deccan? Spain? Locate the great lakes; of what rivers are they the reservoirs ? Locate Madagascar, Japan Islands, Great Britain, West Indies. Describe Australia. Compare its eastern slope with other short slopes. Which short slope does it most re- semble ? Compare the Darling river basin with the basin of the San Francisco. Have pupils mold and draw each continent and de- scribe as they work. Mathematical Geography. Parallel with the above 286 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. review, lessons should be given in elements of mathe- matical geography. Teachers should keep steadily in mind the direct practical purpose of teaching in this stage of the course the relations and influence of the sun upon the earth. The purpose of this is a good knowledge of the distribution of heat and moisture, and of the modifications brought about by different degrees of atmospheric pres- sure. These are the essential factors in the study of cli- mate. Climate determines the use of the structure, and structure in a marked degree modifies climate. Both seem to be the two halves of a great whole, which nour- ish and support life, plant and animal, and at the same time determine the forms and modes of life. There are many very serious difficulties in the way of a clear under- standing, on the part of children; of the real relations of the sun to the earth. Long experience in attempting to teach the rotation of the earth and its revolution around the sun has clearly proved that, although pupils may seem to understand the relations, which must be taught to them by apparatus, they gain a very confused and inadequate notion of the whole matter. When we think how many centuries very wise men, who had the same phenomena which surrounds us to observe, were in finding out that which we now know to be true, some light may be thrown upon the difficulties which confront the conscientious teacher at every step. The vast difference between the apparent and the real causes puzzles the children, as it NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 287 puzzled tliouglitf ul students for ages before the truth was discovered. Long, careful investigations should be mads in the phe- nomena that appeal directly to the senses before any at- tempt is made to teach the real causes of the earth's mo- tions and its relations to the sun. Among the many sub- jects for investigation are the rising and setting of the sun, moon and stars, the stars that are always above the horizon, the yearly changes in the position of the sun, causes and effects of heat, slanting rays of the sun, changes of the seasons, length of days, months and years, apparent causes of long and short days, the uses of the thermometer and barometer. This work should be a part of the course from the beginning, but if the neces- sary results have not prepared the class for the next step, there is no way but to begin at the most elementary phases of the investigation. These and similar questions may be may be used to test the pupils' knowledge : When does the sun rise ? When does it set ? Through what does the sun appear to move? Where is the sun when it is half way between rising and setting?* Is it al- ways in the same place at noon? How do you know? What is the place called right over our heads? Is the sun ever there ? In what direction from the zenith is it BOOKS FOR TEACHERS, Teachers should make a thorough ftndy of mathe- matical geography before they attempt to tear.h it. The following books are recommended: Astronomical Geography, Jackson, D. C. Heath & Co., a email book of 73 pages, presenting the whole subject in a clear and compact form. Hux- ley's Physiography, Appleton, pages 317-377, inclusive, an excellent exposition of the subject. Johnston's Physical Geography, Stanford, London, pages 101-122, inclusive. 288 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. at noon? Is it always the same distance from zenith at noon? How can you tell? Measure the slant of rays. This can be done by marking the slant on different days at precisely the same time. When is your shadow, in the sunlight, the longest? When the shortest? When is it longest at noon ? When the shortest ? If the sun were in the zenith, how long would your shadow be? What time in the year is the sun at noon the farthest from the zenith ? When is it nearest ? Does the sun always rise in the same place ? You say that the sun rises in the east; aoes it rise exactly east of you? When does it rise a little north of east? When south of east? When exactly east? Let pupils have time to investigate. If the sun rises a little north of east some days, where does it set on the same days? The sun seems to move in what kind of a line over our heads ? Draw the arc of the circle in which the sun seems to move? If the sun moves in half of a circle over our heads in the day time, what does it do at night ? What is the place called under our feet directly opposite the zenith ? Does the sun pass through another arc of a circle at night ? What are the two arcs put together ? Is the path of the sun over our heads always just half a circle? Why? Why not? What is the place called where the sun rises and sets ? How long does it take for the sun to go from that part of the horizon where it rises to that part of the horizon where it sets ? What is the time called when the sun is making its arc from one part of the horizon to the other? Perhaps the sun moves faster on some days NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 289 than others; is that possible? Perhaps it has farther to go on the longest days ; is that possible. At what time in the year does the sun's rays at noon have the greatest slant? At what time in the year are the sun's rays the nearest to a vertical line? Are the sun's rays ever vertical where you live? If you should travel far enough toward the south, do you think you would come to a place where the sun's rays are vertical at noon? Where would the sun be at noon? If, after finding the place where the sun's rays are vertical at noon, you should travel farther south which way would the sun's rays slant then? If you should travel straight north, and every day at noon measure the slant of the sun's rays, what would you find ? There is a place in the northern part of the Scandina- vian Peninsula where travelers go to see the midnight sun; the sun rises in the southeast like a great ball of fire, and appears to move in a very small arc of a circle toward the western horizon; very soon it sinks down under the hor- izom How can you explain this ? There are places on the earth where the sua does not rise for six months, and when it does rise it does not set for six months. Does it take a year to go around in the great circle, or does it go around in a circle every twenty-four hours as it does with us? Where does the moon rise ? Where does it set ? How long does ic take to go from the eastern to the western horizon? Where do the stars rise? Does the sun always go in the same path through the heavens ? How often does it change its path? Every day? What is the difference be- 290 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. tween the slant of the sun's rays at noon when it is farthest south and when it is farthest north? Draw on the board the difference in angles. Explain the apparent spiral movement of the sun. What day do the sun's rays at noon slant the most? About the 21st of December. What day do the sun's rays at noon slant the least? About the 21st of June. What days is the slant of the sun's rays half way between the greatest slant and the least slant ? What is the length of the day when the sun's rays at noon slant the most? When they slant the least? When the slant at noon is half way between the greatest slant and the least slant? How do you account for these changes? What two days in the year have the same length ? Proofs that the Earth is a Sphere or Spheroid. In all this teaching the very great value of elementary les- sons in form will be fully appreciated. Give pupils a sketch of the ancient beliefs, and the discoveries in regard to the shape of the earth. The subject presents excellent op- portunities to train the insight and reason of pupils. Tell pupils just as little as possible; lead them to question the validity of the proofs very closely; very profitable discus- sions may be had in this direction. Principal Proofs. Objects moving from and towards you on a level surface, and moving from and towards other objects. a. The tops of ships (masts and sails) are seen first when coming toward you. NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 291 b. The tops of masts are last seen when sailing from you; they seem to sink into the water. c. Sailors see heights (tops of mountains and hills) first when they approach the land. Would these facts he possible on a flat surface? How would ships disappear? The surface of the earth might be curved and yet the earth not be a sphere. Would not there be the same effect upon a cylinder or upon an egg-shaped body? What would you be obliged to prove before these facts could be taken as final proof that the earth is a sphere? 2. Horizon. What is a circle ? What is a plane of a circle? What is the horizon? Do the sky and the earth really meet? How can you prove that they do not meet? Where are you in the horizon? If you change your place, what effect has it upon the horizon? How can you make the horizon larger? How smaller? If you were to go as far from the earth as we are from the moon, how would the earth look? If the earth were flat, where would the horizon be? If the earth were ovoid in shape, what would be the shape of the horizon? What is an ellipse? Is it true that the horizon in all parts of the earth is a circle? How do you know? 3. Shadow of the Earth on the Moon. What is an eclipse of the moon? What makes the moon give light? How can you prove it? Why is there not a full moon all the time ? What is the shape of the earth's shadow upon the moon? What form of a shadow does a plane bounded by a circle cast? Then how does a circular shadow cast by the earth prove that the earth is a sphere? 292 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. 4. Circumnavigation of the Earth. Tell pupils of the voyage of Magellan (in 1520) and others, who early sailed around the world. Is the circumnavigation of the earth conclusive proof that it is a sphere? Why? Why not? If the earth were a cylinder or an ovoid, could it be circumnavigated? 5. Other Proofs. In digging canals engineers make allowances for the curvature of the earth. Weights of matter are nearly the same on all parts of the earth. If the earth were not a sphere, weights would differ on different parts of the earth's surface. Explain. A good opportunity for lessons on gravitation. Give all the proofs that the earth is a sphere. What is the most conclusive proof? Is any one proof conclu- sive? Tell pupils about the flattening at the poles. Des- cribe the popular theory of the creation of the world and the different geological periods. Show fossils and pictures of primitive animals. Rotation of the Earth. The ancients believed that the sun, moon and stars moved once a day around the earth. How did they try to prove what they believed? How was it discovered that the earth rotates once a day upon its axis? What proofs are there that the earth rotates ? Drop a weight from a high tower, and it will be thrown toward the east. Why? What is the earth's axis? Why is not this axis the longest diameter of the earth ? What are the ends of the NOTES SIXTH GRADE- 293 axis called? In which direction does the earth rotate? If it rotated toward the west, where would the sun rise? How long does it take for the earth to revolve once? How many degrees does it revolve in an hour? Why do we not feel the movement of the earth? Why do not ob- jects at the antipodes fall off? Do all parts of the earth's surface move with the same degree of swiftness? Why not ? Where does the surface move the fastest ? Where the slowest? Revolution of the Earth around the Sun. Have pupils hring all possible proofs for and against the revo- lution of the earth. What would be the result if me earth simply rotated upon its axis, and did not revolve around the sun? Tell pupils about the apparent changes in the piaces of the constellations as seen from the earth. The path of the earth around the sun is called the earth's orbit. This path is an ellipse. The sun is at one focus of the ellipse. Illustrate ellipse and foci. What is the plane of a circle? What is the plane of an ellipse? Illustrate. What is the plane of the earth's orbit? The plane of the earth's orbit is also called the plane of the ecliptic. Illustrate and explain perihelion and aphelion. The plane of the earth's orbit cuts the sun into two hemispheres. The earth revolves around the sun. In what place does it re- volve ? The earth always revolves on its axis, (one axis), and 294 HOW To STUDY GEOGRAPHY. this axis is always parallel to itself, it always points toward the North Star. Explain. The axis of the earth is inclined 66J degrees to the plane of its orbit, and 23J degrees from a line perpendic- ular to the plane of its orbit. Illustrate. Illustrate the path of the earth around the sun. On how much of the earth does the sun shine all the time? Where are the northernmost rays of the sun about March 22d ? Where are the southernmost rays of the sun at this time? How long are the days and nights at this time, all over the the earth? Why? Explain equinox. How many degrees is it from the northernmost rays of the sun to the southernmost? What part of a circle is 180 degrees? Do the sun's rays ever cover more than 180 degrees, north and south, or east and west? Any less? What rays of the sun slant the most? Do these rays always have the same slant? In what direction does the earth move ? To the east. In what direction do the northernmost rays of the sun move after the vernal equi- nox? Explain vernal. Why do they move toward the south beyond the North Pole? How far south beyond the North Pole do they go? When do they stop? 23$ degrees south and beyond the North Pole. At what time in the year do they reach this limit? 21st of June. Where are the southernmost rays at this time ? How long is a day at this time 23$ degrees from the North Pole? How long is a day at the same time 23J degrees from the South Pole? The earth always moves toward the east, and the axis NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 295 of the earth always points in the same direction. How do you account for the fact that the most slanting rays are moving north or south all the time? Illustrate by the globe. After June 21st or the summer solstice, which way do the most slanting rays north of the Equator move? The most slanting rays south of the equator? When do the most slanting rays north of the equator reach the North Pole? About the 22d of September. * Where are the southernmost rays at this time? What is the length of the days and nights at this time? Explain autumnal equinox. In what direction do the northernmost rays move from this time? The southernmost rays? How far beyond the South Pole do the rays of the sun go? When do they reach the limit of 23| degrees ? Where are the northernmost rays at this time? How long is a day at the South Pole at this time ? How long is a night at the North Pole? This is the winter solstice or turning point of the sun, (Wendepunct, as the Germans call it). How long does it take the earth to move from the position in the winter solstice to its position in the spring equinox ? How long does it take for the earth to move from its pos- ition in the spring solstice clear around the sun to the spring solstice again? Explain leap year. Tell pupils about the signs of the zodiac. When does the sun shine from pole to pole ? When does it shine from 23 J degrees south and beyond the North Pole to 23-J degrees north of the South Pole? What part of the earth's surface does the sun always 296 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. shine upon ? Why docs not the sun shine upon the same parts all the time? 1. Suppose the earth's axis were in the piano of its orbit or in the plane of the ecliptic and always pointed toward the sun; what would be the result? Illustrate and lead pupils to discover. 2. Suppose the earth's axis were perpendicular to t he plane of the ecliptic; what would be the result? 3. Suppose^ the earth's axis were inclined 45 degrees to the plane of its orbit; what would be the result? What are the advantages of the inclination of the earth's axis 23^ degrees? Measurement of the Earth's Surface. It is of great importance to locate exactly . places on the earth's surface, and to know exactly how far different places arc from each other. This could not be done by using miles alone to measure. For instance you will understand that by using miles alone as a standard of measurement no places could he easily located in the ocean, and indeed many could not be very well located upon the land. A plan lias been invented to locate exactly all places on the face of the earth. The measuring by this plan is done by imaginary circles. What is a circle? What is an imaginary circle? What is the plane of a circle? How many degrees are therein a circle? What is 1-360 of a circle? What is 1-60 of a degree? How long in miles is a degree? Why can you not tell the length of degree in miles? There are two kinds of circles of a globe, great circles and small NOTES SIXTH GRADE. circles. Illustrate by the great envies on & globe. Through what points do all the great eireles except the equator pass? Into what does the plane of eaeh great circle divide the earth? How many great eireles eouhl be drawn on the globe? Why ean yon not tell the number? What is the distanee of these great circles (except the equator) from each other? Where are they nearest each other? AN" here are they farthest from each other? If two great circles are ten decrees from each other at the equator how many degrees are they apart near the poles? How many degrees are there on a great circle from the north to the south pole? One-half of a great circle, measured from pole to pole, is called a mernliun. How many de- grees are there on a meridian from the north pole to the equator? Each great circle measures the circumference of the earth. Small circles are imaginary lines running clear round the globe from east to west. Illustrate. Only one of these circles extending east and west measures the circum- ference of the globe: which one is that? Where is the equator? How main degrees is the equator from each poll'? Into what does the plane of the equator divide the earth? Into what would the plane of any one of the small circles divide the earth? Where are these circles the shortest? Where the longest? In how many ways do the great circles resemble the small circles? In how many ways do they differ? What is the greatest differ- ence? Great circles (except the equator) are used to measure distances east and west around the globe. Distance is measured from meridian to meridian. 298 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. The meridian from which measurements are made is called zero (0) on the map or glohe. Most maps and globes mark that meridian zero which passes through Greenwich, England. What de- gree is the meridian that is opposite zero on the globe ? The distances east and west are measured by degrees between great circles, but the measurements take place on the small circles. How can you explain this fact? The distance east and west around the globe is called longitude, and the great circles are called lines of longitude. Small circles are used to measure distances north and south around the globe. Distance is measured by small circles from the equator which is marked zero like the meridian of Greenwich. The small circles are called lines of latitude. Longitude east of the meridian of Greenwich is east longitude; west of that meridian is west longitude. Latitude north of the equator is north latitude. South of the equator is south latitude. How many degrees of north latitude are there? How many degrees of south latitude? How many degrees of east longitude? Of west longitude? If you were to travel east on a line of latitude, how far in that direction is it possible for you to go ? In order to locate places exactly on the earth you must use both lines of latitude and longitude. Why ? How is a place located by latitude and longitude ? What is a hemisphere ? What divides the earth into hemispheres ? NOTES SIXTH GRADE. 299 Into what would the plane of the equator divide the earth? The plane of what , great circle divides the earth into the eastern and western hemispheres ? Pupils should answer the following questions by using the small globes on which they have made models of the continents in putty. What continents are wholly within the northern hem- isphere ? What continents are wholly within the southern hemisphere ? What is the eastern hemisphere ? What is the western hemisphere? What continents and islands are divided by the equator ? What continents are divided by the meridian of zero ( Greenwich ) ? What continents are divided by the 180th meridian? Is this meridian in east or west longitude? What continents are divided by the 90th meridian east longitude? 90th meridian west longitude? How many degrees apart are these two meridians ? Through how many degrees of latitude and longitude does North America extend? South America? Eurasia? Europe? Asia? Africa? Australia? Aus- tralasia? Which continent extends over the greatest number of degrees of latitude ? Of longitude ? Which the least number of degrees of latitude ? Of longitude ? What meridians extend over the largest plains ? What mer- idians do not extend over continents ? What small circles do not touch continents. What small circles extend over the most land surface? How many degrees of longitude does the sun shine over in a day ? How many times does the sun rise in 24 300 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. hours? How many times does it set in 24 hours? How many times is it noon ? How many times is it midnight ? How long does it take for the sun to pass from the 90th de- gree west longitude to the 90th degree east longitude? Give pupils several problems of this kind. How many minutes of time does it take the earth to turn one degree? How far does the earth turn in one minute of time? If it is 12 o'clock over the zero meridian, in how many hours will it be 12 o'clock over the 180th meridian? When it is 12 o'clock over the 180th meridian, what time is it over the meridian at Greenwich ? Over the 90th meridian east longitude? 