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 THE LIBRARY 
 
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 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 
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 • • • • • . . •
 
 All Essiiy 
 
 on 
 
 The Scolo-Eiiglish Dialect. 
 
 P;irt I. 
 
 All Academical Dissertation. 
 
 Alona with some French and (lermaii Theses, 
 With the Permission of the Philosoph. Faculty of Lund, 
 
 to be publicly defended 
 by 
 
 ZACHARIAS COLLIN M. A. 
 
 ' ill the Lecture-Hall N:o 1, un the o'l* of March, lHt)2, ^ 
 
 at 10 o'clock, A. M. 
 
 Lund. 
 
 Berlings Printing OfKce. 
 1862.
 
 ... .' .
 
 a 
 
 069-2. 
 
 I. 
 
 i-'J-. Chevallet (Origiue et Formation de la Langue Frangaise, 
 I. p. 216). apres avoir releve les favites daus lesquelles sout tom- 
 bes les auteurs qui out essaye a tirer un gi-aud, nombi-e de mots 
 Frail ca is des langues Celtiques, — dit qu'il ne doiiue comme 
 des mots Celtiques que ceux "qui ne se trouvaiit iii dans le La- 
 tin, ni dans trois idiomes Germaniques, ont ete conserves au 
 mollis dans deux idiomes Xeo-Celtiques". - — Ce raisonnement 
 n'est pas juste, parce qu'on trouve dans les idiomes Germani- 
 ques un iiombre assez considerable de mots qui, selon toute 
 probabilite, doivent etre referes aux langues Celtiques, et, par 
 consequent, on doiiiie pour des mots Germaniques un plus ou 
 moius grand noiiibi'e qui ne le sont point du tout. 
 
 ! "■ 
 
 Les regies que donnent, de iios jours, les grammairiens 
 ; Frangais pour I'usage du participe present ne s'accordent pas 
 : avec la pratique des siecles passes. 
 
 III. 
 
 II serait d'une tres grande utilite pour les jeunes gens qui 
 s'appliquent a la philologie d'avoir des dictionnaires dresses d'une 
 telle maniere que les derives se trouvent toujours sous leurs ra- 
 cines respectives. Cet arrangement permettrait d'embrasser d'uu 
 coup d'oeil tons les mots rattaches les uns aux autres par un 
 lien de pareiite. 
 
 I. 
 
 Vor etwa achtzig Jahreu gab eiu Schotte, Namens Pinker- 
 ton, ein dickes Buch lieraus, in welcliem er zu beweisen suchte, 
 dass die Schotten einer anderen Herstammuug als die siidlichen 

 
 Euyliinder wiiren. Seiue Tlieorie lief daiaiii' iiinaus, die Pikten 
 (er streicht das T dieses Naniens und leitet ilin dann vou Wiken, 
 dem alten Nameu Bohus-lans, ab), und somit audi die gegen- 
 wartigen Bewohuer der schottisclien Niederlande als Naclikom- 
 men jeuer Pikten zu Skaudiiiaviern zu maclieu. So uuverdaulich 
 diese Theorie, mit Betrachtungen auderer \xi zusammeugehalteu, 
 auch scheineu mag, hat sie dennoch Auhiiuger gefundeu, und, 
 so wenig auch das, was nur aus der Luft gegriffen ist, einev 
 Wideilegung bedarf, hat es doch Personen gegeben, die sich mit 
 der Widerlegung dieses Hiriigespinstes abgaben. Hierbei hat man 
 sich vorzugsweise der skandinavischen Sprache bedieut, und vou 
 der mittelalteiiicheu und jetzigen Nichtubereinstimmung dersel- 
 ben mit der Spiache der schottischen Niederlande, auf das Nicht- 
 herstammeu dieser Sprache von der skandinavischen geschlossen. 
 Dieser Sclduss ist durrh und durch unberechtjoft. 
 
 o 
 
 11- 
 
 Die Behauptung, dass die celtisclien Sprachen dem indti- 
 earopaischen Spraclistamme nicht angehoren, ist ganz uubegriindet. 
 
 III. 
 
 Ganz wie in den OuomatopoeM' die Zeitdauer des Laiites, 
 den sie uachahmen, durdi Vocale. deren Aussprechen einer Ijin- 
 geren oder kiirzeren Zeit bedarf. ange'deutet wird. scheint bei 
 der Bildung der Verba, zumal der. starken, auf dasselbe Ver- 
 hidtuiss Kucksicht genomnien zu seifi. Ebenso scheint der Ablaut 
 audi darauf berechnet die Zeitdauer einer llandlung oder eiues 
 Zustandes anzudeuten. So deutet das i des Infin. und Pres. auf 
 das Augeublickliche ; das a des Prjeteriti auf das Fortwiihrende . 
 und das v des Participii jjerfect. auf das Abgeschlosseue der Hand- 
 hui>;. hin.
 
 ijirdied round by the ocean, as they are, the British Isles have 
 not always in its waves had their friends and protectors. The 
 British poet could not in every age, in the exulting pride of 
 unrivalled power, sing : "Britannia needs no bulwark, No tower 
 on the steep." 
 
 ()u the contrary , her fates confirm the truthfulness of the 
 old saying: the seas unite, ^nd do not divide. Repeatedly in- 
 vaded, and, when invaded, always conquered, she has seen one 
 people after another overwhelm her inhabitants, the new-comers 
 themselves to be in their order supplanted by new intruders. In 
 this way, the stock of her population has become one of the most 
 mixed in Europe. The under-current of its blood is Celtic, but 
 into this current Romans, Saxons (o: Ivow-German tribes), Da- 
 nes, Norwegians, and Norman-French, have, by successive trans- 
 fusions, poured theirs in more or less mighty streams. Even the 
 Britons themselves were, perhaps, encroachers upon an earlier po- 
 pulation. More than one scholar has, at least, been inclined to 
 see traces of the Gaels in such parts of England where history 
 knows nothing about them '). It is, however, difficult to affirm 
 anything for certain, the annals of the Gaels being stille darker 
 than those af the Cymries, upon which the intercourse with the 
 Romans, at least now and then, casts a straygleam of historical 
 light. The Gaels, as the hei^oes of Ossian, walk in the dark. 
 As long as they, in wild and barbarous independence, kept quiet 
 in the rugged mountainglens af Scotland and the bogs of Ire- 
 
 ') M'Lauchlan, Celtic Gleanings, p. 44; of. Garnett's Philolofficnl 
 E.ssays, pp. 151, 190. 
 
 1
 
 2 
 
 land, the Ivoinans took no interest in tlieui ^). First when the 
 Roman empire, lingering in an artificially protracted agony, had 
 lost the power to prijtect its subjects, we see them issue forth 
 from their retreats to fall upon theii- southern neighbours, the 
 Romanized Britons, whom a slavery of 400 years had made 
 little able to wield the weapons, their lords, on the eve of lea- 
 ving the island, had put into their hands with the advice to 
 defend themselves. But the giving back of weapons the use of 
 which the Romans, in the days of their power, had forbidden, 
 was not sufficient. The skill to use them, the courage to stand 
 unflinching in the battle, were gone. Continually defeated by 
 their enemies, the Britons, in whose ranks also civil disorders 
 seem to have immediately succeeded the taking away of the Ro- 
 man pressure, found themselves unable to resist. Their cries of 
 despair went to Rome. Repellunt barbari ad mare, repellit mare 
 ad barbaros, inter hoc oriuntur duo genera funerum, aut jugu- 
 lamur aut mergimur — were the words in which they addres- 
 sed Aetius ^). But the wretchedness of the eternal city was as 
 great as theirs : she could not any more protect the nations her 
 tyranny aud mortified civilisation had effeminated. These must 
 now shift for themselves, and look for help from anywhere else. 
 — The Britons cast their eyes on the sons of Germany, and, in- 
 vited by Vortigern, the Saxons came over to England, for which 
 now a new stadium of historical development took its begin- 
 ning. 
 
 ') To give an account of the opinions tliat arc, or have boon, 
 current among historians and antiquaries on behalf of tlic ancient 
 Celtic inhabitants of Britain would lead us to far, and is, besides, of 
 a very inferior interest to our purpose, ^yo therefore content our- 
 selves with referring the reader to the following works: 
 
 CiiALMFJiS: Caledonia (vol. 1). 
 
 PiNKEKTON: An Enquiry into the History of Scotland preceding 
 the Teign of Malcolm III. 
 
 Jaaueson : Introduction to his Scottish Dictionary. 
 
 LATHAM: Ethnology of the British Isles. 
 
 SkkjsE: The Ilighl;inder.s of J^cothuid. 
 
 Zeuss : Die Deutsehen und die Naehbarstannno. 
 
 Wilson : Arcliaelogy and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland. 
 
 '■') Gii.DAs (cl. Steven.son) De excidio Britannia Cap. XIII.
 
 Some authors are of opinion tli^t German colonists had ta- 
 ken up their abodes in England already during the Roman do- 
 minion *). They have also, I think, produced sufficient evidence 
 to prove that they are right ; but yet it seems to me the ancient 
 accounts are not invalidated, the state of matters in England as 
 well as on the continent of Europe, at this time, powerfully plead- 
 ing their cause, and making it extremely probable that the 
 transmigrations from the coasts of Germany just about the midst 
 of the 5:th century were made on a larger scale than ever be- 
 fore or after tlais time. We may question many of the fabulous 
 traditions, but the exactness of the main facts cannot reasonably 
 be doubted. We may shake our heads at the genealogies of 
 Gildas, but have no right to declare the history of Hengist and 
 Horsa to be mere allegorical myths. What improbality is there 
 in the narration of the leaders of some Saxon bands that cros- 
 sed the Northsea and settled in England bearing names still in 
 use among the inhabitants of Friesland? *). 
 
 The Saxons had given their plighted faith to defend the 
 Britons against their enemies; on consequent they must have 
 been placed where their services wei*e of most avail. This must 
 have been in the very vicinity of these enemies, in order to 
 prevent their inroads upon the British territory ®). We may, 
 thence, suppose that the northern boundaries, facing the Picts 
 and Scots, were very early abandoned to the newcomers. This 
 is not mere supposition. In the Historia Britonum which goes 
 under the name of Nennius we find a passage, interesting in 
 more than one point of view '). Hengist advised Vortigern to 
 
 *) SCHA.UMANN ill: Gottiiiger Studion, 1845, p. 337. of. his Ge- 
 schicbte des iiiedersachsischen Volks, p. 25; Kemble, The Saxons in 
 England, 1 vol. p. 7 f.; LATHAM, Handbook of the English Langu. 
 part. 1. 
 
 ^) Halbertsma, hitroduct. to Dr. Bosworth's A. S. Dictionary, 
 p. LIV. 
 
 '') But why settled Saxons also in the southernmost parts of Eng- 
 land? Was it because there existed, as Schaumann (1. c.) thinks, 
 a British littus Saxonicuni, occupied by Germans hostile to the Bri- 
 tons? 
 
 ^) Historia Britonum (cd. Stevenson) cap. 38. 
 
 1*
 
 invite his son and the sou of his brother, and settle them and 
 their followers on the Scottish borders. The British chief liste- 
 ned to the counsel. Octha and Ebissa came to the call with 
 forty ships filled with warlike comrades ; sailed round the land 
 of the Picts, laid waste the isles of Orkney, and settled themsel- 
 ves finally in those i-egions which now bear the name of the 
 Scotch Lowlands *). It's true that Nenuius is not regarded as 
 a first-rate historical authority, but here he may perhaps be 
 trusted, the ct)U8ideration of what was the natural policy of the 
 Britons confiinning his veracity ^). 
 
 Bye and bye — may it have been brought about through 
 the perfidy with which the traditions charge Hengist, who, upon 
 finding himself at ease in Britain, sent to his native country 
 for reinforcements ; or may it have been caused by the general 
 movement among the European nations, which at 'this time seems 
 to have pressed hard upon the populations of the German west- 
 coasts — Britain was filled with Low-German bands that soon 
 got into possession of the tei'ritory from the southcoast to the 
 friths of Forth and of Clyde, the ancient inhabitants maintaining 
 themselves only in those districts where mountain-strongholds 
 gave a temporary shelter from the pursuits of their enemies. — 
 Althougii it l)e impossible satisfactorily to account for the eth- 
 nogi-aphical relations of the latter, from the well known and un- 
 contestable fact of the nations of antiquity and the middle ages 
 being split into a multiplicity of divisions and subdivisions, dif- 
 fering more or less in point of language and customs, we may 
 conclude, that such diversities also prevailed among the ct)nque- 
 rors of Britain. Tlie state of things which these etablished in their 
 new country ^) did rather tend to increase than to diminish those 
 
 *) We will in the soqnol come back to this passage of Ncnnins, 
 when we shall have to treat the 8axouizing of Scotland. 
 
 '^) For an early German colonisation of the Scotch Lowlands speaks 
 also till- inscription of a tombstone, digged up, some years ago, at Kirk- 
 liston, a few miles to the south of Edinburgh, and preserved in the 
 Museum of the Society of Scottish Antiquaries of that town. It runs 
 thus: IN (H)OC TUMULO TACET VETTA F VICT A. 
 
 These names, I think, arc only found among the tirst conquerors. 
 
 ') The seven, I think, were not the greatest number of their king- 
 doms.
 
 5 
 
 differences, and we have every reason to believe that there exi- 
 sted a good many provincial dialects '^). These dialects, how- 
 ever, ranged themselves under three principal heads : the dialects 
 of the South 3). the Miellands, and the North*). Passing the twcT 
 first, we turn to the last, it being the very -object of our rese- 
 arches. 
 
 Bede *), and after him the A. S. Chronicle, speaking of the 
 (n-rnian conquest of Britain, says, that the foreign invaders ca- 
 me from tln-ee different nations: the Angles, the Jutes, and the 
 Old-Saxons. The Angles settled in East Anglia, Mercia and to 
 the n(jrth of the river Humber, the Jutes taking possession of 
 Kent and the isle of Wight ^), and the Saxons holding the rest 
 of the uew-concj[uered territory. 
 
 The three races, if races they may be called, were kindred 
 in blood as well as in language. It is therefore no easy task 
 to make out the differences between them, to separate from out 
 the swarms of wandering nations who crowded along the fron- 
 tiers of Christianized Europe those tribes to whom the conque- 
 rors properly belonged. This is, however, to us a very subor- 
 dinate question. More interesting it would be to ascertain how 
 far the Scandinavian tribes partook of the first migration to 
 England, it being likely enough that some Scandinavians might 
 
 Hence the diversities of spelling in the A. S. M. S. S. — The 
 dialects seem at least here to afford a more plausible ground of diversity 
 than Mr. Halbertsma's suggestion of the redundancy of diphthongal 
 sounds being so great in A. 8., that the authors vainly strove to ex- 
 press them in writing. Halbertsma, lutroduct. to BOSW. A. S. Diet. 
 
 p. XXXV. 
 
 ^) The common West Saxon; under king Alfred promoted to lan- 
 guage of the court, and hereby gaining a complete superiority as lite- 
 rary language. 
 
 ■) It is to be remembered that each of these three dialects only 
 shows itself with all characteristic marks in M. S. S. from the interior 
 of its districts; when it comes, as it were, directly from the headquar- 
 ters. Where the districts meet, also the dialects flow together ; whence 
 a great diiliculty to determine the localities of a good number of M. S. S. 
 
 ^) Bede, Historia Ecclesiast. (ed. Steven som) lib. 1. cap. 15. 
 The Saxon Cronicle (ed. J. Iauram) sub A. D. 449. 
 
 ^) Concerning the Jutish settlement, see Latham, Ethnology of the 
 British Isles, p. 232.
 
 6 
 
 have joined the Angles '). Any evidence in this respect, howe- 
 ver, has never been produced, and will in, all probability, never 
 be. We shall not dwell upon it. Instead of wasting away our 
 ink on windy guesses at possibilities, we pass over to England 
 to see how the Angles accommodated themselves in their new 
 country. 
 
 The kingdom of Northumberland (or, sometimes at least, 
 the Northumbrian kingdoms) extended northwards as far as to 
 the Frith of Foi-th. Its western boundaries are not to be de- 
 termined. They were, as may be presumed, subject to continual 
 alterations, dependent on the good or ill luck in the war wag- 
 ed upon the neighbours. The Northumbrian kings seem tempo- 
 rarily to have swayed tlie Britons of Strathclyde ®). but that 
 they ever ruled Galloway and Cumberland is by no means cer- 
 tain ^). Their power seems in the 8th century to have reached 
 its height, and some time thereafter to have begun decaying. — 
 
 ■') What kind of people were the Angles themselves? As Beue 
 (1. c.) tolls us that the whole Augl. population left thoir homesteads, we 
 may conclude, that the present inhabitants of Angela are no descend- 
 ants of the Angli of the A. S. tradition, even granted that their land 
 is its Angulus ; cf. Zeuss Die Deutscheu und die Nachbarstiimme, pp. 
 152, 495, and Latham, Ethnolog. of the Brit. Isles, p. 200. 
 
 -) CnALMEKS, Caledonia, I, pp. 250—59. He tries [pp. 235—49] 
 to show that the people of .Strath — Clyde were Komanized Britons, 
 and, consequently, also Picts, all Picts according to him being Britons, 
 It is, however, doubtful, if his premises bear out the consequences. The 
 truth lies perhaps here, as so often, in the midst. 
 
 °) I have, in the foregoing, alluded to a passage of Nennius, 
 which appears referable to a German colonisation in these parts. Be- 
 sides Nennius there is no author, that mentions anything to this pur- 
 pose, and his authority would weigh little with me, were it not for 
 the very great interest which the passage alluded to excites. Could 
 it be proved, that such an ancient German settlement existed in the 
 western Lowlands of Scotland, it would be completely decisive in point 
 of the history of the Northumbrian dialect. This will appear, when 
 we come to treat of the Ruthwell cross. — It must however be own- 
 ed that a glance on the map of the district, recognizing among its lo- 
 cal names the largest portion to. be apparently of a Celtic origin, is 
 not quit" favourable to such a supposition. On the contrary, the small 
 number of German names (the termination — ing is of rare occurren- 
 ce) speak for its having been nlativrly late Gernifmized.
 
 The Scots, having migrated into Caledonia, gradually got a su- 
 periority over the Northern as well as the Southern Picts, and 
 formed a mighty kingdom *). The struggle between them and 
 the Nortluimbrians, carried on for a long time, seems, towards 
 the close of the 9th century, to have ended in the possessions 
 of the lattei- to the north of the river Tweed having been wrested 
 from them, to become an integrating part of the newborn Scot- 
 tish monarchy. 
 
 The remainder of the Northumbrian provinces did not long- 
 enjoy the benefits of peace. The land between the Humber and 
 the Tweed, at this time more advanced in civilisation than any 
 other portion of Teutonic Europe ^), and sprinkled all over with 
 seats of learning and magnificent places of worship, was, from 
 the very beginning of the Northmen's roving westwards, more 
 than the other parts of England, exposed to the storms which 
 from Scandinavia swept over the west of Europe. It is pitiful 
 to read in the Chronicles the pictures of its state during the 
 last years of the 8th and the whole of the three following cen- 
 turies. Monasteries burnt, monks slain, armies annihilated, towns 
 sacked, and the followers of the Raven, that now: 
 — — — "soared on high. 
 Triumphant thi-ough Northumbrian sky," 
 year after year, unpunished, pitching their camps in the 
 heart of the land, removing from those parts which their le- 
 vies had reduced to the most miserable poverty to others, thi- 
 therto spared : such ai'e the pictures disclosed by every page. In 
 the lapse of time, however, many settled, and busied themselves 
 in rebuilding what they a little before had pulled down. The 
 infusion of Northman blood in this way was, doubtless, tolerably 
 strong, and the effects of it too conspicuovxs to be overlooked by 
 the chroniclers ^). But even, if these had been silent, we should 
 
 ») Wilson, 1. c. Part. IV. ch. 1. 
 
 Kemble, Archseologia, vol. XXVIII p. 338; Innes, Scotland 
 in the Middle Ages, p. 64. 
 
 ")   — est enim ante hoc tenipus et fuit diu Dacorum genere miil- 
 tum perinixta ilia provincia (Yorkshire) et miiltum assentanea in loque- 
 la. — Chronic. Joannis Wallingford. apud Gale, I, p. 548. — 
 The following passage, as probably chiefly applying to Northumbria,
 
 not entirely have wanted information, there being found in these 
 regions lots of local names unanimously assigned to a Scandi- 
 navian origin *), while the dialects spoken in them still seem to 
 
 seems also worth notice. Ein var ^a tiuiga i Eiuglandi sein i Dan- 
 nuirku ok Norcgi, eiin |ja skiptust tuugiu' i Einglaudi er Vilhialmr 
 Bastardr vaun Eingland. f^agau af Guunlaugi Onustungu (Hauniaj 1774, 
 4.0) p. 86. Cf. also XLIV Provcr af Oldnordisk Sprog og Literatur, 
 udgivuo al" KuMi. Gisl,aso>, p. 449. 
 
 '') WouSAAE, An Accoinit of the Danes and Norwegians in Eng- 
 hind, Scotland and Ireland, p. 71, and passim.   — It may, however, be 
 questioned, if Mr. Worsaae does not lay too great stress upon the topo- 
 graphical etymology, it being generally admitted that no department 
 of pliilology more swarms with difficulties than this. To show the 
 trutli of this, I will give a most striking instance in the name of the 
 greatest town on earth. Supposed that we were quite ignorant of the 
 history of London, we might as well derive its name from the Ice- 
 landic hlunnr (cylindricus ligneus. navi subdiictmdaj subjectus, Egil- 
 so^) and iun (area septa, idm) as from the Cymric lun (ship) and dun 
 (town; originally inclosure?). -- It is necessary to look- for how the 
 etymologies agree with the general analogy of the vernacular language, 
 not without strong' reasons considering as foreign what as well may 
 be home-made. The analogies may sometimes be few, but that gives 
 no right of overlooking them. Keeping this in view, we will venture 
 some few re-marks on the terminations of local names supposed to be 
 of a northern derivation. 
 
 Of these no one advances such pretensions on the honour of being 
 acknowledged a good Scandinavian as by. Its root huan (N. A. bua 
 or bya) is, however, of very frequent occurrence in A. S., particularly in 
 the M. S. S. of the north; and its forming from the verb is not devoid 
 of analogy. By is found as a word in its own right in a M. S. of the 
 Gospels, preserved at Cambridge (Bosw. A. S. Dictionary, sub v. bye), 
 and also in the Durham-book: 
 
 — se %e haefde in byrgenum bus 1 lytelo bye. Li. Mr. 5, 3. Here 
 I rather think it corresponding to the Old-Norse Im, which, if impor- 
 ted to England, had probably retained its original vowel. — The age 
 of the last monument is known, as shall soon be shown, that of the 
 Cambr. M. S. we ignore. 
 
 porxye is first fouml in the Sax. Chron., but, as common to all 
 German dialects, it cannot, without further jn'oofs, be registered as 
 a Scandin. import. Cf. GuiMM, Gesch. der Deut. Spr. II, p. 630. 
 
 /jwaitc (cf. the Swed. twet; IimE, Gloss. Suio-Goth. sub v.) is li- 
 kely to derive from the A. S. verb. J>weotan (to cut off). — Hangh,
 
 give evidence of their once having been influenced by the Old- 
 Norse tongue. 
 
 But, even gx'anted the Danish colonisations took place to 
 a large extent, we have no evidence whatever to suppose their 
 having proceeded so far as to supersede t|ie exterminated ancient 
 population. The Northmen swayed the land, biit the majority 
 of the people were Saxons, quite as, now-a-days, the bulk of the 
 Northenglish dialects are of Anglic, and not of Scandinavian ori- 
 gin. Upon the whole, viewing the general results as they now 
 present themselves, we must agree with that author of the Saxon 
 Chronicle (p. 121) who said: Naefde se here, Godes [)ances, 
 Augelcyn ealles for-swicfe gebrocod. 
 
 What the Danes had not been able to do in respect to the 
 Angles, was no more done by the Norman-French to the joint 
 popiUation of Angles and Danes. Their political liberties, it is 
 true, were suppressed, after manj^ a yeai' of hard struggle ; their 
 numbers were thinned by dint of dreadful decimations ; Norman 
 barons were favoured A\'itli feudal grants of their odal possess- 
 ions, while foreign prelates were invested with their clerical 
 
 by Worsaae considered as the Iceland, haugr, is, at least sometimes, 
 of another origin. SINCLAIR, Observations on the Scottish dialect, p. 
 193, and JamiesoN, Scottish Dictionary, sub v., explain it: a small 
 nicadovv, which it also seems to mean in this verse: 
 
 scho went doun to the liaiv. Sevin Seages p. 31. 
 
 I leave luidecidcd, if in the following verse 7(e«c^ is ouroldhaugr: 
 
 Kepand his hird under a heucJi Auiangis the holtis hair. 
 
 Rob. and Mak. 
 
 The etymology of toft seems dark; perhaps it may be referred 
 to the A. V. Jjufe, a germ, sprout, whence ^u^^ian, to pnt forth shoots, 
 the change of jj into t not being uncommon. 
 
 Bale (sw. dal) is hy Bosworth (A. S. Diction, sub. v.) quoted 
 from Beowulf. 
 
 Beck (a rivulet, a brook) and /orf e (sw. fors, a waterfall), are per- 
 haps more dubious as A. S. 
 
 With reference to the local names af Northumbria, it may not be 
 devoid of interest to mention that Ireland, where no Teutons settled 
 before the Northmen, presents us with an exceedingly small number of 
 names of a northern ( xtraction. Among 3842, only 20 are Scandina- 
 vian. Chalmers, Caled. I. p. 30.
 
 10 
 
 dignities. Both clerks and baruns tuok great pains to break the 
 spirit of tlie North. But it was not broken; it had a greater 
 force of resistance than the South, and lived on through centu- 
 ries to support a whole series of rebellions against the descend- 
 ants of its Norman tyrants. *). — The history of Scotland du- 
 ling these remote ages is involved in an utter dai'kness, seldom 
 pierced through by a I'ay of light. The old Scotch liistorians, no 
 doul)t, tell us a good deal ; their narrations partake only too 
 mucli of the fabulous to be fully relied upon. It seems, how- 
 ever, tolerably certain, that the Northmen (here the Norwegians), 
 although they seized upon the Oikney — and Western isles, 
 and even contrived to colonize the northern half of the High- 
 lands, were never able to gain a fast footing in the Lowlands, 
 where' their inroads always were efficaciously opposed l)y the 
 Scotch kings **). 
 
