GIFT OF KING'S SERIES IN WOODWORK AND CARPENTRY INSIDE FINISHING BY CHARLES A. KING DIRECTOR OF MANUAL TRAINING EASTERN HIGH SCHOOL, BAY CITY, MICHIGAN NEW YORK : CINCINNATI : CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY KING'S SERIES IN WOODWORK AND CARPENTRY ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK ELEMENTS OF CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY INSIDE FINISHING HANDBOOK FOR TEACHERS COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY CHAKLES A. KING. ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON. -W. P. I PREFACE TO THE SERIES THIS series consists of five volumes, four of which are intended as textbooks for pupils in manual-training, industrial, trade, tech- nical, or normal schools. The fifth book of the series, the " Hand- book in Woodwork and Carpentry," is for the use of teachers and of normal students who expect to teach the subjects treated in the other four volumes. Of the pupils' volumes, the first two, " Elements of Woodwork " and " Elements of Construction," are adapted to the needs of stu- dents in manual-training schools, or in any institution in which elementary woodwork is taught, whether as purely educational handwork, or as preparatory to a high, or trade, school course in carpentry or vocational training. The volumes " Constructive Carpentry " and " Inside Finish- ing" are planned with special reference to the students of tech- nical, industrial, or trade schools, who have passed through the work of the first two volumes, or their equivalent. The subjects treated are those which will be of greatest value to both the pro- spective and the finished workman. For the many teachers who are obliged to follow a required course, but who are allowed to introduce supplementary or optional models under certain conditions, and for others who have more liberty and are able to make such changes as they see fit, this series will be found perfectly adaptable, regardless of the grades taught. To accomplish this, the material has been arranged by topics, which may be used by the teacher irrespective of the sequence, as each topic has to the greatest extent possible been treated independently. iii 239423 iv PREFACE TO THE SERIES The author is indebted to Dr. George A. Hubbell, Ph.D., now President of the Lincoln Memorial University, for encouragement and advice in preparing for and planning the series, and to George R. Swain, Principal of the Eastern High School of Bay City, Michigan, for valuable aid in revising the manuscript. Acknowledgment is due various educational and trade periodi- cals, and the publications of the United States Departments of Education and of Forestry, for the helpful suggestions that the author has gleaned from their pages. The illustrations in this Series, with the exception of the pho- tographs in "Elements of Woodwork" and "Elements of Con- struction/ 7 are from drawings made by the author. CHAKLES A. KING. BAY CITY. MICHIGAN. PREFACE TO INSIDE FINISHING IN many places carpenters are classified as framers or outside men, and joiners or inside men ; the subject matter treated in the following pages refers especially to the work of the latter, as it deals with the fitting up of the house to make it habitable after the framing, covering, and outside finishing have been completed. Certain aspects of carpentry of interest to the pro- spective contractor are also dealt with, and suggestions are offered which will be of assistance to him in placing his business upon a satisfactory basis. In connection with this book, research, discussions, and the writing of essays on the various subjects presented should be required. The arithmetic includes many problems similar to those which the mechanic has to solve in his daily work, and a thorough drill upon these will add much to the equipment of the future workman. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER I. HEATING, VENTILATION, SANITATION, REFRIGERATORS. 1. Fireplaces and stoves ; 2. Hot-air heating ; 3. Steam and hot- water heating ; 4. Steam heating ; 5. Hot-water heating ; 6. Ventilation; 7. Plumbing; 8. Sanitation; 9. Refrigerators; 10. Construction of an ice house 1 CHAPTER II. FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH. 11. Floor laying; 12. Wood for finishing ; 13. Casings ; 14. Moldings ; 15. Mold- ing joints ; 16. The dado ; 17. Rake dado ; 18. Soffits ; 19. A splayed soffit; 20. Circular panel work ; 21. Closets; 22. A drawer case; 23. A kitchen sink ; 24. The bathroom ; 25. Wood mantels, hardware ............ 19 CHAPTER III. DOORS. 26. Doors; 27. Stock sizes ; 28. Selection; 29. Veneered doors ; 30. The doorframes ; 31. The doorframes of a brick house ; 32. Setting doorframes ; 33. Jointing ; 34. Hang- ing a door ; 35. Fitting locks ; 36. The threshold .... 53 CHAPTER IV. WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH. 37. Window frames; 38. Window sash ; 39. Glazing sash ; 40. Stock sizes of sash ; 41. Fitting a sash ; 42. Hotbed or skylight sash ; 43. Store sash ; 44. Blinds 69 CHAPTER V. STAIR BUILDING. 45. Making measurements ; 46. Lay- ing out stairs ; 47. Headroom ; 48. Stringers ; 49. Forms of stairs; 50. Stair posts ; 51. Treads and risers ; 52. Circular stair risers ; 53. Handrails ; 54. Balusters ; 55. Handrailing . . 88 CHAPTER VI. PAINTING, HARDWARE. 56. Painting; 57. Hardware 121 CHAPTER VII. ESTIMATING. 58. Plans; 59. Location; 60. Method; 61. Excavations ; 62. Stonework ; 63. Brickwork ; 64. Carpentry ; 65. Roofing ; 66. Joinery ; 67. Plastering ; 68. Hardware ; 69. Paint- ing ; 70. Heating and plumbing ; 71. Summarizing the estimates ; 72. Stock bill ; 73. The contractor 130 vii X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 29. Joints of Door Jambs .58 30. Setting a Doorframe in Brickwork 58 31. A Fitted Door 60 32. Cutting in the Hinges . . . . . . . . .61 33. A. Loose-pin Butt ; B. Loose-joint Butt ..... 62 34. Cupboard Hinges .......... 63 35. A Kim Lock 63 36. A Mortise Lock 64 37. Placing the Striker or Latch Plate 64 38. Cutting down a Threshold ........ 65 39. Window Frame with a Single Sill 69 40. Window Frame with a Subsill and Blind Stop .... 71 41. Window Frame for a Brick House ; a Box Frame .... 72 42. Stool and Sash with Drip 73 43. Sash Members 75 44. Mortised and Coped Joint 76 45. Meeting Rail Joint .......... 76 46. The Strongest Form of Meeting Rail Joint . .... 77 47. Section of a Glazed Sash 77 48. Bedding Glass . . . 78 49. Setting Glass .78 50. Fitting Sash 81 51. Skylight Sash 83 52. Hotbed Glass Frames 84 53. Setting Glass in Store Windows 85 54. Method of Laying out a Stairway ....... 89 55. Method of Turning the Angles of a Stairway . . . .91 56. Laying out a Stringer 92 57. The Pitch Board 93 58. Intersection of Risers and Face Stringer .94 59. Fitting a Skirting Board ; Method 1 ...... 95 60. Fitting a Skirting Board ; Method 2 . . . . . .95 61. Fitting a Skirting Board ; Method 3 ...... 96 62. Construction of Buttress Stairs ; Method 1 ... 97 63. Construction of Buttress Stairs ; Method 2 98 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi HO. PAGE 64. Methods of Building Stringers . . . . , . .98 65. , Methods of Fastening the Tops of Stringers 99 66. Dog-leg Stairs 100 67. Intersection of Carriages and Risers with the Section Post . . 101 68. Location of Stair Posts 101 69. Laying out Stair Posts 103 70. Construction of Treads and Risers ..... , . 108 71. A Method of Finishing the Ends of Treads and of Mitering a Riser and Face Scroll 109 72. Methods of Making a Curved Riser 110 73. Forms of Handrails Ill 74. Methods of Fastening Handrails to Posts . . . . .111 75. Methods of Splicing Handrails 112 76. Types of Balusters and Methods of Setting Them . . . .113 77- Handrailing 115 78. Diagram 166 79. Diagram , 169 INSIDE CHAPTER I HEATING, VENTILATION, SANITATION, REFRIGERATORS 1. Fireplaces and stoves. (A.) The heating of a building is not a part of the work of a carpenter, but he should have some knowledge of the different methods of heating in common use. Our forefathers used fireplaces for both heating and cook- ing, but as far as heating is concerned, they are unsatis- factory, as the room quickly cools off if the fire dies down. They are invaluable in the fall and spring, before and after it is necessary to heat the entire house, and as an auxiliary to the heating system during an extremely cold spell. A fireplace furnishes a valuable means of ventilation, and thus adds much to the healthfulness of the house, be- sides imparting an air of cheerfulness. The center of the decorative scheme of a room is generally the fireplace and mantel. (B.) Stoves are efficient as heaters, and may be regu- lated to radiate as much or as little heat as desired, within the capacity of the stove. They are inconvenient, and cause much dirt to be brought into the room. 2. Hot-air heating. (A.) A system of furnace heat- ing properly installed usually gives satisfaction, though there is an economical tendency to put in a furnace which is not quite large enough for extremely cold weather. l 2 ; INSII>E FINISHING The furnace should be set low, and accordingly is often placed in a pit in the cellar, in order to give as much pitch to the conductor pipes as can be obtained, since a pipe with less rise than one inch to each foot in length is very apt to conduct heat unsatisfactorily, though the pipes leading to the upper floors of a building will give satisfac- tion with less pitch than those which heat the lower floor. The furnace should be located very near the center of the system, but nearer the side of the house from which the prevailing cold winds come, to give as much pitch as possible to pipes running in that direction, which rarely conduct the heat as satisfactorily as others. These conductor pipes should be connected at the furnace upon the same level, or the highest pipes will take most of the heat and destroy the efficiency of the others. The con- ductor pipe leading to a room which is difficult to heat is sometimes placed above the others, but not unless it is very necessary. (B.) A cold air duct of about half or two thirds of the capacity of all the conductor pipes it is to supply should connect the furnace chamber with the outside air, by means of which, pure air is heated before being used to heat the house. This cold air duct should be provided with a damper or slide, by which the air supply may be regulated ; if the best results are desired, ducts should be taken from opposite sides of the house, as the direction of the wind often has considerable effect upon the efficiency of a furnace. A register sometimes is placed in the floor or wall for the purpose of conducting impurities out of doors ; this for- merly was a common custom in the best houses, but is not used so much at the present time, as partly heated air is HEATING 3 wasted, and the expense of heating a house is increased. Instead of allowing this air to pass out of the house, it is usually conducted to the furnace chamber and reheated, and enough pure cold air allowed to enter the furnace chamber at the same time, to replace the vitiated ah-. From the standpoint of theory this is not desirable, but in an ordinary dwelling there are not enough impurities to make this method hygienically objectionable, as the opening of the doors and the crevices of the house will allow enough pure air to enter to make the air in the house suit- able for use. Since most of the impurities in the air are burned out by contact with the furnace drum, and since greater efficiency of the furnace is obtained at less cost, this method is being installed in nearly all of the best furnace-heated houses now in construction, and many are being remodeled to allow this system. It is important that furnace pipes should be carefully wrapped in asbestos paper to retain the heat and to con- form to insurance regulations ; pipes which go in the partitions should be put in place before the house is lathed. (C.) In a modern furnace, there is provision made for a water pan in the air chamber. The water becomes heated to a moderate temperature, so that moisture is given off by evaporation, and carried through the house by the movement of the heated ah*. Unless moisture is sup- plied, the air will be so dry that it not only is undesir- able for breathing, but will cause the joints of the finish and of the furniture to open, the frame of the building to shrink so much that the plastering will crack, and the doors to warp and shrink so badly that they will not latch. 4 INSIDE FINISHING 3. Steam and hot-water heating. -- There are three methods of heating, by some one of which all steam or hot-water heating apparatus is operated. (A.) The term direct heating is applied to the system in which heat radiates from coils of pipes or radiators directly into the room in which the appliance is located. This method is used in places where little attention is paid to ventilation, though it should not be installed where there are to be many people, as the same air is simply heated over and over again. (B.) The term indirect heating is applied to the system in which fresh air is heated by being passed through steam or hot-water radiators located outside of the room which is to be heated. Though not often so regarded, a hot-air furnace is an example of this system, as the out- side air is heated before it is conducted into the room. In this method of heating, a system of ventilation is frequently installed in connection with the steam or hot- water system, by which the impure and cold air is re- moved at the floor level, giving place to heated fresh air. This method is sometimes applied by connecting the foul or cold air ducts with the heating coils, as described in furnace heating, and by allowing this partly heated -air to be reheated more economically than if cold air were heated to the desired temperature. It is obvious that this system, which is in effect direct heating, is objec- tionable where many people have to breathe the same air over and over. This objection is to some extent removed by the introduction of a certain amount of fresh air to the heater to replace some of the vitiated air, as by the indirect method. (See the preceding page.) (C.) The third method is known as the direct-indirect, HEATING 5 which, as its name implies, is a combination of the two above described. In this system the radiator is placed in the room to be heated, and the air is reheated as often as it comes in con- tact with the radiator. To furnish a certain amount of fresh air, a duct is so located that air from the outside passes into the room through the radiator, replacing impure air which is removed through vents or foul-air ducts by nat- ural or forced draft, the latter of which should be used if the most reliable results are wanted. This method is used a great deal in heating large halls, theaters, churches, etc., and gives quite satisfactory results, though the indirect method with a system of forced draft ventilation is gen- erally considered the best device for heating large build- ings ; its expense, however, prevents its universal adoption. The term direct, indirect, or direct-indirect, as applied to a radiator, refers to the relation of the radiator to the air supply and the room to be heated, and not to any peculiarity of construction or circulation of steam or hot water in the radiator itself. 4. Steam heating. A steam-heating system may be installed after the house is built ; this is often a great ad- vantage, but as it is expensive to maintain fora small house, its principal use is to heat large buildings ; in many loca- tions, steam is conducted by the central-heating-plant system to all of the buildings within a radius of several hundred feet. In places where steam power is generated, the radia- tors may be heated by exhaust steam, and the expense of heating, while the exhaust is being used, will be practically nothing. This is the method followed wherever possible. If direct steam is used, it is at a very low pressure, from 6 INSIDE FINISHING three to six pounds being sufficient to send the steam through the pipes and insure the return of the condensa- tion to the boiler. Steam radiators are connected by two systems; the one-pipe system, in which there is only one pipe to supply the steam, and to return the condensation to the boiler to be reheated, and the two-pipe system, in which each radiator or coil has a supply pipe, and a return to the main return pipe. Either system, if properly installed, will give satisfactory results. In neither system should there be pockets or sagging pipes in which the returning condensa- tion may be trapped, as this will prevent the system from doing its work and, if the pipe should freeze, a new piece of pipe would have to be put in. In neither system should there be any part which cannot be drained. 5. Hot-water heating. - - The initial cost of a system of hot-water heating is greater than that of a steam system, as more radiating surface is required, but it is less expensive in operation. As in steam heating, the pipes and radi- ators may be installed after the house is built. It is a very popular system for use in dwellings, as it requires but little care besides keeping the fires, which need less fuel than any other equivalent system. In the pipes of this, as of the steam system, there should be no pockets or drops, and both should be so built that they can be thoroughly drained, to prevent freezing if the house is to be left vacant. 6. Ventilation. Ventilation forms a part of most modern heating systems. Ventilation consists of more than fur- nishing a sufficient supply of fresh air ; it should provide also for removing the air which has been breathed, or which has been polluted by coming in contact with unclean VENTILATION 7 bodies or clothing. An opening in the ceiling of a room is not satisfactory, if it is the only means of ventilation, as it allows a great deal of heat to escape. A ventilator of this sort should be used judiciously, especially in cold weather ; if a building or auditorium intended to accom- modate large gatherings is constructed properly, the ceil- ing will be high enough to allow foul air to be well above the heads of the people, and the ventilator need not ordinarily be opened at times when the loss of heat would be a serious inconvenience. The heat of an indirect system usually enters a room near the ceiling, and in its downward passage carries with it impurities and the most poisonous gases. These de- scend to the floor, and unless removed, will accumulate until the air is absolutely poisonous. To provide an easy exit for these gases, registers should be placed in the floor, or in the wall near the floor, through which the gases may be conducted out of doors by one of two methods, the natural draft, or the forced draft. The for- mer allows gases to follow their own inclination, and while ventilators are made which, by various devices, accel- erate the movement, the efficiency of the system depends, to a great extent, upon the condition of the outside atmos- phere, which, if dead and heavy, checks the air current. The forced draft is independent of the atmospheric con- ditions, and a current of air may always be maintained, as the draft is caused by a fan driven at a high rate of speed, which draws the impure air from the inside of the building, and forces it out of doors. This air, of course, is replaced by pure heated air, or in warm w^eather by artificially cooled air. Thus the air is kept continually in motion. The contractor in building a house generally will sublet 8 INSIDE FINISHING the heating and ventilating, as this work, in order to insure satisfactory results, should be planned and installed by men who have made it a study and who are familiar with all the appliances and methods which will assist in mak- ing it efficient and satisfactory. 7. Plumbing. It is the usual custom that the carpen- ter should do ^11 of the cutting necessary to allow the plumber to lay pipes and to set his work properly. The soil pipes and all others which are to be laid in the walls or floors should be in place before the house is lathed or the floors laid. The carpenter should not attempt to say whether the work is properly done or not unless he has had considerable experience with plumbers' work ; if he is responsible for the work done upon a house for which there is no architect, he should engage some competent person to inspect the work thoroughly before it is covered. A guarantee from a responsible plumber is often accepted. In most cities where there are sewer and water systems, there is an official inspector of plumbing, who should be given every opportunity to look over work, for if a faulty place is dis- covered after the house is finished, considerable expense and annoyance may be caused in making it right. That part of. the work which is out of sight is most important ; no elaborate fittings can compensate for im- perfect plumbing in the wall or under the floor. 8. Sanitation. (A.) The disposal of sewage is always one of the gravest problems to consider in the development of a community. The cities upon or near the seacoast have the nearest to ideal conditions for disposing of their sewage, as it is simply emptied into the ocean or one of its tributaries, generally by gravitation, and the action of the SANITATION 9 tides will carry the matter out to sea, where it is scattered by the ocean currents, and in no case is there any danger of the water supply being affected, as salt water is not used for domestic purposes. Any lake or river, no matter how large, if it continually receives sewage in any quantity, will eventually be con- taminated. It is not the purpose of this book to discuss the efficiency of the many various systems of disposing of the sewage of inland cities, so we will consider merely the aspects of sani- tation with which the carpenter has to deal. (B.) The privy, which is in common use in rural dis- tricts, is prohibited by law in modern towns and cities, where the houses are close together and where a sewer is provided. Even where there is plenty of room, care must be used that the privy is not placed where there is the slightest danger of affecting the water supply, or where it will drain into a brook from which cattle have to drink. It should be located always below the water supply if pos- sible. A privy is usually very obnoxious in warm weather, even at some distance from the house, but it may be made inoffensive by scattering, in the vault, dry earth, which will prevent odors from spreading. Chamber slops should not be thrown into a privy, but instead should be thrown upon the grass, or in any place where the sun can do its work of purifying. (C.) Where there is no sewerage system and privies are in common use, the dry earth closet is a simple and efficient method of dealing with this problem. The closet should be light, well ventilated, and fly-proof. The equipment may consist of a box of dry earth or road dust, to be used as often as the closet is, or it may be an elaborate 10 INSIDE FINISHING arrangement, in which the earth is thrown in above and handled with a slide, as it is needed. A closet of this sort may be built as close to the house as desired, and if prop- erly cared for, will never be objectionable. If this form of closet is used, there should be provided a place, perfectly dry and large enough to contain a suffi- cient quantity of dry earth to care for the privy during rainy weather and the winter months. This should be kept full of road dust, which is well suited for this pur- pose. The receptacle should be a well made, water-tight, movable box with handles, so it may be easily emptied, though an ordinary vault may be used. (D.) Water-closets are not possible in all localities, not only on account of the absence of a sewerage system, but because the soil is not adaptable to the construction of a cesspool, which is simply a deep hole, loosely walled to keep the earth from caving in, but which will allow the contents to seep away through the soil. This is connected by a drain to the house, and is the means of disposing of sewage and household waste in many places where there is a sandy subsoil and where there is no danger of contaminating the water supply. It is not considered a system suitable for general use, even in isolated places, as a well a long distance away may be affected ; nevertheless, it is used in many places where there is a deep sandy soil. A method of disposing of sewage, known as the sub- surface system, is sometimes used in localities where there are good natural drainage facilities. In this system, the sewage or other household waste is conducted to tanks in which the solid matter is precipitated, and the liquid is distributed through a series of drains laid under the surface of the ground, from which it finds its way to some natural SANITATION 11 watercourse. This is a complex matter to x discuss, and we shall not do more than mention it. Another method known as the " Septic " consists of beds of sand located in some isolated place, lower than the area which is drained, in which the sewage is exposed to the action of the sun and the air. This method is being used with satisfactory results in small inland communities and by institutions. (E.) Sink drains should carry as far as possible from the house, and should have as much pitch as can be obtained, not less than 1' in a run of 40', for a 4" drain tile, which is as small as should be used. Under the sink there always should be a trap made perfectly tight with solder. If more than a sink enters the drain, the work of con- necting should be done by a plumber, for if improperly done, the effects may be very serious. A drain should have as few bends as possible in it ; the bottom should be laid straight, or in straight sections, re- gardless of the surface of the ground, and low enough to be well below the frost line. The end of the drain should empty in a sandy place upon a side hill if possible, as high as the nature of the ground will allow, or otherwise the outlet will freeze in winter and possibly destroy several feet of the end of the drain. In rural districts the drain often empties upon the top of the ground at some distance from the house, and for ordinary conditions in the country there is little to criti- cize in this, provided there is no danger of affecting the water supply, as the sun is a great purifier. The drain tile should be laid in cement, with perfectly tight joints, and without low places, or rough cement on the inside of the pipes, to catch the matter from the sink. 12 INSIDE FINISHING g. Refrigerators. (A.) Refrigeration upon a large scale has become the work of the scientist and the engineer, and we shall not discuss the problem, as it includes very little in which the carpenter would be interested, but we will discuss the construction of an ice refrigerator suitable for family use, or for use in a meat market, or wherever one is needed. (B.) A refrigerator operates upon the principle that air of a low temperature will descend, and that of a high tem- perature will rise if both are confined in the same com- partment. To make an efficient refrigerator the walls should be air- tight, and the doors fitted closely and forced tightly into their places. The walls should be made of two or more thicknesses of ceiling, with air spaces between in which L the air is perfectly dead. In order to insure this, there must be studding every 18" or 24", as the stock will work to the x-if best advantage. The ceiling in every case should be laid upon dressed studding of an even thickness, say If" X 2f", and a good x-4\i grade of sheathing paper laid between the stud and the ceiling. Figure 1 shows two methods of building _ u the walls of a refrigerator. At a is shown FIG. i. REFRIGER- the method of constructing the wall. Ceil- ing is laid upon the studding or framework of the refrigerator, with sheathing paper (b) between it and the studding, leaving a dead air space (c) between the two layers of sheathing paper ; this is an efficient means of preventing the inside of a refrigerator from being affected by the outside temperature. The space c may be filled REFRIGERATORS 13 with shavings, which will settle vertically unless filled under pressure. This is often done, but it accomplishes little, or no more than does a dead air space. At d, a piece of sheathing paper (e) is tacked tightly upon the small pieces of wood (x) which surround each space between the studs ; this makes an extra air space to help make the walls impenetrable. The walls of refrigerators are sometimes insulated with hair felting, or with mineral wool, which, if kept dry, will make an excellent wall to resist the passage of air from the inside or outside of the refrigerator. For convenience, the ice door should open from the front of the refrigerator and be of a size to admit as large a piece of ice as possible ; if the door is in the top, the ice will not melt so rapidly. The doors and jambs should be made and fitted by some method similar to that shown in Fig. 2, by making as FIG. 2. REFRIGERATOR DOOR AND LOCK. nearly an air-tight joint as possible at a by means of a felt or rubber weather strip, and by forcing the door into its place by a lever lock (6), placed upon the outside of the door. There are several kinds upon the market, but the one illustrated at 6 is efficient and economical. 14 INSIDE FINISHING Figure 3 shows the construction of an ice chamber, which should occupy from one fifth to one third of the cubical contents of the refrigerator. At b is seen the ice rack, the top of which should be set level. The floor of the ice chamber (c) should be set at a pitch so that the cold air will have plenty of room to find its way to the cold air duct (d) through which it is carried some distance below the bottom of the ice floor. As the air absorbs gases and heat from the foods, its temper- ature rises, and it passes through the warm air flue (e) and into the ice cham- ber (w) where the gases condense upon the ice and pass off in water form through the waste pipe (/) which has a trap at the end of it, to prevent the escape of cold air. The ice chamber should be lined with galvanized iron, which is very durable, but in the lower-priced refrigerators, zinc is much used. This is, in substance, the method of the construction and operation of ice refrigerators. Other things being equal, the one which gives the freest circulation of air is the one which will give the best results, both in economy of ice and in the preservation of its contents. In building a refrigerator, the workman cannot be too \ FIG. 3. THE ICE CHAMBER. REFRIGERATORS 15 careful in making all joints as nearly air-tight as possible. It is the poorest economy to save on the price of the re- frigerator by omitting anything which will tend to make it air proof, as the additional cost of the ice unnecessarily used will soon be more than the extra cost of building the refrigerator properly. 10. Construction of an ice house. Figure 4 indicates the method by which an ice house may be constructed. ^-^-.-.z: FIG. 4. ICE HOUSE CONSTRUCTION. The ground upon which the building is to stand should be well drained with a tile drain, as at c, not less than 12" below the surface, and in rows not more than 6' apart. The site should be so graded that no surface water will run over the floor after the building is completed. A slope in the ground upon which the house stands will assist in the drainage. 16 INSIDE FINISHING The house should be large enough to allow at least one foot of sawdust, shavings, or hay under and on each side of the desired quantity of ice, which should be packed in a solid mass, with nothing between the cakes. Hay is pre- ferred for the outside packing, as it may be handled more easily than either sawdust or shavings. It is the custom of many, after the ice house is filled, to deluge the mass of ice with water, thus making nearly a compact mass, and preventing the circulation of air as much as possible. After the house is filled, the ice should be covered with at least a foot of hay. The building should be covered with a tight roof, and the gables boarded up, with a door (a) at each end for ventilation. These should never be entirely closed during warm weather. Doors for convenience in filling and empty- ing should be made at 6, 6, b. In large ice houses, the fill- ing and emptying is done by machinery and inclined planes. t SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES 1. Is a fireplace satisfactory for heating a room? For what is it chiefly valuable? What are the objections to stoves as a method of heating ? 2. What is the general tendency in installing a furnace ? At what level should a furnace be set ? How is this sometimes done ? Why is this necessary ? What is the least pitch or rise a conductor pipe should have ? Which pipes generally have less pitch ? At what point should a furnace be located in regard to the heating system of the house ? How should the prevailing winds affect the location of the furnace ? Why ? What should be the capacity of a cold air duct ? How is the supply of cold air regulated ? How is the cool air often taken from the house and used again ? Is this a perfectly hygienic arrangement ? Why is it a satisfactory method for dwelling houses ? How should the conductor pipes be treated to retain the heat ? When should the pipes be put in REFRIGERATORS 17 the partitions ? What provision is made to prevent the air from being too dry? What are the objections to very dry ah-? 3. What is meant by direct heating? Describe it. In what kinds of places is it used ? For what places is it unfit ? What is meant by indirect heating? Describe it. How is this method of heating used in connection with a ventilating system? What is the objection to conducting the partly heated air back to the heater ? What is the ad- vantage? How is it made less objectionable? What is meant by direct-indirect heating? Describe it. In what sort of places is this method of heating used? Which is considered the best of the three methods ? 4. What is one advantage of a steam-heating system for an old house ? In what sort of buildings is it generally used ? Why is it un- desirable for a small house ? What methods of radiating may be used ? What is generally the heating medium for the indirect method ? What is the advantage of a steam-power plant as regards heating ? What is the common pressure of a direct steam-heating system ? What are the two systems of connecting radiators ? What is the objection to sagging pipes ? 5. Which is the more expensive system to install, steam or hot- water ? Which is the more popular for dwellings ? Why ? 6. What are the requirements of a complete system of ventilation ? Why should a room to contain a large number of people be high? Where is the heat of an indirect system usually conducted into a room ? How are the poisonous gases removed from the room ? In what part of the room do these gases gather? What are the two methods employed in removing vitiated air from the room? Describe the natural draft. Describe the forced draft. Compare them. 7. In what way is it customary for the carpenter to assist the Dlumber ? When should the pipes in the walls be laid? What should the car- penter do in regard to the inspection of the plumbing? What is the most important part of the plumbing ? 8. What cities have the best system of sewerage ? What are the advantages to these cities? What is the objection to discharging sewage into a lake or river ? Where should a privy be located ? How may a privy be made inoffensive? How should chamber slops be disposed of? Describe the kind of house necessary for an efficient dry earth closet. Describe an earth closet receptacle. Describe a 18 INSIDE FINISHING cesspool system of sewerage. What is the objection to this method of disposing of sewage ? What kind of soil is best for a cesspool ? Given an outline of the subsurface drainage system. What should be the pitch of a sink drain ? What should be its size ? How should the drain tile be laid ? Should the end of the drain rest upon the ground ? Why ? 9. What is the principle of the operation of a refrigerator? De- scribe the construction of the walls of a refrigerator. What is a neces- sary condition of the walls ? How should the doors be fitted in order to be as nearly air-tight as possible ? Describe the interior construc- tion of a refrigerator. Describe the circulation of air in a refrigerator. Compare the different locations of the ice door. What is poor economy in building a refrigerator ? 10. How should the ground under an ice house be treated? How should surface water be kept out? Describe the construction of an ice house. How much sawdust should surround the ice ? How should ice be packed in an ice house ? How should an ice house be ventilated ? CHAPTER II FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH ii. Floor laying. (A.) Floor laying is a branch of carpentry which, in some localities, is done almost en- tirely by specialists who can do a far greater amount than can the all-round man. Figure 5 shows the kinds of floors in most common use, the matched (a), and the square-edged (6). The former of these always should be blind nailed ; that is, the nails should be 1 driven into the edge as shown at c, with a nail set ; the entire floor may then be laid with no nail heads showing. This is the method by which the best floors are laid, though it is slower than the square-edged method, since the floor has to be laid one board at a time. Also it is a more expensive floor, as considerable lumber is used in making the tongue for matching the boards. A piece of 3J" matched flooring or ceiling is made from a board 3|" wide, but its covering surface is only 3", as shown at a, Fig. 6. On account of the tendency of the grain of wood to straighten itself in drying, boards will frequently have " kinks " or short bends in them, due 19 FIG. 5. MATCHED AND SQUARE-EDGED FLOORING. 20 INSIDE FINISHING to cross-grained places ; in order to straighten boards of this sort, it is often necessary, in matching them, to make their faces J" or 1" less in width instead of only J", and \" less in thickness instead of \" ', than the sawed dimensions, indicated in Fig. 6, which were based upon a straight board. Therefore it is customary to allow one quarter or one third of the floor area for waste in match- ing and in cutting out imperfections ; while for a square- edged floor an allowance of one fifth or one fourth is sufficient, as there is no waste in matching. (See 6, Fig. 6.) Usually it is not necessary that matched flooring should be nailed at every joist ; an 8d floor nail every second or third joist is sufficient for narrow flooring; for wide ma- terial the nailings may have to be closer to hold the floor down properly. The best grades of factory matched flooring are usually bored along the edge to allow nails to be driven without splitting the piece. If these holes do not come over a joist, the nails will generally hold well enough if driven into the under floor only, as they enter the wood at such an angle. For a very nice floor it may be necessary to smooth, scrape, and sandpaper the boards after they are laid, though if the flooring has been well made at the mill, it will be enough for common work to smooth the few joints which may not have come down perfectly. If paper is to be laid under the wearing floor, it should be laid from the side from which the flooring is laid, or else at right angles, so that the edges of the paper will not curl up and prevent the boards from coming to a joint.* FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH 21 If a floor is to have a natural finish, the carpenter always should select wood of the same color. In no other place is thoroughly seasoned stock more necessary. It is always best to lay a floor with as narrow boards as possible, as the shrinking effect of seasoning is thereby minimized ; if wide boards are used, the cracks will be more open, and therefore more noticeable. In laying matched flooring, much depends in getting a straight start. If the wearing floor is laid upon an under- FIG. 7. LAYING THE FIRST PIECE OF FLOORING. floor, which is covered with sheathing paper, and if the base is cut down on top of it, as at a, Fig. 7, this is an easy thing to do, as the first two or three pieces may be nailed perfectly straight ; but, if the base has been put on, as in 6, the starting piece (c) should be carefully scribed to the base, the grooved edge being the one fitted. A straight piece must be selected for the first because a crooked one would make trouble in laying the next few boards. One with a bruised, grooved edge should be selected if there is such, as the bruise may be cut off in scribing, while it might destroy the piece for use elsewhere in the floor. ' If a quarter round, or shoe strip is to be used, as at d, 22 INSIDE FINISHING Fig. 7, this fitting may be dispensed with, and the starting piece laid straight. A strip of any kind at the joint be- tween the base and the floor always seems to hide a bad joint, and it is rarely used upon the best work. If a floor is to be hand smoothed, time may be saved by using care in selecting the grain, and by laying as many pieces as possible of the same grain together, then several more of grain running in the opposite direction. This can be done only in a general way, but it is good practice. (B.) A square-edged floor should not be laid one board at a time, but a " bay/' two or three feet in width, of the floor boards should be cut to the same length, and wedged so tightly that each joint will be perfect, as shown at d, Fig. 5. Enough nails are driven to hold the boards in place while the process is repeated until the entire floor is cut down ; in doing this, the different bays of flooring should be cut to different lengths, breaking joints with the ad- joining bay at least 32", or the distance between centers of two joists; this will prevent a straight joint from ex- tending across the floor and will add to the stiffness of the building. It is best to select boards for each bay of the same aggregate width as the boards they join endways. Any small spaces left open on account of the material not exactly fitting can be filled in after the floor is nailed. In heavy buildings, it is quite a common custom to lay the flooring diagonally, to add rigidity to the structure. When the boards are all cut and laid, marks should be made with a chalk line or pencil, by a straightedge, to indicate the exact location of the joists as a guide in driv- ing nails. The young workman must learn to keep his left hand full of nails and one nail in the wood all of the time ; with a little practice, one at a time may be picked FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH 23 out by the thumb and middle finger, and held for the first blow of the hammer. 12. Wood for finishing. In selecting the inside finish for a house, care should be used to sort the different colors .as much as possible ; though the same grade and the same kind of wood may be used, some of it will be darker or lighter than the rest. The dark wood should be used in certain rooms, and the light wood in others. All of the exposed finish of a room should be of the same wood, though the doors upon very good work are often, and upon common work are generally, of a wood different from that of the rest of the room. Almost any kind of wood may be used for inside finish, provided the desired dimensions can be obtained and the appearance is satis- factory, since very little wear comes upon it. Certain kinds of woods, as spruce, gum, and buckeye, do not hold their shape well unless very strongly fastened. Basswood is used to some extent, but it shrinks and swells con- siderably unless it has been well seasoned. The woods commonly used are the pines, oaks, walnuts, whitewood, or poplar, red birch, black gum, ash, chestnut, cherry, cypress, redwood, maple, sycamore, and a few other woods, the use of which is largely local. Besides these, imported woods are used to some extent, chief among them being mahogany. The best material should be selected, which should in every instance be thoroughly kiln dried, especially for mitered finish. 13. Casings. (A.) The tops of all the openings of a room should be on the same line. This often is accom- plished by putting a transom in over the doors, but the rule is disregarded as much as any other rule in carpentry, 24 INSIDE FINISHING even upon the best work, as it affects only the appearance of the room and in no way the comfort of the house. (B.) Figure 8 shows three styles of finish for the casings of doors and of window frames. The mitered (a) is the style generally favored upon the best class of work. The FIG. 8. TYPES OF FINISH. window casing and stool finish are shown at b. The end of the stool at 2, and of the apron at y, should be mitered, or returned upon themselves ; this applies to all forms of finish. The corner block finish (c) is used commonly, as it is FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH 25 more easily put in place than the mitered finish and more ornamental than the plain finish, shown at d ; if the ma- terial shrinks or swells, the defect is not so evident as in the mitered finish. The corner block should be f " thicker, and \" longer and wider than the side casing or architrave (w), and the header (x). The plain finish (d) is used in many places where it is difficult to obtain moldings, though unimportant rooms of good buildings are often finished in this style. The header or lintel (v) should be J" thicker than the side casing (r) and should project equally at each end. A plinth (/) 9" or 10" high should be used to finish the bottoms of the side casings of all forms of door finish, to give a place against which the baseboard (u) and mold- ing (t) may stop, if the latter is separate from the base- board. For economy the plinth is often omitted, and the base and molding stopped against the architrave or side casing. The plinth may be of a straight piece, but upon the best work it conforms to the shape of the casing, as at s. If a plinth projects more than \" beyond the face of the baseboard, it is a good plan to cut the front corner of the bottom end off about T 3 g" from the floor, and back to the line of the base, to admit a carpet, instead of cutting it, or leaving a bunch where it comes against the plinth. Door casings always should be set back to show T V' or f ", as shown at h, Fig. 8 ; it is best never to finish flush. The fillet or corner thus left adds to the appearance of the work, for, if the casing were made perfectly flush with the door jamb, the slightest difference would be noticed. It also allows the latch of the lock to swing clear of the finish upon which it otherwise might make an ugly scratch. An exception to this rule is in putting the finish around win- 26 INSIDE FINISHING dows, where the edge of the casing should be flush with the inside of the pulley style, as shown at .;', Fig. 8; the stop bead (A;) hides the joint. Casings never should be spliced, for in every instance an unsatisfactory job results, as the joint is certain to open or start if the wood shrinks or swells. In putting up any kind of trim or standing finish, the workman will realize that it pays to be sure that the frames are set square and plumb, and that the ends of the casings are cut perfectly square and true both ways, and fastened exactly to their places. If every piece is set accurately, the work of finishing is greatly reduced, as upon common work it is usually satis- factory to make a joint without planing. (C.) In putting on the corner block , as in many other things which vary in different localities, it usually is ex- pedient to follow the local custom. It should be put on with the grain running the same way as the header, of which it is a part. Generally it is the custom to put it on so that it is a part of the side casing ; the only ad- vantage of this is that the end wood does not show. Again, no workman should cut the header of a plain door casing between the side casings, as that would give the opening an appearance of weakness which should be avoided, even where strength is unnecessary. Also, if the grain of the block is set vertically, the shrinking is apt to open the joint between it and the header, while if the grain of the block runs horizontally, the open joint will come between the block and the side casing, where it is less conspicuous. 14. Moldings. (A.) Moldings are indispensable to the carpenter in putting the finishing touches upon any piece FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH 27 of work. It is obvious that a molding which is intended to be used in a certain place might be entirely unsuitable for use elsewhere, for instance: the band molding, b of Fig. 9, would be entirely out of place if used instead of the FIG. 9. MOLDINGS. cornice or crown molding which is shown at ra. Thus it will be seen that the contour of the molding is not the im- portant consideration, but its relation to, and the shape of the other surfaces of, the piece upon which it is molded. Lumber dealers keep in stock the standard forms of moldings, among which may be found types which are suitable for every purpose for which moldings are used upon buildings. Those in most common use are shown in Fig. 9. The band molding (a) is used for the finishing member on the outside of a mitered casing: b is used sometimes for a band molding to form a rabbet upon a window frame, against which the siding is cut, to form a very tight joint. 28 INSIDE FINISHING The base molding (c) is nailed into the angle formed by the baseboard and the plastered wall, and the Up molding (d) is for the same pur- pose, though rarely used. The molding should be nailed to the top of the baseboard, and not to the wall, as otherwise the shrinking of the base- board will open the joint between it and the mold- ing. The outside corners of the base molding should be mitered, and the inside corners coped, as at A, Fig. 10. The cap molding (e) finishes the top of a dado, or some such place. The bed mold (/) is used to fill a corner or as part of a large cornice. In cutting the miters upon this type, the FIG 10. COPED JOINTS OF BASE AND PICTURE MOLDINGS. FIG. 11. CUTTING THE MITER OF CROWN OR SPRUNG MOLDINGS. molding should be held in the miter box as shown in Fig. 11, using care that the edge (a) is, throughout, the same distance from the back of the box (6). Panel moldings are raised, as shown at g, Fig. 9, or sunk, as shown at h, and nailed to the frame of the panel work, as shown at j ; if nailed to the panel, which may shrink, the molding would be pulled off the rails, making an FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH 29 unsightly place upon the face of the panel work, while if properly done, the panel will shrink independently of the frame or molding. The distance between the back (ri) of the lip molding, and the under side of the lip (I) should be sV", or less, smaller than the panel " sinkage," or the distance between the face of the panel work (I) and the face of the panel (o). This will allow the lip of the molding to fit closely against the face of the panel work, and will compensate for any slight inaccuracy. In mitering a lip molding, a small piece the size of the sinkage of the panel (I, o, Fig. 9) should be used as shown at c, Fig. 11, to allow the molding to be sawed at just the angle at which it finally lies. A panel sometimes is laid out upon a flat surface by means of an astragal molding, shown at k, Fig. 9 ; it is used also to cover an open joint in a flat surface, and is valuable for a variety of uses. The crown molding or sprung molding (m) is used as the highest or crown member of a cornice. Moldings of this type are suitable for the cornices of cases of shelves, closets, etc., and should be cut in a miter box as shown at a, b, Fig. 11. The quarter round (n) is used, especially upon the cheap- est work, to cover the joint in a corner, if the pieces which form the angle do not come together. It also is used as in Fig. 12, to put up par- titions ; one piece (a) is laid first and the a / ceiling partition (b) nailed against it; the FlG 12 _ USEOF quarter round (c) is afterwards nailed into THE QUARTER the corner to cover the joint. The scotia or cove (p, Fig. 9) is used for purposes simi- lar to those of the quarter round, and with other small 30 INSIDE FINISHING moldings for the purpose of building up large cornices. It is also placed under the nosing of a stair tread, as at r, under a dado cap, or wherever a finish under a cap or a molding is needed. The nosing (r) is generally the edge finish of a stair tread, to round the edge of a board, a cap, or for similar purposes. The half round (s) is applicable to many of the same purposes as the astragal. The bead, shown at t, is used upon ceiling, and wherever it is necessary to hide a joint. Stop beads (u) are used upon window frames to hold the lower sash in place ; they are not confined to that design, as they may be shaped like v, or w, or any other desirable form. Room or picture molding, as shown at x, Fig. 9, is fitted around a room near the ceiling, forming the lower edge of the frieze, or border. Its use is to support picture hooks, as shown. Its outside angles should be mitered, but the inside angles should be coped, as shown at B, Fig. 10. (B.) Most of the moldings above described are mitered at both the inside and outside corners, except the base moldings, the room moldings, ^^1^2 ^^^ and other small moldings which ii/////nr.i i/t/fiin^... ^~< should be coped at the inside angles, as described above, and shown in Fig. 10. (C.) Specially designed cor- nices are frequently built up, FIG. is. -A BUILT-UP CORNICE. as s h ow n in Fig. 13. They are made of ogees (a), fillets (6), hollows (c), dentils (d), and quirks (e). Different combinations of these details will furnish a great variety of larger moldings. They may be made of narrow pieces and fastened to the face of the work if desired, as indicated by the dotted line. FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH 31 (D.) Nearly all of these moldings are modeled from those used by the architects and builders of the temples and public buildings which the Greeks and Romans erected. There are eight distinct types of these moldings capable of great variation without losing their distinctive form. These forms are shown in Fig. 14 ; at a is seen the ovolo or echinus, which is the parent of the quarter round ; at b the talon and quirk, or bird's beak molding, which should be a used where it seems to support something as the shape suggests ; at c the cyma recta ; at d the cyma FIG. 14. CLASSIC MOLDINGS. reversa or ogee moldings ; at e the cavetlo, hollow, or cove. The last three appear weak and should be used where they will seem to sup- port no weight, as the upper member of a cornice, for instance. The torus (/) (bead, round, or thumb molding) and the astragal (g) should appear to go around, as if to bind to- gether. The scotia (h) and the fillet (i) are used as inter- mediates, to separate one member of a compound molding from another, and to give variety to a large cornice, or to form a break in a wide, flat surface. The ovolo and the talon generally should be located above, and the scotia below, the eye. The contour of moldings of the best periods of archi- tecture is elliptical, not round, and in making and design- ing moldings, the workman should always strive for a graceful elliptical curve, instead of an arc of a circle. 32 INSIDE FINISHING A comparison of the two forms will show the difference in appearance. In general, important moldings above the line of the eye extend upwards, and those below the eye extend down- wards, from the vertical plane at an angle of about 45, so that no important member of the molding will be out of the line of vision. (E.) A baseboard is usually 8" wide, and should be well seasoned ; it should not be put on until the plastering is thoroughly dry, or it will curl off, the moisture in the plas- tering swelling the back of the board, while the front remains dry. When a single floor is laid, the baseboard is fitted upon the top of the floor boards, and a quarter round or shoe strip similar to n or w of Fig. 9 is nailed on to cover the joint, as at d, Fig. 7. If the shoe strip is nailed to the baseboard, the shrinkage of the floor and baseboard will show a crack under the shoe strip, but if it is nailed to the floor, the shoe strip will follow the floor, and move with it, thus showing no joint. If it is desired to dispense with the shoe strip, the base- board should be nailed to the wall after the under floor is laid, and the wearing, or top floor, fitted to the baseboard, as at c, Fig. 7. Care should be used in fitting the ends of the flooring to the baseboard, for if one floor board is forced too much, it will push the base away from the one which was laid before it. In cutting the baseboard down, the outside corners are mitered, and the inside corners cut square and butted upon common work ; but upon the best class of work they should be housed, as shown at a, Fig. 15, to insure that the season- ing and settling of the building will not open the joint. FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH 33 If it is necessary to splice moldings, the joint should be made in the least conspicuous place ; to make the fewest possible splices, the long pieces should be fitted first. These splices may be made with either a butt or a miter joint, the latter of which is preferred by many workmen. (F.) The quality of the Work done with moldings FlG - 15. HOUSING CORNERS OF BASE- i i BOARDS. depends to a great extent upon the condition of the moldings used, and the selec- tion of the material from which they are made. The lumber should be straight and straight-grained, and kept lying straight. After the moldings are '' stuck," that is, made, they must be handled with great care, or the cor- ners and fillets will be bruised. One of the earmarks of a good workman is that he always leaves square corners ; no rough, or "spalled " (rubbed), or broken edges should be permitted, but all corners and angles should be perfectly smooth and accurate. 15. Molding joints. --The curve of the joint between a straight and circling piece of molding may be found by the intersection method : place the moldings in their exact relation to each other, and mark the extreme points (a, 6, Fig. 16). To ascertain c by another method than the FIG. 16. JOINTING A STRAIGHT AND A CURVED MOLDING. 34 INSIDE FINISHING " cut and try," lay out the moldings upon a board with a pencil, indicating a center line of each piece, and their intersection as c. The arc of a circle drawn through a, b, c, will give the sweep of the joint. Draw the chord of the arc of the j oint as indicated 'by the dotted line, and meas- ure the distance of its altitude at c ; this must be trans- ferred to each piece which is to form the joint. Upon a large molding, it may be easier to find the sweep by the well-known problem of constructing a circle from three given points. 1 6. The dado. (A.) Woodworking machinery has made the construction of panel work, similar to the types indicated in Fig. 17, a simple matter. A dado of matched or beaded ceiling may be easily and economically made, and is often used in places where a more expensive dado is unnecessary. A ceiling dado is made upon the work, but paneled dado is usualty made in a shop which has all of the appliances necessary for doing the work eco- nomically and well. The measurements for dado should be taken at the building after the partitions are set, and it is possible to locate accurately all the openings and angles. The different types of panel work, the names of their members, and the methods of construction in common use are illustrated in Fig. 17. At a is shown a plain panel, and at b a raised panel ; either type may be used upon the cheapest or the best work, depending upon the effect desired. The grooves for the panels in the different members of the frame are usually T 9 c FIG. 28. DOOR JAMBS. 58 INSIDE FINISHING a FIG. 29. JOINTS OF DOOR JAMBS. are finished in different woods are veneered to match the rooms in the best class of work. Door jambs like a and 6, Fig. 28, generally are fitted together with a butt joint, as shown at a, Fig. 29, and those like c are mitered, as shown in Fig. 29, 6. They should be fas- tened together by spikes, and squared, being held by battens tacked diagonally across the openings from stile to header, and across the bottom of the frame to hold the stiles parallel. This is ..very important since, if the doorframe is not square, there will be trouble all through the casing and in hanging the door. 31. The doorframes of a brick house are wider than those of a frame building, as the walls are thicker. The frame is sometimes set as shown in Fig. 30. In this way any size of frame stock may be used, though a paneled frame as wide as the thickness of the wall is often preferred. 32. Setting doorframes. To set a doorframe economically, the open- FIG. so. SETTING A DOOR- ing left in the studs should be plumb FRAME IN BRICKWORK - on the sides, both ways, and I" wider and J" higher than the outside of the doorframe. In this opening, the door- frame should be set perfectly plumb and out of wind, in which position it should be wedged and fastened securely. The time spent in setting a doorframe accurately is DOORS 59 more than compensated for in fitting the casings around it, and in fitting and hanging the door. If the doorframe is not set plumb, the door will swing of itself unless it is fas- tened open or closed. Wedges or " shims " should be placed between the frame and the stud to allow the frame to be nailed straight ; they are used also where the hinges are to be set, so that if it is ever necessary to put a long screw in the hinge, there will be wood to hold it. In setting a 1J" frame this always should be done. In setting the doorframes of a brick house, a piece should be nailed the entire length of the wall side of the frames, so that the wall may be built around it, as at a, in Fig. 30. It should be so placed that the bricks will have to be cut as little as possible. A piece of 2" X 4" or 2" X 6" should be laid in the brickwork at the bottom of the door opening, level with the floor, to give a nailing for the flooring and the threshold. It is the carpenter's business to assist the mason in set- ting the frame, and he should see that it is securely braced plumb and out of wind before the wall is built around it. 33. Jointing. A door should be jointed before the threshold is cut down, and the edges made to fit the rab- bets of the frame closely. In doing this, the advantage of setting the doorframe accurately will be appreciated. The door should be fitted carefully to the header or top of the doorframe, at a, Fig. 31, pushed into its place, and wedged there, as at b. The threshold, or a piece of the same thickness, should then be placed against the bottom of the door, as at c, and a pencil line (d) made on the door, to indicate the exact length of the door after the threshold is in place. The 60 INSIDE FINISHING door should be sawed off about J" shorter than this line. If a carpet is to be laid over the threshold, either the door should be still shorter, or the threshold planed thinner. It is a good plan to dispense with a threshold by building up f " or y under the floor ; this gen- erally will allow the door to swing over a carpet or rug. 34. Hanging a door. In hang- ing, or fitting the hinges to a door, trouble will be saved by using care and accuracy at each step of the work. If the hinge stile of the door is not perfectly straight sideways, the rounding side should be placed next the rabbet, as a good joint between the door and the back of the rabbet can be more easily made than if the hollow side of the stile were to be fitted. This applies more especially to the hinge joint, as a slight hollow in the lock stile will be remedied by the latch. After the door has been fitted to the side and head rab- bets, as at a, e, /, Fig. 31, it should be dropped y 6 " by drawing out the wedge (b). Make a knife mark 8" from the top of the door, at g, to which the top end of the upper hinge should be placed; for the bottom of the lower hinge, make another mark at h, on line with the top of the bottom rail of the door. These marks should be made upon both door and doorframe simultaneously. Remove the door ; stand it edgeways on the floor with the hinge edge up ; lay the hinge carefully in its place, the FIG. 31. A FITTED DOOR. DOORS 61 top end at g, Fig. 32. With a knife, mark carefully the other edge of the hinge at s. Make corresponding marks in the rabbet of the doorframe, at .;, Fig. 32. Gauge from the rab- bet or back side of the door, or the side which fits against the rabbet, the distance, k, which marks the location of the back edge of the hinge. This distance is governed by the thickness of the door, and the projection of the round of the hinge beyond the face of the door, necessary to allow the door to swing wide open and clear the finish. With a piece of wood of the same thickness as k, or the above gauged distance, laid in the rabbet of the door- frame, make the mark, m. This is the exact location in the rabbet of the back edge of the other half of the hinge. Square the top and bottom marks of the hinge (g, s and j, j) to the lines k and m. Make the gauge mark upon the face of the door at n, and upon the frame at p, to denote the depth of the slot, in which each half of the hinge is to rest. This should be of such a depth that the joint between the door and the frame at r will be a little less than T V, to insure that the paint upon the door and upon the frame will not make the door " hinge-bound." With a sharp Sect/on at tt;Q0orc/asecL FIG. 32. CUTTING IN THE HINGES. 62 INSIDE FINISHING chisel, cut carefully to the lines of both the top and bottom hinges ; bore holes for the screws, and fasten the hinges on. Ordinarily a \\" screw is used for this purpose. If the door is sprung, and strikes the rabbet of the frame on the hinge stile, or does not fit the rabbet on the lock edge (/, Fig. 31), do not plane the stile of the door to fit, but instead mark the rabbet carefully, and with a rabbet plane take from the jamb the wood which prevents the door from closing. The lock edge of the door should be jointed a little under so that it will clear the frame easily. It is quite a general rule among carpenters to fit the face of a door so that a twenty-five-cent piece will just slip into the joint all around it. After the door is fitted satisfactorily, it is ready for the lock. The loose-pin butt (a, Fig. 33) and the loose-joint butt (b) are the types of hinges generally used. The latter has Q (o) J a ti FIG. 33. a, LOOSE-PIN BUTT; b, LOOSE- JOINT BUTT., an advantage over the former in the ease with which a door may be removed and replaced, though some trouble may be caused in keeping the right arid left hinges separate. The terms " right " and " left " as applied to hinges and locks refer to the direction in which the door swings when it is pushed open. DOORS 63 a b FIG. 34. CUPBOARD HINGES. Also there are several forms of spring and special hinges, which are for use upon doors swinging both ways, or self- closing. Hinges should be set so that the door will swing wide open without touching the finish, as shown at z, Fig. 32. The pins of all the hinges should be upon the same vertical line. Hinges for cupboard doors and other com- mon work are often cut entirely into the door, as at a, Fig. 34 ; but upon the best work they are halved into both the door and the casing, as at 6. 35. Fitting locks. (A.) The rim lock, shown in Fig. 35, is less expensive than a mortise lock, and as it may be put on very easily, is used upon the cheapest work. If the door rat- tles, the striker or latch plate (a) may be set back into the frame, or the lock itself may be set out by means of pasteboard or thin wood D between it and the door. Padlocks are useless unless the hasp and staple by which they hold the door are fastened firmly in the wood ; if padlocks are to be exposed to dampness, those should be selected which have brass or bronze tumblers, otherwise they will rust so badly as to be worthless in a little while. (B.) To fit a mortise lock (Fig. 36), bore a f " hole for the knob spindle, as at a, and a T y hole at &, for the key, being sure that they are accurately located before boring. The mortise should then be marked, and " beat out " FIG. 35. A RIM LOCK. 64 INSIDE FINISHING ct or cut out with care, so that the sides of the mortise shall be parallel with the sides of the stiles of the door. No more wood should be cut out than is necessary, as the door stile may be weakened. Put the lock in the mortise and mark around the face plate with a sharp knife ; remove the lock and cut to these marks carefully, just deep enough to allow the face of the plate (c) to come flush with the edge of the stile. The striker (d, Fig. 36) should be located in the doorframe as in Fig. 37, which shows a cross-section no. 36. -A MORT.SE LOCK. at />./ f Fi S' 36 > SO that the inside of the door (e) will be held closely against the rabbet of the doorframe at &, to prevent rattling. It should be placed at such a height that the bolt and latch will enter their places as near the vertical center of the hole as possible. It is important that the distance c should be the same both in the door and in the rabbet, otherwise the latch will not enter the striker, or the door will rattle. Be sure that the wood is cut away so that the latch and bolt will enter the N FIG. 37. PLACING THE STRIKER openings in the striker easily. OR LATCH PLATE. DOORS 65 Usually both rim and mortise locks are reversible, that is, their latches may be changed to suit either a right or left hand door. Cupboard locks are usually screwed to the inside of the door. 36. The threshold. In cutting down a threshold, con- siderable skill is necessary to make a good job. Figure 38 shows the different steps of the process. Drive nails in the floor at a, a, opposite each side of the doorframe, at FIG. 38. CUTTING DOWN A THRESHOLD. exactly the same distance from each rabbet (d), and far enough from the plinth to allow the threshold to be moved endways without touching it. Mark lightly upon the floor the line b, 6, the edge of the threshold when it is in place ; this line should be parallel with the threshold when the edge c, c of the latter is resting against the nails a, a. The distance (2) between b and c should be taken with a pair of dividers, and with one leg touching the rabbet (d) make lightly a short scratch at e upon the threshold, marking the other end also. Without changing the di- viders, lay off the same distance from the jamb (/) and from the face of the plinth (gr), as these denote what will 66 INSIDE FINISHING have to be cut out to allow the threshold to go back into its place. Do not use the try-square to lay out the ends, as they should be made to fit the horizontal section of the door- frame, which is rarely set perfectly square with the faces of the partition ; therefore the cuts may be made with a knife at the angle of the jamb, which is found by using a straight- edge, or by the blade of a steel square, as shown at h. The square is in position to obtain the first cut (i) which is from the rabbet (d) to the edge of the threshold (c). Upon the line, e, of the threshold, lay off the exact size of the rabbet (d) ; measuring from i, mark j with the point of a sharp knife. With the steel square held against the long side of the rabbet, as indicated by dotted lines at y, move the threshold until the point, j, coincides with the edge of the square. Draw the line, k } which will rest against the long sida of the rabbet at w when the threshold is in place. Following the above method, make all marks neces- sary for the fitting of that end of the threshold. The length of the threshold is found by measuring the exact distance between the two jambs, from m to m opposite, and by laying it off upon the threshold from the cut, z, to the corresponding cut upon the other end. This should be a little long, not a measurable distance, say a little less than %' in order to be forced to a close fit. Having obtained this point, proceed in the same way as in marking the first end, moving the threshold so as to make the points of length coincide with the straight- edge when held against the members of the doorframe which are to be fitted by corresponding members of the threshold, as described above. DOORS 67 All cuts should be made a little under, that is, shorter on the back or under side than on the face, so that the threshold may be forced into its place without marring the jamb. The outside ends of the threshold should be returned upon themselves, as shown at n. The result of the work will depend upon the care used, and while the process may seem intricate, if it is fol- lowed through carefully once, it will be found to be much more simple than it appears. SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES 26. Are the doors in common use made to order ? Why ? Compare doweled and mortised doors. What sized dowels should be used ? De- scribe a coped-joint door. How is a door forced together and the joints held ? Why should coping be done before the dowel holes are bored ? Describe the groove and how the panel fits into it. Why should a panel be narrower than the distance between the bottoms of the grooves ? 27. Give the sizes of the doors most generally used. 28. Describe the three grades of doors. What should be considered in buying a door ? Of what kinds of wood are solid doors made ? 29. .How should hardwood doors be made ? Describe the process of their construction. 30. What governs the kind of wood of which doorframes are made upon the best work? What governs the width of the door jamb? What should be its thickness ? How is a rabbet sometimes formed upon cheap work? How should this be done? Describe a veneered door jamb, and tell why it is necessary. Describe two ways of fastening doorframes together. 31. Compare the doorframes of a frame house and of a brick house. 32. What is the relative size of a doorframe, and the opening in the partition ? Describe the process of setting a doorframe. What should be done where the hinges are to be fitted to provide a "hold" for screws ? 33. Describe the process of jointing in a door. If the stiles of a door 68 INSIDE FINISHING are not perfectly straight, which side should go next the rabbet ? What difference will it make if a carpet is to go over the threshold ? 34. Describe the process of marking and cutting in a hinge. Com- pare two kinds of hinges. How far should hinges project from the finish ? Why should not the stile be planed straight ? Describe the different forms of hinges in common use. What is meant by the "hand" of a door? How are cupboard hinges usually cut in? 35. Upon what grade of work is the rim lock generally used ? De- scribe the process of putting on mortise locks. How should the striker be put on to prevent the rattling of the door ? What kind of padlock should be used in damp places ? 36. What is the first step in cutting down a threshold ? Should the marks for the cuts to fit the inside of the jambs be made perfectly square with the edges of the threshold ? Is it necessary that a try-square be used for this purpose ? Describe the process of finding the cuts which are parallel to the edges of the threshold. The cuts for the ends. Should the marks be made with a knife or with a pencil ? Should the ends be cut square or under a little ? CHAPTER IV WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH 37. Window frames. Window frames for common work are made generally in localities where labor and power are cheap, are sent to the market down" (K.D.), "knock or in " shooks," and nailed together at the building where they are to be used. The size of the window frame is gov- erned by the size of the sash it is to accommo- date. The width of a window frame is between the pulley stiles (a, Fig. 39), and the height is measured from the point where the outside of the lower sash strikes the sill or stool (g), or at the inside of the parting strip (h) t to the header (j), as from 6 to c, Fig. 39. There are a number of different styles of frames; those for common use are made usually after one of two 69 FIG. 39. WINDOW FRAME WITH A SINGLE SILL. 70 INSIDE FINISHING methods. The one shown in Fig. 39 generally is used upon the medium grade of work in the East, and has stood the test of many years of service in trying climatic conditions with perfect satisfaction. It has no subsill, and no blind stop, the blinds being hung upon the out- side of the casing, as discussed later. Since there is but one sill, there is nothing to curl up and allow water to drive under. As the clapboard, or siding (&), is generally thinner than that in common use throughout the West, a I" outside casing (m) is all that is necessary to give sufficient sink- age to the siding. It is a cheaper frame to make than that generally used throughout the West. Where this frame is in common use, it is quite the general custom to board the house upon the studding, and let the back of the outside casing (m) rest upon the boarding (ft), cutting the siding (k) against it as at d. To make a nice job, the frames are often set before the house is boarded in, with the outside casing (m) nailed to the studding, and the boarding (ri) cut against it, as at e, Fig. 39. Before the frame is set, or while it is being made, a band molding (/) is mitered around the casing, J" or f " from the outside edge, and the siding (k) cut against it. In this case, the pulley stile (a) should be }" narrower than if the frame were set as at d. This makes a warm and a good looking piece of work, and is used often. In making this frame, the pulley stile is grooved for the stool (g) upon a pitch of I" in 7", and the stool nailed in, as at s. The bottom of the stile is cut off square with the edges about f " below the stool at the outside edge ; this gives a square base instead of a slanting one to rest the WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH 71 frame on while handling or setting it. A piece known as the pocket (p) is cut upon the inside edge of each pulley stile as shown by section rr, at s, Fig. 39, for the purpose of allowing the sash weight to be removed easily. The pocket is afterward replaced, and fastened in with a screw at the top, and nails at the bottom, as indi- cated. The parting strip (h) usually stops at the header, though a mortise is sometimes made there, to receive the top end of the parting strip. A wide stop bead (t) should extend from the inside of the upper sash to miter with the side stop strips; this is, however, part of the finish and not of the win- dow frame. The frame generally used through- out the West (Fig. 40) is a more ex- pensive and finer looking frame than the one described above, but it gives no better satisfaction, as the subsill (a) is apt to curl up and allow water to drive under. The groove in the bottom of the sill of both frames is to receive FIG. 40. WINDOW FRAME the top edge of the siding. The pul- ^ s TO S p UB8ILL AND ley stile is sometimes cut off flush at the bottom of the subsill, as at c, and the sill (b) nailed upon the bottom of the whole frame, thus giving a slanting base upon which the frame must rest while it - is being handled. Some manufacturers run the pulley stile down to the bottom of the sill, as indicated by dotted 72 INSIDE FINISHING lines, grooving it to receive the sill as at s } Fig. 39. This makes a much better job. The blind stop (/) and subsill (a, Fig. 40) add to the appearance of the frame, and allow the blinds to be hung between the casings (h) which are generally If" or 1}" thick. Thick cas- ings are necessary to allow the siding to be cut in and to prevent it from pro- jecting beyond the face of the casing, as the siding generally is thicker than that used in the East, where a -| " casing is suffi- cient. In this type of window frame, the part- ing strip (e) is usually con- tinued across the header, as at d. The pocket (p) is cut the same as in Fig. 39. The outside casings of frames for wooden build- ings are generally 4" or 4J" wide ; this allows the frame to be fastened in its place by nailing through FIG. 41. WINDOW FRAME FOR A BRICK HOUSE ; A Box FRAME. the casing into the stud, upon which it bears one inch, allowing two inches between the back of the pulley stile and the stud, in which space the weight is to run. A different form of construction is used in making the pulley stiles or boxes of window frames for a brick build- WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH 73 ing, known as a box frame, Fig. 41. In this frame, the weights run in a box which is inclosed back of the pulley stile. The outside casing usually projects beyond the back of the pulley stile |" as at a, Fig. 41, around which the bricks are laid, holding the frame firmly in its place. The staff bead (b) generally is set about J" from the back of the box, or the extreme outside of the frame, at c, and the brick laid against it as indicated, though some- times as at g. Under the stool, as at d, is a groove which should be filled with cement when the frame is set upon the stone sill, thus preventing water from driving under. Aside from these distinctions there is no essential dif- ference between the frames for a wooden and a brick building. The architect often furnishes the details of the window frame and of the sash, and generally the only important point in which they differ from the ordi- nary stock window frame, aside from the specially designed moldings, is in the sill, as at a, Fig. 42, and in a drip upon the bottom rail of the lower sash (6). The advantage is that water cannot drive under the sash, as it may in an ordinary window. If the water drives under the sash, it has access to Vrr rIG. -1J. k_TOOL the end wood of the stiles, and will in time AND SASH WITH cause them to decay. MulUon frames, consisting of two or more windows in one frame, are frequently used. The mullion pulley stiles should be 3J" or 4" apart, or far enough to allow the two sets of the window weights to work freely, if hung sash are used. A stud is frequently set in the mullion to support the header of the opening. If this is done it 74 INSIDE FINISHING is plain that the backs of the mullion pulley stiles must be far enough apart to allow room for the stud and the two sets of weights. The header of the frame should ex- tend the entire length between the end pulley stiles of the frame into which it should be grooved, the tops of the pulley stiles of the mullions being grooved into the underside of it. The pulleys for all window frames should be strong and stiff, for if made of too light metal, they will wear out quickly, or heavy weights may spring them, thus allowing the cord to catch, causing much trouble and annoyance. The top of the pulley is usually placed 5" from the under side of the header. Frames for casement windows usually are made to allow the sash to swing out, as otherwise it is quite difficult to make them rain-proof. One objection to swinging the sash outward is that fly screens cannot be placed upon the outside of the window, though as they may be placed upon the inside, this is not a very im- portant matter. Window frames are often needed to accommodate center hung sash, which should swing with the lower half outward, otherwise the rain will be guided into the house. Sometimes sash are pivoted in the center of the top and bottom. This practice is not recommended for outside sash, as a rain-proof joint cannot well be made, though for inside work this method is quite satis- factory. A pin hinge is used for this, of which there are several forms upon the market. 