90th meridian west longitude ? If you were to travel east, which way would you move the long finger of your watch? Why? Give pupils a large number of examples in longitude and time. Over w T hat circle could you travel without changing the time of your watch ? If a telegram should be sent from Berlin, 'Germany, at 8:30 A. M., at what time would it reach New York? If in sailing east you should pass the 180th meridian at 1 2 o'clock midnight on Thursday, what would you call the next day ? Explain to pupils the way mariners make their reckon- ing at sea. Explain the parallax. See Astronomical Geography, page 19. NOTES SEVENTH GRADE. 301 SEVENTH GRADE. It is more than probable that much of the work laid down for the sixth grade must be done in the seventh grade. The progress of tJte work depends very much upon the knowledge and skill of the teacher. Distribution of heat. Give pupils lessons in physics upon air, heat, light and the forms of water. By simple experiments pupils should discover the laws of evaporation and condensation of water, effects of heat and the causes of winds. Why is it warmer in the daytime than it is at night? What time of the day is generally the warmest? Why? Is the sun nearer at noon? Why does it grow gradually warmer from sunrise until noon? Why does it grow cooler in the afternoon ? At what time is the sun nearer the earth, in summer or in winter? Refer to the earth's orbit. Why is it warmer in the summer than in winter? When is it generally coldest in winter? Why? When is it generally warmest in summer? Why? Lead pupils to discover the fact that the effects of heat conveyed by the rays of the sun all depends upon the xlunt of the rays. Draw diagram to show that slanting rays cover more surface than vertical rays. The more rays slant the more surface they cover, the nearer vertical they are the less surface they cover. It is warmest where the most rays fall and coldest where the fewest rays fall. Where are the coldest places on the earth? Why? 302 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. Where are the warmest places? Why? What makes the slant of the sun's rays change in the daytime? When in the daytime are the sun's rays the nearest vertical ? When do they slant the most? What effects do these different inclinations of the sun's rays have? Why are some days longer than others? When are the days the longest in the year? Where is the earth in its orbit when the days are longest? When are the days the shortest in the year? Where is the earth then in its orbit ? When are the days and nights equal in length ? Where is the earth in its orbit at that time? The atmosphere that covers the earth is, some say, fifty miles in depth it is probably much deeper. The average distance of the sun from the earth in the course of its orbit is 93,000,000 miles. At Aphelion it is 94,500, 000 miles distant. At Perihelion 91,500,000. The rays of the sun have to go through these distances before they reach the earth. The rays pass through immense space unobstructed until they reach the envelope of the earth, the atmosphere. What happens then ? The air absorbs the heat in the rays, so that less heat reaches the earth. The longer the distance in the atmosphere through which the sun's rays pass the greater the amount of heat the air absorbs. Which rays pass through the longer distances, vertical rays or slanting rays? Why? If you were to measure the angles of inclinations of the sun's rays at exactly noon for many days in succes- sion, what would you discover? Illustrate how the NOTES SEVENTH GRADE. 303 angles change every day? How much does the angle change each day? Very little, measuring hy degrees from a vertical line. On what day is the angle the most acute? Draw lines on board and illustrate. On what day in the year is the angle most obtuse? What is the difference in time between the two days? The inclination or slant of the sun's rays changes very slowly; little by little each day. The sun appears a very little nearer the zenith each day or a very little farther from it. The zones. Use the map and globe. The word zone means belt. The zones are belts of surface that extend around the earth ; they are bounded by the poles and lines of latitude. Zones indicate the general distribution of heat over the earth's surface. How the zones are bounded. On the 21st of De- cember where are the northernmost rays of the sun? What circle do they cut on that day ? How far is the cir- cle from the north pole ? Why is it 23^ degrees ? What part of the earth is in darkness on the 21st of December? Where are the most slanting rays south of the equater at this time, 21st of December? To what degree of latitude beyond the equator, do they reach ? How many degrees are the most slanting rays south of the equator from the most slanting rays north of the equator ? Where are the south- ernmost rays on the 21st of June? Where are the most slanting rays north of the equator? Why is the Arctic 304 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. Circle located 23| degrees from the north pole? Why is the Antarctic Circle located 23-J degrees from the s nth pole? How wide are both frigid zones taken together? Over how many degrees of latitude do the vertical rays of the sun shine in a year? What is the northern limit of the vertical rays? At what time in the year are the ver- tical rays at their northern limit? What are the limits of the slanting rays, north and south, at this time? What is the northern limit of vertical rays called ? The Tropic of Cancer. Tell pupils about the constellation of Cancer. What is the southern limit of the vertical rays? Tropic of Capricorn. Tell pupils about the constellation. Over how many degrees of latitude do the vertical rays move in one year? How many degrees north of the equator? How many degrees south of the equator? At what times in the year are the rays vertical over the equator ? What are the limits of the slanting rays, when the vertical rays are over the equator. How many degrees in width is the Torrid zone? Over how many degrees of latitude, that are nev- er reached by vertical rays, do slanting rays shine dur- ing the year? How many degrees of latitude north of the equator? How many degrees south of the equator? How wide are the two temperate zones taken together? How wide are all the zones taken together ? Describe the changes in temperature from winter to spring. Give causes and effects, from spring to summer; from summer to autumn; from autumn to winter. Parts of what continents and what natural divisions are in the torrid zones. Parts of what mountain systems? NOTES SEVENTH GRADE. 305 What plains? .What continent has the most surface in the Torrid zones? What peninsulas? What great islands? Parts of what oceans? What river basins are partially in the Torrid zones? Ask the same questions about .the Temperate and the Frigid zones. What zone contains the most land? What zone the most water? In what zone is there the least land? Effects of heat upon the surface of the earth. At what time in the day is it generally the warmest? Why? Do we have the warmest weather on the 21st of June? The coldest weather on the 21st of December? Why not? If the sun's rays gave all its heat to the air directly, what would be the result ? Why do we often have very warm summer nights? If the sun's rays did not heat the ground, what would happen after the sun set? Explain the " falling 11 of dew and the dew-point. Lead pupils to discover that the air is mainly heated by the ra- diation of heat from the surface of the earth ; that heat is stored in the soil and water by the sun's rays. Explain conduction the imparting of heat from the soil or water near the surface to soil or water below. The sun's rays heat the ground or water, the ground and water impart (radiate) their heat to the air. Which receives the more heat, water or land? Which gives up (radiates) its heat the more rapidly, water or land? What kind of soils re- ceive heat the quickest? What kinds of soil radiate heat the quickest ? What kinds of soil radiate heat the slowest ? In what kinds of soil does heat reach down the deepest by 306 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. conduction ? Which is generally the warmer in the day- time, water or land ? Why ? Which is warmer at night ? Why? Which is the colder in winter, water or land? Why? Effects of heat upon the atmosphere. Lessons in physics should be given to enable pupils to answer these questions. What is the effect of heat upon air? Why does the expanded air rise? How do you know that ex- panded air rises? Make several experiments. How far does the air go up? Where does it stop ascending? Why do we open the windows to cool a room ? Why does cool air rush into a warm room through open doors and win- dows? What is wind? What causes the air to move? Air moves up and down (vertically) and from side to side (horizontally). Do you call air moving directly up or down, wind? When does air move up? When does it move down? When does it move horizontally? Is the air moving when you do not feel it? What part of the earth receives the greatest amount of heat? Why? What part the least? Why? What effect has the intense heat upon the Torrid zone? Immense masses of air are constantly forced up for some distance above the surface. What effect does this expansion have upon the air north and south of the Torrid zone ? How far does this movement extend ? When does the air move the most rapidly? Where in the Torrid zone is there the most expansion of air? Under the vertical rays. What winds are caused by this move- NOTES SEVENTH GRADE. 307 ment? How are winds named? There are two great movements of air, one from the south toward the equator, and one from the north toward the equator. In what di- rection does the earth rotate? What parts of the earth move the fastest? Why? What the slowest? Why? What can you say of the differences in rapidity of move- ment between the poles and the equator? We will think of a great mass of air moving from the North Frigid zone toward the Torrid zone. The earth is moving on its axis 360 degrees in 24 hours. The air moving south cannot keep up with the movement of the firm earth. It must fall behind. The farther the air goes toward the south the more space must it cover in trying to keep up with the movement of the earth. Why? The moving air or wind constantly falls behind because the earth goes faster than it can go. From what direction do the constant winds of the north and south blow? What do we call these winds? What effect do these winds have upon the tem- perature of the land over which they blow? They make the temperature cooler, just as the air coming through the doors and windows cools the air in this room. Where do you think the great mass of air heated in the Torrid zone goes? Why does it not move directly north and south cl ose to the surface of the earth ? How far does it go up ? Where does it go then ? How is it possible for warm air to move toward cold air ? By what other force besides heat is air moved ? Just think of the tremendous pressure of two immense currents of air moving thousands of miles, one from the north and one from the south. Then re- 308 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. member that the great quantities of air leaving the north and south must be replaced. The heated air rises into the cold air above and then owing to the pressure behind it it hurries each way toward the Frigid zone, in mighty cur- rents. These currents of air move one toward the north and one toward the south, but you will see that they do not move directly toward the poles at the Torrid zone. These currents of air which begin their movements toward the north and south, move also toward the east with the earth. Why ? As they move in northerly and southerly directions the circles over which they pass become, as you know, smaller and smaller; that is, the distances they pass over toward the east become gradually less and less, and the consequence is that these great air currents seem to keep ahead of the movement of the earth; they move faster toward the east than the earth moves. In what directions do they move? North-east and south-east. Which cur- rent moves north-east? Which south-east? Winds are not named from the direction in which they move, but from the direction from which they come. Name the wind north of the equator. South of the equator. We have then moving over the earth four mighty currents of air, two move from the poles to the equator; name them. And two move from the equator to the poles; name them. There is a great difficulty which you will see at once. Two currents of air south of the equator, or more strictly speak- ing, south of the constantly changing vertical rays, move in opposite directions. The same is true of the constant winds under the vertical rpys. Now the great masses of NOTES SEVENTH GRADE. 309 air cannot move against each other, for if they did one would stop (or neutralize) the other. How do you supr pose this difficulty is overcome? The great air currents move over or under each other. There are surface winds, (moving close to the surface) and upper winds (moving above the surface winds). You have seen clouds that move in opposite directions from the surface current, have you not? How do the winds change from an upper cur- rent to a surface current, and from a surface current to an upper current? The northeast and southeast winds, which move steadily from the poles to the Torrid zone, meet at the variable zone or belt covered by vertical rays. In this belt, owing to the intense heat of the sun, avast current of heated air is constantly rising above the surface currents and flowing over them in either direction: one to the north and the other to the south. Each current of air moves over the opposite surface current until it reaches a parallel of latitude near the tropic of Cancer in the north and the tropic of Capricorn in the south ; at these lines the upper currents sink down and become surface currents, moving toward the northeast and southeast over the temperate zones. Within the tropics, the surface winds are from the northeast and southeast. They are called Trade Winds. Why? Within the temperate zones the surface winds are from the southwest and northwest ; they are called the Return Trade Winds. Why? These winds blow nearly from the west and are also called westerly winds. The great 310 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. polar currents start from regions of ice and snow, in their journey toward the south and north as surface currents, but they rise near the polar circles (Arctic and Antarctic) to upper currents flowing above the Westerly and Return Trade Winds until they sink down at the tropics and from the surface winds within the Torrid zone. Whenever the air rises in great masses to form upper currents, or when one current sinks and another rises, there is a belt of calms. In a belt of calms the air does not move horizont" ally, but vertically. Thus there is a belt of calms under the vertical rays; there is another belt of calms, called the Calms of Cancer, and another called the Calms of Capri_ corn. Draw a map of the world showing the great wind currents. This is a general description of the winds which blow constantly toward and from the equator. There are how- ever a great many exceptions and modifications of the gen- eral movements of the air. For instance the great equato- rial belts of calms (Doldrums) is north of the equator; the north and southeasterly currents become surface cur- rents north of the tropic of Cancer and south of the tropic of Capricorn; the southwest winds become westerly winds. The most marked exceptions to the general movements of the constant winds are brought about by the unequal heat- ing of land and water. Land heats quickly and radiates heat quickly. Water heats slowly and radiates its heat slowly. The land is often warm when the water is cool, and the water is often warm when the land is cool. On some coasts the wind blows to the land from the sea in the NOTES SEVENTH GRADE. 311 day time, and from the land to the sea during the night. How do you account for these alternate land and sea breezes? On a great portion of the coast of South America and on the western coast of Africa the winds blow from the sea over the land for a season, and then change and blow from the land to the sea for another season? When do the winds blow inland? Why? When do they blow to the sea? W^hy? These winds are called monsoons (seasons).* The principal monsoon in the world blows across the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. When does it blow toward and over Africa? Why? When does it blow toward Asia? Why? Another monsoon blows be- tween Australia and Asia. Explain. Tell pupils about the Sirocco Simoon, Texas Northers, Tyfoons, Cyclones, Tornadoes and Hurricanes. Modifications of heat by elevations. Why is it colder on mountain tops and great elevations than it is on the plains below ? Explain the construction and use of the barometer. How are heights measured by a barometer? Explain areas of low pressure and areas of high pressure. Why is cold air denser than warm air? Why is air near the ocean level denser than air upon heights? What causes density of air ? What causes thinness or rarification of air? In what regions can you find all the differences of temperature that you find in all the zones? What mountain tops in the Torrid zone are always covered with * Monsoons blow over Mexico from and toward the Pacific, and over the Southern States from and toward the Gulf of Mexico. 312 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. snow? Name the areas which have a temperate climate in the Torrid zone. Uses of winds. Tell me all the uses of winds. What are the most important uses of winds? Which is the most important use carrying moisture, carrying heat, or carrying cold? Where is the moisture needed? Where is the heat needed? Where is the cold needed? How do the winds carry moisture? Where does the moisture which waters the earth come from ? What part of the ocean supplies the most water? Why? What part sup- plies the least water? Why? From what direction does the moisture come which waters the Temperate and the Frigid zones ? What winds bring this moisture ? Where does the moisture come from which supplies the Torrid zone? What are clouds? What moves the clouds? Lessons upon the forms of clouds. What is the difference between vapor and clouds ? How is the vapor in clouds condensed into rain? Explain how cold mountain tops and high elevations condense vapor ? How do the clouds get to the mountain tops ? How do cold air currents condense vapor into rain? Ocean currents. We have been studying the great ocean of air that completely envelops the earth at a depth of more than fifty miles. We know how this immense mass of air moves in great currents from north to south and from south to north. We have learned, too, the uses of these moving currents; how they carry and distribute NOTES SEVENTH GRADE. 313 moisture, lieat and cold; how they move the sails of ships to their ports ; how they bring health and vigor from high to low elevations, and how they sweep away impure air. The ocean, like the atmosphere, is a great moving mass. It does not cover the earth's surface entirely : it is not so easily moved, and it is not so deep as the atmosphere. There are great ocean currents as well as great air cur- rents. Lead pupils to discover the causes of ocean cur- rents. Why does the water of the ocean have a tendency to move toward the equator? What water takes the place of the evaporated water? Why cannot ocean currents move steadily in one direction for great distances like the Trade and Return Trade winds ? What effect have the con- tinents upon the ocean currents? Draw chart of ocean currents, study the principal currents, give names, general direction, and shores upon which they infringe. Give all the uses of ocean currents. Show how and when cold and warm ocean currents modify climate. Describe the Gulf Stream.* The Japan current (Kuro Siwo), the Arctic currents. The constant winds have a great effect upon ocean cur- rents. How? What effect has a violent wind upon the surface of the ocean? Now, if a strong wind should blow constantly, instead of hours and days, in one direction, what effect would it have? What effect has a warm ocean current upon the air that moves over it ? What effect has a cold ocean current upon the air that moves over it ? * It has been discovered that a very small part comparatively of the so- called Gulf Stream really passes into and around the Gulf of Mexico. 314 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. When a wind moves over and in the same direction with a warm ocean current, what is the result ? Distribution of heat by ocean currents and winds. The distribution of heat depends principally upon the vertical and slanting rays of the sun; the de- grees of slant or inclination of the rays determine the quantity of heat conveyed to any given surface. The slant of rays gradually changes as the earth moves around the sun in its orbit. The nearer vertical the rays, the warmer the surface they fall upon; the farther they are from a vertical line, the colder the surface under them becomes. The vertical rays move over 47 degrees of lati- tude in one year. The territory 66J degrees north of the equator is heated entirely by slanting rays; territory 43 degrees north of the Tropic of Cancer and 43 degress south of the Tropic of Capricorn is under slanting rays all the year round. 23-J- degrees north of the Arctic Circle and 23^ degrees south of the Antartic Circle are under the slant- ing rays of the sun only a part of the year, the remainder of the year the sun does not shine. The length of the day has much to do with the dis- tribution of heat. A summer day in the cold north or south is very long. How long is a day at the poles ? How long is a day in summer at St. Petersburg? At Stockholm ? At Berlin ? What effect does a number of long days have upon the temperature of a place? Why? It is almost as warm in summer in many parts of the Tem- perate zones as it is in the Torrid zone. NOTES SEVENTH GRADE. 