 But the course of events, wliich led to the saxonizing of 
 this counti'y, is, although the Norwegians be excluded from 
 any partnership in it, by no means clear. Wrested from the 
 Northunibiian kings, the land to the noi-th of the Tweed i^emain- 
 ed a possession of the Scottish crown. But were the Anglic 
 inhabitants driven out in order to make room for settlers of the 
 Gaelic race? That would, indeed, have been a shortsighted policy, 
 and it is very incredible tliat the Scotch kings would have ba- 
 nished from their territory a people in every respect superior to 
 their own countrymen. On supposing the Angles having been 
 permitted to I'emain in their ancient abodes, we are not forced 
 to take refuge to such trifling arguments as those which Ged- 
 DES ') and Chalmers have brought forth to account for the Low- 
 
 ^) Cf. Thieuuv, Histoire de la couquete d'Angleterre par les Nor- 
 niands. 
 
 ") In tlu' Saxon Chrou. we find, under A. D. 875, the following 
 passage (if i am not mistaken, the only one foiuid there mentioning 
 invasions of Northmen on the territory of the Scotch Lowlands): (a 
 host of Northmen) |) lond geode and of tliergode on Teohtas and on Strge- 
 clcd Wealas. — iJut an allusion to a Scandinavian settlement in these 
 quarters I have neither discovered in the Saxon nor in any other chro- 
 nicle I have had the opportunity of pcrusinsr. 
 
 •) Transaetions of the Antiiiuaries of Scotl. I vol. p. 402. The
 
 11 
 
 landers' speaking a Teutonic and not a Gaelic dialect; we have 
 neither to seek for the cause of this fact in the multitudes of 
 Anglic captives, said by Malcolm Ceanmor to have been brought 
 from England to become slaves in Scotland, nor in the influence 
 of some courtiers, whose speech probably partook more of French 
 than Anglo-Saxon *). — Taken for granted, then, that Angles 
 remained in the Lowlands in the 9th and the following centu- 
 ries, the question rises, to what extent they possessed them. 
 To this we may safely answer, that their occupancy was confin- 
 ed to the Lothians; Galloway and Strath-Clyde being still occu- 
 pied by their ancient Celtic populations. When and how these 
 were dispossessed, is of little interest to us. Probably it was 
 in the same way in which we see the German people of Scot- 
 land in our days encroaching upon the lands of their neighbours 
 in the Highlands. Many a clan-chief (according to the Celtic 
 ideas the representative of the founder of the family) did not 
 scruple to apply t(j the English law for a writ that made him 
 sole owner of the (according to the same ideas) common fami- 
 ly-property ; whereupon he gave his "children"^) warning to 
 remove, in order to provide more spacious sheep-walks, or an 
 opportunity of "high farming," yielding more money unto the 
 paternal cash ^) In our time the exiled Gael leaves his native 
 glen to the "Saxon", and wanders to America or Australia, whei-e 
 his labour is free as wellas his own person ; in the middle — ages 
 he must remain, often to be transformed from a free man into 
 a glebse adscriptus ^). 
 
 As now into the Highlands, the Teutonic emigration in 
 
 conjecture of Chalmers, if i am right, is found in the 1 vol. of Cale- 
 donia, but want of access to that book now prevents quoting the page. 
 
 *) Wauton, History of English Poetry, ed. Price, I, p. 3, in the 
 note. 
 
 ') Clann means in Gaelic children. See Mc Alpine's Gael. Dictio- 
 nary. 
 
 ') From the instinctive feeling of the Gael, that be once will be 
 altogether driven out of his territory by the "Sassenach', his inveterate 
 hatred to the latter, so admirably painted by Sir Walter Scott in 
 the Lady of the Lake and Waverley, and often alluded to [by the old 
 writers, leads its origin. 
 
 Tytler, History of Scotland, U, p. 532.
 
 12 
 
 the remote centuries we are f>peakiug of, may have fouud its 
 way into the Celtic portions of the Lowlands. The stream of 
 "Southrons," at first slow, was, when William the Conqueror 
 had won England, immensely swelled, as well from those Saxons, 
 Avlio preferred leaving the homes of their ancestors to submit- 
 ting to the Norman yoke, as from the Normans themselves, 
 many of whom, discontented with William, left England to seek 
 their fortune in Scotland '^). Normans and Saxons met there on 
 common ground and on an equ;il footing, and both were highly 
 favoured by the Scottish kings, who immediately in the new-comers 
 saw an excellent weapon against their unruly Celtic subjects *). 
 
 Here we presently stop sketching some shadowy outlines of 
 Northumbrian history, which we thought necessary for the un- 
 derstanding of what we have to say of the North-English dia- 
 lect. This we, now, have to consider: 1) as it presents itself prior 
 to the year 1000, and 2) in iis shape during the three centu- 
 ries that preceded the succession of James YI to the English 
 throne. 
 
 The Old North- Anglic '^ Dialect. 
 
 We have already adverted to the remarkable fact of the 
 Teutonic civilisation in Britain having put fortli its first flowers 
 in Northumbria, The most celebrated names that have come 
 down to us connected witli A. S. learning and genius, Beda 
 and Cakdmon, belonged both to Angles, The latter, who "was 
 placed in worldly life until llie time, that he was of mature 
 
 ') Thus, for in«taiiOc, tlio families of Baliol and Bruce were both 
 of Noniian extraction. 
 
 *) Couccruing wliat we Iiavc alluded to in the text, .sec some in- 
 teregting extracts from the old accounts of the battle of the Standard 
 in IiNKES' able book, Scotland in tlie Middle A^cs, p. 94. 
 
 '•") I prefer the denomination Anglic to Northumbrian, as reminding 
 of the origin of the population to the north of the Humber; while the 
 latter only indicates the locality where the Anglic dialect was spoken, 
 without adverting to anything more.
 
 age", and that, too, in a very low station ''). was totally destitute 
 of education, and would probably never have known the holy 
 writings but for the interpretations of his cloister-brethren. He 
 composed his songs in the Anglic language, tliis Beda expressly 
 tells us ''), and we have good reason to believe that by Anglic 
 Beda here means the dialect north of the Humber. But in this 
 form we have them no more. The West Saxon having be- 
 come the literary dialect, Caedmun's poems were translated into 
 it, and of the original only a short fragment, first printed by 
 Wanley *), still exists. 
 
 Besides this, two fragments more have been discovered. The 
 one, called the deathbed-verses of Beda, is preserved in an ancient 
 M. S. at St. Gallen, the other is the inscrij^tion, in runic letters, 
 of the celebrated Ruthwell cross ^). But all three taken toge- 
 ther would furnish but scanty materials for a deeper study of the 
 dialect in which they are written. The peculiarities of this would 
 probably for ever have been unknown, had not the decay of 
 learning among the Northumbrian clergy come to our help ^). 
 As the Latin became scanty, the Latin translations of the Bible 
 and the La' in rituals became unintelligible to many of the clerks, 
 and it was found necessary so assist them by translations in the 
 vernacular tongue. So the interlineary glosses came into exi- 
 stence ^). Fortunately for us, four, or at least three, of these, 
 
 ^) He seems to have been a bondsman. Thorpe's Caedmon, p. XX. 
 
 ')   — • — ut quidquid ex diviuis Uteris per interpretes disceret, hoc 
 ipse post pusillum, verbis poeticis maxima suavitate ot compinictione, 
 ill Nua, id est Anglorum, lingua proferret. 
 
 Beda, quot. in Thorpe's Caedmon p. XIX. 
 
 ») In Catal. M. S. S. Septeut. 
 
 ^) At Euthwell, Dumfries'sh. 
 
 ') Be it, however, mentioned that Mr InmES, Scotl. in the M. 
 Ages, p. 64, thinks, that it was better in this respect in Northurabria 
 than in the southern provinces of England; the biographer of king 
 Alfred not bestowing upon it the same censure of ignorance, which 
 he lavishes on the latter. But it is difficult to see how a province, 
 more than the south of England exposed to the inroads of the heathen 
 Danes, could have better withstood the destruction. 
 
 ^) That the glossators themselves not always were Hrst-rate scho- 
 lars, the glosses show to satiety; see f. i. Bouterwek's edition of 
 the Lindisf. Gospels, Einleitung p. C.
 
 14 
 
 writteu iu the North-Auglic tlialect, are still preserved, and in 
 them we find materials fur a study of this branch of the Old- 
 EngUsh language ^). 
 
 On reasons which cannot well be developed before the ex- 
 position of the North-Anglic dialect as it presents itself in M. 
 S, S. which we know to have been written within its district, 
 taking for granted tliat the interlineary gloss of the Cotton 
 Psalter is not North-Anglic, at least in the strict sense of this 
 word, we must take into considei-ation which of the remaining 
 glosses possesses the greatest probability of giving a true speci- 
 men of the dialect lu question. We have further to inquire 
 into the time, when it was written, and the locality where the 
 translator lived. The latter must have been in the heart of the 
 district of the dialect; if the writer is known to have been a 
 native of the locality, so much the better. — Of the three glosses 
 known as the Lindisfarne-Gospels, the Durham Ritual, and the 
 Rushworth Gospels , we know pretty well when the Ritual 
 was interlined, the translator having taken care to inform his 
 readers that at least a portion of the work was executed m 
 A. D. 970, and Garxett is of opinion that the whole may 
 safely be referred to the same time and, as for its locality, to 
 Durham or its vicinity *). As for the Lindisfarne-Gospels we ai"e 
 not so fortunate, but the general cast of orthography and the 
 grammatical forms correspond so closely with those of the Ri- 
 tual, that there cannot, reasonably, be the least doubt of their 
 being also from the latter half of the lOtb century, and from 
 a locality whei-e the dialect was the same as at Durham ^). 
 
 *) Among the publications of the Surtees Society, to whose well- 
 diroPtcd exertions the student of North-Enp;laud's antiquities owes so 
 mucli, is also found a volume entitled: The Latin Hymns of the A. S. 
 Church with an interlinear A. S. gloss, ed. J. Stevenson. This gloss 
 is not in the North- Anglic, but in W. S. dialect. 
 
 ") Garnett, Philol. Essay's, p. 182. We cannot here enlarge 
 upon any criticisms respecting the age of the M. S. S. in question. 
 We follow the opinion current among English scholars: Wanley, 
 Kemble, Sir Fr. JLvjdden ; and refer those who wish to know the 
 objections that can be made to this opinion to the introduction pre- 
 fixed to Mr Bouteravek'.s ed. of the Li. Gospels. 
 
 ^) Mr IkK.TERWEK (p. CVllI), from a comparison between the
 
 15 
 
 The inspection of tlie Rusliworth gloss puzzles us not a 
 little. In the orthography it approaches much to the Ritual 
 and the Lind. Gospels, but follows also in many points the 
 common W. S. practice ; while the grammatical forms in gene- 
 ral closely correspond with the W. Saxon ones. From the lat- 
 ter circumstance to infer, that in this gloss we have the North- 
 Anglic dialect at an earlier stage of development, would be 
 very hazardous, it not being proved to be from the same loca- 
 lity as the Ritual. Besides, it does not agree with itself, but 
 exhibits very marked discrepancies in its first and last portions. 
 What we said of its aproximating to the W. S., concerns chiefly 
 that part which was executed by Farmen, who stiles himself 
 priest at Harawuda, a name which Garnett thinks identical 
 with Harewood in the West-Riding of Yorkshire. This conject- 
 ure accounts very well for the preponderance of W. S. forms, 
 the mentioned place being situate on the southern border of the 
 Noi'th-Anglic dialect, where this necessarily may have been much 
 influenced by the midland tongue. — The latter portion of the 
 gloss, executed by Owen, agrees with the Lindisfarne Gospels 
 and the Ritual ^) — Here some questions of great difficulty present 
 
 Lindisf. Gospels, the Saxon Chronicle, and other monunu'nts from 
 the period of decay of the literary W. Saxon, regards the assigning 
 of the former to the 12tli century as necessary and unquestionable. His 
 reasons, however, have little power with me, and I think it possible to show 
 that just internal grounds, due allowance made for the ignorance of 
 the glossators, speak for the high age of the language in the Ritual 
 and the Lind. Gospels. —   p. ClI he says that the Rushworth codex 
 presents "die Sprache auf einer etwas jlingeren Entwickelungsstufe." 
 How has Mr B. found out that? On supposing, as Mr B., for aught I 
 can see, really does, the W. S. forms to be the more ancient (a sup- 
 poRiiion hardly tenable, and leading to false conclusions with respect 
 to the N. Anglic glosses) he ought also to consider the Rushworth co- 
 dex, where the W. S forms prevail, as more ancient than the Ritual 
 and the Lindisfarne Gospels. — What we here have alluded to, will 
 afterwards be discussed more closely, when the analysis of the North- 
 Anglic has given a sufficiently broad basis for our operations. 
 
 '^) Of the Rushworth gloss I have unfortunately only had the op- 
 portxmity of perusing the Gospel of St. Matth., printed by Stkvenson, 
 along with the same Gospel of the Lindisf. gloss, and part of the 4 ch, 
 of the Gospel of St. John, printed by Gaunett, Philos. Essays, p. 184.
 
 16 
 
 themselves. Are tlie two portions executed at the same time, or 
 does a certain interval of time fall between the execution of the 
 part of Farmen and that of Owen? Were both translators na- 
 tives of the same country? — The decision of these questions 
 would be of great interest to us. But we totally want dates for 
 an answer to the latter, and the other, although the following 
 analysis of the dialect, in some points at least, will give a clue 
 to the case as it stands, we can no more hope to get satisfacto- 
 rily answered. 
 
 As for the age of the Rushworth gloss, "Wanley '), whom 
 Gakxett, subscribing his opinion, calls a good judge of the 
 age of M. S. S., refers it to the end of the i)th. or the begin, 
 ning of the lUth century. 
 
 We see, then, that the quality required in a literary mo- 
 nument in order to make its authority, in point of language, 
 completely conclusive : to have been executed in the heart of 
 the district where the dialect, in which it is written, was spo- 
 ken, is only possessed by the Durham Ritual, and the Lindis- 
 farne Gospels. In these, consequently, we have to take up our 
 headquarters, and to this standard we have to refer the otlier 
 monuments that claim a North- Anglic origin. 
 
 The very first glance ;it one af the North-Anglic M. S. S. 
 shows the difference from the common W. S. in the spelling, 
 on consequent there must also have been a difference of pro- 
 nunciation. This we may presume ; but that, I think, is all. 
 As we ignore the real power of the complex vowels of the 
 W. S.. we cannot conceive what dilference of pronunciation cor- 
 responded with the difference between the W. S. and the N. A. 
 njodes of spelling. In sojue cases the difference is, perhaps, 
 more a seeming than a real (me. Thus the frequent use of i 
 in the N. A. where the W. 8. has e nnxy have constituted no 
 real diff'erence of pronunciati( n, it being tolerably ceiiain that 
 e in W. S., corresponding with tlie j of the Icel., was, before a 
 following vowel, sounded as the y consonant of the present Eng- 
 Hsh. It is likely to suppose that the N. A, hiora, hio, hiorde 
 etc. sounded very nearly as the W. S. heora. heo. hooi-de etc. 
 
 ') Quot. in Garnott's Philo!. Essays, p. 183.
 
 17 
 
 We must, further, take into consideratiou, that within the range 
 of what we call West-Saxon (= Anglo-Saxon, as opposed to the 
 North- Anglic) there existed no standard orthography , every 
 author following his own method of spelling (if method there was 
 at all), a circumstance which, as I have before alluded to, may be 
 considered as depending, partly at least, on the W. S. itself 
 being split into a multiplicity of subdivisions, differing in minu- 
 tiae, but yet differing enough to pi-oduce varieties of spelhng. 
 In consequence of this, it is no easy matter, for the sake of 
 comparison, to fix a standard W. S. orthography, with which we 
 can safely contrast the N. A. forms. We shall therefore, with- 
 out any attempts at picking out all minutious differences which 
 possibly may exist, confine ourselves to showing forth the more 
 prominent features in which the North-Anglic vowelsystem ap- 
 pears to. differ from, that of the literary West-Saxon *). 
 
 Beginning with a, this vowel appears to have more often 
 retained its purity in the N. A. than in the W. S. The a be- 
 gins many words, that in the latter have a obscured by e, = ea 3): 
 all Li. Mr. 4, 34, Lu. 9, 9; aldor Li. Mt. 26, 59; arS Li. 
 Mr. 14, 70; am Li. Mt. 11, 29; Lu. 21, 8; arm (brachium), 
 arm (egenus) Bout. Gl. arg Li. Mt. 12, 39, Mr. 8. 38. 
 
 Sometimes this a has passed into e (= e?) ego Li. Mt. 
 6, 22; Mr. 9. 46, eher Li. Mt. 12, 1. Mr. 4, 28, eSelic Li. 
 Mr. 10, 27, espryng Mr. 5, 29; erfeviardnisse Kit. p. 65. 
 
 The ea is however often preserved: ea Li. Mt. 7, 25 ; ead- 
 ges Kit, p. 66; eardia Li. Mt. 13, 32; earn Li. Mt. 24, 28; 
 ear()e Li. Mr. 4, 31; easta Li. Lu. 13, 29; ea^e Li. Mr. 11, 
 13 ; eatta Li. Mt. 15: 20 ; meard Li. Mt. 10: 41 ; this is more 
 
 ") For a comparison of the vowelsystem of the N. A. with those 
 of the other branches of the Teutonic tongue, the reader is referred 
 to Kemble's paper in the Proceedings of the Philological Society vol. 
 II, p. 124. — The N. A. shows in its letters a close affinity to the 
 0. Friesian. A comparison between them caunot here be instituted; 
 the reader is referred to Grimm, D. Gr. I. pp. 269^ — 280. 
 
 ') I give here only a circumscribed number of instances, as more 
 will be found in the subsequent exposition of the grammatical peculia- 
 rities; nor do I quote all passages in which the here given words 
 occur. 
 
 2
 
 18 
 
 particularly the case iu the former part of the Rushworth gloss. 
 There is however in the N. A. monuments great vacillation in 
 the use of ea, a, e, and the one is often put instead of the 
 other, quite as we find it in the W. S.: 
 
 heai'ta Rit. p. 5, 1; herte Li. Lu. 8, 14 eatta; eta Li. Mt. 
 11, 18; earm Rit. p. 92, 2; arm (v. above). 
 
 In the midst of the words ea is retained ; ceastre Rit. p. 
 65; gelearnade Li. Mt. 2, 7, stearres Li. Mt. 2, 7; fearr Li. 
 INIi-. 12, 1; deaf Li. Mr. 7, 32; dead Li. JVIi-. 6, 22, Rit. p. 
 27; steap-cildo Rit. p, 29, 31; gefealla Li. Lu. 2, 36; but it 
 is also changed into c: dernelegere Li. Mt. 19, 9; cester Li. 
 Mt. 9, 35; heh Li. Lu. "J, 78; or a: halda Li. Mr. 14, 44; 
 halt Li. Mt. 11, 5; halmas Li. Mt. 3, 12; halfe Li. Mi\ 1,45; 
 harmcuode Li. Lu. 6, 28; ich darr Bout. p. 267. Of a stan- 
 ding for W. S. e in the gen. pi. of nouns ^^f the simple order, 
 instances will be given under these nouns. 
 
 a is, further, often found in the particip., pres. and past, 
 of the weak verbs instead of the W. S. c and o, and in the 
 pret, of verbs belonging to Rask's 1, 1, where it also supplies 
 the latter vowel. The inspection of the Moeso-Gothic informs 
 us, that the N. A. forms must be the more ancient. 
 
 Examples '); 
 
 bodande Mr. 1, 39, Lu. 20, 1; milsande Mr. 1, 41 ; 5, 19, 
 hrinande ]\Ii'. 1, 41; gebiddande Mt. 26, 39; geecnande Lu. 1, 
 31, falletande Mr. 5, 5; smeande Mr. 2, 6; gestiorande Mr. 
 11, 24; foi'eondetande Lu, 2, 3; cefistande Lu. 2, 16 ; gebloed- 
 sando Lu. 24, 53 ; lufiande Lu. 6, 32. 
 
 gebloedsad Lu. 1, 28; gefotad Mr. 15, 44; forebodad Mt. 
 
 24, 14; geniSrad Mt. 27, 3; gesomnad Mt. 28, 12; unavidla- 
 des Rit. p. 24, 2 ; gihalgad Rit. p. 65 ; gesomnade Rush. Mt. 
 
 25, 32; geclaensad Mr. 1: 42, gecostad Lu. 12, 56. 
 ofcliopade Mr. 15, 34; gefraegnade, geascade Mr. 15: 2; 
 
 bodadon Mr. 16, 20; awundradon. Lu. 1, 21; hlattade ibm ; 
 iSerhwunade Luc. 1, 21; fearrade Lu. 1, 38; gesuigade Lu. 18, 
 39 ; miclade Lu. 18, 43 ; losade Lu. 19, 10 ; gisyngades Rit. 
 
 ') From Li. whru not uiarkocl otlierwise.
 
 19 
 
 p. 11: 14; gesomuade Rush. Mt. 2, 4; slepaclo Rush. Mt. 25, 
 5; gegiuade J. 16, 24; geberlitnade J.^14, 82; geeudade Mt. 11, 
 1. I think it superfluous to give examples of a, in all three 
 cases, being changed into o {ii), or e, as those are the common 
 W. S. forms. 
 
 Sometimes, although upon the whole seldom, a appears in- 
 stead of i: in the oblique cases of the pron des, Sios, dis:anum 
 Sassa metdmaasta Li. Mt, 25, 45; Sassum monnum Li. Mr. 
 14, 60 ; Sassum here Li. Lu. 9, 13 ; Sasum wordum Li. Lu. 9, 
 28 ; on Sasser naeht Li. Mt. 26, 31 ; for Sidder, we find, Li. 
 J. 7, 35, Sadder; and in a few verbs, of which the most re- 
 markable is wallas (or wallad") Li. Mt. 12, 38, and very often. 
 When ne is prefixed, it generally changes into a, or ae, but is 
 sometimes preserved: nallas Li. Mt. 6, 7 ; naellas ibm 5, 17 ; 
 nellad ibm 7, 1. 
 
 In the same way ae takes the place of W. S. i: naeht Li. 
 Mt. 4, 2, etc. maeht Li. Mt. 7, 29 etc. cnaehtLi. Mt. 2, 8, 9. 
 maehton ibm 17, 16. — Before leaving a, we must mention the 
 practice of inserting it after a preceding e: cearro Li. Mt. 12, 
 44; gefreates Li. Mt. 6, 19; to geafanne Bout. p. 279, 9; 
 wealigo. Li. Mr. 12, 41 ; to gedeai-scanne Li. Mr. 15, 15. 
 These examples are, however, not frequent. That o sometimes 
 supplies its place, is, the continual interchange between these 
 two vowels in the N. A. considered ^), a matter of course. — 
 There might be said a good deal about the obscuration of a, 
 and its transition into the cognate simple or complex vowel- 
 sounds, but, as we here only can sketch some outlines of the 
 N. A. vowel-system, we must leave these more nice discursions. 
 
 e stands for W. S. eo: leht Li. Mt. 17, 5, and for W. 
 S. ae: efter Li. Mt. 24, 29; ell^iodig Li. Mt. 17, 26. mercJu 
 
 ^) So we sometimes find a for o = urn: of ^issa Li. J. 14, 
 7; from 6issa ic iuh cuoet^o ibm, 13, 19; se faeder wyrcacJ fi'om gissa, 
 ibm 5, 17. — I beg to refer the reader to what ia said conceruing the 
 cases required by these two prepositions, p. 25, in the note ; but it is ob- 
 vious tliat from ^issa is with more reason considered as an apocopated 
 dat. than as the neut. ace. 6 is with a vowel affixed in the way sliown 
 
 a little further doAvu. 
 
 2*
 
 20 
 
 Li. Mr. 1, 28. These variations, however, are not constant, 
 and, therefore, not much stress is to be laid on them. ^). 
 
 More characteristic for the N. A. than this substitution of 
 the slender e for W. S. co, and ac, is the pretty regular substi- 
 tution of the obscui-e vowel-combination oe for the broad e (= e) 
 of the W. S. *). 
 
 Examples : 
 gefoerde Li. Mt. 15, 21, 22; cuoeS^ende ibm 15, 22; ofdoeme 
 Li Mt. 16, 3 ; soecas ibm 16, 4 ; woenaS Li. Lu. 13, 4 ; boene 
 Rit. p. 40, 6 ; gifoestnigaS ibm ; ymbwoend ibm ; voeron Rit. 
 44, 5 ; woerig Rush. J. 4. qu. Garn. (In the Rush. Gospel of 
 St. Matth. oe does not occur.) doege Li. J. 4, 45 ; avoecco Li. 
 J. 11, 11; gefoerum ibm 11, 16; gewoedum Li. Mr. 15, 20; 
 ahloefa Rit. p. 55, 3; huoerf Li. Lu. 6, 35. It must be men- 
 tioned, that although the practice is upon, the whole, well kept 
 up, e often is found for oe\ so the last word occurs, Li. Lu. 6, 
 34, twice written huerf. 
 
 ^ stands often for W. S. e. As we afterwards shall have 
 
 ^) As for the dropping of e, originated in one way or another, 
 and which is no peculiarity of the N. A., cf. Bout. p. CXXIV. — Of 
 the superfluously affixed e we shall speak afterwards. 
 
 *) Garxett, Philol. Essays p. 180, observes, that "the analogy 
 of the cognate dialects shows, that the Anglian are the more original 
 forms;" but it is impossible not to subscribe to the objection of Dr. La- 
 tham, Hndbk of the Eng. Langu. (4 ed.) p. 137, that, as we are ig- 
 norant of the real power of the W. S. e, "the difference of pronunciat- 
 ion is, by no means, so clear as the difference of spelling." Thfs ob- 
 jection is backed by the orthography of the Kuthwell Kunes, where we 
 find the simple e for the oe of the Glosses: limwerigne Kuth.; woerig 
 Li. J. 4, 6; cstig Ruth., oestig Rit. p. 30, 7; bismcrede and goredae 
 Ruth., ought, from analogy, in the glosses to have been : bismoerede 
 and geroedae, but arc written : bismeredou Li. Mt. 27, 29, geraeda Rit. 
 p. 86, 2. — Perhaps, then, was the oe of the glosses a peculiarity 
 confined tova limited district of the region, within which the N. A. dia- 
 lect was current. It may at least, as will be shown, when we come 
 to treat of this dialect on a stage of farther development, be presu- 
 med, that there existed other branches of it than that one preserved 
 in the Lindisfarne Gospels, the Durham Ritual, and the last portion of 
 the Rushworth Gospels.
 