38. Window sash. The construction of window sash is practically the same in all parts of the country, though in some places the members are lighter than in others, WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH 75 thus making it necessary that the frame and the sash should be of different sizes for the same size of glass, ac- cording to the style of sash used. The names of the different members of a sash are given in Fig. 43. If the sash springs out of shape, it is diffi- cult and often impossible to make it run smoothly, besides causing such a strain upon the glass that a slight jar may break it ; therefore only the best sea- soned stock should be used. A sash should be made as light as possible, in order that the weight may be at a mini- mum and that the glass surface may be at a maximum. The strength of a sash de- pends upon its construction at the corners, which should be made in the strongest way pos- sible. Figure 44 shows the mortised, tenoned, and coped joints of the top and bottom rails. The ends of the muntins are fastened to the rails by the same method. The tenon is split a little distance from the edge, as at 6, or a saw cut is made by a thin saw, and a wedge (c) driven in, to make the tenon wider upon the outside of the stile than at the shoulder of the joint, thus forming a dovetail ; the mortise is cut longer upon the ends to allow the split tenon to be pushed over. This should be done at each joint where a tenon comes through to the outside of the sash, though it is rarely done except FIG. 43. SASH MEMBERS. 76 INSIDE FINISHING upon the best work, or upon heavy sash. This is not the method in general use in the manufacture of common sash ; commonly the tenons are pushed through, and the wedges driven be- tween the ends of the mortise and the tenon. This gives fair satisfaction, and nearly all sash are made this way, as it is cheaper and easier. A hole is sometimes bored, and a pin driven through the mortise joint, and in large sash the joint is often draw- bored. The attention of the student is called to the joint between the meet- ing rails and the stiles (Fig. 45) as this FIG. 44. MORTISED AND has to stand hard usage. Most people in pushing up the bottom sash of a window lift under the middle of the top or meeting rail, and if the sash sticks a little, several heavy blows are usually given under it. In time, this will break the joint and destroy the sash ; it may to some extent be prevented by using the strength as near the stiles as possible, working one side at a time, if the sash does not go up easily. To stand this usage the meeting rail is joined to the stiles by the dovetailed joint shown at ad, the strongest form of joint that can be used upon a sash of this sort. A stronger form of sash than this is made, in which the stiles extend beyond FIG 45 _ MEET . the meeting rails about 3", as in Fig. 46. ING RAIL JOINT. ^Sect/on at a a. a WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH 77 FIG. 46. THE STRONGEST FORM OF MEETING RAIL JOINT. This form of sash should be used where the greatest strength is necessary. The edges of the meeting rails which form the joint between the upper and the lower sash are joggled and beveled; they should fill closely the space between the upper and lower sashes, as at 6, Fig. 45, occupied by the parting strip, which will be described later. A 1" hole, I" deep, should be bored about 14" from the top of the edge of each sash as at /, Fig. 43, and a f " groove \" deep cut from near the hole to the top of the sash, as shown at b, 6, leaving a space between its lower end and the hole, as shown at c. A f" hole should be bored through c, from the groove to the hole, as shown at d, to allow a cord to pass through and to keep the knot in its place. When the sash are in place, the joint between the meeting rails is made tight by means of a sash fast, which pulls them together. 39. Glazing sash. Glass should be cut about \" smaller each way than the rabbet, to aljow it to go in without forcing ; it should be bedded before being laid in the rabbet. This is done by covering the part of the rabbet on which the glass rests with putty, as shown in Fig. 47> a - I n order to do this successfully, the putty should be as soft as it can be handled, for the glass has to be pressed into it until it bears evenly, and only about T y of putty is left between the glass and the wood, as at a. This pressure should FIG. 47. SEC- TION OF A GLAZED SASH. 78 INSIDE FINISHING FIG. 48. BEDDING GLASS. be distributed lightly and evenly, therefore the necessity of soft putty. Another way of doing this, which is pre- ferred by many workmen, is to roll a thin layer of soft putty upon a flat board ; then by holding the glass at an angle, as shown in Fig. 48, a narrow strip of putty is taken off upon each edge as at a, and the glass laid in its place and carefully pressed down. This method can be ap- plied only in a warm temperature, as the putty chills quickly. When conditions are right, it is the best and fastest way of bedding glass. The glass should be held in place by glazier's points while the putty sets. These are small triangular pieces of sheet metal which are driven into the sash with a chisel as shown at a, Fig. 49. The putty, as soft as can be handled, should be laid in and run down with a putty knife to the angle shown at b (also at 6, Fig. 47), care being used that the putty does not project beyond the rabbet of the sash, so as to be visible from the other side. If an old sash requires a new light of glass, the old putty should be cut out with a chisel, or if there is time, soften it with hot, soapy water, or some of the prepara- tions made for the purpose of removing paint and putty, of which there are several upon the market. After the glass is set, the putty should be painted the color of the rest of the sash. FIG. 49. SETTING GLASS. WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH 79 40. Stock sizes of sash. Common sash are made in stock sizes in a variety sufficient for almost any pur- pose. These are determined by the regular sizes of glass, as the following list shows. This list is for four-light windows, all If", or If" in thickness ; it will be noticed that an allowance of 5" in width, and 6" in height, is made for the outside sizes of the sash, or the size of the frame, between the pulley stiles in width, and the stool and header in height at 6, c, Fig. 39; if a different allowance is desired, it easily may be made. SIZE OF GLASS SIZE OF WINDOW SIZE OF GLASS SIZE OF WINDOW 10" X 20" 2' 1" X 3' 10" 14" X 26" 2' 9" X 4' 10" 10" X 22" 2' 1" X 4' 2" 14" X 28" 2' 9" X 5' 2" 10" X 24" 2' " X 4' 6" 14" X 30" 2' 9" X 5' 6" 10" X 26" 2' " X 4' 10" 14" X 32" 2' 9" X 5' 10" 10" X 28" 2' " X 5' 2" 14" X 34" 2' 9" X 6' 2" 10" X 30" 2' " X 5' 6" 14" X 36" 2' 9" X 6' 6" 10" X 32" 2' " X 5' 10" 14" X 38" 2' 9" X 6' 10" 10" X 34" 2' " X 6' 2" 14" X 40" 2 > 9 " x 7 / 2 " 10" X 36" 2' " X 6' 6" 14" X 42" 2' 9" X T 6" 12" X 20" 2' 5" X 3' 10" 14" X 44" 2' 9" X T 10" 12" X 22" 2' 5" X 4' 2" 14" X 46" 2' 9" X 8' 2" 12" X 24" 2' 5" X 4' 6" 14" X 48" 2' 9" X 8' 6" 12" X 26" 2' 5" X 4' 10" 15" X 24" 2' 11" X 4' 6" 12" X 28" 2' 5" X 5' 2" 15" X 26" 2' 11" X 4' 10" 12" X 30" 2' 5" X 5' 6" 15" X 28" 2' 11" X 5' 2" 12" X 32" 2' 5" X 5' 10" 15" X 30" 2' 11" X 5' 6" 12" X 34" 2' 5" X 6' 2" 15" X 32" 2' 11" X 5' 10" 12" X 36" 2' 5" X 6' 6" 15" X 34" 2' 11" X 6' 2" 12" X 38" 2' 5" X 6' 10" 15" X 36" 2' 11" X 6' 6" 12" X 40" 2' o" X T 2" 15" X 38" 2' 11" X 6' 10" 12" X 42" 2' 5" X 7' 6" 15" X 40" 2' 11" X 7' 2" 12" X 44" 2' 5" X 1' 10" 15" X 42" 2' 11" X 7' 6" 12" X 46" 2' 5" X 8' 2" 15" X 44" 2' 11" X 7' 10" 12" X 48" 2' 5" X 8' 6" 15" X 46" 2' 11" X 8' 2" 14" X 24" 2' 9" X 4' 6" 15" X 48" 2' 11" X 8' 6" 80 INSIDE FINISHING Sash are spoken of as 2-, 4-, 8-, or more light ; a hung window is composed of two sash, the upper and the lower. Thus in speaking of a window, a carpenter would say, " a 14 X 28, 4-light window," or " a 10 X 12, 12- light window," omitting the word " inches," as that is always understood. To find the outside size of a sash, its different mem- bers must be estimated. To allow for any slight varia- tion in cutting, or for the sash being out of square, the glass should have J" play; that is, the opening for a 14 X 30 glass should be 14J" X 30J". To this must be added the width of the stiles between the rabbet and the outside edge, and the width of the muntins between the rabbets; the same rule applies in finding the height of the opening. Thus the outside dimensions of the sash of a 14 X 30, 4-light window, are 33" X 66". Single sash may be described as being so many lights of a certain size, and to avoid mistakes, the size of the glass and the size of the outside of the sash should be given in an order, omitting nothing which will make the order plain. 41. Fitting a sash. (A.) In jointing the sash to fit a window frame, the upper one should be fitted first, the edges being jointed so that the meeting rail will be as nearly level as possible. The edges of the lower sash should be jointed so that the tops of the meeting rails of both sash will be parallel in about the relation shown at 6, Fig. 50; this distance should be taken with dividers and scribed off the bottom rail of the lower sash, as at either c or d. If a glazed sash is being fitted, it is ob- vious that the scribing should be done upon the inside of WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH 81 the sash at d, before the stool cap of the window finish is nailed on, though it is equally plain that the best place upon which to scribe the bottom rail of an unglazed sash is upon the outside at c, as the inside, at d, will be out of sight when the stool cap is in place. A bevel should be set to the angle of the window stool with the pulley stile, and the bottom rail of the sash planed to fit it. The sash should be made to bear a little harder upon the outside than it does upon the inside, as at e, to prevent the water from driving under. When the sash are properly fitted, the tops of the meeting rails will be flush, as at /. The sides of the sash should be made to run easily, but not enough to rattle perceptibly. (B.) Sash generally should be fitted FIG. 50.- FITTING and hung before the house is plastered; at all events before the finish is put up, as the house is thereby closed against the weather. Another advantage in hanging the sash before the finish is put on is that the cord may be pushed through the pulley from the window opening, and the weight tied on ; the cord may then be cut and fastened to the sash without taking the pocket of the frame out, obviously an easier and more economical way than to hang the sash after the house is finished inside. If it is necessary that the house should be finished before the sash are hung, the weights are usually put in, and the cord run through the pulley from the back of the stile. A knot is then tied in it, so that it will not slip back, after which the sash may be put in at any time, as the cord is ready for it. This is not a desirable 82 INSIDE FINISHING thing to do, as the cord is in the way in jointing the upper sash. If sash are not hung, nor the cord put in before the standing finish is put on, it will be necessary to remove the pocket of the window frame and to pass the cord over the pulley from the outside, and to pull it down to the pocket between the back of the pulley stile and the stud by means of a " mouse." This is a small weight which can be pushed through a pulley ; it is often made on the job by tying a nail on a string, or by rolling a piece of sheet lead around the end of a piece of twine. After the other end of the twine has been tied to the end of the window cord which is to go through the pulley, the mouse may be pushed through the pulley and allowed to drop down between the stud and the pulley stile until it may be grasped by the hand through the pocket, at p t of Fig. 39. The weight is then tied on and pulled up to the back of the pulley; the sash is put in its place at the bottom of the opening in which it is to slide, and the cord cut off about 4" below the I" hole in the edge of the sash at/, Fig. 43. The end of the cord should then be pushed through the I" hole (d, Fig. 43) and the knot tied, when the sash is ready for the stop strips which are to hold it in place. 42. Hotbed or skylight sash are made upon a prin- ciple entirely different from those in ordinary use, as they must be so constructed that water will run off easily. They are made to lay upon a pitch which should be not less than 2" to a foot. There are no middle rails ; the bottom rail is thinner than the stiles or the top rail, the glass extending over it, so that the water will have no obstruction in its flow. WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH 83 Upon sash of this description, the glass usually is lapped about 1" over the pane below, with no putty in the joint. It is bedded and puttied at the sides by the usual method, the glass being held in place by glazier's points, and prevented from dropping down while the putty is setting by means of a glazier's point bent to hold the glass or by a small brad driven in the sash be- FIG. 51. SKYLIGHT SASH. low each pane of glass, as at a, Fig. 51. These brads or points should be driven so that the putty will cover them. The sash for hotbeds and greenhouses need not be placed with so much care to prevent leakage as would seem necessary; the glass may be cut as square as pos- sible, and laid end to end with a butt joint, instead of lapping as shown at 6, Fig. 51 ; a strip is then screwed upon the frame of the sash to hold the glass in its place, as shown at a, Fig. 52. This eliminates all putty, and 84 INSIDE FINISHING allows repairs to be made easily, and the water which will leak through, if the glass is cut accurately, is insig- nificant. In hanging a skylight sash, the joints should be made rain-proof by some method similar to that shown in Fig. 51, at sections c, d, e, in which strips are fastened upon the sash in such a way as to allow the sash to be lifted easily, but which will be water-tight when the sash is closed. The worst feature of a skylight is the condensa- tion of moisture from the inside of the house "* upon it, the dropping of which is often mistaken for a leak. This may be remedied by an ar- F.O. 52. -HOTBKP G^ FAM ES . nmgement of grooves and gutters to carry the condensation away and allow it to run out of doors upon the roof. This is not practicable nor advisable, unless there is a considerable area of roof to be treated, as in a dwelling house the skylights are rarely of a size which will make this an important matter. There are patent forms of hothouse frames, similar to Fig. 52, 6, which will care for the condensation of large areas of glass. 43. Store sash. Sash for store fronts are of the same construction at the corners as other sash, except that the stiles and rails are heavier and should be put in place with the molded side out, instead of the puttied side, as in common sash. In store fronts large lights are sometimes held in place with a bead instead of putty, as in Fig. 53 ; this allows a certain amount of elasticity, as WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH 85 the bead will spring and allow the glass to move a little, so that a strain, which would break the glass if it were held rigidly with putty, may do no damage. If a large glass is broken, pieces may be left which would be of value if they could be removed safely, and the bead setting makes this pos- sible. This method of setting glass has its disadvantages if the sash is to be exposed to the rain. This may be remedied by bed- ding the glaSS Upon the OUtside FIG. 53. SETTING GLASS IN with putty, or rubber tape. Such bedding alone will not hold the glass sufficiently to interfere with removing it, if necessary, by simply taking out the bead from the inside of the sash. In making glass doors which are to receive hard usage, the molded side of the door should fit against the rabbet of the doorframe, so that the weight of the glass will be against the wood instead of against the putty and points when the door is slammed. 44. Blinds are made in factories under the same con- ditions as are sash and window frames. They are ordered generally by the size of the glass, the same as sash. They usually are hung upon gravity hinges, which are so made that when the blind is swung past the center in either direction, it will swing the rest of the way itself, and will remain either open or closed. Upon window frames which have blind stops, the blinds are hung between the outside casings, but if the frame has nothing but the casing outside of the pulley stile, the blinds are hung with special hinges. This latter is the usual method of hanging blinds in certain parts of 86 INSIDE FINISHING the country; in other places the gravity hinges are more popular. SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES 37. Under what conditions are common window frames made? Describe and compare the frames in common use in different parts of the country. What should be the pitch of a window stool ? What provision is made to allow the cord to be repaired ? What is the differ- ence between the frames of a wooden and of a brick building ? How are the latter usually fastened in the wall ? How is the joint between the stone sill and the window stool made tight? What is the principal difference between the frames for common and the best work ? What is the advantage of the latter ? What kind of frame is it that has two or more windows in the same frame ? What is the objection to pulleys made of light metal ? How should the sash in a casement frame swing ? Why? How should a center hung sash be hung? Should a pivot hung sash be used for an outside window ? 38. What is the chief difference in the construction of the sash in different parts of the country ? Name and describe the different mem- bers of a sash. What kind of stock should be used in the manufacture of sash ? What is apt to happen if the sash springs after the glass is set? Describe the joint used at the top and bottom rails of the sash. What is the best method of wedging the tenons of the mortise joints? Describe the joint of the meeting rails. Describe the form of sash which does away with the weakness of the ordinary sash at the meeting rail. What should be done to a sash to prepare it for the cord ? 39. How should the size of the glass compare with the size of the rabbet ? How is glass held in place until the putty sets ? What should be the condition of the putty used in setting glass ? Describe bedding a sash. How should a job of glazing be finished ? 40. What is the basis for estimating the size of a sash ? How does the carpenter speak of the size of a sash or window ? How is the out- side size of a sash estimated ? Should the glass be the same size as the rabbet ? 41. Describe the process of hanging sash before the building is plastered. What is the advantage of doing this ? 42. Compare a hotbed or skylight sash with the ordinary form. WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH 87 How is glass for hotbeds and greenhouses often laid and held hi place ? What is the most objectionable feature of a skylight sash? How may the trouble be remedied? 43. Describe the construction of the sash of a store front. What is the safest way to set a large glass in an inside frame ? Compare the value of beads and putty for setting large glass. Upon which side of a glass door should the glass be set ? Why ? 44. What is the basis for ordering blinds? What kinds of hinges are generally used ? CHAPTER V STAIR BUILDING 45. Making measurements. - - The principal dimen- sions to be ascertained in measuring for a stairway are the rise and run. The term rise denotes the extreme height between the top of the lower floor and the top of the floor above, or the actual distance to be mounted in going from one floor to another ; the term run refers to the horizontal distance which the treads must cover. It depends upon the size of the riser and of the tread whether or not an " easy " flight of stairs may be built. Usually in localities where there is considerable build- ing in progress, there are men, called stair builders, who make a specialty of this part of house construction, and who can do the work more cheaply than can the ordinary all-round workman. It is their custom to measure the building for the stairs after the floor joists are in place, as then there is less liability for mistakes. In fact, this cus- tom is followed in every case possible in getting out any kind of finish. A carefully dimensioned sketch of the stair opening is made, and the headroom calculated at the building, if there is any doubt as to the possibility of constructing a satisfactory stairway. This sketch should include the arrangement of the treads, platforms, landings, winders, and all dimensions necessary to enable the material to be prepared accurately at the shop. 88 STAIR BUILDING 89 46. Laying out stairs. For an example of the method of laying out a flight of stairs, we will imagine a room 8' in the clear between the floor and the plastered ceiling, as in Fig. 54. Allowing the plaster and laths to be f " FIG. 54. METHOD OF LAYING OUT A STAIRWAY. thick, the floor joists 8" thick, and a single matched floor \" thick, the entire rise of the flight will be 8' + f " + 8" + I", which is 8' 9f ", or 105f ", = 105.625." In order to find the exact height of the riser, which is usually the first part of the stairs calculated, we assume that 14 risers will be necessary to make an easy ascent; therefore the height of each will be 105.625 -4- 14 = 7.54", or a little more than 7J". This rise may be satisfactory for a flight of stairs which has to be crowded into a small space, or where economy of space is necessary, but as it is desirable that the height of a step should be less than that, we will allow 15 risers to be used; therefore, the 90 INSIDE FINISHING height of each will be 105.625 -f- 15 - 7.04", which will make a much better rise. The height of the riser being found, the next thing is to find the width of the tread. If a straight run or a straight flight of stairs is being built, the horizontal dis- tance between the starting and stopping points (a, of Fig. 54) may be divided into any number of treads ; but if the flight has either a platform or winding treads, a plan should be sketched showing the location of the face of each riser, as in Fig. 55. A tread may be of any width sufficient to allow the foot to rest upon it safely, and the riser of any desired height not too high to reach easily by lifting the foot, but experience has shown that a certain range of proportions gives the best satisfaction. One method, as simple as any, of finding the width of the tread to fit a certain rise, is to subtract the sum of two risers from 24 ; the difference will equal the width of the tread. Thus, 24 -- (2 X 7.04) = 9.92, practically 10 ; the flight would be spoken of as a 1" X 10" flight. The width of the tread is between the riser lines, as at b, b ; to find the exact width of the board which is to form the tread, it will be necessary to add to this the projection of the tread beyond the riser line for the nosing or finish of the front edge of the tread, usually 1", as at I. Thus the board forming a 10" tread will actually be 11" wide, as at c, c, I, of the two lower steps. Another common method of finding the width of the tread is to divide 66 by the height of the riser; thus, sf. = 9f ", or the width of the tread. The student will see that the two most common methods give different results, therefore we may make the applications of the above rules somewhat elastic, as circumstances demand. STAIR BUILDING 91 ffatform d Experience has shown that a rise of between 1" and 7f ", and a tread of from 9f " to lOf " will give a satisfactory flight of stairs for ordinary use. For public buildings, and where the stairs are to be used by children to a great extent, the risers should be not over 1" high, and the treads should not be more than 12" wide. Figure 55 shows a place where a flight of stairs requires a platform and winders. It will be seen that there are 15 risers and 14 treads, as the upper floor takes the place of the top tread. In planning a flight of stairs, the number of risers is the first consideration, as the number and height of these determine the width of the treads, Which must not be too FlG narrow, nor too wide for safety and comfort. In this case, though a platform would be desirable at both turns, it is plain that the two winders are necessary to allow the treads of the rest of the stairs to be of a satisfactory width. An extra tread could be placed in the lower run, but to have placed another tread in the upper run, which would have been necessary if a platform had been used, would have made each of the five treads in that run too narrow. It is good practice to plan the winders so that at 18" from the post, they will be about the same width as the treads of the rest of the stairway; four winding treads will Lower f/eer- second f//pM 55. METHOD OF TURNING THE ANGLES OF A STAIRWAY. 92 INSIDE FINISHING be too narrow, and two treads in the winder would be too wide for safety and comfort. 47. Headroom. It is necessary that judgment should be used in planning the headroom, or the vertical dis- tance between the lower steps and the under side of the floor above (see d, d, Fig. 54), as any less than 1' 2" will not allow a large piece of furniture to be moved from one floor to another without danger of defacing the wall. Though a headroom of 6' 6" will allow a person of aver- age height to pass without danger, any less than 1' 2" appears cramped, and is inconvenient ; any more than this distance that can be allowed will add much to the appearance, as a roomy stairway gives the impression of spaciousness to the hall and to the whole house. 48. Stringers. (A.) Stringers or carriages (e, Fig. 54) are the timbers or joists upon which the treads and risers are fastened, and as they support and give strength to the stairs, they should be made of lumber which is free from weakening defects. Figure 56 shows one method of laying out a stringer. The full rise in inches is taken upon the tongue of a steel or framing square, and the ^ run or tread upon the blade, spacing off one tread at a time. If done with reason- able accuracy, this method is satisfactory for ordinary or foot of the stringer can be moved a little to com- pensate for any slight inaccuracy; but if intended for a place where a greater degree of exactness is necessary, another method should be used. The entire length of STAIR BUILDING 93 the stair stringer should be laid out upon the piece, as between/ and g of Fig. 54, which is the length of the stringer, regardless of the projection at h, which furnishes a nailing for the laths of the ceiling, at the same tune making a stronger fastening possible. The angles and distances of x and y should be calculated carefully, and accurately laid off upon the stringer to be cut, the posi- tions of the points y being averaged so as to make all the steps of the same size. This is the method in most common use. The length between the points / and g of Fig. 54, may be found mathematically by using the follow- ing formula : R = run of stringer, to g. A = rise of stringer, to /. H = hypotenuse or bridge measure. H == Vfl 2 + A\ The pitch board, shown in Fig. 57, is preferred to the framing square by many workmen; it consists of a right- angled triangle of thin wood of the same dimensions as one of the steps, fastened to the side of another piece as shown. It is apparent that if the pitch board is used for the same pur- pose as the steel square in Fig. 56, it FlG - 57. THE PITCH ui . BOARD. will be a convenience. After the points of the stringer have been accurately laid out as described in the second paragraph of this topic, the exercise of a little judgment will make it possible to locate the intervening points y, of Fig. 56, so that any slight inaccuracies will not be apparent. The pieces which are cut out of the side stringers may 94 INSIDE FINISHING be spiked upon the crowning edge of a piece of scantling, and used for the center stririg, instead of cutting another timber ; in doing this, care should be used that the tread and riser lines are exactly in line with each other, which may be best assured by marking all by the first one made, working from points y of Fig. 54 and Fig. 56. The rough stringers are usually put in place as soon as possible for the convenience of the workmen. If the face or outside string is to be of the same wood as the finish of the house, and is intended to take the place of the face casing or skirting board, the risers should be mitered into it, as shown at a and 6, Fig. 58. Stairs built of this form of finish, that is, the ends of the steps open except at the balusters, are called an open string flight. The style is in common use, as it may be built as simply or FIG. 58. INTERSECTION as elaborately as desired. Upon ordi- OF RISERS AND FACE -, , -, /. . . STRINGER. nary work, the lace stringer above described is the form in most common use, but upon better work it is the custom to put the face casing on after the house is plastered, as it is apt to become discolored and marred before the stairs are ready for finishing. (B.) The skirting board is sometimes fitted against the treads and risers, making a square joint, as shown at a, Fig. 59. The nosing is cut off, as at 6, so that the skirting board may be more easily fitted. This method is used to some extent upon common work ; the worst thing about STAIR BUILDING 95 FIG. 59. FITTING A SKIRT- ING BOARD ; METHOD 1. it is, that the seasoning of the build- ing and of the skirting board will cause the joints to open eventually. It is a nice piece of work to fit the wall skirting board to the steps, but if done ever so carefully by the above method, the work will, on account of the shrinking of the material, in a few months look like a botch job. Another method is to cut the skirting board into the treads and risers as shown in Fig. 60; the sec- tion a, a shows the groove which is continuous across both risers and treads, the nosing being cut out to allow the skirting board to fit be- tween the end of the tread and the wall. This makes a very good job, and is a more economical method than that shown in Fig. 61, where the wall skirting board (a) is wide enough to receive the treads and risers, which are grooved, or housed in. A place is cut in the back of the ver- tical groove, as at 6, and in the bottom of the hori- zontal groove, as at c, to FIG. 60. -FITTING A SKIRTING BOARD; receive the WedgCS (d) , by METHOD 2. means of which the tread 96 INSIDE FINISHING and riser may be pressed firmly into their places. This is the method commonly used upon the best work, and if the work is well done and of seasoned stock, there never will be any trouble from the opening of the joints, against which it is the first thought of the finished workman to guard. In this method, the nosing (e) and the scotia (/) both should be cut into the skirting board ; however, the latter is some- times butted against it. In making attic and cellar stairs, and stairs in cheap buildings, a wide skirting board is some- FIG. 61. FITTING A SKIRTING BOARD; times nailed to the Stud- METHOD 3. ding, and the treads and risers butted against it, supported by furring strips nailed to the skirting board. This method should be used only upon the most common work, since the joints are certain to open as the building seasons. In building closed string, buttress, or curb stairs, the construction of which is illustrated in Fig. 62, the treads and risers are frequently housed into the wall string, or wall skirting board, as at a, and into the inside of the buttress, or face string, as at 6, by the same method, and firmly wedged and nailed. The rest of the closed or buttress string is then built upon the inside piece, as at c. In constructing buttress stairs, the flight sometimes is built clear of any wall or other support, in which case the buttresses should be made of sufficient strength to support the flight and the heaviest load they ever will be STAIR BUILDING 97 required to carry. If stringers are used, they should be far enough from the skirting . board (6) to allow wedges to be driven which will force the treads and risers into their places, as illustrated in Fig. 61. If it is desired to build an economical flight of stairs of this type, a plank, FIG. 62. CONSTRUCTION OF BUTTRESS STAIRS; METHOD 1. face stringer may be used, housed the same as the wall stringer, as indicated at n, Fig. 76. Another method is shown in Fig. 63, in which the skirting board (a) of the face string is housed into the treads and risers ; this is the stronger way, as the joints are less liable to open than if built by the other method, since the frame- work which supports the buttress, rail, and face casing 98 INSIDE FINISHING is fastened to the treads and risers. There are other methods of constructing a buttress string, but the two above indicate those ordi- narily used. In places where lumber of the proper dimensions can- not be secured, a stringer is sometimes built by a method similar to one of those illustrated in Fig. 64. A built stringer, however, is rarely satisfactory for any but very light flights. Figure 65 shows two methods of fastening the heads, or tops of stringers, either of which is satisfac- tory, and may be used where the stairs are not supported by section posts. 49. Forms of stairs. There are different forms of stairs which may be adapted to various shapes of stair openings. FIG. 63. CONSTRUCTION OF BUTTR STAIRS ; METHOD 2. FIG. 64. METHODS OF BUILDING STRINGERS. STAIR BtflLDiNG 99 The straight run (Fig. 54) has no turn, being straight from top to bottom, and is an inexpensive form of stairs to build. It is preferred upon common work for that reason, although a flight of this sort cannot be made so attractive as if it had an angle with a platform. It is less ornamental, FIG. 65. METHODS OF FASTENING THE TOPS OF STRINGERS. and is used less than any other form, though in buildings where large crowds are to be accommodated the architect tries to secure a straight flight if possible. A platform flight (Fig. 55) is a popular form, as it makes a safe and easy ascent. It may be made as ornamental as desired, and is frequently the center of the decorative scheme of an elaborate hallway. The figure shows a plat- form, illustrating all the turns of a full platform flight. A winding flight usually is avoided as much as possible, as the narrow treads close to the post or rail cause many accidents, besides appearing small and pinched, as com- pared with the broad turns of a platform flight. A wind- ing flight rarely should have more than four risers in the winding posts, though in attic or cellar stairs this is not observed, unless there is plenty of room. The upper half of Fig. 68 shows the plan; a full winding flight would make all of its turns by winders. 