315 If the continents were level and there were no great ocean currents nor constant winds, the distribution of heat would be nearly equal along the same small circles, that is, you would find the same temperature at the same time in the year all along each line of latitude. The tem- perature in Labrador would be the same as in Scotland, but there are great differences in the distribution of heat in the same degree of latitude around the earth. Where- ever a warm ocean current goes, it carries heat to the coasts it washes. A cold ocean current carries cold. The same is true of constant winds, especially where they blow over warm or cold ocean currents. What effect has the Gulf Stream on the climate of Europe? The Arctic Current upon the northern Atlantic coast of North America? Compare the temperature of Labrador with that of Great Britain and Scandinavia. Compare the temperature of different countries under the latitude of 40 degrees north. Compare the climate of dif- ferent parts of Eurasia under the latitude of 55. Why is Siberia so much colder than Great Britain ? Show pupils chart of Isothermal lines, Appleton's Physical Geography, page 66. Distribution of moisture. Without rain the con- tinents would be barren deserts. In our study of heat, winds and ocean currents we have had a glimpse of the wonderful machinery by which the continents are watered. The ocean is the great reservoir which supplies the land with moisture; the moving currents of air, the winds, 316 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. carry the clouds; the cold tops of the mountains and cold air currents wring out the vapor and scatter it over the land to give nourishment to every living thing. When it has given life to plants by creeping through the soil, it gushes out in springs, flows down in brooks and rivers back again to the great reservoir, the ocean. Wonderful, is it not? What winds carry the most moisture? Why? What part of the ocean supplies the winds with the most mois- ure? Why? What winds carry the least moisture? Why? When do you find that the largest quantities of rainfall upon the earth? Describe periodical rains; tropical rains. See description of the Llanos, page . Draw large map of all the continents and oceans upon the black-board, for the study of rainfall. Color the map, indicating degrees of rainfall as the investigation pro- ceeds. See how far pupils can go, without help, in making this chart. Have them color the putty maps on their little globes as they locate the regions of rainfall. Most physical geographies contain good charts. The one in Burghaus' Physicalisher Atlas is the best. Ask these and similar questions about each region as it is ex- amined. What winds bring the rain? Over what ocean currents do the winds pass? What effect have the ocean currents ( over which the winds pass) upon the moisture carried by the winds ? What condenses the vapor in the clouds (over this region)? Does it rain here at all times during the year? Why? Why not? Why has one slope a great rainfall and the opposite slope little or NOTES SEVENTH GRADE. 317 none? The following classification may assist the teacher. Regions of Greatest Rainfall. Fearfy average over 78.74 inches. 1. Eastern Charts Western slopes; monsoons. 2. Indo-China, eastern slope; Malay Peninsula; monsoons. 3. Sumatra, Java, Borneo and islands east of ; monsoons. 4. Southeastern China, monsoons. 5. Abysinnian Plateau, monsoons and tropical rains. 6. Basin of Niger, lower parts tropical rains. 7. Coast of the Atlantic near the Gulf of Guinea; tropical rains. 8. Lower part of Brazilian slope. . . 9. Upper part of Amazon basin and left slope of Orinoco basin ; tropical rains. 10. Southern part of the short slope of South America. 11. Eastern coast of Honduras. 12. Northern part of the short slope of North America ( South of Alaska. ) 13. Northern slope of Guiana. Regions of great rainfall. Yearly average from 51.18 to 78.74 inches. 1. Great forest region of Africa, including Soudan; tropical rains. 318 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. 2. Long slopes of South America including basins of Amazon and Orinoco, with the greater part of the La Plata basin. 3. Isthmus of Panama and region of Central America. 4. South-eastern part of North America, lower part of Mississippi basin, Alabama system, Florida, and Atlan- tic coast just north of Florida. 5. Eastern slope of Australia. 6. Southern slope of the Himalayas. 7. China, south of the Yang-tse-Kiang basin. 8. Northern slope of the Cantabrians and Pyrenees. 9. Southern slope of the Alps. 10. Caucasus Mountains. 11. Eastern part of Japan Islands. 12. South western part of Scandinavia. Regions of lesser rainfall. Yearly average from 23.62 to 51.18 inches. 1. Eastern part of North America, including left slope of the Mississippi basin and the lower part of right slope; St. Lawrence basin and eastern part of Hudson's Bay basin. 2. Mexico. 3. Southwestern part of La Plata basin. 4. All Europe, with the exception of the Russian slope and southern part of Spanish Peninsula. 5. Region in Africa north of 10 degrees north lati- NOTES SEVENTH GRADE. 319 tude, and south of the steppe that borders the Desert of Sahara. 6. Region south of the great Forest region of Sahara, extending to the Kalahari Desert. 7. Mountains of eastern Australia. 8. China, including basin of the Yang-tse Kiang and part of the Hoang Ho basin. 9. Ganges basin, upper part eastern slope of the Deccan. 10. Extreme southern part of Arabia. 11. Eastern slope of Madagascar. Regions of comparatively little rainfall. Yearly average 7.87 to 23.62 inches. 1. Great basin of North America, Mackenzie basin, and upper part of the right slope of the Mississippi basin. 2. Siberian slope. 3. Basin of the Amoor. 4. Upper part of the basin of the Hoang Ho, (not at its source.) 5. Asia Minor, Armenian Highlands and the north- ern part of the Pbiteau of Iran. Region nearly rainless. Yearly average under 7.87 inches. 1. Desert of Sahara. 2. Northern part of the Peninsula of Arabia; south- ern part of the Plateau of Iran ; Plateau of Gobi ; a greater part of the basin of the Aral Sea; Basin of the Indus, 320 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. with the exception of the mountains at the source. 3. The Kalahari Desert. 4. Kamchatka. 5. Central part of Australia. 6. A long strip of land east of the Andes, extending from Patagonia to north of 30 degree south latitude. 7. Western slope of the Andes, from 32 to about 40 degrees south latitude.* Distribution of soil and vegetation. The know- ledge of structure and climate leads directly to the study of plant and animal life upon the earth. Plant life de- pends upon soil, heat and moisture. A general study of the distribution of soils should be the first step in the study of life upon the continents. In order to lead pupils to discover the nature of soils and their distribution, the following classification may be used: 1, very fertile; 2, fertile; 3, arable; 4, cultivable; 5, barren. Elementary lessons upon the different kinds of soils and their relative fertility should be given. For this pur- pose specimens of soils, v like vegetable mold, alluvial soil, loam, clay, sand, etc., should be observed. A few lessons in the chemistry and composition of soils would be very profitable. The chart of rainfall is a good means of beginning the study, 1. Very fertile. All lands in the tropics and sub- * It is difficult to describe the regions of rainfall with any degree of accuracy, as the lines bounding them are very irregular and often one region includes another. This classification may assist the teacher in observing the chart of rainfall. NOTES SEVENTH GRADE. 32 \ tropics that receive abundance of moisture may be classed under this head. Pupils may easily find these regions on the chart of rainfall. In the temperate zones very fertile soil is found in the valleys of large river basins, as the Mississippi, Yang-tse Kiang, Hoang Ho, Nile,* Ganges,* Po and lower parts of the Volga, Dnieper and Don basins. 2. Fertile. Lands that may be classed as fertile are generally in the same river basins with very fertile regions. The lower parts of the basins of great rivers are generally very fertile while the upper parts are fertile. 3, 4. By far the largest area of land surface in the temperate zones may be called cultivable or arable. Arable land by fertilization and good husbandry may be made to produce very fair crops. In most arable regions there are strips of land, usually near rivers (alluvial soil), that are fertile. The St. Lawrence basin, Appalachian slope, north- ern slope of Europe, Great Britain and Ireland, the upper part of Siberian slope north of the Altai mountains may called arable. 5. Barren. Lack of heat and lack of moisture are the two causes of infertility. The chart of rainfall will show the tracts barren from lack of moisture. The frozen regions of the North and elevated regions can be easily found by the pupils. Pupils should be led to investigate the regions lacking rainfall that are or can be made fertile by irrigation. Nile valley, upper part of the right slope of the Mississippi basin; parts of the Great Basin of North America; basin of the Amur Daria, (Oxus); lower parts of * In sub-tropical regions. 322 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. the basins of the Blue Nile and Atbara; part of the desert of Sahara. In these investigations pupils will get a clear gen- eral view of the distribution of soils, and their compar- ative fertility or sterility. Now opens a rich field for investigation and study, namely, the distribution of plants over the earth. Pupils who have had elementary lessons in plants all through the course up to this grade, will enter into this study with great earnestness and profit. A simple general classi- fication of plants may be" made and the distribution of vegetable life studied from a botanical standpoint. Ele- mentary lessons should be given in botany in this grade. Something should be learned of the nature and growth of vegetation; roots, tubers, stems, trunks, bark, leaves and fruit should be observed. A few terms like exogenous, en- dogenous, deciduous, should be understood. Lessons should be given upon the different staple vegetable products of the world: like wheat, rice, rye, millet, manioc, bananas, potatoes, maize, sugar cane, cotton, flax, etc. A cabinet or small museum of vegetable products can be made very interesting and instructive; such a cabinet should contain seeds, fruits, leaves, woods, and specimens of prepared food, cloth and other manufactured articles. Profitable lessons may be given to pupils upon foods, and upon materials for clothing and shelter: what they are; where they grow; how they are prepared; are good subjects for investigation and study. Draw a very large map of the world on the black-board; indicate structure, ocean currents, prevailing NOTES SEVENTH GRADE. 323 winds, and rainfall. Fill up the map with names step by step, as each subject is studied. The distribution of vege- table products may be studied from several standpoints. The pedagogical order is from the general to the particular. Distribution of vegetation by zones. Appleton's Physical Geography, Map pp. 94, 95 gives eight plant zones as follows: 1. Equatorial Zone between the isotherms of 78 degrees north and south. 2. The Tropical Zone between the isotherms of 78 degrees and 69 degrees. 3. The Sub-Tropical Zone, between the isotherms of 69 degrees and 62 degrees. 4. The Warm Temperate Zone, between the isotherms of 62 degrees and 53 degrees. 5. Cold Temperate Zone, between the isotherms of 53 degrees and 42 degrees. 6. The Sub-Arctic Zone, between the isotherms of 42 degrees and 35 degrees. 7. The Arctic Zone, between the isotherms of 35 degrees and 28 degrees. 8. The Polar Zone, from the isotherms of 28 degrees to the pole. See description of Plant Zones pp. 91, 92, 93. This classification may be too complex for pupils of the seventh grade. A simpler plan of distribution of plants is taken from* Guyot's Physical Geography pp. 97, 100. See description, Map pp. 98, 99. 324 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. 1. Northern Cold Zones. 2. Arctic Zone. 3. Cold-Temperate Zone. 4. Temperate Zone. 5. Warm-Temperate Zone. 6. Tropical Zone. 7. Southern Zones. Descriptions of the vegetation of each zone should be given orally and read. See Niles' Advanced Geography pp. 43, 44, 45, 46. Our World No. 2, pp. 10, 11, 12, 13. Maury's Physical Geography pp. 102 to 108 inclusive. Voyage in the Sunbeam, by Mrs. Brassey, contains some fine descriptions of tropical vegetation. Compare the vegetation of the different zones. Forest lands and grassy plains. A study of these two divisions may lead to a closer general view of the distribution of vegetable products. Some of the largest areas are given. 1. Tropical forests: a. Amazon basin. b. Forest region of Africa. c. Pine region of North America. d. Forests of Northern Europe. e. Forests of Central America. 2. Grassy Plains: 1. Prairies. 2. Steppes. 3. Pampas. 4. Llanos. NOTES SEVENTH GRADE. 325 Elementary lessons on all the trees within the obser- vation of pupils. Specimens of woods should be collected and lessons given upon the kinds and uses of timber. Lessons 011 the different kinds of grass and their uses. Plants peculiar to a very moist climate, and plants peculiar to a dry climate. The striking differences between the foliage in regions of great rainfall and regions of very little rainfall should be noted. The hanging leaves and leafless trees of Australia, the broad leaves in wet tropical regions, the long roots of trees (Eucalyptus) and grasses searching for moisture in dry soil (grasses used to stop the drifting sand), are excellent topics for discussion. The botanical distribution of plants is an exceedingly interesting study, but such a study necessitates a long preparation in elementary botany. When elementary science takes its proper and legitimate place in human de- velopment, when primary and grammar schools are filled with the study of nature as the basis of all other studies, it will be possible in the seventh grade to study the dis- tribution of plant life in its relations to the science of botany. Distribution of vegetable products in relation to their use. FOOD PLANTS, CEREALS. Rice, Rye, Wheat, Oats, Millet or dhurra, Barley, Maize or corn, Buckwheat. 326 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. TUBEKS AND ROOTS. Potato, Turnip, Manioc (tapioca), Beet, Yam and sweet potato, Carrot. FRUIT TREES. Banana, Bread fruit, Date palm, Lemon, Cocoa palm, Peach, Orange, Cherry, Apple, Plum. Fig, FRUIT SHRUBS. Grapes (raisins), Quince, Whortleberry, Currants, Cranberry, Prunes. BEVERAGES, SPICES AND LUXURIES. Coffee tree, Nutmeg tree, Tea plant, Pine Apple, Mati, Olive tree, Tobacco plant, Cinnamon tree (bark), Indian hemp (hasheesh), Cayenne pepper (pod), Poppy (opium), Cacao (chocolate), Capirs, Sago palm (pith), Clove tree, Mustard (seeds of plant). Ginger, NUTS. Almond (tree), Pecans (tree), Walnuts, " Chestnuts " NOTES SEVENTH GRADE. 327 PLANTS PRODUCING SUGAR. Sugar Cane, Palm (a variety of date), Sorghum, Maple tree. Beet, EDIBLE LEAVES. Cabbage, Spinach, Cauliflower, Dandelion, Celery, Water cress. Lettuce, MEDICINAL PLANTS. Cinchona tree ( bark, quinine ) Rhubarb ( root ), Cuca (cocoaine), Castor bean, Belladonna, Poppy (opium), Aloes, Camphor. CLOTHING PLANTS. Cotton, Jute, Flax, Caoutchouc, Hemp, Mulberry tree (leaves food of silk worm). PLANTS USED FOR DYES AND FOR MANUFACTURERS GENERALLY. Turpentine ) , Linseed oil (flax), f Mpme tree), Resin ) Indigo, Gum copal, Logwood, Gum Arabic, Cotton seed oil (cotton Caoutchouc (India rubber), plant). Plants used for shelter. From trees man obtains the principal plant materials for building; grasses, leaves and shrubs are, however, extensively used. Investigations 328 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. should be made by pupils concerning the different kinds of timber used for building and manufacturing. Strength and durability of woods should be investigated. Causes of decay may also be examined. Questions to be asked in regard to each Vegetable Pro- duct. What is it? Is it a tree, shrub or plant? How does it grow ? Is it cultivated ? Does it grow wild ? What are its uses ? How is it prepared for use ? What is its market value? Where does it grow? Write the name of the product on the map wherever it is cultivated to any considerable extent? In what regions does it grow? In what continents? In what natural divisions, (river basins, plains, mountain systems)? Why does it grow here? (pointing). What kind of soil does it need? Why? What temperature does it need? How much moisture? Tell pupils of the vegetation of former geological periods. How coal, peat, petroleum, was stored up. Stored sun heat. Review. Questions should be asked which will review all the geographical knowledge which pupils have acquired. In what regions does rice grow? What kind of soil is needed to produce rice? In what natural division does the greatest quantity of rice grow? Name all the great wheat-growing regions. In what natural divisions is the most wheat raised? What kind of soil do rye, oats, bar- ley and buckwheat need? What cereal is raised principally in the tropics and sub-tropics? What cereals are raised mostly in the Cold Temperate Zones? Rice, it is said, is the principal food of more than one-third of the human NOTES SEVENTH GRADE. 329 race. Name the principal vegetable products ot the Torrid Zone. Name the tropical fruits. The fruits of the Tem- perate Zone. What plants produce spices ? What plants produce beverages ? Where do they grow ? What is th most useful beverage? From what plants is whiskey made? Rum and alcohol? Wine? Gin? The leaves of what plants are used for food? Beverage? Luxury? Manufactures? Prom what plants are oils obtained? What trees furnish food? What beverage? What lux- uries? Medicine? What tree is of the most use to man- kind? Probably Palm. For how many purposes is the palm tree used? What are the principal trees used in building? What timber is most used? Why? What are the principal woods used in making furniture ? Of what kinds of wood are posts and railroad ties made? Why? What are the ornamental woods? Where do they grow? What is the principal wood used in build- ing ships? What in making school desks? For what purposes are the hard woods used? The soft woods? What are raisins ? Of what plants is paper made ? Flax, hemp, cotton, wood? How is paper made? Visit a paper manufactory if you can. Have each pupil draw a chart of vegetable products. What are the principal plants in a desert? Give the main products of each continent and tell in what natural division of the continent they grow. What vegetable product has any one continent which no other continent has ? Where is maize indigenous ? The potato? .Tobacco? What continent furnishes the most wheat? The least wheat? The most corn? The least 330 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. corn? The most grapes? The most manioc? Name all the roots that furnish food or medicine. If you wished to be a farmer to what country would you emigrate? Why? Where would you go to make money by raising cattle? Why? What is the best region in the world for lumbering? Why? For vineyards? For making tar, turpentine and resin ? Where are the largest trees in the world? Tell in writing, all the uses of trees. Why are trees planted on our western prairies? What trees fur- nish valuable gums? What gum is the most valuable? In what country do you prefer to live, excepting, of course, your own home? Why? Distribution of Animals. See Elementary Lessons in Physical Geography, Geike, pp. 337, 366, inclusive; Guyot's Physical Geography, pp. 106, 111, inclusive; Maury's Physical Geography, pp. 108, 114; Appleton's Physical Geography, pp. 100, 106; Butler's Physical Geog- raphy, pp. 96, 105. There is no more delightful subject of study for children in the Primary and Grammar grades than ele- mentary zoology. It should begin in the very lowest class, and be continued in all the succeeding grades. The food, homes, habits and uses of animals should he learned, and the adaptation of their forms and structure to their modes of life. Gradually the simplest general classification should be made. If this very important work be done, the pupils of the seventh grade will take great pleasure in learn- ing the distribution of animals over the face of the earth. NOTES SEVENTH GRADE. 331 Preliminary lessons should be given in zoology in this grade, as a preparation for the study now before us. Pu- pils should know the general characteristics of the ani- mals in each division and sub-division here given, and something of their structure, forms, food, homes, habits and uses. 1, Mollusks. 2, Radiates. 3, Articulates. 4, Ver- tebrates. Under Vertebrates, fishes, batrachians, reptiles, birds; under reptiles, saurians, chelonians, ophidians; under birds, birds of prey, perchers, climbers, scratchers, runners, swimmers; under mammals, marsupials, edentata, rodents, pachyderms, carnivora, ruminants, quadrumana cetaceans. The migration of birds may be a very profitable sub- ject for discussion and observation in the spring and autumn. From what lands come these birds? Why do they migrate? These questions have not yet been answered by the most scientific observers. Draw a large map on the blackboard, similar to the one drawn to illustrate the distribution of plants. The latter (map) should remain for comparison. Color the map to indicate the following regions of animal distribution. (See Maury's Physical Geography, pp. 109, 112): 1. The Northern Old World Region. 2. The African Region. 3. The Indian Region. 4. Australian Region. 5. North American Region. 