 21 
 
 occasion to give an accouut of its use in the verbal forms, we 
 here only give instances of its occurring in nouns. 
 
 oSri degnas Li. J. 21, 8; gloedi voeron ibm v. 9; Siu 
 segni ibm v. 11 ; daem biscobi Li. J. 18, 22 (biscobe v. 24), 
 sic Li. J. 18, 17; ijaem caseri Li. Mt. 22, 17; c^erh syndx'igi 
 Li. J. 21, 25; Siddii- ibm v. 18; hio. ' 
 
 Of we remark the continual interchange with u and, so- 
 metimes with a *) and c — examples in the following. — The 
 practice of inserting it after a preceding ^, mthout any reaso- 
 nable ground, must be particularly mentioned, as it constitutes 
 a peculiarity of N. A. orthography. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 lioniandra Li. J. 13, 28 and often; cfiosne Rush. J, 4. Garn.; 
 Rit. p. 188; Li. J. 9, 39; Sios (= ms?) Li. 4, 39, 40; ge- 
 grioppo Li. J. 7, 32 ; scioppo Li. J. 6, 23, 24 ; hrioppacJ Li. 
 J. 4, 37; wrioto Li. Mt. 26, 56; fordriofon Li. J. 9,34; stio- 
 redon Li. Mr. 10, 13: niomas Li. Mr. 16, 18, arioson Rit. p. 
 43, 2; Li. Mt. 25, 7; flioton Li. J. 9, 22; liofo Li. J. 6,57, 
 58; bioSon Li. Lu. 21, 11; sciolon ibm 13, 5. Most of these 
 words are, however, also found without the inserted o : 
 
 hlinigaS Li. Lu. 13, 29; scilou Li. Mr. 14, 62; biiSon Li. 
 Lu. 21, 24; gegripa Rit. p. 5; scip Li. Mr. 1, 19, 20; writto 
 Li. Mr. 14, 20 ; writto Li. Mr, 14, 49 ; ic hrippo Li. Mt, 25, 
 26; fordrifa Li. Mt. 12, 20; nimeS Li. J, 1, 29; hlifige Li. 
 Mr. 5, 23 ; arisspn Li. Lu, 24, 33. Many more instances, of 
 the one kind as well as of the other, might easily be compiled. 
 I think, however, that those already produced suffice for deci- 
 ding the question : was the o, inserted in the said manner, soun- 
 ded in the pronunciation? -in a negative way. For such a con- 
 clusion plead not onlj^ the forms, where it is left out, but also 
 the whole subsequent development of the dialect. Had its in- 
 sertion been anything more than a fancy of the glossators ^), 
 
 ^) Also in the gen. pi.: Zcbedeis Simo moder Li. Mt. 20, 20. 
 
 *) Was, perhaps, o behind i, as a after e (see above), inserted to 
 note the length of the preceding vowel? A glance at the examples shows 
 sufficiently, that this question can the one time be answered in the af- 
 firmative, the other in the negative.
 
 22 
 
 traces enough would, in all probability, have remained in the 
 N. A. of the Middle-Ages. — 
 
 Concerning the consonants we will set forth only those facts 
 which we consider most characteristic," and most interesting in 
 our point of view. Our remarks, then, will be exclusively con- 
 fined to the three consonants n, t, and w '). 
 
 The casting oif of the n in the simple order of nouns will 
 afterwards be spoken of. — In general there is in the N. A. 
 a strong tendency towards its dropping, and it may take place 
 wherever a word whatever terminates in n behind a vowel, 
 particularly when this vowel is a, or o. Such is the case in 
 the pres. subj. pi., pret. pi. indie, and subj., and the infin.; 
 (examples under the verbs). In the same way numerals, and 
 particles, in the W. S. terminating in n, are stript of the con- 
 sonant : 
 
 (numerals) boege Li. Lu, 1, 7; 5, 39; tuoege Li. Lu. 15, 
 11; 22, 38; seofo Li. Lu. 2, 36; (particles) cJono Li. J. 9, 1, 
 huono Li. J. 2, 9; Rit. p. 192; begonda Li. J. 1, 28; binna 
 Li. J. 18, 15 ; casta, woesta, norda, su^a Li. Lu. 13, 29 ; 
 fearra Li. Ln, 22, 54 ; buta Li Lu. 13, 3 ; onufa Li. Lu, 15, 
 20; heona Li. Lu. 13, 31. 
 
 t stands sometimes for d in the past participle : bilyx-tet Li. 
 Mt. 2, 16 ; gecostat Li. St. Mt. 4, 1 ; gelaedet Li. Lu. 23, 32 ; 
 gewoendet Li. Lu. 17, 4; gemoetet Lu. 17, 18; geendat Li. 
 Lu. 22, 22; gesettet Li. Lu. 23, 53; gesendet J. 1, 6; asendet 
 J. 1, 24; getractat J. 9, 7. In nouns it occurs so seldom, 
 that I think the few instances I have picked up not worth no- 
 ticing. 
 
 IV is sometimes dropt before tt, o, and y *): 
 
 ulfum Li. Lu. 10, 3; ulf J. 10, 2; uefuttum Mt. 16, 21; 
 24, 27; uldre J. 11, 4; geunade J. 11, 6; geuna J. 14, 6; 
 Lu. 4, 16; Unas J. 1, 38; unade J. 11,54; cneum Mt. 17, 44; 
 
 ') For other facts relative to the N. A. consonants, see Bouter. 
 pp. CXXXVI— CLIV. 
 
 *) This is sometimes also the case in the 0. Friesian; see Rask, 
 Frisische Sprachlehre, Ubersctzt von Dr. F. J. Buss, p. 27 ; p. 36 Rask, 
 from some other considerations, infers that tlie v, although left out in 
 the spelling, was always sounded in the pronunciation.
 
 23 
 
 coda Mt. 17, 20; coenistan Mt. 18, 6; coen Lu. ll,31;coern 
 Mr. 9, 41; coecJas Mt. 23, 3; 26, 41; soefen Mt. 27, 19; 
 hulco, hulic Mr. 13, 1 ; ymbhyrfe Luc. 2, 1 ; aundi-ad Luc. 7, 
 9; ac^oa J. 13, 8, 10, 14. 
 
 But, on the other hand, w is not seldom, quite gratuit 
 ously, put before the iibove-mentioned vowels: wutmestum Li. 
 Mt. 25, 30; derhwurnon Mr. 7, 55; wuduutum Mr. 10, 33; 
 14, 53; da wyflo Lu. 16, 25; gewunrotsad Lu. 18, 23. For 
 more examples, see Bouterw. p. CXXXV. 
 
 Passing to the grammatical forms, we shall begin with the de- 
 clensions of substantives, following the oi'der adopted by Rask. 
 The simple order presents this scheme ^) : 
 
 Singular Plural 
 
 N. a, o, u, e (ae) a, o (u) 
 
 G. a, 0, u, e ana (ena) 
 
 D. a, o, u, e urn, om 
 
 A. a, o, u, e a, o, e (ae). 
 
 Examples : 
 
 cJaem noma waes Li. J. 1, 6; pte se witgae Li. Lu. 9, 8; 
 sie willo Sin Li. Mt. 6, 10 ; monnum godes willo Li. Lu. 2, 14 ; 
 is acasa geseted Li. Lu. 3, 9 ; 6ios widiua Li. Lu, 2, 37 ; beth- 
 lem eordu judee Li. Mt. 2, 6 ; \)i\ eorSu Rush. Mt. 2, 6 ; Sin 
 geleafo Li. Lu. 7, 50; cllio waes portcuoene Li. Lu. 7, 37; is 
 mara witge Li. Lu. 7, 28; Saes witgo Li. Mt. 12, 39; ne (se) 
 gie gemende — — iwere(s) lichoma Li. Mt. 6, 25 ; (ge) lyt- 
 le(s) geleafa (modicse fidei) Li. Mt. 8, 26 ; from hearta monig- 
 faldnisse Li. Mt. 12, 34 i from eorSo gemaerum Li. Mt. 12,42; 
 mid user lichome bisene (cum nostrse carnis substantia) Rit. p. 
 4, 2 ; salt eordu Bout. p. 279 ; after aes gewuna Li. Lu. 2, 
 27, 42; in hire hearta Li. Lu. 2, 51; on alle eorcJo Li. Lu. 4, 
 25; from eordo Li. Lu. 5, 3; on eordu Li. J. 8, 8; in ege 
 dinum Rush. Mt. 7, 3; lichome (corpore) Rit. p. 40, 4 ; in — 
 
 ') The terminations of the nom. sg. have no reference to the gender 
 of nouns; see the examples.
 
 24 
 
 herte Li. Lu. 8, 15: derh done witgo Li. Mt. 2, 5, and often ; 
 gesegon — steorra Rush. Mt. 2, 2, (Li. stearra); 3(erh done witge 
 Li. Mt. 2, 17, and often; cirica he getimbrade Li. Lu, 7, 5; 
 j)urh witgu Rush. Mt. 2, 15; gang in gefea ibdm 25, 21, 23; 
 
 ne fund ic dus micelo geleafo Li. Lu. 7, 9; erendwreco from- 
 
 foerdon Li. Lu. 7, 24; sie iuero sido foregegyrdedo Li. Lu. 4. 
 25; iuera noma sint Li. Lu. 10, 21; Sara witgana Li. Lu. 11, 
 47, 50; uduutana Li. Lu. 20, 38; widuana 1. widuena Li. Lu. 
 20, 47; allum witgom Li. Lu. 24, 27; uitgum Li. J, 1, 45; 
 in iuei'um heortum Li. Lu. 21. 14; on eordum ibm 21, 25; 
 Su da witge afslaest ibm, 14, 34 ; da ego — ahebba ibm 18, 
 13 ; to undoenne — — (da) witgae Li. Mt. 5, 17 ; cleafad he- 
 arta iuero Rit. p. 5, 1, and p. 19, 12; hiora ega ahofon Li. 
 Mt. 17, 8. 
 
 Provisionally supposing, that this declension has grown out 
 of the simple W. S., we have only given such words as in the 
 latter dialect follow the weak scheme. It is now to be shown, 
 that in the N. A. it had a much wider x'ange, and comprised 
 not only the weak nouns of the W. S., but even all classes of 
 Rask's complex order, except those forming their gen sg. in-es 
 and nom pi. in-as, so that, strictly speaking, the N. A. posses- 
 sed only two declensions : the one in all cases, except the dat. 
 pi. *), ending in vowels, the other forming the gen. sg. in-es, 
 and tije laom. pi. in-as ^). But it will also be seen, that not even 
 
 ') Sometimes, however, we fall in with dat. pi. having lost their-ni, 
 but I think that these instances are best considered as slips of the pen. 
 
 ^) It would, perhaps, be more to the point to divide the N. A. 
 nouns into three declensions: 
 
 1. nouns ending in nom. sg. in an essential a, o, u, or e, in gen. 
 pi. in ana; 
 
 JI. nouns ending in the gen. sg. in-es, in the nom. pi. like nom. 
 sg., or taking an unessential vowel; 
 
 III. nouns forming their gen. sg. in-es, the nom. pi. in-as. 
 
 But beside these declensions we should have a good number of 
 anomalies, as will soon be shown. The N. A. no.uns seem in reality 
 to laugh every attempt of classifying them to scorn ; and to that one made 
 just now many objections might easily be pointed out, were it not for 
 our believing criticisms to be here quite out of place.
 
 25 
 
 these two declensions were rigourously kept asunder, the one 
 continually encroaching upon the purlieu of the other. 
 
 We begin with pointing out the manner in which the nouns 
 of the compl. order were made to follow the vowel-declension, 
 by adding an unessential vowel, changing the preexisting ones, 
 and taking the gen. pi. in-ana, or-ena. It will be observed, that 
 nouns of all three genders were alike subject to these changes. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 61o biseno Li, Lu. 8, 9, 11 ; bid' micelo ofersuiSnisso Li. 
 Lu. 21, 23 ; min cydnisse ne is soS Li. J. 5, 31 ; waes ofera- 
 writteno inawritteu Li. Lu. 23, 38 ; daege waes aworden Li. Lu. 
 22, 66; eadgo symbeltide (beata sollemnitas) Rit p. 53; monna 
 wittnessa is Li. J. 8, 17 ; f'beadende — gaefelo to seallane 1. J)tese 
 gesald Li. Lu. 23, 2 ; Siosne monno ibm 23, 14, and often; Mora 
 breosto slaegendo ibm 23, 48; da wifo ibm 23, 55, and often: 
 beron Sa sueti stenco ibm 24, 1 ; gesaeh 3a linen hi-aegla ibm 
 24, 12; das wordo ibm 24, 17; ne haefed bano ibm 24, 39; 
 sex uintro Li. J, 2, 20; his becno da ibm 2, 23; Godes sunu 
 stefn Li. J. 5, 25; in min lufu Li. J, 15, 9; in-lufa, in his 
 lufo ibm V. 10. das taceno ibm 3, 2 ; hiora uerco ueron ibm 
 3, 19; ueron menigo uaetro ibm 3, 23; da brydo ibm, 3, 29; 
 feuero monedo Li. J. 4, 35; de sune wyrcas Li. J. 5, 19; done 
 sunu ibm 5, 20 ; worda niino Rit. p. 55, 3 ; usero fadero Li. 
 J. 6, 31 ; daera palmana ^) Li. J. 12, 13 ; hlafana Li. Mt. 16, 9 ; 
 fiscana Li. Lu. 5, 6, 9; deafana Li. Mr. 11, 17 ; warana Li. Lu.' 
 14. 24 ; dagana ibm 5, 17 ; windana Rit. p. 192; sunana Bout, 
 p. CLXni; gimungana Rit. p. 108; wyrtana Rit. p. 3, 4 ; din- 
 gana Li. Lu. 1, 1; cildena Rit. p. 104*). 
 
 =■) As a matter of course, it need scarcely be mentioned, that the 
 regular gen. pi. in-a also occurs, and, in general, more frequently than 
 those in-ana. 
 
 ^) Mr BoUTERWEK, Die 4 Evang. in A. N. Humbr. Sprache, p. CLXIU, 
 has picked up a number of N. A. forms, which, lie tliinks, show that 
 the dat. sg. in-a of the W. S. winter, duru etc. had a wider range in 
 the former dialect than in the latter. But it is evident, that most of 
 them may as well he considered as gen., or accus., the prepositions 
 front whicii Mr. B. concludes the presence of a dat. in the N. A. also
 
 26 
 
 The preceding examples, easily to be multiplied, show, we 
 are of opinion, sufficiently the tendency of the N. A. to sub- 
 stitute for e (= originally a? as e generally seems to be the 
 last stage of the transmutation of vowels, when the are going 
 to be dropt); to affix a vowel, commonly o, but sometimes 
 a or €, to words terminating in consonants, particularly, as it 
 appears, when these consonants are liquids, or the spii-ans s; to 
 transfer the pi. termination-as into o, and, finally, to give nouns 
 of the complex order the gen. pi. in-ana. 
 
 But had the vowel-declension made encroachment upon the 
 territory of the complex order, and transformed into wavering 
 subjects some of its citizens, we shall soon be aware, that the 
 latter did not fail to take its revenge, and in the lOth century 
 already had begun those proceedings that ended in making him 
 so completely victorious over liis rival, that, in our days, only a 
 very few of the subjects of his survive, after having escaped the 
 destruction of their brethren, or their being put into the ranks 
 of the hostile army *). 
 
 We shall, then, review the recruits of tha declension for- 
 ming the gen. sg. in-es and the nom. pi. in-as, and begin with 
 those in the W. S. belonging to the simple order of Rask. 
 
 Examples : 
 (5aes witges Li. St. prol. p. 12, 1. 21 ; tiiS stearres Li. Mt. 
 2, 7; salt eor&es Li. Mt. 5, 13; his lichomes Li. J. 2, 21; 
 
 governing these cases: from hia Li. Mr. 16, 11; from synna hiora Li. 
 St. Mt. 1, 21 (Mr B. lias from liiora synnum); fro hohsynno usra Rit. p. 
 42; of ocles eowres Kush. Mt. 25, 8; so that, in many instances, it is 
 impossible to make out what case they in reality govern. The diffi- 
 culty is. besides, increased, by the great incertainty that prevails in the 
 use of the vowels, the same word, in the same case, often terminating 
 in three or four different ways 
 
 ^) In the W. S., which stubbornly stuck to the final-n, and only 
 late gave it up, the struggle was better poised on the part of the sim- 
 ple order. To judge from the language of some of the South-English 
 middle-age-romaneos, it might oven scom, that it had won a few ad- 
 vantages over the "strong" enemy. — The greatest plenty of uncom- 
 mon plurals in-en I ever foimd in any of the books alluded to. is in 
 Arthur and Merlin (Edinburgh, 1838, 4:o), where tho very devil (1. 665) 
 has become "simple."
 
 27 
 
 bvydgumes Li. Lu. 5, 34; his tunges Li. Mr. 7, 35; heartes 
 Li. Mr. 10, .5, geleafas Li. Lu. 12, 28 ; 5a steorras heofnes Li. 
 ]VIi-. 13, 25; tuoge culfras birdas Li. Lu. 2, 24. — These, I 
 think, are all ; but each of them is often fallen in Avith. 
 
 "We now give some examples of feminines of Rask's 11, 3 
 bavins been drawn under the same declension, and turn at the 
 same time the reader's attention to the change of gender, which 
 appears often to have followed the change of declension ^). 
 
 5a costunges dagas Li. Mr. 13, 18; 5aem ebolsong Li. J, 
 10, 33; cossetunges Li. Lu. 7, 45; gitsungas, efolsongas ibm 
 7, 22; foresceaunges Kit. p. 38; 5ines groetenges Li. Lu, 1, 44 ; 
 5aes of'suiSung' Li. J. 16, 21; smeaungas Li Lu. 24, 38;teig- 
 Suncgas ibm 18, 12; fiunges ibm 14, 26; fadorlices gisel- 
 enisses Hit. p. 24 ; socifaestnises gaast Li. J. 15, 26 ; 5aes hef- 
 ignise ibm 16, 12 1 Sis smirinise ibm 12, 5; gemnisses Li. Mr. 
 3, 15; hreownises Li. Mr. 1, 4; lustgiornisses ibm 4, 19. The 
 nouns in-is are never found to form their pi. in-as. 
 
 maehtes ^ines Kit. p. 51 ; cennices rest ibm p. 66, 3 ; Si- 
 num milsae ibm p. 42, 18 ; haeses Li. Lu. 3, 1 ; lufes Kit. p. 
 126, 8; belles Li. Mt. 16, 18; rodes Rit. p. 21,3; stefne mic- 
 lum Rit. p. 44, and often in Li.; his saules Li. Mr. 8, 36. — 
 The following fern, nouns follow in the W. S. the III, 3 of 
 Rask: 
 
 haeles Li. Lu. 1, 77; gefes Rit. p. 17, 22 ; snj^tres Rit. p. 
 120, 1. 
 
 For the sake of completeness, the following forms, not com- 
 prised in any of the preceding categories, may also be given': 
 
 sunes Bout. p. 277; moderes Li. Lu. 1, 15; and often; 
 broSres Sines Li. Mt. 7, 3; fiondas Li. Mt. 5, 44, and often; 
 freondas ibm 23, 30, and often. 
 
 As examples of nouns of the neuter gender passing into the 
 masc. declension, it may be enough to quote: 
 
 *) Change of gender is also found to have taken place on such 
 nouns as heorta etc. being drawn under the mascul. declension: iueres 
 heartes Li. Mr. 10. 5: on goduui eorg'o ihm 4,8; etc. Upon the whole, 
 a great confusion reigns in respect to gender. —   It need not be men- 
 tioned, tiiat the nouns in-ung, -is etc. also occur as feuiin.
 
 28 
 
 holas Li. Mt, 8. 20; ricas middangeardes ibm 4, 8; ne- 
 stasl nestu ibm 8, 20. 
 
 Before leaving the nouns we must notice some few remains 
 of a pi. in-r: 
 
 foed mino lombor Li. J. 21, 15; mino lomboro '')ibml6; 
 sua lambra Li. Lu. 10, 2 ; aefter tuaem dogrum 1 dagum Li. 
 Mt. 26, 2 ; aefter twaem dogrum Li. Mr. 14, 1 ; Serb Sreo do- 
 gor ibm 14, 58 ; (hia) — cJriodogor mec geanbidas iinn 8, 
 2. As the inquiry of these forms is better deferred until later, 
 we here confine ourselves to pointing out, as somewhat extra- 
 ordinary-looldng, the o in dogrum, daeg in the N. A. always ob- 
 serving the W. S. practice to replace a before an a or a u 
 of the following syllable. — 
 
 The N. A. adjectives have, in every point, shared in the 
 changes which the N. A. nouns have undergone, and we meet 
 there the same confusion of gender. The definite inflection of 
 the adjectives, closely agreeing with the simple order of nouns, 
 has dropt the final n, and shows the same uncertainty in the 
 use of vowels, o, ?<, or c , the last often left out, being substitu- 
 ted for a. Under such circumstances, — the indefinite declension 
 also having undergone considerable curtailing in the termina- 
 tions : the -um of the dat. masc. and neut. frequently softened 
 into e, which often is dropt, and the n of the ace. masc. and 
 r of gen. and dat. fem. having followed the same way, the 
 two declensions had become nearly alike, — it may easily be fan- 
 cied, that a confusion must take place, and that it was impos- 
 sible any more to keep the two declensions separate. This, in- 
 deed, we also find. The following examples will show 1) the 
 N. A. forms of the defin. declens. of adject.; 2) the promiscuous 
 use of defin. declension for indefin., and vice versa; 3) adjecti- 
 ves of one gender determining subst. nouns of another *). 
 
 gebaer sunu |)one frumkendu Rush. Mt. 1, 24; — — hii-e 
 frumcende Li. ibm; geceigde (j)a) tungulcraeftga Li. Mt. 2, 7; 
 tungulkraeftigu quomon Rush. Mt. 2, 1 ; jjene unnytte esne Rush. 
 Mt. 25, 30; ne cunnade (Ja ilco Li. Mt. 1, 24; f'leita i5a ilea 
 
 '') O affixed conformably to the practice mentioned above. 
 *) We think it supoifluous to ffive any examples of the occurrence 
 of regular forms of the dofin. as well as of the indefin. declension.
 
 29 
 
 ibui 7, 11); ymb 8y Sirrda tid ibm 20, 3; cJuue ueste Kit. p. 
 (35; 5aes heista witga Li. Lu. 1, 76; daes heiste Li. Lu. 6, 35. 
 (hia) '6a untrymigo gelecnaduu Li. Lu. 9, 1 ; on cfaem hlaett- 
 mesta daege Li. J. 11, 24 ; Saem blinde Li. J. 9, 17. — Se 
 welig Li, Mr. 10, 25; p god uin Li J. 2, 10; — cJaes wloii- 
 cas Li. Lu. 16. 21; cJaes bliudaes bond Li. Mr. 8, 23; Saes 
 blindboreues ego Li. J. 9, 32; bis balges cydnisse Li. Lu. 1, 
 72 ; de balges Godes Rit. p. 66, 3 ; baeles blindas and balte 
 Li. St. prol. p. 33, 27. — eadges Marie Rit. p. 66. Some other 
 instances might be quoted, but they are laore dubious, the fem. 
 nouns in-is, -ung, etc. often being used as masc. — 
 
 The peculiarities of the N. A. pronouns seem chiefly to 
 consist in the spelling, ^ being put instead of the W. S. e, 
 and u often inserted behind a preceding i, or e. — Deferring 
 to quote passages where they occur, until we shall have to 
 treat of the N. A. forms of the verbs, we here only give those 
 foi"ms of the pronouns which seem worth noticing. 
 
 I. Ic ; dat. and ace. sg. mec, meh, mech, me ; dual. ace. 
 ungket, Ruthw. Cross ^); pi. ve. uoe, woe; dat. and ace. usih, us. 
 
 II. du. ; dat. and ace. sg. 6ec, §ech, d'oh, '6e ; pi. ge, gie ; 
 gen. iuerro ; dat. and ac. iuh. iuih, iwih. 
 
 in. The declension of he, hio, (hiu), hit, has nothing par- 
 ticular, except the insertion of o (a) already alluded to. Hio is 
 in ace. sg. hio or hea. The common pi. is: n. hia, g. hiora, 
 d. him (heom), a. hia (hiu). 
 
 The declens. and use of the demonstratives exhibit some re- 
 markable peculiarities. The W. S J)aet, se, seo, is, as in the 0. 
 Friesian, rather |jaet, pe, jjio (5iu); se occurs not seldom, but 
 seo has nearly grown out of use. ^). In the inflection only the 
 ace. sg. cJy, for cJone and cJa, calls for attention ^) : 
 
 ') Grimm, Deutsche Grararu. I. (2 ed). p. 781, had ah-eady sup- 
 posed this dualform, in analogy with the ace. dual, incit. 
 
 ') sio is only found in the Li. Gospel of St. John: sio tid 1, 39; 
 4, 23; 5, 28; sio Qignen 18, 17; sio nienigo 12, 12. This fact, I think, 
 speaks for the opinion of Mr Bouterwek (p. XLVII), that the glossator 
 of this gospel is not the same as the glossator of the three other gos- 
 pels, in which sio never occurs. 
 
 *) sometimes 6y is for cJio : ~ ceastra 6y is genemned Li. Mt. 2, 23.
 
 30 
 
 — ou daege Sy 1 8e (he) ne hyhtacJ Li. Lu. 12, 46 ; ste- 
 orra Sy (liia) gesegon Li. Mt. 2, 9 ; se dritlien Sy (quam) gesege 
 Li. Lu. 7, 13. These forms, however, are of a very rare oc- 
 currence, and I am inclined to see in them only a misspelling 
 of the indeclinable cJe. For this speaks its very extensive use 
 in the N. A., where it often supplies the inflected article se in 
 the nom. sg. ^), and even, now and then, is found dispossessing 
 it in the oblique cases. 
 
 , Examples : 
 
 8e Haelend Li. Mr. 3, 7 ; and often ; Se diowl ibm v. 23 ; 
 Se widei-word ibm v. 23 ; gehei'de Herodes Se kyng Li. St. Mt. 
 2, 3 ; aras Se sacerda aldor Li Mt. 26, 62 ; Se ambeht Li. J. 
 21, 23; Se halges godes sunu cennices rest. Rit. p. 66, 3; Se 
 cynig Herodes sunu Li. Mt. 2, 22; Jjurh Esaiam [)e witgu Rush. 
 Mt. 1, 22; Se Sirddan daeg eftarisa Li Mt. 16, 21; lufa Sin 
 Se neste Li. Lu. 10, 27. — I think, however, that too great 
 stress ought not to be laid on the last six examples, and that 
 they, perhaps, best are considered as slips of the pen. — More 
 interesting is another application of this pronoun, as it seems 
 to have contributed not a little to bring about the change in 
 consequence of which the present English wants a plural of he, 
 and a nom. sg. of her. The determ. pronoun serves, indeed, 
 already in the Rit. and Li. as a surrogate for he, hio, hit, and 
 
 ^) Grimm, D. Gram. I. p. 391, is of opinion, that so and see are 
 of another origin than the forms used as their obhque cases, and that 
 [je and jjco in the A. S. ares of a more recent date. It is ti'ue, that in 
 the Moeso-Goth. we have sa corrcspouding to se, and so to seo; and 
 hi the Old-Norsc sa = A. S. so. and sil = A. S. soo, but in the 0. 
 High-Genu, 0. Saxon, and 0. Friesiau, the masc. and fem. arc of the 
 same root as the neut. and the obhque cases. If we suppose |> in the 
 A. S. {)e and jieo to have had the sharp sound of th in think, the 
 transition of }> into s is, I tliink, easily accounted for, and the necessity 
 of supposing diftercnt roots for se and {do disappears. Examples of 
 this transition are not wanting; and there is, I think, still in the Eng- 
 lish a certain tendency to change {j into s, and S into d. — But why 
 was {) preserved in the neut. jjact, and in the obhque cases? —   Lan- 
 guages are sometimes very capricious !
 