1 00 '! FINISHING A dog-leg flight (Fig; 66) sometimes is used where it is necessary to economize in room and as wide a flight of stairs as possible is desired. The face string of the lower flight is directly under that of the upper flight, making an awk- ward place to receive the rail and balusters of the lower flight, since either they must stop under the face string of the upper flight, or there must be an easement to allow the hand to pass by, as at a. This makes the lower flight nar- rower. The rail therefore is frequently omitted between the place where the rail ease- ment occurs and the post. A box flight is built between two walls, and is the cheapest form of stairs to build, as there is no finish upon the outside, a skirting board being fitted against the steps at each side by one of the methods previ- ously described, and a rail fastened to either one or both of the walls. The method commonly used in framing the face string of stairs into the posts is shown in Fig. 67, where a finished face string (a) is used. A tenon is cut upon the end of the string to fit the mortise in the post, as shown at b. If the angle is turned by a platform, the risers (c, c') are also mortised into the section posts, as shown at d, d, the FIG. 66. DOG-LEG STAIRS. STAIR 101 CARRIAGES AND RISERS WITH THE SECTION POST ' top of the upper riser (c') being the height of one step above the top of c. If the angle is being turned by winders, the risers, c and c', are the lower and upper risers entering the section post. Upon ordinary work the wind- ing risers (e, e), shown by dotted T lines, usually are sawed to the correct bevel and nailed to the winding post ; upon good work, and wherever the greatest strength is necessary, they should be ten- FlG 67 oned into the section posts at the angle of their intersection, as in- dicated. These mortises should be placed so that the faces of the risers or face string will set back from the corner of the post the distance g, or enough to allow the nosing of the tread to stop against the post, and to bring the center line of the handrail and balusters in the center of the post. This distance will be governed partly by the projection of the finish of the tread, and principally by the size of the balusters, rail, and post. If a post 3f " square is to be used, the distance g will generally be about l^". 50. Stair posts. (A.) Stair posts are placed at the bottom, top, and angles of the stairs, as indicated in Fig. 68, the plan of a flight of stairs showing the location of Q y Poste / VJtO d. Weu/e/ CL.jLctncbny b.Pta/for/n e. Ga//ery c, Uf/nti/'ny f, Start/'np FIG. 68. LOCATION OF STAIR POSTS. 102 FINISHING every stair post in common use. Figure 69 shows the method by which the squares receiving the carriages and rails are laid out. (B.) The horizontal dotted lines denote the height of the risers, and the vertical dotted lines show the width of the treads ; the points of intersection of these lines show the pitch of the stairs, with which the handrail is parallel, the angle of the pitch and the height of the handrail govern- ing the vertical dimensions of the squares and turnings of the posts. The newel post (a, Fig. 68) is located at the bottom of the flight, and is larger and more ornamental than the section posts, as it generally occupies a prominent place in the hall. The bottom square should extend 3" above the top of the bottom tread and, if it is to receive more than one riser, the bottom end of the square should be enough longer to allow the risers to enter and leave the 3" space above the top of the tread, the rest of the post being unchanged. The platform post (b) is located at the angle formed by two short runs, a platform being the means of making the turn. It will be seen in Fig. 69 that there are three squares to this post, the two upper ones receiving the rails of the runs, 1 and 2, which form the angle in the stairs, and the lowest square receiving the carriages. The winding post is shown at c, the bottom square ex- tending high enough to allow it to receive the rail of the second section. It varies in length to allow the winding risers and the face stringers of the runs, 2 and 3, of the stairs to be mortised into it, the face of the stringer, or the face of the casing being kept back from the outside corner of the post 1J", to allow the nosing or finish of STAIR BUILDING 103 104 INSIDE FINISHING the tread to land back of the corner of the post. This is observed in all the posts, so that there will be a place against which the finish of the steps may be stopped. The risers of the winding treads are mortised into the bottom square, radiating from a point 1 \" from the lower and inside face of the post, as shown in Fig. 69. The mortises should enter the post at the same angle at which the risers intersect it, the shoulder of the tenon upon the riser being upon the back side. In setting the posts, stringers, and risers, it is obvious that the posts and risers of the angles should be set simultaneously. The landing .post (d) is located at the head of the stairs ; the upper square receives the rail of the third section of the flight of stairs, and the rail of the landing or the gallery which extends to the starting post (/) of the next flight. The bottom square extends below the ceiling, and is fin- ished with a rosette on the bottom. The other landing post is the same as d, but receives no rail from the stairs ; it supports one end of the gallery rail extending to the gal- lery post (e). The gallery post (e) is to support the end of the rail which extends between it and the left landing post (d) . This post usually is cut in halves, one part being fastened to the wall, where it makes a better appearance than if the whole post were used. The starting post (/), used to start the second flight, just as the newel post starts the bottom flight, should receive the gallery rail from the right landing post, d. (C.) All of these posts; except the gallery post, should be mortised to receive the stringers or carriages, and the joists of the gallery or landing ; if the work is well done and the risers well fastened to the wall, the stairs will need no STAIR BUILDING 105 additional support under the face stringer. However, unless there is another flight of stairs underneath, it usually is studded up for a closet. Any stair post may be laid out by the above method, but in practice the builder will generally order his stair stock from the mill, or building supply house, or will have the stair-builder do the work. For ordinary work, the stock sizes of posts will be satisfactory, for by the exercise of a little judgment they can be made to fit stairs of almost any dimensions. The squares of stock posts furnished by mills and supply houses are usually suitable for a rise of 1\" or l\ n ', these being about the average rises used for stairs. The following table gives the vertical dimensions of posts which will, in most cases, be satisfactory ; their loca- tions are indicated upon Fig. 68. If a larger post is used, the squares should be lengthened, and the turnings short- ened proportionately. TABLE OF VERTICAL DIMENSIONS OF STAIR POSTS KIND OF POST SIZE BASE TURNING SQUARE TURNING SQUARE HEAD Newel . . Platform Winding . . Landing . . Starting . . Gallery 6"X6" 4"X4" 4" X4" 4" X4" 4"X4" 4"X4" 10" 25" 49" 19" 21" 16" 22" 13M" 1VA" 20" 15" 22" 7 1 A" 7 1 A" 7 1 A" 10" 17^" 7^" ii HI Z&S//'A LA a is in common use upon the better class of work, as the tongue a W and. groove joint be- FIG. 70. CONSTRUCTION OF TREADS AND tween the tread and RISERS. . ,. . riser at h prevents dirt from sifting through, and minimizes the effect of the shrinking of the tread and riser. Some stair builders tongue and groove the riser into the tread above it, as shown at 6, but the front edge of the tread is thereby weakened, so that when it is somewhat worn from rough usage, it will break off more easily than if the groove were not there. The cheapest form of con- struction is shown at c, all of the joints being square, with no grooves. This form is suitable for the cheapest class of work only. The forms of moldings or nosings in common use for finishing the edges of treads are shown at d, Fig. 70, and the scotia at e. A method of embellishing the risers of a flight of stairs which is capable of either simple or elaborate application is illustrated in Fig. 71. This method requires that a distance equal to the thickness of the scroll should be cut STAIR BUILDING 109 off from the shoulder, or from the plumb cut of the top of the stringer, and that the mortise in the post should be set back an equal distance, as it is obvious that the face of the scroll should be considered the face of the stringer, and the mortises in the posts made accordingly. This method differs from the plain miter only in the addition of the scroll, in cutting the shoulder of the stringer to allow the risers to come where they would if a plain stringer were used, and in fitting a piece the same thickness as the scroll to prevent a hole between the face of the stringer and the back of the nosing (&). The risers and treads should of course extend to the outside of the scroll. The nosing, or the finish of the ends of the tread (6), is a separate piece, mitered into the front edge of the tread at c ; the scotia (d) is mi- tered around the scroll at e. The back end of the nosing (b) should be returned upon itself in its proper relation with the scotia (d) and the bottom of the scroll of the riser above, which should be designed with this in view. A single piece of molding consisting of the nosing and scotia is sometimes used upon cheap work, as the end fin- ish of the treads. In this case the ends of the treads are cut off flush with the face stringer, the front corner being mitered to receive the nosing of the end molding ; the scotia under the front edge of the tread is then mitered in the usual way. FIG. 71. A METHOD OF FINISHING THE ENDS or TREADS, AND OF MITERING A RISER AND FACE SCROLL. 110 INSIDE FINISHING 52. Circular stair risers. A circular stair riser, illus- trated in Fig. 72, is frequently needed, and one method by which it may be made is illustrated by Fig. 21. After the saw kerfs have been made, the riser is bent around a form and glued permanently, as at a, 6, Fig. 72, and held in place by hand screws, as at c, c until the glue sets. The tread is fastened by nailing into the solid block (a, b). A circling riser is sometimes built as shown at b, Fig. 72, the board being sawed, or planed thin enough to bend around the block (e } /). It is then glued there, being held a b "'^o c FIG. 72. METHODS OF MAKING A CURVED RISER. in place by a piece of sheet iron (g) which is fastened to blocks (h)j and held in place by hand screws, as at c, c, until the glue is set. Another method is shown at c, Fig. 72, in which the riser is resawed, as shown at j, and pieces of paper, paste- board, or wood veneer (k), the thickness of the saw cuts placed in the cuts, and the joints filled with glue. The whole is then bent around a form, being held in place by some method similar to that illustrated at b. After the glue has set, the riser may be treated as straight. This STAIR BUILDING 111 method may be used to make circular work of any kind, soffits, bases, etc., it being an application of the method explained in Topic 18, B. A curved board, made of thin pieces glued around a form, is the strongest kind. 53. Handrails. There are many different designs of handrail, or stair rail, a few of which are shown in Fig. 73 ; FIG. 73. FORMS OF HANDRAILS. only expense and individual taste can decide which is to be preferred, one of the principal considerations being the ease with which the rail fits the hand. Figure 74 shows the usual methods of fastening rails to the posts, a being suitable for use only upon the cheapest FIG. 74. METHODS OP FASTENING HANDRAILS TO POSTS. work and b indicating the best method for making a per- manent job. Sometimes it is necessary to splice a rail, though this should be done only as. a last resort. If the long splice r j iM^ u * r-\ .-^ A ^^ ^ ^ 112 INSIDE FINISHING method, shown at a, Fig. 75, is used, the point of the splice on the top of the rail should be pointed downstairs, and care should be taken to see that the rail is straight. If the rail bolt method is , ... used, as illustrated at 6, Fig. 75, the rail should be han- F IG . 75.- M or Sr L ,c, NG H! NDBAILS . dled carefully until it is in place, as a sudden twist or wrench may break the joint. The method shown at a is generally used on the best work. A splice always should be made as near the end as possible, and not in the middle of the rail. The material from which handrails are made should be straight-grained and seasoned thoroughly, for if a rail springs after it is in place, the defect is difficult to remedy. A handrail that is so long that it is not stiff enough sideways is often strengthened in the middle by a cast-iron baluster of the same design as the others, to the bottom of which has been added an angle-iron or brace, so that its bottom end may be set rigidly ; the braces are covered by the finish. This baluster may be painted to match the rest of the stairs ; if well done, its presence can be detected only by an expert. 54. Balusters. Balusters are of many designs, suited to different styles of stairs, those with squares being used for the more expensive work. The balusters which are turned their entire length commonly are used upon stairs where economy is an object, though upon the best designed stairs a square, straight, or tapered baluster is frequently used. Balusters are fastened to stairs by methods illustrated STAIR BUILDING 113 in Fig. 76. At a is shown the method used in fastening square-ended balusters in the best open string work ; they are mortised into the under side of the rail, as at b and section k, and dovetailed into the tread before the return or end nosing of the tread is put' on. At c is shown the method by which the same style of baluster is fastened upon the cheaper grade of stairs; the top is cut at the Jed/on o oect/onp FIG. 76. TYPES OF BALUSTERS AND METHODS OF SETTING THEM. pitch of the rail and nailed, and a hole bored into the tread to receive the pin (/) which is turned on the bottom end of the square. At d is indicated the method by which round balusters usually are set upon the best class of work, and at e is shown a cheaper method, the same as method c, applied to round balusters. In methods c, rf, and e, 114 INSIDE FINISHING the end finish of the treads (b, Fig. 71) should be in place before the hole is bored to receive the dowel (/). In setting the balusters of a closed string flight, the tops and bottoms are sometimes treated as at g, though there is another method by which the balusters are set, as at h, the pieces, j, being fitted between the balusters at both the top and the bottom. The lengths of the balusters upon most open string work are 2' 4" and 2' 8", as the top of the rail is supposed to be 30" from the tread, measuring from the riser line, and the same distance from the gallery floor. 55. Handrailing. Laying out and making a wreath, or ease-off, or, as the process is called, " handrailing," forms one of the most interesting pieces of small work which the carpenter or stair-builder is called upon to do. The laying out of a wreath should be done upon a piece of thick paper or pasteboard, to be used afterward as a pattern. Figure 77, A, shows the plan, or cylinder, or the top view of the outside of the wreath, which in this case is a quarter circle (d, g). The lines extending to the right from e, g, and the center line, /, indicate the straight run of the rail joining the wreath. Draw the pitch line K, M, of indefinite length, found by a diagram of the tread and riser, as indicated by K, L, M, drawn at any convenient place, with KL par- allel to the straight rail. Drop perpendiculars from a, 6, c, d ; mark point N at the intersection of the pitch line KM and the perpendicular dropped from c. Through / N, draw OP parallel with KL ; with N as the center, draw the arcs 1,2] 3, 4 ; 5,6] from 2, 4, 6, on OP, drop perpendiculars through the line QR (Fig. 77, B), which give the points of the ends of the top mold ; transfer the STAIR BUILDING 115 116 INSIDE FINISHING distance a, e, g (Fig. 77, A) to a', e l ', #', of 5. The ellipses of the top mold, d'g' and b'e', may now be drawn by any method ; that suggested is perhaps as convenient as any other. Three points upon an elliptical arc are ascertained by the following process : with a' as center, draw two quarter circles with radii a'e' and a'g' , respectively, and one each of radius a'b' and a'd'\ trisect the right angle d'a'g', and from the intersection of these trisecting lines with the four arcs, erect horizontal or perpendicular lines as indicated. Curves drawn through the intersection of these last described lines to d'g' and b'e' will give the de- sired elliptical arcs. The mold should be made of a piece of thin wood or pasteboard, the ellipses being carefully cut to the lines. (Any plan of sweep may be drawn in place of the quarter circle a, d, g, of A, its pitch relation to the horizontal plane being found by the pitch diagram K, L, M.) The next step is to mark the plank from which the wreath is to be made. The necessary thickness of the plank may be found by drawing a section of the rail and a square which will inclose it, as g'e', g"e" , Fig. 77, C ; through g' and e" draw the lines, gh and ij upon the same pitch as KM of A. The perpendicular distance between these, as at y, z, will give the thickness required. To find the length, continue e'e" of C to y ; draw the perpendicular yz ; the distance e"z, plus the length of the top mold, d'a', of B, equals the length of the piece. The width of the piece equals the distance a'g' of B. Lay the top mold on the plank from d' to g' of D, and mark around it; this will produce the upper pair of dotted lines d'g' and b'e'. With a bevel set at the angle of the riser with the pitch line (KML, of A) mark the line g'x\ STAIR BUILDING 117 turn the plank the opposite side up, and place the angle g' of the mold at x, so that b' and d' on the bottom will be in exactly the right relation with b' and d' on the top of the plank, and mark around the mold, which will give the dotted lines b'e' and d'g' on the bottom. Cut accurately both the inside and the outside of the wreath to the dotted lines b'e', d'g', thus obtained ; do not cut the lines indicated by g'x, and e'e', but allow the end at e" ' , g", to extend its full length to y or beyond, as it will allow a square end to receive the straight rail. For the side mold, draw the indefinite horizontal line g 6, as shown in Fig. 77, A. Space the arc dg into any number of equal spaces, say six ; transfer these to g 6, a distance equal to the arc dg, or g 6, by transferring the spaces 1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6. Draw the indefinite pitch line of the arc gm from g, parallel to KM of B. Drop vertical lines of indefinite length from 1,2,3, 4, 5, 6 of the arc dg, and where they intersect the pitch line gm, mark the points 1', 2', 3', 4', 5', 6'. Drop indefinite ver- tical lines from points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 of g 6, and draw a horizontal line from 6' of the line gm to the line which was dropped from 6, marking the intersection 6". Draw a line from 1' to 1 on gm, and mark the intersection 1". (This line will not exist, as the resulting curve is prac- tically a tangent at this point.) Continue this process from 2' to 2" ; from 3' to 3", etc. Connect points 6", I", 2", 3", etc., with a curved line, which will equal d'g' of D. Lay out the thickness g'g" of the wreath parallel to line d'g'. After cutting paper or pasteboard to these lines, lay it upon the outside of the wreath as shown at line d'g' of Fig. 77, D. This gives the outside top and bottom corners. Next lay out the squares 118 INSIDE FINISHING g'g" and e'e" upon each end, and proceed to cut to the lines thus obtained, keeping the top and bottom of the wreath square with the sides. If this is done carefully, the inside e'e' and e"e" of the rectangular form will be sufficiently accurate for the purpose. After the rectangular form of the wreath is finished, mark the design of the rail upon each end, and with gouges and other convenient tools, work the rail to the shape of the one which it intersects. The above is for a quarter turn stair, but if a circular, or winding flight is being built, the pitch line should be taken from the rise and run of the stairs directly under the center of the rail, which is also the center line of the bal- usters. This may seem an intricate piece of work, but if it is once studied out carefully, and a wreath worked, it will be found to be a simple method for any one who can work accurately. In mills where there is a bandsaw, the piece from which the wreath is to be worked is held at the cor- rect pitch by a jig, and the four sides of the wreath sawed. Upon ordinary work it is rarely necessary to work out a hand rail to special dimensions, as all that is needed may usually be found in stock. SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES 45. What are the principal dimensions of a flight of stairs ? What is the meaning of each of them ? When should the building be measured for the stairs ? When should the stringers or carriages be put in place ? 46. Demonstrate the method of finding the rise of each step. The rise of the entire flight. How may a flight of stairs be planned, if a straight run cannot be used ? Demonstrate two methods of finding the width of a tread. Between what points is the width of the tread? What is the common width of a 10" tread? Within what range of STAIR BUILDING 119 dimensions for each step may a satisfactory flight of stairs be obtained ? Is there any difference in the number of risers and treads necessary to build a flight of stairs ? 47. What is meant by headroom? What is the least headroom allowable ? What is desirable ? In what way does a liberal headroom affect the appearance of a hall ? 48. What are the timbers called which support the risers and treads ? Demonstrate one method of laying out a common stringer. How should the stringers for an intricate flight be laid out ? How may the length of a stringer or carriage be found mathematically? Describe a pitch board and its use. How may the pieces cut out of one stringer be used economically ? How may the greatest degree of accuracy be secured in cutting a set of stringers ? How should the outside or face string be sawed if it is intended to serve as the face skirting board? What is the advantage of not putting the face casing on until the house has been plastered ? When are the rough stringers usually put in place ? Describe three methods of making the wall stringer or carriage. Which is to be preferred for a first class job ? Why ? What is the cheapest way to build a flight of stairs? What are the objections to it? Describe a buttress flight. Describe two methods of building them. Describe other forms of stringers and carriages, and tell where they are used. Describe two methods of fastening the stringers at the top of a flight of stairs. 49. Describe a straight flight of stairs; its advantages and disad- vantages. Describe a platform flight; a winding flight; a dog-leg flight ; a box flight. Describe the method of framing the best stairs. In what way may the winding risers for an ordinary house be framed ? 50. Demonstrate the method of laying out the squares upon a stair post. What governs the vertical dimensions of the posts ? Describe the location of a newel post. How does it compare with the other posts? What should be the distance between the top of the tread and the bottom of the turning ? Describe the platform post and its location. Describe the winding post and its location. How far from the face corner of the stairs should the mortises be placed? Wh} r ? From what point do the mortises radiate ? Describe the landfng post and its location; the gallery post; the starting post. 51. Illustrate and compare the different methods of putting together a step. What is the objection to grooving the front edge of a tread for 120 INSIDE FINISHING a riser ? Describe different forms used in finishing the fronts and ends of treads and risers. 52. Describe different methods of making a circular stair riser. Which is to be preferred for a good job ? 53. Describe two methods of fastening the rail to the posts. Which is the better way ? Describe two methods of splicing stair rails. Which is the better method? 54. Describe two methods of fastening balusters in their places. Which is the better way ? Describe and compare two methods of setting the balusters in a closed string stair. What are the usual lengths of balusters ? From what point is the height of the rail measured ? 55. Describe the method of laying out the top mold of a wreath. Describe the method of sliding the top mold along to mark the bottom of the wreath. Describe the method of laying out and marking the face of a wreath. CHAPTER VI PAINTING, HARDWARE 56. Painting is one of the most important of the trades with which the carpenter comes in contact, and it is the intention of this chapter, not to teach the carpenter to do the work of a painter, but to outline some of the facts which he should know regarding the common use of paint. (A.) In mixing the priming coat, 100 Ib. of white lead to 7 gal. of raw linseed oil and f gal. of japan drier are the proportions commonly used upon the best work. After this first or priming coat has been put on, all nail holes, cracks, and other imperfections should be puttied; if this is done before the wood is painted, the putty is apt to fall out. For succeeding coats, 6 to 7 gal. of oil to 100 Ib. of white lead will give good satisfaction; the drier is usually omitted after the first or priming coat. Raw oil should be used upon outside work, as boiled oil does not stand so well, though a mixture of 3 parts of raw oil and 2 parts of boiled oil works more easily and dries faster, but is not so durable. However, it is used upon some of the best work. In many localities, boiled linseed oil is used entirely, but the work is not so permanent. (B.) Ready mixed paints are used by some, but many of them are inferior to white lead and oil, or to white 121 122 INSIDE FINISHING lead, oxide of zinc, and oil, which are frequently specified upon the best work. In using mixed paints, it is the safest plan to shun all makes which have not stood the test of time. Some ready mixed paints are hardly worth putting on; others will wear as well as the best white lead paint ; in fact, the best brands of mixed paints are made of white lead, zinc, and oil, purchased and mixed in large quantities, under the most favorable conditions, and are generally superior to the white lead and oil mixed by the painter, both in spreading and wearing qualities. The price is about the same. It is poor economy to purchase cheap paint, as paint costing 50 per cent more will often cover from 75 per cent to 100 per cent more surface than the cheaper kind, and give much better service under the same conditions. (C.) Knots in pine and other pitchy woods should be covered with a heavy coat of brown shellac, to prevent the pitch from frying out. (D.) Metal work should be covered with black varnish or asphaltum. Before being painted with oil paint, very rusty iron should be scraped and sandpapered to the clean iron. Boiled oil should be used, as raw oil requires so much time to dry that it is apt to be washed off by rain, or to catch the dust. Upon metal roofs, iron oxide and boiled oil are about as satisfactory as anything which can be used, though there are many roofing paints of more or less efficiency made by different manufacturers. A good roofing paint should be quick drying, of more body than is ordinarily used, should adhere closely to the roof without scaling, and should not blister in the sun. PAINTING, HARDWARE 123 (E.) Do not paint a shingled roof, as the paint covers only the exposed wood, and water which runs under the shingles of the course above will not dry out readily, thus causing decay and shortening the life of the roof. Shin- gles may be dipped in a creosote stain for about 9" or 10" from their butts before they are laid; this will act as a preservative to the shingles and increase their service- ableness. (F.) Wood adjoining masonry should have a good coat of paint ; this is not generally done except upon the best class of work. (G.) Wet or green wood never should be painted, as the moisture in the wood is thereby confined and the re- sult will be that either the paint will peel off or the wood decay, or both. (H.) Flat color should be used upon inside work ; this is made by mixing white lead with turpentine and a little varnish, together with the pigment necessary to give the desired color. If oil is used, the paint will turn yellow after a few months. Instead of using a pure white paint, a little black should be mixed with it, or otherwise the white paint will be too glaring ; this also prevents to a great extent the dingy appearance which a pure white has after the newness has worn off. Flat color is less transparent than oil color, and will, therefore, cover better, but it is not suitable for outside work. (I.) It is often necessary to remove old paint; this may be done by burning with a gasoline torch, a method to be used only by a man of skill and judgment, as a fire is easily started while burning around places where the joints have opened and the wood is very dry. Old paint may be 124 INSIDE FINISHING removed quite well by using a preparation made of 2 oz. of soft soap and 4 oz. of potash mixed in boiling water, to which is added J Ib. of lime. Apply hot and leave it for 24 hours ; wash it off with hot water. Paint removers are made by paint manufacturers and sold at such prices that it is usually better to use them than to use any homemade mixture. They are generally quicker and surer in their action ; some are apt to discolor the wood, but that is not an important matter, unless the work is to be finished in the natural wood. (J.) In finishing woods with an open grain, as ash, oak, etc., it is necessary that the grain should be filled. Years ago this was done by applying several coats of shellac and rubbing each coat down to a surface with #00 sandpaper, or with pumice stone, but that method is very slow. Of late years the use of a paste filler has done away with the necessity of so much work. There are several good makes of wood filler upon the market which are generally of the color of light wood; the addition of dry color will make it of almost any de- sired shade. If manufactured filler is not easily obtained, a fairly satisfactory substitute may be made by mixing cornstarch or whiting with turpentine or naphtha to form a thick paste, and by adding a little oil and japan to bind it together. Any desired dry color may be added after the paste has been thinned to about the consistency of cream by the addition of turpentine, or naphtha which is used by many for reasons of economy. In applying the filler, it is not necessary to lay it smoothly, for when its surface has dried so that it resists slightly when rubbed with the finger, it should be cleaned off with excelsior or shavings by rubbing across the grain PAINTING, HARDWARE 125 wherever possible and by digging it out of the corners with a properly shaped stick and finishing with a soft cloth. Care should be used that the filler is not too dry or it will not rub off properly ; if it is too moist, there will be too little left in the cells of the wood to fill the grain after the moisture has evaporated. This filling may be applied to floors, standing finish, furniture, etc., of any open-grained wood after the filling has been brought to the proper shade or tint by the use of dry color. (K.) For finishing close-grained woods, such as cherry, maple, birch, etc., the grain should be filled to prevent the finish from soaking in. This filling may consist of a coat of shellac, rubbed down, but there are substitutes in the market which are efficient and much cheaper and, for everything but the finest work, are perfectly satis- factory. These surface dressings usually are not in- tended for finish coats, as they will not stand rubbing, but simply for a surface upon which finishing coats of shellac or varnish are to be applied. (L.) In finishing floors the nails should be set below the surface, and the cracks and imperfections thoroughly puttied ; if finished in the natural wood, the pores and cells should be filled as above described, and the finish applied upon the surface thus prepared. There are many good floor finishes upon the market, some of which are for finishing in the natural or stained wood, and others for painting the floors. A good floor paint or finish should be tough, elastic, and able to resist the wear to which a floor is subjected. (M.) Do not thin shellac with turpentine; alcohol or wood alcohol should be used for that purpose. Shellac 126 INSIDE FINISHING is a gum dissolved in alcohol and is used to give a fine permanent finish to woodwork. Orange or brown shellac should be used for dark woods, and white or refined shellac for all light colored woods, or where it is desired that the finish shall make as little change in the color of the wood as possible. Considerable skill is needed in spreading it smoothly. It should be laid with moderately thick coats and rubbed down to a surface with #00 sandpaper, or pulverized pum- ice stone, after each coat. The last coat should be rubbed down in oil, and polished with a soft cloth. Though quite expensive, shellac makes a very satisfactory finish for a nice floor, if not exposed to water. (N.) Do not thin varnish with alcohol, use turpentine. Varnishing always should be done in a room, the tempera- ture of which is not less than 70 degrees ; the room should be free from dust and drafts, and these conditions should be maintained until the varnish has set. (O.) Paint and varnish brushes should be cleaned in benzine or turpentine ; shellac brushes in wood alcohol ; and if they are to be laid away they should be washed in warm soapy water, and rinsed in clean water. If paint brushes are to be used again soon, they may be hung in a vessel partly filled with water, so that the bristles do not touch the bottom. Shellac or varnish brushes may be suspended in a covered shellac or varnish pot. 57. Hardware. The grade of hardware purchased for a house is generally in keeping with the kind of house being built, and is a fair index of the quality of the house through- out. However, expensive trimmings do not always in- dicate the true value of a house, because unscrupulous carpenters use them often with the purpose of deceiving. PAINTING, HARDWARE 127 (A.) Wire nails have but few points in their favor in comparison with cut nails; however, they drive more easily, are not so apt to split the wood, and as there are more in a pound, the original cost is less. For the reason that wire nails do not resist the effects of moisture so well as do cut nails, the latter should be used for outside finish, though upon ordinary work this is not considered important, as the heads of the nails are painted, and are not exposed to the moisture so much as the nails with which shingles are fastened. If the best results are desired in shingling a house, cut nails should be used, especially in places near the salt water, where wire nails will sometimes allow the shingles to blow off a roof within three years from the time the roof was laid. (B.) The trimmings, or the door knobs, window fasts, and other exposed hardware, should not be of plated ware, as the plating soon comes off. Brass or bronze trimmings are the best ; bronzed iron trimmings are used upon com- mon work where economy, rather than durability, is the object. (C.) For locks, nothing is more secure than the time- honored bolt ; our modern locks are simply applications of it, improved to meet modern demands. A lock which fastens automatically is called a spring lock, and one which has to be fastened and unfastened is known as a dead lock. (D.) In putting on Yale or similar locks, the workman should follow the directions which usually accompany each lock. It is a good plan to set them back from the edge of the door a little, say T y or less, to allow the door to be jointed at some future time if necessary. (E.) Loose-pin and loose-joint butts or hinges are shown may be removed for jointing more easily than if the loose- pin butt were used, and many workmen think that the loose-joint butts may be put on more rapidly. SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES 56. What are the proportions used in mixing the priming coat of paint? How should all nail holes and cracks be treated? At what stage of the work should this be done? Why? What are the pro- portions for the succeeding coats ? What kind of oil should be used for outside work ? Why ? Compare mixed paints with a mixture of white lead and oil. How should mixed paints generally be regarded ? What is the best test ? Compare the economy of using the cheapest and the expensive mixed paints. How should knots in pitchy wood be treated ? What kind of oil should be used upon a metal roof ? With what should metal work be painted? How should rusty metal work be treated before painting ? What is a satisfactory roofing paint ? What charac- teristics should a good roofing paint possess ? Should a shingled roof be painted ? Why ? How should shingles be treated ? How should wood adjoining masonry be treated ? Is it a good plan to paint green or wet wood ? Why ? How should paint be prepared for inside work ? Should a pure white paint be used? Why? How may old paint be removed? What is the objection to burning it off? What is the ob- jection to some paint removers? How should open-grained wood be treated to prepare it for finishing ? What was the old method of filling the grain ? Why is that not necessary now ? How may a wood filler be mixed ? How should the filler be applied to the wood ? How should it be treated afterwards? How are close-grained woods treated? What characteristics should a good floor paint possess? With what should shellac be thinned ? How should it be laid ? With what should varnish be thinned ? What conditions are necessary for doing a good job of varnishing ? Discuss the care of paint brushes. 57. What generally governs the grade of hardware purchased for a PAINTING, HARDWARE 129 house ? Compare wire nails and cut nails. What kind of nails is best for use upon outside finish? Why is this considered unimportant? Why should cut nails be used to fasten shingles? What is apt to be the result if wire nails are used for shingling in a damp climate? Is there any objection to plated ware for the trimmings of a house ? What kind of trimmings is best ? Is a modern lock any more secure than a bolt? What is meant by a spring lock? A dead lock? Is it a good plan to set a lock exactly flush with the edge of the door ? Why ? Describe and compare the loose-joint butt and the loose-pin butt. CHAPTER VII ESTIMATING 58. Plans. If work of importance is being considered, a contractor should always insist upon having a complete set of plans, a carefully prepared set of specifications, and a written contract, all so drawn as to insure against the possibility of a misunderstanding. 59. Location. - - The contractor should be familiar with the location of the house and be thoroughly posted con- cerning the facilities for transportation and for obtaining material and help. He should know how far from the excavation the earth has to be carried and should have reliable information about the nature of the subsoil and the possibility of ledges and springs which might cause difficulty in making a dry cellar. 60. Method. In writing the matter for this chapter, the plans of a house and its accompanying stock list and estimate have been purposely omitted, as it will be far better that the students or teacher should select a small accessible building, make a set of plans of it from actual measurements, and use these as the basis from which the estimates and the stock lists of the class should be made. In this case, the building can be used for the purpose of study and demonstration, thus giving the student the benefit of comparing his work with actual results. 