6. South American Region. As each division, sub-division or species is studied and discussed, lo- cate the animals on the map, by writing their names. When a name is written over the locality of an animal, 332 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. questions should be asked: Where does this animal live? What does it eat? What food does it find here? Does this animal live on mountains, plains, in forests, prairies, steppes, in marshes, deserts or plateaus? In what temperature does it thrive? While learning the distribution of animals their uses should be discussed. This classificaton may be used. Animals used for, 1 food, 2 clothing, 3 shelter, 4 draught animals and beasts of burden, 5 scavengers, and destroy- ers of harmful insects and worms, 6 animals used for manufacturing purposes, 7 useless animals. Are there any useless animals? Do not put too many names of animals on the map. When it is properly finished, these questions can be answered. Name all the mollusks that you know of. Where do they live? The radiates. Where do they live? The articulates. Where do they live? The vertebrates. Where do they live ? Which division is the most useful to man? Name all the fishes, batrachian reptiles that you have ever seen. Which sub-division is the most use- ful to man? Name all the birds you have ever seen. Name all the birds about which you have read or heard. What family of birds is the most useful to man ? Name all the uses of birds. Name all the carnivora you have ever seen. All you have ever heard or read about. Why are some animals called carnivora? What are the uses of carnivora ? The greatest use ? What rodents have you seen? Name all the pachyderms. What animal is the most useful of this class ? Of the least use ? Name all NOTES SEVENTH GRADE. 333 the ruminants. What is the food of ruminants ? Which of the ruminants is the most useful to man? Why? Name the quadrumana. ,The cetaceans. Which sub- division of the mammals is the most useful? Which of the least use? Which the most harmful? Name all the animals used for food. Which supplies the most food to man ? For clothing ? Which animal supplies the largest quantity of materials of clothing? Name all the fur- bearing animals. Name all the birds whose feathers are used for clothing and for warmth. What bird furnishes the most feathers? Name the animals whose skins are used for leather. To what sub-division does each belong? For what purposes are bones and hoofs used ? Name all the articles furnished by swine? Name all the draught animals and beasts of burden. Which is the most useful ? Which is the most intelli- gent ? What draught animals are used for food ? The skins of what animals are used for shelter?* Name all the scavengers among animals. What animals destroy in- jurious insects and worms ? What birds should be pro- tected? Why? Name all the articles manufactured out of the bodies of animals. What animal has the most uses ? Name all the domestic animals. Name the animals that live in each one of the six regions and in no other. What animals require tropical heat? What extreme cold? What animals live in all the regions? What animals live on mountains and no where else ? Name the amphibious animals. What fishes 334 HOW To STUDY GEOGRAPHY. are most used for food ? What mollusk ? Tell pupils about the extinct animals of former geological periods, and show fossils. Show how rocks are composed of shells. Discuss the dispersion of animals by natural and artificial means. What wild animals are related to the cat? To the dog? To the horse? Name the animals that live in one continent and nowhere else? What animals live in forests? What on grassy plains? Write a list of all the animals you have ever seen. Distributions of Races of Men. Draw a map of the world on the blackboard; color it to show the dis- tribution of the three types of the human race: 1. The Black Type; 2. The Yellow Type; 3. The White Type. See Appleton's Physical Geography, p. 113. Keep the maps of vegetation and animals on the board for compar- ison and reference. For subdivisions of types see pp. 68, 69, 70. Lessons should be given upon the peculiar char- acteristics of each type, such as appearance, manners, cus- toms, habits, dwellings, dress, etc. In what does each type differ from all the others? What countries does each type inhabit ? What is the prevailing type in the Torrid zone ? In the North Temperate zone ? South Temperate zone ? Frigid zones? In Asia? Europe? Africa? North America? South America? Australasia? Which type occupies the most land? Which the least land? Tell the pupils about the great changes in distribution. Write upon the map the names of the principal subdivisions of types ; discussing each subdivision as you write. The peculiarities NOTES SEVENTH GRADE. 335 of each should be taught. Show pictures illustrating their appearance, manners, customs, etc. A large number of pictures may be profitably used. What regions are inhab- ited by negroes? What mountains? River basins? What zones? How came negroes to inhabit a part of North America? In what do negroes differ from the other colored races? What territory next to Africa in extent does the Black Type occupy ? Which are the more intelligent, negroes or Australians ? Where do the Bantus live? What territory is occupied by the Mongols? What plateau? Mountains? In what natural divisions do the Ostiakslive? The Yakuts? Eskimos? Finns? Lapps? Kirgliz? Funguses? Chukchis? Which subdivision of the Yellow Type occupies the most territory? Which is the most intelligent ? Which lives in high lands ? Which in lowlands ? What territories are inhabited by the Amer- ican Indian races? When did they occupy all America? In what natural divisions do the Athabascans live? The Caribs? Aztecs? Peruvians? Thrikits? The Patago- nians? Fuegians? Tell pupils about the civilization of the mound builders, Aztecs and Peruvians. See Lives of Cortez and Pizarro. Indicate the territory inhabited by the Hamites. The Berbers. The Hindoos. The Sclavic Race. The Romanic Race. The Teutonic. Celtic. The Magyars. What races may be called savages? What half-civilized? What are the characteristics of savages? Of half -civilized peoples ? Of civilized men ? What races seem to be savages on account of their surroundings, climate, structure, etc. ? How does a tropical climate affect 336 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. human beings ? A frigid climate ? Why ? In what zone do we find the best civilization? Why? What are Nomads? What prevents Nomads from becoming civil- ized ? What countries are best adapted by their structure for defense against the incursions of savages and other enemies ? China, India, Arabia, Palestine, Egypt, Greece, Italy, Spain, Great Britain. Why? Show by the struc- ture of each country how it is adapted to promote civiliza- tion. Distribution of minerals and metals. The sug- gestions to pupils in regard to elementary botany and zool- ogy, should be followed in giving lessons on mineralogy in the primary and grammar grades throughout the course. Befora the distribution of nations and the various condi- tions of national life can be comprehensively studied, it is necessary to know where the mineral products are dis- tributed, as they have a very important part in civiliza- tion. Give pupils a short course in mineralogy. Study the nature and use of minerals and metals, how they are mined or quarried and the articles manufactured from them. What metal is the most used? Name the uses of iron. What is steel? What is the Bessemer process of making steel ? What changes has this discovery brought about? Draw a map, upon which mark the distribution of minerals and metals. When a mineral or metal is studied write its name on the map over the different local- ities where it is found. In what kind of natural divisions is iron found? Is it ever found in lowlands? How do NOTES SEVENTH GRADE. 337 you account for the fact that iron is generally found in highlands ? In what highlands is it found in the great- est abundance ? What metal is most used next to iron ? What articles are made of copper? What is brass? In what regions is copper found? What mines furnish the most copper? What are the uses of lead? For what purpose is it most used ? In what regions is it found ? Name the articles made of tin. Where is tin found? What are the uses of platinum, mercury, zinc, nickel? Where are these metals found? Name the precious metals. Where is gold found? In what is it found? Tell pupils of the various ways of mining gold. Also re- late how gold was discovered in California and Australia. Where is silver found? In what mountains? What are the uses of gold and silver? Name the mountains that furnish the largest amount of metals. What regions have a very small quantity of metals or none at all? What kinds of minerals are used in building? What kinds of stone are used the most in construction? Name the dif- ferent varieties of limestone. For what purpose is slate- stone used? What is the different between granite and limestone? What is marble? For what purposes is it used. What is clay ? What articles are made of clay ? What is chalk? Where is chalk found? For what is chalk used? Name the precious stones. What is a dia- mond? Where are pearls found? What are pearls? What is coal ? How was it made ? What is the difference in formation between soft and hard coal? Show specimens of coal containing fossils. Locate the great coal beds in the 338 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. world. Why is it advantageous to find coal and iron in the same locality? What is petroleum? Natural gas? Where are they found ? For what purposes are they used ? What is peat? Rock salt? Where are they found? Why is the water of the ocean salt? What are the other names for graphite ? What articles are made of graphite ? Review the distribution of minerals and metals. Write a list of all the uses of minerals and metals to man. What regions have the greatest advantages in the way of miner- als and metals? Locate minerals and metals in America; Asia; Europe; Africa; Australia. Review all the products of the earth, vegetable, animal and mineral. EIGHTH GRADE. Distribution of nations. A series of lessons should be given upon civilization, the development of civilization, and upon nations, national life and growth, and the forms of government of the different nations. These lessons should lay the foundation of a thorough knowledge of governments, politics, and political economy. Pupils have in the seventh grade studied outlines of the histories of India, Arabia, China, Chaldea, Egypt, Palestine, Greece, Italy, Spain and Great Britain as a preparation for the study of the republican form of gov- ernment and the history of the United States. These lessons form a good foundation for a study of the forms of government. It may be well to take up the study of gov- ernments in the order of their growth and development from the first tribal or patriarchal form. One fact should NOTES EIGHTH GRADE. 339 be taught with great clearness; that any particular form of government depends ideally upon the intelligence and character of the people governed. Ideal government is an adaptation to the condition of the governed. Why should children be governed by their parents until they become af age? What are the essential conditions of self-govern- ment? Can all nations govern themselves? Why? Why not? Describe the government of tribes, absolute mon- archies, limited or constitutional monarchies and republics. Give lessons upon the three departments of government, legislative, judicial and executive. In what forms of gov- ernment are all three deparments vested in one power? SUBJECTS FOR LESSONS. FORMS OF GOVERNMENT, NAMES OF NATIONS 1. Family, 6. Democracy, 2. Tribe, 7. Federation, 3. Absolute Monarchy, 8. Confederation, 4. Limited Monarchy, 9. Empire, 5. Republic, 10. Kingdom. POLITCAL DIVISIONS AND TERRITORIES IN A NATION 1. Province, 7. Shiretown, 2. Colony, 8. Town and Township, 3. Territory, 9. Capital, 4. District, School,Cong- 10. City, ressional, 5. County, 11. Village, 6. Burrough, 12. Parish. DEPARTMENTS OF GOVERNMENT 1. Legislative, 3. Executive. 2. Judiciary, 34 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. LAWS AND LAW MAKING 1. Constitution, (Limited, Universal, Majority, Plurality, Cumlative Voting. 3. Courts, 11. Landtag, 4. Judges, 12. Reichstag, 5. Juries, 13. Elections, 6. Common Law, 14. Town Meeting, 7. Statutes, 15. Caucus, 8. Legislatures, 16. Convention, 9. Parliament, 17. Prisons, 10. Congress-House, 18. Banishment, Exile, Senate, 19. Capital Punishment. REVENUE ., T , j High, ' ( Low. For Protection, for Revenue only. 2. Free Trade, 4. Internal Revenue, 3. Taxes, 5. Customs. MEANS OF DEFENSE 1. Standing Armies, 7. Artillery, 2. Militia, 8. Engineers, 3. Volunteers, 9. Navy, 4. Regulars, 10. Police, 5. Infantry, 11. Sheriff, 6. Cavalry, 12. Mayor. NOTES EIGHTH GRADE. 341 RULERS, OFFICERS AND TITLES 1. Emperor, 11. Lord, 2. King, 3. Kaiser, 4. Czar, 5. Chief, Patriarch, 6. President, 7. Cabinet, 8. Embassador, 9. Consul, 10. Duke, PARTIES AND CLASSES 1. Aristocracy, 2. Autocrat, 3. Tyrant, 4. Classes, 5. Caste 6. Democrat, 7. Whig, 8. Republican, 9. Tory, 10. Liberal, EDUCATION 1. Schools, 2. Universities, 3. Colleges, 12. Viscount, 13. Marquis, 14. Count, 15. Baron, 16. Senator, 17. Member of Congress, 18. Judge, 19. Knight, 20. Squire. 11. Home Ruler, 12. Prohibitionist, 13. Free Trader, 14. Mugwump, 15. Free Soiler, 16. Abolitionist, 17. Socialist, 18. Nihilist, 19. Anarchist. 4. Common Schools, 5. Private Schools. 342 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. RELIGIONS 1. Christian, 4. Brahmin, 2. Mohommeden, 5. Fetish, 3. Buddhist, 6. Totem. GENERAL TOPICS 1. Civilization, 7. Serfdom, 2. Dark Ages, 8. Nomads, 3. Rome, 9. Emigration, 4. Greece, 10. Immigration, 5. Feudal System, 11. Secession, 6. Slavery, 12. Capital and Labor. Questions. What is a nation ? What is the difference between a race and a nation ? How many kinds of govern- ment are there ? What kind of government requires the greatest intelligence and character in its people? Why? What requires the least intelligence? Why? Name the departments of Government? In what form of government does the ruler exercise the functions of all departments? Which is the most important de- partment? Why? What is a constitution? What leg- islators are not elected in a limited monarchy? What is the difference between a republic and a democracy? A federation and a confederation? How are chiefs of tribes selected? What is the difference between the English Parliament and our Congress? What is a congressional district? How many inhabitants must there be to form a congressional district ? How are towns governed ? Cities ? What is the right of suffrage ? How is this right limited ? NOTES EIGHTH GRADE. 343 At what age can a man vote in the United States? Should women vote ? Why ? Why not ? What are equal rights ? What should be the qualifications of a voter? What is a caucus? How are laws made? What is the use of laws? What is a jury? What is capital punishment? Is it right? What are taxes? What is tariff? Internal rev- enue ? What is free trade ? Which is better for a nation free trade or high tariff? Why? What officers in this country are elected? What appointed? Is it right for a nation to keep a standing army? Why? Why not? Name the officers in our regular army and give their rela- tive positions. Should there be any classes or castes in a nation? Why? Why not? Why should all the people of a nation pay for common schools ? What does " each for all, and all for each" mean? What is a citizen? Why should people who do not vote pay taxes ? What is toleration in religion? In what should all persons be equal? What is monopoly? How much poverty would there be if the Golden Rule were strictly obeyed ? What is the very best gift that a nation can make to every child ? Why is true education better than riches, fame or an in- herited title? Civil Government. A course of well prepared les- sons in civil government should here be given. Pupils ought to be brought, face to face, with their political rights, and duties ; there indeed is no more important work of the common school than the study of the citizen's re- lations to his country. The course should begin with the 344 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. government of the town or city in which the pupils live; follow this with the government of the county, then the state and the nation. Questions like the following indi- cate the general direction of the course. Of what does the government consist? What officers are elected? How are they elected ? What officers are appointed ? What are the duties of each officer? What kind of citizens should be selected for office ? What are the duties of a legislator? How are laws made? What is an executive officer? A judicial officer? What is a constitution? What laws can a town or city make ? A state ? The na- tion? What is centralization ? State rights? Compare the government of the United States with other govern- ments. What is bribery? What effect has bribery upon a nation ? How can the government be kept pure ? Why should every citizen vote? Study the Constitution of the United States. Political divisions. If the plan here given has been followed, and the work done, pupils are ready to take a comprehensive view of all political divisions. The maps on the board of the distribution of plants, ani- mals, races, and minerals, together with the relief globes the pupils have molded may be used for the boundaries of political divisions. Red crayon should be used to mark the boundary lines, thus conforming to most printed maps. The plan of classification has been discussed in u The Preparation for Teachers. "(See pp. .) With pupils of this grade the best plan is to begin with the tribes, and NOTES EIGHTH GRADE. 345 follow with absolute monarchies, limited monarchies and republics. The boundaries of territories inhabited by peoples under purely tribal forms of government can only be very indefinitely indicated. Most ' maps have boundary lines to limit territories in savage Africa: it is quite safe to say that not one mile of political boundary except the sea-coast, is accurately known of Africa, even supposing such boundaries to really exist. The latest boundaries may be used with this very marked qualifica- tion, somewhere near this line. Descriptions of political divisions. As each political division is marked off on the map the country bounded should be described by pupils. The power to de- scribe accurately, using all the knowledge previously ac- quired, is an excellent test of what pupils have learned. Maps of all the continents are on the board, the teacher with red crayon marks off a political division and re- quires pupils to write a description of the division. They already know the structure, climate, vegetation, animals, races, and minerals of the whole continent, therefore they can describe each political division. The description of political divisions can be made an exceedingly valuable exercise in thought, logical arrange- ment, writing, and language. The order of description is from the general to the particular, and pupils should be held to the order. Schedule of plan of description. POSITION In relation to continent. 346 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. On what slope? In relation to ocean, In what zone? STRUCTURE DRAINAGE OUTLINE CLIMATE Primary highlands (if any), Secondary highlands. Plateaus, Principal mountain peaks, Plains. River basins, Lakes and inland waters, Rivers. Natural boundaries (Coast lines and mountain ranges,) Peninsulas, Islands. Position in zone, Height affecting temperature, Winds affecting temperature, Rainfall, Winds that bring moisture, Causes of lack of moisture (if any), Average temperature in winter, Average temperature in summer, Tropical, sub- tropical, warm, temperate, cold, temperate or frigid. NOTES EIGHTH GRADE. 347 VEGETATION Soil, Causes of condition of soil, Very fertile, fertile, arable, cultivatable, or barren. Principal products (see classification), Forests, Grassy plains, Principal exports, Animals. MINERALS Locate mines, Extent of mines, Principal products, Minerals exported. RACES OF MEN Locate, The ruling race. GENERAL Advantages for the homes of men, Disadvantages, Scenery, Present state of civilization, Probable future. This schedule should be written on the board for pu- pils to follow in writing their descriptions. An examina- tion of the written papers will show the teacher how faithfully the work of the seven proceeding grades has 348 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. been done. Important features and details of structure, climate, etc., not in the general work (continent as a whole) should be taught as each political division is taught. A brief sketch of the history and development of each nation as it is taught should be related or read. Teach the provinces, colonies, and dependencies with the nation controlling the same, as India, Canada, etc., with Great Britain. The present population and area in sq. miles of each political division should be written on the map over the locality for reference and comparison. Questions. Write the names and locate all the political divisions in the world. Name and locate the countries in which the tribal form of government prevails. .What races inhabit these countries? Name and locate the absolute monarchies? What races inhabit these political divisions ? Name and locate the limited monarchies. The Republics. What is the area in square miles of all the countries under the tribal form of government? Pupils can copy areas from the board. Areas of all the limited monarchies taken together. Republics. Un- der which form of government is the largest area of land ? The smallest? Under which form is the greatest number of people? The least number? What nation has the largest area of land? The next in area? The next? The smallest? What nation has the greatest number of inhabitants? The next in number? The next? The least number? What nation is made up of the most races? The fewest? In what nation does the black type NOTES EIGHTH GRADE. 