 31 
 
 not seldom the glossators seem to have hesitated, if they should 
 use forms of the one or the other *). 
 
 Examples : 
 
 Sas hine sprecende ta him 1 ijaem Li. Mt. 9, 18 ; gelecnade 
 hea 1 Sa Li. Mt. 15, 30; hia 1 cJa saegdon ibm 2, 5; in Saer 
 1 in Saem acenned is ibm 1, 20; cegde esnas his and salde [)aem 
 his god Kush. Mt. 25, 14 ; gilef {)te Sere (?) symbel' ue bigaad^ 
 derh 8aes to cJe biseno gistepe ve Hit. p. 51 ; from him 1 d'aem 
 (hia) micel bebodadon — of 3aem hia mara willniad Li. Lu. 
 12 , 48 ; nacod (he) from cJaem foreflaeh Li. Mr. 14, 52 ; 
 l)i-engac^ dene hidir to me Li. Mt. 17, 17 ; and hiora 1 iSara ge- 
 cydnise ne waes woenlic Li. Mr. 14, 59 ; his 1 daes onsion 
 uaes Li. J. 11, 44; fifo of daem weron Li. Mt. 25, 2. 
 
 The remainder of the N. A. pronouns, and the numerals, 
 exhibiting no peculiarities, except those of spelling, we pass on 
 to the Verbs. The strong ones of these do not command any 
 particular attention ^). We will only, en passant, make the re- 
 mark, that I have not been able to find the slightest trace of 
 vowelchauge (Umlaut) in pret. subjunct., and the 2 pers. sg. pret. 
 indie. ^), and that, consequently, the 0. Norse strong conjugat- 
 ion has not stamped its mark upon them. It may be that they 
 differ in some insignificant points from the forms exhibited by 
 
 *) Rask, Frisische Sprachlehre, §. 118, remarks, that the demonst. 
 pron. is in the 0. Friesiau often used in the same way. 
 
 ■u ^) The following verbal forms, showing a decline of the complex 
 order, and tendency to pass over into the simple order, deserve a par- 
 ticular notice: 
 
 astigade Li. Lu. 10, 30 ; stagade Li. J. 5, 4 (the first a = i) i nge- 
 berigde 1 ingebarg Li. J. 2, 9; gegringed Li. Lu. 8, 42 ; gedringdon Li. 
 Mr. 5, 24; gebcgd(on) Li. Mt. 27, 29; Mr. 10, 17; gebeged Li. Lu. 
 18, 14; Mt. 23, 12; gesuinged Li. Mr. 12, 9; Lu. 12,47; gesaudcs Li. 
 Lu. 19, 21; ofergescaw 1 geseawde Mt. 13, 25; slepade Rush. Mt. 25, 
 5; geslepdon Li. ibm; gegrippde Li. Lu. 9, 39; gegrippedon Li. Lu. 
 23, 26; gegracppadon (ae = i) Li. Mt. 14, 31; gehrinade Li. Lu. 18, 
 15; Mt. 14, 36; gefracgnade Li. Mr. 15, 2, and often; gescrencdc Li, 
 Mt. 13, 7; woepde(n) Li. Lu. 7, 32. 
 
 «) see Grimm, D. Gr. L p. 901.
 
 32 
 
 the standard W. S., but these difi'erences are best refei-red to the 
 idiomatic peculiarities of the N. A. vowelsystem '). 
 
 Our remarks, tlieii, will exclusively bear upon the weak 
 verbs ; but we must first make an account of the substant. ones. 
 
 Wosa (W. S. wesan) is in pres. ind. sg. am, arS, is; pi. 
 aron, aron, aron *): 
 
 Ic am sod' wintreo, and min faeder is londbuend Li. J. 15, 
 1; arS Sn se 5e tocymeude is Li. Mt. 11, 3; arcJ i^u Judeane 
 cynig? Li. Mr. 15, 2; ic am Li. J. 18, 6; huaed arst 1 ar5 
 du Li, J. 1,19; suae ue' aron an Li. J. 17,22,28; gileseno aron 
 gie Kit. p. 24, hogaiS gie no 8a 8e of eorcJe aron Rit. p. 25; 
 iweres heafdes hero aron getalad Li. Lu. 12, 7. 
 
 The subjunctive is se or sie, in sg. and pL: 
 
 Jjte min bus se gefylled Li. Lu. 15, 23 ; J)te (Siu) lufo sie 
 Li. J. 17, 26; ge ne se besuicen Li. Lu. 21, 8; pte (hia) sie 
 an Li. J. 17, 21. 
 
 Among the forms of beon, N. A. bian, Li. Mt. 1, 20, (I 
 am not awai^e of a bia), we remark the 1 pres. ind. sg. beom, 
 or biom, and the pi. bicJon (biocJon). The subjunct., hie or bia, 
 appears to be nearly out of use, it is at least seldom met with 8): 
 ic beom hal 1 gehaeled ic biom Li. Mr. 5, 28 ; ic am 1 ic beom 
 L. J. 12, 26; gie bicJon [deado] Li. J. 8, 21, bi^on geond- 
 spurnad Li. Mr. 4, 17; bioSon Li. Mt. 11, 8, and often; bie 1 
 se allra Srael Li. Mr. 10, 44; sie 1 bia iur dea Li. Mt. 20, 27. 
 
 The first peculiarity of the regular verbs *) calling for atten- 
 tion is 1 pres. ind. in — m, once transformed into — n. 
 
 ') Grimm, Gcsch. d. D. Spr. II, p. 666, is of opinion, that the 
 pret. eacle, for the W. S eodc (which also occurs; f. i. Li. Lu, 1,22; 
 4, 30; etc.), is worth a particular notice. It may, however, be permit- 
 ted to suggest, that the change of the W. S. code into the N. A. cade 
 is nothing but the change of o into a, which nearly all verbs of Kask's 
 I, 1 in the N. A. bave been subjected to. 
 
 *) The pi. sint fsindon) is, however, of frequent occurrence: 
 
 gie sint ()a tuiggo Li. J. 15, 5; biocJon 1 sint in cyninga husum Li. 
 Mt. 11, 8; gie sint gelico ibm 24, 27; fulla sint mi^" deadra banura 
 ibm; ^a^e upp sindon soecatJ Rit. p. 25, 3. — Sint looks rather Friesian. 
 
 ') As for the sens convoyed by bian, it is the same as in the 
 common A. S. cf Latham, Ilndbk of the Engl. Lang., 4 cd. p. 352 
 
 ') Here we must remark, that the regular verbs of the N, A, are
 
 3'a 
 
 ic doam Li. JVIi'. 11, 33, and often; ic doom Li. J, 13, 7; 
 ne dom ic Li. Mt. 20, 13; Kit. p. 59, 1, and often; ic geseam 
 Li. J. 4, 19 ; ic geseom Li. Mr. 8, 24 ; ic nu gesium Li. J. 9, 
 25; ic sium Kit. p. 44; ic cueSon Li. Mt. 6, 25 2). But in 
 most instances m is di-opt, and the naked vowel, on its way / 
 to c hesitating between a, o, u, remains alone : ic halsa Sec Li. 
 Mt. 26, 63; ic halgiga Li. J. 17, 19; ic milsa Li. Mr. 8, 2; 
 ic iuih fulwa Li. Mt. 3, 11 ; ne doema ic Li. J. 12, 47 — • 
 are the only instances of a occurring in 1 pr. iud. sg. I am 
 aware of; in general it is obscured into o or it, more seldom 
 into e: 
 
 ic hrippo Ser ic ne seawu Li. Mt. 25, 26 ; ic fehto, iorne, 
 mersigo Rit. p. 6, 3; ic cymo hine to wordianne Li. Mt. 2, 8; 
 ic aedeawu Li. Lu. 12, 5 ; ic undoe Li. Mr. 14, 58 ^). 
 
 In n sg. ind pi'es. t is nearly always dropt, and the 
 verb terminates in s , a being sometimes obscured into ae, J 
 or softened into e, or i. The 5 of III sg. and the pi. is gene- 
 rally softened down into s, whereby they terminate quite as II sg. *): 
 
 now aucl then, very irreguhir, iu so far as the same verb docs uot con- 
 stantly follow the same class of Rask's simple W. S. coujug., but, by 
 means of inserting or dropping the derivative vowels, follows now the 
 one scheme, noAv another. 
 
 '■) Mr BOUTERWEK (p. CLV) finds in these examples only a "nun- 
 nation," proving a late redaction of the N. A. monuments. If so, m 
 in the W. S. com and bcom (Grimm, D. Gr. I, 909, cf. p. 835), the 
 Moes. Goth, im ; the 0. High. Germ bim. (Gr. p. 881), tuom (p. 885); the 
 0. Saxon dom (p. 894) and bium; the 0. Norse em; — ^ is, 1 suppose, also 
 produced by nunnation. On the contrary, I think that a high antiquity 
 may safely be vindicated to the N. A. forms in question. For this speaks 
 also the preservation of a, not only in those positions where a follow- 
 ing consonant may have contributed to its being preserved, but also, 
 sometimes, where it stands quite naked: in 1 pros, ind., and in the 
 subj., while in the \V. S. it had long since — in 1 pr. ind. sg.; the one 
 of the two pi. terminations, pres. subj. sg.. etc.   — run its whole course 
 down to c. We shall in the following see, that this retaining of a 
 can, perhaps, be ascribed to another cause. 
 
 ^) That or u here are more original than W. S. e, the W. S. 
 forms hafu, or hafo, used in pot;try, evidently prove. Verkon, A. S. 
 Guide, p. 44. 
 
 *) Starting from the AY. S. conjug., I have in the text considered 
 
 3
 
 34 
 
 Su faestas Li. Mt. (>, 17; lufas Su. mec Li. J. 21, IG ; liu 
 leornas dn Li. Lu. 10, 26; Su ofergiuas ibm 10, 35; &u lae- 
 res, eftsceawes Li. Mt. 22, 16 ; seSe loses Li. Mt. 10, 39 ; se9e 
 untynes 1 toslittes ibm .5, li) ; ser^e (mi6) mec- ettaes Li. Mi-. 
 14, 18; (Ilia) misbegaas hiora onsione Li. Mt. 6, 16 ; (hia) genim- 
 maes 3ec ibm 4, 6 ; Sev tJeafas ofdelfes 1 hrypes and forstealas 
 
 the II sg. in st as the more original form. — It is true that Rapp, 
 Vergleichende Gramm. I. p. 58, regards sta as the primit. tcrminat. of 
 this person, hut it is still more true that his opinion is contradicted. 
 Is the s of legis etc. grown out from the t of the Sanskrit pron. tva 
 (cf. Bopp, Yergleicheude Gramm. p. 640) it is difficult to conceive that 
 the t of II sg. in A. S. etc. is original. Grimm, D. Gram. I. p. 835, 
 gives as the mark of II sg. s (Old-Norse, r), which is found trough- 
 out in all the most ancient dialects, while in the same dialects from 
 the later portion of the middle- ages st has been substituted for s. I 
 think we may be right in supposing this t to be nothing but the t of 
 the pron. pers. thu, as the practice of affixing this pronoun (the true 
 nature of the verbal terminations in the lapse of time having been for- 
 gotten) to the verbs is of very frequent use in all the Teuton, languag- 
 es. It is already observed thnt, when this subjunction takes place, 
 6' is changed into t. ^- Respecting the transition of the S of III sg. 
 pres. ind., and the plural, into s, it is no easy matter to produce full evi- 
 dence. Is it identical with, the O. N. s of the same form, which at the 
 time of the Scaudin. colonisations in England, not yet had been chang- 
 ed into r, but by the Vikings was directly imported, and substituted 
 for the ancient cJ? For such a supposition speaks a remark of Rapp 
 (1. c. p. 67), who says: der Scandier hat sehr abnorm statt des t der 
 dritten Person das r (^ s) aus der zweiten iibcrtragen. — But it may 
 be objected to it, that the 0. N. conjug. possessed d; that, consequently 
 it is difficult to conceive why the Northmen should have slighted it in 
 the A. S. Besides, the; change is too vast to have been effected by a 
 handful of foreigners. . — There remains, then, only to suppose that () 
 has passed over into s (cf Guimji, Gesch. d. D. .^pr. I. p. 353) in cou- 
 sequense of the same tendency that eflected this change in the South- 
 English, although many centuries later. We can, at least, not fancy that 
 a Scandinavian influence was at work also there. — Here I cannot 
 but think of some ingenious remarks of Edwards, concerning the pre- 
 servation of the aspirated consonants in the German languages. I re- 
 fer the reader to his Recherches sur les langues Celtiques, p. 6, 12, — 
 putting for the further consideration of the same reader the question; 
 were tlie ancient Britons more completely driven out of the North than 
 the South of England?
 
 35 
 
 ibm G, 19. The forms iu 8 occur often. But S was probably 
 only an accommodation to the W. S. orthography, and in the 
 N. A. verbs always pronounced s. 
 
 That for the apocopated W. S. pi. in -e, in N. A. a, o, u, 
 sometimes occur, from what before is said of the interchange 
 taking place between these vowels, need not be proved by special 
 examples. — The subj. pres. ends in a, o, e, both in sg. and (the 
 n being dropt) pi. This agrees closely with the 0. Friesian. 
 
 ic neddarf hafo, p ic geonga and p ilea gesea Li. Lu. 14, 
 18; Seah se widewarda efnearisa Li. Mr. 3, 26; forlet hia 1 tJa, 
 J3te hia geonga Li. Mr. 6, 36 ; pte hia ne losiga in woeg Li. 
 Mt. 15, 32 ; and ic hia 1 da haelo Li. Mt. 13, 15 ; gecyde him, 
 Jjte hia ne aec da, cymo Li. Lu. 16, 28; (o is, in general, sel- 
 dom met with); gearua, |jte ic hriordige Li. Lu. 17, 8; ic biddo 
 p Sn hine sende ibm 16, 27 ; jjte — (he) hrinae ibm 16, 24; 
 ne habbas p hia ette Li. Mt. 15, 32. 
 
 We have, intentionally, until now deferred to treat of the 
 use of i for e and a, which constitutes a remarkable feature of 
 the N. A. conjug. It is particularly in the pres. ind. and subj. 
 that this substitution takes place, but now and then also in pret. 
 and the participles, as later will be shown *): seSe gesiiS Li. Mt. 
 6, 4; (gesead); ic de cuecJi Li. J. 21, 18; gesiistu Li. Mr. 13, 
 1; (he) de gesilig Li. J. 11, 22; (geseles); woenist Li. Lu. 18, 
 8; (woenes); liaefis Li. Mt. 8, 9 (haefes), fliid Li. J. 10, 12, 
 gefiit^ 1 gefiaS Li. J. 15, 23; subj.; {)te ic gesii Li. Mr. 10, 
 51, and often; geuuni Li. J. 21, 22; maegi Li. 21, 25. 
 
 All the here given forms are of frequent occurrence. — 
 This i appears to have originated in different ways. The W. S. 
 y in flyhd is in the N. A. fliid' dissolved into ii. In gesii, 
 geuuni etc. it may be the i of the 0. Norse conjugation, al- 
 tliough it is difficult to affirm it for quite certain. 
 
 Respecting the pret., we have already observed the N. A. 
 practice of substituting a for W. S. o iu I, 1 of Rask '^). There 
 
 '") The words within brackets give the more common forms. 
 
 '') Sometimes a stands even for the terminating e: waelda; Li. 
 Mt. 14, 7; gehalgada Li. J. 17, 19; coda Li. Lu. 24, 12. — worhtae 
 Rush. Mt. 25, 16, Ik scarcely worth mentioning. 
 
 3*
 
 36 
 
 remains to show, that the 11 sg. indie, was -es rather than -est'): 
 c^u geondsuaredes Li. Lu. 10, 28; 5eu gdeigeldes Li. Mt. 11, 25; 
 du aedeavades Rit. p. 2, 1: 5u gesyngades Rit. p. 11. 14; gi- 
 lesdes Rit. p. 29, 32; gibrohtes Rit. p. 31, 11; givdes Rit. p. 
 32, 18; gisaldes Rit. p. 47, 6; giefendes Rit p. 57. 
 
 Est occurs beside es. May it perhaps be considered as a 
 W. S. import? — The ;? of the pi. iudic. as well as subj. is not 
 seldom thrown away, and (o) « softened into e: 
 
 ue saegnade Li. J. 8, 48; gie unwordade Li. J. 8, 49; 
 hia gebreco Li. J. 19, 31; gie ne plaegade, woepde Lu. 7,32; 
 gie gelefde Li. J. 5, 46: hia gefrugno Li. Mr. 11, 31 ; hia woere 
 Li. Lu. 23, 32; gie ne wero Li. Lu. IH. 12: (hia) foerde Li. 
 J. 6, 21 8). 
 
 About the imperat. there is very little to say. S stands 
 usually for S, and in the vowels there i-eigns the usual vacil- 
 lation. 
 
 The infin. has dropt the n, and a is not seldom transfor- 
 med into ae or e: 
 
 gibidda Rit. p. 11. 14; uurotsiga Rit. p. 12, 24; gimo- 
 uigfoldiga Rit. p. 13, 29 ; toslita, toworpa, getimbra Li. Mt. 
 26, 61; eatta ibm 25, 35; losiga Li. Lu. 13, 3; lufia l.i. J. 
 15, 19; bifoa Li. J. 21, 25; gesea Li. Mt. 11, 8 ; — maenae Li. 
 Mt, 9, 15 ; woenae ibm 5, 17 ; gehorogae, gehydae Li. Mr. 14, 
 65; gebege Li. Lu. 9, 12; gestyrige ibm 9, 49; gewidlige Li. 
 Mr. 7, 18; sende Li. Mr. 6, 7; gewyrce ibm 6, 5; losige Li. 
 Mt. 10. 39. 
 
 What has been said above concerning the adjectives, finds 
 its application also as t(^ the participles ; and there only remains 
 to give examples of / used in them. They are rather few, and, 
 for aught I am aware of. only found in Li. J.: gisaeh ijone ilea 
 ambeh fylgendi 21, 20; (Ja ilco boec bifoa, cJacJe to auritteni 
 sint 21, 25; [3te Sio writt ueri gifillid 19, 28, 30; uaes-sprec- 
 
 ') Which of the two is the more ancient, es or est? — The com- 
 parison witii tlie M. Gotli., (). High. Germ., O. Saxon, and O. Norse, 
 shows that es is more common than est. It wonld consequently be 
 rather precipitate to conclude that the N. A. es is the curtailed W. S. est. 
 
 ') The subj. ueri Li. J. 19, 28 etc. may here be mentioned as 
 rather resembling the 0. Norse uaeri.
 
 37 
 
 cendi 12, 41. — Before leaviug the verbs, the practice of suffix- 
 ing the personal pronouns to verbal forms, the n of the pi. 
 then being dropt and the o, generally, shortened into e or i, must 
 be mentioned. The o of 1 pres. sg. etc. is thrown off, when the 
 pron. sufixed bagins with a vowel ^). 
 
 willic Li. Mt. 15, 32; leornadege ibm 12, 3; wallige Li. 
 Mr. 15, 12; onfengige Li. Mt. 16, 10; eadege Li. Mt. 11, 8; 
 ne cu5ugie la. Lu. 11, 49. More examples may be had nearly 
 on every page of the Li. *). 
 
 The analysis of the N. A. dialect, as this presents itself in 
 the Rit. and Li. Gc-spels, now being absolved, we shall precede 
 to the examination of the other monuments said to belong to 
 this dialect. — Of Caedmon's hymu to the creator, in the not 
 W. S. redaction, I have before me two copies, the one pi-inted 
 by CoNYBEAEE 2) from Wanley, the other given by Mr Thorpe ^). 
 from Smith's edition of King Alfred's Bede. The last has six 
 readings differing from the corresponding ones of the first. 
 Four of these *) deserve no particu^lar attention, whereas it would 
 
 ') §u, affixed, becomes tu: ondsuarestu Li. J. 18, 28. 
 ') This practice, I think, has not a Httle contributed to the drop- 
 ping of n in the pi. of pres. subj. and the preter. Has it also produced 
 the apocopated W. 8. pi. indie, pres.? 
 ^) Illustrations of A. 8. Poetry, p. 6. 
 ') Thorpe's Caednion p. XXII. 
 *) The readings at variance are: 
 
 Mr Thorpe Conybeare 
 
 or astelidae ora stelidae 
 
 scop scopa 
 
 aelda elda 
 
 fold foldu 
 
 halig haleg 
 
 dryctin drictin. 
 
 T am of opinion that elda is more N. A. than aelda, whereas ha- 
 lig is more N. A. than haleg. As for scopa (W. S. scapan, scop), I 
 think that it is a very characteristic sign of a N. A. origin of the 
 fragment in question. It is, indeed, particularly in Li., not uncommon 
 to find a vowel in the same way affixed to the preterit of the strong 
 verbs: and mi^i^y (he) gccnomo in Li. Mt 21, 23; se,^e lif craefte on- 
 
 'Vf^i.m-i\\-^
 
 38 
 
 be very interesting to get full evidence concerning the two re- 
 maining ones. The common text of Alfred's Bede having: firum 
 foldan, Wanley reads: firum foldu, and Mr Thorpe: firum fold. 
 Foldu agrees completely with the forms of the Dui-ham glosses, 
 while fold may be accounted for as : = foldu, folde with e 
 dropt. Both readings, then, are equally legitimate, but not like 
 interesting in our point of view. Is the fragment, as Wanley 
 thinks, from the 8th century *), foldu, if the true reading, shows 
 that the nouns, which in W. S. took -an in all 'cases, except the 
 nomin. followed, already at that time, the same rules as in the 
 Durham Glosses. The pi. in -ana proves however sufficiently, that, 
 at a more remote period, these nouns must have followed the 
 same scheme as the corresponding W. S. nouns. Foldu. then, 
 met with in the 8th century, only pushes back the question re- 
 specting the dropping of -n in the nouns to a time anterior to 
 that century; but shows, at the same time, that this dropping 
 
 fenge ibm 25, 16. — Mithinks that I have also foimd «e so aflSxed, 
 and the vacillatiou among a. ae, o, u makes it credible, that also these 
 may sometimes have stt'pt iuto the place of e. 
 
 ') CONYBEAUK (1. c.) is ol" opiuiou that it is the work of the 
 ll'b or 12th century. We cannot here enter into a discussion of the 
 reasons pro and con., and contine ourselves to the following remarks: 
 
 1) the orthography of the fragment of Caodmon is, in all material 
 points, the same as that of the Ruthwell Cross; there is consequently 
 not the least doubt of the frag, being N. A.; 
 
 2) Scopa (see the preccd. note) and foldu are N. A. peculiarities; 
 so arc: maccti W. S, (mihtig), uard (\V. S. weard), barnuni (\\. S. 
 bcaruum), hebeu (W. S. hcofon), aerist (W. y. aerest), 'and, finally, 
 astelidae (W. S. onstcalde) cf. smiridi Li. J. 9, 11, and gi-for ge- ; 
 
 3) the n in the infin. hergan makes it probable, that the fragment 
 is more ancient than the N. A. Go.spel-Glosses and the Kuthwill Cross, 
 but, as it stands quite isolated, too great stress is not to be laid on this 
 fact; 
 
 4) the occurrence of the prepos. til, never found in W. S. M. S. 
 S., except the last portion of the Saxon- Chron., is no proof of the 
 speech in the district where the fragment was transcribed having been 
 influenced by the Scandinavian tongue. Besides being twice found in 
 the Li. (Mt. 26, 17, 31), til occurs in the O. Friesian, Grimm, D. Gr. 
 11, p. 257. It will afterwards be shown, that Friesians probably par- 
 took of the colonisation of Northumbria.
 
 39 
 
 of n was not the result of foreign influence, but of a tendency 
 to that effect, pervading the N. A. dialect. — We cannot any 
 longer dwell upon this fragment, and leave it, refei'ring those 
 who wish for further particularities to Halbertsma's elaborate 
 analysis of it in the Introduc. to Bosworth's A. S. Diction., 
 p. LVI. 
 
 The fragment known as the death-bed verses of Bede is 
 from a M. S. at St. Gellen. Kemble ^) thinks that it may, in 
 its present shape, safely be referred to the year 737. — Of tliis 
 I have also before me two printed copies ^), but unfortunately 
 not so agreeing with each other, that there could only be quest- 
 ion of a few various readings. That given by Conybeare is 
 nearly at every word differing from that printed by Latham, 
 being, for aught I can see, tolerably good W. S., whereas the 
 latter seems in many points approaching the N. A. forms. Thus 
 uuirthit (Cony. wyr3ec!l), tharf (Con. cJearf), sie (Con. ;sy), liio- 
 nongae (Con. heonan-gange), doemid (Con. demed), are undoub- 
 tedly pure N. A. *). As for the orthography, Latham's copy agrees 
 closely with that of the inscription on the Ruthwell Cross, which 
 forms the next topic of our inquiry ^). 
 
 Not being able to enter upon a minutious analysis of the lan- 
 guage of this inscription, we shall confine ourselves to showing 
 forth its most remarkable features. — In the first place we re- 
 mark, that there is not the least clue to find out its age. The 
 
 ^) Proced. of the Philol. 8oc. II, p. 124. 
 
 ') The one in CONYB. Illustrat. of A. S. Poetry, p. 8, the other 
 in Latham's Hndbk of the Engl. Lang. (4 ed.) p. 139; where, if I 
 am right, it is reprinted from Kemble's paper in tlie XXVIII vol. of 
 Archseologia. Want of access to this latter work prevents giving any 
 particularities concerning the M. S. -- Conyb. docs not say, that he gi- 
 ves it from the St. Gallen M. S., but no more does he quote his source. 
 
 *•) We refer the reader to the preceding analysis of the N. A., 
 especially to what concerns the use of i for W. S. e. 
 
 ^) Those, who wish to know the interesting history of this ve- 
 nerable monument are referred to the accounts given by Kemble, Ar- 
 cha'ologia, XXVIII p. 327; XXX, p. 31, and Wilson, Archaj. and 
 Prehist. Annals of -Scotl. p. 543. Also Dr Simpson, in his Address to 
 the Society of Antiquaries of Scotl., 1861, p. 66, relates the principal 
 facts relative to it. The text used is Kemble's, Arch. XXVIII, p. 357.
 