130 ESTIMATING 131 By the approximation method 1 of estimating, the esti- mator works upon the basis that the use of a certain quantity of a certain sized material will accomplish a known result ; for instance, instead of counting the exact number of studs necessary to stud the wall of one side of the house, then of another, he measures the entire distance to be covered by all of the walls and partitions, and al- lows one stud to each foot, with an additional one for each angle and opening. Instead of figuring that a man can set a certain number of studs in a given tune, the cost is found by figuring that it will cost a certain amount to set a thousand feet (board measure) of studs. The estimate based upon the approximation method should be first worked out, followed by the stock bill from which the actual work would be done if the building was to be built. If the building which is being studied was built by contract, and copies of the contract and of the original stock bill could be secured, they would be of great value in criticizing the results of the work of the class. A contracting carpenter may follow the safe method of getting estimates upon the different parts of the building which must be done by other workmen, then adding his own estimate; to this total are added the amounts for inci- dentals and profit, the sum of which is his bid for the con- tract. If he is awarded the contract, he treats the bid from each sub-contractor as a maximum, and tries to find a man who will do the work for a lower price. This method usually results in fewer contracts, but there is less risk x The term " Approximation Method," as used in this book, has no relation to the "Preliminary Approximation Method," which is based upon the cubical contents of a building and is principally used by archi- tects in arriving at the approximate cost of a contemplated building. 132 INSIDE FINISHING than if the contractor depended upon his own figures entirely. It is impracticable to give here prices of labor and material, as they vary so that no list can be devised which will suit all localities and times ; therefore we shall, in most cases, discuss only the time necessary for doing the work under average conditions, and the methods of estimating the materials, leaving the student to obtain the local prices. All estimates are based upon a day's labor of nine hours. The contractor should not try to save too much time in estimating, but should aim at accuracy and safety, since this is as important as it is that the work is done well and economically. NOTE. In all estimates given, the student should not forget that they are based upon the actual cost, and that, for the estimate to be submitted, the profit is to be added to the total cost. Whether he gets the job or not, the young contractor should keep a systematic and permanent record of all his estimates, the cost of material and labor, and any infor- mation he may think valuable ; if he does the work himself, he should check his estimates when the actual results are known. This record will be found of great value in making succeeding estimates. A pocket size loose-leaf binder is a great convenience for the valuable data which is continu- ally presenting itself. In order to estimate successfully, there should be a schedule containing the items to be estimated. These should be considered one at a time to ascertain the neces- sary dimensions and quantities, after which similar items of the same price should be gathered together and the cost of the total quantity estimated as one item. The totals of these different items should be summarized, and their total ESTIMATING 133 ascertained ; to this should be added from 5 per cent to 25 per cent for incidentals, use of equipment, etc., and the same percentages should govern the amount to be added for profit. The grand total should be the amount of the bid. 61. Excavations. Under the head of excavations, unless otherwise specified, should be included those for the cellar, piers under the partitions, porches, cisterns, cesspools, vaults, and trenches for the water and sanitary system of the house. The excavated earth should be carried far enough away so that it will not interfere with the workmen, but if it is to be used for filling and grading around the house, work which is usually in the contract for the excavation, it should be carried as little distance as possible. For a day's work, two men should excavate from 10 to 12 cubic yards of sand, gravel, or moderately soft clay, and carry it 60 feet in a wheelbarrow. Two men and the driver, with a horse and cart, should pick, throw out, and carry the same distance from 16 to 20 cubic yards of the same sort. Filling in and grading around the house usually costs about a fourth as much as the excavating. 62. Stonework. Masonry will be discussed under two heads, stonework and brickwork. The work of build- ing the foundations, piers, chimneys, etc., is usually a sub- contract, and as such, the carpenter may have one or more masons figure upon the work and make their estimates the basis of his own, adding enough to reimburse himself for building the scaffolds, arch centers, and other work which the mason may require of him. The items to be considered in estimating the mason- work of a building are as follows: 134 INSIDE FINISHING Walls Settings Area. Fireplaces. Cesspools. Furnaces. Cisterns. Hearths. Foundation. Range. Outside. Partition. Miscellaneous Arches. Material Chimneys. Broken stone. Cut stone. Cement. Footings. Gravel. Labor. Lime. Piers. Sand. Stone cutting. Tiling for drains. The unit of measurement for stonework varies in differ- ent localities, cubic yard, perch, and cord being used. The following table will be found useful in estimating quantities. 27 cu. ft. = 1 cu. yd. 128 cu. ft. = 1 cord of uncut stone. 100 cu. ft. = 1 cord of stone laid in the wall. 24f cu. ft. = 1 perch. 1 load of sand = 25 bushels. 1 bbl. lime or cement = 2 J bushels. In estimating the stone in a wall, it is customary to measure around the outside, thus reckoning the corners twice and allowing for the additional work and waste neces- sary to build them. This distance should be multiplied by the height and by the thickness of the wall in feet, the result being the quantity in cubic feet. ESTIMATING 135 It is always wise for the contractor, before he sublets the foundation walls, to have an understanding with the mason, as usually local custom governs the measurements of openings. In laying a rubble wall, it is the common practice to measure all single openings as solid wall, as the extra work will make the cost about even. Of an opening larger than 16 sq. ft. a half usually is counted. If the estimate is for stone in the wall, the price should be about a fourth greater, to allow for waste and extra work around openings. One man and a helper should lay about 2^ cu. yd. of rubble stone in a day, using 1 bu. of lime and 3J bu. of sand to each cubic yard of stone. If the stone is laid in Portland cement, it will require | bbl. of cement and 4 bu. of sand. One man and a helper should lay If cu. yd. of ashlar per day, or about 40 sq. ft. of 12" wall. The mortar with which it is laid will cost from 25^ to 30^ per cu. yd. of stone. A stonecutter in a day should cut about 25 or 30 sq. ft. of bluestone or granite, rock-faced, pitched, random ash- lar, with the beds straightened 3" back from the face ; of coursed ashlar, the amount would be about a third less. As the ashlars and rubble are the kinds of work com- monly used, we will not discuss the more expensive and the less used tooled and draft methods of finishing stone. 63. Brickwork. Under the head of bricklaying should be considered the items mentioned in connection with the preceding topic. It is usual to measure a brick wall solid ; however, in buildings where there are many openings, as in those of the slow burning or mill construction, in which about half of 136 INSIDE FINISHING the wall is occupied by windows, it is generally safe to de- duct for the openings about 25 per cent of the wall area. If estimated as above, it is not the custom to make any allowance for pilasters, arches, or any simple detail in the wall ; if an opening occupies over 100 sq. ft., it is generally entirely deducted. A square foot of brick wall contains 7\ bricks, if the wall is two bricks thick it contains 15, and if the wall is 13" or three bricks thick it will contain 22| bricks to the square foot of wall surface. This is called a cubic foot of brick if estimated in the wall; if a large mass of brick masonry is being estimated, it is the usual custom to cal- culate that one cubic yard of brickwork will contain 575 bricks. There is a loss by breakage and waste of 5 per cent, which should be added to the quantity estimated as being actually necessary in the building. To lay 1000 bricks, it will take 3 bu. of lime and 12 bu. of sand ; for pressed brick, it will need about \ of the above quantities, as the joints should be only \" , while upon ordinary acceptable work they are T y or f ". Under average conditions, a man should lay 1000 bricks a day, but upon some kinds of intricate work this amount may be reduced to 200 or less ; if face brick are being laid, a man will lay only about a third as many as of the com- mon brick. 64. Carpentry. Under the head of carpentry we will discuss only the framing of a building, and its preparation for the outside finish, roofing, and lathing. Some contractors make out a bill of the material as they estimate it, giving the dimensions for each piece as for the final list. This method has a high degree of ac- ESTIMATING 137 curacy to recommend it, but as a piece of dimension tim- ber must generally be cut from lengths of multiples of two feet, it is plain that the time spent in making such an ac- curate list is often wasted, as it is a very low estimator who is awarded more than one in five jobs on which he figures and for which there is much competition. The approximation method herein described is much quicker and the results will vary but little. (See Topic 60.) For the purpose of subsequent checking and reference, a record should be kept of the quantities and dimensions included in the estimate. The items which should be considered in connection with the framing of a building are as follows: Plan Members Floor joists. Girders. Headers. Plates. Sills. Tail beams. Trimmers. Trusses. Under floors. Elevation Members Braces. Corner posts. Posts in cellar. Sheathing for sides. Stair stringers. Studs. Roof Members Collar and tie beams. Common rafters. Cripple rafters. Curb plates. Hip rafters. Jack rafters. Lookouts. Purlins. Ridge. Sheeting. Shingles. Valley rafters. Miscellaneous Bridging. Furring and strapping. Labor. 138 INSIDE FINISHING In estimating the quantities in the frame of a building, it is usual to select all of the rough lumber costing about the same, add *the different kinds together, and estimate the aggregate at an average price. Studs, if set 16" to centers, are counted one to each foot in the width of the walls and the partitions, and one for each opening and angle. This will give enough for gable studs, scaffoldings, and for various other purposes not in- cluded in any estimate. A more exact method is to cal- culate the width of the partitions and walls, to subtract a third of that amount in feet from the total, and to add one for each angle and two for each opening. The former method is the one in common use among builders. In setting studding upon ordinary work, about 20 Ib. of nails and spikes are used for each 1000 ft. Two men should cut and set from 600 to 800 ft. of 2" X 4" or 2" X 6" studding per day. NOTE. In all estimates for labor, handling lumber and erecting scaffolding are included. Unless otherwise specified, the word " feet " used in connection with quantities of lumber means square feet or board measure. As the corner posts are included with the studs, if the estimates are made as described above, do not estimate them again, but instead order them the full height of the corner. Calculate the number of floor joists, common rafters, and tie beams needed, and add one for the starter. To find the number of jack rafters, those upon one side of each corner should be counted, and their length estimated as a full length common rafter, which will practically equal the actual measurement. For setting rafters and floor joists, about 30 Ib. of ESTIMATING 139 spikes and nails per 1000 ft. will generally be used. Two men will cut and place about 500 ft. of rafters in a day, and, if the building is not too irregular, 1000 ft. to 1300 ft. of floor joists. If sheathing is to be laid horizontally, estimate the actual area, making no allowance for openings or waste. If it is laid diagonally, allow 10 per cent for waste besides the openings. In estimating the roofing boards or sheet- ing, allow 25 per cent for waste if the sheeting is laid with close joints, but if there is a space of 2 inches between the boards, and they are not more than 6" or 1" wide, an estimate of a fourth less than the actual area will be safe. The above two items will require about 25 Ib. of nails per 1000 ft. For a day's work, two men should lay 1000 ft. of sheath- ing if laid horizontally, or 800 ft. if laid diagonally; if matched, the amount will be 20 per cent to 25 per cent less. Two men should lay from 500 ft, to 1000 ft. of roof sheeting per day, varying according to the number of hips and valleys in the roof. It generally costs about $8 per M to handle and put sheeting in place. A man should cut and nail six to eight sets of bridging per hour. No prices for bolts, anchors, plates, and other iron work can be given which will be of any value, as they are gov- erned by the state of the market, so the builder should always have figures submitted, if any considerable amount is to be used. Circular towers, bay windows, etc., are usually estimated at twice the cost of straight work. Under floors may be laid at the rate of from 10 to 12 squares per day. Many builders lump the above quantites, and estimate 140 INSIDE FINISHING the cost of the labor in framing to equal half of the cost of the material. Others estimate the framing at $10 per M, which is in most places a fair price. 65. Roofing. A carpenter will lay from 1500 to 2000 shingles per day, and use from 1\ to 10 Ib. of 4d nails, but there are professional shinglers who can lay as many as 5000. An all-round carpenter will rarely average more than the above, and not that if the roof is very badly cut up. Generally it will cost about $1.50 per M to lay shingles. A box of tin for roofing will cover about 180 sq. ft. and require about 10 Ib. of solder, 2 Ib. of tinned roofing-nails, and about 15 hours' work to prepare the tin for the roof and to put it on. To this is to be added the cost of painting the under side of the tin before laying. In dry climates this is not often done. Painting the roof after it is laid is often a part of the-painter's contract, though the first painting is considered part of the original cost of the roof. Though the price of a tin roof usually is estimated at from $8 to $10 per square, the above data will allow the roof to be estimated according to local conditions. A slate roof should be estimated by one who makes that work a business, but generally $9 per square is a safe estimate, though the price varies between $7 and $12, according to the nature of the roof, the quality of the ma- terial, and the work required. 66. Joinery. Under the head of joinery we shall treat the building after the carpenter has finished the framing, covering, and roofing, and discuss the topics of inside and outside finishing. The items to be considered under the above head are as follows : ESTIMATING 141 Outside Finish Base or water table. Corner boards. Cornice. Moldings. Siding. Windows Blinds. Frames. Glazing. Sash. Doors Doors. Frames. Inside Finish Architraves. Baseboard. Corner blocks. Flooring. Moldings. Plinths. Wainscoting. Stairs Balusters. Handrail. Newel posts. Rail bolts. Risers. Section posts. Skirting boards. Stringers or carriages. Treads. Veranda Balusters. Brackets. Capitals. Floor. Posts. Rail. Miscellaneous Grounds. Labor. Sheathing paper. Shelving. Shingles. Window frames may be bought at prices which range between SI and as high as a specially designed and very elaborate frame may cost ; but a good frame, and such as is in common use, may be bought for from SI. 25 to SI. 75. Usually they arrive from the factory in shocks, or knocked down, so about H hours should be allowed for nailing up and setting each frame. In this, as in all work, add 5 per cent for each story in height for the cost of handling. 142 INSIDE FINISHING Doorframes cost the price of the stock which is usually bought all rabbeted ; smoothing, nailing up, squaring, and setting an inside frame will usually require about If or 2 hours. A common outside frame, with its casing and threshold, will require about another hour. Two good men should build their scaffolds and put in place from 160 to 180 ft. of cornice per day, unless there are a great many angles. This includes all the work from the siding to the upper edge of the gutter bed, or to the place where the roof proper begins, and will require about 4 Ib. of nails for 100 ft. Another method is to figure the width of the cornice in inches, and allow \r per inch in width to each foot in length in the length of the cornice; this will pay for all the material and labor of scaffolding. In estimating corner boards and siding, the actual wall area is taken, and no allowance made for single openings, thus balancing the waste upon ordinary houses. To this should be added a fourth for the lap of 6" siding. If some form of matched siding is used, a third of the area should be added, as 4" siding will usually cover about 3J" upon the wall, and narrow boards cut to waste more than wide ones. When the above method is used, there is no need of estimating the corner boards separately. Two men should lay from 500 ft. to 700 ft. of siding, and use from 9 to 12 Ib. of nails for a day's work. Many contractors consider the cost of the labor of putting on outside finish as half of the cost of the material. In estimating the material for flooring, add a fourth to the area for waste, not measuring stairs or other large openings. A room which is badly cut up by angles and ESTIMATING 143 curves generally should be estimated to its extreme dimen- sions, to recompense for the extra labor of cutting. If a square-edged floor is to be laid, a fifth is sufficient allowance for waste. From 2 to 3 Ib. of nails per square are necessary to lay matched flooring. A man should lay from 3 to 4 squares per day of matched softwood flooring of good material, blind nailed ; if less than 4" wide, he should lay from 2 to 3 squares per day. Of hardwood flooring, a man will lay from a fourth to a third less than the above quantities, and of a square- edged floor a man should lay from 6 to 8 squares per day. Ceiling wainscoting, finished with cap and scotia, can be nailed and finished at the rate of from 2 to 2^ squares per day upon ordinary straight work, using 2 Ib. of 6d finish nails per square. Panel work or dado may be set up (not made) and fin- ished at the rate of about 1J squares per day, with an average amount of detail in the base and cap. No price can be given for the cost of paneled dado, as it can be made for almost any amount ; the builder should obtain a figure from a factory before submitting an estimate. It is usually safe to estimate a third more for the labor upon hardwood than upon softwood work. A man should smooth, fit, and nail in place from 50 to 60 linear feet of three-member base per day, including mitering the outside and coping the inside angles, unless there are a great many. It is a fair day's work to fit, hang, and mortise lock five inside doors ; if rim locks are used instead, seven doors require about the same amount of work to fit the lock so that the door does not rattle. 144 INSIDE FINISHING It is about one hour's work to case around a door or window frame with a corner block and plinth casing ; a mitered finish will require usually about one half more time. It is a common method to lump the mill work of a house and estimate the cost of the labor of putting it in place to equal one third or one half of its cost, according to the work required. To fit, hang, trim, and put the stops on five windows, will constitute a fair day's work. Many contractors figure the windows as finished complete, with blinds and paint- ing, at $10 per opening, which is safe for an ordinary house. Doors may be estimated by figuring the cost of the material and adding 1J day's work for an inside door, and If day's work for an outside door, if the latter is set with a hardwood sill and a thorough job is to be done. An inside door will require a good day's work to complete it, from making the frame to cutting down the threshold. In the pantry, and other places which require shelv- ing, a man should put in place from 60 to 75 ft. per day. The cost of stairs varies greatly with the design, but it is usually safe to estimate that it will require one day's work to two and a half risers in height, if they are not too intricate in their design. Box stairs usually require about one day's work to six risers in height. A man should lay in place between 300 and 400 linear feet of grounds per day, straightening them up in good shape. Mantels and other special woodwork are furnished some- ESTIMATING 145 times by the carpenter. The owner often selects them himself, but the contractor pays for them, the owner paying any extra cost above the price allowed in the con- tract, which may be necessary to secure a special design to which he takes a fancy. 67. Plastering. - - The material and labor required for 100 sq. yd. of three-coat work are as follows : - 1500 laths. 18 hours' work for two plas- 10 Ib. 3d fine nails. terers and one helper. 7 hours' work in making up 36 bu. sand. mortar. 8 Ib. or 1 bu. of hair. 1 day's labor lathing. \ bu. plaster of Paris. 12 bu. lime. The custom of measuring for plastering varies, though the square yard is generally the unit. It is quite usual not to deduct single openings, and to measure only half of the double openings, treating the rest as solid wall. All strips less than 12" should be measured as 12" ; for small closets add a half to the actual measurements. A man will lay about 1500 laths a day. Two plasterers and one helper will, upon ordinary work, build their stagings and do about 50 yd. per day of three-coat work. Roughly speaking, the plastering costs about 10 per cent of the entire cost of the house. Lathing and plastering vary in price according to locality from 20^ to 25^ for two-coat work, to 25^ to 30^ per square yard for three-coat work. In certain sections of the country, two-coat work is used exclusively. 68. Hardware. - - The following is a list of the articles of hardware needed upon a house : 146 INSIDE FINISHING Doors Windows Bolts. Blind trimmings. Butts. Sash cord. Cupboard catches. Sash fasts. Hinges. Sash lifts. Mortise locks. Sash weights. Rim locks. Special glass. Stops. Transom lifts. Transom locks. Miscellaneous Anchors. Ornamental iron work. Bolts. Plates. Drawer pulls. Rail bolts. Hooks and eyes. Rods. Nails, spikes, screws, etc. Washers. Upon ordinary work, the hardware will cost from 3 per cent to 5 per cent of the cost of the house, and 20 per cent of their cost will pay for putting on the trimmings. 69. Painting. - - The following figures are about the average for the whole country, but the builder should be sure that they are safe for his locality, before he uses them as the basis of an estimate. One gallon of paint will cover 200 sq. ft. of new wood, two coats, and 300 sq. ft. of metal roof, one coat. It is usually safe to estimate that the labor of putting on paint will cost about 1| times the cost of the paint upon plain work; and upon difficult work, or work in two or more colors, twice the cost of the paint should be allowed for the labor. The labor for varnished work should be estimated as costing about 1| times the material. ESTIMATING 147 Interior work will cost about 20^ per sq. yd. for two- coat, and 25^ for three-coat work. A plastered wall sized and covered with three coats of paint will cost about 20- per sq. yd. ; stippled, about 30^. Hardwood finishing will cost about 40^ per sq. yd. for filling and two coats of varnish. Painting generally will cost from 12 to 16 per cent of the cost of the house, but upon rough buildings and cheap work it is sometimes reduced to 6 or 8 per cent. It costs 25^ per double roll to hang common wall paper. In measuring for areas of painting, make no allowance for openings, as the difference in the work, the under edges of the siding, curves of moldings, etc., will make the meas- urement just. A painter can legally claim the privilege of measuring the height of a building by a tape measure, carefully fit- ting it into all the angles and curves of the siding, water- table, and moldings of the cornice, as all of these surfaces have to be covered with paint. 70. Heating and plumbing. We will not go into the detail of heating and plumbing, as in every case there are so many different methods of accomplishing results that any data which could be furnished here would be of little value. So we will simply state that a hot-air system will cost from 5 per cent to 8 per cent of the cost of the house, steam heat from 6 per cent to 10 per cent, hot water from 8 per cent to 12 per cent, plumbing about the same, and if the house is to be piped for gas, from 2 per cent to 4 per cent will pay for the piping without the fixtures. 71. Summarizing the estimates. After the quantities and dimensions of the different sizes, kinds, and grades of material have been calculated and their totals ascertained, 148 INSIDE FINISHING the information should be filed away. This unpriced list should be sufficiently accurate, in regard to the quantities and dimensions, to be used in ordering much of the bill stuff, and of the cheaper lumber and other materials which can be ordered by quantity, and be cut afterward. If the figuring has been too close, there may not be enough of the rough material for use as temporary bracing, scaffold- ing, etc. The totals of the above quantities and sizes should be arranged by the methods indicated in the following out- line^ which mentions only enough of the items to suggest the method to be followed ; the prices should be carried out, and added to ascertain the total cost of the material. To this should be added from 5 per cent to 25 per cent each for incidentals and profit. This should be enough, in the judgment of the contractor, to provide a safe margin for all reasonable contingencies, and at the same time to allow him a fair chance of being awarded the contract. TIMBER 4654 ft. dimension lumber for bill stuff, at $20 per M . . $93.08 3000 ft. hemlock sheathing 16' and 18' long, at $18 per M .1 gl Q0 1500 ft. hemlock sheathing for roof, at $18 per M . . . . J 12,000 best cedar shingles at $4 per M 48.00 600 ft. maple flooring, 4" matched, at $40 per M . . . . 24.00 Total MILL WORK 4 cellar frames at $1.25 $5.00 3 window frames 14" x 30", 4 It. at $1.75 5.25 11 sets of door jambs at 60^ 6.60 3 porch columns 8" X 8', turned, at $3.50 ...... 10.50 Total . ESTIMATING 149 CARPENTER WORK 4654 ft. framing lumber at $10 per M $46.54 4500 ft. sheathing at $8 per M . . . , 36.00 12,000 shingles at $1.50 per M 18.00 90 ft. of cornice at 150 per linear foot 13.50 One third cost of mill work for finishing 42.90 Stairs . 18.00 Total SUMMARY Excavating and masonry 230.00 Dimension lumber 315.64 Mill work 1-28.60 Carpenter work 235.67 Hardware 31.90 Tin work 13.60 Plastering. 450 yards at 25^ 112.50 Plumbing . 190.00 Painting 49.60 Total $1307.51 Incidentals, use of equipment, etc., 8 per cent 104.60 Profit, 10 per cent 130.75 Grand total $1542.86 72. Stock bill. After the estimating has been finished, the student should make out the stock list, which should include in detail the quantities and sizes of every item to be used in the construction of the building, which is not included with sufficient accuracy in the approximation list. In making this bill, the student should follow closely the instructions and lists of items as included in Topics 61 to 69. Each item should be carefully considered and checked to insure that none are missed or figured twice. Each item to be listed should be specified and estimated generally to the nearest stock dimensions, when framing 150 INSIDE FINISHING material and other supplies, which will have to be cut to exact dimensions upon the work, are being considered. The following bill should be ample to suggest the method generally followed in making out the stock list for a build- ing ; it includes only items which the carpenter uses, since the masonwork, painting, etc., are usually sublet, the sub- contractors making out their own stock lists. The list is only suggestive, and is not to be followed in selecting items, as it is intentionally incomplete, it being assumed that the student will work in accord with the suggestions previously made. JOHN DOE & SONS CONTRACTORS AND BUILDERS CHICAGO, ILL. DATE, /*,,. /, BILL OF MATERIAL FOR FOR jlohn cfmitfi, &q. f MR. RL&fwvid, Ro-& f Jb-&a,l&i/ Ln ffiuLtcl&iQf &&OA> c/i^l// dt tn^& ztia,iM< tfie/m^ to- ou\. At tlM/llf ESTIMATING 151 FRAMING 6 2" X 6" X 12' sills. 14 2" X 6" X 14' sills. 9 2" X 8" X 16' girders. 24 2" X 8" X 12' floor joists. 68 2" X 4?' X 14' studs, plates, etc. FINISH 9 window frames, 14" X 30" X If" 4 It. 17 window frames, 14" X 28" X If" 4 It. 9 door frames, 2' 8" x 6' 8" X If". If" X J" rabbet. 90 ft. 4" crown molding. 90 ft. 3i" X |" facia. 2000 ft. 4" matched siding. 9 #2 doors, 2' 8" X 6' 8" X If". HARDWARE 100 Ib. 8d com. nails. 100 Ib. 20d spikes. 50 Ib. 8d finish nails. 6 mortise locks. 36 6-lb. sash weights. Never use ditto marks (") to repeat figures, as they very often cause errors. Stock bills should always be made out in duplicate, by means of carbon paper, one copy to go to the dealer, and one to be retained by the builder, as one may be lost, and mistakes may be checked. 73. The contractor. Whenever unsuccessful, the young contractor should endeavor to discover, if possible, in what way his successful competitor was able to do the work more cheaply than he could. Did the success- ful competitor's figures differ in regard to material or labor? Was the material used the same that he would have furnished ? If the builder who is doing the work is 152 INSIDE FINISHING a successful man, a young contractor may learn much in regard to the faults of his own estimate. A feeling of antagonism exists among a certain class of builders toward an architect, and many do not hesitate to cause him all the annoyance possible. This is a very shortsighted policy, as an architect's advice to his client is usually of great weight, and the contract is not always awarded to the lowest bidder. If an architect has had unsatisfactory dealings with a builder, he will, like most people, avoid him as much as possible in the future. Architects, as a rule, are suspicious of builders, and naturally so, as the antagonistic builder is found every- where, and until confidence is established, the architect is apt to be very searching and particular in his examinations and requirements. The more friends among the archi- tects a builder can gain by his honesty and ability, and the more he can inspire their confidence, the better work, the more work, and the better prices he can command. The young contractor should be very careful in regard to the legal aspects of a contract, as there are many ways in which an unscrupulous man might take advantage of technicalities, and the young builder should make a study of forms of contracts and the conditions which govern them, and which they govern. Blank contracts covering all of the conditions usually observed in a building contract may be secured from a stationer who deals in legal forms. Every city of importance has building regulations suited to its own local conditions, and these should be carefully followed, or much expense and annoyance may be caused. A building permit is usually required in most cities, and it is generally the builder's place to secure it. ESTIMATING 153 A treatment of the legal aspects of the work of a contrac- tor is not within the province of this book, therefore men- tion only is made of its importance. SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES 58. What should the contractor always insist on having when esti- mating a house? 59. What should the contractor know of the location of the house and the subsoil ? 60. Describe the approximation method of estimating. Describe a safe method of estimating. Are the prices of labor and material the same in all localities ? What should the contractor endeavor to attain in estimating the cost of a building ? What is necessary in order to estimate methodically ? How are the different items treated ? How is the total of each division of items treated to find the cost ? What is the range of percentages added, and for what ? 61. What is included in the estimate of the excavation of a building ? What conditions govern the distance to which the excavated earth is to be carried ? What is a day's work for two men excavating with a wheelbarrow ? With a horse, cart, and driver ? What is the propor- tion of the cost of filling and grading to the cost of the excavation ? 62. What is the safest way for a carpenter to find the cost of the masonwork of a building? How should these estimates be made a part of the bid for an entire job ? Name at least twelve items which should be considered in estimating masonry. What is generally the unit of measurement for stonework? Recite the table of quantities. How is a wall usually measured to estimate the quantity of stone in it ? What is the usual rule in regard to the measurement of small openings ? Of large openings ? What is the proportion of stone in a wall to rough stone ? What is a day's work for a man and a helper in laying rubble ? Ashlar ? How much lime and sand should be used for each ? What is a day's work for a stonecutter upon granite or bluestone ? 63. How is a brick wall usually measured ? What is the method of measuring a brick wall for the slow burning type of building? How many bricks are there in a square foot of wall surface ? In a two-brick wall ? In a three-brick wall ? How many bricks are there in a cubic yard of solid brickwork? What is the allowance for breakage and 154 INSIDE FINISHING waste ? How much lime is used to lay 1000 common bricks ? 1000 face bricks? What is a fair day's work for a bricklayer upon ordinary work ? Upon face brick ? Make a stock bill of the masonry work of a small house with the estimate, working from a plan. 64. Mention twenty-five items to be considered in estimating the frame of a house. What is the common method of finding the number of studs needed ? Is this accurate ? Why is it most used ? Explain a more exact method, and compare the two. How many nails should be used in setting 1000' of studding? What is a fair day's work for two men in studding a house ? How are the corner posts usually esti- mated? How are they ordered? How is the number of floor joists, rafters, etc., found ? How is the number of jack rafters found ? How many nails will be used in setting 1000' of the above ? What is a fair day's work in setting the above? How can sheathing be estimated if laid horizontally ? Diagonally ? How can the sheeting for the roof be estimated ? If laid with 2" open joints ? How many nails are used for these items per 1000' ? What is a day's work upon each of the above ? How many sets of bridging should a man make in an hour ? Why cannot prices for iron work be given ? Make a stock bill for the framing material for a small house, with the estimate, using a plan. 65. What is a fair day's work in shingling? Estimate the cost of a square of shingles laid. Estimate the cost of a square of tin roofing laid. What is an average price for slate roofing ? 66. Name thirty items which should be considered in estimating joiner work. What is the approximate price of common window frames ? How much does it cost to nail them together ? How much does it cost to set an ordinary frame ? How does the cost of handling material differ with the stories of the house ? How long will it take to smooth and set up a doorframe ? How much cornice should two men put up in a day? Describe two methods of esti- mating cornice. How shall corner boards and siding be estimated? How much siding should two men lay in a day ? How do some men estimate the cost of the labor upon framing and outside finish ? How is flooring estimated ? How many nails are used to a square of flooring ? What is a fair day's work in laying pine matched flooring ? Maple ? What is the general proportion of cost between hardwood and softwood finish ? How much square-edged flooring should a man lay in a day ? ESTIMATING 155 How much ceiling wainscoting should be completed in a day ? What is a fair day's work in hanging and finishing doors ? How long will it take to case around a door upon both sides? How many windows should a man finish in a day ? How much three-member base should be put in place in a day ? Describe a method of estimating a window in a lump sum. How long will it take to finish a door complete ? How much shelving should be put in place in a day ? What is a day's w r ork in putting in a flight of stairs ? What will the labor cost upon a flight of stairs of 16 treads? What will the labor upon a 12-rise box stair- case cost ? How many grounds should a man put in place in a day ? Make the stock bill of finish for a small house, and estimate, working from a plan. 67. What material is necessary for 100 sq. yd. of plaster ? Describe the rules for measuring plastering. How many laths should a man lay in a day ? What is a day's work for two plasterers and a helper ? What is the proportion of the cost of the plastering to that of the entire house ? Make a stock bill for a small house with estimate, working from a plan. 68. Name ten items to be considered in estimating the hardware for a house. What per cent of the cost of a house is the cost of the hard- ware ? Make a hardware bill for a small house with the estimate. 69. How much new wood will one gallon of paint cover? How much metal roof will it cover ? What is the proportion between the cost of labor and the cost of paint ? Between the cost of labor and the cost of varnish ? How should the exterior of a house be measured ? What is the approximate cost of interior work ? What is the proportion be- tween the cost of the painting and the cost of the whole house ? What does it cost to lay paper? 70. What would be an approximate percentage of the cost of a hot-air furnace for the small house above estimated ? Steam ? Hot water ? Plumbing? Gas piping? What should be considered in adding the profit ? 71. Make a summary of all the estimates. 72. Make the stock bill of a small house with estimate. 73. What is a good plan for a young contractor to follow in estimat- ing ? Describe the relations between the architect and builder, as they sometimes exist. What is the reason for an architect's distrust of a certain class of builders ? Why are such builders unwise ? CHAPTER VIII ARITHMETIC 1. If it is estimated that 100 ft. of lumber are necessary to do a certain piece of work, and but 78 ft. are used, what per cent is saved ? 