349 prevail? The white? The yellow? In what political division does the Latin race live? The Teutonic? The Celtic? Locate and bound the Russian Empire. The British Empire. What fraction of the earth's surface do these two empires occupy? Which has the larger area? The greater population ? Name four political divisions next in order of size, (area) smaller than the British Empire. Name five of the greatest nations in order of the number of inhabitants in each. What political divisions are wholly upon highlands? What nearly upon highlands? What political divisions contain the largest plains ? What political divisions are upon Atlantic slopes? Pacific slopes? Arctic slopes? What political divisions slope towards the Atlantic and Pacific oceans? What towards the Indian ocean? What political divisions are upon pen- insulas ? Islands ? What political divisions have no sea- coast? What political divisions have the longest coast- line in proportion to their areas? What the shortest? What political divisions have the greatest number of good harbors? What nation has the largest area of land in one mass? What nation has provinces in all the conti- nents ? What nation has the most islands ? What polit- ical division has the largest river basin? What the greatest number of large rivers? What the best advan- tages for river navigation ? What have no large rivers ? What nations have the best natural means of defense against enemies ? What the poorest ? What political divisions have the best advantages for 350 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. commerce? The poorest? What political divisions have the most land in the Torrid zone? In the North Temper- ate zone? South Temperate zone? Frigid zones? The temperature of what political divisions are affected by highlands? What divisions are warmed by ocean currents? Cooled by ocean currents? What divisions are colder than other countries in the same latitudes, on account of the distance from the ocean? Ovei what political divisions does 40 north latitude pass? Which division has the highest average temperature? Why? Ask the same questions of 50 north latitude Over what political divisions does the equator pass ? Tht* Tropic of Cancer? Capricorn? Arctic Circle? What political division has the greatest average rainfall ? What the least? What divisions receive their moisture from the monsoons? The return trades? What divisions have tropical rains? What political divisions are partially barren on account of lack of heat? What are barren on account of lack of moisture? What divisions have the most fertile land in proportion to area? What the least? What political divisions have no barren land? What have the largest area of barren land in proportion to the entire area? In what political division is the most rice raised? Wheat? Corn? Tobacco? Cotton? Potatoes? Rye, oats and barley? In what is the most lumber? Iron? Copper? Silver? Gold? Coal? Lead? In what divisions are the most grapes raised? Cocoa-nuts? Tropical fruits? Dates? In what divisions are there the most cattle? NOTES EIGHTH GRADE. 351 Hogs? Horses? Elephants? Camels? Wild animals? What divisions have the best advantages for fishing? What divisions have the best advantage for agriculture? Grazing? Mining? Have pupils write the names of five political divisions which have the best advantages in every direction, structure, climate, soil, vegetation, animals, an,d ^ive reasons. Have pupils find the average number of people to a square mile in each division. What division is capable of supporting the greatest number of people to a square mile? The least number? Occupations of Men. The study of man at work should have a very prominent place in the school-room. The conditions, advantages, disadvantages and necessities of labor may be inferred from all previous lessons, up to a certain point in the development of the human race, struc- ture, climate and other essentials of environment, " control the growing life of man,' 1 then comes development through the mastery of adverse circumstances by work, work directed by thought. "Thou hast put all things under his feet." The history of labor is the history of man; it can he traced from the rough, gnarled limb of a tree, used to cultivate the soil, up to the steam-plow; from the rude sickle to the reaper that cuts and binds; -from the goose quill to the magnificent printing press. Closely allied to manual training as an essential to education, is the deep interest that should be aroused in the minds of all children in the hand-work and brain- work which rolls the car of progress onward. A growing appreciation of 352 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. the great dignity and worth of labor to mankind should be developed in all children. Outline of lessons upon occupations. AGRICULTURE Farms, Plantations, Modes of cultivating the staple crops : Wheat, Rice, Corn, Coffee, Tea, Grapes, Cotton, etc., Farming Utensils and Machinery, Modes of converting raw materials to Food, Clothing, etc., Fertilizers, Agriculture in the Tropics, Agriculture in the Temperate zones. GRAZING AND THE RAISING OF ANIMALS Cattle, ^ Sheep, Hogs, Camels, 1- How raised? Horses, Ostriches, Fowls, Cattle Ranches, Nomads, Pastures. FISHERIES Kinds of Fish used for food. NOTES EIGHTH GRADE. 353 How caught and prepared for the market, Whale Fisheries. MANUFACTURES Articles manufactured for Food, Clothing, Shelter, Household Utensils, Furniture, Uses in Transportation, Luxury, Medicine, Factories, Flour Mills, Machine Shops, Rolling Mills, Water-Power, Steam, Wooden Ware, Paper, Cotton Goods, Woolens, etc., Printing, Gas, Oils, Electricity, Paints. Pupils should visit all the principal manufactories 354 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. near the school, observe the machinery and processes of manufacture and write detailed descriptions. LUMBERING COMMERCE How Forests are cultivated, Processes of cutting and logging, Rafting, Saw Mills, Principal kinds of woods, used in, Building, In making Furniture, Ships, Railroads. Ships, how made and launched, Steamboats, Great Ocean Routes, (See map Barnes Complete Geography, pp. 132, 133,) Advantages taken of winds and Ocean currents, Harbors, Railroads, how made? The Iron Horse, Cars, Freight, Tunnels, Air-brake, Railroad Accidents. How caused? BUSINESS ART PROFESSIONS NOTES EIGHTH GRADE. Canals, Canal Locks, Stage Coach, Caravan, Flat-boats, Canoes, Dog-sleds. Banks, Mints, Corporations, Boards of Trade, Chambers of Commerce, Exchange, Bank-notes, Coin, Bank-checks, Drafts, Merchandise. Sculpture, Painting, Architecture, Engraving. 355 Theology, Law, Medicine, Teaching, Engineering. 356 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. Questions What is commerce ? Why is commerce a ne- cessity? Define imports. Exports. What are surplus prod- ucts? What does a country export? Import? What are the great ocean routes of commerce? How has the Suez Canal changed routes of commerce? What changes will the Panama Canal bring about ? What nations employ the most men in proportion to number of peoples in com- merce ? Why ? What nations have the least advantages for commerce ? Where are the great manufacturing cen- ters of the world? Give reasons why? What nations have the least advantages for manufacturing? State all the conditions for a manufacturing center. What political divisions have the greatest number of people in proportion to population, employed in agriculture? What regions are devoted, almost entirely, to raising cattle? What is a city? What is the difference between a city and a village ? A city and a town ? Describe how cities are founded, and how they grow? What conditions are necessary for the founding and growth of cities? What is a commercial city? What constitutes a good harbor? What other conditions with a good harbor does a commercial city need? How does commerce depend upon agriculture? Upon manufacturing? Upon rail- roads? How has the building of railroads changed the commerce of the world ? Name and locate twenty of the largest sea-ports in the world. The cities should be lo- cated on the map, and the population given in figures written on the maps. Name and locate ten of the largest inland commercial cities. Name and locate fifteen of the NOTES EIGHTH GRADE. 357 largest manufacturing cities. Name and locate ten cities which owe their greatness to neither commerce nor manu- facturing. In locating cities use the physical wall maps. Questions upon cities as they are located. Commercial Cities. What are the exports? To what ports are they carried ? What are the imports ? From what ports do they come? Describe the harbor. What are the railroad facilities of this port? From what regions is freight brought overland to ship at this port? What are the principal manufactures? Pictures of the prin- cipal cities should be shown and things of interest related. What advantages for growth and prosperity has this city ? Manufacturing Cities. Describe the location and surroundings of the city. What are its principal manu- factures ? Give the advantages it has for its manufactures. Where are its manufactured articles used? Where the great manufactories of iron and steel products? Cotton goods? Woolen goods? Cutlery? Agricultural imple- ments? Name a city that is great without any natural advantages. What cities have been made great by rail- roads? What causes can you give for the greatness of cities that have neither commerce, nor manufacturies to any considerable extent? Name and locate five cities made famous by universities and other institutions of learning. General. A ship is loaded with wheat, from what ports may it come? Cotton? Hides? Mahogany and Rosewood? Tea? Coffee? Furs? Meat? Rails for 358 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. railroads ? Copper ? A ship is registered from Canton, what is its lading? Buenos Ayres? Bahia? Rio Janeiro? New York? New Orleans? San Francisco? Halifax? Liverpool? Havana? Georgetown, (Guiana)? Santiago? Marseilles? Bordeaux? Hamburg? Con- stantinople? Melbourne? Calcutta? Tokio? Coomas- sie? Tunis? Batavia? Sitka? From what ports come Rice? Wheat? Corn? Meat? Copper? Coal? Marble? Coffee? Tea? Jute? Cocoa? Sugar? Fish? Spices? Oranges? Wine? Tobacco? Ivory? Furs? Where are ships made? Railroad cars? To what countries do emigrants go? Why? From what countries do they come ? Why ? Name all the regions of sparse population, that can be made good farming land. What have railroads and steamships done to help man- kind? In what way does material wealth civilize man- kind? BOOKS AND MAPS Explanation: ** Excellent; Good; p, Pupils; t, Teachers. MAPS AND ATLASES Stanford's Physical Wall Maps. The best for structural geog- raphy, London. Guyot's Physical Wall Maps. ** Ivison, Blakeman& Taylor. Johnston's Physical Wall Maps. Cheap and good. Stieler's Hand- Atlas.** Schedler's Relief Map of United States. Relief Maps of the Continents. ** E. H. King, River Falls, Wis. Berghaus' Physicalischer Atlas. The best in the world. Gotha. Cook County Normal School Relief Maps. Englewood, 111. Maps of the Continents, in plaster and putty. Very fine Relief Map of United States, in plaster, with frame. THEORY Life of Ritter,** Gage. Comparative Geography, ** Ritter. Van Antwerp & Bragg. Geographical Studies, Ritter. Earth and Man, ** Guyot. Scribner. These four books present the general plan of what may be called the scientific geography. Teaching of Geography, * Geike. Macmillan. Guyot's Common School Geography, Teachers Edition.** Der Geographische Unterricht,* Oberlander. Follows the theory of Ritter. Der Method de des Geographische Unterricht, Bottcher. Berlin. Geographie als Wissenschaft u. in der Schule, Dronke. Bohn. Zur Methodik d. Geograph. Unterricht, Gelhcrn. Leipzig. Methodik d. Geograph. Unterrichts, Matzat. Berlin. Op- posed to Ritter's plan. Very systematic and full of suggestions for field lessons and primary math. geog. Methodik d. Geograph. Unterricht, Rusch. Methodik d. Geographic Unterricht, Schwarz. Methods of Teaching Geography, Crocker. Many good sugges- tions. 360 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. Methodische Ansickten Tiber den Stoff, die Behandlungs weise der Geographic, A. V. Roon. Der Unterricht in der Geographic, Bormann. Ueber die Geographic als Lehrgegenstand in den Schu- len, Shacht. Die Methodik der Erdkunde, Ludde. Magdeburg. Geschichte der Methodologie der Erdkunde, Ludde. Leipzig. Methodik des Geographischer Unterrichts,* Winkler. Dresden. Grundzuge der Erdbeschreibung mit besonderen Rucksicht auf Natur= und Volkerleben, ** Bormann. Leipzig. Leitfaden fur dem Unterrichte in der Vergleichenden Erd- besehreibung, Putz. Freiburg. Geography with Sand Modeling. A. E. Frye. COMPREHENSIVE STUDY The Earth and Its Inhabitants, ** Reclus. 12 vols. Appleton. The most exhaustive work upon the whole subject pub- lished in English. Stanford's Compendiums of Geography and Travel. 6 vols. One for each continent. ** Stanford. London. A very valuable work for teachers. Articles in the Encyclopedia Bri ttanica. ** While most encyclo- pedias like Appleton 's and others contain much that is instructive upon geography, the Brittanica is a genu- ine mine of geographical knowledge. Harper's Magazine. ** Bound volumes, with Index. For read- ing and study in the 7th and 8th grades, there is no better Cyclopedia than the bound volumes of this maga- zine. The Index enables pupils to find good reading upon very many subjects. The Century, bound volumes. A fine acquisition for a school library. Brown's Countries of the World. * C vols. Good reading for the Gth, 7th, and 8th grades. Brown's Peoples of the World. * 6 vols. For eighth grade. Geography Physical, Historical and Descriptive,** Keith, Johnston, Stanford. Bird's Eye View of the World, ** O. Reclus. Ticknor & Co. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Physiography, ** Huxley. Appleton. Excellent in method and matter. HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. 361 Elementary Phys. Geography, Geike. To be read after con- siderable investigation and observation; field lessons. Phys. Geography Elementary lessons in: questions on, ** Geike. Macmillan. , Water Forms of Water, Tissandier. Scribner. The Earth, ** Reclus. Harper. Physical Geography, Somerville. Parallelismus der Flussysteme Europas, Asiens, Afrikas und Amerikas, Bronner. Six Lectures on Phys. Geography, Houghton. Longmans. Geographisches IJesebuch, Masius. Halle. Collection of ex- cellent extracts from various authors. Nene Problems der Vergleichender Erdkunde, Peschel. Leip- zig. Very good for structure. Schriften zur Allgerneinen Erdkunde, Kriegk. Leipzig. Relations of Climate and Structure to Civilization. Phys. Geog. Earth as Modified by Human Action, Marsh. The Atmosphere, Flammarion. Die Erde als Weltkorper ihre Atmosphare u. Hydrosphare, Hann. Leipzig. Appleton's Physical Geography. ** For the best outcome of modern science. Suiter's Physical Geography. Maurys Phys. Geog.* Niles' Advanced Geography, * Merrill. Physical Geography, Voting. Putnam. Physical Geography, Macturk. Putnam. 156 pages. Full of important facts. Physical Geography, Monteith. Barnes. Student's Atlas of Physical Geography, ** Bryce. Putnam. (With explanations.) Houston's Physical Geography. Class Book of Physical Geography, Hughes. Volcanoes, Judd. Appleton. DYNAMICAL, GEOLOGY Geology, Geike. Macmillan. Shows the history of relief. Geological Story, Briefly Told,** Dana. Handbook of Physical Geology, Brown. Bohn. Geological Excursions,** Winchell. Griggs. Town Geology, Kingsley. * Appleton. 362 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. First Book in Geology, ** Shaler. Heath. Very good for ele- mentary lessons in geology. Compend. of Geology, Joseph Le Conte. Climate and Cosmology, CroU. Appleton. Sketches of Creation, Winchell. Harper. Geologische Bilder, Cotta. Leipzig. Influence of structure and climate upon the life of man. Formation of Vegetable Mould, Darwin. Climate and Time, CrolL Appleton. (Discussions of Surface Formation, Climate. Handbuch der Klimatologie, Hann. Geography of Coast Lines, Lawson. Landschaf ts Kunde, Oppel. Breslau. THIRD GRADE Seven Little Sisters, p. ** Andrews. } ^ au Each and All,** \ Lee & Shepard. Little Lucy's Wonder Globe, p. Yonge. Little Folks of Other Lands, p. Chaplin and Humpliery. Children of all Nations, p. Sea and Sky, Blackiston. p. Children's Fairy Geography, Winslow. p. Aunt Martha's Corner Cupboard,** Kirby. p. The World by the Fireside, p.** MODEL THIRD READER Sherwood. pp. Animals of the Temperate Zones 152 " " Torrid " 260 The Camel 161 The Beaver 254 Hills and Plains 281 The Elephant 295 The Mountains 284 BUTLER'S THIRD READER Sponges 138 Adventure with a Wolf 155 SHELDON'S THIRD READER A Walk in the Fields 138 The Camel . .134 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. 3G3 STUDENT'S THIRD READER Sherwood. The Rack Birds 135 Esquimaux Children 163 Salmon 126 Lost in the Air . . 74 APPLETON'S THIRD READER P 1 P 5 By the Brook 15 Ella's Ride 64 The White Bear 72 The Mountain 84 tost in a Balloon . . . . 110 & 115 Caught by the Tide 147 APPLETON'S THIRD READER The River 154 The North Wind . 175 MONROE'S THIRD READER pp. Charlie's Dream (Forms of Water) 93 Talk about the Wind 102 The Impatient Water 135 A Trip Across the Prairies 139 Imprisoned Sunshine 149 The Wonderful Pudding 201 pp. The Water Drop 1 GRADED SUPPLEMENTARY READING No. 3. Lee & Shepard. The Water Drop GRADED SUPPLEMENTARY READING No. 9. pp. The Snow Flake 1 FOURTH GRADE Ten Boys of Long Ago, p.** Andrews. Peeps Abroad, Mateux. Cassell. Madam How and Lady Why, p.** Kingsley. The Rollo Books, Abbott. Air, Water, Fire, Sky, p. Museum. 364 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. Water and Land, p. Abbott. Primer of Physical Geography, Geike. Town Geology, p. Kingsley. Physiographt, Huxley. World at the Fireside, p. Kirby. Prang's Geographical Pictures.** Geogr. Bildertafeln, Hirt. Breslau. Geograph. Charakter Bilder Volz. Little Folks in Feathers and Fur,** Miller. MONROE'S ADVANCED THIRD READER PP- The Camel . 58 & 61 " Elephant 71 Talk about Winds 102 Trip Across the Prairies 139 SHELDON'S FOURTH READER pp. Chopsticks 113 Catching Buffalo Calves 162 A Seal Hunt 180 Home on a Canal 144 The Rainbow Pilgrimage 27 Do Stones Grow? 165 Lost in the Snow 177 Fog in the Harbor -.291 MONROE'S NEW FOURTH READER pp. Little Things in the Great Sea 63 The Eagle's Nest 90 The Polar Bear .'. 108 A Bear Hunt, 139 The Atmosphere 55 Lake Tahoe APPL,ETON'S' FOURTH READER pp. Complaint of the Wild Flowers 38 An Elephant Hunt 76 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. 365 SWINTON'S FOURTH READER pp. A Cup of Tea 64 " " " Coffee - 89 Our Bread Stuffs 167 Story of a Rail Road 292 " " Steam Boat 296 Travel of Two Frogs 127 The Air we Breathe 303 FIELD LESSONS Works of John Burroughs : ** Fresh Fields; Locusts and Wild Honey; Wake, Robin. Chapters on Plant Life, t Merrick. Harper. Talks Afield, t Bailey. Hough ton & Miflin. (Botany.) Naturalists' Rambles about Home, t Abbott. Waste Land Wanderings, t Abbott. Home Studies in Nature, t** Treat. Harper, Der geograph. Unterricht, Steinhauser. Langensalza. FIFTH GRADE NORTH AMERICA Stanford's Compendium t. Brown's Countries of the World p. Picturesque America. 2 vols. Valuable for pictures. Journey Across North America, Smiles, p. Anhuac or Mexico and the Mexicans, Tyler t. The Aztecs, Mexico Biart, t. Travels in Mexico Ober, t. Cortes Allen, Lothrop, p. Stories of the Nations p. Hale. Mexico, California, Oregon and the Sandwich Islands, p. Nord- hoff. A Lady'd Life in the Rocky Mountains, Bird. Astoria. Capt. Bonneville,** Irving. (Rocky Mountains.) In the Rocky Mountains, p. Kingston. John Brent, p. Winthrop. A novel Scene in Rocky Moun- tains. Travels and Adventures in Alaska t. Whymper. Alaska and its Resources, t. Dall. From Newfoundland to Manitoba p. Pae. Two Years Before the Mast p.** Dana. (Voyage Around Cape Horn to California.) . ; HOW TO SITTMF GBOGKAPHF. Af;,.T hi tcs ,- N ...-,,> . :..-.:::. .......:.-, : .** -. , ..- ::, -.: -,:.:: ;. >: :,-- :.,.- .:,..:,. -.-.:... T.-:: Ar.'-. :. :\ ,,-. * JC. MoyTEITH"^ PonCldLS SCHESCB Bl BOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. WaMonPond Rip Van Winkle toKy SHELDON'S FIFTH READEE Diacorerr of Plynioath Harbor ......................... 47 Skater and the Wotres ................................. Valley of theYosemite ................................. UK Science oo the Yellowstone ............................ :&* The BOT TBATEUEBS xv Socra Amazon Baflin ........ Andeo, South .......................................... 435 Brazfl ................................................. 364 Chffi .................................................. 351 Orinoco Basin ......................................... - La Plata .............................................. 401 Patagonia ............................................. 4fl5 Pacific Slope .......................................... - WHAT DAKTOT SAW Modern ExpioroB ..................................... S Moraosfc FOCETB BCADCB Sloth of Sooth America ......... . ...................... 87 A Xorel Bridge ........................................ 192 Frrra READER 'Condor of the Andes.. :. tJ Harper's Magazine, p, World, p. HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. Bird's Eye view of Central and South America, t. Bates. The Antles and the Amazon, Overton, t. Hurnboldt's Travels p. * * Peru Squier t. Peru, t. Murnhim. Sixteen years in Chili and PeTU,Sutcliffe, t. Forests of Guiana, Brett, p. Frank Redcliffe,.Z>Mcm, p. Venzuela. The Young Llanero, Kingston, p. Venzuela. The Wanderers, or Adventures in Trinidad and up the Orinoco, Kingston, p. Dutch Guiana, Palgrave, t. Boy Travellers in S. A. * * Knox, p. On the Banks of the Amazon, Lingston, Up the Amazon and Madeira Rivers, Mathews, t. Between the Amazon and the Andes, Mulhall, t. What Darwin Saw, p. * * Journey in Brazil * * Agassiz, t. Geology and Physical Geography of Brazil, Hartt, t. The Pampas and the Andes, Bishop, p. La Plata, Argentine Confederation and Paraguay, t. Page. MONROE'S FOURTH READER Sloth of S. A ....................... . ............... ...187 A Novel Bridge ............... ......................... 192 SHELDON'S FIFTH READER The Condor of the Andes ............................... 277 A Peruvian Temple ..................................... 353 SIXTH GRADE EUROPE Earth and Its Inhabitants, t. Europe 5 vols. Reclus. Stanfords' Compendium, t. Countries of the World, Europe, 1 vol. Bird's Eye View of the World. Our Travelling Protege, Eddy. The Alps and the Rhine. Visit to Ireland, 5 vols. Scotland and England: Paris to Amsterdam. Motley's Dutch Republic. Description of Holland. Stories of the Nations, * * p. Putnam. HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. 