 40 
 
 language, however, appears to be from about tlie time when the 
 Li. and the Rit. were executed. It agrees with these in the 
 grammat. forms and in some points of orthography, differing 
 from them particularly in the frequent substitution of ac for e: 
 darstae (cf. walda, halgada), geredae, gamaeldae, (these preter. 
 plead perhaps for presuming walda and halgada not to be mere 
 slips of the pen, but then still current forms ; supposed that ac 
 was anything more tlmn a peculiar manner of writing the slend- 
 er e); hinae (Li. Rit. bine), hiae ; fusae (not found in the other 
 N. A. monuments ; it might in Li. and Rit. have been written : 
 fusa, fuso, fuse); aeSiSilae. As points of agreement we observe: 
 the i of rodi (W. S. rod, f.) hifunaes (hefon Li. Lu. 4, 25), 
 ni (for ne), ti (to; til Avith the 1 dropped '?) — gistiga, giwundaed 
 (ge W. S.; gi Li. Rit.) and the last i in nitibaedi; the n be- 
 ing dropped in the infinitives : gistiga, haelda, and in the pi. pre- 
 ter. cwomu ; (The last Kemble considers as only a carelessness, 
 but, I think, not with full reason); the twice occurring dative 
 galgu (an (= on) galgu, mid ga(l)gu). As such may, pex-- 
 haps, also the u in pi. preter., instead <if o, be regarded: aleg- 
 dun, gistoddun. The occurrence of the dual-form ungket in the 
 Ruth well Runes is already pointed out ^). 
 
 We now procede to try answering the question put long 
 ago: is the Cotton Psalter North-Anglic ? — We observe in it 
 the following points of agreement with the undoubtedly N. A. 
 monuments : 
 
 M in 1 pres. indie: ne ondredu ic Ps. 3, 7 ; ic cliopiu 4, 4 ; 
 ic gebidu 5, 4 ; ic ondettu, singu, 3, 18 ; ic gefio 9, 16 ; ic 
 gebreocu 17, 43; 
 
 a for in preter, I, 1 : ic kneappade 3, H ; ic aldade 6, 
 8; Su ge-steadulades 8, 4; haltadon 17, 46; du ge-lustfullades 
 
 ') It is remarkable enough, that traces of the dual of the pers. pro- 
 nouns are found neither in the Li. nor in the Rit. I give the following 
 passage, as one whore dualfornis might have been expected : Li. Mt. 
 20, 32: luiact wallaQ gie f) ic iuh godoa — — ])te usna ego sie un- 
 tynde. 
 
 Thorpe ibm.- Hvact wylle gyt {>aet ic inc do? ^ — — {>aet uncre 
 eagan syn geoponode.
 
 41 
 
 29, 2; ge-eadmodade 34. 13; Sn neasades IH, 3; gereafadon 
 43, 11 ; ge-freades 43, 8 ; 
 
 a for in the past part. 1, 1: gesweotulad 16, 15^); 
 
 oe for W. S. e: gedroefed 6, 8, 11; gemoeted 16, 3; ge- 
 coeled 38, 14 ; doem mec 42, 1 ; 
 
 — as (-es) in II pres. sg. ind.: rJu neosas 8, 5; 5u inear- 
 das 5, 12; ()u geheres, 5, 4; 
 
 — es in n pi-et. ind.: 3u geherdes, gebreddes 4, 2 ; 3u saldes 
 4, 7 (see also above), but, as in the other N. A. M. S. S., also, -est. 
 
 As discrepancies we observe: the n never being dropped, 
 neither in the infinitives, nor in pi. subj. pres., nor in the 
 nouns of the simple order ; 
 
 a or never occurring in subj. pres.; 6 never being soft- 
 ened down to s; i never, or very seldom, substituted for the 
 W. S. e, and, upon the whole, showing a considerably more re- 
 stricted range than in Li., Rit., and the fragments. — Which now 
 claim the greater consideration, the discrepancies, or the con- 
 formities V I presume the former, for the following reasons. — 
 We have seen that there exists a series of written monuments 
 which undoubtedly are N. A., composed between the year 740 
 (or thereabout) and the end of the 10th century. We have fur- 
 ther seen, that the dialect, due allowance made for the vacillat- 
 ing orthography, is, in all material points, the same in the frag- 
 ments of Caedmon's hymn, the death-bed verses of Bede, and 
 the runic inscription of the Ruthwell Cross, as in the Rituale 
 Dunelmense, the Li. Gospels, and the last portion of the Rush- 
 worth gloss. Are Wanley, and others, right in assigning the 
 first of these documents, as well as the second, to the 8th cent., 
 we have reason to suppose, that the N. A. already at that re- 
 mote time had assumed some of its peculiar marks. — Can the 
 inscription of the Ruthwell Cross be referred to a more remote 
 age, as its runic character, and the pronomin. form ungket, only 
 found there and nowhere else in all the Old-German documents^). 
 
 ') I tiuTi the readers attention to the first a in aldade, haltadon 
 = W. S. ea. 
 
 ^) Ungket is by Kemble (1. c.) looked upon as an "incontrovert- 
 ible proof of extreme antiquity."
 
 J 
 
 42 
 
 tend to show; there are strong reasons for supposing the N. A., 
 cdready hundi'eds of years prior to the interlineation of the 
 Durham Glosses, having been on the way to that stage of de- 
 velopment in which it there meets our eyes. 
 
 The age of the Cotton Psalter cannot be ascertained. The 
 Latin text seems to be as old as the 8th century *), the inter- 
 lineary gloss, consequently, can scarcely be older than the end 
 of that, or the beginning of the following century, that is to 
 say, not older than the N. A. fragment of Caedmon and the 
 death-bed verses. Were it N. A., it ought, then, to exhibit the 
 same peculiarities as the latter documents, but we have observed 
 that the n after vowels is never dropped, and that the sub- 
 stitution of i for e, so prominent a feature in the orthography 
 of the two fragments, the Rutliwell runes, and the Durham Glos- 
 ses, is not used in the Psalter. The one as well as the other 
 may with reason be considered as evidence against it being N. 
 A. — As for the coincidences between the Psalter and the Glos- 
 ses etc., the use of oe for W. S. e is, no doubt, the most re- 
 markable. If, however, nothing more conspire with this oe, it 
 cannot on its own account be considered as sufficiently proving a 
 N. A. parentage ^). The other points of agreement are scarcely 
 of a more convincing kind. U (o) ^) in sg. pres. indie, is not 
 exclusively N. A,, it is only the more ancient form, as a com- 
 parison with the Moeso-Goth., 0. H. Germ., 0. Saxon, suffici- 
 ently shows. We have already mentioned the \N . S. hafu or 
 hafo '), which proves that in that dialect, as in others, o had 
 in the lapse of time been superseded by e. The a *) in the pre- 
 fer, and past, part., for W. S. o, may in the same way also be 
 more ancient than this latter vowel. — Concerning II sg. pres. 
 ind. in -as, and II sg. prefer, indie, in -es, we remark that the 
 dropping of f is not exclusively N. A. — If our premises are true, 
 and we do give them as subject to doubt, the Cotton Psalter is 
 
 *) Kemblk, Philol. Proccd. (1. c). 
 ') Cf. p. 20 (in the note). 
 
 •") Te Psalter's want of m in this form seems also worth atten- 
 tion, as contributing to prove it not N. A. 
 ') p. 33, note.- 
 '') This a will be further spoken of in the following. 
 
 ti>
 
 43 
 
 not Nortli-Anglic. Wliat it is, we leave to the decision of others. 
 Garnett *) thinks that it originated somewhere in' Mercia, and 
 this opinion may be as right as any other which might be 
 substituted for it. We may, perhaps, even venture to say that 
 it was in the North of Mercia, as its language seems affine to 
 the N. A. — We remind here of Bede stating Mercia to have 
 been peopled by Angles. 
 
 The preceding analysis of the North-Anglic dialect has shown, 
 that, already towards the end of the lOtli century, it had 
 reached a stage of development which in many respects left far 
 behind it the South-Saxon, even in that shape which this at- 
 tained in the last portion of the Saxon Chronicle, the Le- 
 gend of St. Katherine from Alexandria, and even Layamon's Brut. 
 — Whence this broadly marked difference of development? 
 Can it have been brought about "alanerly" by the external in- 
 fluences, which worked upon the dialects of the South and the 
 North in quite dissimilar ways? — If it is so, well, then all 
 the peculiarities which distinguish the North- Anglic, as opposed 
 to the common literary dialect of Saxon England, must, one 
 and all, be referrible to the 0. Norse; for we know no other 
 language at work upon the N. A. dialect pi'ior to the Norman 
 conquest, as the Celtic is hei-e not taken into account. Well 
 let us see ; perhaps will the dialect itself not turn "deaf as Ailsa 
 Craig" to our patriotic') wooings, as did the local names. 
 
 Kemble says ^) that the Scandinavian mark of the infin., 
 att, occurs in the Li. Gloss. This is considered an uncontro- 
 vertible proof of Scandin. influence. We will in the following 
 inquire into the truth of the latter assertion ; here we remark 
 that att, or (as it probably would have been in the orthogra- 
 phy of the Li.) at, is not found • in this gloss, neither in Mr 
 Bouterwek's edition, nor in the Gospel of St. Matth. published 
 
 Philol. Essays p. 183. 
 
 ') For the sake of such foreigners as ruay happen to be my rea- 
 ders, I beg leave to mention, that I boast a descent from the Eng- 
 land-conquering Danes, being a thorough-bred Sconian from time im- 
 memorial. 
 
 Phil. Proceedings, II, p. 124.
 
 44 
 
 by Mr Stevexson ="). Li. Mr. 14, 1, occurs the word et: uut et aefter 
 twaein dogrum, which might be regarded as the Scand. conjunct, 
 att, and, indeed, is identical with it. But in the following part of our 
 researches it will be demonstrated to full evidence, that this 
 at is no more imported to England from Scandinavia than the 
 Latin ut is the from Greece imported on. — It is true, that the 
 practice of throwing off the terminating n, when preceded by a 
 vowel, is a practice pervading the Northern languages, and con- 
 stituting one of their most characteristic properties ^). But this 
 peculiarity is also met with in the 0. Friesian *). — The change 
 of a into u, often taking place in the N. A. nouns of the Simple 
 Order after the dropping of n, may be of Scandinavian extract- 
 ion; as we see this vowel prevail in the 0. Norse fem. nouns 
 of the Simple Order s); and, as we find in the language of the 
 Glosses a great confusion of gender, we may easily imagine how 
 u can be found also in nouns of the masc. or neut. gender, as 
 well as in those of the fem. Hither the custom of retaining a 
 in all cases of Rask's III, 2, 3, may be, can also be re- 
 ferred. 
 
 Further, 1 think, the practice of affixing the masc. genit. 
 tei-mination to fem. nouns, both of the Simple and Complex Or- 
 der, may safely be ascribed to Northern influence. An allusion 
 
 *) bye, by Garnett, Phil. Ess. p. 182, cousidercd us one of the 
 articles of North, import, is spoken of p. 8, (note). — 1 remark here, 
 that bu, expressing the same meaning as in 0. Norse, is found in the 
 Mid. H. Germ.; sec Ziemann, Mittelhochdeutschos Worterbuch, sub 
 voc. bu. 
 
 ') cf. Grimm. D. Gr. I, p. 305. 
 
 *) 1. c. p. 275. — It may here be observed that Orm's (mark the 
 dropt W !) Paraphrase of the Gospels, which in other respects exhibits 
 the effects of Scand. influence (ef. WmxE's od. I, p. LXXVII), and most 
 likely originated in East-Anglia (ibm p. LXXV), where we know many 
 Danes to have settled, never drop.s the n of the inlin., and has quite 
 as nmch left of the v of the Simple Order as any South-English M. 
 S. of the same period, 
 
 =■) It must however not be overlooked, that tliis obscuration, on 
 the n being dropt, very well may have taken place in the naked 
 vowel without any externui iutiucnce.
 
 45 
 
 to the s in the geu. of Moeso-Gothic fern, nouns is in every 
 respect here out of place, as this s has disappeared from the 
 0. High Germ, and 0. Saxon, not to mention the 0. Friesian ^). 
 Perhaps might the occurrence of such forms as : eorSes, maeh- 
 tes, naehtes, sunes, woruldes in tlie X. A. be uged as collateral 
 evidence for proving that the r of the 0. Norse jardar, makt- 
 ar, naetr (nattar), sonar, woruldar, had not yet made its ap- 
 pearance when the Danish wikings settled in England. The 
 change of gender, following the change of termination, is then 
 easily accounted for : as the Angles for centuries had been ac- 
 customed to look upon all nouns with gen. in -es as masc. or 
 neut., the stuck to the old practice, and made also the fem., when 
 taking the masc. termination, masc. or neut. 
 
 The ^ ') of the dat. sg. in biscopi, casei'i etc. is probably 
 the * of the dat. of the 0. Norse Complex Order; in the same 
 way as the fuial i of odri, awritteui etc. may be the i of the 
 
 0. Norse pi. termination -ir, and i in fylgendi the i ofthenom. 
 sg. masc. of the adjectives, in the detin. declension, and the 
 present participle, here retained in the ace, its proper use hav- 
 ing been forgotten. 
 
 Respecting the remains of a pi. termination in-r, given p. 
 28. it is only safe to assert that, at this time, the pi. s, both 
 in the 0. Norse and the 0. Friesian, had effected its transition 
 into r. 
 
 The a in the N. A. prefer, and past. part, is as much 0. 
 Friesian as 0. Norse *). Besides, it appears veiy reasonable to 
 suppose that the o in the prefer, and past part, of the W. S. 
 
 1 , 1 is nothing but an obscuration of an original a. 
 
 The i in the verbs (p. 8.5) seems to be of Northern ex- 
 traction. But it may be observed, that, if the age assigned to 
 the N. A. fragments is the true one, it becomes more than que- 
 stionable, if this supposition keeps good. I think, however, that 
 the range of i in the verbal forms of the dialect of North-Eng- 
 land and Scotland, during the 14th and 15th centuries, rather 
 
 =) Cf. Grimm, D. Gr. I, p. 616 etc. 
 
 "') Respecting the use of i for e in the 0. Friesian cf. 1. c. p. 270. 
 
 *) Cf. Grimm, D. Gr. I. p. 911.
 
 46 
 
 tends to show that it was a fox-eiguer, who bye-aud-bye' got 
 domesticated. 
 
 The pi. pres. iud. of wosa, aron, in all persons, resembles 
 undoubtedly the 0. Norse erum, and the dropping of iv before 
 tlie following e, and the r, unquestionably grown out of an orig- 
 inal s, appear rather somewhat Scandiu. Its very common oc- 
 currence in the Glosses is, however, of a nature to make us a 
 little doubtful about its true origin. 
 
 The last peculiarity of the N. A. that coincides with the 
 practice of the Old-Norse is the dropping of w before u, o, y ^); 
 instances are given p. 22; but at the same time there has been 
 shown, that w is often put before vowels without the least rea- 
 son. Perhaps it is the same thing with the one as the other, 
 and both may be nothing but carelessness. *). 
 
 If we now draw the consequences of what hitherto has been 
 developed, they are: that in the North- Anglic dialect very litt- 
 le ^), and that little, to boot, very questionable, bears the mark 
 of having been imported from Scandinavia ; while, on the other 
 hand, we find, that the N. A. nearly in every point agrees with 
 the 0. Friesian. It is true the monuments we possess of this 
 latter language are considerably yonger than the N. A. Glosses 
 and poetical fragments; and the objection might be made that 
 a comparison between those monuments and the Friesian of the 
 Asega-book is not authorised, there being too long an interval 
 of time between them. Against this objection I set the opinion 
 of Grimm, who 3), respecting the Friesian, says, that there is 
 strong reason for believing that in the 9th century it was the 
 
 ') Cf Grimm, Gesch. d. Deut. Spr. J, p. 297. 
 
 ') The substitution of the pi. of the dom. pron. for tlio tnio pi. 
 of the person, pron., no doubt a Scand. practice, will be examined in 
 the following jiart. 
 
 ^) The single words which may have been introduced from these 
 quarters are, of course, not here taken into account. 
 
 ') Gesch. d. D. ^pr. 11. p, 668. — p. 680, he remarks that masc. 
 nouns of the Complex Order often take the gen. in-ena of the Simple 
 Order; a point of agreement with the N. A. which is well worth 
 noticing.
 
 47 
 
 same as some centuries later ; whereby the authorisation to make 
 such a comparison is given. — The question which then rises : 
 were there any Friesians in England, cannot here be treated 
 at large ; we must confine ourselves to a few remarks. — Did 
 the name Friesians, as Zeuss *) conjectures, mean: Wagenden, 
 Muthigeu, or, as Grimm *) seems inclined to think: Free, it is 
 clear, that this name, as that of the Franks, was not the name 
 a single tribe, but of a confederation of kindred tribes, among of 
 whom each tribe at the same time had its own specific denomi- 
 nation ^). In this manner, the Angles may pretty well have 
 been Friesians in the wider sense of this word. Perhaps did 
 they lose this name after their having settled in England, when 
 they no longer belonged to the Friesian confederation, retaining 
 only their specific denomination. This may be the cause why 
 Bede, himself an Angle, does not speak about their being Frie- 
 sians. To an external observator these facts, however, would 
 have presented themselves somewhat differently. Such an au- 
 thor, knowing the generic name of Friesians, and knowing that 
 migrations to Britain had taken place among them, but igno- 
 rant of the specific names of the tribes, that lurked under the 
 common appellation, would naturally have said that Friesians 
 had emigrated to England. Should the author have happened 
 to know the specific name of one of the tribes partaking of the 
 emigration, but not those of the others, he might have put the 
 generic name together with the specific one, and in this way 
 brought about a confusion of both. — Now Procop ') tells us 
 that Angles and Friesians dwelled in Britain. Is it wrong to 
 suppose a confusion lurking in this statement, and to suppose 
 that Angles and Friesians here are synonymes? 
 
 But we must stop pursuing this course of conjectures, and 
 take vip another question presenting itself all along with the 
 preceding supposition. 
 
 *) Die Deutschen u. die Nachbar Stiimme p. 136 (note). 
 ^) 1. c. p. 670. 
 
 '') It may be that the common name in after years was more 
 exclusively apphed to a single tribe. 
 
 ') De bello Gothico lib. IV, 20.
 
 48 
 
 It has beeu shown, that the N. A. dialect letaiued a not iu- 
 considerable number of forms more ancient than the correspond- 
 ing W. S.: the ill of 1 pres. sg. is very ancient, and that a, 
 which once preceded it, is not yet throughout obscured into o, 
 or this softened into e, speaks for a retaining of the conso- 
 nant-termination until a relatively late period. The same obser- 
 vation keeps- good respecting the a of the pret. and the parti- 
 ciples. On the other hand, we have observed a great confusion 
 taking place as well in the nouns of the Simple Order, whose 
 e appears rapidly advancing towards final dropping, as in point 
 of gender. As for the latter, we have alluded at least to one 
 source of tliis confusion. — As for the former, the immediate 
 cause of it, or the dropping of n, has bean shown to have tak- 
 en place to a much wider extent in the N. A. than in the 
 Old-Norse, which a comparison with this latter language will not 
 fail to evince. Besides, allusion has been made to the remark- 
 able fact of the terminating n having been preserved in East- 
 Anglian monuments, which, in other respects, exhibit very mark- 
 ed signs of Scandinavian influence. — The fuial conclusion, 
 as I hope pretty well borne out by all the precechng research- 
 es, is then this : the North-Anglic dialect stood^ long before 
 any Scandinavian settlements ever were etablished in Northum- 
 bria in the same contrast with the West-Saxon as the Old-Fries- 
 ian with the Old-Saxon. But it was stunted in its free develop- 
 ment, on the one side, by the literary AY. S. (we remind of our 
 glosses having been written in the lOth century), to the influence 
 of which the forms in n, now and then occuriing in the glosses, 
 and the modes of spelling not seldom approaching to the W. S. 
 practice may probably ])e ascribed; while, on the other side, the 
 Old-Norse may have modified the N. A. in more "than one res- 
 pect, although its influence, as has beeu shown, cannot, at least 
 in what concerns the grammatical forms, be exactly aj)preciated. 
 — Here we discontinue surveying the Old-North-Auglic. — A gi- 
 ants-bound — over a space of time not less than four luindred 
 years — and we are face to face with that descendant of the 
 Old-North-Anglic Avhicli we shall call
 
 49 
 The Scoto-English Dialect. 
 
 The language spoken at the court of Malcohn Ceanmor 
 was, no doubt, that branch of the Celtic tongue which goes un- 
 der the name of Gaelic. But it is no more subject to doubt, that 
 that anglicizing tendency which, aided by the pressure of cir- 
 cumstances and the unhappy social state of England, succeeded 
 in germanizing the Scotch Lowlands, under him took its begin- 
 ning, although he did not himself keep the first place among 
 the anglicizing kings of Scotland *). When and how the language 
 of the "Southrons" became the language of the Scotch court, no 
 one is able to say. It is also far from being certain, that, when 
 the Gaelic was banished, the Saxon, or N. A., immediately ob- 
 tained the vacant office. We must remember that the new-co- 
 mers were as often Normans as Saxons, and that the former by 
 far had the greater ci'edit, being the very flower of European 
 chivalry. To assert that the Norman-French immediately suc- 
 ceeded the Gaelic, is not safe against objections, but is quite as 
 ci-edible as the opinion, that the Saxon was immediately sub- 
 stituted for the mentioned language ^). It is known that, at the 
 coronation of Alexander IH, the oaths were taken by the king 
 and his subjects first in Latin, afterwards in Norman French, 
 and that political transactions, when not carried on in the for- 
 mer, were made in Norman-French. We do, however, nowise 
 maintain that Saxon was not spoken in Scotland; only that its 
 use was restricted to the lower classes, while the Norman-French 
 was the language of the higher. This is, upon the] whole, 
 mere supposition; but a supposition backed by many reasons. 
 
 *) Cf. INNES, Scotl. in the M. A. eh. III. 
 
 9) . — "we learn from a curious passage in the inedited Latin Chro- 
 nicle attributed to Walter of Coventry, that as early as the reign of 
 William the Lion (not still earlier?) the Scotish court had adopted 
 the manners, dress, and even the language of France." Sir Fked. Mad- 
 den, Syr Gawane, p. 337. Tytler, Hist, of Scotl. II, p. 248, says: 
 "the Norman-French   seems never, as in England, to have usur- 
 ped the place of the ancient national dialect of the Scoto-Saxon". — 
 Pray, what does Mr. T. mean by Scoto-Saxon as the ancient national 
 dialect of Scotland? How has he found out that the native tongue of 
 Malcolm Ceanmor was not the Gaelic? 
 
 4
 
 50 
 
 The earliest traces of Saxon language in Scotland, besides the 
 Ruthwell Cross, are from the reign of William the Lion, in 
 whose charters we meet with a few Saxon words ^). There is 
 further to be found an indenture of lease from the first years of the 
 14th century, the Latin text of which is interlined with phrases 
 of the vernacular tongue ^). But these two documents are of little 
 avail to the student of the Scoto-English dialect as containing 
 only a few unconnected words, and were they the only remains of 
 it, we should be entitled to say nothing more than that in the 
 middle-ages a Teutonic language was spoken in the Scotch Low- 
 lands, but we should never be able to make out its peculiari- 
 ties. Fortunately, the taste for romantical compositions was the 
 same in Scotland, and the North of England, as in other parts 
 of Europe, and in the romances penned in the former districts 
 we have the earliest mediaeval monuments of some importance 
 to ovu' dialect. Beside these romances, chiefly treating the Table- 
 Round, we find a paraphrase of the Psalter and some I'hy- 
 med homilies, the one as well as the others, no doubt, among 
 the most ancient monuments of our dialect, and, as more par- 
 ticularly calculated for the lower people, verj- remarkable for 
 purity of language, while in the romances we meet with a 
 speech strongly mixed up with French. That this should be 
 the case, is sufiiciently clear, partly, from what we already know 
 of the Norman-French settlements in the north of England 
 and the Scottish Lowlands, partly, from the necessity, in which 
 every person longing for learning found himself, of studying 
 in the university of Paris, as Scotland wanted every means of 
 literary improvement until a relatively late period. We must 
 also keep in mind, that between the courts of Scotland and France 
 thei-e existed, during the whole of the middle-ages, friendly re- 
 lations and a frequent intercourse, and that, during the wars be- 
 tween France and England, strong bodies of Scotch soldiers were 
 always engaged in French service, while, now and then, France also 
 sent auxiliaries to Scotland. That the Scoto-English dialect was 
 strongly influenced by the French is. under such circumstances, 
 
 ') INNES, Scotl. in the M. A. p. 254. 
 
 ') rrintod by Mr luncs, Tlie Brus, p. XVII; and Scotl. in the M. 
 A. p. 334.
 
 51 
 
 not to be wondered at. It was also worked upon by the dia- 
 lects of South-England, while, at the same time, it appears in 
 some respects to have contributed to the formation of the mo- 
 dern English tongue. In the following we shall try to point 
 out the effects of this mutual interchange ; here we only remind 
 of the fact, that, during the intervals of the nearly continual 
 wars between England and Scotland, many Scottish students re- 
 paired to the English universities, and a lively commercial in- 
 tercourse found place between the svibjects of the two crowns. 
 
 It has been remarked, that there exists in northern litera- 
 ture a complete vacuum of some four hundred years, a space 
 of time entirely employed in intestine broils and rich in altera- 
 tions in the social state of Britain. A sceptic might ask: is the 
 dialect of North-England and the Scotch Lowlands the true de- 
 scendant of the chalect of the Lindisfarue Gospels, etc.? Are any 
 criteria of it being so to be found? We shall make an essay 
 to answer the latter question, and, at the same time, to lay 
 down the principles to be followed in judging of a M. S. be- 
 longing either to the Scoto-English, or to one of the South-Eng- 
 lish dialects. If what proves a M. S. to be Scoto-Euglish, at 
 the same time demonstrates its derivation from the pi-actice of 
 the Old North-Anglic, the former question is also answered, and 
 the Scoto-English clearly shows itself as the descendant of the 
 Old North-Anglic. It is true, that the one as well as the 
 other ought, strictly speaking, first to come forth as the final 
 results of the subsequent researches ; but it is necessary, already 
 here, partly to anticipate these final results in order to get a 
 Scoto-Euglish standard, with which we can contrast the M. S. 
 S., and then decide what is true Scoto-English, and what is 
 to be considered as properly belonging to the southern dialects 
 and only adventitious in the former. — As the most prominent 
 features of the S. E, we point out: 
 
 1) the n has disappeared from the nouns as well as from 
 the infin., the preter. pi. and the pres. indie, and subj. pi.; 
 traces of it being very rare and seldom met with; while in 
 the southern dialects it is of very regular occurrence in all the 
 forms alluded to ; 
 
 2) the th of the vex'bs is everywhere softened into s, while
 
 52 
 
 it is retained in the South-English. When th occurs in wri- 
 tings known to be Scotch, it may fairly be considered as an 
 effect of Southern influence ; 
 
 3) for the plur. of UI pron. pers. they is regularly used ; 
 
 4) the i has much encroached upon the territory of e, par- 
 ticularly in the pret. and past part., which, indeed, in the S. E. 
 have become formally identical. 
 