2. If the hardware upon a $1000 job cost $18, what per cent of the whole was the cost of the hardware ? 3. If the labor and material cost $14.50, what will be the price if a profit of 8 per cent is charged ? 4. What is the ratio of profit if a tool chest costs $6 and sells for $9 ? 5. If 45 ft. of lumber cost $.90, what will 150 ft. cost ? 6. What per cent of profit is there in a job for which $46.75 was paid, if the material costs $32 and the labor, $10.50 ? 7. If 200 ft. of lumber cost $5 how much will 37 ft. cost? 8. If 30 ft. of lumber are estimated for a job, and only 27 ft. are used, what per cent is saved? 9. Measure the material in some article of furniture and estimate the quantity and price. 10. A lumber pile contains 1918 sq. ft., 575 sq. ft., are sold, what per cent is left ? 11. What is the ratio of loss if an article costs $5 and sells for $3 ? 12. Estimate the number of bricks in a given wall or section of wall. 13. If ^ of a piece of property is worth $153, what is f of it worth ? 14. If 10 men do a piece of work in 12 hours, how long should it take 13 men to do it provided they could all work to advantage ? 15. 150 ft. is the estimate for the stock of a job, but through care- less cutting 165 ft. are used. What is the per cent of loss? 16. If A's pay is 12^ per hour, and B receives 60 per cent as much, what is B's pay ? 17. If they are put upon a job together and B does 50 per cent of the work, what per cent should B's pay be raised, and A's reduced, to make them even ? 156 ARITHMETIC 157 18. If a mason and helper can lay 1000 bricks a day, how long will it take them to lay a wall 40' long X 18' high, and 20" thick, of low grade brick? As the bricks are over size, estimate 21 bricks to a cubic foot instead of 22 as usual. 19. If 15 Ib. of nails cost $.45, what will 40 Ib. cost? 20. If 2000 ft. of lumber cost $70, how much will 3500 ft. cost ? 21. If A does a certain piece of work in 19 hours at 8 per hour, how much will it cost if B receives 10^ per hour and does it in f of the time? 22. If 17 per cent of a piece of work costs $22, what will the whole work cost when completed ? 23. Measure and estimate the material in a given length of fencing. 24. If 16f per cent of a piece of work costs $7, what will the rest cost at the same rate ? 25. What is the per cent of labor upon a job which costs $46.17, if the material costs $27 ? 26. Measure and estimate the material in the treads and risers of a given flight of stairs. 27. If A does 6 hours' work for 60 cf, and B does the same amount of work in 5 hours, how much per hour ought B to receive for his labor ? 28. Two men lay a floor containing 22 squares. A lays 8 ft. to B's 10 ft. How much does each lay ? 29. A, 5, and C contract to do a certain piece of work for $27. A does 6H per cent of the work, B 27 f per cent, C llf per cent. What amount of mone\ r will each receive ? 30. If 12| per cent of a piece of work costs $5.25, what will the entire work cost? 31. If 2 students do 10 per cent of a piece of work in 3 hours, how many will be necessary to do the whole in 10 hours if all work to advantage ? 32. If 6000 ft. of lumber cost $180, how much may be bought for $967? 33. If 6 men are 9 days doing a piece of work, how long will it take 4 men to do it ? 34. 'Divide 90 ft. of lumber into two parts having the ratio of 4 to 5 to each other. 35. Divide 246 into four* parts which will have the proportions of 4, 6, 9, 13. 158 INSIDE FINISHING 36. Measure and estimate the material in a given floor. 37. If a certain piece of work costs $20 the first time it is done, and the next time it costs $18.75, what per cent is saved ? 38. The average work of A costs f less than the average work of B. What per cent of difference should there be in their pay ? 39. Two contractors figure $3150 and $3064.50 upon a job. What per cent of the larger bid was the difference in their bids ? 40. Measure and estimate the material in a given case of drawers. 41. If two men can lay 6 squares of floor a day, what area of floor could thirteen lay in the same time? 42. 96 hours' work was divided equally between A, B, C, D, at 12^, 10^, Si, i an hour respectively. How much did each receive? 43. A cellar wall 8' high, 20' X 35', and 12" thick is to be laid of stone costing in the wall $4.50 per cu. yd. What will the wall cost ? 44. A is paid 10^ per hour for work, and his work is no better than that of B, who receives 8 per hour. What per cent should A's pay be reduced ? 45. Measure and estimate the cost of material in a given piece of furniture, and make a stock list including every piece used. 46. A certain room is 20' X 30', and another room is to be made which is to be 20 per cent larger each way ; what will be the area of the larger room ? 47. At the rate of 12^ for each 1| hours' work, how many hours' work will $4.30 pay for ? 48. If a floor is 20' wide, and If times as long, what is its area ? 49. If 60 per cent of a job costs $10, what will the whole job cost? 50. If 70 per cent of a job is material, what is the cost of a job, the labor of which costs $22? 51. If a piece of work costs 7 per cent less than the contractor's estimate, which was $1900, how much was his additional profit ? 52. A generally requires 10^ hours to do a piece of work which B can do in 9 hours. With A's work as a basis, what should be the per cent of difference in their pay ? 53. A shingle roof contains 88 squares, and must be done in two days ; how many men laying 2 squares per day each will have to be hired? 54. What per cent of the cost of a job is the labor, if the material costs 61 per cent, and 10 per cent is allowed for profit ? ARITHMETIC 159 55. In a heavy building, of mill construction, the bays are 8' to centers, timbers 12" X 14" X 20' long, and pieces of 6" X 8" are built into the walls to receive the ends of the flooring. The floor is to be 38' X 80', 4|" thick, with floor openings aggregating 245 sq. ft. in area. Estimate the quantity of lumber necessary to construct the above floor, making no allowance for waste. NOTE. In the form of construction known as mill construction, the posts are placed from 7' to 9' apart, and support the floor timbers, which in turn support the heavy floor. The distances between the posts are called bays. 56. Make a stock list of the treads, risers, balusters, rails, and posts of a given flight of stairs. 57. Measure, make a stock list, and estimate the cost of the ma- terial of a given door. 58. A lumber dealer sells 100 ft. or 6 per cent of a lumber pile to one customer, 8 per cent to another, and the balance to a third at $22 per M. What does he receive from the last customer ? 59. A and B start upon two jobs just alike. A receives 10^ per hour and B, 80 per cent as much as A ; if A does his work in 9 hours, how long ought B to spend upon his ? 60. If A and B do their work in the same time, what per cent of A's pay should be withheld to make the cost of the two jobs the same ? 61. If 12 men can build 180 ft. of fence in two days, how long will it take 18 men to build 500 ft. ? 62. If a pile of lumber is worth $168 at 4^ per ft., and if a part worth $23.52 is lost by fire, what per cent of the whole is left ? 63. If it cost $5 per square to lay a floor complete, how much will it cost to lay a floor 49' long, 30' wide at one end and T 9 3 as wide at the other? 64. A room is 24' X 36', of which 13 per cent is to be occupied by a closet ; what will be the remaining area ? 65. If 26 per cent of the labor, the total cost of which was $40, is furnished by A, and the rest by five others, what should each receive? 66. At $6.50 per M, how much will the brick in a given chimney cost? 67. A workman estimates his time at 25^ per hour and bids $250 upon a contract. He receives the contract, which he fulfills in 883 160 INSIDE FINISHING hours. What per cent of his estimate has he made or lost by the transaction ? 68. If a job costs $6, of which $2.25 is for material, what is the per cent of the cost of the material to the cost of the whole ? 69. What are the total contents of two planks, if one contains 19 sq. ft., and the other 86 per cent of it? 70. If 60 ft. of lumber are cut for a certain piece of work, and but 42 ft. are used, what is the per cent of waste ? 71. A and B could each accomplish about the same amount of work, but A was paid 30^ and B 25 , per hour. They were sent to do a piece of work together, which required 20 hours of each, man. A cuts the material which he uses with practically no waste, while B, through carelessness, wastes 21 sq. ft. costing $60 per M. Which is the less expensive man and by how much ? 72. 1000 ft. of lumber weighing 3000 Ib. was in the dryhouse 3 days, at the end of which time it had decreased 8 oz. per foot. What per cent of the original weight of the lumber had evaporated? 73. At the end of one week the lumber had thoroughly dried and its weight had decreased 40 per cent. What was its final weight ? 74. If 1 cu. ft. of water weighs 62.42 Ib., what would be the capacity of a tank to hold the water evaporated from the above lumber ? 75. If a man pays $5 for tools, and earns $13.50 by his labor*, what per cent has he made upon the money invested ? 76. A building is 65 ft. span in the clear. The lower chord of the truss is 10' X 14'. Allowing the chord to rest 15 in. upon each side, how many sq. ft. are there in the timber ? 77. Measure and estimate the cost of the floor joists which support a given floor. 78. Counting four courses to the foot, how many bricks will it take to build a three-flue chimney 42' high, flues to be one brick each way? 79. A cistern has 60 bricks to a course and four courses to a foot. What is the height to the arch if 2880 bricks are used ? 80. If it takes 21 bricks to lay a cubic foot, how many bricks are there in a wall 60' X 9' X 16" thick? 81. A young man spends $200 for his course in a trade school, and earns 75 per cent of it working for the school. How much does he have to obtain elsewhere ? ARITHMETIC 161 82. After graduation the above young man earns $50 per month for one year as a carpenter, and saves 50 per cent of it. What per cent of his entire earnings for the three years was left after his school debt had been paid out of his savings ? 83. If the area of a certain wall is 88 sq. ft., and 33| per cent of it is glass, what is the area of the glass ? 84. If a floor is 19' wide, and 40 per cent as wide as it is long, what is its length ? 85. If 9 per cent of the above floor is cut out for a stairway, what is the area of the rest of the floor? 86. Estimate the cost of the hardware upon three given doors. 87. If B does a certain piece of work hi 27 hours, and A does the same work in 11 per cent less time, how long does it take A to do it ? 88. What per cent of the cost of a house is the painting, if the total cost of the house is $1500 and the painting $55? 89. What is the percentage of gain if lumber, bought for $16 per M, is handled and worked at a cost of $10 per M, and sold for $29.02 per M ? 90. Three boards measure 50 ft. One is 20| per cent of the whole, another is 35 per cent. What is the percentage of the other ? 91. A student earns $35 per term, of which he spends $25. What per cent does he save? 92. A student borrows $25, giving a note for 1 year at 6 per cent interest, payable at maturity. What will be the value of the note when it falls due ? 93. A barn costs $300, the stock inside $500. If the barn burns and is a total loss, and 82 per cent of the stock is saved, what is the total loss ? 94. If a circular saw does the work of 65 men, what per cent is. gained if it takes one man to run it ? 95. If the 65 men are paid $1 per day each, and the cost for power, maintenance, and one man's time is $6 per day, what is the actual per cent of profit from a circular saw ? 96. What per cent of the cost of A's work is the difference in the cost of two equal jobs, if A does one for $6.40, and B the other for $6.85? 97. If 12^ per cent of the area of a room is occupied by a closet which covers 17^ sq. ft. of space, what is the area of the room ? 98. If the above room is i as long as it is wide, what is its size ? 162 INSIDE FINISHING 99. What is the area of a board, if another, 85 per cent as large, contains 17 sq. ft. ? 100. A house costing $900 is built upon a lot of land which cost $150. The property is insured for f of the cost of the house, which burns, and is a total loss. What is the actual loss to the owner, after the insurance has been paid ? 101. Measure, make the stock list, and estimate the cost of the stock in a given case of drawers. 102. A saw cuts 6000 feet of lumber in a day, which is sold for $12.50 per M. If it costs 70 per cent of the selling price for stumpage, haul- ing, sawing, and handling, what is the profit upon the day's work? 103. If 50 men are paid $2 per day each, and it costs $220 for the material they use, what must be received for the work to give a profit of 8 per cent ? 104. Two jobs cost respectively $12.80 and $13.90. The difference is what per cent of the more expensive job ? 105. If 12 1 per cent of the area of a room is occupied by a closet which covers 18 sq. ft. of floor space, what is the area of the room ? 106. What is the size of the above room if it is 14' upon one side ? 107. If the above room is 8' llf" high, how many cubic feet of air will it contain? 108. Estimating 575 bricks to a cubic yard, how many bricks are there in a pile 3' X 5' 4" X 15' 4" ? 109. If a granite capstone 10" thick will safely support a load of 700 Ib. per sq. in., what should be the area to carry a load of 152,000 Ib. ? Give the answer in sq. ft. 110. If a limestone foundation is to support 395,000 Ib., and the stone will safely carry 250 Ib. per sq. in., what will be the required area? 111. If compact gravel and sand will carry a load of 7 tons per sq. ft., how large an area will have to be covered to carry a load of 360,600 Ib. ? 112. If clay will safely support a load of 2 tons per sq. ft., how heavy a load will a footing 7' X 7' support ? 113. If a Portland cement foundation made of 1 part of cement, 2 of sand, and 5 of broken stone will support 150 Ib. per sq. ft., what will be the necessary area to carry safely 98,000 Ib. ? 114. If painting costs 1Q per sq. yd., how much will it cost to paint 16 squares ? ARITHMETIC 163 115. A house is built at a cost of $860 and lies idle for one year. It is then sold for $900.51, which includes cost of transfer. With interest at 6 per cent, what per cent is lost ? 116. A workman made a tool chest, the material for which cost $1.75; he sold it for $8. What per cent of the selling price repre- sented his labor ? 117. A table which cost $1.50 to make, sold for $1.35. What was the per cent of loss ? 118. Measure, make the stock list of a given fence, and estimate the cost of the material. 119. Measure and make the stock list of a given veranda floor and its supports. 120. A panel door has 2125 sq. in. of surface, 1241 of which are occupied by panels. What per cent of the entire surface do the panels occupy ? 121. Select a small shed or outhouse, and make the stock list of all the material used in its construction. 122. What pay should be given to A, who does as much work as B, who earns 8^ per hour? 123. If 571.32 ft. is 23 per cent of the amount of the stock re- quired to do a certain job, how much is needed for the whole ? 124. To decide which can produce work with less expense, A and B, receiving 28 and 30^ per hour respectively, agree upon a contest, each to make three packing boxes of the same dimensions. A does his work in 2| hours, while B requires 3 hours to finish his work. Which is the more profitable man, and by how much? 125. Estimate the length of shelving necessary to accommodate a given quantity of books. 126. If 20 per cent of the cost of a job is labor, 7 per cent nails, 15 per cent painting, 10 per cent profit, what is the percentage of the value of the other material ? 127. If 27 pieces of lumber are required for a piece of work, aggregating 165 ft. of material, what per cent of the whole is one piece ? 128. What per cent of a pile of lumber containing 1972 ft. is left, if 1368 ft. are sold ? 129. If 276.027 ft. are 19 per cent of a pile of lumber, how much is there in the whole pile? 164 INSIDE FINISHING 130. If 5 ft. of lumber is wasted in sawing 600 ft., what per cent is wasted ? 131. Make a stock list for the finish of a given room. 132. A bought a lot of land for $100, giving his note at 7 per cent. He built a small barn upon it, the material for which cost $175. At the end of one year he sold the property for $350. What per cent of this amount was his own? 133. If ^ of the cost of one piece of work is $56, or the completed cost of another, what is the per cent of difference between the two ? 134. What is the per cent of profit of a piece of work which cost $28.50, and was sold for $36.70? 135. If 7 men together do a piece of work, 2 of whom receive | of the amount paid, what per cent will each of the other 5 receive if all receive equal amounts ? 136. A builder borrows $1000 on a 4 months' note to help him complete a contract. When the note matures his payment is $1037.50. What was the annual rate of interest ? 137. Estimate the siding of a given house, making no allowance for openings, and allowing | of area for waste. 138. A house cost $1225. The owner lived in the house three months, during which time he made repairs costing $173.90. He then sold the property for $1600. Estimating interest at 6 per cent, and the rent of the house at $15 per month, what was the profit upon his investment ? 139. A student works all summer, and all of the time possible outside of school hours. He earns $135 per year, out of which he pays three terms' bills at $30 per term, sends $20 home, and uses the rest for incidentals. What per cent of the whole is the latter item ? 140. A certain job requires \ as much lumber as is used upon two other jobs, one of which uses 29 ft., or 36 per cent as much as is used for the two. What is the total amount used for the three jobs? 141. A lumber dealer buys lumber for $20 per M, holds it at an expense of $2 per M, and sells it for $30.50 per M. What is the per cent of profit? 142. A student pays 82 per cent of his money or $30 for one term's school expenses, and the rest for incidentals. How much did he have originally ? ARITHMETIC 165 (Questions 143 to 155 inclusive are suggestions for drill.) 143. What is the first power of 4; 8; 12? 144. What is the second power of 3; 9; 20; 25? 145. What is the third power of 6; 8; 12; 18; 30? 146. Raise the following numbers to the powers indicated by the exponents: 3 ! ; 12 2 ; 8 ! ; 12 3 ; 18'; 30 3 . 147. Square 6; 3; 5; 80. 148. Cube 3; 5; 9: 17.3978. 149. What are the two equal factors of 25; 156.25; 324; 600.25; 1600? 150. Of what number is 4 the second power? 9; 49; 81? 151. How many orders are there in the square roots of 100; 2809; 36,864? 152. How many orders are there in the square roots of 9; 49; 64; 81 ? 153. What is the square root of 4; 9; 16; 25; 49; 81; 100? 154. What is the square root of 625 ; 768; 5280; 12,967; 192,621? 155. What is the square root of 9.612; 22.94; 323.96; 4919.61? 156. What is the length of the diagonal of the floor of a closet 8' long and & wide ? 157. The floor of a building is 24' X 32'; what is the length of its diagonal ? 158. The diagonal of a room is 16', the height is 12' ; what is the length from the corner at the floor to the corner at the ceiling, diago- nally opposite ? 159. A ladder is resting against the plate of a house, at a point 20' from the ground. The foot of the ladder is 4' 9" from the house. What is the length of the ladder ? 160. What would be the height of the riser of a flight of stairs which has a total rise of 9' 3" from floor to floor ? 161. If a building is 8' clear from floor to ceiling, the lath and plaster 1" thick, floor joists 2" X 8", and the flooring of the second story 1" thick, what will be the rise of the stairs? 162. A flight of stairs in a school building has 18 risers which ex- tend lO' 1 " from floor to floor. What is the height of each riser ? 163. If there are 15 risers and the treads are 10" wide, what will be the entire run of a straight flight of stairs? 164. If a step has a rise of 7", and a run of 10|", what will be the full width of the tread ? 166 INSIDE FINISHING 165. A straight run of stairs has 14 risers, and the treads are lift" wide. What will be the entire run of the stairs ? 166. If a floor has an area of 700 sq. ft., and one side is 20', what is the length of the diagonal ? 167. What would be the dimensions of a perfectly square room 1.72 sq. ft. larger than the above room ? 168. If the length of an armory is 80' and its diagonal is 100', what is the width ? 169. A building is 28' high, and throws a shadow 18' on level ground. How far is it from the end of the shadow to the top of the building ? 170. The distance from the top of a pole to the end of its shadow on the ground is 75.05'. If the shadow extends 40' from the base, how high is the pole ? 171. What are the dimensions of each step of a flight which rises 108" and has a run of 135" ? 172. What would be the full width of the tread of the above steps ? 173. What will be the total fall of a drain which is 450' long, and has a pitch of 3" to every 50' ? 174. What will be the pitch per foot of the outside drain of a house 28' X 40', if it is 8" lower at the S.W. corner than it is at the N.E. ? 175. A drain is to be laid around the inside of a cellar 32' X 50', one foot from the center of the drain to the inside of the wall. If it has a fall of 4" to 50', what will be its total fall ? 176. If the diameter of a circle is 23", what is its circumference ? 177. What is its area ? 178. The circumference of a circle is 45.86736 ft. What is its diameter ? 179. What is the area of a circle 14' 6" in diameter ? 180. How many circles with an area of 2.1 sq. ft. will be contained in a circle with a circumference of 25.13ft.? 181. What is the area of a lot of land of the dimensions shown in Fig. 78? ARITHMETIC 167 182. How many gallons of water may be contained in a cistern 10' in diameter, and 10' high? (See Table 29, page 216.) 183. How many gallons of water may be contained in a cistern 9' in diameter and 7' high? 184. What is the area of an irregular, four-sided floor the diagonals of which meet at right angles and are 70' and 39.889' respectively ? Suggestions for drill in the use of: 185. Signs of division. (a) 6 -. 3; (6) 12 - 6; (c) 50 -s- 2; (d) 60 * 3; (e) 80 -5- 4; (/)9:3; (0)8:2; (fc)28:7; (i) 110:11; (j) 36:9; (fc) 50:25; (075:15; (m)49/7; (n) 28/4; (o) 96/24: (p) 65/5; (g) 80/16; (r)42/7; 186. Vinculum. (a) 5 +6 X7; (6) 9 - 6 X 6. Parenthesis. (c) (6 + 10) X 9 ; (d) (5 - 3) X (6 + 9) ; (e) (5 X 6) (7 - 5) ; (/) (6 + 18) 12. Brackets. (g) [9 + 12] x 6; (h) [7 - 3] X 12; (i) [6 + 4] X [5 - 1]; tf ) [5 + 3] X 6. Brace. (fc) {6+5}x5; (0 {5+31x2; (m) {4+6}x9; (n) {4 - 3} X 21. 187. Radical sign. (a) ^3+6; (6) V32 X 2 ; (c) V9 + 7 ; (d) V(3 X 15) +4; (e) V(7 + 5) X 2 + 1 ; (/) ^(6 X 4) + 3 ; (g) ^ 188. Use signs as follows : (a) [(3 X 4) + 6] 2; (6) [(12 x 3 -s- 4) X 6]; (c) [(6+9X3 - 5) -s- 4] X 12; (6 X 5 X 3) ^ 6 Vl2 X 3 + (2 X 21) . 5 16 168 INSIDE FINISHING (/) X 3 + 149991\ 3QQQ v4 X 5 + 5 + (20 X 7 + 5) (2 X 5) X (10 + 5) 2 V[(9 X 169 + 60) 87] 2 + (12 X 73 X 64 + 618) (0) - (6 X 9 X 2 + 36) 18 Formulas. 189. What is the area of a rectangle 400' X 296' ? Use the fol- lowing formula in the solution of this problem. L = length. W = width. A = area. Formula A. A = L X W. 190. Find | of the cubic contents of a room 15 ft. long, 12 ft, wide, and 9 ft. high, using the following formula : L = length. H = height. W = width. C = cubic contents. Formula B. C = L X W X H. 191. How many square feet of boards will be required to cover the two gables of a half pitch house which is 20' wide ? Make no allow- ance for waste. Area of a triangle. B = base. H = height. A = area. Formula C. A = ^->L5. 192. How many feet of boards will be required to cover the gables of a third pitch house which is 24' wide ? Make no allowance for waste. 193. How many square feet are there in a room which is 30' upon one side, 35' upon the other, and 25' wide ? L = length of short side. W = width. B = length of long side. A = area. Formula D. A = L + B W. ARITHMETIC 169 194. What is the area of an octagonal room which is 5' upon each side, and 6' \" from the center to the side ? L = length of one side. N = number of sides. .1 = area. \V = perpendicular distance from the center to the side. Formula E. A =MK* 2i 195. Find the area of an irregular polygon, by the method indicated in Fig. 79. 196. Find the circumference of a circle which is 9' in diameter. IT = pi, the ratio of the diameter to the circumference, = 3.1416. C = circumference. R = radius. D = diameter. Formula F. C = 2 irR = DTT. 197. What is the diameter of a circle which is 39.27 ft. in circum- ference ? Formula G. D =-. 7T 198. What is the area of a circle which is 7' in diameter ? Formula H. A = D 2 .7854. Another method. Formula I. A = TT/J?. 199. Find the diameter of a circle which is 314.16 sq. ft. in area. Formula J. D = .7854 200. What is the area of a circular wall 12' in diameter outside, and 9' inside ? 170 INSIDE FINISHING 201. Find the length of an arc of 24 which has a radius of 6'. L = length of arc. R = radius. N = number of degrees. C = circumference. RN Formula K. L = 57.3 Another method. Formula L. L = ^rN. ooO 202. What is the area of a circular auditorium which is 160' in diameter ? 203. How many pupils could stand sideways around the wall, if each occupied approximately 12" of space, allowing 30.46' for openings? 204. If the ceiling of a hall 150' X 150' is 21.4377' above the floor, what are the cubic contents of the room? Omit fractions in the answer. 205. The walls of an auditorium, 120.58' square and 25' high, are to be plastered. How many square feet of wall space will have to bo covered if no allowance is made for openings ? 206. What is the brick area of a wall which is 39.20' X 40' upon the outside, pierced with a circular hole which is 20' across ? The steel square is to be used as much as possible in the solution of the following problems. 207. If a building is 28' X 40', and the batter boards are 5' from each corner, what is the distance between their corners ? 208. What will be the length of the diagonals of the above batter boards ? 209. If a building is 24' X 32', what is the length of each diagonal ? 210. What is the length of a brace completing a triangle, each of the two sides of which is 57" long ? 211. What is the length of a brace completing a triangle, the sides of which are 6' and 8' long ? 212. Allowing 2| tons per square foot for a safe load, what will a footing course 6' X 6' carry upon a bottom of hard clay ? 213. A load of 300,000 Ib. is to be supported upon a gravel bed, which will safely carry 8 tons per square foot. What should be the area of the foot of the pier ? 214. If a foundation is 25' X 32', how large ought the bottom of the excavation to be to allow for a footing course and a tile drain ? ARITHMETIC 171 215. What is the length of a brace completing a triangle, the sides of which are 9.295' and 14' long ? 216. Which will have the more sectional area, an 8" X 8" sill, with a 2" X 4' 'and a 2" X 2" mortise, or "a 6" X 8", with no mortis- ing, and a 2" X 4" spiked on to support floor joists, and how much greater ? 217. If a girt is 8" X 8", and 2 floor joists are mortised into it each with a 2" X 4" tenon, w r hat is the actual area of the girt ? 218. What is the length of a brace completing a triangle each side of which is 4' 6" long ? 219. What is the length of a balloon brace for sides 30" X 12' long? 220. If a floor is well bridged, and a load of 12,000 Ib. causes a deflection of A", what would be the deflection if the floor were not bridged ? 221. What is the greatest square which can be contained in a 24" circle ? 222. What will be the size of a square of the area of one measur- ing 10' upon each side ? 223. What will be the diameter of a circle which will equal the area of two given circles, one 5' and the other 8' in diameter? 224. If an octagon is 5' upon one side, what is its width ? 225. If a hexagon is 5' 1 1 \" upon each side, what is its width ? 226. What is the length of the diagonal of an octagon which is 5' upon a side ? 227. What will be the rise of a half pitch roof, if the house is 28' wide ? .NOTE. In problems 228, 229, 230, estimate the width of the shingled area of each side of the roofs, to equal the next larger foot than the actual dimensions. 228. If the above roof has a projection of 18" and the house is 35' long, how many shingles will be needed to cover the roof, allowing 1000 per square, the rafters being 2' longer than the actual length? 229. A third pitch roof house 28' X 36' 9", with a lookout of 18" horizontal projection, is to be covered with a steel roof at a cost of $3 per square. What will it cost ? 230. The roof of a quarter pitch house, 30' X 28', with a lookout of 12" horizontal projection, is to be painted at a cost of SI. 25 per square. What will it cost? 172 INSIDE FINISHING 231. What is the length of a rafter of a half pitch roof, if the house is 29' wide? 232. If the rafters are to be set 24" to centers, how many will be required for a roof which is 40' long? 233. What will be the length of the common rafter of a half pitch roof if the house is 24' wide ? 234. What will be the rise and run of the common rafter of a third pitch roof of a building 32' wide ? 235. What will be the length of a common rafter of a two-thirds pitch roof if the house is 24' wide? 236. What will be the length of a common rafter of a third pitch roof of a house which is 27' wide ? 237. If a hip roof is to be built upon a house which is 28' square, will there be any ridge ? 238. If a hip roof house is 26' wide and 29' long, how long will the ridge be ? 239. If a ridge 2' 11" long extends to take the entire side cut of the hip rafters, what will be the entire length of it ? 240. If a If" ridge board is used, how much shorter will each end of the ridge be ? Give the answer to the nearest 12 of an inch. 241. A shed roof rises 12" to 12'. Allowing 1' for lookouts, what will be the entire length of the rafter ? 242. What will be the entire rise of the roof from eaves to eaves ? 243. What will be the length of the lookouts of a half pitch roof, which projects 22" ? 244. What will be the length of the hip rafter of a half pitch house 24' wide? 245. What will be the length of the hip rafter of a third pitch house 28' wide? 246. What will be the length of the hip rafter of a quarter pitch house 25' 11" wide? 247. What will be the length of a hip lookout for a third pitch house, if the common rafters project 18"? 248. How much shorter will a quarter pitch hip rafter be cut if a 2" ridge is used, the ridge taking the entire joint of the hip ? 249. What will be the length of the collar beam for a half pitch house, if the bottom is placed 6' below the apex of the roof ? 250. Find the same for a third pitch house. ARITHMETIC 173 251. Find the same for a fourth pitch house. 252. What will be the length of the strut which supports the com- mon rafter of a quarter pitch roof ? It is square with the rafter and 6 ft. from the end. 253. Find the same for a third pitch house. 254. Find the same for a quarter pitch house. 255. An octagonal tower is to be built, 6' upon each side. What is the parallel width of the tower? 256. What is the diagonal of the above tower ? 257. What is the length of the hip rafter of the above tower, if it is 10' high at the apex ? 258. If a 6" king post is used, how much will each hip rafter be shortened ? 259. The common rafters of the roof of an addition are to be cut to dimensions instead of an ordinary pitch. If the run of these rafters is 10' 1", and the rise 6' 4", what will be their length? 260. If a hexagonal tower 8' upon one side is to be built, what is its diagonal? 261. What will be the parallel width of the above tower? 262. What will be the length of the hip rafter if the above roof rises 12'? 263. If a circular roof 22' in diameter and 11' high is to be built, what will be the length of the first pair of rafters ? 264. Find the length of the second pair. 265. Find the lengths of the third and fourth pairs. 266. What will be the length of the valley rafter of a third pitch house, which is 24' wide, an ell 20' wide joining the main house? 267. If a 2" hip is used, how much shorter will the valley rafter be ? 268. If the common rafters of a half pitch roof meet at the apex and jacks are to be 2' to centers, how much shorter will the first jack be than the common rafter ? 269. Work out the same problem for a third pitch house. 270. If the center of the common rafter of a quarter pitch roof is 9" away from the hip apex and 22" from the center of the first jack, how much shorter will the jack be than the common rafters ? 271. If the common rafter of a third pitch house is 12' long, and is set 8" from the apex of the hip, what is the length of the first jack? 174 INSIDE FINISHING 272. What will be the length of the longest jacks of an octagonal roof which is 18' wide between sides, with a rise of 12', if they are placed 2' 6" on centers at the plate ? In this case, the middle rafter of each side of the roof is not considered a jack. 273. If 2" hips are used, how much shorter will the top ends of these rafters have- to be cut ? 274. The material costs twice as much as the labor upon a certain house which is to be built upon a hilltop. On account of the loca- tion it costs 5 per cent more to get the material, and since the men come from the city to the building, the increase of the cost of labor is 4 per cent. If the cost of the house in an ordinary locality would have been $2100, what will be the cost of this house ? 275. At $1.37^ per minimum day's work, what will it cost to exca- vate and wheel 60 ft. the earth from a cellar 30' X 45', and 4' deep ? 276. If a mason is paid $3 per day, and a helper $1.50, how much will it cost to build the rubble stone wall of a house, 25' X 32' X 16" thick, and 8' high ? 277. How many bushels of sand and lime will be required in build- ing the above wall ? 278. How much will it cost for labor upon a brick wall, 40' long, 25.014' high, 16" thick, allowing for openings? The bricklayer lays the average number of bricks, and receives $3 per day, and the helper $1.50. 279. How many bushels of sand and lime will be necessary to lay 24,330 bricks ? 280. How many studs will be necessary for the outside walls of a rectangular building 25' X 40', 12 openings? 281. The joists of a floor 32' long X 18' wide are set 16" on centers, and the floor is strengthened by two rows of bridging, which costs 4 ct. per set. What is the cost of the bridging? 282. How much horizontal sheathing will it take to cover the walls of a hip roof building 27' 6" X 38' 3", and 16' high to the eaves ? Make no allowance for openings. 283. If the house is boarded diagonally, how much will it take? Make no allowance for openings. 284. A floor 20' X 16' is to be laid of 4" matched boards. How many feet will it take ? 285. What will be the amount if 3" boards are used ? ARITHMETIC 175 286. How many square feet of 6" siding will be required to cover the walls of an octagonal auditorium 64.1' upon each side, and 20' high, with the usual number of windows ? 287. How much 4" matched siding would be used for the above building ? 288. If a cornice 26" wide is to be built upon this house, how much will it cost, estimating the size of the house as the length of the cornice ? NOTE. Questions 289 to 300, inclusive, refer to labor only. 289. If it takes 6000 ft. of studding to build a house, how much will it cost to set it, if the minimum day's work is done with wages at $2.25 per day? 290. If it takes 3000 ft. of rafters to frame a house, how much will it cost with labor at $2.25 per day ? 291. If it takes 3375 ft. of floor joists to frame the floors of a cer- tain building, how much will the labor cost at $2.50 per day ? 292. If it takes 14,500 ft. of sheathing to cover a house, how much will it cost if the men receive $1.75 per day ? 293. If a house requires 6300 ft. of siding, how much will it cost if the men receive $2.25 per day ? 294. If a house requires 30,220 shingles, how much will it cost to lay them ? 295. How much will it cost to set 28 window frames, at $2.50 per day of 10 hours ? 296. How much will it cost to put a ceiling wainscot around 6 rooms, aggregating 275' spread, and 3' 6" high, if the men receive $2.50 per da} r , and do a maximum day's work ? 297. 62 inside doors are to be hung and trimmed. If the wages are $2.75 per day, and if mortise locks are used, how much will the job cost? 298. At $8 per square, how much will it cost to put a tin roof upon a building which is 20' X 36' with a projection of 12" ? 299. What will it cost at $.22 per square yard to lath and plaster 6 rooms, 12' X 16', averaging 8' high? 300. If it takes 18 inch laths per square yard and labor costs $2 per day, what will the labor cost to lath a house containing 387 sq. yd. ? 301. If the cost of building figures up to $2533, what will be the estimate after the hardware is added, allowing the minimum estimate ? 176 INSIDE FINISHING 302. If the hardware in a certain house cost $73.80, how much will it cost to put it on ? 303. How many gallons of paint will be necessary to cover (2 coats) a building which has a surface of 9000 sq. ft. ? 304. If the paint for a building costs $84, how much should the labor of putting it on cost ? (See Section 69.) 305. How many gallons of paint are necessary to cover (2 coats) 4200 sq. ft., allowing f for large openings ? 306. A job of papering requires 67 double rolls. What will the cost of laying it be ? 307. If a job of paperhanging requires 93 double rolls of paper, at 8ff per roll, and it costs $.12 per single roll to lay it, what will the job cost? CHAPTER IX TABLES TABLE i ASPHALT FLOOR 6 parts asphalt. 1 part coal tar. 3 parts sand. TABLE 2 BENDING Radius X .05 = thickness of pine which will bend without special preparation. TABLE 3 CELLAR SASH TWO-LIGHT SASH If" THICK THREE-LIGHT SASH 1J" THICK Size of Glass Size of Sash Size of Glass Size of Sash 10' X 12" 2' 1" X 16" 7" X 9" 2' 1" X 13" 10' X 14" 2' 1" X 18" 8" X 10" 2' 4" X 14" 10' X 16" 2' 1" X 20" 9" X 12" 2' 7" X 16" 10' X 18" 2' 1" X 22" 9" X 13" 2' 7" X 17" 12' X 12" 2' 5" X 16" 9" X 14" 2' 7" X 18" 12' X 14" 2' 5" X 18" 10" X 12" 2' 10" X 16" 12' X 16" 2' 5" X 20" 10" X 14" 2' 10" X 18" 12' X 18" 2' 5" X 22" 10" X 16" 2' 10" X 20" 12' X 20" 2' 5" X 24" 12" X 12" 3' 4" X 16" 14' X 16" 2' 9" X 20" 12" X 14" 3' 4" X 18" 14' X 18" 2' 9" X 22" 12" X 16" 3' 4" X 20" 14' X 20" 2' 9" X 24" . 14' X 22" 2' 9" X 26" 14' X 24" 2' 9" X 28" 177 178 INSIDE FINISHING TABLES 179 -* X -r X -M -^ O C: 7) -^ ' C " O *r C: - -f 'X TjHTffNC^roro^coco xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx 3 . 2 ^^^^ 553 1*1! c 3 <3 j ^ C ^ o, CM T3 - -7 f* cji Slst J f 180 INSIDE FINISHING TABLE 5 PAINTING To remove old paint : Dissolve 2 oz. of soft soap, 4 oz. of potash in boiling water ; add Ib. of quicklime. Apply hot, and leave from 12 to 24 hours ; wash off with hot water. To dip 1000 shingles a third of their length, requires 2| gal. of stain. 1 Ib. of paint covers 3| to 4 sq. yd., the first coat ; 4| to 6 sq. yd. for each succeeding coat. On brick 1 Ib. of paint covers 3 sq. yd. the first coat, and 4 sq. yd. for each succeeding coat. Colored paint covers about a third more than white. 1 gal. of paint will cover 250 to 300 sq. ft. two coats. 1 gal. of paint will cover 300 to 350 sq. ft. of metal, one coat. 1 gal. of paint weighs about 16 Ib. 1 gal. of shingle stain will cover 200 sq. ft. or dip about 400 shingles. Rough-sawed shingles require 50 per cent more stain than smooth. 