369 Greece, Rome, Byzantium. The Goths: The Normans: The Italian Republics: Holland: Norway: The Moors in Spain: The Italian Kingdom: The Nause Towns: Portu- gal: Ireland: Switzerland: Russia: Rollo's Tour in Europe: Abbott, 9 vols. On the Atlantic, London, Scotland, Paris, Rome. On the Rhine, Geneva, Switzerland. Florence Stories, p. Abbot. Orkney Islands, The English Channel, The Isle of Wight. Scotland and the Scotch, t. Sinclair. Scott's Novels, Descriptions of Scotland and England. England t. Escott. Holland and Its People, p. De Amieis. Hans Brinker p. Dodge. France, t. Roberts. Sunny Spain, p. Patch. Spain and the Spaniards, p. De Amieis. Spanish Pictures, Manning. Austria, Hungary, p. Kay. Greece, t. Lewis. Siberia in Europe, t. Seebolm. Russia, Morfill. Travels in Greece and Russia, p. Taylor. Northern Travels p. Taylor. Scandinavia, Lapland, Finland. The Land of the Midnight Sun, p. Chaillu. Sweden, Norway, Lapland. Norsk, Lapp and Finn p. Vincent. Iceland, p. Taylor. Byways of Europe, p. Taylor. P-P, Eruptions of Mt. Vesurivus, Monteiths Pop. Sc.Reader. . . 235 Descent into a Salt Mine 226 Sheldon's Fourth Reader 50 A Skate Race in Holland 97-101 Stockholm 192 Hamburgh; Cherries of 232 A Russian Hackman's Adventure. Monroe's Fourth Reader 244 Animals of the Pyrenes, Sheldon's Fifth Reader 234 Rural Life in Sweden 115 " " " England 281 370 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. The Vintage 297 Rome and Carthage 373 Rescue from a Crevasse 333 The Summit of Matterhorn 356 ASIA The Earth and Its Inhabitants, 4 vols. Stanford's Compendium, 1 vol. Countries of the World, p. Bird's Eye View of the World, p. Encyclopedia Brittanica, t. Sinai and Palestine, t. * * Dean Stanley. Those Holy Fields, p., Manning. Palestine. For Pictures. Lands of the Saracens, p. Taylor. Bible Months, Grover.** Climate, Vegetation, and Animals of Palestine. The Old W\>rld, t. Freese. Anatolia. Travels and Researches in Armenia, t. Ainsworth. Researches in Assyria, Ainsworth. Through Persia by Caravan, p. Arnold. Travels in Bokara, p. HSurnes. Ride to Khiva, * p. Burndby. Caravan Journeys, p. Chateld. Plateau of Iran. Turkistan, * t. Schuyler. Central and Eastern Arabia, Palgrave. Arabia, Taylor. Through and Through the Tropics, p. Vincent. Hindoos as They Are, t. Rose The Young Rajah, p. Kingston. Two Years in the Jungle, p. Hornaday. Indian Pictures, p. Nrivick. The Queen's Empire, or India and her Pearl, t. Moon. Siam, Taylor. Library of Travel. English Governors in Siam, p. Leonowent. The Abode of Snow, p. Wilson. Himalayas. Beyond the Himalayas, p. Geddie. The Roof of the World, p. Gordon. Thibet, Bogle. Central Asia, Vamberry. HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. 371 The Middle Kingdom, * * p. Williams. China. Regions of the Upper and Lower Amoor, t, Atkinson. Malacca, Indo-China, and China, t. Thompson. Malay Archipelego, t. Wallace. China, t. Douglas. Land of the White Elephant, p.** Vincent. Eastern Asia. The Long White Mountain, James. Manchuria. Voyage to the Corea, p. Oppert. Unbeaten Tracks in Japan, t. Bird. Japan, Taylor. Library of Travel. Orient Boys, p. Keene. Japan, t. Reed. Japan, t. Reiss. Scientific. Complete description. Bear Worshippers of Yezo, Greey. Siberia, Atkinson. Description of Siberia, * * Krapotkine. En. Britanica. Exiles of Siberia, * * Kennan. Century, May, 1888, and fol lowing. Land Journey Throngh Siberia, t. Collins. Overland Through Asia, p. Knox. Tent Life in Siberia, p. Kennan. * Oriental and Western Siberia, Atkinson. pp. Rain Storm in Japan, Montieth's Pop. Sc. Readers 112 Chopsticks 113 SHELDON'S FIFTH READER New Year's Day in Yeddo 135 A Visit from Japanese Ladies 153 A Night Ride in Siberia 321 Boys and Girls in Japan, Butler's Third Reader 165 AFRICA The Earth and Its Inhabitants, Reclus t. Africa, 3 vols. Stanford's Compendium, t. Africa, 1 vol. Countries of the World, Brown. Encyclopedia Brittanica, t. Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central Africa, t. Deriham. Sailing on the Nile, p. Laporte. Egypt, t. Poole. 372 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. Upper Egypt, t. Klunzinger. Modern Egyptians, t. Laus. Among the Huts in Egypt, p. Whately. Land of the Pharaohs, t. Manning. Pictures. Egypt and Nubia, St. John. The Nile and Tributaries of Abyssinia, Baker. People, Cus- toms, Animals, Ismalia, p. Baker. Macmillan. Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa, t. Barth- olomai. Through Algeria, t. Crawford. Morocco, t. De Amicis. Life in the Desert, Du Couret. Life of Livingstone, p. Blaikie. African Explorations, p. Livingstone. How I Found Livingstone, p. Stanley. Expedition to the Zambesi, p. Livingstone. Through the Dark Continent, t. Stanley. The Lake Regions of Central Africa, t. Burton. The Albert N'Yanza, t. Baker. Lake N'Gami, t. Anderson. Stories of the Gorilla Country, p. Du Chailln. Lost in the Jungle, p. Du Chailln. The Country of Dwarfs, p. Du Chailln* My Apingi Kingdom, p. Du Chailln. Narrative of the Niger and the Binue Expedition, t. Hutchinson. The Congo, t. Stanley. Albert N'Yanza, t. Baker. Travels in Western Africa, t. Laing. The Lake Regions of Central Africa, t. Gedde* In the Wilds of Africa, p. Livingston. Central and South Africa, p. Taylor. LIBRARY OP TRAVEL Seven Years in South Africa, t. Holub. Heart of Africa, Schweinfhrth. Equatorial Africa, Du Chailln. First Footsteps in Eastern Africa, t. Burton. AFRICA pp. A Lion Hunt, Montieth's Pop. Sc. Reader 337 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. 373 AUSTRALASIA Stanford's Compendium, t. Brown's Countries of the World, p. Encyclopedia Brittanica, t. Thirty Thousand Miles Travel in Australia, t. Vincent. The Australian Colonies, Hughs. Travels in the East, t. Bickmore. Journey Across Australia, p. Mortimer. Bush Life in Queensland, Grant. Australia, * * Fitzgerald. New Guinea, Samson. Capt. Cook's Voyages. * SEVENTH GRADE OCEANS The Ocean, t. Reclus. Physical Geography of the Sea, t. Maury. Geography of the Oceans, t. Wilhelms. Ocean World, t. Fiquier. Ocean Wonders, p. Damon: Appleton. POLAR REGIONS Arctic Explorations, p. Kane. Open Polar Sea, p. Hayes. The English at the North Pole, Verne. Field of Ice, p. Verne. The Giant of the North, p. Ballantyne. The World of Ice, p. Ballantyne. Ungava, A Tale of Esquimaux Land. Arctic Voyages, Nordenskiold. Voyage of the Vega, * * Nordenskiold. An Arctic Province, p. Elliott. MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY Astronomical Geography, p. * * Jackson. Heath. Astonomy Primer, p. Lockyer. The Heavens, t. Guillemin, pp. 81, 109. Putnam. Populare Astronomie, t. Preussinger. Stuttgart. Populare Himmelskunde and Astronomische Geographic, t. Diesterweg. Berlin. Die Mathemattscher Geographie, t. Koppe. Essen. Allgemeine Erdkunde, t. Hann, Hochstetter, Pokony. Math. Geog. Climate Biology. * * 374 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. Grundzuge d. Mathemat, Geographic f. Lehrer, t. Oberfeld: Wittenberg. Method, Lehrb, f. d. ersten Uunter in d. Math. Geogr., Heckenhayn. Leitf, d. Mathemat Physikal Geographic, Geidbeck. Freiberg. Astronomical Geographic, Elementary, Bartliolomai. Lan- gensalza. Physiography, * * Huxley. VEGETATION Origin of Cultivated Plants, t. De Candolle. Appleton. Vegetation der Erde, t. Grisebeck. The Vegetable World, t. Fianrier. Pflanzenleben der Erde, t. Labsch. Hannoad. ANIMALS Geographical Distribution of Animals, t. Wallace. Scientific. Distribution of Animals, t. Heilpreni. Appleton. Geographische Verbreitung der Thiere, Schmada. Wien. GENEBAL READING FOR PUPILS Guyot's Common School Geography; the best ever published. * * Ivison, Blakeman and Taylor. Our World No. 2, * Hall. Ginn. Scribner's Geographical Reader, * * Smith. Exploration of the World, Verne. Comprehensive Geography, * * Shaw & Allen. Lippincott. Blackie's Geographical Readers. The World As It Is, Chrisholm. Voyage Around the World, Verne. The Desert World, Manning. Coral and Coral Islands, Dana. Dodd & Meade. Voyage Around the World, Livingstone PRODUCTS Natural Resources of the United States, Patton. Appleton. Manual of Commerce, * Brown. Commercial Products of the Sea, Simmonds, Resources of the Pacific Slope, Brown. Animal Products, Simmonds, HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY 375 EIGHTH GRADE RACES OP MEN Standard Natural History p.** Kingsley, vol. vi., Man. The Peoples of the World, Brown* 6 vols. Manual of Ethnology, t. Brace. London. Origin of Civilization and the Primitive Condition of Man,t. Lubbock. Appleton. The Dawn of History, t.* Keary. Scribner. Races of Men, t. Pickering. Bohn. The Races of Man and their Geographical Distribution, t. **Peschel The Human Species, t. Quaterfrages. Appleton. Anthropology, t. Topinard. Anthropology,** Tylor. Man and his Handiwork, Wood. Man's Origin and Destiny, Lesley, Harper. Ideen zur Geschichte der Menscheit.** Herder. History of Civilization, t. Buckle. Intellectual Development of Europe, t. Draper. Fossil Men and their Modern Representatives, t. Dawson. Geographic des Welthandels, t. Commerce, Andree. Stuttgart, t. Die Ruckwirkung der Lander Gestaltung auf die Men- schichte Gesittung,** Peschel Wien. The Aztecs, Biart. Geographic u. Geschictle, Jarz. Wier. Authropo, Geographic, Ratzel. Stuttgart. GOVERNMENT. Our Governments,** Macy. Civics for Young Americans, p.** Giffin. Lovel. Politics for Young Americans, p. Nordhoff. Harper. American Politics, p. Johnston. Holt. Democracy in America, t. 2 vols. De Tocqueville The Nation, t. Mulford. Progress of Nations, t. Seaman. Scribner. Nearly all the reading for 5, 6, and 7th grades may be used for the 8th grade. 376 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. SPRING STUDIES IN NATURE. BY MRS. E. D. STRAIGHT COOK COUNTY NORMAL SCHOOL. PLANTS POINTS TO OBSEEVE. I. General conditions of plant growth heat, light, moisture, ventilation. II. When does the sap begin to rise in trees and shrubs? What evidence? What cause? III. BUDS. When do buds begin to swell? Are all the buds on the same plant equally developed at the same time? Is there any law of development? Examine many plants and different species before forming conclusion. Notice position and arrange- ment of buds on stem. Is the arrangement the same on all twigs of one plant of one species? Covering of buds scales, varnish, cottony or woolly substance. For what purpose? Observe folding and arrangement of leaves in bud; in different plants; length of time required for the development of the bud into leaves, branch or flowers. Watch the development of some bud from day to day throughout the season. Notice the relation of buds to leaves of preceding year. In small herbaceous plants, notice the appear- ance of buds above the soil, how they penetrate the soil, their treatment of obstacles as roots or other substances in their way. IV. STEMS. Compare with regard to size, color, shape, texture, surface, etc., stems of one year's growth, with those of two years' growth, three years' growth, etc., on the same plant. Observe in woody twigs the bark, wood and pith, the number of layers in the bark, the surface, color, thick- ness and structure of each layer. Observe of the wood color, surface, hardness, structure, number of rings seen in cross section. From the number of rings what conclusion drawn as to the age of the twigs? Compare stems of plants growing in the same locality under different conditions as in shade or sun- shine, etc., in marshy places and in sandy soil. Can you form any conclusions? The stems of what plants die with the leaves? Compare stems which grow above the ground with subterranean stems. Measure the growth of some stem by marking it from day to day, and observe conditions under which it grows most rapidly. HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. 377 V. LEAVES. Observe whether leaves appear before, with, or after the blossoms on the same plant or same species. Position on the stem. Attitude with regard to stem whether upright or drooping, etc.; also, angle at which they spring from the stem. Compare rapidity of growth and size of twigs with the num- ber of leaves they bear. Is there any law? Compare the two sur- faces of the same leaf as regards color, texture, etc. What is the cause of this difference? Compare different leaves on same plant as to size, shape, color, etc., especially those which grow on sub- terranean stems with those growing on aerial stems. VI. FLOWERS. Do they appear before, with, or after the leaves on the same plant? Does the plant blossom the first or the second year? Does it bear perfect, monoecious or dioecious flowers? Do the pistils and stamens mature at the same time in the same blossom or on the same plant? If not, which matures first? Can you find any law? Notice the form of the flower cluster, its position with reference to the stem, arrangement of flowers. Is there any law? Is the flower conspicuous because of color, fragrance, etc.? Is it inconspicuous? Notice the abund- ance of pollen. Means of fertilization. By what insects visited, and for what purpose. Notice length of blossoming time of single plant, of species making note of date of appearance of first and of last blossom. VII. FRUIT AND SEED. What length of time is required to ripen the fruit after the blossoms appear? What is the kind of fruit (whether dry or fleshy, etc.)? Attractiveness to insect or other animal visitors. If dry, notice the modes in which the pods split to release the seed. Observe modes of distribution of fruit and seed (wind, insects or mechanical means). Observe the pro- portion existing between the number of blossoms and the number of perfected fruits on the same tree. Compare different trees of the same species. Compare trees with herbaceous plants. Find law. What seeds sprout as soon as fruit is ripened and they reach the proper surroundings? Notice the length of time re- quired for germination. What are the conditions of germination? Observe \vhether the cotyledons appear above the ground or not; notice also changes in color, size, shape, etc., of cotyledons. VIII. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. Observe how plants behave; how they climb or twine; if they sleep at night; if they have regular times for unfolding the blossom (as the " four- 378 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. o'clock"). Observe changes in the color and attitude of leaves due to meteorological phenomena. In what kind of soil does the plant thrive? Are its roots sent deep into the ground? Compare the stability of the plant with the number and relative size of its roots. What insects frequent the plant? What insects visit it? What birds visit it? For what? Keep a record of daily observations of some one plant or plants throughout the season, so that you can write a life history of that plant. Make collections of stems, buds, fruit, seeds, etc., for winter study. Prepare sections of common trees showing bark and rings to be mounted for school-room observation and compari- son. NOTE. The above is intended to be, suggestive rather than exhaustive, and has been prepared with special reference to those investigations within the reach of every district school. MIGRATION OF BIRDS. The Science Supplement of February 26, probably first called the attention of many teachers to the wide-spread " Destruction of our native birds." The appalling statistics therein given must awaken in every thoughtful spirit an ardent desire to protect the hapless-winged creatures whose slaughter is a disgrace to our civilization. Every teacher must desire to lead the children under her care to know and love their "winged brothers," to recognize their voices, to watch them as they build their nests and rear their young, to welcome them as they return from their southern home, and to bid them farewell as they speed away on their journey southward from the cold winds of our northern winter. She must do more. She must lead them to see that the wanton destruction of bird life means crops wasted by insect enemies, human beings suffering because of this loss, the whole country poorer because of thoughtlessness and vanity. Only by study of birds and bird-ways can this be done. DIRECTIONS TO STUDENTS. In addition to the points given in the circular on the "Geographical Distribution and Migration of North American Birds" for 1886, which can be obtained from the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture at Washington, D. C., the following more de- tailed observations are suggested: HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. 379 1. FLIGHT. Observe whether the bird flies habitually (a) near the ground, either in open spaces or among shrubs and underbrush; (6) among branches of trees; (c) high in the air over open prairie or swamp. Does the bird fly most in the early morning, at noon, in the evening, or during the night? How does it fly? With long, sweeping motion of wings, or short, sharp movement, or soaring motion? Many birds can be identified by their mode of flight, when so far away as to not be otherwise distinguishable. What is the relation of the weight of the bird to the extent of wing surface and the rapidity of wing stroke? 2. FOOD. What is the usual food of the bird observed? Where is it obtained? Among grasses and weeds, among branches of trees and shrubs, in the open air high above the ground, etc., etc. How is the food obtained? By probing with the bill, by tearing apart of seed-vessels, etc. When is the food obtained? Early in the morning, in the dusk of twilight? Does the same bird feed upon insects and seeds and fruits? What proportion of his food is insects? "Table manners"? 3. NEST. Describe the nest, the material of which it is constructed, the mode of construction, etc., its size, color, shape. Is the nest made on the ground, in shrubs, in trees, in grassy hummocks? How is the nest concealed? When is the nest made? How long a time is required for making? Do both the male and female birds make it? For how many broods is the nest used? Does any species of birds show decided preference for certain trees or shrubs as nesting places? 4. BREEDING. When does the bird mate? How many egg are laid? What is their size, their color, etc.? When are the eggs hatched? When do the fledglings leave the nest? How many broods are raised in a season? Do both parent birds feed the young? Are fledglings taught to fly by the parent birds? 5. SONG. Do different species of birds have any preference for special time of day for singing, or are they heard at all times? Is the song imitative? Does the bird sing when perching, or when on the wing, or at both times? Is there any marked variations in the songs or calls of the same bird at different times, or for differ- ent purposes? Example Notes of warning, notes expressive of surprise, joy, etc. It is suggested that in each school a daily record be kept of 380 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. observations made in the directions indicated in these papers upon plants, birds, and the weather, and that the teacher observe whether there is any mental or moral development in her pupils which can be traced to the stimulus of these investigations. WEATHER OBSERVATIONS. BY G. W. FITZ COOK COUNTY NORMAL SCHOOL. OBSERVE. 1. Whether clear weather is relatively warm or cold. 2. Whether fair weather is relatively warm or cold. 3. Whether cloudy weather is relatively warm or cold. 4. Whether rainy weather is relatively warm or cold. NOTE. Test temperature by a thermometer which is kept dry and yet freely exposed to the air in the shade. 5. Which are apt to be stormy, warm, or cold spring days? 6. Does the direction of the wind affect this? 7. Observe carefully the formation (development) of clouds and their dissipation. In the sudden showers whence comes the clouds, and what causes their disappearance? 8. Whence comes rain? Clouds? Moisture in air, etc.? NOTE. Keep in mind the action of heat and gravity and all will be clear. Heat causes repulsion of particles, thus overcoming cohesion and giving rise to expansion. Heat causes evaporation (What is it?) and expansion; gravity pushes the moisture and air up; heat is lost by (a) radiation, (6) expansion under lessened pressure (1 degree F. to 182 ft. ascent, etc.) (c) ? Loss of heat results in condensation (What is it?) of watery vapor to "water dust." (Tyndall: See "Forms of Water" and "Heat as a Mode of Motion.") Motion of the particles (falling, etc.) causes them to touch, coalesce, fall more rapidly, and become full-sized rain-drops. 9. What is the lowest temperature at which it rains? High- est at which it snows? 10. What are the conditions which cause snow? How is the snow-flake builded? By what? 11. When does it hail, winter or summer? Why? See Davis on " Whirlwinds, Cyclones, and Tornadoes." HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. 381 12. Make barometer and observe changes in heights; com- pare with thermometer, dew-point, etc. weather conditions, etc. 13. Tie thin cloth on the bulb of a thermometer, moisten it and compare readings with those of "dry bulb" thermometer. Note that differences are variable greatest in dry weather, least in wet weather. Why? 14. Observe when dew is deposited on cold objects. Meas- ure the temperature of an object which will just cause dew to ap- pear on its surface (a tin cup containing water and copied gradu- ally with ice until dew appears on the bright surf are; tempera- ture tested with a thermometer which may be used to stir the water.) Find temperature of " Dew Point" at different times. 