 A comparison with the N. A. shows sufl&ciently : that 1 and 
 2 were two of its most characteristic peculiarities, as contrasted 
 with the literary W. S.; that the demoustr. pron. was on the 
 wey to supersede the true pron. person.-, and that i had a good 
 deal of inclination for the places e possessed by ancient right. 
 
 — It were an easy matter to multiply the evidence produced, 
 and point out more characteristics of the S. E. But the marks 
 given above are sufficient to set foi'th the diversity existing be- 
 tween this dialect and the Southern ones, and to prove its de- 
 scent from the Old N. A. 
 
 As for the range of the S. E., it was the same as that of 
 the 0. N. A., due allowance made for the extension of the Teu- 
 tonic territory of Scotland and the encroachments of the South- 
 English dialect upon Noi'thumbria, where the S. E. ceased to 
 exist as literary tongue towards the end of the 15th century ^). 
 
 — We must still add some words concerning the foreign influences 
 at work upon the North- Anglic. Garnett observes ^): "that the 
 admixtin-e of the Northmen in the population of Northumbria 
 had not produced its full effect upon the language in the 10th cen- 
 tury," whereas "in the l-lth century the traces of this influence 
 
 ') The change seems to have been brought about by degrees, as 
 afterwards iu Scotland. Among the publications of the Surtoes Socie- 
 ty we find a volunii' ontited : Wills and Invcutories etc. (1835), where 
 a few deeds in English (the greatest number being Latin) are met 
 with, the language of which very much resembles the South-English. 
 Such are LIT, from York, and LV, from New-Castle. Th(! language 
 of the Towneley Mysteries, although in many points pure S. E., has 
 a strong sprinkling of Southern. — Garnktt, Ph. Ess. p. 191, says 
 the same of the York Mysteries, of which 1 have only had opportu- 
 nity to see a short fragment, printed by him, 1. c. p. 192. 
 
 ') Philol. Essays, p. 188.
 
 53 
 
 become much stronger." These traces chiefly consist in words 
 not found in the monuments of Saxon England, but appearing 
 in the northern M. S. S. of the period we are now speaking of. 
 It belongs therefore to etymological lexicography to trace their 
 origin to the different sources, and show forth their quality of 
 aliens. Although, then, it does not appertain to the plan of 
 the present dissertation to enter upon researches of this kind, 
 we will here make a step from the way traced before us, in 
 order to give some observations respecting the three words : ger 
 (gar), at (conjunct.), and at (preposit.), as these words are re- 
 garded as being, without any doubt, Scandinavian settlers to the 
 North of the Humber, while their use in the Scoto-English con- 
 stitutes one of the characteristic marks of this dialect *). 
 
 Verbs of the same root from which ger derives are to be 
 found in the A. S., but ger itself is nowhere met with. Therefore, 
 as it cannot well be supposed to be the A. S. gearcian, or gearwian, 
 in an apocopated form, because this verb is never in A. S. used 
 in the same way as ger in the S. E., it is very credible that 
 ger is the 0. Norse gera introduced into Northumbria, which 
 has first had its terminating a softened into e, and then totally 
 dropt, according to the prevailing practice. For tliis speaks, that 
 gera was in the latter language used in the same manner as in 
 the S. E., where it not only is a surrogate for the do of mo- 
 dern English, but also frequently occurs in the meaning of to 
 cause *). 
 
 ^) Eespecting the words which, in all probability, were introduced 
 into England by the Northmen, it cannot be doubted that tolerably 
 long lists of them might be compiled: but it must be observed, that 
 the compiler ought to be very circumspect, and bestow a good deal of 
 care on his work, in order not to fall into the same errors as Mr 
 WORSAAE, who, in a list consisting of 100 words, intended to show, 
 "that the Scandinavian tongue nuist posses no mean degree of durabi- 
 lity," introduces more than fifty which quite as well may be conside- 
 red as pure AS. — W. 1. c. p. 84. 
 
 ^) To give examples of the use of ger in the S. E. is foreign to 
 our purpose. Those who wish to know how it was used in the same 
 way in the 0. Norse and the modern Islandic are referred to: Egil- 
 SON, Lexicon Poeticum Autiquae Linguae Septentrionalis, s. voc. gera; 
 and Rydquist, Svenska Sprakets Lagar, I. p. 496.
 
 54 
 
 Grimm ^) seems inclined to derive the preposition at from 
 the same source as the conjunction, and give both a common 
 origin in the neutr. of the M. Gothic person, pronoun is ; al- 
 though it might appear somewhat singular that the derivate has 
 the original vowel, while a in is has passed into i. Perhaps, the 
 facts we are going to give will throw some light upon the for- 
 mation of this conjunct., and make it pi'obable, that it can have 
 originated in another way, being the neuter of the demonstra- 
 tive pron. se, seo, paet. It is true, that the di^opping of the be- 
 ginning p is not a fact of common occurrence, but the 0. Norse 
 enn, Sw. iin, cannot well be regarded but as identical with 
 the 0. Sax. than and the A. S. [jonue, which in the former 
 tongue have di'opped their /). We fiu-ther oljserve that at '') in 
 the S. E. is not only a conjunction, in form and application 
 identical with the Scand. at, but also very frequently fallen in 
 with as a relat. pron. Now it sounds rather incredible that the 
 latter practice should have grown out of the former, a pronoun 
 originated in a particle, which indeed would have been the in- 
 verse of everything known concerning the formation of partic- 
 les. It is therefore probable, that the conj. at, in the S. E., is 
 of tolerably i-eceut formation, homemade, and nowise imported. 
 "Were, however, the p dropt only in the neut., there might still 
 be some objections made to it having originated in England, and 
 the use of at as a relat. pron. might be explained as having 
 arisen from a confusion caused by the introduction of the Scan- 
 din, at. It might be fancied, that, as at was used for the A. S. 
 conjunct. {)aet (which in Northumbria, for any thing I know, 
 might very well have changed its ae into a), it was, by confu- 
 sion, also put for the relat. [)aet. But the follo^\^ng examples, 
 collected from the Northumbrian Psalter, show that p was dropt 
 before other words than the neut. jjaet, consequently that we 
 
 «) D. Gr. II, p. 164. 
 
 ') For examples of the use of at as conjunct, see Boucher, Glos- 
 sary of Archaic and Provincial Words, and JAMIESON, Scottish Dic- 
 tionary, sub. V. at. Of its use as rel. pron. instances will be given in 
 the following.
 
 55 
 
 have a right of assigning the formation of at to the same quar- 
 ters *): 
 
 pai kalled to God, and he herd am ; 
 
 In heme of kloude he spake to jDam. Ps. 98, v. 7, 
 
 Laverd oure God, {)ou herd am swa 
 Neghsom was tou unto pa. ibm v. 8. 
 
 And he led am with silver and golde. Ps. 104, v. 37, 
 
 Fained es Egipt in forthcome of am. ibm v. 38. 
 
 And with brede of heven he filled am |Denne. ibm. v. 40. 
 
 Many other instances might be quoted from the same source. 
 
 The origin of the preposition at we shall not meddle with ; 
 confiaiing ourselves to the remai'k, that, under the form of aet, 
 it is of frequent occurrence in the A. S. ; and that, the infin. being 
 a true noun, it might be used for its determination as well as 
 any other preposition. There is however a consideration] that 
 makes me i-ather inclined to stoop to the common opinion of it 
 being, as far as used as a mark of the infin., introduced by the 
 Northmen. It is wanting in the Scotch proper; at least have I 
 not been able to find it used in this way, neither in ^the Scotch 
 writings I have had the opportunity of perusing, nor im Jamieson's 
 Scottish. Diet., while sometimes, although upon the whole not of- 
 ten, it is fallen in with in works penned to the south of the 
 Tweed. 9) 
 
 Respecting the influence of the Gaelic, it has scarcely gone 
 so far as to cause any changes in the grammatical forms ; but 
 I am of opinion that, m other respects, it has contributed more 
 
 *) Is the O. N. A., as I have tried to prove, nothing but Friesian, 
 the practice to drop the th of that etc. occurring in the latter language 
 (see Kask, Frisische Sprachlehre §, 117) at least does not contradict 
 my supposition. 
 
 ") For examples see Boucher's already cit. Gl. • — In the Town- 
 ely Mysteries it occurs twice, p. 189, in both instances joined with 
 do. Is the ado of the actual English = at do of the Tow. M.? I am 
 rather inclined to think it is, the interchange between the dialects of 
 the North and the South having apparently taken place to an extent 
 sufficient to acount for its being received into the latter.
 
 56 
 
 to the diversity of the S. E. stock of words from that of South- 
 English than the linguistic importations of the Northmen *). 
 
 "We shall now give a few critical remarks concerning some 
 of the works from which we have to gather information ; con- 
 fining them to those only wluch appear of a more dubious S. 
 E. origin. — In the first decennium of this century, Walter 
 Scott discovered, in the Advocates' Library at Edinb., an an- 
 cient M. S., wliich he published under the name of Sir Tristrem, 
 endeavouring at the same time, in the introduction prefixed to 
 this romance, to prove that its authorship most likely must be 
 ascribed to Thomas of Ercildoun, alias the Rhymer, so celebra- 
 ted in Scotch popular tales. His opinion of Sir Tristrem being 
 Scotch did not want partisans. Chalmers, for one, in his edi- 
 tion of the Works of Sir David Lindsay ^), declared that in Sir 
 Tristrem we "have specimens of the language of Lothian at the 
 time of Alexander m. "This was the opinion of Chalmers, who, 
 in his quality of author of Caledonia and editor of Old-Scottish 
 works, ought to have been able to distinguish Scotch from Eng- 
 lish. The first who, from a literary-historic point of view, con- 
 tradicted this opinion, if I am not mistaken, was Price ^). His 
 objections were afterwards followed up, from a more linguisti- 
 cal point of view, by the editors of the last (1840) edition of 
 
 ^) I have picked up some hundreds of Gaelic words ouly in the 
 vol. 1 of Jamies. Diction. — Chalmers, Caledonia, vol. I, p. 446, shows 
 that a good many terms of the (Old?) Scotch Laws are of Gaelic ori- 
 gin. — Tytler, 1. c. p. 181, tells us that, in the latter half of the 
 12th century, great numbers of Flemings settled in Scotland. But to 
 appreciate what influence these newcomers had on the formation of 
 the S. E. is quite impossible, their speech, as a Low-German dialect, 
 not being sufficiently distinct from the former dialect. There are, how- 
 ever, not a few words to be found in Jam. Diet, which closely agree 
 with the Flemish, and, when they have relation to trade and manu- 
 factures, are not unlikely to have been introduced by these people. 
 
 ^) I. p. 119. — As a specimen of Chalmers' manner of proceeding 
 in philology the following may serve: Thir   — " It is from the A. S. 
 hierc (?!?!) illius (!!) with th prefixed, as it has been to several of the 
 pronouns" (?1). Glossary to the W. of Sir D. L. s. voc Thir. 
 
 ■■') In vol. II, appendix, of his edition of WARTOn'S History of Eng- 
 lish Poetry.
 
 57 
 
 Warton. Sir Fred. Madden even goes so far as to say: "the 
 pei'son, who made the English poem from the French — — I 
 should think, might even have been a Londoner for anything 
 the language says to the contrary *) ;" while Gaenett endea- 
 vours to show that Sir Tristrem, originally penned in Northum- 
 bria, from having been transcribed in a southern district, got 
 its present shape only in the 14th century. This conjecture 
 seems to me to come near the probability. In the language there 
 is much that reminds of the S. E., but still more such as be- 
 longs to the South-English. Taking the first stanza of Fytte I, 
 we find: thair for her, Tomas telles (South-E. — eth), and twice 
 ware (usually in South-E. — en); all three S. E. peculiarities. 
 But on the other hand we fall in with: who (S. E. wha, or 
 quha); this aventours ; of which particularly the pi. this is a sure 
 mark of a South-English dialect. In other stanzas those "Sou- 
 throns" occur in yet greater numbers. 
 
 The remarks made on the subject of Sir Tristrem keep good 
 in respect to the old romances published by Madden u.nder the 
 name of Syr Gawayne *), although they do not alike apply to 
 all of them. Thus, Syr Gawayne and the grene Knyzt is far 
 less S. E. than: the awntyrs of Arthure at the Terne Wathelynne, 
 and The knightly Tale of Golagros and Gawane, But, upon the 
 whole, each of these three romances is far more true Scotch 
 than Sir Tristrem, though, as far as known, none of them is 
 written to the north of the Tweed. The reason of this is very 
 simple, and has already been alluded to. The language of Nor- 
 thumbria was quite the same as that of the Scottish Lowlands; 
 and had the former, as it indeed was during the latter half of 
 
 *) Warton 'S Hist. (1840) p. 109 — He also remarks (p. Ill) 
 that the constnictious with genitives of personal pron., out of use in 
 the English middle-age M. S. i^. of a more recent date, speak for the 
 relatively high age of Sh Tristrem. Such are: our on, one of us; 
 whether our, whether of us; her aithcr, either of them; her bother, 
 of them both; her non, none of them. — It may be, that these con- 
 structions speak for the antiquity of Sir Tristrem; but her (= heora) does 
 not precisely plead its Northumbrian origin, as will soon be shown. 
 
 ') Respecting the M. S. S. of the mentioned romances, the reader 
 is referred to Sir F. MAi)JUEiS'S introduction and remarks.
 
 58 
 
 the 10th, and the first foi-ty years of the llthceutui-y, been kept 
 in political union with Scotland, there cannot be the least doubt 
 that its literary dialect would have continued the same as the 
 Scotch, due allowance made for the influence the Gaelic could 
 have had on this more than on the speech of Northumbria. 
 
 This unity of dialect is cleax'ly evinced by the Northumb- 
 rian versified paraphrase of the Psalter, and a vei-y curious col- 
 lection of rhymed homilies, published by Mr. Small ®). To judge 
 from the language in them, both appear to be fi'om about the 
 same time, probably the midst of the 14th century, and to have 
 originated in the same quarters, in all probability somewhere 
 in Northumbria. I know, however, nothing for cei-tain, neither 
 respecting their age, nor the precise locality where they were 
 penned. Their language is pure. S. E. 
 
 It was originally our intention to give a somewhat complete 
 account of the S. E. vowels and consonants, comparing them 
 throughout with the corresjionding South-English. But, it being 
 obvious to us that this would too much surpass the limited num- 
 ber ot sheets allotted to the whole of the present treatise, we drop 
 this purpose, confining ourselves to a few remarks. Some others 
 will incidentally be given in the following. 
 
 Mr. Inkes ''), on the stress of the interlineary indenture of 
 lease already mentioned, says that "there cannot be a more 
 pure English speech," the glosses being "without the redundancy 
 of consonants, the gutturals, and many of the peculiai'ities, which, 
 
 ") During my stay at Edinburgh last summer, the editor of these 
 lioinilies, tlion in course of being printed, had the kindness to permit 
 my perusing the proof-sheets, and promised to send me a copy, as 
 soon as any were ready. No one, however, having reached me, I re- 
 gret much not being able to avail myself of these curious specimens 
 of the dialect of Northumbria, by the editor pretended to be from the 
 end of the 13'i' century (?), and being particularly remarkable for the 
 great purity of their language, Norman-French words being alto- 
 gether wanting, and the text exhibiting a pure A. S., stript of the ter- 
 minations. 
 
 ■) The Brns, pref. p. XV J.
 
 59 
 
 in later times, gave au effect of coarseness to the language of 
 Scotland in southern ears." Is what Mr Innes has given ^), the 
 whole of the interlineation, no conclusion can be less authorised 
 than that quoted just now. It would, indeed, only be a mat- 
 ter of compiling to show that every one of the words occur- 
 ring in the indenture is found, spelled quite in the same way, 
 in the writings from the following century, and, as for the gut- 
 turals, I have run through the list more than once without being 
 able to detect a single word where such might have been ex- 
 pected. His remarks, however, although not keeping good for 
 the special case of the indenture, may perhaps, notwithstanding 
 this, be quite true, and they therefore lead us to the question: 
 was the guttural character of the S. E. an inheritance from the 
 ancient Teutonic dialects, or was it produced by the intermixt- 
 ure of Gaelic (whose guttural character appears to be of a very 
 ancient date)? At fii"st we observe that, in the decision of this 
 question, all comparison with the EngHsh of the present day, and 
 subsequent conclusions from its not guttural nature, must be ex- 
 cluded, it being tolerably certain, that its present want of gut- 
 turals is of later date, and produced along with the production 
 of the originally simple vowel-sounds into diphthongs. This a 
 comparison with the cognate dialects sufficiently shows. — We 
 must, then, recur to the A. S., and more particularly to the N. 
 A. — We observe here, that verbs, in the inf. having c, in the 
 preter. took an h, and that nouns, in the nom. sg. terminating 
 in 7i, in the oblique cases resume their gutturals. We may there- 
 fore with reason infer that the A. S. h in reality rather re- 
 sembled the ch of the Old-Scotch. This is confirmed by the cir- 
 cumstance of the guttural sometimes being found instead of the 
 spirans h in the nom. of nouns, and ch for h in preterits, etc. 
 Some instances from the Li., as more particularly available to 
 our purpose, may suffice : suachuelc Mt. 20, 26 ; lecht Mr. 13, 
 24; arWgh Lu. 8, 46; maeghte Mr. 8, 39; getrachtad J. 1, 41 ; 
 bochton J. 4, 8 ; da6ch J. 4, 2 ; cf. also the forms of the N. 
 A. pers. pronouns given p. 29. From these instances, and many 
 others easily to be collected, I think it sufficiently clear that 
 
 *) In the above quoted works.
 
 60 
 
 the Scottish forms: nocht, nicht, knicht, thoucht etc. are in i-ea- 
 lity quite equivalent to the A. S. miht, nilit etc., the only- 
 change being the substitution of ch for Ji in the orthography, 
 tliis ch having indeed always been the true pronunciation of the 
 simple A. S. h. — I will, however, not deny that the Gaelic 
 may have had a certain influence on the retaining of the gut- 
 turals in Scotch, long after their having been done away in the 
 pronunciation of the South-English. 
 
 Respecting the beginning qu of quhat, qulia etc. it is diffi- 
 cult to produce full evidence. It can scarcely be considered as 
 the original, interrog., c, being found not only in the interrog. 
 and relat. pron., but also in most nouns which in the South- 
 English are written with wli. No more can it be proved from 
 the Old N. A. M. S. S. that civ already there was occasionally 
 put instead of tvli ^). The Gaelic, which retains the ancient in- 
 terrog. c *), conjoint with the sharp guttural pronunciation of 
 the A. S. h, may probably have brought about the change, 
 which, doubtless, was more a matter of orthography than of pro- 
 nunciation. 
 
 The retaining of I before a following c (I:), where the South- 
 English, already in the 14th century, dropt the I, and changed 
 c into ch, must also be mentioned as a characteristic mark of 
 our dialect. Thus, this has: ilka, swylk, quhilk, etc., while the 
 South-English forms are: ich (each), such, which, etc. The lat- 
 ter forms, fallen in with in the S. E. writings, are sure signs 
 of an anglicizing author, and this the more so, because the forms 
 with I are still used in the Braid-Scotch. 
 
 Respecting the vowels we observe that the S. E. much 
 more closely sticks to the A. S. forms than the South-English. 
 Thus, there is in the former a great predilection for the preser- 
 vation af a, quite as was the case with the Old North- Anglic, 
 while in the latter this vowel, when long, is nearly always ob- 
 8cm-ed into o. Hence the Scotch, of the middle-ages as well as 
 
 ') I am, however, not quite sure if I have not, once or twice, fal- 
 len in with a cw, used for wh. in these monuments; but am not able 
 to produce their wheroahout.s. 
 
 ') Sep MUNKO, A practical Grammar of the Scotch Gaelic, p. 75.
 
 61 
 
 of our days, says with broad a: wha (qulia), wham (quham), 
 knaw, gae, alane, stane, bane etc., whose corresponding South- 
 Eughsh forms are: who, whom, know, go, alone, stone, bone 
 etc., while the A. S. forms exactly agree witli the first, being: 
 wha, wham, cnawian, gan, an, stan, ban, etc. 
 
 The Scotch has further retained a pure w (= ou) (quite 
 the same as the Swedish u) in many instances where the south- 
 ern tongue has either, in different ways, obscured the ancient 
 pronunciation, or changed the simple vowel into diphthongal 
 sounds: douu = Engl, down, toun = Engl, town, etc, "^y. 
 
 The diphthongs are, upon the whole, much less developed 
 in the S. E. than in the South-English. One reason of this we 
 have already before alluded to, viz : the preservation of the gut- 
 turals. It is Hkely to suppose, that in the South-English the 
 production of diphthongs took place upon these latter sounds 
 being dropt, as a kind of compensation whereby the equilibrium 
 was restored in the curtailed words. 
 
 When analyzing the N. A., we wei'e aware of the complete 
 destruction of the simple order. It is, consequently, not so 
 much to be wondered at that its traces in the S. E. are few 
 in number, as rather that there should be any at all. They are 
 however, as was to be expected, very rare, scarcely more than 
 six or seven: eghen Ps. 10, 5; sothren Br. V, 380; schoyne 
 Br. I. 316, fone Ps. 37, 4; oxyn "W. VI. 18, 244. — In works 
 whose authors have been exposed to a Southern influence, these 
 traces are not so uncommon as in the pure Scotch. — The S. 
 E. form of children, is childer, of brethren, brether; children 
 and brethren only being found in writings from the 16th century. 
 
 Although the A. S. pi. termination -as, weakened into -is 
 (ys), is the most common, there are still, in the more ancient 
 writings, some scarce remnants to be found of the other declen- 
 sions of the Complex Order. Thus, a few traces of a gen. sg. in 
 e (which might be fancied to derive from an obscure remini- 
 
 '■') Ignorance of this is the cause why wo ofton hoar Scotch 
 names dipt in an awful way.
 
 62 
 
 scence of Rask's III, 2, the a having been softened into e) are 
 met with: 
 
 wes nocht hys Fadyi'e Ayre W. II, pr. 8 ; J3e sone — 
 als lang as he is at his fadre burde Le. XIV. Atheh-ed. Edgare 
 j[)e pesybil SowTie W. VI, 15, 59; Willame Frasere Hart is 
 layd W. Vni, 13, 15. Sometimes we see this gen. formed quite 
 in the A. S. way : all hys Fadyr tyme W. EI, 3, 158 ; hys 
 Brodyr Armoure hale W. V, 3, 33. — in jji droving dai Ps. 19, 
 2 ; oui'e saule hele and salvacioun Kng. p. 16 ; knychthede 
 tume, ibm p. 19, — perhaps are also worth notice ^). 
 
 The pi. of nouns that in the A. S. were of the neu. gen- 
 der are tolerably often found m the pi. terminating in — e *), 
 or like the sg. This practice extends, now and then, also to 
 nouns, which in the A. S. were of the masc. (and fern.?) gen- 
 der. In the latter case it may be accounted for by the N. A. 
 practice of throwing off the s of the pi. termination -as. Most 
 of the instances to be produced ai-e also found terminating in 
 -is, which, indeed, gradually excluded the other pi.: sex moneth 
 W. I, 1, 72; thre thousand yhere W. II, pr. 7; fyve wynter 
 W. IV, 8, 13; wike f)inge Ps. 6, 9; genge lest are Ps, 9, 16; 
 hende ^) mine Ps. 27, 2. — In the Ps., words in -ness and 
 -ing often take a final e, but it is, in most instances, impos- 
 sible to make out, if it is a mark of oblique case, pi., or only 
 a superfluous appendix. 
 
 The preceding instances are, as already observed, very 
 rare, and it was, later, exclusively the neut. which in the A. S. 
 were alike in sg. and pi. that kept firm against the pi. termin. 
 -is. Thus some are still foimd in the M. S. S. of the 16th cent.: 
 
 ^) Many more instances of the same kind might be easily collec- 
 ted, were it not for the Middle-English showing a great tendency to 
 composition, which often makes us doubt, whether we have before us 
 one compound word or two single ones, the one depending of the other. 
 
 *) Sometimes this e is the superfluously affixed vowel that we 
 became acquainted with p. 26. — Respecting the pi. moneth, we observe 
 that it must derive from a N. A. mone^o, as: Thir fische, Wal. 1, 397 
 from a N. A. fisco. — cf. p. 25. 
 
 '■•) Is this form of a Scandin. origin, hand not undergoing vowel- 
 change in the A. S,, but well in the Old-Norse?
 
 63 
 
 "Weill XIV yeir foroutin wene Al. p. 40; ane hundreth scoir. 
 Al. p. 10. 
 
 Nearly all substantives form their pi in -is, often written -ys, 
 the latter vowel appearing in S. E. always to have had the same 
 sound as i. We observe, that the gen. sg. terminates in the 
 same way, and that the apostrophe is never used in g. pi. In 
 the Ps., as well as in Syr Gawane, the common termination is 
 es: })e mone and Sternes ^) in might of night ') Ps. 135, 9; 
 — |3at thogt mi steppes til underga Ps. 139, 5 ; J3at si{)en de- 
 preced prowinces, & patroues bicome G. K. 7 : |je steropes G. 
 K. 170. — North of the Tweed -es is only fallen in with in 
 the writings of such authors as had a tendency to anglicize — 
 as Knox, Hume, etc. — while all the pure Scotch stick to-w ; J)ire 
 Papis W. V, 9, 457; pire Emperouris W. V. 9, 612; in JDai 
 Landys W. V. 2, 110; [)e Saxonys and |je Scottis Blude W. 
 Vn, 3, 162 ; My sensis are Rob. and Mak. holtis so hair Howl. 
 60; the Grekis tentis Vir. p. 73, 11; their wordis Bell. f. 
 VH; grysis thretty Vir. p. 152, 8. — This may be enough 
 as examples of forms occurring on every page of the Scotch au- 
 thors. — I am not aware of any traces of the gen. pi. in -e *) 
 in the writings of these people. 
 
 Dr. Guest ^) has shown that in the South-English the 
 adjectives only late gave up the A. S. terminations, most of them 
 being still found in M. S. S. of the 14th century. He gives 
 the following scheme of the indefinite declension: 
 
 ^) This form seems worth a particular notice being, probably, the 
 simple A. S. pi. steovran (N. A. stearra) with the pi. -es. It may, 
 however, with as good reason, be referred to the 0. Norse stjarna. 
 
 ') We here observe that the A. S. aspirated h to the south of 
 the Tweed generally becomes gh, while to the north of that river it 
 is ch. 
 
 ') Some are met with in the Ps, and in Syr Gawane, as well as 
 in the extract given by Warton, (ed. Price), II, p. 54, from a life 
 of Alexander, written in a mongrel of South. -Engl, and S. E. 
 
 ") Proceed, of the Philol. Society I. p. 65.
 
 64 
 Sg-: PI: 
 
 
 m. 
 
 f. 
 
 n. 
 
 
 N. 
 
 god 
 
 god 
 
 god 
 
 gode 
 
 G. 
 
 godes 
 
 godre 
 
 godes 
 
 godre 
 
 D. 
 
 goden 
 
 godre 
 
 goden 
 
 goden 
 
 A. 
 
 godne 
 
 gode 
 
 god 
 
 gode. 
 
 These inflexions may all be found ; but there is much in- 
 consisting in the manner of using them, and that, sometimes, 
 even in the same M. S. — In Chaucer only the inflexions in 
 nom. and gen. pi. are encountered. 
 
 We remember from the N. A. that the indefinite declen- 
 sion of the adjectives was, already in the Glosses, in a state of 
 perfect decay, chiefly depending on the dropping of n. We 
 should therefore be not a little amazed, if most of those South- 
 Engl. inflexions were found in the S. E. But in this respect it duly 
 proves its lineage. The n of the dat. and ace. is never found, 
 no more makes the fem. r its appearance in the gen. and dat. *), 
 and I am only aware of a single adjectival gen. sg. terminating 
 in -is (ys) ^). Except in gen. pi., the S. E. adjective, in W., 
 always ends in e, which, however, is often thrown away. In 
 Barbour we once meet with an adjectival pi. in -is, which in 
 his book stands quite isolated, but towards the close of the 
 15th century becomes somewhat more usual, as will afterwards 
 be shown. 
 
 Respecting the defin. declension of the, adjectives we already 
 remarked in the N. A. Glosses a certain tendency to confound 
 it with the indefin., and in that space of time which falls be- 
 tween the interlining of the N. A. Glosses and the composing 
 of the Bruce and the Oryg. Cronykil ofScotl. almost every trace 
 
 ') The only instance I remember having seen is allryn: 
 
 . — to know of allryn tyme the mowence. Br. I, 134. 
 
 This form has a rather curious appearance. Jamie., s. voc , deri- 
 ves it from all and the A. S. rinnan, but I think nobody will believe 
 him. — In particles it is sometimes retained: anerly, alanerly. 
 
 ') A burgess may thruch his anerys (?!) voyce put hym till athe Le. 
 XKVIII. — Hither we may perhaps also refer: Quhen Willainc-Red- 
 dis dayis ware dwue. W. VIII, 6, 30.
 
 65 
 
 of it has disappeared^). It is, indeed, only self ^) that still re- 
 tains the terminating n, which Guest (1. c.) has very judiciously 
 pointed out to derive from the circumstance of this adject., in 
 A. S., when combined with the person, pron., being often used in 
 the defin. forms instead of the indefin. ones. — Ex. to be gi- 
 ven under the pi-onouns. 
 
 We think it superfluous to give evidence of e being used 
 as a termination of the adject, in the sg. as well as in the pi., 
 coincident as it is with the common practice of Chaucer and 
 his contemporaries. The x"Oom won by this restriction we shall 
 appropriate to a more ample account of the gen. pi. and the 
 peculiar nom. pi. — At first, we remark that the gen. termina- 
 tion is only found in adject, following the gen. pi. of the pers. 
 pronouns ^): 
 
 — trouch thar aller hale assent. Br. I, 137. And right 
 so by theire aller dome S. S. 1. 2828. 
 
 This ancient form of the gen. is, however, very seldom 
 fallen in with. The Scotch writers of the 15th and 16th centu- 
 ries more often add to it the genitival ending -is : 
 
 — ordanyt wyth |)aire allaris Will. W. VIII, 35, 178; 
 owre alleris offence Vir. p. 406 ; thar allaris Howl. LVII. 
 
 A little before, we adverted to the occurrence of a pi. in 
 -is. The first instance of this to be found, is, I think : 
 
 — off ryngis with rich stanys That war off knychtis fyn- 
 gyris taneys, Br, 11, 604 ^). 
 
 ^) In the South-English many more are fonnd; see Guest, 1. c. 
 
 ") It may, however, be that samyn, a word of frequent occurren- 
 ce, derives its n from the same source: -in the samyn tym Br. I. 252. 
 
 ^) See some more instances, quoted from Syr Tristrem, p. 57. — 
 Ch. uses it in the same way: 
 
 And yit this maunciple sette here aller cappe 1. 588 ; Schal han a 
 soper at your alther cost 1. 801. 
 
 '^) Innes, in his ed. of the Brus, reads: stane — tane; which 
 Barbour undoubtedly covld have written. But although the pi. in -is 
 bo not met with in the much older M. S. of Wynt., at least in that 
 portion published by M' Phorson, I think that, in the passage quoted 
 from Br., its occurrence cannot be owing to the circumstance of the 
 copy we possess of thiswork having been transcribed about 1480. It will, 
 
 5
 
 66 
 
 In the M. S. S. from the latter half of the 15th cent, this 
 plur. becomes more and more usual, and in those from the fol- 
 lowing this termination is used promiscuously with that in -e. 
 
 the unworthy cowartis Knychtis that fleis in batailis. Kng. 
 
 p. 21. — the ovdour of Knychthede, suld accorde to the 
 
 properties corporalis, and personalis as spiritualis ibm p. 32 '). 
 
 — we hawe sight spirituale — — and all Goddis workis uisi- 
 bilis and invisibilis ibm p. 45; be experience of utheris auth- 
 oris, Bel. proheme ; — ane cumpany of siclik young men fugi- 
 tivis as he wes ibm fol. 1. 
 
 Most frequently we find this termination added to the past. 
 part, of say: 
 
 j)e saidis lyneris sail Le. CV. pir forsaidis thyngis Le. CXYI. 
 
 — thare the saidis thre Persouns within the said Get, ressavit 
 the saids twa charges, qidiilks, Col. II. p. 1(>6. — This inflec- 
 tion long kept its ground in the language of Law and Cere- 
 mony *). 
 
 indeed, be shown that Wyut. added this ending to the pron. quhilk. 
 when it referred to a phu-al substantive. 
 
 ') With this we may compare: losse of oure goodes tem- 
 
 porales, Ch. p. 151, A. 
 
 *) Guest (1. c.) is of opinion tliat this curious inflection has its 
 ground in the writers' propensity to imitate the inflection of the Frencii 
 and Latin adject. The Frencli has, no doubt, iutluenced the S. E , but 
 it is not probable that it has given rise to this practice. There is, 
 indeed, an indigenous cause, lying at hand to produce it.' It has been 
 pointed out by Dr. GUEST himself, although he appear not to have 
 been aware of its consequence for the explanation of the adjectival pi. 
 in -is. It was, in the lltii and following cent., not unusual to qualify 
 one .substantive by another, tlie qualifying substant. always following 
 the oue (lualified. Chaucer, as well as Wicliffe, very often make use 
 of this construction, and there arc still some phrases preserved in the 
 modern English tiiat must be ranged under this class of idioms. Such 
 are: Knights-Templars; Knights-Hospitallers; Friars-Minors, etc. 
 
 This practice was common also to the Scotch writers: — come 
 
 — with and servandis Crekis and Egiptianis, IJel. fol. 1. 
 
 - Quhcn the vignerones labouraris had wroucht all the day Kng. p. 
 51. — When the substantive in this way had encroached upon the 
 adject., it is very natural, that a confusion of adject, aud subst. should
 
 fi7 
 
 The pronouns of the S. E. exhibit many discrepancies from 
 the corresponding ones found in the South-English writings of 
 the 14th and 15th centuries. Curious enough, the S. E. pro- 
 nouns agree in many points with those of modern English, while 
 tliose of Middle-South-Engiish much mure closely correspond 
 with the A. S. practice ; — still a proof of the forwardness of 
 the dialect of the North in point of linguistical development. 
 
 The pron. personal of 1 and 11 do not command a parti- 
 cular attention, as they throughout agree with the South-Eng- 
 lish ^). We shall therefore with respect to them only remark: 
 that you is in the Scotch writers never ') used as a nom. pi. 
 the regular ye always being maintained in its ancient riglit ^), 
 and that the is. twice or thrice, found for thou: 
 Ga hens 3). the Scot, the mekill dewill the speid. Wal. II, 93; 
 Thow sail nocht de the allane. Howl. XL. 
 
 ensue, in consequence of which the termination of the subst. was ad- 
 ded to the adject. 
 
 ^) In an extract from Wint. in SiBBALU's Chronicle of Scottish 
 Poetry, we find a for I. The devil says to St. Serf: 
 
 I ken {jau art a connand clerk : 
 to which the saint replies: 
 
 Gif a swa be — — 
 
 In M'Pherson's ed. it runs: Gywe I swa be, W. V, 12, 1244. 
 — As far as I know, only one M. S. of The Orygynah^ Cronykil of 
 W., that one preserved in the Advocates' Library, at Edinburgh, is to 
 be found. It is, therefore, probable that the reading of Sibbald is 
 only a misreading — his texts being generally very bad, and not the 
 least to be relied upon. — I have nowhere in Scotch writings, whe- 
 ther ancient or modern, found this form of the I pron. pcrs., which, if 
 I am not mistaken, only is current in some of the provincial dialects 
 of England. 
 
 ^) In pure Scotch I have only onco found ye used with preposit.: 
 Gif |n mail! man pay ye nocht — • — it is rycht leyfull to ye to take 
 pundis. Le. LIII. 
 
 ^) Concerning the English pronouns person., and the changes they 
 have undergone, the reader is referred to Dr. Guest's fine paper. 
 Proceed, of the Phil. Soci. I. p. 277. 
 
 ■■') As we shall have no opportunity to speak of the particles in 
 the text, some remarks will incidentally be given in the notes, when 
 our examples present forms worth noticing. • — Hens (= E. Hence) 
 
 5*
 
 68 
 
 Respecting the pron. of III pers., we observe that, in sg., 
 lie has had least to suffer, only having lost the ace, hine, in 
 the place of which the dat., him, has stept in. This change 
 appears to have been lirought about very early, for neither in 
 the Ps. nor in any of the other Scotch writings I have fallen 
 in with it. Heo, retained in the South-English romances, in 
 Syr Gawane, and Sir Tristreni, (in these works probablyo wing 
 to their having been transcribed in the South of England), but, 
 as far as I am aware of, out of use with Chaucer, is never 
 found in the S. E., which has substituted the demonst. seo, by 
 the Scotch always written: scho, for it. Passages where it oc- 
 curs will be given under the verbs. It has, further, cast away 
 the ace. hi (N. A. hia, hea), for which the dat. is used. — It, 
 in S. E., is seldom spelled: hit, as in the South-E. — The neut. 
 gen., his, I cannot with fu]l certainty affirm to have found : 
 
 Causis the eirth his fruits till express. Pal. pr. VIII *). 
 
 Respecting this example I must remark: that if the que- 
 stion were of a personification of the earth (which, not having 
 the book at hand, I cannot now make out), the Latin-bred Doug- 
 las would never have put the masc. His, if the true reading, 
 must be neut. But as the edition from which I quote this same 
 example is an exceedingly bad one, it is far from being certain 
 that it is not a mere printing-fault. — In Vir., however, we 
 find some instances where his really appears to be used in the 
 neut. gender: 
 
 Amyd the cite stude ane semly schaw 
 With hys maist plesand sobir schaddowis — 
 
 Vir. p. 49, 8. 
 
 and words of the same formation are very scarce, the ancient A. S. 
 forms hyuo etc. being of regular occurrence. Hence, thence etc. are 
 South-English, and imported into Scotland, where they make their ap- 
 pearance towards the end of the 15tl' century. 
 
 *) Of the two following instances the former seems to be a per- 
 sonification, the other a coustructio ad synesin : 
 
 The burning maist ambitious breist wald quite his noble fame. — 
 
 — • — the little childe   — 
 
 Casts downe his face. — Hm. p. 27.
 
 69 
 
 Thar is a place quliam the Grekis, thai say, 
 Onto hys name clepis Hesperia. 
 
 Vir. p. 54, 23. 
 Nocht for our tung is in the selwyn skant, 
 Bot for that I tlie fowth of laiigage want, 
 Quhar as the cullour of his properte 
 To kepe the sentens tharto constrenyt me 
 
 Vir. p. 7, 7. 
 The first instance of the gen. its I have met with is: 
 Ane vther cans siclike I wait ye ken 
 For to bring 1)ut its 111 thats not thair ben. S. S. pr. 
 
 In W., and the writers of the 1.5th cent., it is never found ; 
 these even very seldom use it with prepositions. Among the few 
 examples I have found are: 
 
 — gude justis begynnis at it selfe, Kng. p. 24. 
 
 — in itself, ibm p. 30. — in it, Ps. 117, 20. 
 
 Commonly the ^), in such constructions, is used in its stetid : 
 J)e swn — — 
 
 Is in tlie self bath lycht and clere. W. VIE, 37. 87. 
 And day be day fra all vertew decrest 
 Continuallie the self it ay opprest. S. S. p. 2. 
 Thay said the case that we can schaw to you 
 Into the self is wonder sorrowfow. S. S. p. 25. 
 
 — quhilk injust regiment is of the selfe fals. Kng. p, 49. 
 
 Of the A. S. pi. of this pron. — hi, hira, him — pretty 
 well preserved in the South-English romances, and, i^artly, still 
 in Chaucer, there is not a trace to be found in the Ps., and the 
 writings to the north of the Tweed. This we had to expect from 
 the very marked tendency of the N. A. to substitute forms of 
 the demonstrative [)aet, 8e, (Vu for the ancient pron. of the 
 third person. It seems probable that this practice may be ascribed 
 to the Scandinavian influence ; the Northern tongue, as far as 
 historically known, always having used forms of the demonstr. 
 |)at, sa, su, for the wanting neut. sg. and the pi. of the pron. 
 
 *) It is difficult to decide, if the here is to be considered a rem- 
 nant of the demonstrat. |je of the N. A., or only as the defiu. article, 
 self then being used substantively.
 
 70 
 
 of the third person. We have, however, ah-eady adverted to 
 the circumstance of the same substitution being used in the 0. 
 Friesian. 
 
 The following examples are chosen in such a way as to 
 show the different inodes of spelling the forms of this pron ^): 
 
 Genge fest are in forward {3at J3ai made ; 
 
 In jjis snare whilke j)ai hid swa 
 
 Gripen es j)e fote of pa. Ps. 9. 16. 
 
 Ses tou — • — 
 
 |3at in j)i hende j)aw gyve |)aim nou. Ps. 9, 35. 
 
 And he gaf j)am in bend of genge ma, 
 
 And laverdes ere of J3as pat hated pa. Ps. 105, 41. 
 
 In to j)ai laudis pat pai wan. W. II, 10. 40. 
 
 Ane of pai W. II, 8. 20. 
 
 Hys Bropir he slwe, and syn all pa 
 
 pat he couth trow. W. Ill, 8. 125. 
 
 — eftyre pa pis Etoyr gat. W. II, 10. 90. 
 All pai he had corruinpyd pan 
 
 Wyth gret gyftis, pan pat he 
 
 Hys accusatowris trowyd to be. W. VI, 14. 20. 
 
 — tretyd pe Scottis favorably, 
 
 And pame defendyd manly ly. W. VI, 8. 25. 
 Mak we four btitaillis of tha. Br. VIII, 285. 
 Mony gud man — — in till thai rowtis 
 men mycht t>i'. l)]-. IX. K). 
 
 — — liiglis suld pe Scottis prys, 
 
 And pai paim on the saniyn wys. W. Vlll. 35. 179. 
 
 We see from these examples that the dat. was m course of 
 supplanting the ancient ace, but had not yet won a complete 
 victory. I tiiink, however, that the ace. pa does not occur in 
 any uthcr Wdrks than the two quoted. 
 
 '') It is not unlikely tliat the S. E. practice was the cause oi hi 
 etc. being done away witii in the South-English. — For it is well linown 
 that the literary productions of tlie North, in many respects superior 
 to those ot the !^outh — which, until the time when Chaucer turned 
 the balance, were, one and all, translations from the French — had a 
 large public in the South.
 
 71 
 
 Respecting the reflect, proii. foiiued with self, we have not 
 here space for a full discussion of all the interesting questions 
 connected with the origin of such forms as: thyself, myself etc. 
 of the present English. We hope in coming years to be able 
 to treat this matter at large, having to that end collected a 
 great number of passages from S. E. as well as from South- 
 English authors. — We shall, therefore, here only give a few 
 instances showing forth the S. E. forms of these reflect.: 
 
 Hymself come j>are W. VIII, 35. 70. pa wyst na Rede 
 till ') help (jame — selwyn W. V, 9. 588. — be |)ame self 
 W. V. 10. 1286. — syk evill men as thame selff Kng. p. 34. 
 — bot be thame selvyn twane Vir. p. 195, 15. — thi selvyn 
 ibm p. 205. — Kan not hymselvyn hyde ibm p. 184, 6. — 
 The other prou. are formed in quite the same way. — PI. in-es, 
 do not occur, or but very solitarily, until the time of Knox 
 when this termination began to supersede the ancient ones. 
 
 Passing to the possessive pron., we remark that they are 
 the same as in the present English *). We shall therefore not 
 make a stay to account for their forms ; whereas some other pe- 
 culiarities in their use call for attention. In A. S. some posses- 
 sive pron. were declined as indefin. adject., while others (the 
 gen. of the third person) were used unchanged. The ancient 
 practice, although of course not without confusion, was kept up 
 in the dialects originated in the A. S. Thus, we generally find 
 min, thin, owr, yhour, when combined with subst. in pL, taking 
 the plural -e. But already in the period of decay of the A. S. 
 the inflection of the possess, proved yet more progressive, when the 
 
 ') Here we observe that till is by W. more often used before the 
 infint. than to; in the other Scotch authors the one is found as often 
 as tlio other. 
 
 ') My and thy, often speHed mi (mi occurs in the Leg.; {jo do- 
 men of mi kinedom p. 78), thi, are of frequent occurrence in the Ps. 
 and W. — What is the origin of these two possessives — wanting in 
 A. S.V Are they the Gaelic mo (my), do (thy); or the curtailed uiin. 
 jiiii (here we remark the N. A. tendency to drop the »)> oi'i original- 
 ly, tlie dat. me, [ie (it may be fancied that the dat. personal, in the 
 laps<' of time, has become a poss.)? — - In every case, it is certain that 
 the present diphthongal sound of y is of later growth.
 
 72 
 
 genit. of the tliird person were more and more considered as 
 adjectives, and, consequently, used with adjectival terminations. 
 In the Legend of St. Kath. from Alex, we read: 
 
 to jje temple, in [je tun 
 
 of hise heaSene godes. p. 4. 
 
 Poi-phire and alle hise. p. 1"21. 
 
 — hise Lerning cnihhtess Orm. 1. 178'20. 
 
 Swiftly reunes sagh hisse. Ps. 147, 15. 
 
 This form has however become obsolete in the Scotch au- 
 thors, at least am I not aware of its 6ccuri"ing in any one of 
 those I have had opportunit}'^ of perusing. This is very natu- 
 ral, as the e more and more lost its quality of termination. 
 
 We have still to mention the practice of imparting the ter- 
 mination -is to the possess, pron., and in tliis way to produce 
 a double inflection, of the same kind as in some adjectives al- 
 ready mentioned. — In the earliest writings these pronouns are 
 used absolutely in the same forms as they have, when determin- 
 ing substantives. But the double inflection is also found very 
 early, and its use seems dependent on the same want of deter- 
 mination, which has produced analogous phenomena in the Ger- 
 man and Scandinavian languages *). — A few examples may 
 suffice : 
 
 All hale my Landis sail yhowris be. W. VIII, 18. 79. 
 
 J3e Victory ay pairis was. W. VIII, 27. 190. 
 
 But magre |)airris ibm 38. 197. 
 
 Bot opir Lordis, {)at war by, 
 
 Sayd he had fillyd fullyly 
 
 His Baggis, and |jairris tume war ibm 40. 93. 
 
 Thus, all the other possess, that in present English have 
 the same forms. 
 
 ') Cf. the 8w. cU'i-as, dcssas: the Germ, tlessen, dcren. — The last 
 inflection, probably originating in the detin. doclons. of the A. 8. ad- 
 ject., is, according to Dr. Guest (1. c. p. 69) also found in Wicliflfe's 
 tran.slation of the Bible .- 
 
 — — the kingdom of hovenos is herun Mt. 5. — and some of ouren 
 wentcn to the grauc Luc. 24. • — and still in use among the lower clas- 
 ses of the English people: his'n, her'u, their'n.
 
 73 
 
 Of the A. S. demonstr. pronouns, j)aet, se, sec, has best re- 
 tained its forms in modern English. Still it has lost conside- 
 rably, and that already in the most ancient monuments. Se and 
 seo have disappeared as demonst.; the former never more to be 
 seen, the latter, as scho ^), overtaking the part of the lost pron. 
 pers. hio, the oblique cases of which continued being used, while 
 those of seo became antiquated. The pi. serves in W. and the 
 Ps. both as demonst. and as pron. pers. Towards the end of 
 the 15th century the former application appears gradually to 
 liave been given up -). — The introduction of they, as pron. 
 pers., in the South-English may with reason be assigned to a 
 Northern influence; for liad it in South-England originally been 
 applied as pron. pers. it would probably have been spelled tho. 
 
 — in jjai dayis W. V, 8. 231 ; Kyng wes in pk ^) landis 
 W. IV, 8. 40; And be mon at queme sal (ja speches Ps. 18, 
 5. — And of tha worclis quhilkis the goddis gan say Vir. p. 
 137, 19; Tha landis quhilkis were for ws provyde Vir. p. 150, 
 21;thaye dayis Kng. p. 34; Bel. fol. 3; with part of thay lan- 
 dis Bel. f. 1. — A. A. 1. 315, we read: The wynde and the 
 wedyrs pane welkin in hydis ; where |)ane, in all probability, 
 is the old ace. masc. I have thought it worth noticing here, 
 as the verse has quite a Scotch contenance. 
 
 The other demonst., {)is, |)es, peos, has given up the two 
 latter forms, and uses this for all genders, quite as in the South- 
 English. Its plur., [)as*), (the spelling those is undoubtedly of 
 
 ») We remember from the N. A. that sio very seldom occurs in 
 the Gl. It is therefore rather somewhat curious to find it, in the S. 
 E.. instead of hio ; the N. A. practice inducing us to expect a word 
 deriving from cJio- 
 
 It is however (see the examples), now and then, fallen in with 
 in the writings of the 16tii cent. 
 
 3) In the South- English this J)a — in conformity with the com- 
 mon practice of changing A. S. a into o — has become J30: — sle all 
 tho children Dig. p. 7; for 1 do euermore |do ]jingis. Wic. Joh. 8. In 
 this form it is sometimes found in the S. E.: He wore one of tho CI. 
 n. 164. — It is also met with in G. K. and A. A., and is everywhere 
 a sure sign of Southern influence. 
 
 *) We think it not quite out of place here to make a remark on 
 the formation of the Engl, these, although this form be wanting in the
 
 74 
 
 a Southern origin) was scarcely current in S. E. Traces of in- 
 flection, except the final c, are never met with. Thas occurs in 
 the Ps.: 
 
 j)as jjat in me rises nou 
 
 Scheut mote |.ai be. Ps. 108, 28. 
 
 And laverdes ere of pas j)at hated j)a Ps. 105, 41. 
 but in all S. E. authors, whose language has not been worked 
 upon by the Southern dialects, I am not aware of it *). The 
 dialect has in thir a pronoun which always is used for thas as 
 well as for these : 
 
 all thir fowlis Howl. V. ilkane oi' |)ire wes crownyd Kyng 
 W. Vll, :]. 38. For mony of pir Kyngis lyis W. VI, 10, 50. 
 Of j.ire Papys successywe W. V, 0. 456. Thir commodites 
 quhilkis ar Bel. ch. V. — The examples show that it also takes 
 a fuial c ^). 
 
 Neither in llie N. A. nor in the W. S. there is anything 
 corresponding to this pronoun, and the explanation of Chalmers 
 
 strictly speaking Scotch authors. This was in the South-English very 
 early treated as his, that is to say, it was inflected by adding a tiual 
 e (see White's cd. of Ormul. I. 158, 170, ;i31, etc.), to the influence 
 of which the long c of these probably is to he ascribed. We must, 
 however, observe, that e is affixed also when it does not determine a 
 substantive in pi.: 
 
 Jjat sent his speche til erthe jiisse, 
 Swiftly renues sagh liisse. Ps. 147, 15 
 and that it is left out even when this is the case: |ms pingis Wicl. 
 joh. 8. — With other writers Ave And it spelled in difi'ercut ways, but 
 in general so as to note the length of its vowel. Wicl. himself often 
 writes it: jjes, and in other writers it is spelled: thys, theis, etc., with 
 or without a flnal e. 
 
 ^) Those made, however, in the 16th cent, such inroads upon the 
 S. E. tiiat it is found even in Lindesay, who, in my opinion, is one 
 of the purest Scotch writers that exist, and throughout keeps his 
 promise : 
 
 Quharefore to eoilearis, carteris and to eukis, 
 
 To Jok and Thom my ryme sail be dircokit; 
 
 With eunnyng men howbeit it will be lackit. 
 '■) 1 am not aware of this word in the Ps.; it occurs in G. G. 
 and A. A., but not in G. K • - see the Gloss, affixed to Sir Fred. 
 Madoen's Syr Gawayne.
 
 75 
 
 (see p. 56) being unacceptable, it is, I think, necessary to ad- 
 mit of its importation from Scandinavia, where we precisely find 
 tiie pi. jieir closely agreeing wit jiir of the S. E. 
 
 The interrog. and the rel. pronoun are in the S. E. the 
 same as in the South-English, the difference being referrible to 
 the differences of vowel-change and consonant-dropping already 
 accounted for p. 60. At the same occasion we have men- 
 tioned the Scotch practice of substituting (pih for wh '). The 
 A. S. wha, what, consequently become: quha, quhat. with a 
 long and broad a. Forms with o occur in anglicizing authors. 
 
 The use of the relative quhilk has some peculiarities very 
 characteristic of tlie dialect. It becomes quhilkis, when it refers 
 to a plural or collective substantive. The first instance of this 
 practice is : 
 
 Contenand hale thre thowsand yhere 
 Nyne scowre and foure ourpassyt clere 
 The qhuilkys as Orosius 
 Intyl his Cornyclis tellys us. W. II. pr. 9. 
 
 In W. it is, however, very seldom inflected. But towards 
 (he end of the 15th century the practice becomes more and more 
 general *), and in the works of the 16th it is nearly a rule: 
 
 All broustaris jje qidiilkis sellis ale — — and all hukstaris 
 {)e quhilkis byis and sellis. Le. LXVII ^). Na man aw to be 
 hingyt for les price |3an for twa shceip of the quhilkis ilkane 
 is worth XVI de. A. K. W. XIII. The quhilkis was excusit to 
 
 ') This pronunciation is still to bf heard iu the streets of Edin- 
 burgh. 
 
 '") In the Howl it is never inflected, and in the Br. and Wal. 
 but sparingly. In Dunbar, Douglas, Bel., Lindsay, etc. nearly throughout. 
 
 O Assise Regis Willelnii, IX, stands: • — sa that he will nocht cum 
 to jugement, his lord of fie qhuilkis he haldis sail tak. — GURST, I 
 think in Pliil. Proceed., I, has remarked that the preposition of in the 
 Mid. English soiwetimes governs a gen. This seems to be the case 
 here. I have fallen in with a not inconsiderable number of similar 
 constructions, which I hope in coming days to get an opportunity of 
 publishing along with a good deal of other observations on the 8. E. 
 as well as the South-Enghsh.
 
 76 
 
 V 
 
 nocht laboure Kng. p. 12. Facuud epistillis quilks quhilum 
 Ovid wrait. Pal. II, 5. Grant that these instxamients of shame 
 Quhilks dayly do offend. Ilm. p. 4. 
 
 Quliilkis charteris war gravyn in nierbyll. Bel. f. IX. 
 
 Before leaving the pronouns we give a few passages where 
 at (see p. 54) occurs as a relat.: 
 
 I the defy, power and all the la iff 
 
 At helpis the her, off thi fals natioun. Wal. VI, 380. 
 
 Rycht Weill he trowit — — 
 
 It was sum dewill at sic malice began. Wal. V, 199. 
 
 — fre wyll to do 
 
 That at hys hart hyra drawis to Br. I. 247. 
 
 For more examples see Jajiies. Diction., under at. 
 
 We now pass on to make an account of the S. E. verbs. 
 We observe at the first glance tliat they are true descendants 
 of the 0. N. Anglic, but, ot course, have" undergone considerable 
 changes, and lost a good deal of what in that dialect they did 
 still possess. The Complex Order exhibits many peculiarities in 
 which it differs from the South-English, and is well worth the 
 attention of the philologist. But, as the space of our dis- 
 sertation is very limited, we must confine ourselves to producing 
 some few of them in a note, without even being able to give 
 them in all the requisite forms *). The tendency of these verbs 
 
 ') byde 
 
 . 
 
 bad (baid) 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 (break) 
 
 — 
 
 brak 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 creip 
 
 — 
 
 crap 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 climb 
 
   — 
 
 ciamb 
 
 — 
 
 clumben 
 
 cum 
 
 — 
 
 com 
 
 — 
 
 cumyn 
 
 can 
 
 — 
 
 couth (could' 
 
 » — 
 
 — 
 
 fynd 
 
 — 
 
 fand 
 
 — 
 
 fvvndyn 
 
 ga 
 
 — 
 
 (yhode) 
 
 — 
 
 gayne 
 
 get 
 
 • — 
 
 gat 
 
 — 
 
 gottyn 
 
 let 
 
 — • 
 
 luit 
 
 — 
 
 ^_^ • 
 
 (leap) 
 
 • — 
 
 lap 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 lyg 
 
 • — 
 
 lay 
 
 . — 
 
 — 
 
 reif 
 
 — 
 
 raif 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ryde 
 
 — 
 
 rade 
 
 — 

 
 77 
 
 to pass over into the Simple Order, which we observed in the 
 Glosses, has however not been dormant during the long inter- 
 val of time that falls between the redaction of the North-Ang- 
 lic Glosses and the composition of the earliest S. E. writings. 
 We can no more give a complete account of these recruits of 
 the Simple Order. But we remark that a good number of verbs, 
 which in Chaucer, and other South-English writers, in the 14th 
 and 15th centuries, still retain their strong conjugation, in the 
 S. E. are used as belonging to the Simple Order. As example 
 of this transformation the following verbs, taken from Ps. 17, 
 may serve : 
 
 uragriped me weeles of quede (A. S. gripan, grap) v. 5. 
 Fra face of wicked J)at twinged me swa v. 9. 
 He helded heuens, and doune come he (A. S. healdan, heold) v. 10. 
 j)ai onfanged me als lioun v. 12. 
 
 In heringe of ere me boghed he (A. S. bugan, beah) v. 45. 
 Outen sones to me lighed |jai (A. S. licgan, laeg) v. 46. 
 
 It may, however, be remarked that the Ps. in this respect 
 ffoes still fax-ther than the Scotch. — 
 
 The two A. S. substantive verbs wesan and beon, N. A. 
 wosa and bian, have, in modern English, both lost their existence 
 in their own right, and coalesced to one word. In the language 
 of the Middle-Ages this has already taken place, although not 
 so completely as later. From the Scotch authors I cannot give 
 any instances of ivosa occurring in the subj. pres., imperat., in- 
 fin., and participles. We observe that is occurs not only in 
 III pres. indie, but also in the pi. ^): 
 
 quak • • — 
 
 quouke 
 
   — 
 
 — 
 
 (swear) — 
 
 swar(swour) 
 
 — 
 
   — 
 
 (strive) — 
 
 strave 
 
 • — 
 
 — 
 
 smyte 
 
 siiiate 
 
   — 
 
 — 
 
 tyte(to lose) — 
 
 tyt 
 
   — 
 
 — 
 
 wade — 
 
 woud 
 
 — 
 
 • — 
 
 walkyn — 
 
 wok 
 
 • — 
 
 — 
 
 will — 
 
 wald 
 
 • — 
 
   — 
 
 (write) — 
 
 wrayt 
 
 — 
 
 • — 
 
 wyu • — 
 
 wan 
 
 — 
 
 wonnyn 
 
 (yield) — 
 
 yhald 
 
   — 
 
 — " 
 
 ^) Methinks I have also met with it used in II sg., and according
 
 78 
 
 Sen your niindis is to have ane person. Bel. f. HI. — 
 At ane eb se the Scottish is on thaym gayne Wal. YI, 1072. 
 his fah)wis that now is Kug. p. 31. Wyth wisdome and wyli- 
 ness thay wii'k and is as laith thair honestie to tine S. S. p. 
 Iii5. Mony divers thyngis now here is Y. M. 
 
 In the same way, and quite in accordance with the genius 
 of the dialect, we find ?,/'«.§ (ives) used: 
 
 Tlie Inglismen was off the touue cummande Wal. Y, 12. 
 Quhat worthy lordis thar was Howl. XXIV. 
 
 The common plurals, however, are are and tvar. — The are 
 of modern English is, without any doubt, imported from the S. 
 E., as this plur. occurs nowhere in the W. S., is not found in 
 the earlier IVIiddle-English writings, and, compared with ben, is 
 but sparingly used by Chaucer, where he does not expressly 
 imitate the Northern dialect, which sometimes is the case. 
 
 The only forms of be. which I cousid^v as pure Scotch are 
 bcis, pres. and imperat., tlie apocopated be, the part. pres. 6mwf/ 
 and past bei)i. The form bein (spelled in different ways) al- 
 though found in CI., and other works of the same kind, is un- 
 doubtedly South-English, as the formation of a pres. pi. in -??, 
 as will soon be shown, is totally unknown to the Scotch pro- 
 per. Beis and be are used for all persons, in both nund)ers, 
 and generally convey a future sens ^). 
 
 He askyt leyff with thar lywis to ga 
 
 ^Vallace denjnt, and said it beis nocht sa. \Yal. IX. 184(5. 
 
 Ye have *) me laid to sloip or it he uiclit. CI. I, 7t)H. 
 
 For will ye are in this estait, perfay. 
 
 Sir, ye be seikand aventuris ay. CI. I, 835. 
 
 This day for in faith he beis nocht socht. Wal. 434. 
 
 to Gaknett, Philol. Essays, p. 72, it is in Yorkshire presently used 
 for all persons of the sg. 
 
 '■') 1 leave to the decision of the grammarians, if tliis, in a cer- 
 tain degree, is not still the casr with be in modern Engl. Fome gram- 
 marians, at least, never permit its being used, when the sense to be 
 expressed is not a future one. Cf. Hakiii.son, The Rise, Progress, and 
 present Structure of the Engli.sli Language, p. 279. 
 
 *) Have is undoubtedly a Southern form, the true Seoteli being: 
 hes. —
 
 79 
 
 Fyrst I protest, beau Schin-is, be your leif, 
 
 Beis Weill avisit my wark or yhe repreif. Vir. p. H, 25. 
 
 Bath the parties beaud personally present, — 
 
 the lordis auditoris decretis — quot. Jamies. s. beaud. 
 
 Thir wourdis beand said ibm. 
 
 Not being able to give an account of the other S. E. auxili- 
 aries, as this would take up to much place, the subject being 
 Ijoth rich and interesting, we pass on to the regular vei-bs. 
 
 A tendency to throw off the derivative vowels was already 
 observed in the N. A. Its work is done in the S.-E. so that 
 theie is not a trace left of these vowels, but there reigns a uni- 
 formity as complete as ruin can effect it. 
 
 The I pres. ind. terminated, in N. A., in a vowel; this 
 vowel, changed into e, is often retained, but as often dropt. Such 
 is also the case in the South-English, and we therefore consi- 
 der it quite superfiiMis t« produce examples in order to prove 
 that it existed in the S. E. Sometimes, however, this person 
 takes the same termination, -is, as the others : 
 
 I askis help Howl. IX; whilk was hir awin varlat — as 
 I thinkis CI. II, 212 ; I set — — and spekis as I lernyt Yir. 
 p. B, 27; Syn I defend and forbiddis every wight Vir. p, 12, 21. 
 is occurs throughout in II sg. pres. aid : 
 Thow Scot to quhom takis thow this thing. Wal. I, 85 ; 
 Thinks thow no schaym. Wal. VIII, 399; 
 The III pers. always ends in the same way : 
 Thair staudis into the sycht of Troy ane ile Vir. p. 72, 
 15 ; but in the anglicizing authors — Douglas, Knox, Hume, 
 etc. . — we very often fall in with -th. 
 
 The pi. ends, in all pers., in -is: We castis ws evir till 
 othir besyness Wal. I, 4H4 ; 
 
 Sum grathis fast the thak and rufe of tre ; 
 
 And sum about delvys the fowsy deip : 
 
 Sum chesis officeris the lawys for to kepe. Vir. p. 48, 10. 
 
 And mortal weris contempnys and comptes nocht, 
 
 Belewis weill yit than, and have in thocht. Vir. p. 55, 13. 
 
 All men spekis of my cmeltie. CI. II, 152.
 
 80 
 
 This pi., the more full pi. termination of the A. S. in aS, 
 of the N. A. in -as (es) is — there written -eth *) — also 
 found in the Middle-English. But beside this pi., it had an- 
 other in en, probably grown out of a confusion of indie, and 
 subjunct. This pi. we find sometimes used by S. E. authors, 
 but never by the true Scotch; whereas it frequently occurs in 
 A. A. and G. G., and seems to be a I'ule in G. K. and Syr 
 Tx'istrem. 1 dare not, however, assert, that in those works it is 
 throughout a consequence of their having been transcribed in 
 the South of England. For this pi. termination is, indeed, also 
 current in the Ps.: 
 
 Noght pat wickness wirken ai 
 In his waies yhoden (jai. 118, 3. 
 Bot we |3at liven, Laverd we blisse. 113, 18. 
 jjat dreden Lavei'd, saye [jai. 117, 4. 
 In every case, it is to be remembered^ that in the N. A. 
 Glosses the pi. subj. pres. never terminates in -n, but in a 
 vowel. 
 
 Besides their taking the termination -is, we often find the 
 verbs, in III sg. as well as pi., without any termination at all. 
 In what concerns the pi., this practice — agreeing with the prac- 
 tice of modern English — derives from the A. S. apocopated 
 pi. termination. Methinks two examples may suffice : 
 Eftyre liim dar na man ga. Br. II, ofil. 
 We lyft' int.) sa mekill dreid. Br. II. 710. 
 Respecting the ^vowel-termination of the subj. pres. I dare 
 not affirm anything for sure. For the affixing and dropping of 
 the final c are not bound to any fixed rules. Besides, we see 
 in S. E. as in modern English, the indie, constantly used, 
 even when a contingency is implied. For this reason, it is nearly 
 
 ^) This termination, softem-d iuto -e.s', is still current among the 
 lower classes of the Kn^ilish people. I remember having seen, in some 
 work of Dickens' or l?iihvcr's, a bouts expressing himself: we takes 
 iu the Times, but they takes in the Morning Star; a mode of expres- 
 sion which, in an historical point of view, is quit*; as correct as the 
 use of the apocopated A. f^. pi. 
 
 i
 
 81 
 
 always impossilile to make out, if we have a subj. or only a 
 not inflected indie, before us. 
 
 The pret. indie, terminates in the Ps. always in -ed, and 
 in W. often in -yde (=: ide): 
 
 Dydo fyrst gert formyd be 
 And wallyd welle pat gryte cyte ; 
 Hyr gudame lufyde Eneas ; W. Ill, 3. 165. 
 (See also the quotations from W. already given in the pre- 
 ceding). 
 
 In Bruce and Wallace -t ^) has been substituted for d; the 
 vowel being generally i (y): 
 
 And thar schip thai lychtyt sone: 
 And rowyt syn with all thar mycht ; 
 And scho, that swa wes maid lycht, 
 Raykyt slidand throw the se. Br. Ill, 90. 
 
 This termination has always kept its ground in the Scotch, 
 and continues still being used. — II sg. terminates in -is: 
 — thow hechtis till hyng me. Wal. V, 750. 
 But generally it is usf d without termination : 
 
 The barde worth brane wod, and bittei^y couth ban, • 
 How Corby messinger, quoth he, with sorrow now syngis, 
 Thow ischit out of Noyes ark, and to the erd wan, 
 Taryit as a traytour, and brocht ^) na tythiugis. Howl. LXIH. 
 In the quotation given a little before, from Br., we saw 
 that the preter. indie, has the same form in sg. as in pi., the 
 termination -en of the Middle-South-Eughsh being entirely un- 
 known to the Scotch proper. From the N. A. Glosses, there 
 was reason to suppose that this also would be the case in North- 
 umberland. But in the Ps. pret. are found terminating in 
 -en: In his waies yhoden [jai. Ps. 118, 3. Those instances, 
 however, are very rare, and in general the pret. behaves in the 
 Ps. in the true Scotch way. — The preter. subj. falls together 
 with the indie. — 
 
 ^) Concerning this t, we refer to the iustances, given p. 22, of the 
 same cousonant occurring in the weak past part, of the N. A. 
 
 *) In the same way, the strong verbs invariably stick to the A. 
 S practice. 
 
 6
 
 82 
 
 The terminations of the imperat. are to be seen in the fol- 
 lowing passages: 
 
 Harkis, Ladies, your bewte was the caws ; 
 Harkis, knychtis, the wod fury of Mart; 
 Wys men, attendis mony sorofull claws; 
 
 And ye dj^ssavoris, reid heir your proper art. Yir. p. 71, 15; 
 Consider it warly, reid oftar than anys. Vir. p. (j, 25 ; 
 He said grymeand (?) hyngis and drawys. Br. Ill, 550; 
 Tharfor, he said, atour all thing 
 Kepys you fra disparyng. Br. II. 594. 
 
 The imperat. terminat. -is is the A. S. -a(i, N. A. -as, with 
 the a softened into i. 
 
 Respecting the infiu. of the S. E. verbs, we observe that, 
 agreeing with the practice of the N. A. Glosses, it throughout 
 wants the final n '). Of the gerund, still found in the Glosses, 
 there is not a trace left in the Scotch works. In the Ps. there 
 are one or two instances to be found: 
 
 Alle blis of him to biginne, 
 
 Doghtres of kinges fra withinne. Ps. 44, 14. 
 
 The gerund was to be dispensed with, but a partic. pre- 
 sent no language can do without, and should it, in one way 
 or another, happen to disappear there must be provided a sub- 
 stitute to fill up the vacant office. Thus, the South-English, ha- 
 ving slighted the ancient A. S. part. pres. in — ende, was for- 
 ced to have recourse to the verbal nouns in -ing. These are, 
 indeed, already in Layamon's Brut used for the true part. pres. »). 
 In the dialect north of the Humber, the A. S. partic. here, in 
 accordance with the N. A. Glosses, written — and, sturdily kept 
 its ground, and, as will be shown, even encroached upon the ter- 
 ritory of the derivatives in -ing. 
 
 We give some instances of its occurring in Scotch works 
 of the 15tb and KUli anturies: 
 
 ') Three or four instances of -n in fhe infin. may, however, bo 
 quoted from the Ps. iind the Scotch authors. — Concerning thodisap- 
 poarinfr of the gerund cf. Sir F. Madden, Layamon's Brut, I. p. XLIX. 
 
 ') Cf Sir r. Madden 1. c. p. LI.- Some information about 
 tiiiH matter may also be iiad in HoKNE Tooke'.s Diversions of Purley, 
 (Pd. 1800), p. XXXIX.
 
 83 
 
 And thiggand and pouer am I Ps. 39, 18 ; 
 
 Sextene yhere he wes lyvand W. VI, 8. 20 ; 
 
 Raykyt slidand throw the se Br. Ill, 93 ; 
 
 The scherand suerd glaid to the colar bane. Wal. I, 414 ; 
 
 Thai apperit fair farrand and fre Howl, XII ; 
 
 Throw skaldand fyr ay as thay skippit Db. Dance; 
 All birnaud full of bricht stonis deir CI. I, 24. 
 Thai delvand fand. Vir. p. 49, 12. 
 
 These may suffice to prove the existence of this form during 
 the mentioned time. — In the South-English it died away very 
 early, and is only exceptively fallen in with in Chaucer. 
 
 As examples of the practice to put the part, in -and in- 
 stead of vei'bal nouns in -ing, the following may serve : 
 
 And al jjine offrand mined he Ps. 19, 2 ; Offres offrand of 
 rightwisnesse Ps. 4, G tythandis Howl. XI; Br. IV, 747; — 
 maid gud sembland ^) for to fycht Br. VI, 711 ; Till slepand 
 men that walkand was nocht soft Wal. VII, 440. 
 
 But the nouns in -ing did not fail to take their revenge on 
 the participles for this encroachment. From the South, they 
 came on accoutred as part, pres., and the ancient participle 
 was soon borne down, however, not without gallantly defending 
 every inch of its ground. In the Ps., W., Br., Wal., Howl., not 
 the least trace of it is to be found; in Kng. a single one: the 
 hewing ax p. 23. But in the same degree we advance in 
 time, the instances go on continually increasing. With Douglas 
 and Dunbar the part, in -ing are yet inferior in number to the 
 true ones. In Bel. it is already the inverse, and in the works 
 of Knox and Hume I do not think it possible to pick up a 
 single part, m-and. It is done away with in the Broad Scotch 
 of the pi'esent day, whose part. pres. in-in, no doubt, is identical 
 with -ing. 
 
 Before laying down our pen, and, for a time at least, ta- 
 king leave of the Scotch dialect, we may be permitted to set 
 forth some final reflexions on our subject. — We have shown 
 that the North- Anglic, as it is presei'ved in the monuments we 
 
 ") This rather reminds of the French phrase: faire semblant.
 
 84 
 
 possess, was, in many respects, differing from the West-Saxon. 
 We have, further, tried to show that this diversity was not the 
 consequence of Scandinavian settlements in the North of Eng- 
 land, but depending on a cause lying deeper than in an exter- 
 nal influence. — We have, further, seen that the S. E. dialect is 
 the true descendant of the N. A., and that it bears on it all 
 characteristic marks of the latter, due allowance made for chan- 
 ges which a develoj)ment, or, if you like it more, a decay of 
 some centuries had carried along with it, and, from an internal 
 necessity, inherent in all languages, must carry along with it. — 
 The true period of the S. E., as a literary dialect, falls in the 
 14th and 15th centuries; the purest specimens of it are the Ps. 
 and W. In Br. and Wal., the Howl, and Kng., it had already 
 taken up some scraps from the Southern tongue. This is very 
 natural, and is to be explained, partly, by the custom of the 
 Scotch clerks of repairing to the English Universities, partly, 
 from the rise of Chaucei-, who to more Scotsmen than Douglas was : 
 
 " — — venerabill Chauser principal poiit hut peir, 
 
 Hevenly trurapat, orlege, and reguler. 
 
 In eloquens balmy, cyndyt and dyall, 
 
 Mylky fontane, cleir strand, and roys i-yall — " 
 
 whom every wight had the right to imitate and rob. Par- 
 ticularly, we see that his influence has been great with Douglas, 
 who even, in a certain degree, acknowledges his obligations to the 
 Southern tongue, '\vhere the Scottis wes scant." 
 
 Thus, we find him repeatedly make use of the prefix y- in 
 the past part., although this is totally unknown to Ps., W., and 
 the true Scotch authors. — Chaucer, however, had much earlier 
 begun to destroy the S. E. James I was an ardent client 
 of his, and particularly the Kings Quair, swarming with Angli- 
 cisms as it is, can scarcely be considered a Scotch poem *). But 
 the encroachments of the Southern speech proceeded on a still 
 larger scale in tlie latter portion of the Ifith century. If the 
 
 ') At all events, it is a pity that the lovers of Middle -English 
 poetry do not possess a good editiou of the works of James I. — I 
 hope, however, that my honoured friend Dr. J. A. Carlyle will soon 
 publish the edition he for some years has been preparing.
 
 85 
 
 Anglicisms are rare in Dunbar, Douglas, and Bellenden, the 
 Scotticisms are rare in the works of Knox, Hume, and othei-s ; 
 and Scotland had during this time scarcely more than one emi- 
 nent literary character who wrote a language that has only a 
 slight sprinkling of English. Only for that reason, he would 
 have deserved Sir Walter Scott's rescue from an oblivion into 
 which he undeservedly liad fallen : 
 
 "Still is thy name in high account 
 And still thy verse has charms, 
 
 Sir David Lindesay of the Mount, 
 Lord Lion King-at-arms !" 
 
 Still there were books printed in Scotch, but these were all 
 of an inferior value as literary productions. — Characteristic 
 enough, we meet with a Collection of Scottish Prophecies (many 
 of which are ascribed to Thomas the Rhymer) printed in the 
 last years of the 16th cent., and being, although it must chiefly 
 have been destined for the lower population, in as good Eng- 
 lish as many works printed to the South of the Tweed. 
 
 In the first years of the following century, the Scotch court 
 was removed to England. And, although James, the first of 
 England and the sixth of Scotland, still, at least to judge from 
 the Fortunes of Nigel, "spak Braid Scotch," its doom was sealed 
 as a language of Court and — Literature.
 
 Abbreviatious. 
 
 Al. : The buik of the most vailzaud conquerour Alexander the Great. 
 Edinburgh, 1831, 4:o. 
 
 Br.: The Bruce and (Wal.) Wallace. Published by Dr. J. Jameson, 
 2 vol. Edinburgh; 1820, 4:o. 
 
 Bel.: H. Boethii Cronyklis of Scotland, translatit by Bellenden. 1536; fol. 
 
 Ch. : The Canterbury Tales of Geoffrey Chaucer. A new text with 
 illustrative notes by THOMAS WRIGHT. London and Glasgow. 8:o. 
 
 CI.: Clariodus, a metrical Romance (ed. by Dav. Irving). Edinb. 
 1830, 4:0. 
 
 Col. : Collections Relating to the History of Mary Queen of Scotland 
 by James Anderson Esq. 4 vol. Edinburgh, London, 1727 — 
 28; 4:0. 
 
 Db. : The Poems of William Dunbar. Edited by Mr. DAVID Laing. 
 Edinburgh, 1834; 8:o. 
 
 Dig.: Ancient Mysteries from the Digby M. S. S. Edinb. 1835; 4:o. 
 
 Gaw.: Syr Gawayne; A Collection of Ancient Romance Poems by 
 Scotish and English authors; ed. by Sir Fred. Madden. Lon- 
 don 1839; 4:0. G. K. : Syr Gawayne and The Grene Knyzt; A. A.: 
 The aAvntyrs of Arthure at the Terne Wathelynne; G. G.: The 
 Knightly Tale of Golagros and Gawane. 
 
 Hm. : Hume (Alex.) Hymns and Sacred Songs. Edinb. 1832 ; 4:o. 
 
 Howl.: Holland: The buke of the Howlat; ed. by Mr. David Laing. 
 Edinb. 1823; 4:o. 
 
 Kn. : The works of John Knox; edited by Mr. David Laing. Edin- 
 burgh 1846; 8:0. 
 
 Kng.: The Buke of the Order of Knyghthood. Translated from the 
 French by Sir Gilbert Hay, Knight. Edinburgh, 1849; 4:o. 
 
 Le.: Leges quatuor burgorum, andA. R. W. : Assise Regis Willelmi, 
 in: Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland, vol. 1. 
 
 Leg. : The Legend of St. Katherine from Alexandria. London, 1841 ; 4:o. 
 
 Ls. : The Poetical Works of Sir David Lyndsay of the Mount. Edited 
 by George Chalmers. London, 1806. 3 vol. 8:o. 
 
 Li.: Die Vier Evangelien in Alt-Nordhumbrischer Sprache. Heraus- 
 gegeben von K. W. BOUTERWEK. Giitcrsloh, 1857; 8:o.
 
 Li. St.: The Lindisfarnc and (Rush.:) Rushworth Gospels. Ed. by 
 
 Rev. Joseph Stevekson. Durham 1854; 8:0. 
 Orm.: The Ormulura. Ed. by Rev. K. M. White. Oxford, 1852. 2 
 
 vol. 8:0. 
 Pal.: Select Works of Gawin Douglas. Perth, 1787. 12:o. 
 (Ps.); (Anglo-Saxon and) Ps: Early English Psalter. Edit, by Rev. 
 
 Joseph Stevenson. London, 1843. 2 vol. 8:o. 
 Rit.: Rituale Eeclesise Dunclnicnsis. Ed. by Rev. Joseph Stevenson. 
 
 Durham, 1840. 8:o. 
 Rob. and Mak. : Robine and Makyne by Robert Henryson. Edinburgh, 
 
 1824. 4:0. 
 S. S.: The sevin Seages by John Rolland. Edinburgh, 1837. 4:o. 
 Thorpe: jja Halgan Godspel on Englisc. Edited from the original 
 
 M. S. S. by Benjamin Thorpe, F. S. A. London, 1842; 8:o. 
 Yir. : Virgilii ^neis. Translated by Gawin Douglas. Edited by George 
 
 DUNDAS and Andr. Rutherford. Edinburgh 1839. 2 vol. 4:o. 
 
 The quotations refer all to vol. 1. 
 W. : Wyntowu's Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland. Edited by David 
 
 M'Pherson. London, 1795. 2 vol. 4:o and 8:o. 
 Y. M.: An extract from the York Mysteries printed in Garnett's Phil. 
 
 Ess. p. 192. — A. S.: Anglo-Saxon. N. A.: North-Anglic. W. S.: 
 
 West- Saxon. S. E.: Scoto-English 
 
 La
 
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