1 Ib. of cold water paint covers 50 to 75 sq. ft. for first coat on wood, or 40ft. on brick or stone. 1 gal. of filler covers 300 to 400 sq. ft. the first coat, and 400 to 500 ft. for succeeding coats. 10 Ib. of paste filler will cover from 350 to 400 sq. ft. 1 gal. of varnish weighs 8 to 9 Ib. 1 gal. of turpentine weighs 7 Ib. 1 gal. of linseed oil weighs 7| Ib. 5 Ib. of putty will be required to putty 100 sq. yd. of ordinary surface. Sizing ; ^ Ib. of glue to 1 gal. of water. Priming coat ; 100 Ib. of white lead, 7 gal. oil, f- gal. of japan drier. Second coat ; 100 Ib. of white lead, 7 gal. oil. Third coat ; 100 Ib. of white lead, 6i to 7 gal. of oil. Three gal. of boiled oil to 2 gal. of raw oil for outside work. Upon plain work the labor costs about If times the material. Stippling costs about the same as two coats of paint. TABLE 6 WALL PAPER Double roll ; 16 yd. long, 18" or 20" wide. Cartridge or felt papers ; 30" wide, 16 yd. to a roll. The usual cost of papering is from 12| to 25 ^ per double roll lapped, and from 50 to 75 ^, for glazed paper. Butted paper costs from 10 to 15 ^ more per double roll ; in large cities the prices are generally from 20 to 40 per cent higher than those given above. TABLES 181 TABLE 7 PLASTERING (QUANTITIES FOB 100 SQ. YD.) 1440 laths, H". 10 Ib. nails. Labor lathing, 1 day. 3-coat work. 13 bu. of lime. 1 bu. of hair. 1^ load of sand. 5 bbl. of plaster of Paris. Labor; plasterer 3j days, helper 2| days. 2-coat work. 10 bu. lime. f bu. of hair. 1 load of sand. $ bbl. of plaster of Paris. TABLE 8 SHINGLES 1000 WILL COVER NUMBER OF SHINGLES REQUIRED TO LAY ONE SQUARE To Weather 4" Wide 6" Wide 4" Wide 6" Wide 4" 111 sq. ft. 167 sq. ft. 900 600 5" 139 sq. ft. 208 sq. ft. 720 480 6" 167 sq. ft. 250 sq. ft. 600 400 7" 194 sq. ft. 291 sq. ft. 514 343 8" 222 sq. ft. 333 sq. ft. 450 300 TABLE 9 NUMBER OF SLATES REQUIRED PER SQUARE SIZE NUMBER SIZE NUMBER SIZE NUMBER 4 6' X 12' 553 9" X 16' 246 14' X20' 121 7' X 12' 457 10" X 16' 221 11' X22' 138 8' X 12' 400 9" X 18' 213 12' X22' 126 9' X 12' 355 10" X 18' 192 13' X22' 116 7' X 14' 374 11" X 18' 174 14' X22' 108 8' X 14' 327 12" X 18' 160 12' X24' 114 9' X 14' 291 10" X 20' 169 13' X24' 105 10' X 14' 261 11" X 20' 154 14' X24' 98 8' X 16' 277 12" X 20' 141 16' X24' 86 182 INSIDE FINISHING TABLE 10 SIZES or NAILS AND NUMBER PER POUND SIZE LENGTH NUMBER p ER POUND IN INCHES Common Finishing Casing Flooring 2d 1 860 1558 1140 3d Fine .... H 3d Com 1J 594 884 675 If 4d li 339 767 567 5d 6d H 9 230 205 491 359 396 260 151 7d 8d 9d ....... lOd 12d 16d 20d 30d 2i 2| 2| 3 3i 3| 4 4| 135 96 92 63 52 38 30 23 317 214 195 134 120 91 61 239 160 148 108 99 69 50 45 136 98 86 66 51 40 29 40d 5 17 35 50d 5^ 13| 60d 6 10 TABLE 11 NUMBER OF NAILS REQUIRED Shingles per M 5 Ib 4d com Laths per M. ... 7 Ib 3d com Beveled siding, per M. . .... 18 Ib 6d com Sheathing, per M 20 Ib. or 8d com. Flooring, rough, per M Studding per M. ... 25 Ib. 30 Ib. or 40 Ib. 15 Ib. or lOd com. 8d com. lOd com. lOd com. Furring per M. .... 51b. 10 Ib 20d com. lOd com ( */>! Finished flooring, per M. |ii//[ f20 Ib. or 30 Ib. 8d&10dfin. lOd fin. r TABLES 183 TABLE 12 CHIMNEYS NUMBER OF FLUE SIZE OF FLUE SIZE OF CHIMNEY NUMBER OF BRICKS PER FOOT IN HEIGHT l 1 8" X 8" 16" X 16" 30 1 8" X 16" 16" X24" 40 2 8" X 8" 16" X28" 50 3 8" X 8" 16" X 40" 70 4 8" X 8" 16" X52" 90 1 12" X 12" 20" X20" 40 1 12" X 16" 20" X24" 45 Five courses of brick to a foot in height. TABLE 13 STABLES ; MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 1200 cu. ft. per horse. (The U. S. Army allows 1500.) 16' 6" width of building for one stall. 29' 0" width of building for two stalls. Box stalls: 12' 0" X 12' 0". Single stalls : 9' 6" X 6' 2". Stalls are sometimes made as narrow as 4' 0", but only where space is very valuable. A stall floor should not slant more than 1" in its length. Stall divisions should be 4' 6" high in the rear, 7' 0" at the head. There should be 9 sq. ft. of glass space for each horse. There should be ventilating shafts which will allow 18 inches square for each horse. Doors should either slide, or open outwards. TABLE 14 SIZES or BOXES FOR DIFFERENT MEASURES LENGTH INCHES WIDTH INCHES DEPTH INCHES CAPACITY LENGTH INCHES WIDTH INCHES DEPTH INCHES CAPACITY 48 41 32 1 ton of coal. 8f 8 8 1 peck. 24 17 28 1 bbl. or 3 bu. 8 8 4| 1 gallon. 24 17 14 Jbbl. 7 7 2! | gallon. 16 16 81 1 bushel. 4 4 4J 1 quart. 16 8 81 |bu. 3 3 3f 1 pint. 184 INSIDE FINISHING TABLE 15. DIAMETERS, AREAS, AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES DlAM. AREA CIR. DlAM. AREA CIR. DlAM. AREA Cm. 1 0.0123 .3927 16 201.06 50.26 54 2290.2 169.6 i 0.0491 .7854 1 213.82 51.83 55 2375.8 172.8 | 0.1104 1.178 17 226.98 53.40 56 2463.0 175.9 | 0.1963 1.571 i 240.53 54.98 57 2551.8 179.1 0.3068 1.963, 18 254.47 56.55 58 2642.1 182.2 1 0.4418 2.356 \ 268.80 58.12 59 2734.0 185.3 1 0.6013 2.741 19 283.53 59.69 60 2827.4 188.5 1 0.7854 3.142 i 298.65 61.26 61 2922.5 191.6 | 0.9940 3.534 20 314.16 62.83 62 3019.1 194.8 1 1.227 3.927 \ 330.06 64.40 63 3117.2 197.9 | 1.485 4.319 21 346.36 65.97 64 3217.0 201.0 1.767 4.712 i 363.05 67.54 65 3318.3 204.2 5 2.074 5.105 22 380.13 69.11 66 3421.2 207.3 I 2.405 5.498 \ 397.61 70.68 67 3525.7 210.5 i 2.761 5.890 23 415.48 72.25 68 3631.7 213.6 2 3.142 6.283 \ 433.73 73.83 69 3739.3 216.7 i 3.976 7.068 24 452.39 75.40 70 3848.5 219.9 i 4.909 7.854 1 471.43 76.97 71 3959.2 223.0 i 5.939 8.639 25 490.87 78.54 72 4071.5 226.2 3 7.068 9.425 26 530.93 81.68 73 4185.4 229.3 i 4 8.296 10.21 27 572.56 84.82 74 4300.8 232.5 | 9.621 10.99 28 615.75 87.96 75 4417.9 235.6 11.044 11.78 29 660.52 91.10 76 4536.5 238.7 4 12.566 12.56 30 706.86 94.25 77 4656.7 241.9 i 15.904 14.14 31 754.77 97.39 78 4778.4 245.0 5 19.635 15.71 32 804.25 100.5 79 4901.7 248.2 \ 23.758 17.23 33 855.30 103.6 80 5026.6 251.3 6 28.274 18.85 34 907.92 106.8 81 5153.0 254.5 1 33.183 20.42 35 962.11 109.9 82 5281.0 257.6 7 38.484 21.99 36 1017.9 113.1 83 5410.6 260.7 J 44.179 23.56 37 1075.2 116.2 84 5541.8 263.9 8 50.265 25.13 38 1134.1 119.4 85 5674.5 267.0 i 56.745 26.70 39 1194.6 122.5 86 5808.8 270.2 9 63.617 28.27 40 1256.6 125.6 87 5944.7 273.3 1 70.882 29.84 41 1320.2 128.8 88 6082.1 276.4 10 78.54 31.41 42 1385.4 131.9 89 6221.1 279.6 i 86.59 32.98 43 1452.2 135.1 90 6361.7 282.7 11 95.03 34.55 44 1520.5 138.2 91 6503.9 285.9 i 103.87 36.13 45 1590.4 141.4 92 6647.6 289.0 12 113.10 37.70 46 1661.9 144.5 93 6792.9 292.2 \ 122.72 39.27 47 1734.9 147.6 94 6939.8 295.3 13 132.73 40.84 48 1809.6 150.8 95 7088.2 298.4 i 143.14 42.41 49 1885.7 153.9 96 7238.2 301.6 14 153.94 43.98 50 1963.5 157.1 97 7389.8 304.7 i 165.13 45.55 51 2042.8 160.2 98 7543.0 307.9 15 176.71 47.12 52 2123.7 163.3 99 7697.7 311.0 i 188.69 48.69 53 2206.2 166.5 100 7854.0 314.2 TABLES 185 To find the circumference and area of any diameter greater than any in the preceding table. Rule. Multiply any diameter given above by the factor 2, 3, 4, or 5, etc., the product of which will be the diameter whose circumference and area are wanted. Example. What is the circumference of 140 ? Tabular diameter of 35 X 4 = 140. Tabular circumference of 35 = 109.9 X 4 = 439.6, circumference wanted. Rule for the Area. Multiply the tabular area of tabular diameter by the square of the factor. Example. What is the area of 140? Tabular area of 35 = 962.11 X 16 (is the square of the factor 4) = 15,393.76, area wanted. The Circle. The circumference of a circle is equal to the diameter multiplied by 3.1416. The area of a circle is equal to the square of the diameter multiplied by .7854. TABLE 16 DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF A LINEAR FOOT LINEAR INCHES LINEAR FOOT LINEAR INCHES LINEAR FOOT LINEAR INCHES LINEAR FOOT A- 0.001302083 u 0.15625 6| 0.5416 A 0.00260416 2 0.1666 6f 0.5625 lV 0.0052083 2| 0.177083 7 0.5833 \ 0.010416 2} 0.1875 71 0.60416 T$ 0.015625 2| 0.197916 7 0.625 i 0.02083 2| 0.2083 7f 0.64583 5 TS 0.0260416 2f 0.21875 8 0.66667 |- 0.03125 2f 0.22916 81 0.6875 T 7 6 0.0364583 2| 0.239583 81 0.7083 0.0416 3 0.25 8f 0.72916 T& 0.046875 31 0.27083 9 0.75 I 0.052083 3* 0.2916 91 0.77083 H 0.0572916 3| 0.3125 9* 0.7916 ! 0.0625 4 0.33333 9f 0.8125 h 3 0.0677083 41 0.35416 10 0.83333 1 0.072916 4| 0.375 101 0.85416 II 0.078125 4| 0.39583 10* 0.875 i 0.0833 5 0.4166 lOf 0.89583 H 0.09375 5| 0.4375 11 0.9166 H 0.10416 5f 0.4583 111 0.9375 H 0.114583 5f 0.47916 11* 0.9583 H 0.125 6 0.5 111 0.97916 if 0.135416 61 0.52083 12 1.000 if 0.14583 186 INSIDE FINISHING TABLE 17 DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF THE FRACTIONAL PARTS OF AN INCH 1-64 0156 1-32 0313 3-64 x -0469 1-16 0625 5-64 0781 3-32 0938 7-64 1094 1-8 125 9-64 1406 5-32 1563 11-64 .1719 3-16 1875 13-64 2031 7-32 2188 15-64 2344 1-4 25 17-64 2656 9-32 N .2813 19-64 2969 6-16 3125 21-64 3281 11-32 3438 23-64 3594 3-8 . .375 25-64 3906 13-32 4063 27-64 4219 7-16 4375 29-64 4531 15-32 4688 31-64 . . .4844 1-2 .5 33-64 5156 17-32 5313 35-64 5469 9-16 5625 37-64 5781 19-32 5938 39-64 6094 5-8 625 41-64 6406 21-32 6563 43-64 6719 11-16 6875 45-64 7031 23-32 7188 47-64 7344 3-4 75 49-64 7656 25-32 7813 51-64 7969 13-16 8125 53-64 8281 27-32 8438 55-64 8594 7-8 875 57-64 8906 29-32 9063 59-64 .9219 15-16 9375 61-64 9531 31-32 9688 63-64 . . .9844 TABLES 187 TABLE 18 CONTENTS OF ROUND TANKS IN GALLONS DIAMETER GALLONS 1 FOOT DEPTH DIAMETER GALLONS 1 FOOT DEPTH DIAMETER GALLONS 1 FOOT DEPTH Feet Inches Feet Inches Feet Inches 4 93.97 9 3 502.55 17 9 1850.53 4 1 97.93 9 6 530.08 4 2 101.97 9 9 558.35 18 1903.02 4 3 103.03 18 3 1956.25 4 4 110.29 10 587.35 18 6 2010.21 4 5 J 14.57 10 3 617.08 18 9 2064.91 4 6 118.93 10 6 647.55 4 7 123.38 10 9 678.27 19 2120.34 4 8 127.91 19 3 2176.51 4 9 132.52 11 710.69 19 6 2233.29 4 10 137.21 11 3 743.36 19 9 2291.04 4 11 142.05 11 6 776.77 11 9 810.91 20 2349.41 5 146.83 20 3 2408.51 5 1 151.77 12 848.18 20 6 2468.35 5 2 156.78 12 3 881.39 20 9 2528.92 5 3 161.88 12 6 917.73 5 4 167.06 12 9 954.81 21 2590.22 5 5 172.33 21 3 2652.25 5 6 177.67 13 992.62 21 6 2715.04 5 7 183.09 13 3 1031.17 21 9 2778.54 5 8 188.60 13 6 1070.45 5 9 194.19 13 9 1108.06 22 2842.79 5 10 199.86 22 3 2907.76 5 11 205.61 14 1151.21 22 6 2973.48 14 3 1192.69 22 9 3039.92 6 211.44 14 6 1234.91 6 3 229.43 14 9 1277.86 23 3107.10 6 6 248.15 23 3 3175.01 6 9 267.61 15 1321.54 23 6 3243.65 15 3 1365.96 23 9 3313.04 7 287.80 15 6 1407.51 7 3 308.72 15 9 1457.00 24 3383.15 7 6 330.38 24 3 3454.00 7 9 352.76 16 1503.62 24 6 3525.59 16 3 1550.97 24 9 3597.90 8 375.90 16 6 1599.06 8 3 399.76 16 9 1647.89 25 3670.95 8 6 424.36 25 3 3744.74 8 9 449.21 17 1697.45 25 6 3819.26 17 3 1747.74 25 9 3894.52 9 475.75 17 6 1798.76 188 INSIDE FINISHING TABLE 19 WEIGHTS AND SPECIFIC GRAVITIES BUILDING MATERIALS WEIGHT IN LB. PER Cu. FT. SPECIFIC GRAV- ITY Ash (all woods kiln dried) Brick common ... 36 to 42 100 .60 to .70 1.60 pressed 150 2.40 Cement Portland 80 to 100 1 44 56 89 Cherry 36 to 42 672 Chestnut 24 to 30 40 to 50 Coal, bituminous, broken Coke 50 28 .80 37 to .51 Cypress 24 to 30 40 to .50 Earth, dry, loose Common Loam . . . rammed Common Loam . moist, loose Common Loam . packed Common Loam . . . soft mud Elm, best 72 to 80 90 to 100 67 to 75 90 to 100 104 to 120 42 to 48 1.36 1.52 1.31 1.74 2.09 .70 to .80 Glass common 157 to 186 2 52 Granite 170 2 72 Hemlock 24 to 30 40 to 50 Hickory 42 to 48 70 to .80 Ice 574 92 Iron cast . 450 7.21 wrought 480 7.69 Lead Lime . 710 70 11.38 .80 Locust black 42 to 48 70 to 80 Mahogany 35 to 53 . 56 to 85 Maple .... 36 to 42 60 to 70 Masonry granite or limestone 165 2 65 rubble 125 to 140 2 21 Mortar 103 1 65 Oak, white Pine, white yellow Poplar 42 to 48 18 to 24 30 to 36 18 to 24 .70 to .80 .30 to .40 .50 to .60 30 to 40 Sand dry 90 to 106 1 80 wet ... 118 to 129 2 19 Spruce . 24 to 30 .40 to 50 Steel Sycamore 490 30 to 36 7.85 .50 to .60 Walnut black 36 to 42 60 to 70 NOTE. Green timber will usually weigh from 20 per cent to 40 per cent more than the above given weights. Weather dried timber will generally weigh about 15 per cent to 20 per cent more. TABLES 189 TABLE 20 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 1 1 1 1.0000000 1.0000000 2 4 8 1.4142136 1.2599210 3 9 27 1.7320508 1.4422496 4 16 64 2.0000000 1.5874011 5 25 125 2.2360680 1.7099759 6 36 216 2.4494897 1.8171206 7 49 343 2.6457513 1.9129312 8 64 512 2.8284271 2.0000000 9 81 729 3.0000000 2.0800837 10 100 1000 3.1622777 2.1544347 11 121 1331 3.3166248 2.2239801 12 144 1728 3.4641016 2.2894286 13 169 2197 3.6055513 2.3513347 14 196 2744 3.7416574 2.4101422 15 225 3375 3.8729833 2.4662121 16 256 4096 4.0000000 2.5198421 17 289 4913 4.1231056 2.5712816 18 324 5832 4.2426407 2.6207414 19 361 6859 4.3588989 2.6684016 20 400 8000 4.4721360 2.7144177 21 441 9261 4.5825757 2.7589243 22 484 10648 4.6904158 2.8020393 23 529 12167 4.7958315 2.8438670 24 576 13824 4.8989795 2.8844991 25 625 15625 5.0000000 2.9240177 26 676 17576 5.0990195 2.9624960 27 729 19683 5.1961524 3.0000000 28 784 21952 5.2915026 3.0365889 29 841 24389 5.3851648 3.0723168 30 900 27000 5.4772256 3.1072325 31 961 29791 5.5677644 3.1413806 32 1024 32768 5.6568542 3.1748021 33 1089 35937 5.7445626 3.2075343 34 1156 39304 5.8309519 3.2396118 35 1225 42875 5.9160798 3.2710663 36 1296 46656 6.0000000 3.3019272 37 1369 50653 6.0827625 3.3322218 38 1444 54872 6.1644140 3.3619754 39 1521 59319 6.2449980 3.3912114 40 1600 64000 6.3245553 3.4199519 i ; 190 INSIDE FINISHING SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 41 1681 68921 6.4031242 3.4482172 42 1764 74088 6.4807407 3.4760266 43 1849 79507 6.5574385 3.5033981 44 1936 85184 6.6332496 3.5303483 45 2025 91125 6.7082039 3.5568933 46 2116 97336 6.7823300 3.5830479 47 2209 103823 6.8556546 3.6088261 48 2304 110592 6.9282032 3.6342411 49 2401 117649 7.0000000 3.6593057 50 2500 125000 7.0710678 3.6840314 51 2601 132651 7.1414284 3.7084298 52 2704 140608 7.2111026 3.7325111 53 2809 148877 7.2801099 3.7562858 54 2916 157464 7.3484692 3.7797631 55 3025 166375 7.4161985 3.8029525 56 3136 175616 7.4833148 3.8258624 57 3249 185193 7.5498344 3.8485011 58 3364 195112 7.6157731 3.8708766 59 3481 205379 7.6811457 3.8929965 60 3600 216000 7.7459667 3.9148676 61 3721 226981 7.8102497 3.9364972 62 3844 238328 7.8740079 3.9578915 63 3969 250047 7.9372539 3.9790571 64 4096 262144 8.0000000 4.0000000 65 4225 274625 8.0622577 4.0207256 66 4356 287496 8.1240384 4.0412401 67 4489 300763 8.1853528 4.0615480 68 4624 314432 8.2462113 4.0816551 69 4761 328509 8.3066239 4.1015661 70 4900 343000 8.3666003 4.1212853 71 5041 357911 8.4261498 4.1408178 72 5184 373248 8.4852814 4.1601676 73 5329 389017 8.5440037 4.1793390 74 5476 405224 8.6023253 4.1983364 75 . 5625 421875 8.6602540 4.2171633 76 5776 438976 8.7177979 4.2358236 77 5929 456533 8.7749644 4.2543210 78 6084 474552 8.8317609 4.2726586 79 6241 493039 8.8881944 4.2908404 80 6400 512000 8.9442719 4.3088695 81 6561 531441 9.0000000 4.3267487 TABLES 191 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 82 6724 551368 . 9.0553851 4.3444815 83 6889 571787 9.1104336 4.3620707 84 7056 592704 9.1651514 4.3795191 85 7225 614125 9.2195445 4.3968296 86 7396 636056 9.2736185 4.4140049 87 7569 658503 9.3273791 4.4310476 88 7744 681472 9.3808315 4.4479602 89 7921 704969 9.4339811 4.4647451 90 8100 729000 9.4868330 4.4814047 91 8281 753571 9.5393920 4.4979414 92 8464 778688 9.5916630 4.5143574 93 8649 804357 9.6436508 4.5306549 94 8836 830584 9.6953597 4.5468359 95 9025 857375 9.7467943 4.5629026 96 9216 884736 9.7979590 4.5788570 97 9409 912673 9.8488578 4.5947009 98 9604 941192 9.8994949 4.6104363 99 9801 970299 9.9498744 4.6260650 100 10000 1000000 10.0000000 4.6415888 101 10201 1030301 10.0498756 4.6570095 102 10404 1061208 10.0995049 4.6723287 103 10609 1092727 10.1488916 4.6875482 104 10816 1124864 10.1980390 4.7026694 105 11025 1157625 10.2469508 4.7176940 106 11236 1191016 10.2956301 4.7326235 107 11449 1225043 10.3440804 4.7474594 108 11664 1259712 10.3923048 4.7622032 109 11881 1295029 10.4403065 4.7768562 110 12100 1331000 10.4880885 4.7914199 111 12321 1367631 10.5356538 4.8058955 112 12544 1404928 10.5830052 4.8202845 113 12769 1442897 10.6301458 4.8345881 114 12996 1481544 10.6770783 4.8488076 115 13225 1520875 10.7238053 4.8629442 116 13456 1560896 10.7703296 4.8769990 117 13689 1601613 10.8166538 4.8909732 118 13924 1643032 10.8627805 4.9048681 119 14161 1685159 10.9087121 4.9186847 120 14400 1728000 10.9544512 4.9324242 121 14641 1771561 11.0000000 4.9460874 122 14884 1815848 11.0453610 4.9596757 192 INSIDE FINISHING SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 123 15129 1860867 11.0905365 4.9731898 124 15376 1906624 11.1355287 4.9866310 125 15625 1953125 11.1803399 5.0000000 126 15876 2000376 11.2249722 5.0132979 127 16129 2048383 11.2694277 5.0265257 128 16384 2097152 11.3137085 5.0396842 129 16641 2146689 11.3578167 5.0527743 130 16900 2197000 11.4017543 5.0657970 131 17161 2248091 11.4455231 5.0787531 132 17424 2299968 11.4891253 5.0916434 133 17689 2352637 11.5325626 5.1044687 134 17956 2406104 11.5758369 5.1172299 135 18225 2460375 11.6189500 5.1299278 136 18496 2515456 11.6619038 5.1425632 137 18769 2571353 11.7046999 5.1551367 138 19044 2628072 11.7473401 5.1676493 139 19321 2685619 11.7898261 5.1801015 140 19600 2744000 11.8321596 5.1924941 141 19881 2803221 11.8743421 5.2048279 142 20164 2863288 11.9163753 5.2171034 143 20449 2924207 11.9582607 5.2293215 144 20736 2985984 12.0000000 5.2414828 145 21025 3048625 12.0415946 5.2535879 146 21316 3112136 12.0830460 5.2656374 147 21609 3176523 12.1243557 5.2776321 148 21904 3241792 12.1655251 5.2895725 149 22201 3307949 12.2065556 5.3014592 150 22500 3375000 12.2474487 5.3132928 151 22801 3442951 12.2882057 5.3250740 152 23104 3511808 12.3288280 5.3368033 153 23409 3581577 12.3693169 5.3484812 154 23716 3652264 12.4096736 5.3601084 155 24025 3723875 12.4498996 5.3716854 156 24336 3796416 12.4899960 5.3832126 157 24649 3869893 12.5299641 5.3946907 158 24964 3944312 12.5698051 5.4061202 159 25281 4019679 12.6095202 5.4175015 160 25600 4096000 12.6491106 5.4288352 161 25921 4173281 12.6885775 5.4401218 162 26244 4251528 12.7279221 5.4513618 163 26569 4330747 12.7671453 5.4625556 TABLES 193 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 164 26896 4410944 12.8062485 5.4737037 165 27225 4492125 12.8452326 5.4848066 166 27556 4574296 12.8840987 5.4958647 167 27889 4657463 12.9228480 5.5068784 168 28224 4741632 12.9614814 5.5178484 169 28561 4826809 13.0000000 5.5287748 170 28900 4913000 13.0384048 5.5396583 171 29241 5000211 13.0766968 5.5504991 172 29584 5088448 13.1148770 5.5612978 173 29929 5177717 13.1529464 5.5720546 174 30276 5268024 13.1909060 5.5827702 175 30625 5359375 13.2287566 5.5934447 176 30976 5451776 13.2664992 5.6040787 177 31329 5545233 13.3041347 5.6146724 178 31684 5639752 13.3416641 5.6252263 179 32041 5735339 13.3790882 5.6357408 180 32400 5832000 13.4164079 5.6462162 181 32761 5929741 13.4536240 5.6566528 182 33124 6028568 13.4907376 5.6670511 183 33489 6128487 13.5277493 5.6774114 184 33856 6229504 13.5646600 5.6877340 185 34225 6331625 13.6014705 5.6980192 186 34596 6434856 13.6381817 5.7082675 187 34969 6539203 13.6747943 5.7184791 188 35344 6644672 13.7113092 5.7286543 189 35721 6751269 13.7477271 5.7387936 190 36100 6859000 13.7840488 5.7488971 191 36481 6967871 13.8202750 5.7589652 192 36864 7077888 13.8564065 5.7689982 193 37249 7189057 13.8924440 5.7789966 194 37636 7301384 13.9283883 5.7889604 195 38025 7414875 13.9642400 5.7988900 196 38416 7529536 14.0000000 5.8087857 197 38809 7645373 14.0356688 5.8186479 198 39204 7762392 14.0712473 5.8284767 199 39601 7880599 14.1067360 5.8382725 200 40000 8000000 14.1421356 5.8480355 201 40401 8120601 14.1774469 5.8577660 202 40804 8242408 14.2126704 5.8674643 203 41209 8365427 14.2478068 5.8771307 204 41616 8489664 14.2828569 5.8867653 194 INSIDE FINISHING SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 205 42025 8615125 14.3178211 5.8963685 206 42436 8741816 14.3527001 5.9059406 207 42849 8869743 14.3874946 5.9154817 208 43264 8998912 14.4222051 5.9249921 209 43681 9129329 14.4568323 5.9344721 210 44100 9261000 14.4913767 5.9439220 211 44521 9393931 14.5258390 5.9533418 212 44944 9528128 14.5602198 5.9627320 213 45369 - 9663597 14.5945195 5.9720926 214 45796 9800344 14.6287388 5.9814240 215 46225 9938375 14.6628783 5.9907264 216 46656 10077696 14.6969385 6.0000000 217 47089 10218313 14.7309199 6.0092450 218 47524 10360232 14.7648231 6.0184617 219 47961 10503459 14.7986486 6.0276502 220 48400 10648000 14.8323970 6.0368107 221 48841 10793861 14.8660687 6.0459435 222 49284 ' 10941048 14.8996644 6.0550489 223 49729 11089567 14.9331845 6.0641270 224 50176 11239424 14.9666295 6.0731779 225 50625 11390625 15.0000000 6.0822020 226 51076 11543176 15.0332964 6.0911994 227 51529 11697083 15.0665192 6.1001702 228 51984 11852352 15.0996689 6.1091147 229 52441 12008989 15.1327460 6.1180332 230 52900 12167000 15.1657509 6.1269257 231 53361 12326391 15.1986842 6.1357924 232 53824 12487168 15.2315462 6.1446337 233 54289 12649337 15.2643375 6.1534495 234 54756 12812904 15.2970585 6.1622401 235 55225 12977875 15.3297097 6.1710058 236 55696 13144256 15.3622915 6.1797466 237 56169 13312053 15.3948043 6.1884628 238 56644 13481272 15.4272486 6.1971544 239 57121 13651919 15.4596248 6.2058218 240 57600 13824000 15.4919334 6.2144650 241 58081 13997521 15.5241747 6.2230843 242 58564 14172488 15.5563492 6.2316797 243 59049 14348907 15.5884573 6.2402515 244 59536 14526784 15.6204994 6.2487998 245 60025 14706125 15.6524758 6.2573248 TABLES 195 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 246 . 60516 14886936 15.6843871 6.2658266 247 61009 15069223 15.7162336 6.2743054 248 61504 15252992 15.7480157 6.2827613 249 62001 15438249 15.7797338 6.2911946 250 62500 15625000 15.8113883 6.2996053 251 63001 15813251 15.8429795 6.3079935 252 63504 16003008 15.8745079 6.3163596 253 64009 16194277 15.9059737 6.3247035 254 64516 16387064 15.9373775 6.3330256 255 65025 16581375 15.9687194 6.3413257 256 65536 16777216 16.0000000 6.3496042 257 66049 16974593 16.0312195 6.3578611 258 66564 17173512 16.0623784 6.3660968 259 67081 17373979 16.0934769 6.3743111 260 67600 17576000 16.1245155 6.3825043 261 68121 17779581 16.1554944 6.3906765 262 68644 17984728 16.1864141 6.3988279 263 69169 18191447 16.2172747 6.4069585 264 69696 18399744 16.2480768 6.41506S7 265 70225 18609625 16.2788206 6.4231583 266 70756 18821096 16.3095064 6.4312276 267 71289 19034163 16.3401346 6.4392767 268 71824 19248832 16.3707055 6.4473057 269 72361 19465109 16.4012195 6.4553148 270 72900 19683000 16.4316767 6.4633041 271 73441 19902511 16.4620776 6.4712736 272 73984 20123648 16.4924225 6.4792236 273 74529 20346417 16.5227116 6.4871541 274 75076 20570824 16.5529454 6.4950653 275 75625 20796875 16.5831240 6.5029572 276 76176 21024576 16.6132477 6.5108300 277 76729 21253933 16.6433170 6.5186839 278 77284 21484952 16.6733320 6.5265189 279 77841 21717639 16.7032931 6.5343351 280 78400 21952000 16.7332005 6.5421326 281 78961 22188041 16.7630546 6.5499116 282 79524 22425768 16.7928556 6.5576722 283 80089 22665187 16.8226038 6.5654144 284 80656 22906304 16.8522995 6.5731385 285 81225 23149125 16.8819430 6.5808443 286 81796 23393656 16.9115345 6.5885323 196 INSIDE FINISHING SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 287 82369 23639903 16.9410743 6.5962023 288 82944 23887872 16.9705627 6.6038545 289 83521 24137569 17.0000000 6.6114890 290 84100 24389000 17.0293864 6.6191060 291 84681 24642171 17.0587221 6.6267054 292 85264 24897088 17.0880075 6.6342874 293 85849 25153757 17.1172428 6.6418522 294 86436 25412184 17.1464282 6.6493998 295 87025 25672375 17.1755640 6.6569302 296 87616 25934336 17.2046505 6.6644437 297 88209 26198073 17.2336879 6.6719403 298 88804 26463592 17.2626765 6.6794200 299 89401 26730899 17.2916165 6.6868831 300 90000 27000000 17.3205081 6.6943295 301 90601 27270901 17.3493516 6.7017593 302 91204 27543608 17.3781472 6.7091729 303 91809 27818127 17.4068952 6.7165700 304 92416 28094464 17.4355958 6.7239508 305 93025 28372625 17.4642492 6.7313155 306 93636 28652616 17.4928557 6.7386641 307 94249 28934443 17.5214155 6.7459967 308 94864 29218112 17.5499288 6.7533134 309 95481 29503629 17.5783958 6.7606143 310 96100 29791000 17.6068169 6.7678995 311 96721 30080231 17.6351921 6.7751690 312 97344 30371328 17.6635217 6.7824229 313 97969 30664297 17.6918060 6.7896613 314 98596 30959144 17.7200451 6.7968844 315 99225 31255875 17.7482393 6.8040921 316 99856 31554496 17.7763888 6.8112847 317 100489 31855013 17.8044938 6.8184620 318 101124 32157432 17.8325545 6.8256242 319 101761 32461759 17.8605711 6.8327714 320 102400 32768000 17.8885438 6.8399037 321 103041 33076161 17.9164729 6.8470213 322 103684 33386248 17.9443584 6.8541240 323 104329 33698267 17.9722008 6.8612120 324 104976 34012224 18.0000000 6.8682855 325 105625 34328125 18.0277564 6.8753443 326 106276 34645976 18.0554701 6.8823888 327 106929 34965783 18.0831413 6.8894188 TABLES 197 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 328 107584 35287552 18.1107703 6.8964345 329 108241 35611289 18.1383571 6.9034359 330 108900 35937000 18.1659021 6.9104232 331 109561 36264691 18.1934054 6.9173964 332 110224 36594368 18.2208672 6.9243556 333 110889 36926037 18.2482876 6.9313008 334 111556 37259704 18.2756669 6.9382321 335 112225 37595375 18.3030052 6.9451496 336 112896 37933056 18.3303028 6.9520533 337 113569 38272753 18.3575598 6.9589434 338 114244 38614472 18.3847763 6.9658198 339 114921 38958219 18.4119526 6.9726826 340 115600 39304000 18.4390889 6.9795321 341 116281 39651821 18.4661853 6.9863681 342 116964 40001688 18.4932420 6.9931906 343 117649 40353607 18.5202592 7.0000000 344 118336 40707584 18.5472370 7.0067962 345 119025 41063625 18.5741756 7.0135791 346 119716 41421736 18.6010752 7.0203490 347 120409 41781923 18.6279360 7.0271058 348 121104 42144192 18.6547581 7.0338497 349 121801 42508549 18.6815417 7.0405806 350 122500 42875000 18.7082869 7.0472987 351 123201 43243551 18.7349940 7.0540041 352 123904 43614208 18.7616630 7.0606967 353 124609 43986977 18.7882942 7.0673767 354 125316 44361864 18.8148877 7.0740440 355 126025 44738875 18.8414437 7.0806988 356 126736 45118016 18.8679623 7.0873411 357 127449 45499293 18.8944436 7.0939709 358 128164 45882712 18.9208879 7.1005885 359 128881 46268279 18.9472953 7.1071937 360 129600 46656000 18.9736660 7.1137866 361 130321 47045881 19.0000000 7.1203674 362 131044 47437928 19.0262976 7.1269360 363 131769 47832147 19.0525589 7.1334925 364 132496 48228544 19.0787840 7.1400370 365 133225 48627125 19.1049732 7.1465695 366 133956 49027896 19.1311265 7.1530901 367 134689 49430863 19.1572441 7.1595988 368 135424 49836032 19.1833261 7.1660957 198 INSIDE FINISHING SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 369 136161 50243409 19.2093727 7.1725809 370 136900 50653000 19.2353841 7.1790544 371 137641 51064811 19.2613603 7.1855162 372 138384 51478848 19.2873015 7.1919663 373 139129 51895117 19.3132079 7.1984050 374 139876 52313624 19.3390796 7.2048322 375 140625 52734375 19.3649167 7.2112479 376 141376 53157376 19.3907194 7.2176522 377 142129 53582633 19.4164878 7.2240450 378 142884 54010152 19.4422221 7.2304268 379 143641 54439939 19.4679223 7.2367972 380 144400 54872000 19.4935887 7.2431565 381 145161 55306341 19.5192213 7.2495045 382 145924 55742968 19.5448203 7.2558415 383 146689 56181887 19.5703858 7.2621675 384 147456 56623104 19.5959179 7.2684824 385 148225 57066625 19.6214169 7.2747864 386 148996 57512456 19.6468827 7.2810794 387 149769 57960603 19.6723156 7.2873617 388 150544 58411072 19.6977156 7.2936330 389 151321 58863869 19.7230829 7.2998936 390 152100 59319000 19.7484177 7.3061436 391 152881 59776471 19.7737199 7.3123828 392 153664 60236288 19.7989899 7.3186114 393 154449 60698457 19.8242276 7.3248295 394 155236 61162984 19.8494332 7.3310369 395 156025 61629875 19.8746069 7.3372339 396 156816 62099136 19.8997487 7.3434205 397 157609 62570773 19.9248588 7.3495966 398 158404 63044792 19.9499373 7.3557624 399 159201 63521199 19.9749844 7.3619178 400 160000 64000000 20.0000000 7.3680630 401 160801 64481201 20.0249844 7.3741979 402 161604 64964808 20.0499377 7.3803227 403 162409 65450827 20.0748599 7.3864373 404 163216 65939264 20.0997512 7.3925418 405 164025 66430125 20.1246118 7.3986363 406 164836 66923416 20.1494417 7.4047206 407 165649 67419143 20.1742410 7.4107950 408 166464 67917312 20.1990099 7.4168595 409 167281 68417929 20.2237484 7.4229142 TABLES 199 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 410 168100 68921000 20.2484567 7.4289589 411 168921 69426531 20.2731349 7,4349938 412 169744 69934528 20.2977831 7.4410189 413 170569 70444997 20.3224014 7.4470342 414 171396 70957944 20.3469899 7.4530399 415 172225 71473375 20.3715488 7.4590359 416 173056 71991296 20.3960781 7.4650223 417 173889 72511713 20.4205779 7.4709991 418 174724 73034632 20.4450483 7.4769664 419 175561 73560059 20.4694895 7.4829242 420 176400 74088000 20.4939015 7.4888724 421 177241 74618461 20.5182845 7.4948113 422 178084 75151448 20.5426386 7.5007406 423 178929 75686967 20.5669638 7.5066607 424 179776 76225024 20.5912603 7.5125715 425 180625 76765625 20.6155281 7.5184730 426 181476 77308776 20.6397674 7.5243652 427 182329 77854483 20.6639783 7.5302482 428 183184 78402752 20.6881609 7.5361221 429 184041 78953589 20.7123152 7.5419867 430 184900 79507000 20.7364414 7.5478423 431 185761 80062991 20.7605395 7.5536888 432 186624 80621568 20.7846097 7.5595263 433 187489 81182737 20.8086520 7.5653548 434 188356 81746504 20.8326667 7.5711743 435 189225 82312875 20.8566536 7.5769849 436 190096 82881856 20.8806130 7.5827865 437 190969 83453453 20.9045450 7.5885793 438 191844 84027672 20.9284495 t 7.5943633 439 192721 84604519 20.9523268 7.6001385 440 193600 85184000 20.9761770 7.6059049 441 194481 85766121 21.0000000 7.6116626 442 195364 86350888 21.0237960 7.6174116 443 196249 86938307 21.0475652 7.6231519 444 197136 87528384 21.0713075 7.6288837 445 198025 88121125 21.0950231 7.6346067 446 198916 88716536 21.1187121 7.6403213 447 199809 89314623 21.1423745 7.6460272 448 200704 89915392 21.1660105 7.6517247 449 201601 90518849 21.1896201 7.6574138 450 202500 91125000 21.2132034 7.6630943 200 INSIDE FINISHING SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 451 203401 91733851 21.2367606 7.6687665 452 204304 92345408 21.2602916 7.6744303 453 205209 92959677 21.2837967 7.6800857 454 206116 93576664 21.3072758 7.6857328 455 207025 94196375 21.3307290 7.6913717 456 207936 94818816 21.3541565 7.6970023 457 208849 95443993 21.3775583 7.7026246 458 209764 96071912 21.4009346 7.7082388 459 210681 96702579 21.4242853 7.7138448 460 211600 97336000 21.4476106 7.7194426 461 212521 97972181 21.4709106 7.7250325 462 213444 98611128 21.4941853 7.7306141 463 214369 99252847 21.5174348 7.7361877 464 215296 99897344 21.5406592 7.7417532 465 216225 100544625 21.5638587 7.7473109 466 217156 101194696 21.5870331 7.7528606 467 218089 101847563 21.6101828 7.7584023 468 219024 102503232 21.6333077 7.7639361 469 219961 103161709 21.6564078 7.7694620 470 220900 103823000 21.6794834 7.7749801 471 221841 104487111 21.7025344 7.7804904 472 222784 105154048 21.7255610 7.7859928 473 223729 105823817 21.7485632 7.7914875 474 224676 106496424 21.7715411 7.7969745 475 225625 107171875 21.7944947 7.8024538 476 226576 107850176 21.8174242 7.8079254 477 227529 108531333 21.8403297 7.8133892 478 228484 109215352 21.8632111 7.8188456 479 . 229441 109902239 21.8860686 7.8242942 480 230400 110592000 21.9089023 7.8297353 481 231361 111284641 21.9317122 7.8351688 482 232324 111980168 21.9544984 7.8405949 483 233289 112678587 21.9772610 7.8460134 484 234256 113379904 22.0000000 7.8514244 485 235225 114084125 22.0227155 7.8568281 486 236196 114791256 22.0454077 7.8622242 487 237169 115501303 22.0680765 7.8676130 488 238144 116214272 22.0907220 7.8729944 489 239121 116930169 22.1133444 7.8783684 490 240100 117649000 22.1359436 7.8837352 491 241081 118370771 22.1585198 7.8890946 TABLES 201 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQTTAHE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 492 242064 119095488 22.1810730 7.8944468 493 243049 119823157 22.2036033 7.8997917 494 244036 120553784 22.2261108 7.9051294 495 245025 121287375 22.2485955 7.9104599 496 246016 122023936 22.2710575 7.9157832 497 247009 122763473 22.2934968 7.9210994 498 248004 123505992 22.3159136 7.9264085 499 249001 124251499 22.3383079 7.9317104 500 250000 125000000 22.3606798 7.9370053 501 251001 125751501 22.3830293 7.9422931 502 252004 126506008 22.4053565 7.9475739 503 253009 127263527 22.4276615 7.9528477 504 254016 128024064 22.4499443 7.9581144 505 255025 128787625 22.4722051 7.9633743 506 256036 129554216 22.4944438 7.9686271 507 257049 130323843 22.5166605 7.9738731 508 258064 131096512 22.5388553 7.9791122 509 259081 131872229 22.5610283 7.9843444 510 260100 132651000 22.5831796 7.9895697 511 261121 133432831 22.6053091 7.9947883 512 262144 134217728 22.6274170 8.0000000 513 263169 135005697 22.6495033 8.0052049 514 264196 135796744 22.6715681 8.0104032 515 265225 136590875 22.6936114 8.0155946 516 266256 137388096 22.7156334 8.02'07794 517 267289 138188413 22.7376340 8.0259574 518 268324 138991832 22.7596134 8.0311287 519 269361 139798359 22.7815715 8.0362935 520 270400 140608000 22.8035085 8.0414515 521 271441 141420761 22.8254244 8.0466030 522 272484 142236648 22.8473193 8.0517479 523 273529 143055667 22.8691933 8.0568862 524 274576 143877824 22.8910463 8.0620180 525 275625 144703125 22.9128785 8.0671432 526 276676 145531576 22.9346899 8.0722620 527 277729 146363183 22.9564806 8.0773743 528 278784 147197952 22.9782506 8.0824800 529 279841 148035889 23.0000000 8.0875794 530 280900 148877000 23.0217289 8.0926723 531 281961 149721291 23.0434372 8.0977589 532 283024 150568768 23.0651252 8.1028390 I 202 INSIDE FINISHING SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 533 284089 151419437 23.0867928 8.1079128 534 285156 152273304 23.1084400 8.1129803 535 286225 153130375 23.1300670 8.1180414 536 287296 153990656 23.1516738 8.1230962 537 288369 154854153 23.1732605 8.1281447 538 289444 155720872 23.1948270 8.1331870 539 290521 156590819 23.2163735 8.1382230 540 291600 157464000 23.2379001 8.1432529 541 292681 158340421 23.2594067 8.1482765 542 293764 159220088 23.2808935 8.1532939 543 294849 160103007 23.3023604 8.1583051 544 295936 160989184 23.3238076 8.1633102 545 297025 161878625 23.3452351 8.1683092 546 298116 162771336 23.3666429 8.1733020 547 299209 163667323 23.3880311 8.1782888 548 300304 164566592 23.4093998 8.1832695 549 301401 165469149 23.4307490 8.1882441 550 302500 166375000 23.4520788 8.1932127 551 303601 167284151 23.4733892 8.1981753 552 304704 168196608 23.4946802 8.2031319 553 305809 169112377 23.5159520 8.2080825 554 306916 170031464 23.5372046 8.2130271 555 308025 170953875 23.5584380 8.2179657 556 309136 171879616 23.5796522 8.2228985 557 310249 172808693 23.6008474 8.2278254 558 311364 173741112 23.6220236 8.2327463 559 312481 174676879 23.6431808 8.2376614 560 313600 175616000 23.6643191 8.2425706 561 314721 176558481 23.6854386 8.2474740 562 315844 177504328 23.7065392 8.2523715 563 316969 178453547 23.7276210 8.2572633 564 318096 179406144 23.7486842 8.2621492 565 319225 180362125 23.7697286 8.2670294 566 320356 181321496 23.7907545 8.2719039 567 321489 182284263 23.8117618 8.2767726 568 322624 183250432 23.8327506 8.2816355 569 323761 184220009 23.8537209 8.2864928 570 324900 185193000 23.8746728 8.2913444 571 326041 186169411 23.8956063 8.2961903 572 327184 187149248 23.9165215 8.3010304 573 328329 188132517 23.9374184 8.3058651 TABLES 203 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 574 329476 189119224 23.9582971 8.3106941 575 330625 190109375 23.9791576 8.3155175 576 331776 191102976 24.0000000 8.3203353 577 332929 192100033 24.0208243 8.3251475 578 334084 193100552 24.0416306 8.3299542 579 335241 194104539 24.0624188 8.3347553 580 336400 195112000 24.0831891 8.3395509 581 337561 196122941 24.1039416 8.3443410 582 338724 197137368 24.1246762 8.3491256 583 339889 198155287 24.1453929 8.3539047 584 341056 199176704 24.1660919 8.3586784 585 342225 200201625 24.1867732 8.3634466 586 343396 201230056 24.2074369 8.3682095 587 344569 202262003 24.2280829 8.3729668 588 345744 203297472 24.2487113 8.3777188 589 346921 204336469 24.2693222 8.3824653 590 348100 205379000 24.2899156 8.3872065 591 349281 206425071 24.3104916 8.3919423 592 350464 207474688 24.3310501 8.3966729 593 351649 208527857 24.3515913 8.4013981 594 352836 209584584 24.3721152 8.4061180 595 354025 210644875 24.3926218 8.4108326 596 355216 211708736 24.4131112 8.4155419 597 356409 212776173 24.4335834 8.4202460 598 357604 213847192 24.4540385 8.4249448 599 358801 214921799 24.4744765 8.4296383 600 360000 216000000 24.4948974 8.4343267 601 361201 217081801 24.5153013 8.4390098 602 362404 218167208 24.5356883 8.4436877 603 363609 219256227 24.5560583 8.4483605 604 364816 220348864 24.5764115 8.4530281 605 366025 221445125 24.5967478 8.4576906 606 367236 222545016 24.6170673 8.4623479 607 368449 223648543 24.6373700 8.4670001 608 369664 224755712 24.6576560 8.4716471 609 370881 225866529 24.6779254 8.4762892 610 372100 226981000 24.6981781 8.4809261 611 373321 228099131 24.7184142 8.4855579 612 374544 229220928 24.7386338 8.4901848 613 375769 230346397 24.7588368 8.4948065 614 376996 231475544 24.7790234 8.4994233 204 INSIDE FINISHING SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 615 378225 232608375 24.7991935 8.5040350 616 379456 233744896 24.8193473 8.5086417 617 380689 234885113 24.8394847 8.5132435 618 381924 236029032 24.8596058 8.5178403 619 383161 237176659 24.8797106 8.5224321 620 384400 238328000 24.8997992 8.5270189 621 385641 239483061 24.9198716 8.5316009 622 386884 240641848 24.9399278 8.5361780 623 388129 241804367 24.9599679 8.5407501 624 389376 242970624 24.9799920 8.5453173 625 390625 244140625 25.0000000 8.5498797 626 391876 245314376 25.0199920 8.5544372 627 393129 246491883 25.0399681 8.5589899 628 394384 247673152 25.0599282 8.5635377 629 395641 248858189 25.0798724 8.5680807 630 396900 250047000 25.0998008 8.5726189 631 398161 251239591 25.1197134 8.5771523 632 399424 252435968 25.1396102 8.5816809 633 400689 253636137 25.1594913 8.5862047 634 401956 254840104 25.1793566 8.5907238 635 403225 256047875 25.1992063 8.5952380 636 404496 257259456 25.2190404 8.5997476 637 405769 258474853 25.2388589 8.6042525 638 407044 259694072 25.2586619 8.6087526 639 408321 260917119 25.2784493 8.6132480 640 409600 262144000 25.2982213 8.6177388 641 410881 263374721 25.3179778 8.6222248 642 412164 264609288 25.3377189 8.6267063 643 413449 265847707 25.3574447 8.6311830 644 414736 267089984 25.3771551 8.6356551 645 416025 268336125 25.3968502 8.6401226 646 417316 269586136 25.4165301 8.6445855 647 418609 270840023 25.4361947 8.6490437 648 419904 272097792 25.4558441 8.6534974 649 421201 273359449 25.4754784 8.6579465 650 422500 274625000 25.4950976 8.6623911 651 423801 275894451 25.5147016 8.6668310 652 425104 277167808 25.5342907 8.6712665 653 426409 278445077 25.5538647 8.6756974 654 427716 279726264 25.5734237 8.6801237 655 429025 281011375 25.5929678 8.6845456 TABLES 205 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 656 430336 282300416 25.6124969 8.6889630 657 431649 283593393 25.6320112 8.6933759 658 432964 284890312 25.6515107 8.6977843 659 434281 286191179 25.6709953 8.7021882 660 435600 . 