15. Study carefully the weather reports in daily papers, etc. Remember, Heat is a force. Heat and gravity give rise to weather and climate, do all the work. Cold is a sensation not a force, and does nothing. The teacher must not lead pupils to theoret- ical conclusions about weather, till he has some basis for them. Weather is a complex problem, and should not be taught as a simple one. Children should be led to observe the weather from day to day, and to think of the varying phenomena as produced by ascertainabla causes, which causes are forces modified in action by varying conditions, yet acting invariably according to certain laws, which may be discovered by careful observation. Little of the weather may be understood except by the study of the larger weather conditions presented by the Signal Service in their tri-daily reports from stations scattered over the United States and Canada, also in Europe. THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY. BY HERDER, [1744-1803.] [Translated by Dr. John B. Daish, John Hopkins University. Published in Education, January, 1888. With permission of translator.] "It would be fruitless by a long speech on this occasion as the better business of the day to show the young people in their strife of industry and glory, or to take their precious time; and still it would be more fruitless to lose this time in a Latin speech, which would be understood by only half of this assembly, or none at all, and it is by those very ones I wish to be understood. I have, 382 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. therefore, decided to speak of the suitableness, usefulness, and necessity of a science to be taught in schools; of this subject I hoard two years ago in this Imperial Gymnasium the striking ex- pression that it is a dry study. In many examinations in this sub- ject, which it has been my duty to hold, I have found more of the youth strangers to it than I would wish. The science is none other than geography a study which, according to my concep- tion, is just as dry as if I should call the Ilm, or the great ocean dry, since .1 know few sciences so rich in necessary and pleasant facts of knowledge, yet at the same time so necessary for our time, and would be so fitted for the youth that I wonder how any noble, well-educated youth in the best years of his life should not love the science before all others, as soon as it appears in the form in which it must appear that is to say as the basis and auxiliary science of all studies which we most prize and value. Permit me, therefore, most learned assembly, that I give you a little of the material and of the method which I, in the best years of my life, learned with the greatest pleasure, and have taught with equally as much pleasure to others. I speak from experience; the matter will speak for itself. " Certainly if one understands by geography nothing but a list of the names of countries, rivers, boundaries, and cities, then of course it is dry; but also at the same time a list of words so badly treated and misunderstood, as if one knew of history noth- ing but a list of unworthy kings and dates. Such a study is not educating, but is in the highest degree frightening, and lacks sap and strength. Also a great part of political geography, as well as political history, has no charm for the young; indeed, if one should speak the truth, not once wholly understood, since of the greater part of the actions of States which have been carried out the young have so little a right conception that at most they are wanting to grown people. But is this true geography? true his- tory? Is a miserable nomenclature a speech? Does the learning by heart of a vocabulary constitute a good author, and would wo not consider one as insane who, in order to learn Latin and Greek, would study nothing but a lexicon? Exactly is this the case with geography and history if one uses them merely as an index of rivers, countries, cities, kings, battles, and treaties of peace. All these are necessary material, but the building must be built out of them, else they are but stone and lime, that is, ruins, in which HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. 383 no one rejoices and which is inhabited by no living soul. The colors are necessary to the painter; he uses them in his works of art, and then only do they delight the eye and educate the soul. Let us see what the word geography can say according to its name. "It is a description of the earth , as far as it is a knowledge of the earth is physical geography the most necessary; a knowl- edge as important as it is easily and pleasantly entertaining. Who would not wish to learn of the wonderful house in which we live? To learn about the earth, a globe, as a planet; to make known the common laws according to which it revolves around the sun and on its axis, and by that means days, years, climates, and zones come into being; to bring all this into the foreground, with all the comprehensiveness and dignity which it demands, if that does not elevate and actuate the mind, what does? It gives to a noble youth a share of that sublime joy which we feel if we read the dream of Scipio as given by Cicero, or hear elevating music; for this knowledge is the true music of the soul. Out of the great unity of natural principles an unmeasured row of geographical consequences is visible; these we daily feel and enjoy, and of them every one who is capable of understanding wishes an explanation. So I have a poor opinion of a young man who, for instance, should read without pleasure Fontenelle's Speech of More than One World; so he must be a statue with human appearance who re- mains undisturbed by the great laws which rule on our earth and by which he becomes what he is. All during my life will the times of my youth remain a pleasant dream since my soul first received this knowledge and I was charmed over the border of my native country out into the wide world of God in which our earth floats. "The planet which we inhabit is divided into earth and water; the former stands out like a mountain, at both sides of which, as on inclined planes, streams flow; this is the great receptacle of water out of whose mists, purified by the air and drawn up to the peaks of mountains, becomes the source of all fruitfulness and nourishment. What a fulness of beautiful and useful knowledge rests in this conception! If the youth in his thoughts ascends the high mountain ridges and learns to recognize their peculiar phe- nomena, if he afterwards wanders down with the rivers into the valley and finally comes to the seashore and becomes accquainted with other creatures, with minerals, plants, animals, and men; if 384 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. he learns to know that that which was mere chaos in the form of the earth has also law and rule, and also how, according to these and to the laws of climate, forms, colors, ways of living, customs, and religion change and are changed, and that, despite all differ- ences, mankind is everywhere but a race of brothers, created by One, sprung from a common parent, striving and struggling after one goal of happiness, but in various ways, oh, how elevated will his sight be and how his soul will expand! Meantime he learns the various products of the earth, the many different ways of thinking, uses, the ways his brothers live, and of mankind, who enjoy the light of one sun and obey the same laws of fortune. Truly, then, geography must be the most charming picture, full of art, plans, change; indeed, full of prudence, humanity, and relig- ion. He changes himself, without leaving his fatherland, to an Ulysses, travels through the earth, finds out about people, coun- tries, and customs, full of prudence and folly. And if all these are made vivid, then it must be a stupid monster who by that means does not receive into his head ideas, and into his heart a great and refined perception. Oh, had many short-sighted, proud, intolerant barbarians who imagine that their corner is the only salvation, and that the sun of reason shines only in their den, only learned geography and history better in their youth, it would have been impossible for them to have made the narrow band of their heads a measure of the world, and made the customs of their corner the rule and guide of all times, climates, and peoples! For my part, at least, I must confess that geography and history (both considered in the true circumference of their conception) have first of all contributed to the shaking off of a line of lazy judg- ments, to the comparing of men and customs, and to the seeking out of the true, beautiful, and necessary in which form it shows itself from the outside. In this way geography and history serve the most useful philosophy of the earth, namely: the philosophy of customs, sciences, and arts; they sharpen thesensum liumaniti- tis in all forms and shapes; they teach us with enlightened eyes to see and value our judgments without despising on that account any nation of the earth. ' For in Him we live, and move, and have our being,' said Paul before the altar of the unknown God of the Athenians, 'and hath made of one blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth, and hath determined the times before appointed, and the bounds of their habitations/ HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. 385 "It follows, then, from what I have said, that geography made in a real way manifold, rich, and vivid is inseparable from natural history and the history of peoples, and furnishes for Loth the base-line. Natural history is that which most charms the youth and fills his head with the richest, purest, truest, most useful pic- tures and ideas which neither the Apthoniac Chrin nor logic and metaphysics can give, and the truest, most pleasant, and useful geography for children is natural history. The elephant, the tigor, the crocodile, and whale interest a boy far more than the eight electors of the Holy Roman Empire in their ermine mantles and furs. The great revolutions of the earth and of the sea, the volcanoes, the tide, the trade winds, and similar facts are far bet- ter suited to his years and powers than the pedantry at Regens- burg and Wetzlar. By means of natural history every country, every sea, every island, every phase of climate, and every race of mankind, every division of the world, portray themselves in him with undying characters; so much the more as these characters are constant and do not change with the names of mortal regents. The Egyptian horse, the Arabic camel, the Indian elephant, the African lion, the American crocodile, and the like are symbols and coat-of-arms of individual countries more worthy to be re- membered than the changing boundaries which follow a delusive peace, or perhaps the first new war may alter. Since all the riches of nature are so near related, since the chain of all earthly beings is so interpendent, one is a remainder of the other. The mountains remind one of the metals and minerals of springs and streams, of the effect of the atmosphere as well as of animals and men who inhabit it or its sides. All unites itself to another and gives to the mind of the youth to be educated an indelible pict- ure full of traits rich in lessons, which traits pass over into all sciences and everywhere are of manifold and valuable use. " Every one knows that geography serves history, and indeed, that history, political and technical, of the Church and State; in- deed, I may say that history without geography, as also without chronology, for the great part becomes a true air-castle. What does it help a young person if he knows what has happened and not knowing where it has happened? And why so often is ancient history rather called an unsteady dream than true history? Is it not, among other things, because it is too often separated from ancient geography and therefore speaks from passing of mere 386 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY ehndows which hover in the air? History becomes, so to say, nn illuminated map for the powers of imagination, and even of judg- ment by means of geography; for only through its help is it per- ceptible why this and no other people have played a certain and no other role on the stage of the world; why these rulers here and those there could rule; why this empire must exist a long, and that one for a short, time; why the monarchies and empires fol- low each other in this way and in no other, have only such bor- ders, quarrel, or are united; why science, culture, inventions, and art take this and no other course; and how from the heights of Asia through Assyrians, Persians, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Arabians, Europeans, finally the ball of the world-wide events and strifes is rolled now hither and now thither, I would have to speak for hours if I wished to show all this in needed examples. In short, geography is the basis of history, and history is nothing but the geography of times and peoples set in motion. Whoever studies one without the other understands neither, and whoever despises both should live like the mole, not on, but under, the earth. All the sciences which our century value, esteems, de- mands, and affords are based especially on philosophy and history; trade and politics, economy and law, medicine and all practical knowledge and manipulation, are based on geography and history. They are the stage and the book of God's household. History the book and geography the stage. A student must remain back in every science of the academy if he does not bring with him from schools these foundation sciences, geography, history, and natural history, almost fhe material for all. Fortunate that one who saw them in his school time in a beautiful and charming form ! Fortu- nate that one whose memory is not filled by their entertainment, but whose soul is educated and mind unlocked ! Up, noble youths, and show what I only in common pictures and incomplete and from a distance could point out by individual trials in deeds and practice. Frighten us by your industry, your noble watchfulness, your noble desire for glory in this and in all other sciences of your life, and the genius of your life will crown your laudable, early begun work." HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. 387. RELIEF MAPS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION. BY JOHN BRION, CONSTRUCTOR OF RELIEVO MAPS TO H. R. H., THE LATE PRINCE CONSORT, FROM "AMATEUR WORK." It is generally conceded that the most natural and effect- ive mode of representing objects is by truthful model- ing. Paintings and drawings, however ably executed, can not give, at one view, complete transcripts of the things represented. To nothing does this apply with more force than to geographical subjects. I think every one will admit that it is impossible to im- agine elevations and all varieties of peaks, ridges, water- partings, and table-lands with any degree of accuracy upon the flat surface of a map. The most elaborate hill shadings only indicate positions and areas; natural forms and alti- tudes remain unrepresented except in these vague points; light shading indicates moderate elevations and heavy shading represents higher ones. The late A. Keith Johnston was so strongly impressed with the futility of hill shading that in many of his finest works he abandoned it, substituting black lines to mark the positions and directions of elevated tracks, and his plan has been frequently adopted by others. But the method, although it frees a map from much confusion, fails to give the slightest indication of form or hight. So entirely has the superiority of molding over all other forms of geo- graphical representation been admitted that many clever attempts to give the effect of relievo work have been made, by what is called photo relievo or panaramic maps; but in all of these there are, of a necessity, grave errors in per- spective, to say nothing of the futility of endeavoring to present by those methods an "all around" view of a hilly or mountainous region. It will perhaps be said: If the superiority of relief maps over all others be so great, why have they not been admitted to more general use? The answer is easy: On account of their cost. A good quarto map of Switzerland can be had for two shillings, while Killer's admirable re- 388 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. lief of the same costs as many guineas. I can vouch for the fact that where it has been found practicable to issue a relief map at a moderate price, the sale has been speedy and extensive. To obviate the serious objection of price, and to enable any one who is desirous of so doing to acquire and embody exact ideas of any carefully explored portions of the earth's surface, is the object of this paper. It will be found easy and inexpensive, and will gratify the student with a new sense of creative power, expand the mind, fix more deeply the present knowledge, and correct wrong impressions of structure. Relievo work may be divided into two classes, maps and models. As the maps are embossed from the latter, accu- racy in their construction is all important, and with them we will begin. Assume that we are to construct a relief map of Eng- land; we will first procure two simple, well engraved, un- colored, unmounted maps of the size which we wish to make. Procure a well-seasoned and smoothly-planed board 1J inch wider all round than our map. Next make a moderately thick paste of corn flour ^ Bb, and one tea- spoonful of powdered alum, mix carefully with cold water to the consistency of cream. Boil for three or four minutes, stirring constantly. The board and paste being ready, soak one map and one sheet of cartridge or brown paper of the same size as the map in clear, cold water, till they are saturated. Take care that they lie perfectly flat. (Note. Paper of a soft, fine texture, not very stout, is best for this work.) Remove the map and paper from the bath, and carefully lay them on a piece of white calico in order that it may absorb all superfluous moisture. Let them remain to expand about ten minutes. With your paste-brush work the paste well into the back of the board and upon one side of the blank sheet of paper, mount the paper on the back of the board. (Be careful not to leave much paste upon the paper, but work well into the pores. ) Mount the map upon the front of the board; it is a good plan to place a sheet of blank paper over the map, and with a HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. 389 round rule work evenly over the surface. The mounting- done, leave the work to dry, but avoid placing the board in the sun or near to a fire. The reason for using the paper at the back of the mounting board is to compensate the warping that would otherwise arise from the contrac- tion of the map in drying. The motive for mounting the map in a thoroughly expanded state is all important in the process, for if it were mounted dry, the wet maps would, by expansion, be too large for the die when prepared for embossing. The time for drying the map after mounting depends on the weather and the warmth of the room in which it is placed. Twenty-four hours are generally nec- essary, as it is unadvisable to commence modeling till the map is quite dry. This being done, the next step is to determine and permanently mark the positions and alti- tudes of the chief hills, mountains, etc. The question of the relative proportions that should be observed between the vertical and horizontal scales has been much discussed. The true, natural scales for relievo work are those which are admitted to represent vertical objects in their apparent and remembered proportions. To obtain these the following rules are good, general guides: On a map of six inches to one mile, or greater, an equal vertical scale will produce a natural representation, unless the locality is very low, in which case an increase in the vertical measurements of J- to | times will be necessary. On map 4 ins. to 1 mile increase vertical scale J times. tt tt O tt tt tt tt 1 tt tt tt 9 tt tt tt tt j' tt tt tt -| tt tt tt tt 9 tt " " 3 miles to one inch " " 3 tt tt ,' tt tt tt tt A tt tt "12 " " " u 8 u tt tt f)\ tt tt The following directions will be acceptable to those who find difficulty in forming the scales for working pur- poses: Take the horizontal scale of the map to bo embossed; for example, take a map of England and Wales, of 24 miles to an inch. This by the above table should have a vertical scale 16 times greater than the horizontal. 390 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. Measure off an inch upon paper, divide into 24 parts, each representing a mile, or 5,280 feet. Let off sixteen of these parts on a line, and from it cut l-20th part. Divide the remainder of the line into five equal portions and each will represent 1000 feet vertical, sixteen times in excess of the horizontal. The question of scales is very important in this work, but there is also a great necessity for compar- ing, whenever practicable, the model while in progress with the objects sought to be represented. Having marked the vertical scale upon a piece of cardboard, boxwood, or ivory, and being provided with riv- ets, or fine brads, 1| inches to J inch in length, drive these rivets perpendicularly into the board on the places marked to denote the different summits, measuring the feet by your graduated vertical scale. There are various substances in which the modeling can be executed: China, clay, pipe-clay, papier-mache, and white composition. To prepare papier-mache for modeling: Take white blotting-paper, and soak it in water till it is reduced to pulp; squeeze dry in a cloth, mix thor- oughly with the white paste described, working it with a knife on a board or stone slab, till of the consistency of painters' putty. For white composition modeling clay: Take best whiting, add one third, by measure, of common wheat flour, mix with cold water, and work to a stiff, doughy consistence. With any of these modeling clays proceed to work upon bases of the hills shaded upon the mounted map. AknoAvledge of geology is not indispensa- ble to the construction of relievo maps, and an acquaint- ance with the general contours of the geological forma- tions, will aid considerably in producing truthful modeling. In addition to this obtain, whenever practicable, photo- graphs or reliable sketches or engravings of remarkable localities; and if the modeler can sketch, he will soon after he commences the practice of the art, be often busy in jotting down the outlines of hills, etc., that meet his eye. The tools necessary in geographical modeling are simple: An ordinary paper-knife, and modeling points, stumps or flats, aud scrapers made of bone pen-holders, filed or glass- HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. 391 papered into shape ; these will enable the worker to pro- duce almost any kind of form and delicacy of finish. To begin the modeling: Work a little size or gum- arabic over the whole of the mounted map, and when dry build up with your clay the principle height marked by the rivet ; then run a narrow piece of modeling clay along the remainder of the range, gradually throwing off the edges of the clay where the fainter shading indicates the lower eleva- tions. Make the ridges of your hills irregular, and none so high as the first point. Tool out the valleys in the hill- sides till a contour of this appearance is produced. A good general contour is what should be first sought for, details and high finish will then be easily obtained. Build the clay in cones upon the parts marked by rivets, keeping each point quite distinct from the others, and leaving the valleys to be filled in after the modeling has become toler- ably dry. It is often of great advantage, when construct- ing a map on a small scale, to refer to one of much larger size, as features are there frequently represented which throw great light upon the smaller work. It is necessary in all cases to adhere strictly to the areas marked by the hill shading of the map you are modeling upon, and to take especial care not to obliterate or confuse the river courses, or, when the process of embossing is effected, you will be presented with the phenomena of rivers running up or over hills, etc. Frequent reference to your unmounted map will save much after-trouble in corrections. On no account lose sight of the heights marked by the nails as the summits of the hills by modeling over them. The great charm of a model or of a relievo map is its close re- semblance to nature; hence distinctive features, as well as general correctness, ought to enter as much into the work of the modeler as facial contours and expression do in work of the portrait painter. Suppose the principal heights on the map to be modeled, it will be well to leave the work for a day or two to get well set. A very little prac- tice will enable anyone to determine when the modeling clay may be touched without disturbing the work already done. The secondary modeling consists in the lesser ele- vations. This will lead to the third modeling in which 392 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. we add the minor spurs of the principal hills, level up the land and beds of the river gradually toward the salient heights, which have hitherto appeared as sharp abrupt landmarks upon a dead level. This portion of the work is apparently easy, but it requires taste and judgment to dis- tinguish between the leaving of the model abrupt and un- natural ( as will be the case ' if the valleys and uplands are not filled in and made to blend with the bases of the hills and mountains), and the obscuring of the work by filling in the lowlands too heavily. Avoid rendering the work blunt and indefinite, on the one hand, or " patchy and poor" by neglecting the natural lie of the slopes, and de- pressions, on the other. In working up the valleys, it will be found convenient to roll out a piece of clay half the width of the depression, and with a modeling tool to gently spread this till it reaches the hill sides, and is made to blend with the first portion of the work ; the sides and bed of the valley will then naturally follow. At this stage take care not to obliterate or mistake the river beds, and by reference to your unmounted map, and occasional use of the com- passes, keep the water-courses true. The cliffs aud coast- line generally may be now laid on. Do this by rolling out a long sinuous piece of clay, and running it about a quar- ter of an inch from the coast. A gentle pressure of the fingers upon the top will flatten it and make it approach the line of coast. Work on this by vertical strokes of your modeling points, and you will obtain the distinctive features of the cliffs. Smooth your clay gently down sea- ward, where there are no cliffs, and blend it in with the undulations of the land beyond. While working up to this point, the model should be frequently brought to the level of the eye, and the contours rigidly examined on all sides. By this view errors are oftimes detected and new ideas frequently suggested by the horizontal survey. Dur- ing the process it will be found necessary to moisten the clay already modeled before adding new clay. This should be done by passing cold water gently over the dry surface. The modeling clay when not in use should be kept in a damp cloth. The touches in modeling are so infinitely varied and depend so much on the taste and judgment that HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. 393 directions must be general. Strive to be natural, accustom yourself to look upon nature as the best tutor, and imitate her features as nearly as possible. The most gifted artist can only approach her very humbly, but he who seeks her frequent guidance can never entirely fail. Be sure in the final examination of your work, that there is no under- cutting or miniature covers, produced by too great rough- ness of work or porosity of the clay. The model completed, obtain a die or matrix for the purpose of embossing. Dies for embossing paper work are generally formed of metal, cast, electrotyped or engraved. If metal casting is to be used, the map to be embossed must be drawn to fit after the cast is obtained; the contraction which the molten metal undergoes in cooling would throw everything out of register. Electrotyped dies are entirely free from this ob- jection, and are to be preferred to all others. In order to prepare the model for casting, dissolve white wax or bees- wax in turpentine or other spirit in such proportions as to produce a thick creamy consistence. Warm the bottle containing this, also the model, very slightly. With a soft hog-hair pencil brush over every portion of the model. The clay will absorb much of the wax. Let it stand a few minutes to cool; warm wax and model again, and brush all over a second time, carrying the dis- solved wax over the whole surface of the map, even where it has not been modeled up, namely, the seas, bays etc. Be careful not to miss a point. Let the model cool again, then examine whether the wax has stopped any of the fine cuttings in the work; if so, pass it to and fro at a little distance from the fire till the super- fluous wax is absorbed. Let all remain to cool, and while this is going on prepare for casting by taking four pieces of narrow thin wood of lengths to form a raised frame around the model. Tack the slips to the edges of the modeling board, so as to enclose the model in a kind of shallow box. Be especially careful that this is of sufficient height to admit of plaster of Paris being cast to a depth of three inches for a model of eighteen inches square, adding one half inch in depth of plaster for every six inches ad- dtional in length or breadth of modeled work. The slips of 394 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. wood being securely tacked on, stop the corners with clay to prevent leakage, brush the wood and model carefully over with olive oil. It is now ready for casting. In a lar r re basin or other convenient vessel, put luk.-warm water, that has been previously boiled, to this add the dry plaster, scattering it gently over the surface with one hand, and briskly by mixing it with the other, till the mass becomes of the consistence of thick cream. Shut all doors and windows to prevent draughts, and pour the liquid plaster steadily and continuously over the oiled surface of the model, shaking it gently for the first minute, in order that the plaster may enter the minutest parts of the work. Cover to a depth of about one and a half inches. Allow ten minutes to elapse, when a second quantity of plaster can be mixed, and the mould filled in to the required depth. When it is completely set, scrape the back to a level. In about a quarter of an hour, remove the wooden slips from the model, and let it remain for an hour longer, taking care meantime, to free the sides from any plaster that may have run between the side slips and the model. Before the expiration of an hour, the model and casting will begin to separate at the edges, but do not be hasty in attempting to lift your work. When about to do so it is well to turn the cast over on its back, so as to bring the model upwards. If the modeling, waxing, and oiling have been properly done, the mould may now be lifted from the cast without difficulty or fracture, but if there be signs of adhesion between the two, let them remain longer. If it should be found that some portions of the model have adhered to the cast, do not hasten to detach them. If the waxing has been thorough they will soon detach them- selves so far that they may be easily removed with the help of the modeling tools, and put in their proper places on the model. Strong size or thin glue can be used as a cement. The plaster die being thus separated, let it re- main on edge so as to allow the air to circulate around it for twenty-four hours. It should then be closely ex- amined in order to ascertain whether air bubbles appear in any part ; if you discover any stop them in thus : Mix a little fine plaster in a cup as for casting, scratch the bubble- HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. 395 hole deep with a modeling point, wet it with cold water, applied with a camel-hair pencil, and with the same paint in the defect with the liquid plaster. The die being of considerable thickness will require several days to become thoroughly dry ; do not be mistaken in supposing that the cast is dry because the surface appears so, a clear ring from the cast when struck by the knuckles is the best in- dication of thorough dryness. If you wish for a cast metal matrix, simply take your plaster die to a good founder instructing him to keep the metal cast as thin as he conveniently can for the purpose of saving weight and cost. Should you decide to have your die electrotyped test the accuracy of your modeling before embodying it in metal. Place the unmounted map with its face against a glass window, and trace with lead pencil upon the back the hights and certain other places which will serve as register points for the whole map. Run a blunt pen- knife along the hill shading, working the summits of the ranges and all the hjghest points, but do not cut through the map. Then work the map in cold water, taking care not to obliterate the penciled markings. When saturated, dry off superfluous moisture with a soft cloth, lay the map carefully oh the plaster die so as to fit the coast-line. Fit the map to* the penciled register marks. Secure the map in its place by pasting long slips of paper on the sides of the map and the sides of the die. Paste the back of your map evenly and thoroughly ; then rub with your fingers, gently along coasts low lands and small elevations, and proceed gradually till you reach the greatest heights, or rather the greatest depths of the die. Cautiously break the portions which have been partly severed and lay the divided parts in their natural position east, and west, or north and south as the case may be. Press them firmly into the die and cover the fractures with narrow pieces of soft, white paper, torn not cut, at the edges. Paste these slightly before laying them on, and with a modeling tool, judiciously used to prevent breakage, sink them into the depths of the die that remain exposed by fractures made by cuttings in the map. Go over the whole again with paste brush and fingers. With pieces of very stiff model- 396 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. ing clay, properly formed, press firmly down into every part. Fill in the land evenly everywhere with the clay, smoothing the work off exactly to the coast, and bring all to a perfect level. Paste over the whole. Take a mill board or panel of smooth wood ; paste this also and lay it upon your embossed map, rubbing it firmly on the back in order to attach the two. Cut away the slips that have secured the sides of your map to the die, get an assistant to raise the die gently on one edge to about the angle of forty-five degrees, holding the mounting board firmly to the embossed map yourself. Gently lift the work from the mould, taking care not to allow the tops of the hills to touch anything. If errors are discovered they can now be rectified by cutting away portions of the die, where required, or by filling in with liquid plaster and your pencil. Proofs of corrections may be taken on plain wet paper and modeling clay. The plaster die completed, another step must be taken to prepare for the electrotypist. Warm the die before a slow, clear fire, then with a spoon pour melted beeswax over every portion of the die. The plaster, being well warmed, will absorb a considerable por- tion of the wax ; the residue will disappear on the die being held before the fire. Repeat the waxing a second time, which, completely cooled, brush olive oil Over every part ; edge it around with wooden strips, arid take a cast in fine plaster according to previous directions. This cast need be but one and a half inches thick. Let the cast remain the same time as previously recommended, then take it from the die. This relief cast is prepared for the electrotypist as follows: 1st, dry it thoroughly; 2nd, boil it in bees- wax, over a slow clear fire; 3rd, when cool, clear every bit of wax from the surface by holding the cast before a moder- ate fire; 4th, with a soft brush go gently and carefully over the whole of the sea and relievo portions, with the best black lead in dry powder. The model is now ready for electro typing. Electro dyes are made of various thick- nesses, from that of a six pence to one-eighth of an inch. The time required varies from four to five days to a fort- night. After the electro is taken from the bath it is " backed up " with lead. This is done by laying the elec- HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. 397 tro face dowmvards, on a hot iron plate, well-secured around with a metal edge, same as wooden edge used in cast- ing plaster. Soft solder is then worked over the whole of the back, and upon this, by repeated, judicious pourings of molten lead, a solid even block is formed, which protects the die and fits it for being embossed from. The method for Parian dies is as follows: Prepare the relief plaster cast by waxing as before. Make wooden edges four inches in height. Oil model and inside of wood carefully. Be sure all corners are completely stopped, and every space between wood and cast. Take fine plaster of Paris; to every quart of this add a dessert spoonful of alum, in pow- der; mix thoroughly, then with luke-warm water, asbefore, prepare your plaster for casting. Have sufficient to cover mountains at first cast. When set, back it up by a second casting in coarse plaster, total thickness about four inches. When firmly set, scrape back off to level. Proceed as recommended on taking first die from original model. When ready, remove die from relievo, and when perfectly dry, the die will be hard as marble. For casting, wax surface as for the plaster one. Very little wax will be required, as Parian is much less porous than plaster. The Parian cement being ready, what is technically known as a "force" must be obtained. Gutta-percha is good for this purpose. Procure a sufficient quantity of the ordinary kind. Three-eighths of an inch is convenient thickness. Cut your gutta percha into pieces three or four inches square, put in boiling water. Let them remain, stirring occasionally, till com- pletely softened. When this is done, place the mass on a board or table well wetted with cold water, and when it can be handled, knead the whole into a compact mass. Frequently wet the hands in cold water to prevent adhesion. When about half cold, and getting a little stiff, but can be easily worked, roll into a cake about three- fourths size of the surface of the die. Rub a piece of soap over the gutta percha, then lay it carefully soaped face downwards, upon middle of the die. Quickly, with fin- gers, press it firmly into all depressions, taking care not to move the gutta percha to and fro. Roll the back off level, 398 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. and smoothly spread the gutta perch a beyond the extent of the land. It will soon cool. It is a good plan to lay one of your casts back downwards upon it while setting, to prevent warping. When perfectly cold it may be lifted with ease. From half an hour to an hour, according to thickness, is usually sufficient. If all has not gone well, cut up your gutta percha, boil it again and persevere till you succeed. Success in this depends on using the gutta at the right time, i. e., when about half cold, but not so much as to be refractory in working. The next step is that of embossing. Trace and prop- erly soap the maps to be embossed as previously directed: lay upon a table a piece of thick felt or carpet, doubled so as to form an* even bed. Upon this, place your die, face upwards. With powdered starch, in a muslin bag, lightly dust both its plane surface and its depressions. Lay a wet map, half cut through at the highest elevations with your blunt pen knife, and cleared of all surface moisture, accurately upon the register points of the die, as already described, secure it by the paper slips at the edges. Dob the small- est depressions firmly down with a piece of wet cloth formed in to a convienent ball. Lay the fractures along the lines of the deepest depressions of the map carefully in their places, and repair them with white paper in the name manner as you did in taking the first proof. Smooth all down neatly. Pass the paste brush lightly but thorough- ly over the entire map, and upon it smoothly mount a clamp sheet of demy paper, previously pasted. Press this into the depressions; then take your gutta-percha "force," powder it well with the starch, to prevent it sticking to the map, and fit it to its proper position on the die. A couple of points will enable you to do this securely. Press the "force" firmly down upon the map. Rub a piece of soap over the back of the "force" and with the face of an auctioneer's hammer, or a porcelain knob- bed door-handle, rub with considerable power over the whole of the back of the "force," crossing and recrossing the rubber in every direction, so that every portion of the map beneath may receive the impression of the die and force. Be careful not to strike the die ; it will bear very HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. 399 considerable exertion of strength when rubbed, but would go to pieces under a moderate blow, or beneath a press. The best method of obtaining power in rubbing is to firm- ly grasp the handle of your hammer or door-knob, and bring your hand in that position near your chest, throw- ing back your elbow, and rubbing "straight from the shoulders." 1 Take especial care that your die always lies on a thick and even pad of felt or carpet. Remove the force cautiously. Examine the impression made upon the back of the embossed map. If not satisfactory, give what is termed a "second blocking." For securing solidity of work it is well to fill ir the embossing solid with papier- mache. Embossed maps are mounted in three ways: 1st. upon thin panels of wood; 2nd. upon mill-board; 3rd. upon canvass "strained upon a stretcher." No. three is cheaper and easier to work, and ensures the perfect level so necessary to the correctness of relievo work. To mount the embossed map, paste the face of the canvas thorough- ly, also the back of the embossed work. With care lay two corners of the mounted stretchers upon two corners of the map, let it fall gently into its place upon the relievo, rub the back of the canvas well and evenly down upon the map so that every part may adhere, remove the side pieces of binding paper, raise the die, and gently lift the em- bossed map. The drying of an embossed map must not be hurried by placing if before a fire or in the hot sun. .Tli at will cause warping or shrinking. A moderately warm room is needed. The period required for drying varies according to the size of the masses of relievo work. For small maps, twenty-four hours may do, for large and bold subjects three or four days will be required. During the first twelve hours it is well to let the embossed work lie in a horizontal position, face upwards supported by a panel of wood to prevent the work from sinking. When set, the relievo may be stood on edge so as to allow its drying equally at the same time back and front. Should any fractures be perceptible after the relievo is thorougly dry, dust the map carefully and with a soft hog-hair, or flat camel-hair brush, wash it lightly over with patent or other clear size, In sizing take care not to let the liquid 400 HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. settle down into pools amidst the hills, etc., and go very carefully in cross action over every portion of the sea as well as the land. Stand aside to dry. Should any fract- ures remain after this, take a small quantity of finely powdered white starch, mix it to a creamy paste with warm size (do not use gum arabic). Keep the starch cement liquid by placing over warm water, while work-; ing. Go over the fractures with a camel-hair pencil dipped in the liquid starch. When this is completed and all quite dry, Droceed to color your relievo. The coloring done and dried, give the map a second coat of size of thinner consistency than the first, in a few hours a third coat, being particular not to miss a single point, other- wise the varnish which has to follow will penetrate, and create an ugly brown mark. The last operation is that of varnishing. This should be done in a warm room with doors and windows closed, or currents of air may cause the work to become ridgey. Warm the map and varnish slightly before a fire : take care that the former is perfect- ly dry and well dusted. Three coats of varnish are better than two thick ones, allowing twenty-four hours for dry- ing each coat. THE RETURN TO: CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT 198 Main Stacks LOAN PERIOD 1 Home Use 2 3 4 5 6 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS. Renewals and Recharges may be made 4 days prior to the due date. Books may be renewed by calling 642-3405. DUE AS STAMPED BELOW. Jin n7?not FORM NO. DD 6 50M UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY Berkeley, California 94720-6000 ; 11 .- v, < - YC 48993 H?4i32r $.;> v& ^ {ffr'fr*! g ^M-%] v^- y /.v^^-r. UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA LIBRARY lp: I