287496000 25.6904652 8.7065877 661 436921 288804781 25.7099203 8.7109827 662 438244 290117528 25.7293607 8.7153734 663 439569 291434247 25.7487864 8.7197596 664 440896 292754944 25.7681975 8.7241414 665 442225 294079625 25.7875939 8.7285187 666 443556 295408296 25.8069758 8.7328918 667 444889 296740963 25.8263431 8.7372604 668 446224 298077632 25.8456960 8.7416246 669 447561 299418309 25.8650343 8.7459846 670 448900 300763000 25.8843582 8.7503401 671 450241 302111711 25.9036677 8.7546913 672 451584 303464448 25.9229628 8.7590383 673 452929 304821217 25.9422435 8.7633809 674 454276 306182024 25.9615100 8.7677192 675 455625 307546875 25.9807621 8.7720532 676 456976 308915776 26.0000000 8.7763830 677 458329 310288733 26.0192237 8.7807084 678 459684 311665752 26.0384331 8.7850296 679 461041 313046839 26.0576284 8.7893466 680 462400 314432000 26.0768096 8.7936593 681 463761 315821241 26.0959767 8.7979679 682 465124 317214568 26.1151297 8.8022721 683 466489 318611987 26.1342687 8.8065722 684 467856 320013504 26.1533937 8.8108681 685 469225 321419125 26.1725047 8.8151598 686 470596 322828856 26.1916017 8.8194474 687 471969 324242703 26.2106848 8.8237307 688 473344 325660672 26.2297541 8.8280099 689 474721 327082769 26.2488095 8.8322850 690 476100 328509000 26.2678511 8.8365559 691 477481 329939371 26.2868789 8.8408227 692 478864 331373888 26.3058929 8.8450854 693 480249 332812557 26.3248932 8.8493440 694 481636 334255384 26.3438797 8.8535985 695 483025 335702375 26.3628527 8.8578489 696 484416 337153536 26.3818119 8.8620952 206 INSIDE FINISHING SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 697 485809 338608873 26.4007576 8.8663375 698 487204 340068392 26.4196896 8.8705757 699 488601 341532099 26.4386081 8.8748099 700 490000 343000000 26.4575131 8.8790400 701 491401 344472101 26.4764046 8.8832661 702 492804 345948408 26.4952826 8.8874882 703 494209 347428927 26.5141472 8.8917063 704 495616 348913664 26.5329983 8.8959204 705 497025 350402625 26.5518361 8.9001304 706 498436 351895816 26.5706605 8.9043366 707 499849 353393243 26.5894716 8.9085387 708 501264 354894912 26.6082694 8.9127369 709 502681 356400829 26.6270539 8.9169311 710 504100 357911000 26.6458252 8.9211214 711 505521 359425431 26.6645833 8.9253078 712 506944 360944128 26.6833281 8.9294902 713 508369 362467097 26.7020598 8.9336687 714 509796 363994344 26.7207784 8.9378433 715 511225 365525875 26.7394839 8.9420140 716 512656 367061696 26.7581763 8.9461809 717 ' 514089 368601813 26.7768557 8.9503438 718 515524 370146232 26.7955220 8.9545029 719 516961 371694959 26.8141754 8.9586581 720 518400 373248000 26.8328157 8.9628095 721 519841 374805361 26.8514432 8.9669570 722 521284 376367048 26.8700577 8.9711007 723 522729 377933067 26.8886593 8.9752406 724 524176 379503424 26.9072481 8.9793766 725 525625 381078125 26.9258240 8.9835089 726 527076 382657176 26.9443872 8.9876373 727 528529 384240583 26.9629375 8.9917620 728 529984 385828352 26.9814751 8.9958829 729 531441 387420489 27.0000000 9.0000000 730 532900 389017000 27.0185122 9.0041134 731 534361 390617891 27.0370117 9.0082229 732 535824 392223168 27.0554985 9.0123288 733 537289 393832837 27.0739727 9.0164309 734 538756 395446904 27.0924344 9.0205293 735 540225 397065375 27.1108834 9.0246239 736 541696 398688256 27.1293199 9.0287149 737 543169 400315553 27.1477439 9.0328021 TABLES 207 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 738 544644 401947272 27.1661554 9.0368857 739 546121 403583419 27.1845544 9.0409655 740 547600 405224000 27.2029410 9.0450417 741 549081 406869021 27.2213152 9.0491142 742 550564 408518488 27.2396769 9.0531831 743 552049 410172407 27.2580263 9.0572482 744 553536 411830784 27.2763634 9.0613098 745 555025 413493625 27.2946881 9.0653677 746 556516 415160936 27.3130006 9.0694220 747 558009 416832723 27.3313007 9.0734726 748 559504 418508992 27.3495887 9.0775197 749 561001 420189749 27.3678644 9.0815631 750 562500 421875000 27.3861279 9.0856030 751 564001 423564751 27.4043792 9.0896392 752 565504 425259008 27.4226184 9.0936719 753 567009 426957777 27.4408455 9.0977010 754 568516 428661064 27.4590604 9.1017265 755 570025 430368875 27.4772633 9.1057485 756 571536 432081216 27.4954542 9.1097669 757 573049 433798093 27.5136330 9.1137818 758 574564 435519512 27.5317998 9.1177931 759 576081 437245479 27.5499546 9.1218010 760 577600 438976000 27.5680975 9.1258053 761 579121 440711081 27.5862284 9.1298061 762 580644 442450728 27.6043475 9.1338034 763 582169 444194947 27.6224546 9.1377971 764 583696 445943744 27.6405499 9.1417874 765 585225 447697125 27.6586334 9.1457742 766 586756 449455096 27.6767050 9.1497576 767 588289 451217663 27.6947648 9.1537375 768 589824 452984832 27.7128129 9.1577139 769 591361 454756609 27.7308492 9.1616869 770 592900 456533000 27.7488739 9.1656565 771 594441 458314011 27.7668868 9.1696225 772 595984 460099648 27.7848880 9.1735852 773 597529 461889917 27.8028775 9.1775445 774 599076 463684824 27.8208555 9.1815003 775 600625 465484375 27.8388218 9.1854527 776 602176 467288576 27.8567766 9.1894018 777 603729 469097433 27.8747197 9.1933474 778 605284 470910952 27.8926514 9.1972897 208 INSIDE FINISHING SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 779 606841 472729139 27.9105715 9.2012286 780 608400 474552000 27.9284801 9.2051641 781 609961 476379541 27.9463772 9.2090962 782 611524 478211768 27.9642629 9.2130250 783 613089 480048687 27.9821372 9.2169505 784 614656 481890304 28.0000000 9.2208726 785 616225 483736625 28.0178515 9.2247914 786 617796 485587656 28.0356915 9.2287068 787 619369 487443403 28.0535203 9.2326189 788 620944 489303872 28.0713377 9.2365277 789 622521 491169069 28.0891438 9.2404333 790 624100 493039000 28.1069386 9.2443355 791 625681 494913671 28.1247222 9.2482344 792 627264 496793088 28.1424946 9.2521300 793 628849 498677257 28.1602557 9.2560224 794 630436 500566184 28.1780056 9.2599114 795 632025 502459875 28.1957444 9.2637973 796 633616 504358336 28.2134720 9.2676798 797 635209 506261573 28.2311884 9.2715592 798 636804 508169592 28.2488938 9.2754352 799 638401 510082399 28.2665881 9.2793081 800 640000 512000000 28.2842712 9.2831777 801 641601 513922401 28.3019434 9.2870440 802 643204 515849608 28.3196045 9.2909072 803 644809 517781627 28.3372546 9.2947671 804 646416 519718464 28.3548938 9.2986239 805 648025 521660125 28.3725219 9.3024775 806 649636 523606616 28.3901391 9.3063278 807 651249 525557943 28.4077454 9.3101750 808 652864 527514112 28.4253408 9.3140190 809 654481 529475129 28.4429253 9.3178599 810 656100 531441000 28.4604989 9.3216975 811 657721 533411731 28.4780617 9.3255320 812 659344 535387328 28.4956137 9.3293634 813 660969 537367797 28.5131549 9.3331916 814 662596 539353144 28.5306852 9.3370167 815 664225 541343375 28.5482048 9.3408386 816 665856 543338496 28.5657137 9.3446575 817 667489 545338513 28.5832119 9.3484731 818 669124 547343432 28.6006993 9.3522857 819 670761 549353259 28.6181760 9.3560952 TABLES 209 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 820 672400 551368000 28.6356421 9.3599016 821 674041 553387661 28.6530976 9.3637049 822 675684 555412248 28.6705424 9.3675051 823 677329 557441767 28.6879766 9.3713022 824 678976 559476224 28.7054002 9.3750963 825 680625 561515625 28.7228132 9.3788873 826 682276 563559976 28.7402157 9.3826752 827 683929 565609283 28.7576077 9.3864600 828 685584 567663552 28.7749891 9.3902419 829 687241 569722789 28.7923601 9.3940206 830 688900 571787000 28.8097206 9.3977964 831 690561 573856191 28.8270706 9.4015691 832 692224 575930368 28.8444102 9.4053387 833 693889 578009537 28.8617394 9.4091054 834 695556 580093704 28.8790582 9.4128690 835 697225 582182875 28.8963666 9.4166297 836 698896 584277056 28.9136646 9.4203873 837 700569 586376253 28.9309523 9.4241420 838 702244 588480472 28.9482297 9.4278936 839 703921 590589719 28.9654967 9.4316423 840 705600 592704000 28.9827535 9.4353880 841 707281 594823321 29.0000000 9.4391307 842 708964 596947688 29.0172363 9.4428704 843 710649 599077107 29.0344623 9.4466072 844 712336 601211584 29.0516781 9.4503410 845 714025 603351125 29.0688837 9.4540719 846 715716 605495736 29.0860791 9.4577999 847 717409 607645423 29.1032644 9.4615249 848 719104 609800192 29.1204396 9.4652470 849 720801 611960049 29.1376046 9.4689661 850 722500 614125000 29.1547595 9.4726824 851 v 724201 616295051 29.1719043 9.4763957 852 '725904 618470208 29.1890390 9.4801061 853 727609 620650477 29.2061637 9.4838136 854 729316 622835864 29.2232784 9.4875182 855 731025 625026375 29.2403830 9.4912200 856 732736 627222016 29.2574777 9.4949188 857 734449 629422793 29.2745623 9.4986147 858 736164 631628712 29.2916370 9.5023078 859 737881 633839779 29.3087018 9.5059980 860 739600 636056000 2913257566 9.5096854 210 INSIDE FINISHING SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 861 741321 638277381 29.3428015 9.5133699 862 743044 640503928 29.3598365 9.5170515 863 744769 642735647 29.3768616 9.5207303 864 746496 644972544 29.3938769 9.5244063 865 748225 647214625 29.4108823 9.5280794 866 749956 649461896 29.4278779 9.5317497 867 751689 651714363 29.4448637 9.5354172 868 753424 653972032 29.4618397 9.5390818 869 755161 656234909 29.4788059 9.5427437 870 756900 658503000 29.4957624 9.5464027 871 758641 660776311 29.5127091 9.5500589 872 760384 663054848 29.5296461 9.5537123 873 762129 665338617 29.5465734 9.5573630 874 763876 667627624 29.5634910 9.5610108 875 765625 669921875 29.5803989 9.5646559 876 767376 672221376 29.5972972 9.5682982 877 769129 674526133 29.6141858 9.5719377 878 770884 676836152 29.6310648 9.5755745 879 772641 679151439 29.6479342 9.5792085 880 774400 681472000 29.6647939 9.5828397 881 776161 683797841 29.6816442 9.5864682 882 777924 686128968 29.6984848 9.5900939 883 779689 688465387 29.7153159 9.5937169 884 781456 690807104 29.7321375 9.5973373 885 783225 693154125 29.7489496 9.6009548 886 784996 695506456 29.7657521 9.6045696 887 786769 697864103 29.7825452 9.6081817 888 788544 700227072 29.7993289 9.6117911 889 790321 702595369 29.8161030 9.6153977 890 792100 704969000 29.8328678 9.6190017 891 793881 707347971 29.8496231 9.6226030 892 795664 709732288 29.8663690 9.6262016 893 797449 712121957 29.8831056 9.6297975 894 799236 714516984 29.8998328 9.6333907 895 801025 716917375 29.9165506 9.6369812 896 802816 719323136 29.9332591 9.6405690 897 804609 721734273 29.9499583 9.6441542 898 806404 724150792 29.9666481 9.6477367 899 808201 726572699 29.9833287 9.6513166 900 810000 729000000 30.0000000 9.6548938 901 811801 731432701 30.0166620 9.6584684 TABLES 211 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 902 813604 733870808 30.0333148 9.6620403 903 815409 736314327 30.0499584 9.6656096 904 817216 738763264 30.0665928 9.6691762 905 819025 741217625 30.0832179 9.6727403 906 820836 743677416 30.0998339 9.6763017 907 822649 746142643 30.1164407 9.6798604 908 824464 748613312 30.1330383 9.6834166 909 826281 751089429 30.1496269 9.6869701 910 828100 753571000 30.1662063 9.6905211 911 829921 756058031 30.1827765 9.6940694 912 831744 758550528 30.1993377 9.6976151 913 833569 761048497 30.2158899 9.7011583 914 835396 763551944 30.2324329 9.7046989 915 837225 766060875 30.2489669 9.7082369 916 839056 768575296 30.2654919 9.7117723 917 840889 771095213 30.2820079 9.7153051 918 842724 773620632 30.2985148 9.7188354 919 844561 776151559 30.3150128 9.7223631 920 846400 778688000 30.3315018 9.7258883 921 848241 781229961 30.3479818 9.7294109 922 850084 783777448 30.3644529 9.7329309 923 851929 786330467 30.3809151 9.7364484 924 853776 788889024 30.3973683 9.7399634 925 855625 791453125 30.4138127 9.7434758 926 857476 794022776 30.4302481 9.7469857 927 859329 796597983 30.4466747 9.7504930 928 861184 799178752 30.4630924 9.7539979 929 863041 801765089 30.4795013 9.7575002 930 864900 804357000 30.4959014 9.7610001 931 866761 806954491 30.5122926 9.7644974 932 868624 809557568 30.5286750 9.7679922 933 870489 812166237 30.5450487 \ 9.7714845 934 872356 814780504 30.5614136 9.7749743 935 874225 817400375 30.5777697 9.7784516 936 876096 820025856 30.5941171 9.7819466 937 877969 822656953 30.6104557 9.7854288 938 879844 825293672 30.6267857 9.7889087 939 881721 827936019 30.6431069 9.7923861 940 883600 830584000 30.6594194 9.7958611 941 885481 833237621 30.6757233 9.7993336 942 887364 835896888 30.6920185 9.8028036 212 INSIDE FINISHING SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Continued NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 943 889249 838561807 30v7083051 9.8062711 944 891136 841232384 30.7245830 9.8097362 945 893025 843908625 30.7408523 . 9.8131989 946 894916 846590536 30.7571130 9.8166591 947 896809 849278133 30.7733651 9.8201169 948 898704 851971392 30.7896086 9.8235723 949 900601 854670349 30.8058436 9.8270252 950 902500 857375000 30.8220700 9.8304757 951 904401 860085351 30.8382879 9.8339238 952 906304 862801408 30.8544972 9.8373695 953 908209 865523177 30.8706981 9.8408127 954 910116 868250664 30.8868904 9.8442536 955 912025 870983875 30.9030743 9.8476920 956 913936 873722816 30.9192497 9.8511280 957 915849 876467493 30.9354166 9.8545617 958 917764 879217912 30.9515751 9.8579929 959 919681 881974079 30.9677251 9.8614218 960 921600 884736000 30.9838668 9.8648483 961 923521 887503681 31.0000000 9.8682724 962 925444 890277128 31.0161248 9.8716941 963 927369 893056347 31.0322413 9.8751135 964 929296 895841344 31.0483494 9.8785305 965 931225 898632125 31.0644491 9.8819451 966 933156 901428696 31.0805405 9.8853574 967 935089 904231063 31.0966236 9.8887673 968 937024 907039232 31.1126984 9.8921749 969 938961 909853209 31.1287648 9.8955801 970 940900 912673000 31.1448230 9.8989830 971 942841 915498611 31.1608729 9.9023835 972 944784 918330048 31.1769145 9.9057817 973 946729 921167317 31.1929479 9.9091776 974 948676 924010424 31.2089731 9.9125712 975 950625 926859375 31.2249900 9.9159624 976 952576 929714176 31.2409987 9.9193513 977 954529 932574833 31.2569992 9.9227379 978 956484 935441352 31.2729915 9.9261222 979 958441 938313739 31.2889757 9.9295042 980 960400 941192000 31.3049517 9.9328839 981 962361 944076141 31.3209195 9.9362613 982 964324 946966168 31.3368792 9.9396363 983 966289 949862087 31.3528308 9.9430092 TABLES 213 SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS Concluded NUMBER SQUARE CUBE SQUARE ROOT CUBE ROOT 984 968256 952763904 31.3687743 9.9463797 985 970225 955671625 31.3847097 9.9497479 986 972196 958585256 31.4006369 9.9531138 987 974169 961504803 31.4165561 9.9564775 988 976144 964430272 31.4324673 9.9598389 989 978121 967361669 31.4483704 9.9631981 990 980100 970299000 31.4642654 9.9665549 991 982081 973242271 31.4801525 9.9699095 992 984064 976191488 31.4960315 9.9732619 993 986049 979146657 31.5119025 9.9766120 994 988036 982107784 31.5277655 9.9799599 995 990025 985074875 31.5436206 9.9833055 996 992016 988047936 31.5594677 9.9866488 997 994009 991026973 31.5753068 9.9899900 998 996004 994011992 31.5911380 9.9933289 999 998001 997002999 31.6069613 9.9966656 1000 1000000 1000000000 31.6227766 10.0000000 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES TABLE 21 AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT United States and British GRAINS DRAMS OUNCES POUNDS HUNDRED- WEIGHTS GROSS TONS 1. .03657 .002286 .000143 .00000128 .000000176 27.34375 1. .0625 .003906 .00003488 .000001744 437.5 16. 1. .0625 .00055804 .00002790 7000. 256. 16. 1. .0089286 .0004464 784000. 28672. 1792. 112. 1. .05 5G80000. 573440. 35840. 2240. 20. 1. 1 pound avoirdupois = 1.215278 pounds troy. 1 net ton = 2000 pounds = .892857 gross ton. 214 INSIDE FINISHING TABLE 22 APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT United States and British GRAINS SCRUPLES DRAMS OUNCES POUNDS 1 .05 .016667 .0020833 .000173611 20 1. .333333 .0416667 .0034722 60 3. 1. .125 .0104167 480 24. 8. 1. .0833333 5760 288. 96. 12. 1. The pound, ounce, and grain are the same as in troy weights. The avoirdupois grain = troy grain = apothecaries' grain. TABLE 23 TROY WEIGHT United States and British GRAINS PENNYWEIGHTS OUNCES POUNDS 1 .041667 .0020833 .0001736 24 1. .05 .0041667 480 20. 1. .0833333 5760 240. 12. 1. 1 pound troy = .822857 pound avoirdupois. 175 ounces troy = 192 ounces avoirdupois. TABLE 24 LINEAR MEASURE United States and British INCHES FEET YARDS RODS FURLONGS MILES 1 .08333 .02778 .0050505 .00012626 .00001578 12 1. .33333 .0606061 .00151515 .00018939 36 3. 1. .1818182 .00454545 .00056818 198 16.5 5.5 1. .025 .003125 7920 660. 220. 40. 1. .125 63360 5280. 1760. 320. 8. 1. TABLES 215 TABLE 25 SQUARE OB LAND MEASURE United States and British i SQUARE INCHES SQUARE FEET SQUARE YAKDS SQUARE RODS ACRES SQUARE MILES 1 .006944 .000771 144 1. .111111 1296 9.0 1. .03306 .0002066 39204 272.25 30.25 1. .00625 .00000977 6272640 43560. 4840. 160. 1. .0015625 27878400. 3097600. 102400. 640. 1. 1 square rood 1 square acre = 40 square rods. 208.71 feet square. 1 acre = 4 square roods. TABLE 26 CUBIC OR SOLID MEASURE United States or British 1 cubic inch = .0005787 cubic foot = .000021433 cubic yard. 1 cubic foot = 1728 cubic inches = .03703704 cubic yard. 1 cubic yard = 27 cubic feet = 46656 cubic inches. 1 cord of wood = 128 cubic feet = 4 feet by 4 feet by 8 feet. 1 perch of masonry = 24.75 cubic feet = 16.5 feet by 1.5 feet by 1 foot, is usually taken as 25 cubic feet. It TABLE 27 DRY MEASURE United States Only PINTS QUARTS GALLONS PECKS BUSHELS CUBIC INCHES 1 .50 .125 .0625 .015625 33.6003125 2 1. .25 .125 .03125 67.200625 8 4. 1. .05 .125 268.8025 16 8. 2. 1. .25 537.605 64 32. 8. 4. 1. 2150.42 1 heaped bushel 6 inches high. 1.25 struck bushel, and the cone must not be less than 216 INSIDE FINISHING TABLE 28 ROPE AND CABLE MEASURE 1 inch = .111111 span = .013889 fathom = .0001157 cable's length. 1 span = 9 inches = .125 fathom = .00104167 cable's length. 1 fathom = 6 feet = 8 spans = 72 inches = .008333 cable's length. 1 cable's length = 120 fathoms = 720 feet = 960 spans = 8640 inches. TABLE 29 LIQUID MEASURE United States Only GILLS PINTS QUARTS GALLONS BARRELS CUBIC INCHES 1 .25 .125 .03125 .000498 7.21875 4 1. .5 .125 .003968 28.875 8 2. 1. .25 .007937 57.75 32 8. 4. 1. .031746 231. 2008 252. 126. 31.5 1. 7276.5 The British imperial gallon = 277.274 cubic inches or 10 pounds avoirdupois of pure water at 62 F. and barometer at 30 inches. The British imperial gallon = 1.20032 United States gallons. 1 fluid drachm = 60 minims = .125 fluid ounce = .0078125 pint. 1 fluid ounce = 480 minims = 8 drachms = .0625 pint. TABLE 30 FRENCH MEASURES OF LENGTH WITH U. S. EQUIVALENTS METERS U. S. EQUIVALENTS 1 millimeter 0.001 0.03937 in. 10 millimeters . 1 centimeter .... 0.01 0.3937 in. 10 centimeters 1 decimeter .... 0.1 3.93704 in. 10 decimeters 100 centimeters 1000 millimeters \\ 1 METER 1.0 J 39.3704 in. J 3.2809 ft. 10 meters . . . 1 decameter . . . 10.0 32.8087 ft. 10 decameters 1 hectometer . . . 100.0 328.0869 ft. 10 hectometers . 1 KILOMETER . . . 1000.0 3280.869 ft. 10 kilometers . 1 myriameter . . . 10000.0 6.21377 mi. TABLES 217 TABLE 31 FRENCH MEASURES OF SURFACE WITH U. S. EQUIVALENTS SQUARE METERS U. S. EQUIVALENTS 1 sq. millimeter 0.000001 0.00155 sq. in. 100 sq. millimeters . . 1 sq. centimeter 0.0001 0.155 sq. in. 100 sq. centimeters . . 1 sq. decimeter 0.01 15.5003 sq. in. 100 sq. decimeters . \ 10000 sq. centimeters J 1 sq. METER 1.0 f 10.7641 sq. ft. \ 1.1960sq.yd. 100 sq. meters . . . 1 sq. decameter 100.0 f 1076.41 sq. ft. \ 119.601 sq. yd. 100 sq. decameters . . 1 sq. hectometer 10000.0 f 11960.11 sq. yd. 12.4711 acres. 100 sq. hectometers 1 sq. kilometer 1000000.0 / 1196014 sq. yd. 10.38611 sq. mi. 100 sq. kilometers . . 1 sq. myriameter 100000000.0 38.611 sq. mi. TABLE 32 FRENCH MEASURES OF WEIGHT WITH U. S. AVOIRDUPOIS EQUIVALENTS 1 GRAMS U. S. EQUIVALENTS 1 milligram . . . 0.001 0.0154 gr. 10 milligrams 1 centigram . . . 0.01 0.1543 gr. 10 centigrams ... 1 decigram .... 0.1 1.5432 gr. 10 decigrams ... 1 GRAM 1.0 15.4323 gr. 10 grams 1 decagram 10.0 f 154.3235 gr. \ 0.3527 oz. 10 decagrams . . .1 hectogram . . . 1 100.0 f 1543.2?49 gr. 1 3.5274 oz. 10 hectograms . . . i 1 kilogram .... 1000.0 2.2046 Ib. 100 kilograms . . .1 metric quintal . . 220.4621 Ib. 10 quintals . "H . .... 1000 kilograms . . } | 1 lher or tonne . (2204.6212 Ib. ] 19.6841 cwt. ( 0.9842 tons. 218 INSIDE FINISHING TABLE 33 FRENCH MEASURES OF VOLUME WITH U. S. EQUIVALENTS CUBIC METERS U. S. EQUIVALENTS 1 cu. millimeter . . 0.000000001 0.000061 cu. in. 1000 cu. millimeters . 1 cu. centimeter . . 0.000001 0.061025 cu. in. 1000 cu. centimeters . 1 cu. decimeter . . 0.001 / 61.02524 cu. in. \ 0.0353156 cu. ft. 1000 cu. decimeters . 1 cu. METER . . . 1.0 C 35.3156 cu. ft. \ 1.308 cu. yd. 1000 cu. meters . . . 1 cu. decameter . . 1000 1308.0 cu. yd. TABLE 34 FRENCH MEASURES OF LIQUIDS WITH U. S. EQUIVALENTS LITERS U. S. EQUIVALENTS f 1 centiliter . . \ \ 10 cu. centimeters j 0.01 f 0.61025 cu. in. I 0.0845 gills. 10 centiliters .... 1 deciliter .... 0.1 f 6.1025 cu. in. 10.2114 pt. 10 deciliters .... {1 LITER . . . \ 1 cu. decimeter . j 1.0 f 61. 02524 cu. in. 10.2642 gal. 10 liters 1 decaliter .... 10.0 2.6418 gal. 10 decaliters .... 1 hectoliter .... 100.0 26.418 gal. INDEX Air, cold, 2 ; cooled, 7 ; heated, 2, 7 ; pure, 3 ; reheated, 3, 4 ; removal of impure, 4, 5, 7. Air spaces in refrigerator walls, 12. Apothecaries' weight, 214. Approximation method of estimating, 131, 137. Architect, 152. Areas of circles, 184. Arithmetic questions, 156-176. Artificially cooled air, 7. Asbestos paper, 3. Asphalt floor, 177. Astragal molding, 29, 31. Attic stairs, 96. Avoirdupois weight, 213. Balusters, cast-iron, 112; designs of, 112 ; dimensions of, 1 14 ; methods of fastening, 113. Band molding, 27. Baseboard, fitting, 21, 32. Base molding, fitting of, 28. Bathroom, finish of, 50. Bead, molding, 30 ; staff, 73 ; stop, 30, 71. Bedding glass, with putty, 77, 83 ; with rubber tape, 85. Bed mold, 28 ; mitering, 28. Bending wood, table for, 177. Bevel of bottom rail of sash, 81. Bill of material, -150. Bird's beak molding, 31. Blank contracts, 152. Blind nailing, 19. Blind stop, 70, 72, 85. Blinds, hinges for, 85 ; hung between casings, 72 ; manufacture of, 85. Boiled oil, 121. Bottom rail of panel work, 36. Box flight of stairs, 100. Box window frames, 73. Breaking joints in flooring, 22. Brick, cubic measurements of, 136 ; days' work in laying, 136. Brick buildings, allowance for waste in, 136; window frames for, 72. Brickwork, 135. Bridging, 139. Brushes, care of, 126. Builders, stair, 88. Building, permit, 152 ; regulations, 152. Built stringer, 98. Buttress stairs, 96. Butts, or hinges, 62, 127. Cable measure, 216. Capacity of boxes, 183. Cap molding, 28. Carpenter and mason, 59, 133. Carpentry, 136. Carriages, dimensions of, 93 ; for stairs, 92 ; laying out, 92. Casings, estimating, 144 ; of doors and windows, 23 ; of stairs, face, 94 ; spliced, 26 ; width of, 72. Caul, for veneering, 56. Cavetto molding, 31. Ceiling, dado, 34 ; used in refrigerator construction, 12 waste in, 20. Cellar, stairs, 96; sash, sizes of, 177. Center hung sash, 74. Central heating-plant system, 5. Cesspool, 10; subsoil for, 10. Chamber slops, disposal of, 9. 219 220 INDEX Checking estimates, 137. Chimneys, data of brick, 183. China closets, 46. Circles, areas and circumferences of 184. Circular panel work, 44 ; stair riser, 110. Circulation of air in refrigerators, 14. Circumferences of circles, 184. Clamps on rake dado, placing, 40. Clapboards, 70. Closed string stairs, 96. Closets, china, 46 ; clothes, 46 ; dry earth, 9 ; moth proof, 45 ; trunk, 46. Cold air ducts, 4. Condensation on skylight sash, 84. Conductor pipes of hot-air furnace, 2. Construction, ice house, 15 ; sash, 74. Contour of moldings, 31. Contract, blanks, 152 ; legal aspects of, 152 ; value of, 130. Contractor, hints for the, 151. Contractor's estimates, 131. Coped, joint, 76; panel work, 38. Coping base and picture moldings, 28. Cord, sash, 77, 81. Core for veneering, 55. Corner, block finish, 24 ; boards, estimating, 142 ; joints of base board, 32 ; laps of dado, 38. Cornice, estimating, 142. especially designed, 30. Cove molding, 29. Crown molding, 28, 29. Cubes of numbers, 189-213. Cubic, or solid measure, 215. Curb stairs, 96. Curved panels, 44 ; soffit, 41-43. Customs in making measurements, 88, 135. Cut stone, estimating, 135. Cutting for plumbers, 80. Cyma, recta molding, 31 ; re versa, 31. Dado, ceiling and paneled, 34 ; measurements of, 34 ; rake, 39. Damper in cold air duct, 2. Day's work in, bridging, 139 ; building cornice, 142 ; casing, 144 ; cutting stone, 135 ; excavating, 133 ; fitting, and fastening base, 143 ; hanging and locking doors, 143-144 hanging windows, 144 ; lathing, 145 ; laying brick, 136 ; laying floor, 143 ; laying stone, 135 ; plan members, 138, 139 ; plastering, 145 ; putting on grounds, 144 ; putting on siding, 142 ; putting up wainscoting, 143 ; roof members, 139, 140 ; setting panel work, 143 ; sheathing, 139; studding, 138. Dead air space in refrigerator, 12. Decimal equivalents of a foot, 185 ; of an inch, 186. Dentils, molding, 30. Dimensions of, stairs for public build- ings, 91 ; stair stringers, 92 ; stair posts, 101. Direct heating, 4. Direct-indirect heating, 4. Dish drainer, 49. Dog-leg flight, 100. Doorframes, 57 ; estimating, 142 ; for brick house, 58, 59 ; setting, 58. Doors, 53 ; doweled, 53 ; estimating labor on, 143, 144; fitting, 60 ; grades of, 55 ; hand of, 62 ; hanging of, 60 ; in refrigerator, 13 ; selection of, 54 ; stock sizes of, 53 ; veneered, 55. INDEX 221 Dovetailed joint of sash, 75, 76. Doweled joint in panel work, 37. Dowels, staggered, 53. Draft, natural and forced, 5, 7. Draining pipes, 6. Drain tile, 11. Drawbored joint in sash, 76. Drawer case, 46 ; fitting a, 49. Drier, japan, 121. Drip of sash, 73. Drum, furnace, 3. Dry earth closet, 9. Dry measure, 215. Duct, cold air, in furnace, 2 ; cold air, in refrigerator, 14 ; foul air, 4, 5. Easement of handrail, 100. Echinus, molding, 31. Embellishment of stair risers, 108. Estimates, checking, 137 ; records of, 132 ; sub-contractor's, 131 ; summarizing, 147. Estimating, 130-153 ; brickwork, 135 ; casings, 144 ; circular work, 139 ; corner boards, 142 ; cornice, 142 ; doorframes, 142 ; excavations, 133 ; floors, 143 ; frame of building, 136-139 ; grading, 133 ; grounds, 144; hardware, 146 ; heating, 147 ; iron work, 139 ; labor, 132; labor on doors, 143 ; labor on windows, 144 ; painting, 146, 147 ; plastering, 145 ; price of material, 138 ; roofing, 140 ; roof members, 138, 139 ; shelving, 144 ; siding, 142 ; stairs, 144; stonework, 134; Estimating, window frames, 141. Excavations, 133. Extras, price of, 50. Face brick, cost of laying, 136. Face string, framed into posts, 100 ; of stairs, 94 ; plank, 97. Fan, ventilating,. 7. Filler, wood, 124. Fillet, molding, 30, 31. Finish, bathroom, 50; corner block, 24 ; mitered, 24 ; plain, 25 ; shellac, 124. Finishing close-grained wood, 125 ; floors, 125; open-grained wood, 124. Fireplaces, 1. Fitting base and picture molding, 28 ; baseboard, 21, 32; doors, 60 ; drawer, 49 ; hinges to door, 60; locks, 63 ; rabbet to door stile, 60 ; sash, 80 ; threshold, 65. Flat color, 123. Floor, asphalt, 177 ; breaking joints in, 22; diagonal, 22 ; estimates of, 142 ; finishing, 125; ice house, 15 ; laying, 19 ; matched, 19; paint, 125 ; single, 32 ; smoothing, 20 ; square-edged, 19, 22 ; starting, 21. Flooring, nails in matched, 20; narrow or wide boards, 21 ; paper under, 20 ; selection of wood for, 21 ; waste in, 20. Forced draft, 5, 7. Frame of a building, estimating the, 136-139 ; items for, 137. 222 INDEX Frame, window, 69. French measures, 216-218. Furnace, air chamber of, 3 ; drum, 3 ; heating, 1 ; location of, 2 ; setting a, 2. Galvanized iron lining for refrigerators, 14. Gasoline torch, 123. Glass, cutting, 80 ; laid with a butt joint, 83 ; setting, 84, 85. Glaziers' points, 78, 83. Glazing sash, 77. Glue, its use in veneering, 56. Glued, curved soffit, 43 ; rails for circular panel work, 44. Gluing rake dado, 40. Grading, estimating the cost of, 133. Gravity hinges, 85. Grooved and tenoned panel work, 37. Grooves under the bottom of the win- dow sill, 71, 73. Grooving, door panels, 53 : skirting boards, 95. Grounds, cost of putting on, 144. Hair felting, 13. Half round molding, 30. Hand of doors, 62. Handling material, cost of, 141. Handrail, center line of, 101 ; easement of, 100 ; forms of, 111 ; height of, 106 ; material for, 112 ; methods of fastening, 111 ; methods of splicing, 112 ; pitch of, 102. Handrailing, 114. Hanging a door, 60. Hardware, 50, 126 ; items to be estimated, 146 ; trimmings, 127. Hardwood doors, 55. Header of window frame, 69. Headroom, 88, 92. Heating, by fireplace, stove and hot- air furnace, 1 ; Heating, direct, indirect, direct-indirect methods, 4 ; estimate of, 147 ; hot-water, 4 ; steam, 5. Hinges, blind, 85 ; butts or, 62, 127 ; fitting, 60 ; gravity, 85 ; pin, 74. Hollow molding, 30. Hot-water heating, 4, 6. Housing skirting boards, 95. Hung window, 80. Ice chamber, 14 ; rack, 14; refrigerator, 12. Ice house, construction of, 15 ; floor, 14 ; packing ice in, 16 ; ventilation of, 16. Incidentals, per cent added for, 133, 148. Indirect heating, 4. Insurance regulations, 3. Iron oxide, 122. Iron work, estimating, 139. Items for estimating, brickwork, 134 ; framing, 137 ; hardware, 146 ; joinery, 141 ; stonework, 134. Japan drier, 121. Joggled meeting rails of sash, 77. Joinery, estimating, 140, 141. Joint, between straight and curved molding, 33 ; coped, 76. Jointing a door, 59. Kerfing circular riser, 110; curved soffit, 41. Kitchen sink, 49. Knock down window frames, 69. Knots, treatment of, 122. Labor on material, ratio of cost of, 140. Landing of stairs, 91. Lathing, estimates for, 145. Laying, drain tile, 1 1 ; INDEX 223 Laying, out stairs, 89 ; stone, estimates of, 135. Linear measure, table of, 214. Linen closet, 45. Lip molding, 28 ; mitered, 28, 29. Liquid measure, table of, 216, 218. Location of house, 130. Lock edge of door, jointing under the, 62. Locks, 127; fitting, 63 ; refrigerator, 13. Loose pin butts, 62, 127. Mantels, 1, 50, 144. Mason and carpenter, 59, 133. Matched floor, 19. Measurements of openings, 135; of stair, 88 ; of stone wall, 134. Meeting rails of sash, 76, 80. Metal work, painting, 122. Method, in estimating, 130; approximation, 131 ; heating, 1 ; saw kerfing, 41. Middle rail of dado, 36. Mineral wool, insulation by, 13. Mitered casings, 24, 27. Mixing paint, 121. Moisture in furnace, 3. Moldings, 27 ; astragal, 29, 31 ; band, 27 ; base, 28 ; bead, 30 ; bed, 28; bird's beak, 31 ; cap, 28 ; care of, 33 ; cavetto, 31 ; contour of, 31 ; cornice, 29, 30 ; cove, 29 ; crown, 28, 29; cyma recta, 31 ; cyma re versa, 31 ; dentils, 30 ; echinus, 31 ; fillets, 30, 31 ; half round, 30 ; . Moldings, hollow, 30 ; joints, 33 ; lip, 28 ; mitered, 28, 29 ; nosing, 30; ogee, 30, 31 ; ovolo, 31 ; panel, 28 ; quality of, 33 ; quarter round, 29 ; quirk, 30, 31 ; returned upon themselves, 39 ; room, or picture, 30 ; scotia, 29 ; "spalled" corners of, 33; sprung, 28, 29 ; stop bead, 30, 31 ; talon, 31 ; thumb, 31 ; torus, 31. Mortar, ingredients of, 135, 136. Mortised, and tenoned, panel work, 37 ; doors, 53 ; joint of sash, 75 ; locks, 63. Mortises in section posts, 101, 103. Moth proof closet, 45. Mouse, use of, 82. Mullion window frames, 73. Muntins, of panel work, 36 ; sash, 75. Nailing, blind, 19. Nails, 127 ; estimates of, 138, 139, 142, 143; in flooring, 20, 22 ; tables of, 182. Nail set, 19. Narrow boards for flooring, 21. Natural draft, 5, 7. Newel post, 102. Nosing of stair treads, 30, 96, 101 ; forms of, 108 ; mitered, 109. Ogee, molding, 30, 31. Oil, raw and boiled, 121. Old paint, to remove, 123. One-pipe system, 6. Openings, in brick and stone walls, measurements of, 135 ; in ceiling for ventilation, 7 ; 224 INDEX Openings, for stairs, 88 ; tops of, 23. Open string stairs, 94. Outside finish, cost of, 142. Ovolo, molding, 31. Oxide of zinc, 122. Padlocks, 63. Paint, area covered by, 146 ; floor, 125; mixing, 121 ; priming coat of, 121 ; ready mixed, 121, 122; removing old, 123 ; roofing, 122, 140. Painting, 121 ; data for painting, 180 ; estimating, 146, 147; green wood, 123 ; measuring surface for, 147 ; metal work, 122 ; wood which adjoins masonry, 123. Panel moldings, raised and sunk, 28. Panel work, 34 ; circular, 44 ; coped, 38 ; grooved and tenoned, 37 ; mortised and tenoned, 37 ; muntins of, 36 ; panels of, 34, 36 ; rails of, 36 ; rebated, 37 ; section of, 38 ; setting of, 38 ; stiles for, 34 ; tongued and grooved, 36. Panels, 36 ; curved, 44 ; swelling of, 34. Pantry, 46. Paper, asbestos, 3. hanging, cost of, 147 ; table of wall paper, 180. Parting strip of window frame, 69, 71, . 77. Permit, building, 152. Picture molding, 30 ; coping of, 28. Pin hinge, 74. Pipes, draining, 6 ; hot-air conductor, 2 ; laid before house is lathed, 8 ; Pipes, pockets in, 6 ; soil, 8 ; wrapped in asbestos paper, 3. Pitch board, 93. Pitch of, hot-air pipes, 2 ; sink drains, 11. Planning stairs, 91. Plans of house, 130. Plastering, estimating, 145 ; measuring for, 145 ; table of materials, 145, 181. Platform, flight of stairs, 99 ; of stairs, 88, 90. Plinth of door casings, 25. Plumbing, cost of, 147; inspection of, 8. Pockets in, pipes, 6 ; window frames, 71, 72, 81, 82. Posts, bottom square of stair, 107. Posts section, 100 ; gallery, 104; landing, 104 ; newel, 102 ; platform, 102; setting, 104; starting, 104 ; square, 108; winding, 102. Privy, 9. Profit, per cent added for, 133, 148. Pulley stiles, of window frames, 69, 74 ; of mullion frames, 73. Putty, its use in glazing sash, 77 ; in painting, 121 ; knife, use of, 78 ; softening of, 78. Quarter round, use of, 21, 29. Quirk, molding, 30, 31. Radiators, steam and hot-water, 4, 5. Rails, dado, 36 ; sash, 75 ; Rain-proofing skylight sash, 84. Rake dado, 39. Ratio of cost of labor to material, 140; gas fitting to cost of house, 147 ; hardware to cost of house, 146 ; heating to cost of house, 147 ; painting to cost of house, 147 ; plastering to cost of house, 145 ; plumbing to cost of house, 147. INDEX 225 Raw oil, 121. Ready mixed paints, 121. Rebated panel work, 37. Red cedar closets, 45. Refrigerator, 12 ; doors, 13 ; ice rack for, 14 ; waste pipe, 14. Registers, hot-air, 2. Regulations, building, 152 ; insurance, 3. Rim locks, 63. Rise of stairs, 88. Risers, construction of, 108 ; height of, 89 ; fitting to wall skirting board, 96 ; housed to receive skirting board, 97 ; skirting board fitted to, 95 ; winding, 101. Road dust for dry earth closet, 9. Roof, painting a metal, 122. Roofing, estimating, 140 ; paint, 122. Room molding, 30. Roots, square and cube, 189-213. Rope measure, 216. Run of stairs, 88. Rusty iron, painting, 122. Sanitation, 8. Sash, architect's details of, 73 ; center hung, 74 ; condensation on skylights, 84 ; construction of, 74 ; cord, 77, 81 ; draw bored joints of, 76 ; drip, 73 ; fitting, 80 ; glazing, 77 ; hotbed, 82 ; joggled meeting rails, 77 ; muntins of, 75 ; rails of, 75 ; rainproofing of skylight, 84 ; scribing bottom rails of, 80 ; skylight, 82 ; stock sizes of, 79 ; store, 84 ; table of cellar, 177 ; table of sizes and weights of, 178, 179; weights, 81, 82; . window, 74. Saw kerfing, 41. Scotia, of cove, mitered, 29, 31 ; use of, 96. Scratch plane, use of, 56. Scroll for stair riser, 108. Section posts of stairs, 100, 101, 103. Selecting, doors, 54 ; moldings, 33 ; wood, 23. Septic method of disposing of sewage, 11. Setting doorframes, 58 ; glass with beads, 84 ; glass in door, 85 ; paneled dado, 38; window frames, 70. Sewage, disposal of, 8-10. Sewerage system, 9. Shavings, for refrigerator insulation, 13. Sheathing paper, use in refrigerators, 12. Shellac, finish, 124 ; its use on knots, 122 ; substitutes for, 125 ; thinning, 125. Shelving, estimating, 144. Shims, 59. Shingled roof, painting, 123. Shingles, table of, 181 ; staining, 123. Shoe strip for base, 21, 32. Shrinkage of, baseboard, 32 ; treads and risers, 108. Siding, estimating, 142 ; thickness of, 70. Sill, window, 69. Single floor, 32. Sink, drains, 11 ; kitchen, 49 ; splash board for, 50. Sinkage of panel molding, 29. Sizes of cellar sash, 177 ; of doors, 54 ; of windows, 178, 179; of window frames and sash, 79. Skirting board, 94 ; fitted to risers, 95 ; fitted to treads, 95 ; fitted to wall, 95 ; housed, 95, 97 ; seasoning of, 95. 226 INDEX Slate roof, estimating, 140 ; table of, 181. Soffit, curved, 41 ; splayed, 43. Soil pipes, 8. "Spalled" corners of moldings, 33. Specifications, 130. Specific gravities of building materials, 188. Splash board, 50. Sprung molding, 28, 29. Square, or land measure, 215 ; stair posts, 108. Squared end of pulley stile, 70. Square-edged floor, 19 ; laying, 22. Squares, of numbers, 189-213. Stables, data of, 183. Staff bead, 73. Staggered dowels, 53. Staining shingles, 123. Stair posts, 101 ; dimensions of, 105 ; square, 108 ; stock, 105; stringers, 92. Stairs, box flight ot, 100; buttress, 96 ; closed string, 96 ; curb, 96 ; dog-leg flight of, 100 ; easy flight of, 88 ; estimating, 144 ; forms of, 98 ; headroom of, 92 ; landing, 90, 91 ; laying out of, 89 ; measurements of, 88 ; open string, 94 ; pitch of, 102 ; planning, 91 ; platform flight of, 99 ; straight run of, 99 ; winding flight of, 99. Steam, exhaust and direct, 5; heating, 5. Stiles of panel work, 34; pulley, 69, 73, 74 ; rake dado, gluing, 39, 40. Striker of door, 63. String, face, 94 ; open, 94. Stringer, built, 98 ; dimensions of, 93 ; laying out, .92 ; setting, 104. Stock bill, 131, 150. Stock sizes of doors, 53, 54. Stone wall, measurements of, 134 ; waste in laying, 135. Stonework, 133 ; items for estimating, 134 ; table of, 134. Stool, window, 69. Stop, for doorframes, 57; bead, 30, 71 ; blind, 70, 72, 85. Store sash, 84. Stoves, 1. Studding, estimating, 138 ; in refrigerator construction, 12. Sub-contractor, 131. Subsill, of window frames, 70. Subsurface drainage, 10. Summarizing estimates, 147. Swelling of panels, 34. Systems, one-, and two-pipe, 6. Tables, 177-218. Tanks, contents of round, 187. Tenon on, face string of stairs, 100 ; risers, 101. Thickness of outside casings, 70. Threshold, fitting, 65. Thumb molding, 31. Tin roof, cost of, 140. Tongued and grooved, joint, 108 ; panel work, 36. Toothing plane, use of, 56. Top rail of panel work, 36. Tops of openings, 23. Torus molding, 31. Traps under sink, 11 ; for refrigerator waste pipe, 14. Treads, construction of, 108 ; fitted to wall skirting board, 95 ; horizontal distance covered by, 88 ; housed to receive skirting board, 97; skirting board fitted to, 95 ; width of, 90 ; winding, 99, 104. Trimmings, hardware, 127. Troy weight, 214. Trunk closet, 46. INDEX 227 Two-pipe system, 6. Varnish, thinning, 126. Varnished work, cost of, 146. Veneered doors, 55. Veneering 56. Ventilating, by fireplaces, 1 ; by forced draft, 5, 7. Ventilation, 6 ; contract sublet for, 7 ; of an ice house, 16. Vents, foul air, 5. Vertical dimensions of stair posts, 103, 105. Wall paper, table of, 180. Wall skirting board, 95. Warping panels, 45. Waste, allowance for, 142 ; in brickwork, 136 ; in flooring, 20 ; in stonework, 135. Waste pipe in refrigerator, 14. Water-closet, 10. Water supply, contamination of, 9, 10. Wearing floor, fitting to baseboard, 32 ; paper under, 20. Weather strip on refrigerator door, 13. Wedges, in joint of sash, 75 ; used in stair building, 95, 97. Weight, apothecaries', 214; avoirdupois, 213 ; troy, 214. Weights, of windows, 178, 179 ; of building materials, 188. White lead, its use in paint, 121. Width of stair tread, 90. Winding flight, 99 ; dimensions of, 91 ; risers, 101, 104. Window, casement, 74; mullion, 73, 74 ; sash, 74 ; sill, grooved, 71, 73; weights and sizes of windows, 178, 179. weights, space for, 72. Window frames, 69 ; architect's details of, 73 ; box, 73 ; Eastern and Western styles, 70 ; estimating, 141 ; for brick buildings, 72 ; mullion, 73 ; setting of, 70. Windows, labor in fitting, 144. Wood, filler, 124 ; finishing, 124 ; for finishing, 23 ; for floors, 21 ; mantels, 50; table for bending, 177. Woodwork, special, 50, 144. Wreath, laying out, 114. Zinc lining for refrigerators, 14. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY Return to desk from which borrowed. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. 17May5lPA 3 [flay ;*- 1 5 198 REC.CIR. JJN2 5 - DEC 1 2002 LD 21-100m-lV49(B7146sl6)476 rB 10824 231 423 Kb THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY