■IP I V , EDITORIAL NOTE The Editors have great satisfaction in issuing this contribution to the Guild and Bible- Class series from the pen of Professor Robertson of the University of Glasgow. The subject is one of special interest and importance at the present time, and they believe the manual will supply a widely-felt want. It will be understood, that while in general sympathy with the learned author's leading views, neither the Editors nor the Com- mittee under whose auspices the book is published, are to be held as committed to all the critical opinions expressed in it SO, ' PREFACE In the preparation of the present text-book, the primary consideration has been its utility as a means of instruction. Opinions will differ as to the relative importance of the topics that had to be treated, and the proportion of space that ought to be assigned to different branches of the subject The writer has kept continually in view the circum- stances of young people in Guilds and Bible- Classes ; and, according to the best of his judg- ment, has given the information they are most likely to desire, in such a form as will neither perplex nor mislead them. References to larger works have been purposely omitted in an element- ary handbook. Teachers of classes and directors of guilds, who, presumably, know whither to turn for fuller details, will be able to supplement what is here stated in outline, and will be guided by the circumstances of their pupils in the recom- mendation of other books. Though primarily intended for young people in classes, a book of this limited compass may be found of some service to others who are not in a Vlll OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS position to make use of more elaborate works. It is sent forth in the earnest hope that it may pro- mote an intelligent acquaintance with the Old Testament, and lead to a deeper appreciation of its contents. The writer desires to make grateful acknowledg- ment of the valuable suggestions he has received from the general Editors, and also to express his deep obligations to the Rev. Robert S. Kemp, B.D., minister of Insch, who has bestowed the greatest pains on the correction of the proofs. ABBREVIATIONS EMPLOYED R.V. ■■ Revised Version. A.V. = Authorised Version. MS., MSS. = Manuscript, Manuscripts. LXX. = Septuagint. £ or ff. (after a number) = following vers* 01 verses. CONTENTS PART I.— THE OLD TESTAMENT AS A WHOLE CHAP. PAGE I. Introductory z IL The Canonical Books of the Old Testament . . . 3 III. Evidences of a completed Canon . 7 IV. Gradual Formation of the Canon • 16 V. Transmission of the Canon , , 25 PART II.— THE BOOKS COMPOSING THE OLD TESTAMENT VI. General View of the Books . , 3i VII. The Pentateuch as a Whole . . 36 VIII. The Books of the Pentateuch • • 40 Genesis . • • • • • 40 Exodus • • • • t • 42 Leviticus . • • • • • 43 Numbers . • • • • • 44 Deuteronomy • • • • • 46 IX. Composition of the Pentateuch . 48 X. 'I in. Ivntateuch as a Part of THE Bihle 54 XL The Historical Books: Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings .... 58 X OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS CHAT. PACB XII. The Book op Joshua . , . • 6a XIII. The Book of Judges , . : . 6 S XIV. The Books of Samuel . . 69 XV. The Hooks of Kings . • • • 75 XVI. The Prophets . . • • 84 XVII. The Book of Isaiah . . . . 87 XVIII. Thk Book of Jeremiah , . . 92 XIX. The Book of Ezekiel . . • 97 XX. The Twelve Minor Prophets , • 101 Hosea ( • • • • • 102 Joel . t • • • • 103 Amos i • • ■ • • 10O Obadiah • • • • • 108 Jonah • • • • • 109 Micab i • • • t • in Nahurn • • • • "3 Habakkuk , » • • • . 114 Zephaniah • • • • . 116 Haggai . • • t • . xi7 Zecli^iiab , • • • • 119 Malachi ■ ••CI • IS! XXI. The Book o f Psalms . , , . 124 XXII. The Book o ? Proverbs , . . I32 XXIII. The Book o r Job . , , • 135 XXIV. The Five R< ILLS . • • • • 135 The Song o f Songs • • ■ I09 Ruth . • • • • 142 Lamentatio as • ■ • • . M3 Ecclesiastes • • • • • 145 Esther • • t • . 148 XXV. The Book o f Daniel . . . • »SI XXVI. The Books < )F Ezra and Nehemia H . 155 XXVII. The Books < jf Chronicles. . . i6q THE OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS PART I THE OLD TESTAMENT AS A WHOLE CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY § i. The word Bible is the equivalent of a Greek word which properly means books. It was applied by the Fathers of the Church sometimes to the books of the Old Testament alone, just as we find the expression " the books " employed in Daniel ix 2 (R.V.), to denote the Sacred Writings which were then in existence ; and sometimes to all the books of the Bible. In course of time, the com- pleted collection of books forming the Old and New Testaments being regarded as one whole, the word Bible came to be used as a singular name for the Holy Scripturea. What the whole Bible is to the Christian Church, the Old Testament is to the Jews, — the standard of faith and the rule of life. The word Testament is the translation of a word which is more frequently rendered Covenant, and a OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS is applied to the one part or the other cf Scripture with reference to the old and the new dispensa- tions to which they respectively belong. § 2. Before undertaking the study of a book, we naturally ask what the book is, and whence it has come. The consideration of such questions in regard to the Bible goes by the name of Bible Introduction ; and since the Old Testament (as well as the New) is one whole composed of many parts, it is evident that the inquiry before us is twofold. We have to inquire, in the first place, under what circumstances and at what time the books were collected into one whole, and by what process the completed collection has been handed down to our own times ; and this is called General Introduction. And, in the second place, we have to look at the individual books of which the Old Testament is made up, to observe their contents and character, and to ascertain, if possible, their literary history ; which again is called Particular or Special Introduction. The contents of the present handbook will accordingly fall into these parts : — Part I. General Introduction, comprising : — I. The collection of the Old Testa- ment Scriptures (§§ 3-15). a. The transmission of the Old Testa- ment Scriptures (§§ 16-19). Part II. Particular Introduction, viz. an ex- amination of the individual books (§§ 20-92). THE CANONICAL BOOKS CHAPTER II THE CANONICAL BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT § 3. The books of the Old Testament are, in our English Bible, thirty-nine in number ; and, in the order in which they are arranged, they may be thus classified : — I. Law, Genesis to Deuteronomy . 5 books II. History, Joshua to Esther .12 „ III. Poetry, Job to Song of Solomon . 5 „ IV. Prophecy, Isaiah to Malachi .17 „ 39 They were all originally written in Hebrew with the exception of some portions in a few of the later books, which are in a kindred dialect, Aramaic ; and they have been preserved by the Jewish people in their sacred language. The Hebrew Bible contains all the books enumerated above, and no more ; but there is a difference in the arrangement and in the total number of the books, as exhibited in the table on the next page. The English Bible has followed the order of the old versions (see § 6) ; and a glance at the table will show that the difference in the 4 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS total number has arisen from a different mode of enumeration. The Hebrew Bible consists of twenty-four books, so that the Jews often speak of it as the " four-and- twenty " ; and the whole is arranged in three divisions, thus : — I. Law, i.e. the Pentateuch or the five books : Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deutero- nomy . . . .5 books II. Prophets, viz. : — 1. Former prophets: (a) Joshua, (b) Judges, (c) Samuel, {d) Kings . . 4 H 2. Latter prophets : (a) Isaiah, (b) Jeremiah, (c) Ezekiel, (d) the twelve (minor prophets) . . . 4 i» III. Writings, which we usually desig- nate Hagiographa, i.e. Sacred Writings. They are classed thus : — I. Three books (a) Psalms, (<$) Proverbs, (c) Job . • 3 h 3. Five rolls (a) Song of Songs, (b) Ruth, (c) Lamenta- tions, {d) Ecclesiastes, (e) Esther . . . . J M J. (a) Daniel, {b) Ezra and Nehemiah, () The thirteen books by "the prophets who succeeded Moses," and "wrote the history of the events that occurred in their own time," would be Joshua, Judges and Ruth, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles ; Ezra and Nehemiah, Esther, Job, Daniel, Isaiah, leremiah and Lamentations, Ezekiel, the Twelve Minor Prophets. (ooks, in the Alex- .0 &4 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS andrian Collection of the Septuagint ; and, since that version became the " Bible" of Greek-speaking Christians, who were unacquainted with Hebrew, all the books in the Collection came to be quoted and regarded as 11 Scripture." The same thing naturally took place with other Christian Versions based upon the Septuagint ; till, finally, the Council of Trent, in a.d. 1546, declared that all the books in the Latin Vulgate were equally Inspired, and thus the Apocrypha are included in the Roman Catholic Bible. Jerome, however, had drawn a distinction between canonical and apocryphal books, meaning by the latter term all ecclesiastical literature not included in the Hebrew Canon. The Reformed Churches also, though thry often printed the Apocrypha at the end of the Old Testament, drew a distinction between them and the canonical books. The word Apocrypha means hidden (things), and was first of all applied to mystical writings, which could be understood only by the initiated. It was then used to denote books whose authorship was unknown, and then applied to spurious or fictitious, and finally to heretical, books. The additional books of the LXX. and Vulgate, 10 which, in the restricted sense, the name is usually appl are: the books of Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, 1st and 2nd Maccabees, and the Additions to Daniel and Esther. To these the Reformed Churches added 1st and 2nd Esdras, and ilie Prayer of Manasseh. It should be mentioned that, besides these, there is a considerable number of books beloi: to about the same period, which would come un Jerome's description of ecclesiastical literature, altl>- the name Apocrypha is not applied to them. The chief works in this class are: the 3rd and 4th books of the Maccabees, the Psalms of Solomon, the Book of Enoch, the Assumption of Moses, the Book of Jubilees, the Sibylline Oracles, etc They are particularly interesting for the light they throw upon the religious ideas current »mong the Jews about the beginning of the Christian era. TRANSMISSION OF THE CANON CHAPTER V TRANSMISSION OF THE CANON § 1 6. We have thus seen the manner in which the books were collected into the Canon. We have now to inquire (see § 2) what guarantee we have that the books now in our possession are the same as those thus collected, and in what manner they have been transmitted to us. A very inter- esting question arises at the outset, as to the appearance of the books at the time of their first collection. We know from old monuments that the ancient mode of Hebrew writing was differ- ent from that in which tbe Scriptures have been handed down ; and as the Samaritans have pre- served their Pentateuch in a character which is only a modification of the older Hebrew, we may conclude that the older mode of writing was in use at the time of their separation from the Jews. Therefore, such books as were written in this character must have been transcribed at some time into the " square " character in which they now all appear in the Hebrew Bible. This was the work of the Scribes whose activity must be dated from the time of Ezra, if not earlier, for ho «6 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS is descnoed as "a ready scribe in the law of Moses" (Ezra vii. 6); and the Jewish tradition which ascribes to him the introduction of the square character, and the restoration of the Law, or even the rewriting of the whole of the Old Testament books, no doubt rests upon the basis of the undoubted fact that it was by his influence that an impulse was given in the restored com- munity to a careful preservation and study of Scripture. With him and Nehemiah were associ- ated a number of leading men in the nation (see Neh. viii. 4 ff.) ; and, since the attention to written Scripture increased from this time onwards, the work of the scribes in preserving, copying, and handing on the sacred books would assume a more technical and professional character. Books that were authoritative standards and used in public worship would be sought for in transcripts of guaranteed accuracy. And thus the Scribes, having their capabilities improved by exercise, would be stimulated to increased carefulness by the responsibility resting upon them. Their work is in a manner vouched for by the religious con- sciousness of their times. I. Jewish tradition speaks of a "Great Synagogue" dating from the time of the captivity, to whom is ascribed in a special way the editing and handing down of the books. Under a great deal that is fanciful in the tradi- tion, we must recognise two facts, that much care was bestowed on the books, and that the transmission of them must have been through hands specially trained and by persons publicly trusted and esteemed. § 1 7. The books as first copied and multiplied by the Scribes must have presented very much tho TRANSMISSION OF THE CANON 27 appearance of the rolls of the Law still in use in the Jewish synagogues. In these rolls the books are written in what is called unpointed Hebrew; i.e. only the consonants of the words are written, the vowels being supplied by the reader. Thus, for example, the words David, Horeb are simply written DVD, HRB; and the reader, guided by his knowledge of the language and by the context, pronounced the words with their appropriate vowels. Of course the ability to read a text of this kind with sufficient accuracy would be the ambition of learned men ; and among a special class of such men the tradition would be maintained. So, when the Hebrew as a living language was passing away, these " masters of the tradition " became authorities for the correct pronunciation, and they devised a system of punctuation — the so-called vowel points — by which to represent the appropri- ate vowels. These points they wrote above or below the consonants, in such a way that the original text was untouched. Thus they would, e.g., write D.ViD and H°ReB, thereby guiding the less learned to the reading, and perpetuating the tradition in a visible form, while retaining the original consonantal text entire and unchan The Hebrew word for tradition is Massora, and he text as it h d down with its is called the Massoretio Text. In addition to the vowel points there was also added, above or below the letters, a system of accents indicating the proper accentuation of the words, the manner in which they were to be conjoined or disjoined, and the style or tone in which the text was to be recited The printed Hebrew *8 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS Bibles in use both among Jews and Christians are provided with all these points and accents, constituting what we may call the received text, and indicating with sufficient clearness the sense in which the Massoretes understood their Scrip- tures. 1. To show how si ill is needed in reading the con- sonantal text, it may be mentioned that the letters DVD might also be pronounced so as to give the meaning of love, pot, etc., and HRB with the change of a vowel might be pronounced to mean sword. 2. Though the Jews use fully pointed texts for ordinary purposes, they still use only unpointed rolls of the Law for reading in the synagogue. The placing of the vowel points outside the text shows the scrupulous care that was taken in preserving the original form of the text. It will be perceived that scholars are able, by discarding or altering the vowel points, to observe different modes of reading the consonantal text. § 1 8. Though we have abundant evidence of the great care bestowed by the Massoretes on the text, we have no manuscripts which enable us to go behind them and check the text which they have handed down. In the case of the New Testament we have manuscripts which reach back to within three or four centuries of the time at which the original books must have been written. But in the case of the Old Testament, the Massoretic text itself was not completely equipped till about the seventh century A.D., and the oldest manuscripts which we possess are about two centuries later, and are all based upon the Massoretic text itself. We have, however, in the ancient versions or transla- tions of the Hebrew books, most valuable means TRANSMISSION OF THE CANON 29 of testing the fidelity with which the books were preserved in pre-Massoretic times. The Septua- gint version, e.g., which (as we have seen. § 7) was begun about B.C. 280, long before vowel signs or accents were employed, shows that the texts were read and understood practically in the sense in which the Massoretes have handed them down to us. There are, no doubt, variations in details, as might have been expected, such as would arise from the mistaking of one letter for another, the joining of a letter of one word to another so as to produce a different reading, or the reading of a word with different vowels ; and, in some of the books, indications of the use of a partially divergent text. But when we take into account, as we are bound to do, the risks the books had to encounter in such a long period of transmission, we feel that it is not too much to say of these books, that " being immediately inspired by God," they have been " by His singular care and providence kept pure in all ages." l 1. The "risks" referred to were partly externa/, aris- ing out of the national troubles through which Israel passed at various periods, when there was danger of the sacred books being lost or destroyed ; partly interna/, arising from the neglect of religion on the one hand, and, on the other, the many hands through which the books had to , the liability to error attendant on everything human, and the possibility of the Greek translators not being in all respects thoroughly equipped for their important work. 2. One instance may suffice to explain how a " various reading" might come into a passage. In Gon. xlvii. 31 we read "Israel lowed himself upon the bed'j head " j 1 Confession of Faith, cbap. L i. 30 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS while in Heb. xi. 21, which refers to the incident, we read that he " worshipped [leaning] upon the top of his staff." In the unpointed Hebrew occurs the word MTH, which the Massoretic text reads M,TT a H a bed, while the Septuagint, which is quoted in Hebrews, made it read M,TT e H, a staff. § 19. Besides the Septuagint, there are other ancient versions of the Old Testament, going back to a time before the completion of the Masso- retic text There are, for instance, the Jewish Targums, or translations made into Aramaic, which was the spoken language after the decay of Hebrew. There is also the Syriac version made for the use of the Syrian Christians. And there are various Latin translations, the best known of which is the Vulgate, not to speak of other versions. From these, which were made either direct from the Hebrew or from the Septuagint, scholars are able to determine the sense in which the texts were read ; and by their aid they can check the received text at doubtful points, and draw their conclusions as to what the original readings may have been. The Massoretic text, however, has had so long a history, has been so carefully handed down, and is in the main so thoroughly supported by the ver- sions, that no complete text of the Old Testament has yet been brought forward to take its place ; and even in the Revised Version, published as late as 1885, "the Revisers have thought it most pru- dent to adopt the Massoretic Text as the basis of their work, and to depart from it, as the Authorised Translators had done, only in exceptional cases." ' * Preface to the Revised Version. GENERAL VIE W OF THE BOOKS 31 PART II THE BOOKS COMPOSING THE OLD TESTAMENT CHAPTER VI GENERAL VIEW OF THE BOOKS § 20. THE Old Testament may be regarded, as we have seen (§§ 1, 2), not merely as one whole book, but also as a collection of books ; and if we look at it for a moment in this light, apart from the divisions and arrangement of the Canon (£ 3), we shall see that the "Divine Library " consists of literary productions belonging to very different periods and relating to very various subjects. In treating of their contents and characteristics, there would be many advantages in arran them, if it were possible, in the clironolo order in which they were composed. For we. should thus have, as we have, e.g., in the literature of our own country, a succession of literary periods corresponding to periods in the national history; and be able to trace the progress of literature and the growth of national thought and reflection side by side with the movements of national history. $2 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS To a certain extent and at some periods we can do this, but there are these great difficulties in the way of carrying out this mode of treatment : (a) The most of the books of the Old Testament are anonymous, and we are left to determine from themselves or from other books their authorship and date of composition. (b) The language in which the books are written exhibits such a perma- nency and uniformity that we are unable, on that ground, to mark out definite literary periods, (c) So also, although we can perceive an advance in the thoughts, and a broadening of the views of the Old Testament writers with the advance of time, there is a marked permanency and uniformity of those fundamental conceptions regarding God and Duty with which the Bible chiefly deals ; and it is difficult to distinguish what is primitive or early from what is late, (d) There can be no doubt that, in several cases, different parts of the same book have come from different hands and belong to different times (the book of Psalms, e.g., is a striking instance), so that a strict chrono- logical arrangement would lead to the breaking up of many of the books into fragments. I. It is difficult for an English reader to realise the fact that the language of Malachi is substantially the same as that of the earliest books. Though scholars find isolated marks of earlier or later date, there are not dis- tinct literary periods, as such, before the exile. It is to be remembered that, in the course of transcription, changes of orthography may have been made in the MSS., just as changes have taken place in our jvinted Bibles. Such changes we may not be able to trace. The uniformity introduced by the vowel system of the Massoretes is more perceptible. We must, however, come to the con GENERAL VIEW OF THE BOOKS 33 elusion that from a very early period the Hebrew language had attained a fixity, with which we have nothing in the early history of our language to compare. § 21. An arrangement of the books according to their subjects is also open to objection. The subjects of the books are most varied : history, law, prophecy, poetry, and philosophy or specula- tion of its kind. But these subjects are so pre- sented that comparatively few of the books could be singled out as treating only of any one of them. We find history and law closely interwoven together ; a hard and fast line cannot be drawn between poetry and prose ; the prophetical books cannot be regarded apart from the history ; and a whole series of the books that we call historical are named prophetical in the Hebrew Canon (§ 3). To a certain extent, indeed, the books are arranged in the Canon according to their subjects, for we find, e.g., all the law books together, and all the prophetical books (if we exclude Daniel) in succes- sion, while a series of books relating the history from the occupation of Canaan to the Babylonian captivity (Joshua to 2 Kings) follow one another. And, no doubt, it was out of regard to such connec- tion, more than from a consideration of the date of their composition, that they were so arranged. Yet we have, in the third division of the Canon, the books of Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles, and Esther, which must be classed as historical. Similarly, although we have the Psalms in one collection, there are to be found compositions of the same character in other books. I. Our English liihle, following older versions, placet Daniel with the prophetical Looks, and makes the Looki 3 34 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS ■ — of Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah follow the book of Kings. Compare the two tables in § 3. § 22. Even if we could arrange the books accord- ing to their dates of composition or their contents, there would be one great practical disadvantage in the arrangement. At the foundation of the regard which we pay to the books as standards of faith, lies the fact that they give, in a connected order, a record of the religious history and life of the people to whom was committed in a special way a revelation of God's will, and who were specially guided for a great purpose, which in their own time was not made fully manifest. For the follow- ing of such a history, it is obvious that it is of secondary importance in what order the books were written, but that it is of the greatest advan- tage to begin with the books that relate to the earliest times, and to proceed according to the sequence of events. This is the way we studv the history of our own country : we begin with a book that relates to the earlier period, even though that book may have been composed in our own day, provided only that the book is based on the best information to be had on the subject, and written as far as possible without partisan purpose. Now in the Hebrew Canon the books lie before us in this order, beginning with the creation and primeval history, and coming down (in 2 Kings) to the extinction of the Jewish independent nationality. And though there are historical books in the third division, they either traverse the same history (as the books of Chronicles), or relate to the period after the exile (as Ezra and GENERAL VIE W OF THE BOOKS 35 Nehemiah). The prophetical books, though all placed together, can in the main be assigned to their proper historical places ; and the book of Daniel, referring to a late period, falls without inconvenience among the last books. The order of the Hebrew Canon has this other advantage, that it enables us to look at books in the groups in which they have been from ancient time arranged (such as the twelve minor Prophets, and the Five Rolls, § 3). We shall, therefore, take up the several books of the Old Testament in the order and in the groups in which they have been handed down in the Hebrew Canon (see § 3). 36 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS CHAPTER VII THE PENTATEUCH AS A WHOLE § 23. The first five books of the Bible were, from the earliest date at which we hear of them, spoken of collectively as the Law, the Book of the Law, or the Law of Moses. 1 The whole work, so named, must have been early arranged in the five parts in which it now appears, for it is so divided in the Septuagint version (§ 7). The word Penta- teuch is of Greek origin, meaning the five-fold book j and the names by which we now denote the five separate books were first given in Greek to indicate their contents. If we turn over the pages of these books, from Genesis to Deuteronomy, we shall see at a glance a great variety of Contents. The book of Genesis begins with the Creation and primeval times, and passes on to patriarchal life in the land of Canaan. In Exodus, we are told of the hard bondage of Israel in Egypt ; their de- liverance under Moses and Aaron ; the giving of the Law at Sinai and the setting up of the Taber- nacle. Leviticus is full of laws, referring, for the most part, to worship and ceremonial. Numbers tells of the wanderings in the desert, and Deuter- ' See Neh. viiL i, a, 8, 14 : U. 3, etc Compare Malachi iv. 4. THE PENTATEUCH AS A WHOLE 37 onomy contains the farewell addresses of Moses to the people, as they were about to enter the promised land. The time covered by the Pentateuch thus extends from the Creation to the death of Moses. 1. The five-fold appearance has not arisen from a merely artificial division. Genesis forms a piece in itself, and so does Deuteronomy. Leviticus has one pre- vailing characteristic throughout ; while the opening words of Exodus (Exod. i. 1-7), and the closing words of Numbers (Num. xxxvi. 13) indicate that each is to be regarded as complete in itself. 2. The Jews designate the Pentateuch the five-fifths of the Law, and at first they gave no distinctive names to the separate books, but simply indicated them by their opening words "In the beginning " (for Genesis), "These are the names " (for Exodus), and so on. At a later time they gave them Hebrew titles, such as " Hook of the Creation," " Book of Damages," etc., to denote their contents. § 24. Under all this variety of contents, wc recognise two main elements of which the Penta- teuch is made up. (1) The first is history. The Pentateuch is not by any means a universal history, though it begins with the whole human race, and speaks of the countries over which the race spread. Nor does it even carry into detail many of tl e subjects which it takes up. Yet the main stream of narrative is never interrupted ; and even when we lose sight of it for a time under other interests, it come-, up again and flows on to the end. (2) The other element is law, and this feature is so prominent in the books, that it has given its name to the whole P« One of the books (Leviticus) is entirely composed of laws, others (Exodus and Numbers) have law* mixed up with 38 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS the history, and another (Deuteronomy) has laws incorporated in long addresses. Even the book of Genesis, which is mainly narrative, places the law of marriage and the Sabbath in primeval times, gives regulations as to food in the time of Noah, and relates the institution of circumcision in the history of Abraham. The laws embodied in the Pentateuch relate to all relations of life ; and it is to be observed that though all the laws on one subject are not always placed together, the whole of the legislation of the Old Testament is contained in these five books. I. It is a remarkable fact that we do not read of the Israelite kin^s enacting laws. The isolated cases that occur are either so exceptional as to prove the rule (e.g. I Sam. xxx. 25), or represented by the sacred writers as irregular and sinful (1 Kings xii. 26-33). Nor do the prophets legislate. The so-called "programme" of Ezekiel (chaps, xl.-xlviii. ) was not regarded by the Jews who re-organised the worship of the second Temple as a code to be acted upon (see below, § 59). § 25. Though we can distinguish these two elements running like two streams through the books, yet they combine to form one river ; for there is unity and plan in the whole. The history is not intelligible without the laws, nor the laws apart from the history ; for there is one aim kept steadily in view throughout, as we can see from the manner in which each succeeding book takes up the narrative of the preceding. From the opening chapters of Genesis, we might indeed expect that the books are to give us a history of the whole human race ; but we perceive, as we read on, that the purpose is quite different. Nations THE PENTATEUCH AS A WHOLE 39 and families are enumerated, and then dismissed without further notice ; the attention being made to concentrate upon one family — that of Abraham — with whose fortunes it is evidently the design of the book to concern itself. This family is repre- sented as set apart in a peculiar manner from the beginning for a great purpose ; and it is towards the fulfilment of that purpose that the Law comes in, as a means of separating the Israelites from other peoples, and educating them for the mission they are to execute in the world. It is plainly the nation of Israel that is in view throughout, and that nation as under special Divine training ; and the Pentateuch exhibits the first stage of the history and the first steps of the training, up to the point when the people are ready to enter the land of Canaan, which had been assigned to them as their dwelling-place. I. It will be noticed that the foreign nations that are mentioned, however briefly, in the early books, ara peoples who became at a later time Israel's near neigh- bours (as Canaan, Edom, Moab, etc.), or who exercised a powerful influence on the national history (as Egypt, Assyria, and Babylon). 40 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS CHAPTER VIII THE BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH § 26. BEFORE considering the literary manner in which the Pentateuch is composed and estimating its importance as a part of the sacred history, we must look at the contents of the five books of which it is made up, and see how they exhibit the suc- cessive steps of the progress that is to be described. GENESIS The name given to this book is Greek, signifying origin or genealogy, and it conveniently designates the book which speaks of the origin of the world and of mankind, and exhibits the genealogy of the chosen race. The contents fall naturally into two great divisions: (1) primeval history (chaps, i.- xi.), beginning with the origin of all things at the hand of God. Here we are told of the entrance of sin, and the spread of evil, leading to the judg- ment of the Flood. Then there is a new expansion of the race in the family of Noah, and a new growth of evil, culminating in the judgment of Babel ; and through the genealogy of Shem the line is traced THE BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH 41 down to Terah, the father of Abraham, with whom begins (2) the patriarchal history, extending from chap. xii. to the end. In this division the con- necting bond is the promise to Abraham and the covenant based upon it, the unfolding of which is exhibited in the histories of Isaac and Jacob, and the rise of the twelve tribes. This sketch of the contents already indicates the plan of the book, and a closer examination shows how the plan is wrought out. It becomes apparent that the details of the opening chapters are not fragments of folk- lore, put down to satisfy curiosity, but that they are designed to form an introduction to the history which is to follow, by exhibiting the world and all the movements of mankind as under the guidance of the one God, and even man's sin as controlled by Him for the furtherance of one great end. The gradual narrowing of the view from all the races of mankind to the family of Abraham, shows how this end is to be secured ; and the increasing clearness of the promise, and the greater definite- ness of the calling of the chosen race, are observable from step to step. The book begins with God ; and at its close, when Jacob and his family go down to Egypt, we are conscious that a great Divine purpose is bound up in their history. The keynote of the whole is promise. See xii. 1-3, 7 ; xiii. 15; xv. 18; xvii. 8. Also, in the earlier part, iii. 15; viii. 21, 22; ix. 11-17. 1. The expression "these are the generations" (i.e. gtnfalogies), occurs ten (or, strictly speaking, eleven) times in the book, serving to connect the various stepi In the history, and indicating also how the interest is concentrated from step to step. The passages are s — 43 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS Chap. ii. 4. He&vens and earth. Chap. xL aj. Terah. v. 1. Adam. xxv. ia. IshmaeL vi. 9. Noah. xxv. 19. Isaac. x. 1. Sons of Noah. xxxvi. 1, 9. Esau, xi. 10, Shem. xxxviL a. Jacob. EXODUS § 27. The name of this book is also Greek and indicates the most striking event recorded in it — the departure of Israel from Egypt. In form and contents the book differs remarkably from Genesis ; as it deals no longer with a family but with a people, and, instead of a continuous narrative, we have now a combination of history and law. Yet a thread of narrative runs through the whole, by the aid of which we can mark these two great divisions according to the stages of the history : — (a) The departure from Egypt (chaps, i.-xviii.) (J>) The giving of the Law at Sinai (xix.-xl.) And though the literary arrangement of the book does not seem to be studied, the aim is never once lost sight of. It is the God of the patriarchs that interposes for His people, and the Law is based on the Covenant made with Abraham. The keynote of the first part is given in vL 1-8, that of the second in xix. 1-6. I. In the first part the main points are : the oppres- sion of the Israelites, the birth, early life, and appoint- ment of Moses (i.-iv.) ; the struggle with Pharaoh and the infliction of the plagues (v.-x. ), with the tenth and last of which are connected the institution of the Passover, and the Sanctification of the first-born (xi.-xiii. 16) ; the passage of the Red Sea and the journey to Elim (xiii. 17-xv. 27) ; the giving of the manna (xvi.); the victory over Amalek (xvii.) ; and the visit of Jethro to Moses (xviii.) THE BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH 43 In the second part, the condition of the covenant being laid down and accepted by the people, the law is declared and solemnly ratified over the " book of the Covenant " (xix. l-xxiv. 8) ; Moses, during his stay of forty days in the Mount, receives the Tables of Stone and instructions for the Tabernacle (xxiv. 9-xxxi. 18); he intercedes for the people who had, in his absence, made the Golden Calf ; God reveals Himself as the Merciful and Righteous One, and renews the Table and Covenant (xxxii.-xxxiv.) ; and the preparation and setting up of the Tabernacle are fully described (xxxv.-xl. ) 2. It will be observed that the narrative does not begin where Genesis stopped, but avery long interval is passed Over without record (compare Gen. xv. 13; Exod. xii. 40), for the family of Jacob is now a numerous nation. The date to which the history is brought down at the end of the book is the first day of the first month of the second year from the Exodus (see xvi. 1 ; xix. I ; xL 2, 17). LEVITICUS § 28. The name (derived from the Greek) which is applied to this book has reference to the Leviti- cal, or rather priestly regulations of which the book is chiefly composed. The Levites are only once incidentally mentioned (xxv. 32, 33) ; but the priests are continually referred to ; and the laws of this book, which are mostly of a ceremonial character, are such as would form a handbook to them in the performance of their functions. The principle laid down in Exodus (xix. 1-6) that Israel was to be " a kingdom of priests and an holy nation," is here carried out into detail. The key- note of the whole is " Ye shall be holy ; for I the Lord your God am holy" (Lev. xix. 2). I. The contents may be thus arranged 1 — 44 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS {a) The Laws of Offerings, viz. the Burnt Offering (i.), the Meal 1 Offering (ii.), the Peace Offering (iii. ), the Sin Offering (iv.-v. 13), the Trespass Offering (v. 14-vii.) (i) The consecration of Aaron and his sons, and the punishment of Nadab and Abihu (viiu-x.) (c) Laws relating to foods (xi.), defilement (xii.-xv.), the Day of Atonement (xvi.) (d) A collection of laws on various subjects, often described as the "Law of Holiness" (xvii.-xxvi.) (e) An appendix on vows, tithes, and things devoted (xxvii. ) 2. As to the arrangement, it is noticeable that while a definite order is observed in some sections, as in chaps. L-vii., and a recurring expression or dominating idea gives unity to others (as "be ye holy" in xvii.-xxvi.), laws relating to the same or similar subjects are not always placed together ; and even the same laws are found repeated in different parts of the book. The im- pression made by the whole is that of a collection of smaller collections, or of a collection added to from time to time. 3. If we compare Exod. xl. 17 with Num. x. II, it will appear that the whole period between the setting up of the Tabernacle and the departure from Sinai was only a month and twenty days. This would make it probable that, just as Moses carried out in detail the arrangements of the Tabernacle after the pattern that was shown him in the Mount (Exod. xxv. 40 ; xxvi. 30 ; xxvii. 8), so we have here in detail the regulations for the worship and life of the people, which he was in- structed to give, — set down as they were called forth, and preserved in this fragmentary form. NUMBERS § 29. The name of this book, which is trans- I So the R.V. rightly renders the word denoting the bloodltu offering, which In the A. V. was translated mtmt ^fftrtMf. THE BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH 45 lated from the Greek, was applied with reference to the two numberings of the people which it relates, — at Sinai (i.) and in the plains of Moab (xxvi.) Whereas Leviticus is entirely made up of laws, this book, like Exodus, is in contents partly historical and partly legislative ; but it is closely connected with Leviticus and forms its natural continuation. It covers a long period of time; for, if we deduct the fourteen months spent on the journey from Egypt and in the stay at Sinai (see § 27, 2, and § 28, 3), the whole of the remaining portion of the forty years of the wilderness life is embraced in it. We may, accordingly, divide the book into three sections : — (a) At Sinai (as in Leviticus), chaps, i.-x. 10. (6) From Sinai to Moab, x. n-xxii. 1. (<•) In the plains of Moab, xxii. 2-xxxvi. I. In the frit iection, which begins exactly a month after the setting up of the Tabernacle (comp. i. 1 with Exod. xl. 17), we have an account of the numbering of the tribes, with the order in which they were to march and encamp, and also the arrangements for the service of the Levites (i.-iv. ) ; followed by regulations for lepers, restitution for trespass, the water of jealousy, Nazirites, and the form for the blessing of the people (v., vi.) We have then an account of what took place at the dedica- tion of the Tabernacle (vii., viii.), of the observance of the Passover (ix.), and of the guidance of the people by the pillar of cloud and the silver trumpeU (ix., x.) The second iection covers the period from the twentieth day of the second month of the second year to the fortieth year of the Exodus. It contains, not a connected history but a series of incidents in the wilderness life, as the murmuring (xi.-xiv j, the revolt and punishment of Korah and his company (xvi., xHi.), with various laws Interspersed (in chaps, xv., xviii., xix.) ; ending with an 46 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS account of the journey from Kadesh round Edom into the plains of Moab, in the course of which we have the episodes of the unbelief of Moses and Aaron at Meribah, and the sending of the fiery serpents (xx., xxi.) The third section (whose scene is in the plains of Moab), relates the story of Balaam (xxii. 2-xxiv. 25), the idolatry at Shittim (xxv.), the numbering of the people (xxvi.), the appointment of Joshua (xxvii. 12-23), and regulations for the territory of the eastern tribes, for the division of the whole land, and for the setting apart of cities of the Levites and cities of refuge (xxxii.-xxxv.) Here again we have, interspersed, a number of laws on various sub- jects (xxvii. 1-11; xxviii. -xxx. ; xxxiii. 50-56; xxxvi.), besides a chapter on the encounter with the Midianites (xxxi.), and a list of the wilderness stations (xxxiii 1-49). DEUTERONOMY § 30. The name given to this book signifies repetition of the law, being, in English form, the Greek word which was employed as a translation of the expression "copy (i.e. duplicate') ofj this law," in chap. xvii. 18. It should not, however, be taken to imply that in this book we have merely a repetition of laws already given in preceding books. The scene of the book is in the plains of Moab, as at the close of Numbers ; and if we compare chap. i. 3 with Josh. iv. 19, and deduct 30 days for the mourning after the death of Moses (Deut. xxxiv. 8), it will appear that only 40 days are left for the events related in this book. The book is unlike any of those that precede it ; for, though it contains a certain amount of legislation, the connecting link is not history but a series of addresses. Instead of the familiar expression' THE BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH 47 " The Lord spake unto Moses," it is now Moses who speaks to the assembled people. Deuteronomy rests upon the preceding books, however, not only by recalling or taking for granted the events which they record, but by emphasising what is the key- note of the whole, — God's choice of Israel to be a holy people to Himself (see chaps, vii. 6-8 ; x. 15). I. The first address (i.-iv. 40) sets forth God's care in the past as a motive for obedience to His Laws. The second address forms the greater part of the book, extending to the end of chap. xxvi. ; and chap. iv. 44 seems to form a sort of introduction to it. The first part of this address (to the end of chap, xi.) contains the Decalogue, with a recital of the circumstances under which the cove- nant was made at Iloreb. The second part (from chap, xii.) contains the "statutes and judgements" to be ob- served in the promised land. A third address begins at chap, xxvii. , providing for the writing of the law on plastered stones on Mount Ebal, and the solemn taking of the covenant. In chap, xxviii. we have the blessing and the curse which are to follow the keeping or the breaking of the covenant, and in the next two chapters an exhortation to its faithful observance. Chap. xxxi. relates the commission to Joshua, the delivery of the Law to the priests and elders with a charge to read it once in seven years to the assembled people. We have then the "Song of Moses" (xxxii.), recounting all God's deeds for His people, which is to be handed down u a witness to succeeding generations ; followed by the "blessing" of Moses — also in poetical form (xxxiii.) ; and a brief chapter, in exalted terms, relating how the law-giver viewed the land he was not to enter, and " died there in the land of Moab, according to the word of the Lord" (xxxiv.) 48 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS CHAPTER IX COMPOSITION OF THE PENTATEUCH § 31. The five books composing the Pentateuch are usually designated the books of Moses, as in our English Bibles, although they are not so named in the original. The reasons for this are obvious : {a) It was through him that the Law was given, which forms the most prominent part of the contents of the books, (b) He was the greatest figure in the history at the time when Israel became a nation, and lived through the events which form a great part of the record ; and (c) he is explicitly said to have written down certain things recorded in the books. It was, therefore, a natural thing to ascribe to one who had such an nfluence on law and history, the writing of this 00k which contains both history and law. I. The Pentateuch, like the great majority of the book* t( the Old Testament, is of anonymous composition. The passages in which Moses is distinctly said to have written something are : Exod. xvii. 14 ; xxiv. 4, 7 ; xxxiv. 27; Num. xxxiii. I, 2; Deut. xxxi. 9-11, 22, 24-26. Compare Josh. i. 7, 8 ; viii. 31, 34; xxiii. 6j xxiv. 26. COMPOSITION OF THE PENTATEUCH 49 2. It cannot now be denied that the art of writing was practised in the time of Moses, and that he may have written all that is ascribed to him. Not only was literary composition common in Egypt before his day, but recent discoveries have proved that in Palestine also the art of writing (though in a different character from the Hebrew) was carried on before the Exodus. The Old Testament itself gives no hint of the time at which writing was intro- duced amoDg the Hebrews. There is no mention of it in the story of the purchase of the field of Ephron by Abraham (Gen. xxiii. ), where we would expect it if it had been known ; but from the time of Moses onwards it is spoken of as a matter of course. See the following passages: Jud. viii. 14 marg.; 2 Sam. viii. 16, 17 ; xi. 14, 15 ; xx. 24, 25. Compare also Isaiah viii. I ; x. 19 ; xxix. 11, 12. 3. The " tradition" of the Jews which ascribes to Moses the writing of the Pentateuch (except the closing verses of Deuteronomy) appears for the first time at so late a date that reliance cannot be placed upon it. It is conjoined with traditions as to the composition of the other books which are manifestly the result of conjecture. § 32. From the time, however, that a closer study was made of the language and literary form of the Pentateuch, the conviction grew that the whole could not have come, in its existing form, from the hand of Moses. The chief arguments against the Mosaic authorship are these : (a) There are certainly portions which he could not have written (see 1 below), (b) Though there is a plan in the whole, the character and arrangement of the parts do not favour the idea of unity of authorship (see 2 below), (c) Different parts exhibit different literary styles (see 3 below), (d) Oilier historical books of the- Old Testament show that the authors freely incorporated th>- < 'imposition of others in 5o OLD TEST AM EXT AND ITS CONTENTS their works, and there is a presumption that the Pentateuch was composed in the same manner (see 4 below). i (Under a). The account of Moses' death (Dent xxxiv.) gives no indication that it was written by another hand than that which composed the rest of the book (compare Deut. xxxiii. I, "before his death"). And there are many other passages which can only be ascribed to him by a very forced explanation. See, e.g., Gen. xii. 6 ; xiii. 7 ; xxxvi. 31 ; Exod. xvi. 35 (compare Josh. ▼. 12); Levit. xviii. 24-28; Num. xv. 32-36; Deut ii. 12; iii. ii, 14 (compare Jud. x. 3, 4). 2 (Under b). There are two passages, e.g., referring to the Creation : Gen. i. i-ii. 4, and Gen. it 4-25 ; but the second has not the appearance of being simply an additional description by the person who wrote the first. So in the account of the Flood there seem to be two narra- tives combined (com^re Gen. vi. 14 to end, with vii. 1 ff.) For other repeated accounts, varying in details, com- pare Gen. xxviii. 19 with xxxv. 9-15 ; Gen. xxxv. 10 with xxxii. 28 ; Gen. xxvi. 34 and xxviii. 9 with xxxvi. 2-5. And for the laws, compare Exod. xxiii. 17-19 with xxxiv. 23-26 ; and Exod. xxii. 21 with xxiii. 9. As to arrange- ment of parts, note how the section beginning at Exod. vL 2 takes no account of the section preceding it (iii. -v.) ; and compare Exod. vi. 30 with iv. 10, etc. 3 (Under c). The English reader is in a position to observe one remarkable peculiarity of style. In the opening portion of Genesis (Gen. i. I-ii. 3) the Creator is called God (which is the translation of the Hebrew word Elohim) ; in chap. iv. He is called the Lord (which is the translation of Jehovah) ; whereas from chap. ii. 4 to iii. 24 we find the two names the Lord God com- bined. It will also be observed that in the account of the Flood (Gen. vi.-viii.) sometimes the one name is used, and sometimes the other. There are other varia« tions of style, not so apparent to the English reader, which characterise different portions, and these are found COMPOSITION OF THE PENTATEUCH 51 for the most part to run in the several passages that vary in the use of the Divine name. 4. (Under d). By a comparison of the books of Chronicles (which are late) with those of Kings, we find that a later writer had no hesitation in using, without mentioning the fact, the accounts or materials of former writers. Compare 2 Chron. i. 3-13 with 1 Kings iii. 4-15 ; 2 Chron. ii. 1-18 with 1 Kings v. 1-18 ; 2 Chron. iii. with I Kings vi. ; 2 Chron. vii. 11-viii. 18 with I Kings ix. Also compare 2 Chron. xxii. io-xxiii. 21 with 2 Kings xi. ; and 2 Chron. xxxiv. 8-28 with 2 Kings xxii. An examination of the books succeeding the Penta- teuch leads to the conclusion that they all more or less did the same. And the Pentateuch itself contains pieces which seem to have a separate origin, — incorporated in its pages (see Exod. xv. 1 ff., Num. xxi. 14-15, I7* l8 » 2 7)- § 33. Such considerations as have just been mentioned have led to the conclusion, which is now generally accepted, that the Pentateuch is of composite character. That is to say, instead of each book having been written as an original com- position by itself, there are found to be, running through the books, certain component parts, distinguishable by certain characteristics, and capable of being, to a certain extent, read by themselves ; and all these have been so arranged and united as to form the existing Pentateuch. But as to the original writers of the several parts, the manner in which they were preserved, and the time and mode of their union, it is found possible to hold very different opinions. I. The recurring "genealogies" which serve to con- nect the various steps in the narrative of Genesis, have been already referred to (§ 26, 1). The passages so Introduced can be collected into a fairly continuous series ; OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS and it will be found that the pieces written in that style, besides their fondness for dates and precision in numbers, show also a delight in tracing, to their source, religioui institutions, such as the law of the Sabbath (Gen. ii. I -3), the rite of circumcision (xvii. 10, II), the prohibition of blood (ix. 4). Hence these parts are often spoken of as priestly in their character, and with them are classed the majority of the laws in Leviticus, and also those in Exodus and Numbers which are of a ceremonial or priestly kind. In other parts, again, the style is more diffuse and flowing, and characterised by the use of expressions and modes of thought which have led modern writers to speak of them as prophetic. The style of Deuteronomy, again, is, for the most part, hortatory and practical (see § 30, 2). 2. It is to be remembered that the narrative of Genesis closes at a date about 400 years before Moses. But though the materials of that book have all the appearance of having been carefully preserved and put together in the common method of Hebrew writers, we have no information as to how they were preserved or who put them together. Genesis says nothing of its own author- ship. 3. Opinions differ widely as to the respective dates cf various parts of the Pentateuch, and the manner in which they were brought together. Into these questions it is impossible here to enter. The features of the language, which point to differences of source, do not indicate the relative dates ; and, for all that we know, portions that have different literary characteristics may belong to the same or nearly the same periods. Other grounds, on which attempts have been made to determine the dates, are so debatable that the conclusions are very uncertain ; and there is a tendency to multiply sources unnecessarily, and to define their relations with a precision that cannot be accepted with any degree of confidence. In particular, the methods generally employed by those who advocate a very late date of large parts of the Pentateuch, are open to the objections, that they underrate the literary COMPOSITION OP THE PENTATEUCH 53 attainments and religious standing of earlier times, or undervalue the insight and guidance possessed by the sacred writers, or even do violence to the documents, by attributing to the authors a mode of writing history which seems artificial, and inconsistent with the manifest honesty and simplicity of purpose which they display. See also § 91. 5* 4. It is not possible to frame a systematic chrono- logy of the Pentateuch. The numbers given in the early chapters of Genesis differ in the Septuagint version and in the Samaritan Pentateuch from those of the Hebrew text and also from one another ; thus : — Years from Adam to the Flood From the Flood to Tenth's 70th year '948 3314 2249 As to the period of Abram, the foreign names men- tioned in Gen. xiv. suggest a comparison with names occurring in ancient monuments ; but they are not yet sufficiently identified. His date is usually placed about B.C. 2000. It is now very generally believed that the Pharaoh of the oppression was Ramses II. of the 19th dynasty, who reigned sixty-seven years, and is known from Egyptian monuments to have erected extensive works such as are mentioned in Exodus i. II. The Pharaoh of the Exodus would, in that case, be Menephtah II., who came to the throne about B.C. 1 325. See below § 35 and footnote. Heb. LXX. Sam. 1656 224a I3<>7 293 1073 94a 54 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS CHAPTER X THE PENTATEUCH AS A PART OF THE BIBLE § 34. The value of the Pentateuch as a part of the Bible does not depend upon our knowledge of its authorship and mode of composition, but on its truthfulness as a historical document and on the place it occupies in connection with the whole Divine plan of revelation ; and in regard to these it may be tested in various ways. In the first place, looked at by itself, it exhibits : (a) the greatest care in the preservation of the earliest national records and traditions ; (b) thorough honesty in recording events, without exaggeration of virtues or palliation of sins ; and (c) a pervading high religious tone, in contrast with the mythical early histories of other nations. The whole gives us the impression of a people under a special religious guidance, and of an impartial writing of history under the serious consciousness of such guidance. I. The preservation of separate documents and accounts not only is an evidence of pious care, but en- hances the credibility of the whole by exhibiting the testimony of various witnesses. The English reader is quite competent to judge whether the different sources, however they may be multiplied, are in material points PENTATEUCH AS PART OP THE BIBLE 55 inconsistent with one another. Like the four Gospels in the New Testament, they present the same truth from different sides ; and they exhibit a wonderful unity of purpose and identity of spiritual position. 2. It is to be remembered that the greater number of the Old Testament books are anonymous, and therefore their value is to be tested by considerations such as those mentioned in this chapter. § 35. In the second place, the Pentateuch may be looked at in the light of modern discovery, and its statements brought face to face with ascer- tained facts in history, archaeology, and science. At the present day we have much fuller knowledge than was possessed at a comparatively recent time in regard to (a) the topography of the lands men- tioned in the Bible ; {l>) the history of early times, and (c) the origin of the visible universe. And it may be affirmed that the progress of discover)', so far from tending to discredit the Bible writers, has often confirmed their statements in a most remarkable manner. 1 1. The topography of the Holy Land, of Egypt, and of the Desert of Sinai, has been very specially examined in connection with the sacred writings, and at every step of the examination the accuracy and fidelity of the record have lieen more clearly exhibited. 2. The monuments of Egypt and Assyria have not only added greatly to our knowledge of early times, but have confirmed the scanty details contained in the Penta- teuch. In mir own day there have been discovered monu- ments illustrating, in a remarkable way, the statements of Gen. xiv., a chapter so unlike in its literary feature! to 1 For particulars on this iul>ject, see Kictnt F.Jiplcn.i.^ „s i fit'/it I. audi, by the Rev. Thomas Nicol, D.D., and Ligkt jivm Etuttm Land*, by the Kev. A. Williamson. 56 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS the other portions of the book, that some daring critics pronounced it entirely legendary. 3. Geology and Astronomy have enlarged our ideas as to the formation of the earth and the solar system. And though the book of Genesis was not written to teach science, and would have been unintelligible to its first readers if it had spoken in scientific terms, yet its state- ments agree with the ascertained facts of science in a way with which the cosmogonies of ancient nations have nothing to compare. If the Hebrew writers have thui preserved so pure an account of the manner in which God formed the material world, we may give all the more credence to them when they speak of God's dealings with man in history, which is their main theme. § 36. Thirdly, the Pentateuch may be looked at in the light of other Scriptures ; and it will be found that all the succeeding books of the Old Testament proceed on these two assumptions : (a) That the early history of the chosen people was such as the Pentateuch describes ; and (J>) that from the time of Moses they had laws and ordinances such as the Pentateuch contains. So (c) the New Testament not only assumes the truth of the history contained in these books, but rests upon it as the basis of the revelation completed in the Gospel. 1. In estimating the testimony to the Pentateuch given by the succeeding books, two things are to be borne in mind : (a) That books must have been few in those early times, and teaching mostly oral. We are, therefore, to look not so much for the quotation of the precise words of one book in another, as for the facts which are assumed as well known. Brief references sometimes imply whole periods of history (see I Kings xviii. 36 ; Hos. ix. 10 ; xi. i ; xii. 3-5, 9, 12, 13 ; Amos ii. 9-1 1 ; iii. I, 2 ; v. 25 : ix. 7, etc.) (b) Large parts of the Pentateuch, PENTATEUCH AS PART OP THE BIBLE 57 u the ordinances for worship and ceremony, are of such a character that we need not be greatly surprised if pro- phets and prophetic men, who wrote the succeeding books, do not refer to them. We know that worship was carried on and ceremonies observed, but the regula- tions for these things would be the concern chiefly of the priests. Many things must have been of daily occurrence, though we have no express mention of them. When the prophet Ezekiel, in the time of the captivity, gives a description of what was to be the ritual of the restored Temple (Ezek. xl.-xlvi.), his language would have been unintelligible unless his readers had been familiarised by usage with the things described ; and yet we hear little of them in the antecedent history. 2. The value of the opening chapters of Genesis, which refer to primeval times, is to be estimated not so much by the literary form in which they are expressed, as by the moral and spiritual truths they convey. Though the actual accounts may be partly figurative or poetical, the view they give of man's sin and of God's purpose of redemption underlies the whole of Scripture. 3. Since all the legislation is contained in the Penta- teuch (§ 24 end), and since the arrangement is so uneven (§ 28, 2), it is quite possible that the books now exhibit the laws as they had been handed down in separate tran- scripts, or even as modified in course of time. 4. Many of the references to the Old Testament by our Lord and by the New Testament writers cannot be explained as mere references to books whose dates are a matter of indifference, but are appeals to facts and events which are of vital importance in the history of revelation. Sec Matt. viii. 4; xix. 4; xxii. 31, 325 John v. 46, 47; viii. 56 ; Acts iii. 22, 25 ; ril. { Rom. iv. 1-3, 10-22 ; ix, 6-13; Gal. iii. 15-18. The vital question Is not, Who wrote the l>ooks? but, Do they contain a true account of the Divine revelation ? 58 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS CHAPTER XI THE HISTORICAL BOOKS: JOSHUA, JUDGES, SAMUEL, AND KINGS § 37. The books from Joshua to Kings form, as regards their subject, a continuous series, for they exhibit a connected history ; and so we usually speak of them as historical books. The Jews, with the idea that it was prophetical men who wrote the history of their own times (§ 6, 1 {b)), called these books the former prophets, and placed them before the prophets strictly so-termed in the second division of the Canon (§ 3, comp. § 14, 1); but they are all anonymous, and we are left to deter- mine from the books themselves the time and manner of their composition. 1. Although the different books of this series are diverse in their style and mode of composition, it will be seen from the manner in which each begins that there is an implied reference to the narrative that precedes. The book of Joshua connects itself in this way also with the Pentateuch (Josh. i. 1). 2. The book of Ruth has its place, as a historical record, where it s:ands in the English Bible (see Ruth L 1), and was someUmes counted as forming part of Judges (§ 6). 3. A very slight examination will show that the names THE HISTORICAL BOOKS 59 given to the individual books refer to the subjects treated of, and were not intended (not even those of Joshua and Samuel) to denote authorship. 4. The book of Samuel is one whole, and so is the book of Kings. In the Septuagint and other early versions each of these was divided into two as we now have them in our English Bible. Those versions, moreover, taking the books of Samuel and Kings as a connected series, called each of the four parts a book of the kingdoms or of the kings. So our A.V. describes I Samuel as " otherwise called The first book of the Kings," and gives a similar heading to the other books. § 38. Comparing the first chapter of Joshua with the last of 2 Kings we shall see that the books now under consideration extend over the whole course of Israel's history from the occupation of Canaan to the Babylonian captivity. And we may distinguish four great periods, with which the four books of the series broadly correspond : (a) the invasion of Canaan under Joshua; (b) the struggle for the mastery under the Judges ; (c) the rise of the monarchy under Samuel; and (d) the history of the two kingdoms till the extinction of the Kings. 1. Chronological landmarks. It is stated in 1 Kings vi. 1 that Solomon, in the fourth year of his reign, began to build the Temple 480 years after the Exodus. The particulars cannot be stated with precision, but they may be approximately set down thus : — The Desert period lasted Joshua survived Moses The Judges, from Othnicl to Samuel Saul reigned (see Acts xiii. 2 1) David reigned (see 1 Kings ii. 11) Solomon began the Temple after 480 yean 40 years 25 11 332 i> 40 i> 40 n 3 »i 60 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS Solomon's reign lasted altogether forty years (i Kings xi. 42); and it may be useful to observe that, by com- puting from the beginning to the end of the monarchy, we obtain a similar great period of about 480 years, thus: — Undivided Kingdom, Saul, David, and Solomon 120 yean Divided Kingdom, till the fall of Samaria, b.O. 722 230 „ Thence to the fall of Jerusalem, b.O. 588 134 ,» 484 years We must, however, regard these as approximate numbers ; for it is evident that it was customary to compute by generations, or spaces of forty years. See below § 43, 3. 2. For the history subsequent to the captivity, we have to turn to the books of Ezra and Nehemiah in the third division of the canon ; along with which may be classed, for this purpose, the books of Esther and Daniel, as well as the prophetical and other books which were written in the exile or after the restoration. The books of Chronicles, though written after the exile, do not practically continue the history farther down than the books of Kings. § 39. The books dwell at very unequal length upon different parts of the history ; and, in regard to many things about which we might look for information, we are told little or nothing at alL Those subjects, however, which the writers treat at greater length and with evident predilection, serve to indicate to us the plan and principle on which the history was written. Thus : — I. The minute details regarding the partition of the land and the struggle for its possession, in Joshua and THE HISTORICAL BOOKS Ci Judges, exhibit the national interest in the fulfilment of the promise made to the patriarchs (§ 26). 2. The great length at which the events in David's life are narrated, in the books of Samuel, is in keeping with the significance attached to the Davidic line (2 Sam. vii. 12 ff.) 3. The fulness of description, in the books of Kings, of the erection of the Temple, as also the preference shown for the reigns of some kings over others, and the recur- rence of certain phrases to describe their characters, prove that it was the religious aspect of the history that was the vital thing to the writers. 4. The prominence given to the prophet Samuel in the time of Saul and David, and to Elijah and Elisha in the time of later kings, not to mention others, is very signi- ficant. There was a line of prophets extending through the whole history, some of whom are not mentioned in the historical books, guiding and moulding the religious life (see Acts iii. 24) ; and it is evident that to the sacred writers this feature of the history is at least of equal importance with the succession of the line of kings. For this reason the prophetical books should always be studied in connection with the historical period to which they belong. 6a OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS CHAPTER XII THE BOOK OF JOSHUA § 40. This book appropriately bears the name of the warrior who had been closely associated with Moses (Exod. xxiv. 13 ; xxxiii. 11), and had been solemnly set apart (Deut. xxxi.) to succeed him, not only as a military commander but as a leader and guide of the people (Num. xxvii. 16- 23). It relates the events that took place during his leadership, and closes with the record of his death. It falls into three great divisions : — 1. The conquest of the land (chaps. L-xii.) This part is historical, both in form and substance. It relates the main operations by which the people under Joshua obtained possession of Canaan. The chief points are : The sending of the spies and the crossing of the Jordan (ii.-iv.); the fall of Jericho (v. 13-vi. 27); the capture (after a reverse) of Ai (vii. -viii. 29) ; the treaty with the Gibeonites (ix.) ; the defeat of the leagued kings of the south at the battle of Beth-horon (x.); and the defeat of a similar confederacy in the north near the waters of Merom (xi.) It is obvious that many details are omitted, for a long list of conquered kings is given at the close (xii.); and it is stated (xi. 18) that "Joshua made war a long time with all those kings." Yet the THE BOOK OF JOSHUA 63 narrator makes it particularly clear that it is a holy war he is describing, for he tells us of the miraculous manner in which the Jordan was crossed (iii.) ; describes the observance of the Passover (v. 2-12); dwells upon the sin of Achan as the cause of the reverse at Ai (vii. ) ; and relates the confirming of the Covenant at Ebal and Gerizim (viii. 30-35). 2. The partition Of the land (xiii.-xxii.) This part, while historical in form, is topographical and legislative in contents. Here the main points are : After a sketch of the land to be divided (xiii. 1-7), and of the territory already assigned to the tribes east of the Jordan (xiii. 8- 33), Hebron is given to Caleb (xiv. 6-15), and the three tribes, Judah, Ephraim, and half Manasseh receive their portions in the western territory (xv.-xvii.) Afterwards, the Tabernacle being set up, the remaining tribes, except Levi, receive theirs (xviii.-xix. 48), a special inheritance being assigned to Joshua (xix. 49-51) ; the cities of refuge and the cities of the Levites are set apart ; and the two tribes and a half who had assisted in the conquest are sent to their homes (xx. -xxii.) Here again, while the details are very unequal, the sacred character of all the proceedings is clearly indicated. The inheritances are distributed by lot (xiv. 2, xviii. 6, 10), the cities of refuge and the Levitioal territory have a religious reference (xx.-xxi.), and the jealousy of the people for national unity of religion is shown in the matter of the altar Ed (xxii. 10-34). 3. The leader's farewell (xxiii., xxiv.) This part is mostly hortatory. Joshua warns the people against idolatry, renews the Covenant with solemn ceremony, ami incorporates a record of the transaction in the Hook of the Law. The book closes with an account of the death and burial of Joshua and of Elcazar (xxiv. 29-33). § 41. In style, different parts of the book of Joshua bear a stron j resemblance to different parts of the Pentateuch. This has led to the supposi- tion that originally the component parts of the 64 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS Pentateuch (§ 33) extended beyond the death of Moses ; and hence by modern writers the name Hexateuch, or six -fold book, is used to denote what they believe to have been at one time a con- tinuous work embracing the history of the Conquest of Canaan. In another respect the book of Joshua is closely allied to the Pentateuch. The spirit of the Mosaic time is still active ; and, besides the general religious tone which pervades the book, we can observe a special purpose throughout, to ex- hibit the fulfilment of the promise that is at the basis of the Pentateuch. See xi. 23, and again, xxi. 43-45. The keynote is "Be strong and of a good courage " (i. 6, 9, 18). The reaction follows in the next book (see Judges ii. 7 ff.) 1. Along with the resemblances to the Pentateuch there are noticeable certain points of difference, and in- dications that this book was intended to be complete in itself. The references to the " Book of the law of Moses" (i. 8; viii. 34, 35; xxiv. 26) imply the exist- ence, in an independent form, of some antecedent writing. If the works were originally united, the separation must have taken place very early ; for the Samaritans, who received the Pentateuch from the Jews (§91, 5), have a very different work for their book of Joshua. See also § 14, I. THE BOOK OF JUDGES 65 CHAPTER XIII THE BOOK OF JUDGES § 42. This book is named from the men who appear as the leaders of Israel in the period suc- ceeding Joshua. They are called Judges, primarily because they judged Israel in the sense of defend- ing the national cause against enemies ; and for the same reason they are called " saviours " (iii. 9, 15 R.V.) It is with this aspect of their activity that the book mainly concerns itself; their civil functions being only barely mentioned. The book falls naturally into the following three parts : — 1. The Introduction (chap. i. i-ii. 5), which is retrospective, giving an account of the extent to which the country had been subdued "after the death of Joshua." It connects itself in a manner with the first part of the book of Joshua, repeating sometimes even its words (compare Jud. L n -15 with Josh. xv. 15-19). 2. The deeds of the Jndges, forming the main part of the book (ii. 6-xvL 31). This is preceded by an introduction of its own (ii. 6-iii. 6) which is prospective, giring a summary view of the whole period to be treated of. Then follow the exploits of the Judges, in regard to six of whom we have more or less full details, viz. : — Othnicl, the son of Kcnaz, who shook off the oppres- iion of Cushan-Rishathaim of Mesopotamia (iii. 7-1 1). 3 66 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS Ehud, of Benjamin, who saved Israel from Moab (Hi. 12-30). Deborah, of Ephraim, and Barak, of Naphtali, who defeated Sisera, the general of Jabin, King of the Canaanites (iv., v.) Gideon, of Manasseh, who drove back the Midlanites (vi. i-viii. 32). Jephthah, of Gilead, who waged war with Ammon (x. 6-xii. 7). Samson, of Dan, who contended with the Philistines (xiii.-xvi.) Besides these, six others are mentioned : Shamgar, who performed a daring feat against the Philistines (Hi. 31) ; Tola, of Issachar (x. I, 2) ; Jair, of Gilead (x. 3-5) ; Ibzan, of Bethlehem (xii. 8- 10) ; Elon, of Zebulon (xii. 11, 12); and Abdon, of Pirathon (xii. 13-15); but we are told no more about them than the period of their activity and some details as to their families and position. Abimelech, the son of Gideon, who, presuming on the high respect paid to his father, set himself up as a king (viii. 33-ix. 57), is not, properly speaking, one of the Judges. 3. Two detached episodes placed at the end of the book (xvii., xviii. ; xix.-xxi.) These apparently belong to the earlier period of the Judges. The one is the story of Micah and his image- worship, in its connection with the settling of the Danites in the north ; the other, the account of the outrage committed at Gibeah, which led to the war of extermination waged by the tribes against Benjamin. § 43. The literary features of this book are such as to suggest that different parts have come from different hands. Possibly the accounts which form the body of the book were collected and joined together by one writer ; but we are left to inference or conjecture for the dates of the several parts. So, although there is evidently a THE BOOK OP JUDGES 67 design in the recurring statements of the numbers of years of servitude and rest, a satisfactory chrono- logy of the book cannot be arrived at. One thing is plain, the aim of the book is not to relate a number of wonderful tales, but to enforce the lesson of God's providence taught in the experience of the nation. Sin, punishment, repentance, deliver- ance, — these are the points on which the whole hinges — the philosophy of history implied in this book. 1. The expression that occurs in the closing chapters " In those days there was no king in Israel " (xvii. 6 ; xviii. 1 ; xix. 1 ; xxi. 2<5) leads to the conclusion that these parts at least were written some time after the establishment of the monarchy ; whereas such references as are found in i. 21 indicate an earlier period. 2. If it was of purpose that the number of Judges is given as twelve, there is no hint of this in the book itself; nor do they seem to be distributed among the twelve tribes ; for three tribes, Levi, Reuben, and Simeon, furnish no judge. 3. The total number of years of " oppression," judge- ship, and "rest,"added together, amounts to 410, whereas, in 1 Kings, vi. 1, the whole period from the Exodus to the building of the Temple is given as 480 years (§ 38, 1). This has led many to suppose that the years mentioned in this book were not strictly consecutive, but that the different accounts partly overlap one another, some of the Judges being contemporaneous. The recurrence of the number "forty" is doubtless an indication that the time was roughly counted by generations ; so that strict precision in the chronology is not to be arrived at. 4. The aim with which these accounts of the Judges are put together is clearly seen in the introduction (ii. 1 1 -18), and in the repetition of almost stereotyped expres- sions at tiie opening and the close of the various narra- tives ; e.g. iii. 7-9, 11 ; iv. 1-3, 23, 24, etc. But this 68 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS is not a mere religious dressing up of the exploits of a lawless age by the hand of a later editor. The song of Deborah (chap, v.), which bears the impress of the victor)' which it celebrates, shows that the actors in these stirring scenes were conscious that they were engaged in a sacred warfare. And there are indications of the fact in the other narratives. THE BOOKS OF SAMUEL CHAPTER XIV THE BOOKS OF SAMUEL § 44. The two books of Samuel, which were originally one (§ 37, 4), may be conveniently taken together. They bear the name of Samuel, although his death is mentioned as early as 1 Sam. xxv. 1, because he is a prominent figure in the history, forming the connecting link between the period of the judges and that of the kings, the two first of whom he called to their office. The book begins in the judgeship of Eli, and comes down to the close of David's reign. It may be divided into three parts corresponding to the three great personages with whom it deals, although, as will be seen, they cannot be represented independently. These are : — L The period of Samuel (1 Sam. i.-xii.) In this part wc are told of the birth and dedication of Samuel, and of the revelation to him of the doom that was to fall upon the priestly house of Eli (i. i-iii. 18). He is recognised at Shiloli as "a prophet of the Lord " (iii. 19- 21); and when I>ivine punishment falls upon Israel, in the los3 of the ark (iv.), he so moves the people to peni- tence that tLcrc is a revival of national religion and zeal, culminating in the battle of Ebenczer (v. 2-vii. 14). And 70 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS from this time onwards Samuel is seen moving about in circuit administering the nation's affairs (vii. 15-17). But the course of events had prepared for a new phase of the national life (viii. 1-5). The people ask Samuel to appoint a king over them ; and, after warning them, by Divine command, of the dangers to which this would lead (viii. 6-22), he anoints Saul the son of Kish (ix. i-x. 16), whose appointment is ratified by lot and ordinance (x. 17-26) and vindicated against gainsayers by the king's successful encounter with the Ammonites (x. 27-xi. 15), — after which Samuel formally lays down his own office of judge (xii.) 2. The reigll of SaAll extends to the end of the first book (1 Sam. xiii.-xxxi. ) But here Samuel and David are as prominent in the history as the king himself. Saul distinguishes himself in war against the Philistines and Amalekites, his son Jonathan being equally conspicuous (xiii.-xv.); but he has to be continually reminded that he reigns by Divine sanction ; and, after he has twice disobeyed the Divine command given through the prophet, sentence of rejection is pronounced against him (xiii. 8 ((., xv. 9 ff. ) From this time onwards David, who has been chosen by God and secretly anointed by Samuel (xvi. 1-13), comes into prominence, the rest of the book containing an account of his rise at the court of Saul (xvi. 14-23), his favour with Jonathan and the people (xvii. i-xviii. 7), and his persecution by Saul (xviii. 8- xix. 1, etc.) First he takes refuge with Samuel, then he flees to the Philistines, who send him back to Judah (xix. 2-xxi. 15). At Adullam he becomes the chief of a band of disaffected men, and has Gad the Seer in his company. Saul continues his persecution, so that David has to send his parents for safety to Moab, and the priests at Nob have to suffer the king's vengeance (xxii.) Still, by his engagements against the Philistines and by his generosity to Saul when he had him in his power, David wins more and more the confidence of Israel (xxiii., xxiv.); so that, at the death of Samuel (xxv. 1), he is universally regarded as the coming king. During all THE BOOKS OF SAMUEL 71 these persecutions he is cheered and supported by the self-sacrificing devotion of his friend Jonathan. But he has still to elude the violence of Saul, and, escaping in succession from Keilah, Maon, Engedi, Paran, and Ziph (xxiii.-xxvi.), he finally seeks an asylum with Achish, king of Gath, who assigns him Ziklag for a residence. Here it was only the jealousy of the lords of the Phil- istines that saved him from fighting against his own country in the war which the Philistines were about to wage with Israel (xxix., xxx.) At last Saul, driven to desperation, consults the witch of Endor, at whose house he learns the doom which is to befall him next day at the battle of Gilboa, where he perishes by his own hand (xxviii., xxxi.) 3. The reign of David occupies the whole of the second book (2 Sam. i.-xxiv.); chaps, i.-iv. relating to the seven years and a half that he reigned at Hebron over Judah alone, while an attempt was made to keep the kingdom for Ishbosheth, Saul's son ; and the rest of the book giving his reign at Jerusalem over all Israel. The conspicuous events are the taking of Jerusalem from the Jebusites and the fixing there of the royal residence (v. 1- 16); the transference to the capital of the Ark of the Cove- nant, and preparations for the building of the Temple ; with the promise conveyed through Nathan of the contin- uance of the Davidic house (v. 17-vii. 29). Then follow an account of the enlargement of the kingdom by conquests over the Philistines, Moabites, Edomites, and Syrians (viii. I- 14), a description of the magnificence of David's court, and an enumeration of his officials (viii. 1 5- x. 19). Hut another side of the picture is presented in the succeeding chapters. David's sin in the matter of Bath- sheba (xi.) is the cause of evil against him out of his own house (xii. 11), culminating in the rebellion of Absalom (xii.-xv. 12). His fliyht from Jerusalem, the bitter war, with the king's grief at the death of Absalom, and his victorious return to Jerusalem, are narrated at length (xv. 13-xix. 40); but the shadow of greater coming trouble is seen in the jealousies of the tribes, and the revolt of Sheba, 72 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS son of Bichri, — the prelude of the disruption of the unitcl Kingdom (xix. 41-xx. 22). The four concluding chap- ters contain various supplementary matters : the famine and the means taken for its removal (xxi. I-14), the names and exploits of David's mighty men (xx. 23-26 ; xxi. 15- 22 ; xxiii. 8-39, poetical pieces of David's (xxii. i-xxiii. 7), and the numbering of the people, followed by the plague and its cessation (xxiv.) §45. The books of Samuel are evidently con- structed with the design of exhibiting a connected history. But their literary features indicate that they are composed of various materials, probably belonging to different dates. Though the period which they cover is not very extensive (see § 38, 1), yet the times were troublous, and the narratives may have been derived from both oral and written sources ; so that, as is usually the case when different accounts are preserved of the same events, it is difficult to arrange the whole in per- fect harmony. It is only by inferences from isolated passages that we can form an opinion as to the date of final composition. 1. The author incorporates, e.g., certain poetical pieces, giving us to understand that they are not of his own composition. See I Sam. ii. I-IO ; 2 Sam. i. 19- 27, compare verse 18; xxii., with which compare Ps. xviii. ; xxiii. 1-7. The passages 2 Sam. xxi. 15-22 and xxiii. 8-39, may be drawn from state records. 2. It is extremely difficult to find a complete harmony between the passages relating to David's presentation at the court of Saul in 1 Sam. xvi. 19-23 and xvii. 12-31, 55-58 ; many regard them as two different accounts which have become fused together. The Septuagint, omitting several passages in these chapters, presents a consistent and continuous narrative. Compare also 1 THE BOOKS OF SAMUEL 73 Sam. vii. 13 with ix. 16 ; x. 5 ; xiii. ; and observe how far 1 Sam. xiii. 8 is separated from x. 8. 3. There is no reference to the Captivity in the books. Od the other hand, 2 Sam. v. 5 must have been written after the death of David, and I Sam. xxvii. 6 would bring us down to the time of the divided kingdom. The recurring phrase, "unto this day" (1 Sam. v. 5 ; vi. 18 ; 2 Sam. vi. 8 ; xviiL 18, etc.), suggests a consider- able lapse of time between the events and the record of them; and other antiquarian remail s (1 Sam. ix. 9; 2 Sam. xiii. 1 8), point in the same direction. § 46. These books are deeply interesting as a portion of the sacred history of the Old Testa- ment. They show the transition from the more unsettled period of struggle under the judges to the period of consolidated national life under the monarchy ; and exhibit the rise and growth of institutions which fitted Israel to fulfil its calling in God's plan of revelation. The chief things to be noticed are : — 1. The setting up, not merely of a kingly form of government, but of the line of David, with special sanction and promise (2 Sam. v. 17 ; vii. 29), — a line which lasted to the close of the national history. The writer clearly indicates that there was a prospective religious significance in this choice. 2. The prominence which prophecy henceforth as- sumes. Though it did not actually begin with Samuel, yet from his time onwards it takes a more official form • ml public position ; for we can trace a line of men taking up the same attitude that he held towards both king and people. 3. It is interesting to find that prophetic men who are mentioned in these books are referred to in the books of Chronicles a* writers of history (l Chron. xxix. 29, K.V. ; 2 Chrou. ix. 2 14-29) suggests the mention of his foreign wives and (their evil influence (xi. 1-13), foreboding the troubles that were in store for the kingdom (xi. 14-43). 2. The divided kingdom (1 Kings xii.-2 Kings xvii.), from the rupture under Jeroboam till the Assyrians take Samaria and cany its people into captivity. The whole space may be divided into three periods : — (a) The first period extends to the beginning of Ahab't reign, and exhibits the two kingdoms in sharp antagonism (1 Kings xii. i-xvi. 28). The events that led to the breaking away of the ten tribes from the sway of Rehoboam are fully explained (xii. i-xiv. 20). In the southern kingdom three reigns are embraced in the period : those of Rehoboam and Abijam who suffered from the attacks of Egypt, and were at constant war with the northern kingdom (xiv. 21-xv. 8) ; and that of Asa, who showed reforming zeal, and was successful in his conflict with Israel (xv. 9-24). In the northern kingdom, the line of Jeroboam ends with his son Nadab (xv. 25- 30) ; then a usurper Baasha is succeeded by his son Elah, who is murdered by his own servant Zimri. The murderer is, however, driven from the throne by Omri, the head of the army, who, after a civil war with Tibni, gains the supremacy and founds the dynasty which goes by his name (xvi. 1-22). (6) The second period embraces the whole duration of the house of Omri in Israel, and in Judah extends to the commencement of the reign of the boy king Joash (I Kings xvi. 23 to 2 Kings xi. 20). In this period, owing to an THE BOOKS OF KINGS 77 intermarriage, the two kingdoms are brought into friendly contact. The reign of Ahab, which lasted twenty-two years, bulks largely in the narrative ; for he was a power- ful prince, and his marriage with Jezebel, daughter of the king of Phoenicia, led him to introduce the Tyrian wor- ship of Baal and Astarte, against which Elijah raised his well-known protest (i Kings xvi. 29-xix. 14), Elisha and Jehu being designated to carry out the reforming work (xix. 15-21). We are told of Ahab's successful war against Benhadad of Syria, of his tyrannical dealing with Naboth of Jezreel (xx., xxi.), and how he was mortally wounded at Ramoth-Gilead (xxii. 1-40). In this war against Syria, he had for his ally Jehoshaphat, the good king of Judah. The alliance continued in the time of Ahab's sons and successors, Ahaziah and Jorara (I Kings xxii. 40-53 ; 2 Kings hi.), and was cemented by the marriage of Jehoshaphat's son, Jehoram, to Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel (2 Kings viii. 16-18). But it was a fatal alliance to both houses ; for Joram of Israel, suffering from wounds received in a war with Syria, was suddenly attacked and killed by his own general Jehu, who at the same time put to death both Jezebel the queen-mother, and also Ahaziah, king of Judah, who had come to visit his sick kinsman (2 Kings ix., x.) Athaliah, hearing at Jerusalem of the death of her son Ahaziah, kills all the seed royal — one infant, Joash, alone escaping — and usurps the throne for six years. At the end of that time young Joash is exhibited to the people and proclaimed king by the high priest Jehoiada ; Athaliah herself perishes, and with her the house of Omri is at an end (2 Kings xi.) (e) The third period, in which the two kingdoms are again less friendly, or even hostile, extends to the f.dl >f Samaria (2 Kings xii.-xvii.); the kings of Judah being Joash, Amaziah, Uzziah (or Azariah), Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. The line of Jehu was continued in Jehoah.iz, Joash, Jeroboam II., and Zechariah, the greatest of whom was Jeroboam II., who had a reign of forty-one years and law the widest extension of the dominion of Israel (xiv. 78 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS 23-29). In this period, besides their conflicts with one another (xiv. 1-16), both kingdoms had to wage war with the kingdom of Damascus or Syria (2 Kings xii. ; xiii. 1-13, 22-25), an d na( i a more formidable enemy to en- counter in Assyria. Especially after the strong hand 0/ Jeroboam II. of Israel was relaxed, and a succession ol usurpers held the throne, that kingdom hastened to its decay. Shallum, after a month's reign, is murdered by Menahem, who reigned ten years but had to pay tribute to Pul of Assyria to gain his support on the throne. His son, Pekahiah is dethroned, after a reign of two years, by his officer Pekah ; in whose reign Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, invades the country and carries away many of its inhabitants. Pekah is next dethroned and succeeded by Iloshea (2 Kings xv. 8-31), in whose reign the Assyrians again come up, lay siege to Samaria, put an end to the kingdom, and settle foreigners in the place of the exiled inhabitants (xvi. 9-xvii. 41). Nor was the kingdom of Judah free from foreign ten-ors. Jotham had to face a hostile combination of Pekah of Israel and Rezin of Damascus (xv. 32-38) ; and the danger became so pressing in the time of his successor Ahaz that the latter sent offers of submission to Assyria as the price of assistance against his two northern neighbours (xvi. 1-8). 3. The surviving kingdom of Judah. The northern kingdom being now at an end, the remainder of the book deals with the fortunes of the sole kingdom of Judah (2 Kings xviii.-xxv.), from the sixth year of Hezekiah down to the thirty-seventh year of the captivity of Judah. Ilezekiah's reign is marked by a revival of religion, in which the activity of the prophet Isaiah is conspicuous ; but a hint is given, on the occasion of an embassy from the king of Babylon, of the approaching downfall of the kingdom of Judah (xviii.-xx. ) The catastrophe is only accelerated by the impious conduct of the next two kings, Manasseh and Amon (xxi.); and the promise of better things, raised by the reforming real of Josiah, is quenched by the early death of that king fighting against Pharaoh - necoh at Megiddo (xxii. 1- THE BOOKS OF KINGS 79 xxiii. 30). From this point the history hastens to its close. Jehoiakim, son of Josiah, is made king by the Egyptians, instead of another son who had been chosen by the people ; but he is hard pressed by the Babylonians, and his successor Jehoiachin is reduced so low that he surrenders himself to Nebuchadnezzar. National inde- pendence is no more; Jehoiachin, with 10,000 of his people, is taken to Babylon, and his uncle Mattaniah or Zedekiah placed on the throne. But in a short time the king of Babylon, finding him unfaithful, marches intojudah with an army, and, after a siege of three years, takes and -destroys Jerusalem, leaving only a few inhabitants under a governor Gedaliah, whom they murder, taking refuge in Egypt to escape the wrath of the king of Babylon. The narrative breaks off rather abruptly when Jehoiachin was still alive, and treated with honour, in the land of his captivity (xxiii. 31-xxv. 30). § 48. The plan of these books is evidently to show the growth and decay of the kingdom, and to indicate the influences which controlled the history. The whole is presented from a religious point of view ; and so far as the fortunes of the two kingdoms are concerned, one fundamental point is never lost sight of, viz. the promise of perpetuity to the house of David, which finds repeated expression from stage to stage (1 Kings ii. 4; xi. 34-39; * v - 4, 5 = 2 Kings viii. 19; xix. 34; xx. 6), down to the very close, when a gleam of hope shines through the darkness of exile (2 Kings xxv. 27-30). As to the literary form, we have to notice the following characteristics : I. There is a framework, of almost stereotyped phrases, at the beginning and end of each reign, within which the particulari recorded of the successive kings are arranged. Thus, at the beginning of a reign, we are 80 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS usually told how old the king was at his accession, how many years he reigned, and, in the case of a king of Judah, his mother's name. Then comes a general description of the character of his rule, as good or evil " in the eyes of the Lord." At the close of the reign, the place of the king's burial and the name of the succeeding ruler are stated, and a reference is given to another authority for fuller details. 2. In regard to the divided kingdom, the method is to record first the events relating to the northern, and then to give the contemporaneous history of the southern. This leads sometimes to the repetition of the same events under two reigns. Compare 2 Kings xvii. 5, 6 with xviii. 9 ff. and 1 Kings xv. 16 with verse 32. 3. The method just mentioned suggests the SOUTCeS from which the materials were mostly drawn, viz. some such state records of the two kingdoms as are named respectively the " Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel " (mentioned seventeen times ; see I Kings xiv. 19, etc) and the " Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah " (fourteen times ; see 1 Kings xiv. 29, etc.) From the reign of Solomon onward* there are formal notices of records of this kind (1 Kings xi. 41); the few instances where they do not occur, being cases in which the reigns came to a sudden or violent end, as those of Joram of Israel and Ahaziah (2 Kings ix. 21-28) and the last kings of the two lines, viz. Hoshea of Israel, and Jehoahaz, Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah of Judah. 4. The same circumstance explains why indications of different dates appear in the books. The closing verses bring down the history to the thirty-seventh year of the captivity (2 Kings xxv. 27); yet the author, in- corporating his materials, was apparently not careful to adjust the dates to his own time ; as when he tells us that the staves of the ark remained in their place "unto this day" (1 Kings viii. 8), and that "Israel rebelled against the house of David unto this day " (xii. 19). § 49. Covering as they do so wide an expanse THE BOOKS OF KINGS 81 of time, the books can only give a condensed account of the history ; and, owing to the plan, a great deal that would have been interesting is never touched upon. In regard to the more external relations of the kingdoms, our knowledge has been supplemented, and the accuracy of the books confirmed, by the monuments, — particularly those of Assyria. The books of Chronicles also furnish additional details, and exhibit the history from another point of view. But the writings of the prophets who flourished in the period of the kings are of special value, being contemporaneous documents bearing upon those very matters which are represented as most vital in the history. 1. The knowledge derived from the monuments is particularly valuable in showing the causes that brought about those various conflicts with foreign powers, which are mentioned by the sacred writer. They enable us also to fix with greater precision certain important dates. Thus we learn that about David's time Egypt was dis- tracted with internal rivalries, and the Assyrian empire was weak ; so that the rapid extension of territory under David and Solomon (2 Sam. viii. 1-14 ; 1 Kings iv. 21) is the more easily explained. The Egyptian monuments, however, tell us of the revival of military conquest under Shishak, of which we have evidence in 1 Kings xiv. 25, 26. Assyria also soon entered on a new career ; and the reign of Shalmaneser II., from H.c. 858 to 823, was a long series of victories, extending his power to the Mediterranean. Uy this time the kingdom of Syria or Damascus, which had grown at the expense of Solomon {I Kings xi. 23-25), was the most formidable power in the West ; and at the battle of Karkar (B.C. 853), where he defeated a confederated force, the names of the king 0/ Damascus and of Ahab of Israel who, as we know from 1 Kings xx. 34, became allies, occur in the list of 6 82 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS conquered kings. It must have been about this time also, that Mesha, King of Moab, was enabled to throw off the yoke of Israel (2 Kings iii. 5), a fact recorded on the famous Moabite Stone. On the death of Shalmaneser, the attention of Assyria being turned in another direction, Hazael of Damascus and his successor Boiliiadad III. were able to harass Israel (2 Kings xiii. 31. When, however, Jeroboam II. had shaken off the Syrians and extended his own dominions at their expense, we are not astonished to learn that Rimmon-nirari (810- 7S1), the grandson of Shalmaneser, found it easy to reduce Damascus to vassalage. The decline of the kingdom of Israel after Jeioboam's death (see § 47, 2), was owing not only to the weakness of its own rulers, but to the growing power of Assyria. A military ad- venturer named Pul (2 Kin<;s xv. 19), had seized the throne, B.C. 745, and, under the name of Tiglath- piieser II. (2 Kings xv. 29) set up what is known as the second Assyrian empire. After consolidating his power in his own dominions, he came to the West, and at Arpad, near Aleppo, had a decisive victory in 740, which made him the arbiter of the fates of all the king- doms in Western Asia. Among his tributaries are men- tioned Uzziah of Judah and Menahem of Israel. Ahaz of Judah also invoked his aid against the combination of Israel and Syria ; and, finally, when in 732 Damascus was taken and its inhabitants carried away, Ahaz was among the princes who assembled to honour the conqueror (2 Kings xvi. 5-10; comp. Isaiah viii. 6, 7). The strong hand of Assyria was not relaxed by Tiglath- pileser's successor, Shalmaneser IV., for it was he that besieged Samaria ; and when it was taken in 722 by Sargon, his general and successor (2 Kings xvii. 5, 6), nothing then stood between Assyria and the little kingdom of Judah. Hezekiah continued to pay the tribute which had been exacted from his father Ahaz, till a new complication arose by the appearance at Jerusalem of the ambassadors of Merodach-baladan (2 Kings xx. 12 ; comp. Isaiah xxxix. 1). This was a chief of THE BOOKS OF KINGS 83 Babylonia who was struggling for the independence of his country, and had sent ambassadors to Palestine and Egypt to secure allies against Assyria. Before, however, they had time to take concerted action Sargon came upon them (B.C. 711), and Hezekiah was one of the first to suffer. To this invasion of Sargon, in all probability, we have reference in various parts of Isaiah, particularly chaps, x., xi. ; but more prominence is given to an invasion, ten years later, of his son Sennacherib, who came to enforce supremacy over the disaffected local kings. The miraculous discomfiture of his vast army is narrated in 2 Kings xviii. 13-xix. 35. 1 He was succeeded by Esar-haddon, to whom, and also to his successor Assur-bani-pal, Manasseh of Judah was tribut- ary. After the death of Assur-bani-pal, the Sardan- apalus of the Greeks, the vast empire of Assyria gives signs of breaking up. Elam was threatened by the Persians, Babylonia was becoming independent, and the invasion of Scythians from the north caused general consternation in Western Asia. The power of Assyria being relaxed, we are able to understand how Josiah found no difficulty in extending his dominion over Samaria (2 Kings xxiii. 15, 19), and how the Egyptians also turned their thoughts to Asiatic conquest. It was in disputing the passage of Pharaoh-necoh that Josiah was killed at Megiddo (xxiii. 29, 30) ; but the Egyptians were soon afterwards (in B.C. 605) defeated at Carche- inish, on the Euphrates, by Nabopolassar, king of Babylonia, which had now succeeded Assyria as the great eastern empire ; and from that time onwards, the Babylonians were undisputed masters of Western Asia. The name of Nebuchadnezzar, son of Nabopolassar, is associated with the overthrow of Jerusalem (B.C. 587) ; and his son, Evil-Merodach, is on the throne when the narrative of the books of Kings breaks off. 1 It K now generally believr.l that it was Sargon, not Sennacherih, that inva-'l Palestine '" the fourteenth year of Mezekiah. The lacrrd writer, thinking of the two invasions together, gives mote, prominence to the later one. See Nicol't Ktctnt Ex}Uwation$ dm Btt.'t Lund*, chap. zvi. 84 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS CHAPTER XVI THE PROPHETS § 50. The prophets w e re a series of men appear- ing throughout the history of Israel, claiming to be, and acknowledged to be, in a special manner, exponents of God's will, interpreters of His deal- ings, and teachers of their nation. They seem all to have exercised such functions towards the people of their own times, and a number of them have left written compositions, embodying their teaching. 1. The function of the prophet is described in Deut. xviii. 1 5-22. It is indicated by the various names applied to the prophets, as "seer" (1 Sam. ix. 9 ; 2 Sam. xxiv. 11); "man of God"(i Sam. ii. 27); "watchman" (Jer. vi. 17) ; "messenger of the Lord" (Hagg. i. 13). It is denoted also by the manner in which the revelation of God's will was made to them, as the "hand of the Lord" (Jer. i. 9; Ezek. i. 3, etc.); "spirit of the Lord" (Mic. iii. 8) ; "word of the Lord" (Isa. i. 10); " burden " or oracle (Isa. xiii. 1, R. V. marg.) ; " vision " (Isa. i. I); and very frequently "saith the Lord" (Isa. i. 18, 24, etc.), or "thus saith the Lord" (Jer. ix. 1 Si etc.) 2. Moses, who was pre-eminently a spokesman of God, it a typical prophet (see Deut. xviii. 15 ; Hos. xiL 13). THE PROPHETS 85 Abraham also is called a prophet (Gen. xx. 7) ; and eren David by St. Peter in Acts ii. 30. The office was not hereditary, nor confined to any class. Jeremiah (Jer. i. I) and Ezekiel (Ezek. L 3) were priests; Amos was a herdman (Amos i. I ; vii. 14) ; and there are some instances of prophetesses, as Deborah (Jud. iv. 4), Huldah(2 Kings xxii. 14), Noadiah (Neh. vi. 14). But from the time of Samuel onwards (see Acts iii. 24) there were, particularly in the northern kingdom, associations presumably for the training of those who were to exercise the prophetic office (1 Sam. x. 5 ff. ; xix. 18 ff. ; 1 Kings xx. 35 ; 2 Kings ii. 3 ff. ; iv. 38, 42 f£ ; v. 22 ; vi. 1 ; Ix. I). 3. The intimate connection of the prophets with the events of their time is seen not only in such outstanding men as Samuel, Elijah, and Elisha, but in the cases of Nathan, (iad, and others who have left no written prophecies (2 Sam. xii. 1-15 ; 1 Kings i. 11-39; 2 S am - xxiv. 11; 1 Kings xi. 29-31; xiv. 7 ff. ; xii. 22-24; 2 Chron. xv. I ff. ; xvi. 7 ff. ; xix. 2 ; xx. 14). See also § 39, 4 ; § 46, 2, 3. Of the writing prophets also it is true that we can only comprehend their position by re- membering that they were men of their time, and •poke with reference to events that were seen by those whom they addressed. We shall not, however, do full justice to their words unless we remember that they were men above their time, seeing things in a better light and in different relations from (heir contemporaries, — and also men for all time, giving utterance to truths which were not fully unfolded in the dispensation under which they lived. 4. The writings of the prophets exhibit the greatest Variety, not only because the circumstances and times of each varied, but because the individuality of the prophet himself was left in full activity. Not only "at sundry times" but "in divers manners" God "spake in lime past unto the fathers by the prophets " (Heb. 1. I). § 51. The books of the writing prophets are 86 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS all, with the exception of Daniel, found in the second division of the Hebrew Canon, though not in chronological order. The three great books, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, stand in the histori- cal order of the men whose names they bear ; but of the twelve minor prophets, two at least (Hosea and Amos) are earlier than Isaiah, and the three at the end (Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi) are later than the captivity. 1. The history of Israel may be divided roughly inta certain periods according to the ascendency of successive powers in and about Palestine. These may be here indicated, for the sake of greater convenience in referring the prophetic and other writings to their respective dates : — (a) Syrian period, beginning about 870 B.C. Sb) Assyrian ,, >■ 75° it c) Chaldean „ n 6a S 11 (d) Persian „ „ S3 8 11 ( vii. 8-1 1). The law must be written on the heart (iv. 4, 14; xvii. 9; xxxi. 33). (b) Consequently the individual rather than the state is the object of divine regard (v. 1 ; ix. 1-6 ; xviii.) (c) In thus condemning the old, Jeremiah antid' pates a new order of things. Though he says little of a personal Messiah, he prepares His way (see xxiii. 5-8 ; xxx. 4-1 1 ; xxxiiL 14-26). THE BOOK OF EZEKIEL 97 CHAPTER XIX THE BOOK OF EZEKIEL | 58. The prophet Ezekiel was one of the cap- tives taken to Babylon, in the first captivity of Judah, along with Jehoiachin in the year B.C. 597 (xxxiii. 21 ; xl. 1 ; compare i. 2). He was thus contemporary with Jeremiah and survived him. His prophetic activity began five years after he was taken captive (i. 1-3), and extended at least over twenty-two years ; for the last date mentioned in his book is the 27th year of the captivity, viz. B.C. 570 (xxix. 17), which was sixteen years after the deportation of Jeremiah to Egypt 1. Ezekiel, unlike Jeremiah, gives few details of his private life. He was the son of Buzi, of a priestly family ; lived among the exiled Israelites at a place called Tell Abib ; was married, and had a house of his own (xxiv. 18; viiL 1). He was resorted to for advice and guidance by the elders of the captivity (viii. 1 ; xiv. I ; xx. I ; compare xxxiii. 30). There is a tradition that he was put to death in Babylonia by a prince of his own people whom he had reproved for idolatry. 2. The national events that occurred In the life- time of Kzekicl are for the must part those in which J'.remiah had a. prominent part (§ 55, 2). In whatever 98 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS sense we take "the thirtieth year" to which he alludes (i. I), 1 Ezekiel must have been familiar from boyhood with the person and work of Jeremiah ; and, up to the destruction of Jerusalem, though he was in exile, the fortunes of his native land formed the subject of his prophecies. One of the most striking passages in the book is the lament over the princes of Israel (xix.), in which, under the figure of the whelps of a lioness, he represents the fate of Jehoahaz, who was carried captive to Egypt (vv. 1-4 ; compare 2 Kings xxiii. 31-34 ; Jer. xxii. 10-12.), and of Jehoiachin, who was taken to Baby- lon (vv. 5-9). Of the external circumstances of his life in Babylon, the prophet tells us very little. § 59. The book seems to be arranged chrono- logically, and naturally falls into two divisions, of twenty-four chapters each, corresponding to the two great periods of the prophet's life. He saw the national catastrophe and survived it, and his book is occupied with two great subjects : I. The ruin of the city and state (i.-xxiv.) II. Pro- phecies of future restoration and glory (xxv.- xlviii.) The treatment throughout is highly sym- bolical ; and chaps, xl.-xlviii. are quite unique in Old Testament literature. 1. The first division (i.-xxiv.) consists of the fol- lowing parts : — (a) In the first year of his ministry (i.-vii.) : the prophet's call and mission to the exiles (i.-iii. 21); and symbolical prophecies of the overthrow of the city (iii. 22-vii. 27). {b) In the following year (viii.-xi.) : more precise prophecies against the city, because of its idolatries (viii.); and the symbolical de- parture of the Lord from the temple (ix. -xi.) (c) Later, but not dated (xiL-xix.) : reasons for the destruction of 1 Some think it was the thirtieth year of his own age ; others, that he dates from the accession of Nabopolassar (625 B.C.), whila others think we are to count from the reform of Josiah (fin). THE BOOK OF EZEKIEL 99 the state — unbelief and giving heed to false prophets (xii.-xiv.); certainty of the event, however painful (xv.-xvii.); yet a new order of things shall follow (xviii.) (d) Two years from the prophet's call (xx.- xxiii.) : the necessity of the doom, in that Jehovah's name has been profaned (xx.), and the iniquity of Israel is now full (xxi. -xxiii. ) (e) After several years, and when Nebuchadnezzar had begun the siege of Jerusalem (xxiv. ) : the symbol of the caldron, to signify the siege and dispersion. a. The second division (xxv.-xlviii.) consists of the following parts : {a) Preparatory to the restoration ; judgments on the nations round about Israel (xxv. -xxxii. ) (b) The restoration itself; the conditions of the new kingdom (xxxiii.), and descriptions of the ruler (xxxiv.), the land (xxxv., xxxvi.) and the people (xxxvii.), and the Lord's defence of His people in the latter day (xxxviii., xxxix.) (c) The final glory of the redeemed, as seen in the vision of the temple (xl.-xliii.), its services (xliv.-xlvi.), and the condition of the land, with its life- giving river issuing from the temple (xlvii.), and the arrangement of the tribes (xlviii.) 3. The symbolism which is characteristic of Ezekiel's style shows itself (a) in highly figurative language, as In the comparison of Tyre to a stately ship (xxvii.), etc ; (b) in symbolical actions, such as are employed also by other prophets (compare I Kings xxii. II ; Isa. xxi.; Jer. xix. 10; xxviii. 2, 10; li. 59-64). There may be reason to doubt whether all these actions were performed by the prophett in the literal sense of the words. Some of them certainly (see iv., v.) seem to be ideal, and suited to impress rather in the written page than by out- ward form, (c) In visions. With one of the grandest of these the hook opens (i.), and chaps, xl. -xlviii. are quite apocalyptic, and have strongly influenced the imar^ry of the book of the Revelation in the New Testament. § 60. In his toaching Ezekicl shows that he too OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS had been influenced by that of Jeremiah ; and he carries out into greater detail, and enforces with more emphasis, the great truths which that prophet taught. In particular : — i. He insists upon the responsibility of the indi- vidual ; combating the prevailing ideas of his time that the people suffered for the sins of their fathers (xviii. 2), and that they were under a ban which no repentance could remove (xxxiii. 10). 2. Like Jeremiah, he pronounces condemnation on the past history of Israel, and accuses them of idolatry even in Egypt (xvi. ; xz. 7, 8 ; xxiii. 3, 8 ; compare Jer. vii. 25 ; xvL 12). 3. Being of priestly family, like Jeremiah, he shows great zeal for the Law (xx.) and clothes his vision of the final glory in forms borrowed from the Temple and its service (xl.-xlviii.) Yet no two prophets teach more distinctively the inward spiritual character of religion. 4. Though the new order of things is to be based on individual heart religion, it will be a Messianic king- dom (xvii. 22-24), with "David" as prince for ever (xxxvii. 24, 25). THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS 101 CHAPTER XX THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS § 6 1. The twelve prophetical writings which from the earliest times the Jews have classed together as one hook, are called the minor prophets, solely on account of their size. The whole taken together do not equal the book of Isaiah in bulk ; but though " brief in words," they are " mighty in meaning." They belong to different dates within the whole period of about four centuries which is covered by written prophecy ; and in literary style, as in subject-matter, they exhibit the greatest variety and individuality. 1. It was no doubt because they were of small compass that they were taken together and written on one rolL The Jewish name given to them is simply the "Twelve." 2. Jerome was of opinion that the whole of the twelve tre arranged in chronological order. Others arrange them in three groups, according to historical periods : viz. Hosea to Nahum belonging to the pre - Assyrian and Assyrian periods; Habakkuk and Zcphaniah to the Chaldean period J and Ihiggai, Zethariah, and Malachi to the post-exilic period (§ 51, I). There are, however, great differences of opinion as to the dates of some of them. In our version the order of the Hebrew canon is xoa OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS retained ; but in the LXX. the order of the first six is : Hosea, Amos, Micah, Joel, Obadiah, and Jonah. HOSEA § 62. Hosea was a native of the kingdom of the ten tribes, and is the only prophet of that kingdom from whom we have written prophecies. He has told us either very little or a great deal of his personal history, according as we understand the opening chapters of his book. From the heading (i. 1) we gather that he was an early contemporary of Isaiah ; but he must have ceased his ministry before the fall of Samaria. 1. We conclude that he belonged to the northern kingdom from the special acquaintance with it which he exhibits, and his almost exclusive reference to its affairs. Some take chaps, i.-iii. In the literal sense that Hosea's wife proved unfaithful to him, and that through his love to her he was led to understand the unquenchable love of God to Israel. Others take the whole as an allegory. 2. Hosea could not have prophesied during the full reigns of all the kings mentioned in i. 1. Probably he began his work in the latter end of Jeroboam's reign (which closed B.C. 749) and ceased about the accession of Pekah (in B.C. 736), since he does not mention the deportation of Israelites by Tiglath-pileser in 734 (2 Kings xv. 29). It was a time of rapid changes and revolution- ary movements [see § 47, 2 (c)] ; and some have seen in various passages of Hosea allusions to some of those events. 1 1 Some, €-g- } apply chap. vi. 8 to the murder of Zechariah by Shallum, who is called the son of Jabesh (2 Kings xv. 10), though others refer it to the event recorded in 2 Kings xv. 25. More definite are the allusions in viii. 10, probably to the Assyrians then in the land ; and in x. 6, to the tribute paid 10 the Eastern Empire (compare 2 Kings xv. 19, 20). If Shalman (x. 14) stands for Shalmaneser, it can hardly be the king who laid final siege to Samaria, but must bt an earlier king of the same name. THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS 103 § 63. The contents of the book of Hosea have the appearance of being rather a summary of his teaching than a series of spoken discourses. It is not easy to classify the portions or to observe the principle of arrangement, though some think it is chronological. This arises in great measure from the style, which is somewhat broken and abrupt, owing to the emotional character of the prophet There are, however, passages of great poetic beauty, and the one great thought that fills the prophet's mind, — the love of God, is kept in view throughout 1. Analysis of the book. Chaps, i.-iii., whether literal or symbolical, furnish the key to the whole. Israel, the faithless spouse, is throughout personified, and the several discourses in the sequel (iv.-xiv.) exhibit in various aspects the unfaithfulness that had characterised the whole history and was prevalent at the time. Thus in iv. 1- ▼. 7 we have reproof of glaring immorality ; in vi. 4- ▼iL 16 treachery and sinful foreign alliances ; in viii., ix. a godless monarchy and a polluted worship ; and x., xi. point out how inveterate and deep-seated the sin has been. But even in his direst threatenings the prophet breaks off into tender entreaty (vi. 1-3) ; and ends with the final triumph of Divine love (xii. -xiv. ) 2. The following passages in later prophets show great resemblances to the thoughts of Hosea: Jer. ii., hi., xxxi. 31 ff. ; Ezek. xvi., xxiii. The references to Hosea in the New Testament should also be studied : with chap, vi. 6, comp. Matt. ix. 13, xii. 7 ; with chap. xi. 1, comp. Matt ii. 15 ; and with chap. ii. 23, comp. Rom. ix. 25, 26. JOEL § 64. Of the personal history of Joel, son of Pethuel, we know nothing. His date has to bo ich OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS determined, if possible, by a consideration of the general situation implied in the book, and by any references to historical events that it furnishes. The main subject of the book is clear and the contents well arranged In style the work takes a first rank among prophetic literature ; and in its teaching it points significantly forward to the New Testament dispensation. i. As he confines his national view to Jndah and Jerusalem, it is concluded that he was a native of the capital. Some have supposed, from the prominence he gives to the Temple service (see i. and ii.), that he was a priest. 2. Contents. Joel's prophecy was occasioned by a severe visitation of drought and locusts, in view of which he delivered two highly pictorial discourses, calling to repentance and supplication (i. and ii. 1-17). These form the first part of the book. The second part re- fers to the future. The plague is removed, so that the wasted years are restored (ii. 18-27) 5 and this leads to the prophecy that "afterward" the Divine Spirit will be poured out upon all flesh, and then, with signs in heaven and on earth, shall come "the great and terrible day of the Lord" (ii. 28-31). In this great consumma- tion " whosoever shall call on the name of the Lord shall be delivered : for in mount Zion and in Jerusalem there shall be those that escape" (ii. 32, R.V.); while the "nations" shall be gathered into the valley of Jehosha- phat (i.e. "Jehovah judges") and trodden in the winepress of the Divine anger (iii. I -21). 3. Some have interpreted the locusts (L, iL) figura- tively of enemies of Israel, the four names (i. 4 ; iL 25) being taken to represent four great empires (as in Dan. vii., etc.) Others explain them ideally, like the locusts of the Apocalypse (Rev. ix.) But Joel's description, though highly poetical, is true to the life, and the four names are elsewhere applied to the locust, and may THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS 105 Indicate stages of its growth. The heavy hand of God on nature, in an agricultural country like Palestine and to the prophetic mind, was sufficient to suggest to Joel his great theme, the " day of the Lord." 4. The indications of date are so obscure that very divergent views have been held on the subject, and pos- sibly we have proof of this uncertainty in the place the book occupies in the LXX. Version (see § 61, 2). It is generally agreed that the book must be dated either very early [e.g. in the infancy of Joash, i.e. before B.C. 850 ; see 2 Kings xi. 1-3) or very late (viz. after the time of Nehemiah, B.C. 445), the main reasons in either case being the absence of reference to a king, or to Assyria or Babylonia, and the prominence given to the priests and the Temple service. The advocates of the early date explain these facts by the minority of the king, the regency of Jehoiada the priest, and the circumstance that the great eastern powers had not yet extended to Palestine. Those who maintain the late date say that the facts are best explained on the supposition that the powers of Assyria and Babylonia had come to an end, that the community at Jerusalem was under the rule of priests with a regular Temple service, and that the king- dom of the ten tribes (which is not mentioned) had been swept away. There are references to other enemies of Israel (iii. 4, 6, 8, 19) ; but these are difficult of ex- planation on either view, owing mainly to our defective knowledge of the history. The style of the book gives no indication of a late date ; and it is difficult to under- stand its being placed between the earlier prophetical books of Hosea and Amos, if it was of post-exilian origin. 5. The prophecy of the outpouring of the Spirit (ii. 28-32) is particularly alluded to by St. Peter in Acts ii. 16-2 1 ; and St. Paul quotes the promise of the call of the Gentiles (iL 32) in Rom. x. 13. io6 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS AMOS § 65. From Amos himself (whose name is spelled differently from that of the father of Isaiah) we learn some interesting particulars of his personal history. He was a native of Tekoa (i. 1), a place about twelve miles S.S.E. from Jerusalem. He did not belong to any of the prophetic societies (§ 45, 2 ; § 50, 2), but was a herdman and a dresser of sycomore trees (vii. 14, R.V.) Though a native of the south, he prophesied in the northern kingdom, and was reproved for his plain speaking by Amaziah, the priest of Bethel (vii. 10 ff.) In date he is to be placed a little before Hosea, prob- ably not later than about B.C. 760, and he is very frequently spoken of as the earliest of the writing prophets (but compare § 64, 4, § 66, i, and § 67). If this is the case, his book is all the more remark- able for its finished style, its high moral tone, and the wide view of history which it exhibits. 1. Tekoa was an outlying frontier place (see 2 Chron. xi. 6) and seems to have been famed for the ready wit of its inhabitants (2 Sam. xiv. 2). 2. The time in which Amos prophesied was one of the greatest prosperity in both kingdoms. It may be that in chap. vi. 14 we have an indication of the exten- sion of territory which was effected by Jeroboam II. (2 Kings xiv. 25) ; and the sins for which the prophet rebuked Israel are such as generally follow a condition of material prosperity, viz. luxury, with its hardening in- fluence on the affections and its ministering to vice, along with worship scrupulously observed but devoid of spiritual life. It is not clear whether all the prophecies in the book were spoken at one time. Some suppose that, THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS \oy being driven from Bethel, the prophet retired to his native place, and there wrote his book. 3. Contents. The book may be divided into three parts : (a) Chaps, i., ii. — a prophetic survey and denun- ciation of the neighbouring nations for their breaches of the Divine law, ending with Judah and Israel. (/>) Chaps, iii.-vi. — three discourses against Israel, each beginning with "Hear this" : viz. (1) declaration of the necessity of God's threatened judgment (iii.) ; (2) reproofs of oppression, idolatry, and impenitence (iv.) ; and (3) denunciations, in three parts, against the grinding of the poor (v. 1-17), formal worship (v. 18-27), and luxury and wantonness (vi.) (c) Chaps, vii.-ix. — visions, still of a threatening kind : viz. the locust (vii. 1-3), fire (vii. 4-6), the plumb- line (vii. 7-9, and here comes the encounter with the priest of Bethel, vii. 10-17), the basket of summer fruit (viii), and a vision of the Lord (ix.) 4. If Amos is the earliest, or one of the earliest, of the writing prophets, his book is remarkable (a) as show- ing that literary composition had by his time been well developed and long practised ; (b) as proving that pro- phetic activity and influence were well-established facts (iL 11; iii. 7), a testimony all the more striking in that he himself belonged to no prophetic guild ; and (c) as exhibiting in fulness and freshness the same gTeat thoughts that are found in all written prophecy. The primary message of the prophet, as befitted the time in which he lived, was a condemnation of sin in its various prevailing forms ; but the God whose messenger he was is repre- sented by him as the moral governor of the whole earth (ix.), who, just because He was the God of Israel, would visit upon His people their iniquities (iii. 2; ix. 7, 8). Vet, though the " day of the Lord," for which the careless pro- fessed to long, would be a day of judgment (v. 18, 19), the faithful would be preserved, the Davidic house would be ■et up more firmly, and the world blessed in the coming glory (ix. 915). io8 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS OBADIAH § 66. Of the prophet Obadiah himself nothing is known. The subject of the brief book which bears his name is a denunciation against Edom for hostility shown to Israel, leading up to an announce- ment of the " day of the Lord." But the occasion of the prophecy cannot be very clearly determined, and accordingly there have been (probably from an early time, see § 6 1, i ; compare § 64, 4) different opinions about the date of the book. I. The hostility of Edom, the "brother" of Israel (Obad. 10; compare Gen. xxxii. 3), is seen throughout the history. The country was subjected to the sway of David (2 Sam. viii. 14), but shook off the yoke in the reign of Joram, the son of Jehoshaphat (2 Kings viii. 20- 22). Again the Edomites were subdued by Amaziah and Uzziah (2 Kings xiv. 7, 22 1 ), and again they asserted their freedom in the timeof Ahaz(2 Kings xvi. 6; 2 Chron. xxviii. 17). On none of these occasions, however, do we hear of Edom taking part in the infliction of such a "calamity" on Judah as Obadiah describes (vv. 10-16), unless the brief reference to the time of Ahaz (2 Chron. xxviii. 17) be so taken. Some have supposed that the allusion is to the incursion of Philistines and Arabians in the reign of Joram, referred to in 2 Chron. xxi. 16, in which it is supposed the Edomites took part (see 2 Kings viii. 20) ; in which case the date of the book would be about B.C. 850 and Obadiah would be the earliest writing prophet (see § 65). It is very generally felt, however, that the description of Judah's "calamity" (w. 10-16) can only apply to the final capture of Jerusalem by the Chaldeans. The prophets who lived about that time certainly utter heavy denunciations against Edom (see ' Elatb or Elotb was " on the shore of the Red Sea, in the land of Edom " (1 Kings ix. 26). THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS 109 Jer. xlix. 7-22; Ezek. xxv. 12-14; xxxv. ; compare Lam. iv. 21 ; Ps. cxxxvii. 7), though they indicate that the hostility was of long standing (Ezek. xxxv. 5), and we find the same feeling expressed in the early prophet Amos (i. 6,9, 11; ix. 1 2). There is a passage in Jeremiah (xlix. 7-16) which so strongly resembles some verses in Obadiah (i-6, 8) that a common origin must be assigned to them ; and, since the prophecies of Jeremiah against the nations (Jer. xlvi.-li.) were pronounced before the captiv- ity (see Jer. xxv. 13), if he borrowed from Obadiah, the date of the latter must be earlier. The view is now, how- ever, held by many that this little book of Obadiah con- tains an old prophecy (vv. 1-9) against Edom (which Jeremiah also employed), and that this was expanded by a later writer and applied to the destruction of Jerusalem. It was not unusual for prophets thus to adopt and enlarge earlier oracles. Compare Isa. ii. 2-5 with Micah iv. 1-5, and Jer. xlviii. with Isa. xv. , xvi. 2. There are some remarkable resemblances between Obadiah and Joel. Compare, e.g., ver. 11 ("cast lots") with Joel iii. 3 ; ver. 15, etc., with Joel iii. 14, etc. JONAH § 67. "Jonah, the son of Amittai," was the name of a prophet, of Gath-hepher in Galilee, who in the days of Jeroboam II. foretold the extension of territory that was to be effected by that king (2 Kings xiv. 25). He was therefore earlier than Amos (§ 65), for Jeroboam's death is to be placed about B.C. 750. But the work before us has nothing in its contents to lead us to identify it with the pro- phecy referred to. Indeed, it is rather a book about Jonah than a collection of his utterances ; and it is so different in form from any other of the prophetical writings, among which it has a place. no OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS that very great varieties of opinion have been held as to its meaning and purpose. 1. The contents of the book are familiar. Jonah, commissioned to go and cry against Nineveh, takes ship to flee to Tarshish from the presence of the Lord. A storm arises, and Jonah, indicated by lot as the cause of it, is cast into the sea, which then becomes quiet ; and the prophet, saved by a great fish, prays unto the Lord in his trouble. A second time he is ordered to go to Nineveh, and this time proclaims his message, "Yet forty days and Nineveh shall be overthrown." The Ninevites, alarmed, fast and put on sackcloth ; the Lord repents of the evil ; and the prophet, disappointed at the result, sits under a booth " till he might see what would become of the city." The Lord teaches him, by his grief at the withering of a gourd, the lesson of Divine com- passion on man and beast. 2. The form of the book is thus historical ; and, if we omit the second chapter, the whole reads continuously. It is observable, however, that the book ends abruptly, without any proper conclusion of the story ; and this and other peculiarities have given occasion to diverse opinions as to the meaning and purpose of the whole. These have varied, according as the book has been considered more or less strictly historical, from a literal interpretation of the whole to one entirely mythical. Between these extremes different accounts have been given of its teach- ing, as, e.g., that it was designed to show that salvation can only come from God, and that its ultimate ground 'lies in the Divine love ; or that prophecy is conditional on repentance, and that a prophet may not seek to evade the Divine call. One truth, however, is so strongly en- forced at the close, — the all-embracing love of God, with- out respect of persons or nations, — that it has led in modern times to another view of the book, which may be called the allegorical or parabolical explanation. According to this view, Jonah is the representative of Israel ac a whole, which for unfaithfulness to its mission to the world was THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS m delivered into captivity (the "great fish") ; from which being delivered, it was again set as a witness to the heathen. But instead of rising to the Divine purpose, Israel took more and more delight in its own little dignity and exclusiveness (the "gourd" being the Temple, etc.), and needed to be reproved for not perceiving God's purpose of love. In support of this view it has been pointed out that Jeremiah (li. 34, 44) speaks of the captivity under the figure of a devouring animal (com- pare Isa. xxvii. 1) ; and in another passage (xviii. 7, 8) teaches the very truth that was taught to Jonah. On this supposition, the book would be later in date than Jeremiah, and would exhibit a conception of religion and of Israel's calling that was not common in earlier books. 3. If the Psalm in chap. ii. is read by itself (w. 2-9), it will be perceived to be rather an expression of thanks- giving for deliverance (as from drowning) than a prayer for rescue. Many of the verses, also, are found in various Psalms (see marg. re/.), some of which are of late date. These features have led some 'to conjecture that the symbolical language of Jeremiah just alluded to was at a later time interpreted literally, and the Psalm then inserted as appropriate to one in Jonah's position. MICAH $ 68. No fewer than eleven persons mentioned in the Old Testament bear the name of Micah ; and one of these, Micah, son of Imlah, was a pro- phet in the time of Ahab and Jehoshaphat (1 Kings xxii. 8). The author of this book was a native of Moresheth-gath, a place in Judah ; and his date is fixed sometime before the destruction of Samaria (chap. i. 1, 6 ; compare Jer. xxvi. 18). He is thus contemporary with Isaiah, and it is interesting to compare the utterances of the two men, the one na OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS (Isaiah) living at the capital, the other a native of the country. 1. Contents. The book of Micah seems to be » summary of prophetic utterances given forth on different occasions. It is not easy to perceive the connection in several places ; but the expression "Hear ye," repeated three times (i. 2; iii. I ; and vi. i), may be taken as a formal mark, dividing the book into three sec- tions, (a) The first section (i., ii.) threatens judgment, which falls first on Samaria (i. 6-8), and then reaches Judah (i. 9). A vivid description (with striking word- plays on the names of the places) is given of the panic of the inhabitants before the invader (i. 10-16) ; and the sins are enumerated which have called down this severe judgment : viz. idolatry (i. 5, 7), covetousness and oppression (ii. 1-5, 8, 9), drunkenness (ii. II), and giving heed to false teachers (ii. 6-7, Ii). {t>) The second section (iii. -v.) continues the strain of denunciation and threatening (iii.), but passes on to glowing predictions of the time when Zion shall be the religious centre of the world (iv.), and a new Davidic king shall arise (v. 2-4), whose reign shall be one of universal peace (v. 5, 10-15). (c) The third section (vi., vii.) is more elegiac in tone and almost dramatic in form. The Lord has a controversy with His people for the manner in which they have requited His goodness (vi. 1-5); and, touched by His appeal, they ask what they may do to serve Him (vi. 6, 7). 1 lc desires nothing but doing justly, loving mercy, and walking humbly with their God (vi. 8); but since these have been wanting, judgment must follow (vi. 9-16). Then follows a lament over the general cor- ruption (vii. 1-6) ; and finally, the chastisement being perhaps supposed to have fallen, affliction produces in Israel a spirit of humility, penitence, and hope, and the book ends with confident trust in a God who delighteth in mercy (vii. 7-20). 2. As compared with Isaiah it will be noted that Micah has little to say of foreign powers and national THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS 113 politics (such as would engage attention at the capital), but dwells upon the oppression of the poor and the peasant classes (see ii. 2-5, 8-10; iii. 1-3; vi. 12). The passage iv. 1-5, which is found with little variation in Isaiah ii. 2-5, may possibly be quoted by both from a well-known older prophecy. No prophet has held forth more distinctly than Micah the Messianic hope of the Old Testament (see iv. 1-5 ; v. 2-4 ; vii. 18-20). NAHUM § 69. The prophet Nahum was a native of Elkosh, which, on the authority of Jerome, is said to have been in Galilee, though another tradition places it near Mosul, the ancient Nineveh. Though no date is prefixed to the book, the time of its composition can be approximately determined from two references. The prophet predicts the fall of Nineveh, which took place i?.c. 607 ; and he speaks of No-amon or Thebes as having been already destroyed (iii. 8-10, R.V.), and this took place in B.C. 664. Between these two limits the actual date has, if possible, to be more precisely ascer- tained from the book itself. 1. The one subject of the book is "the burden of Nineveh" (i. I) ; and the three chapters of which it is composed are three orderly stages in one connected whole. In chap. i. there is a sublime description of the God who taketh vengeance on His adversaries (ver. 2), but is a stronghold to His own in the day of trouble (ver. 7), and thi-> (iod is represented as al>out to execute judgment on His people's enemies. Chap, ii., depicting most graphically the fall of Nineveh, shows us the besiegers (w. 2-4) and the besieged (vv. 5-10), and ends with a taunting proverb against what had been a den of lions (tt. 1 1- 1 3). In chap. iii. the prophet returns to the • n 4 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS description of the terrors of the siege (vv. 2-4) ; and, varying the figure, depicts the city as a harlot, and exults over her fate (vv. 5-7). Her end shall be like that of No-amon, and all her traders shall be like locusts, that take wings and fly away (w. 8-19). 2. Those who have attempted to determine more precisely the date of the prophecy point out that Israel is held fast by Assyria (i. 13); that half of the people (the northern kingdom) has been emptied out (ii. 2) ; that the enemy lias passed through the land (i. 15) ; and, if these indications are meant to be more than general descriptions, they may point to the heavy pressure of Assyria upon Judah in the reign of Manasseh. See 2 Chron. xxxiii. II, R.V., and compare § 47, 3 and § 49, I. 3. The style of Nahum has been generally remarked upon for its vividness in description. His conception of the God of Israel is also very exalted. There is, how- ever, an absence of reference to the specific Messianic hope, which is so prcminent a feature of Micah. HABAKKUK § 70. This prophet belonged to Judah, and there is a tradition that he was of a Levitical family, based, no doubt, on the liturgical terms occurring in chap. iii. 1, 19. His book naturally follows Nahum. That prophet foretold the destruction of Nineveh, and Habakkuk's great theme is the downfall of the Chaldean power, though he treats it in a broad and general manner. His date is variously fixed according as the presence of the Chaldean on the soil of Palestine is regarded as more near or more remote. Habakkuk has a marked individuality both in style and tone ; and one expression he employs (ii. 4) has become historical from the way it was adopted by St Paul THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS 115 (Gal. iii. 11) and by Luther, in the great question of justification by faith. I. The book falls into two parts : In the first part (L, ii.) the prophet complains that his outcry against violence is unheeded (L 1-4). and is told that God is raising up the Chaldeans to inflict punishment (i. 5 -11 )* But this only perplexes the prophet, who reflects on the pride and wickedness of this chosen instrument (i. 12- 17); and he resolves to retire to his watch-tower that he may have his doubts solved (ii. 1). The answer comes in an oracular form, " Behold, his soul is puffed up, it is not upright in him : but the just shall live by his faith" (ii. 4, R.V.), and this will be proved true in fact, though it should tarry in its accomplishment (ii. 2- 3). In the certainty of its fulfilment the prophet bursts forth in a triumphant taunting parable, consisting of five woes directed against the great world-power (ii. 5-20). The second part (chap, iii.) is a psalm or hymn, called 'a prayer of Ilabakkuk," in which, after the invocation (ver. 2 ; comp. ii. 4), the prophet prays for the execution of judgment, but also for the exercise of mercy. Then follows a glorious display of the Divine majesty (w. 3-7), the result of which is the consternation of God's enemies (w. 8-15), but on the prophet's mind quiet confidence in the heaviest trouble, expressed in the beautiful hymn at the close (w. 16-19). 2. The more precise date is to be determined by consideration of such passages as chap. i. 5, 6, in which the people addressed are supposed not to be familiar with the Chaldeans, and the succeeding verses (7-17). in which the appearance and actual ravages of the invaders seem to be described The historical events that help us in determining the date are : the destruction of Nineveh (in B.C. 606), when the power of Nabopolassar was coming to its height, and the battle of Carchemish (in C05), when the Chaldeans gained a notable victory over the Egyptian (see § 49, I, end). Such events would bring the Chaldeans within the horizon of the people of Judah, and n6 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS most modern writers place the prophecy about this time, in the reign of Jehoiakim. Others, however, carry it back to the reign of Josiah, chiefly on the ground that the prophets Jeremiah and Zephaniah are supposed to refer to the book. Compare Hab. i. 8 with Jer. iv. 13 and v. 6 ; and Hab. ii. 20 with Zeph. L 7. But the priority may be the other way. ZEPHANIAH § 7 1. Of the personal history of this prophet we know nothing, for, though his genealogy is given for four generations (i. 1 ), we are not told whether the Hezekiah to whom it is traced is the king of Judah of that name. His date falls "in the days of Josiah," who reigned B.C 640 to 608, and he speaks of the destruction of Nineveh as still in the future (ii. 13). His book, though brief, is comprehensive, embracing the two great subjects of prophetic teaching, judgment (i. 2 - iii. 8), and salvation (iii. 9-20), — and these extending to all nations. 1. Contents. (a) Destruction is about to fall, particularly on Judah and Jerusalem (u 2-6). It will be a day of sacrifice, in which the heathen will partake (i. 7), and the chief victims are court officials with foreign manners (i. 8, 9), merchants (i. Ii), and the indifferent ones among the people (i. 12). It will be a day of wrath calling all classes to repentance (i. 13-ii. 3) ; and it will extend to the neighbouring Philistines, Moabites, and Ammonites (ii. 4-1 1 ), to distant Ethiopia and isineveh (ii. 12-15), but will rest most heavily on Jeru- salem, for " the Lord in the midst of her is righteous " (iii. 1-8). (b) Therefore the faithful are admonished to wait patiently ; for the end of the gTeat work of judgment will be the conversion of the nations to God, the res tora- THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS 117 tion of the captives, and the eternal reign of the King of Israel in the midst of her (iii. 9-20). 2. The description of impending judgment is so cir- cumstnntial (e.g. i. 2, 3, 7, 13, 16, 17) that many are disposed to think the immediate occasion of the pro- phecy was the great irruption of Scythians which took place in the early part of the reign of Josiah (see § 49, 1). 3. The " day of the Lord," suggested so often to ♦he prophets by prevailing calamities or general moral declension (see § 64, 3 ; § 65, 4 ; Obad. 15), is by none more vividly depicted as a dies irae than by Zephaniah (L. 15). On the other hand, there is nothing in prophetic literature more grand than his prediction of the glorious appearing of the Lord in Israel (iii. 14-20) HAGGAI § 72. The three prophets that stand last among the twelve all belong to the time after the return from the captivity, and they are placed in chrono- logical order. Haggai was contemporary with Zechariah ; and his book contains four utterances, all given forth in the second year of the reign of Darius Hystaspis, B.C. 520. His style shows little ornament, and his prophecies are plain and directed to special situations of his time. 1. The following chronological landmarks for the period will be found useful : — B.C. 597. Jehoiachin taken prisoner. Ezekiel among the captives. „ 586. Capture of Jerusalem. „ 536. Edict of Cyrus (Ezra I.); first return of captives under Joshua and Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 2 ; iii. 2, 8). m 535. Foundation of Temple laid (Ezra iii. 8-IO). Operations stopped through intrigues of the Samaritans (Ezra iv.J Ii8 OLD TESTAMENT AND !TS CONTENTS B.C. 520. Darius Hystaspis issues decree for rebuilding the Temple (Ezra iv. 24; vi.) ; Haggai and Zechariah prophesy (Haggai i. 1 ; Zech. i. 1). »t 5 l 5- Temple completed (Ezra vi. 14, 15). 2. The situation in the time of Haggai may be gathered from his book, and from the relative narrative of the book of Eira (chaps, i.-vi., which should be read in this connection). The little community had a laborious task before them, and the difficulties were aggravated by the opposition of the hostile neighbours. • In the circum- itances their energies were spent in maintaining their position and in providing for their own subsistence, and •herefore a prophet was needed to arouse their zeal and encourage their hope. 3. Accordingly Haggai uttered his four prophecies : (a) Sixteen years had passed and the Temple was not built, and yet the people had built comfortable dwellings for themselves (i. 4). The result was that their labours in the field had not been blessed (i. 5-1 1 ). This was spoken in the sixth month (September). It stirred the spirit of rulers and people so that they commenced the work on the 24th day of the same month (i. 12-15). (b) In the following month, to encourage those who had seen the glory of the former temple, he declares (ii. 1-9) that the present building, though externally inferior, would have a greater glory, for the "desirable things" (ii. 7, R.V.) of all nations would come to it. (c) .Still in the same year, about two months after the preceding, Haggai pronounces other two prophecies (ii. 10-19, and 20-23). In the first, by a ceremonial question pro- pounded to him, he teaches that as the touch of the unclean pollutes the clean, so the worldly disposition mars everything, and brings a curse on honest labour. In the second the prophet casts a look into the future, when the kingdoms of the world shall be shaken, and the Davidic king qhall be u a signet on the Lord's hand. THE TWELVE AfJNOR PROPHETS 119 ZECHARIAH § 73. The prophet Zechariah is described (i. 1) as the son of Berechiah, son of Iddo ; and Iddo was one of the priests who returned with Zerub- babel and Joshua (Neh. xii. 4, 16). We learn from Ezra v. 1 and vi. 14 that Zechariah was contemporary with Haggai, and the book itself dates some of his prophecies in the second and fourth years of Darius Hystaspis, i.e. B.C. 52c and 518 (see § 72). The book consists of two great parts : the former being chiefly a series of visions, the dates of which are given ; the latter a series of prophecies of a very different character, whose date and occasion it is very difficult to determine. 1. The flx8t part (i.-viii.) ( after an exhortation to repentance, enforced by a reference to the fathers who had not taken heed to the warnings of the "former prophets" (i. 1-6), contains eight symbolical visions, all designed to encourage the leaders in the building of the Temple, viz. : (a) Riders on horses of different colours, — Jehovah's messengers, who report that all the earth is quiet, and that the time of favour is near (i. 8-17). (b) Four horns broken by f<>ur smiths, — indicating the break- ing of Judah's "nemics (i. 18-21). (c) A man goes forth with a measuring-line, — a symbol that the city will be too small for its inhabitants ; the Lord will be her defence, and many nations shall be joined to her (ii.) (d) Joshua, clothed in filthy garments, with Satan at his right hand, is acquitted and allowed access to the Divine presence, — an assurance of (jod's restored favour and forgiveness. Joshua and his fellows, through whom blessing is now dispensed, are but types of a better mediator, the Branch (iii.) (e) The golden candle- lao OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS stick (i.e. the restored community) receiving oil (i.e. Divine grace) through two olive-trees (viz. the spiritual and temporal heads, Joshua and Zerubbabel, iv. 1-5 and 1 1- 14). An assurance of success is given at the same time to Zerubbabel (iv. 6-10). (f) A flying roll, to show that the punishment of sin will fall upon the sinner (v. 1-4). (g) A woman in an ephah, a symbol of the removal of the people's sin to Shinar, the land of their enemie* (v. 5-11). (h) Four chariots, with horses of different colours, go towards different quarters to execute God's judgments. One goes northward to "quiet His spirit," viz. towards Babylonia (vi. 1-8). After these visions comes a sym- bolical action, showing that the Branch, who is to be the true builder of the Temple, shall be both king and priest (vi. 9-15). And then, in answer to a question about fasts, the prophet declares that, as older prophets had taught, God does not delight in fasts (vii.), and the time is coming when fasts shall be turned into rejoicing (viii.) Throughout this part, though the language is highly figurative, the reference is clearly to the situation of the recently restored community. 2. The second part (ix.-xiv.) is very different, and seems to imply altogether different circumstances. It consists of two sections — (a) chaps, ix.-xi. Here we see trouble coming out of the north and sweeping over Damascus, Tyre, and Sidon, and the land of the Philis- tines (ix. 1-7). Jerusalem, however, is defended ; her king comes to her meek and peaceful (ix. 8, 9) ; Judah and Ephraim united, with captives restored, overcome the Greeks (ix. 10-14) ; the Lord shall be their defence (ix. 15-17), and they shall seek no longer to diviners, but to the Lord their God (x. 1, 2). Then the same theme seems to be taken up again. Evil shepherds are punished (x. 3-5), Judah and Ephraim are restored from Egypt and Assyria, these countries are punished for their pride and oppression (x. 6-12), and an invasion of Lebanon and Bashan takes place (xi. 1-3). The prophet is then commanded to " feed the flock of slaughter" (xL 4-8), but gives up the task (xi. 9-14); and the flock THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS lai passes into the hand of an evil shepherd (xi. 15-17). [And here, as some think, the passage xiii. 7-9 should also be taken.] (b) In chaps, xii.-xiv. we have : A gathering of nations against Jerusalem and their overthrow (xii. 1-9), the outpouring of the Spirit on Jerusalem, and the opening of a fountain for sin and uncleanness (xii. 10-xiii. 6). Chap. xiii. 7-9 is by many placed along with the preceding section, because it employs the same figure of the shepherd smitten and the flock scattered. And chap, xiv., in which all nations are gathered against Jerusalem, looks like a duplicate of chap. xii. 3. The foregoing analysis of contents will indicate how difficult it is to perceive the precise reference of the second part. The allusions to Ephraim (ix. 10-15 ; *• 7 ; xi. 14), to diviners (x. 2), and to Assyria (x. 10) have led many to assign chaps, ix.-xi. to a date preceding the fall of Samaria, while chaps, xii.-xiv. would also be pre-exilian, owing to the mention, e.g., of false prophets (xiii. 2-6), though later than the time of Josiah, to whose death there is a reference in xii. n. Others ascribe the whole of the second part to one writer, and some main- tain that the whole is the work of Zechariah. MALACHI § 74. Of the personality of Malachi nothing is recorded. His date is evidently later than that of Haggai and Zechariah, for the Temple service is now in operation ; but the religious condition of the people is anything but flourishing. The situation implied in the book corresponds in remarkable par- ticulars with that which existed in the time of Ne- hemiah; and accordingly the prophecy has generally been assigned to that period (somewhere about B.C. 445), although the "governor" alluded to in chap. L 8 seems rather to be a foreigner. Malachi, like Haggai, addresses himself directly to the circum- iaa OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS stances of his time, but looks forward also to a more glorious future. 1. The name Malachi means "my messenger" 01 "messenger of the Lord" (see iii. i), and some have supposed it is a title of some unnamed prophet, or even of Ezra himself. 2. The following are the chronological landmarks for the period (compare § 72, 1) : — B.C. 515. Temple completed. w 485-465. Reign of Xerxes. Esther queen (§ 88). ,, 465-425. Artaxerxes I. (Longimanus). „ 458. Second return of captives under Ezra (Ezra vii. 1-9). Malachi somewhat later. ,, 445. Nehemiah appointed governor (Neh. ii. 1-11). M 444. Jerusalem fortified. Public reading of the Law. ,, 432. Nehemiah's second visit to Jerusalem (Neh, xiii. 6, 7). 3. The situation of the time may be gathered from the book. The Temple service is observed (i. 7, 8, 10, 12-14), but the priests are not blameless (i. 6 ; ii. 1, 7-9). At the same time the conduct of the people, in the matters of marriage and divorce (ii. 10 ff.) and neglect of tithes and offerings (iii. 8), recalls the reproofs of Nehemiah for similar sins (Neh. xiii. 10, 23). 4. In these circumstances the prophet addresses him- self both to priests and people, and, according to the subject, we may divide the book into two parts, (a) God's special love had been shown to Israel in the past, but they had dishonoured Him by presenting blemished offerings ; and the chief blame in this matter rested on the priests (i.), who are contrasted with the ideal Levi of old (ii. 1-9). {b) The people also ha-e vio- lated God's ordinance and contracted mixed marriages (ii. 10-16). They have also murmured against the Lord that He made no distinction between the evil and the THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS H3 good, and have been impatient for His interposition (iL 17). But wrongly ; for His messenger is about to prepare His way, and the Lord Himself will suddenly come to His Temple (iii. 1). Yet it is for judgment He will come ; to separate the evil from the good (iii. 2-6, 13-18 ; iv. 1-3). And the cause of His delay has been the people's unfaithfulness, in which they have followed their father* of old. When they give God His due and return to Him, then they will receive His blessing (iii. 7-12). 14 AD nationj shall call you happy : for ye shall be a delighuoaae Ani, *Ju» tat lord of hosts." i»4 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS CHAPTER XXI THE BOOK OF PSALMS § 75. THE book of Psalms belongs to what may be called distinctively the Hebrew poetical litera- ture. The name by which it is usually designated in Hebrew — Book of Praises — is not strictly descriptive of the character of the Psalms, which exhibit great variety of tone ; but it was not inap- propriately applied to a collection that was speci- ally employed in the service of public worship. Our name Psalms is simply an English form of the Greek title given by the Septuagint. The collec- tion consists of a hundred and fifty compositions, of very various contents, extending over a very wide period, and divided into five books. I. The characteristic of Hebrew poetry is not rhyme, but what is called parallelism. The divisions of verses, when placed side by side, are seen to have * similar rhythm, one member varying, carrying out, of expanding the thought of the preceding, or presenting a contrast to it. The R.V. has arranged the book of Psalms and other poetical compositions in lines vhicb. bring before the English reader this peculiarity of the original, so that there is no need to give examples here. Reference may be made to Psalm xix., which showi THE BOOK OF PSALMS 125 also how the measure or rhythm may be varied (compare verses 1-6 with 7-9). No sharp distinction can be drawn between prose and poetical books in the Old Testament. The three books, Psalms, Job, and Proverbs, are classed together in the Hebrew Canon, and provided with special accents for a cantillation of their own (§ 17, end). With these three books we usually reckon also Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songs (§ 3, Table I.) as poetical. But the book of Lamentations is also con- tracted on the poetical model ; and many passages in the prophetical writings have strongly marked parallelism, though they are uot divided into lines in the R.V. (see e.g. Isaiah lv., lx., etc.) 2. The Hebrew name for a single psalm (for Us plural is not found) is mizmSr, from a word which means to play on the lyre, and this is the word found in the headings of the individual psalms. These compositions therefore are lyric, to be sung with musical accompani- ment. The Greek word psalmos has the same meaning. The name " Praises " gi%-en to the whole is a different word, Tehillim ; but only Psalm oxlv. is so designated in its title. The Greek word Psalterion, from which we have our " Psalter," was properly the name of a musical instrument, and came to be applied to the book of Psalms, somewhat as " Lyre " or «' Harp of David " has been used as a title in modern times. 3. The Psalter was the book of praise in the second temple; and many of the I' larly towards the close of the collection, were evidently composed with a view to liturgical use. But, just as in the case of out Christian hymns, we are to distinguish th . first production from the subsequent general adoption. The true pod gives expression to feelings which are echoed by many hearts. 4. The total nuiiibd of th' lightly varies in gome ancient collections, but tl from tin-- conjoin. ing of two contiguou orthedivi »ne psalm into two. The complete collection is authenticated by all the versions. The division into five books — which is marked in the K..V. — is also ancient, and u believed 126 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS to have been made in imitation of the fivefold division of the Pentateuch. And it is remarkable that we find in the Psalter the same variation in the use of the Divine names as appears in the Pentateuch (§ 32, 3), some of the books being predominantly Jehovistic and others distinctively Elohistic No satisfactory explanation of this fact has yet been given. § 76. The subjects of the Psalms are so various, and even the contents of individual psalms so diversified, that it is impossible to make a satis- factory classification of them. One prevailing characteristic of them all is their reflective or subjective character. The aspect they present of religion is not so much that of a law given or a revelation made, as that of a truth apprehended and a guidance experienced. The Law, it has been said, is God's fivefold voice to man, and the Psalter is man's fivefold response to God. Accordingly, as religion was made known to Israel in connection with a wonderful and chequered national history, the Psalms are animated through- out by the two sentiments of piety and patriotism, while they rise or fall with the alternating hope and despondency which were produced by the vicissitudes of the nation's experience. 1. Lyric poetry always expresses the varying moods and feelings of the poet ; and so the same psalm may give utterance to the opposite feelings of faith and doubt, hope and despair, passing rapidly from prayer to praise, and mingling the sighs of confession with songs of deliver- ance. Yet the dominant note of some ps&iins is so distinct, and the chief motive of the composition often so clearly indicated, that it is possible to form groups of kindred psalms, exhibiting the leading themes of the sacred poets. Thus there are : — THE BOOK OF PSALMS 127 (a.) Psalms celebrating God's glory in Creation: viii., xix. (first half), xxix., civ., cxxxix. (b.) Historical psalms : lxxvii., lxxviii., lxxxi., xcv., cv., cvi., cxiv., cxxxv., cxxxvi. (c.) Psalms relating to the King: ii., xviii., xx., xxi, xIt., Lxxii., lxxxix., ci., ex., exxxii. (d.) Psalms relating to Jerusalem: xlviii., Ixxvi., Ixxxvii., exxii., exxv., exxxvii., cxliv. (e.) Psalms in praise of the Law: L, xv., xix. (second half), cxix. (/.) Psalms in the prophetic tone: xiv., L, lii., lviii., lxxxii., xciv. (g.) Speculative psalms, in the manner of the "wis- dom" literature (§ 79) : xxxvii., xlix., lxxiii. Also xvl., xvii. , xxii., lxbc Other modes of classification have been attempted, as, e.g., according to the prevailing tone and dis- position of mind of the psalmist. Thus some psalms are predominantly joyful, as Psalms viii., xviii., xix., xxiii., xxix., xlvi., etc. Others exhibit a frame of mind which is sad and plaintive, as Psalms vi., xxxii., xxxviii., 1L, Ixbu, Ixxiv., lxxix., lxxx., lxxxiii., cii., etc. Others again proceed from a more composed and reflective state of mind, as Psalms i., xv., xlix., 1., lxxiii., cxix., cxxxix., etc § 77. The great majority of the Psalms are provided with headings or titles, which most probably were added some time after the com- position of the Psalms. The significance of these is far from clear, but they seem to indicate the source from which the several psalms were derived, the character of the compositions, the melodies to which they were adapted, and the manner in which they were to be rendered with music A comparison of these headings, taken along with a consideration of the contents of individual psalms, and of the fact that the whole Psalter consists of X28 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS five books, leads to the conclusion that the collection was gradually formed, and that it contains compositions belonging to very different dates in the history. 1. There are a hundred psalms in all which bear some person's name in the title ; sixteen have headings without names ; and thirty-four (called by the Jews " or- phan psalms ") have no heading whatever. The persons named in the titles are Moses (in Ps. xc), David (in seventy-three psalms), Solomon (Psalms lxxii. and cxxvii.), the sons of Korah (eleven psalms), Asaph (twelve psalms), Heman (Ps. lxxxviii., which has also the name " of the sons of Korah"), and Ethan (lxxxix.) 2. The meanings of certain technical terms found in the titles can only be conjectured with varying degrees of probability. The R.V. gives a rendering of some of them in the margin : such as Nehiloth, wind instruments (Ps. v.); Sheminith, the eighth (Ps. xii.) So some are headed "on stringed instruments" (A.V. Neginoth, Ps. iv. etc.) All these, as well as Gittith (Ps. viii etc), Alamoth (xlvi.), Selah, are probably musical terms. Other expressions — Maschil (xlv. etc), Michtam (xvi etc.), Shiggaion (vii.) — seem to denote the character of the poem ; while others still, such as Shoshannim (xlv. etc.), Muth-labben (ix.), Al-tashheth (lvii. etc.), Aijeleth hash- Shahar(xxii.), andjonath elem rehokim (lvi.), are under- stood to be indications of well-known melodies to which the psalms were to be sung. Moreover, thirteen of the psalms which bear the name of "David" have brief notices indicating the occasions in his life to which they refer. It is to be remarked in general in regard to the headings, that, as they have various references, so they may have been prefixed at different periods ; but they do not seem to be integral parts of the original compositions. The LXX. translators, even In their time, appear to have been as ignorant of the meaning of some of the terms as we are ; and they modify the headings in many cases. 3. The titles, however, taken along with other indica- THE BOOK OF PSALMS 129 tions, throw light upon the question of the composition of the Psalter. It will be observed that psalms with the same or similar titles are mostly grouped together. Thus Psalms lxxiii. to lxxxiii. are all entitled "of Asaph," and there is only one other psalm bearing that name (Ps. 1.) So, the psalms "of the sons of Korah " stand all very nearly in succession (xlii., xliv.-xlix., lxxxiv., lxxxv., lxxxvii., lxxxviii.); and the most of the psalms "of David" are found in Books I. and II., the first book alone containing thirty -seven. So the songs "of Degrees" (or "Ascents," R.V.) are all found together (Psalms cxx.-cxxxiv.) ; and the Psalter concludes with a group of "Hallelujah" psalms (cxlvi.-cl See R.V. marg.) Now, at the conclusion of Ps. lxxii., after the doxology (w. 18, 19), we find these words: — "The prayers of David the son of Jesse are ended," a notice which must have been added (as a sort oijinis) when a collection of psalms " of David " ended at that place, although other psalms with his name are found in sub- sequent parts of the present collection. The conclusion to which these facts point is that the Psalter attained its present form and dimensions by additions to a smaller collection or by the combination of several collections. As it now stands, it is a book made up of five books, each closing with a doxology, the whole of the last psalm being a doxology in itself. But beneath and anterior to this division we can recognise smaller groups of related psalms, and the titles may indicate the names by which the smaller collections were known. 4. It will follow from what has just been said that the individual psalms are of various dates and authorship. David is by universal tradition regarded as the founder of sacred psalmody, and the earliest collection would, no doubt, contain his compositions. Whether all the psalms inscribed with his name were regarded by the collectors as his composition is very doubtful : the way in which other names are prefixed, such as " sons of Korah," would suggest that the names stand not so much for authorship, as for titles of collections. Am! ISO OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS just as the book of Proverbs is spoken of as the Proverbs of Solomon, although it tells us distinctly that it contains proverbs by others (Prov. xxiv. 23 ; xxx. 1 ; xxxi. 1 ; see § 80), so the whole Psalm-book came to be spoken of as the " Psalms of David." It is perfectly clear that there are psalms as late in date as the exile (e.g. Ps. cxxxvii.), and even later (e.g. Ps. cxxvi.); and some main- tain that many of them must be placed even in the time Df the Maccabees. The collection has the appearance of having received additions, both of small groups and of individual psalms, at different times ; but we must con- clude that it had been for some time completed before it was incorporated into the Canon (§ 15). § 78. The book of Psalms is unique as a portion of Old Testament Scripture. It is not, like any of the prophetic books, the production of one particular period of history, but was the growth of centuries. In the psalms the singers of Israel have expressed the deepest feelings that struggled for utterance in the nation's heart, and through them the nation's history appears invested with a special character of sacredness. Though intensely personal and national, they are in accord with universal truth and experience ; for, of all the references in the New Testament to the Old, the half are to this book ; and the Church of Christ and individual believers in all ages have found no words bitter fitted to express their feelings in all vicissitudes than the words of the Psalms. 1. The existence of the Psalms as a distinct class of literature, side by side with the Law and the Prophets, is instructive as to the history and character of the religion of Israel. The Law shows what the religion ought to be. ; the prophets tell us very plainly what the religion of their times was not ; the Psalms indicate what to some the religion was, and what many more wished that it THE BOOK OP PSALMS 131 thmild be. They show that there was such a thing as a religion of the heart ; and if many of the psalms were, as is maintained, of late date, and all of them were employed in the service of praise of the Second Temple, it is all the more remaikable that they were so highly prized at a time when the legal and formal tendency was setting in. But the tone in which the worship of the Temple and the ordinances of the Law are alluded to in the Psalms shows that to the devout under the old dis- pensation these things had their spiritual application. On such Scriptures as the Psalms, no doubt, were nurtured those devout souls who, during the centuries between the Old and the Mew Testaments, looked for the consolation of Israel. 2. As used in the worship of the Temple the Psalms would be expressive of the collective feelings of the community, and many of them were evidently composed with that intent. But the language of contrition and supplication for pardon must have been learned by personal experience before it could be applied to the nation ; and it is their fitness to give utterance to per- sonal experience that has made the Psalms the devotional book of the world. It is the task of literary criticism to discover, if possible, the occasions of the psalms and the external situations of the writers ; but here the infer- ences of devout experience are not to be overlooked, — that that which goes straight to the individual heart must have come from the individual heart, and that what has in all ages been the answer of the soul to God must hava been Inspired and drawn forth by the Spirit of God, 132 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS CHAPTER XXII THE BOOK OF PROVERBS § 79. The name of this book is not to be taken to indicate that it consists of a loose collection of wise or witty sayings. The book belongs to what has been called the wisdom literature of the Hebrews, which is the nearest approach to specu- lation or philosophy that we find in the Old Testament. It was the result of reflection turned towards the practical side of life, and occupied mainly with the two great problems of the moral government of the world, and the duty of man placed in such a world as experience proves this to be. I, In literary form the book of Proverbs may be classed with the Psalms as poetical (§75, 1) ; for the tendency is to express the conclusions of reflection in a measured, sententious phraseology. And so in the Revised Version this book is arranged in parallelisms. The " proverb " (mashal) is properly a similitude, in which a particular fact or statement is given as a representation of a general truth ; and, besides the form of the simple proverb, it may take that of the fable (Jud. ix. 7 ff. ; 2 King* xiv. 9), the riddle (Jud. xiv. 12 ff. ; I Kings x. I, 2), the satire (Isa. xiv. 4 ; Hab. ii. 6), the parable (2 Sam. xiL I ft; Isa. v. I, 2), or the allegory (Ezelc xvii. 2 ff. ; xxiv. THE BOOK OF PROVERBS 133 3 ff.) In subject, however, the book allies itself with Job and Ecclesiastes, which are of a more sustained speculative character. A few of the Psalms also run into the same strain. See Psalm xlix. and note verse 4 ; also Psalm lxxviii. and verse 2. 2. The "wise" were always famous in the East (see 2 Sam. xiv. 2 ; I Kings iv. 30 ; Jer. xlix. 7 ; Obad. 8), And proverbial literature must be very ancient, as is shown by the various forms of similitudes just mentioned. The absence, from this special class of books, of such allusions to Israel's national position and distinctive religious observances as are common in the prophetical and other writings, should not be regarded as indicating either ignorance of these or want of interest in them. Nor can it be taken as a proof of the late date of these com- positions, for in later times the tendency was towards a national "particularism," more than to such a " uni- versalism " as the wisdom literature exhibits. It must be taken as an indication of the many-sided aspect in which truth is presented in the Old Testament, — a proof that religion in its practical bearing upon life and conduct w as from an early time a matter of study to the thoughtful part of the nation. § 80. The book itself tells us, by various head- ings, that it comes from different sources, two of the sections being ascribed to Solomon. The editing of one part of the collection is ascribed to "the men of Hezckiah " (xxv. 1); but whether the various sections are arranged in the order of their dates, or what was the time of their com- bination, it is very hard to say. I. The following is a brief analysis of the contents of the hook : — After a descriptive title showing the pur- pose of the collection (i. 1-6), viz. "to know wisdom and instruction . . . the words of the wise and their riddles" (v. 6, R.V. tnarg.), there is («) the first section of proverbs, which may be entitled " the praise of wi*- 134 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS dom " (i. 7-Ix. 18), in the form of addresses by a fathei to his son (i. 8 ; ii. I, etc.) Then comes (b) a large section, entitled "The Proverbs of Solomon" (x. i- xxii. 1 6). These are proverbs in the strict sense, or maxims, arranged in no precise order, bearing on the nature, value, and fruits of good and bad conduct in various relations of life, (c) At xxii. 17 a new section seems to begin, containing M words of the wise " ; it goes on to xxiv. 22, and has a supplementary collection of "sayings of the wise" (xxiv. 23-34). Next comes () The other opinion, which many now hold, is that the Shulammite has been be- trothed to a shepherd lover ; but she has been noticed by Solomon and his retinue on some royal journey (vi. 10-13), brought to Jerusalem, and there, surrounded by the women of the palace, is plied with entreaties by THE FIVE ROLLS 141 the king in the hope of winning her affections. On this view it is explained that those speeches of a rustic suitor, which do not befit the character of Solomon (see ii. 8-14), are the words of her absent lover, recalled by the maiden herself to confirm her in her devotion. To- wards the close the parted lovers are united (viii. 5-7), and \he conclusion of the whole seems to be that true love is unquenchable, and cannot be bought by wealth and position. 3. The conclusion to be drawn as to the purpose of the book depends upon the opinion we form of the characters introduced. On the view that has been last mentioned (b above), the book would have an ethical aim — to exhibit the triumph of pure, spontaneous love, over all worldly and unworthy enticements ; and, the scene being laid in the time of Solomon (though the book could not thus have come from his hand), the pro- test would be all the more striking against the loose view of marriage which is associated with his reign. The lesson would be one on the sacredness of human love, which our Lord Himself emphasised (Matt. xix. 4-8, etc) On the other view mentioned (a above), while some would regard the book as nothing more than a collection of love-songs, or a composite poem made up of songs such as are found in other Kastern literature, others think that the marriage of Solomon to Pharaoh's daughter, or to a Galilean maiden whom he raised to the throne, is made typical of a higher and spiritual love. On this ground they suppose the book was taken into the Canon, and has a counterpart in Psalm xlv. This may be called a modification of the earliest known mode of interpreting the book, which was allegorical. This view, found among the Jews as early as the Fourth P.ook of Esdras (end of the first century A.I).), and among Christian writers first in Origen (died a.d. 254), regarded the lxx>k as teaching syml>olically the love of God to the nation of Israel, or to the Church, or to the individual soul ; and the literature connected with the Song on this line of Interpretation has been most extensive down to modern 14a OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS times. It may be safely said that the book would not have been placed in the Canon had it been regarded merely as a collection of love-songs. 4. As a literary work the Song of Songs is re- markable, not only for the form in which it is cast, but for the highly poetical stamp which it bears throughout, and the glowing delight in Nature which it breathes. As to its composition, the indications of the language are thought to point either to a north -Palestinian or to a post -Exilian origin. The reference to Tirzah (vi. 4), which was the capital of the northern kingdom before Samaria (1 Kings xvi. 23, 24), is regarded by some as requiring a date anterior to Omri (i.e. about B.C. 920) ; but, on the other hand, there are peculiarities in the language which are usually regarded as characteristic of the post- Exilian period. KUTH § 85. The book of Ruth, which is a graphic delineation of incidents occurring about a hundred years before the time of David, has its historical place where it stands in our English Bible, after the book of Judges (§ 6 ; § 37, 2), and is so placed in the LXX. Version. But being an independent production, and having with the other " rolls " been set apart for special synagogue use, it is classed with them in the Canon. One chief pur- pose of the book seems to be the tracing of the genealogy of David to the Moabite Ruth, whose name it bears. I. The contents are familiar. Elimelech of Beth* lehem goes, in the days of the Judges, with his wife Naomi and their two sons, to sojourn in Moab, where the two sons marry wives of the country. After the death of her husband and both her sons, Naomi returns THE FIVE ROLLS 143 to her native Bethlehem, and one of her daughters- in-law, Ruth, with clinging affection accompanies her. Ruth, while gleaning in the fields of Boaz, a kinsman of Elim- elech, finds favour in his eyes, and Naomi contrives to suggest to him that he should marry the Moabite widow. This, after the refusal of a nearer kinsman, he does, and thus Ruth becomes the ancestress of David. 2. Composition. — Although it is generally agreed that the book is an independent composition, there are differences of opinion as to its date. Many modern writers pronounce it to be as late as the exile or even later, partly owing to peculiarities of the language, partly from the manner in which it refers to old customs (iv. I- 1 2). On the other hand, the language as a whole is quite different from that of admittedly late books, and siows as much purity as e.g. the books of Samuel. The advocates of an early date rely much on the argument that the marriage of an Israelite with a Moabite would have seemed offensive to a writer after the exile (see Ezra u., x- ; Neh. xiii. 23-29). LAMENTATIONS § 86. This book is designated in the Jewish Canon simply by its first word Hcnv .' which is the word with which an elegy usually begins. Our name Lamentations is translated from the title of the Greek Version. The book consists of five elegies or lamentations, each occupying a chapter, and all referring to one subject, the de- struction of Jerusalem, which it dwells upon and presents from different sides. I. The "lament" or elogy was a well-known form of composition (see Amoa v. 1, 2; Isa. xiv. 4-21 ; 2 Sam. i. 17-27, iii. 33, 34 J Jcr. ix. 10, 17-21; Ezek. xxvi. 17, 18, and observe the frequency and impressive- nets of the I Java f\ 144 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS 2. The different aspects of the great common theme are in a manner indicated in the opening verse of each chapter, thus: (i. I) "How doth the city sit solitary!" — the desolation of Jerusalem ; (ii. i) " How hath the Lord covered the daughter of Zion with a cloud in his anger I " — the cause of the calamity, God's anger ; (iii. I) "I am the man that hath seen affliction by the rod of his wrath " — the nation personified takes the affliction to heart; (iv. i) "How is the gold become dim ! " — contrast between the present and the past ; (v. i) " Remember, O Lord, what is come upon us": — the nation's appeal to the nation's God. 3. The literary form of these five elegies has been at^istically constructed. It will be observed that each of the chapters, except iii., consists of twenty-two verses, and that chap. iii. contains three times twenty-two, or sixty-six verses. Now there are twenty-two letters in the Hebrew alphabet ; and all the chapters, except the last, are alphabetical — i.e. the verses are made to begin in succession with the successive letters, one verse being given to each letter in chaps, i. ii. and iv., and three successive verses to one letter in chap. iii. Chap, v., though not alphabetical, is made to consist of twenty-two verses. The length of the line and of the verse (what in an English poem we should call the metre) varies also in the different chapters, as may be perceived in the arrangement of the K.V. 4. Authorship. In the LXX. Version there is prefixed to Lamentations the following statement : — " And it came to pass, after Israel was led into captivity, *nd Jerusalem laid waste, that Jeremiah sat weeping, and lamented with this lamentation over Jerusalem, and said . . ." The ascription of the book to the prophet is thus ancient, and many in modern times assign it in whole or in part to him. It is admitted generally that the elegies must have been written by one or more persons in or near the times in which he lived. The situation is indicated, e.g. , in chap. ii. 9; iv. 20 — the city in ruins and the king in captivity ; and the THE FIVE ROLLS 145 whole burden of the book is the outpouring of grief under a crushing present calamity. The " ninth of Ab" is a dark day in the Jewish calendar (§ 83, 3); and no book in the Old Testament Canon exhibits more pathetically than this the patriotic attachment of the race to their city and land, and the intense emotion which was excited by the ruin that came upon the people through their unfaithfulness. ECCLESIASTES § 87. This name, which our version has simply adopted in its Greek form from the LXX., is meant to be a translation of the Hebrew title Kohdleth, the meaning of which, however, is not certain. The book belongs to the class of re- flective or speculative literature (£§ 21, 79); but its date cannot be precisely determined. And though it is deeply interesting throughout, and plain and pithy in its style, the aim and pur- pose of its composition have given rise to much discussion. 1. The name Koheleth is etymologically related to the word which is translated in our version congregation ; but it is active and feminine in form. Hence it has been taken as an epithet of Wisdom, calling together and addressing an assembly (see 1'rov. i. 20; viii. I). Jerome renders it by the Latin concionator, from which our version has "The Preacher" (K.V. marg. great orator). A name of a feminine form might be borne by ■ man (as Sophereth in Neh. vii. 57); but the manner in which Koheleth is identified with Solomon (i. 1, 12), and the tone of address generally, lead to the conclusion that the name is meant to be descriptive. Some have explained it as meaning " assembly," and have regarded the book as a collection of opinions or x 4 6 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS addresses by different wise men. But it is evident that the book is one whole, treating of one theme and prose- cuting one great line of thought throughout — the question of the moral government of the world (compare the book of Job, §§8i, 82). 2. Authorship. The traditional view of the syna- gogue that Solomon wrote the book of Ecclesiastes may be said to be abandoned in modern times. The terms in which Solomon is mentioned in i. 12 ("was king") 1 indicate that the writer put his meditations in the mouth of one who was renowned for wisdom and wide experience ; but there is not a word of regret for the follies which stained the life of Solomon, nor could he have spoken as this writer does of the oppression of rulers and the tears of th« oppressed (iii. 16 ; iv. 1 ; v. 8) if he were the ruler himself. But the language of the original is decisive. The book must be late if there is any history in the Hebrew language ; and the only question is, How late ? It must, at all events, be earlier than Ecclesiasticus, which was written B.C. 200 (see § 9), for that book presupposes the existence of this. Materials for arriving at some conclusion on the point are : the references contained in the book to the condition of society in which the writer lived, and the mode and tone of thought which he exhibits. These indications lead many in modern times to assign the book to the Persian period (b.c. 538-331 ; see § 51, 1), and probably towards its close : though others would bring it down even later. 3. Analysis of Contents. The absence of a clear literary plan makes it difficult to arrange the contents oi the book systematically. Facts are looked at from different sides and in various relations ; the same sub- ject recars at different points ; and the conclusions drawn are not always formally consistent with one another. Hence some have regarded the book as the work of a sceptic, or the expression of varying moods and fancies, 1 Note also the words : " above all that were before dm in Jerusalem," L 16 K.V. Compare ii. 7, 9. THE FIVE ROLLS 147 Yet a closer examination shows that this is not the case : the conclusions the writer comes to at various stages axe virtually the same, and when he returns to his subject, it is to consider it on a different plane, or from another side. He begins by stating his theme : All is vanity, there is nothing new under the sun (i. 1-11), i.e. human life has no substantial result. He then gives proof from practical experience. He had tried, and found that vain is the quest for knowledge (i. 1 2- 1 8), vain the pursuit of plea- sure (ii. 1 -10), vain the profit of labour and activity (ii. 11- 23). The conclusion is that there is nothing better for a man than to eat and drink and enjoy the fruit of his labour (ii. 24) ; for all depends upon God, and man can only submit (ii. 24-iii. 22). He then takes a wider survey of human life and society (iv.-vi.), interspersing various maxims of conduct to be followed in the pre- vailing "vanity"; and the question, "Who knoweth what is good for man in his life?" suggests the praise of true wisdom, and calls forth maxims on the way to attain it (vii., viii. ), leading on to a consideration of political wisdom (ix., x.) The dark background is always the vanity or unprofitableness of life ; yet the Preacher's position is not a pessimism nor a creed of despair. Life is good, though neither the best nor the last good ; benevolence is to be practised (xi. 1-8) ; and the young especially are exhorted to live joyfully, yet with a regard to a coming judgment (xi. 9-xii. 8). 4. From the foregoing analysis we may infer the aim and purpose of the book. It exhibits the reflections of one whose lot had been cast in evil times. Though he does not enjoy the buoyant hope of the old prophets, he is not without faith in (Jod. It is the struggle between this faith and the hard facts of experience that gives the mournful turn to his thoughts (compare § 82, 3). Desponding as his words read to us, it no doubt cost him a severe effort in his day to be so confident as lie is, in the face of the inequalities and disorders he saw in the world. His knowledge of a future life Is but limited [UL 19, 20 ; vi. 6 ; ix. 5, 10 ; comp. §§ 82, 83), as such 148 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS knowledge was in Old Testament times generally ; so that if we are disposed to regard his conclusions as in- adequate, it is because we have been taught to look at life and its problems in a purer and brighter light, and privileged to know that our labour is net vain in the Lord (i Cor. xv. 58). ESTHER § 88. This book takes its name from the Jewish maiden who is the principal character in the episode of history which it relates. It belongs to the Persian period (§ 51, 1), for Ahasuerus has been identified with Xerxes, who succeeded Darius in the year 485 B.C., and reigned twenty years (see the dates in § 74, 2). The book is in several respects unique as a literary composition of the Old Testament ; and though its right to stand in the Canon has been disputed both by Jews and Christians, it acquired in later Judaism a place of even undue regard, and is often denoted as the roll, by way of pre-eminence above the other four. 1. The name of Xerxes appears in the Persian inscriptions as Kshyarsha, and all that we know of his character and reign agrees with the representations given in this book. He was capricious, passionate, and subject to the influence of court favourites ; and it is to be noted that, between the third year of his reign, when he made the feast to his princes and servants (i. 3), and the seventh year, when Esther was made queen (ii. 16), took place the Greek war which was so disastrous to the 2 J ersians (Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis B.C. 480). 2. The contents of the book are familiar. The king having, in a fit of temper, repudiated his queen Vashti, Esther is chosen from among the fairest maideni of the Empire to take her place. She was the adopted THE FIVE ROLLS 149 daughter of Mordecai, a Jew, but she did not disclose her nationality in the palace. Haman, the king's favourite minister, offended at the want of respect shown him by Mordecai, casts lots for a favourable day to present his petition, and obtains a decree for the extermination of the Jews and the alienation of their property. Mordecai makes known this plot to Esther, and entreats her to intervene in her nation's behalf. This she resolves to do ; and, to carry out her plan, invites the king and Hainan to a banquet. Haman, elated, prepaies a gallows on which to hang Mordecai ; while the king, during a sleepless night, has the records of the kingdom read to him, and discovers that Murdecai had on one occasion saved his life, and that this service to the state had remained unrewarded. " What shall be done unto the man whom the king deliyhteth to honour ? " he asks Haman when they meet next day, and Hainan, thinking only of himself, suggests a royal proclamation and a public procession. Hainan's plot is revealed by Esther, and he is made to suffer the punishment he had devised for his enemy. A royal letter is then despatched to the provinces permitting the Jews to defend themselves ; they inflict a bloa eance on their enemies, and cele- brate their deliverance in a ger.eral rejoicing. And thus originated the Feast of Purim or lots. 3. The purpose of the book was no doubt to explain how the feast of 1'urim came to be observed ; and the mere existence of such a feast is a guarantee for the historical character of the story. Already in the second book of Maccabees the feast is referred to as •' the day of Mordecai " ; and though attempts have been made to explain its origin Otherwise) and donbtl have been expressed regarding some details of the story, the sub- stantial accuracy of the writer has not been disproved. 4. The reception of the book into the Canon was not without opposition even among the Jews ; and in some of the early ( hri tian 1 I 't >s wanting. It has oft<-n been remarked that the name of God is not once mentioned in the book ; and it exhibits 150 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS plainly the spirit of exclusiveness and national pride that came to be a characteristic of later Judaism. Yet it has valuable lessons to teach as to the dealings of Providence, and is instructive as an episode in the wonderful history of a wonderful people. THE BOOK OF DANIEL x S i CHAPTER XXV THE BOOK OF DANIEL § 89. This book takes its name from the Hebrew prophet who was carried captive by Nebuchad- nezzar, and rose to eminence at the court of the Chaldean and Persian kings. In language, Style, and contents it is very unlike the prophetical books ; and has not been placed among them, but with the Hagiographa in the third division of the Canon. I. The only references to Daniel in the Old Testa- ment outside this book are two brief allusions in Ezekiel, in one of which (xiv. 14) he is associated with Noah and Job as an example of piety, and in the other (xxviii. 3) he is extolled for wisdom. The chief facts of his personal history given in this book are : that he was carried away from Jerusalem in the third year of Jehoia- kim, B.C. 605 (i. 1) ; that, along with three other noble Hebrew youths he was instructed in the language and learning of the Chaldeans, and employed in the king's service (i.), attaining with his companions to great dignity (ii. 48, 49) ; and that he remained in high office till the third year of Cyrus the Persian (B.C. 535). At every itep of his career he is distinguished by the two qualities of piety and wisdom with which Ezckicl associ- ates his name. 152 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS 2. There are two dialects of language in the book of Daniel ; the portion extending from chap. ii. 4 to chap. vii. 28 being in Aramaic (see ii. 4, R. V. marg.) t or what is often (though improperly) called Chaldee. 1 This was not the language of the Chaldean Empire, but a dialect akin to Hebrew, which by degrees came to be the spoken tongue of the Jews in post-Exilian times (see also § 91, 2). The rest of the book is in Hebrew ; but it exhibits several Persian, and even a few Greek words ; and it has, besides, features that are characteristic of a late stage of the language. 3. In style also the book of Daniel is peculiar. The writer does not use the common prophetic expression " Thus saith the Lord " (and the disjunction of the book from the prophetical writings used to be explained by saying that Daniel was not a prophet by office but by gift) ; nor does he, as the prophets usually do, address the people of his time. His predictions are highly symbolical, and in their representation of the future, apocalyptical ; herein resembling parts of Zechariah, and furnishing a model for the New Testament Apocalypse. 4. According to the subject-matter the contents of the book fall into two great divisions : of winch the former narrates incidents in which Daniel had a promin- ent part (i. -vi.), and the Utter contains four visions which he saw (vii.-xii. ) In the first division we have (a) Nebuchadnezzar's dream of the colossal figure of com- posite elements, with Daniel's interpretation (ii.) ; (/>) Daniel's three companions cast into the furnace for refusing to worship the golden image which Nebuchad- nezzar had set up (iii.) ; (c) Nebuchadnezzar's dream of the great tree, with Daniel's interpretation (iv.); (d) Belshazzar's feast, and Daniel's interpretation of the writing on the wall (v.) ; (e) Daniel cast into the den of lions and delivered (vi.) In the second division wc have an account of four visions seen by Daniel, viz. (a) the vision of four beasts coming up from the sea, with 1 Syrian or Syriack (A.V.) is more appropriate than Cnalde* Th« Hebrew name of Syria is Aram. THE BOOK OF DAMEL 153 the heavenly assize, and dominion given to one like unto a son of man (vii.) ; (b) the vision of the ram with two homs, overcome by a he-goat with "a notable horn " between its eyes ; which in turn is replaced by four horns, and out of one of them comes forth "a little horn " which persecutes the saints, abolishes sacrifice, and profanes the sanctuary (viii.) ; (c) the angel Gabriel explains to Daniel the seventy years of Jeremiah as seventy weeks of years (ix. ) ; (< ok as it now stands to the period in whicli Daniel himself is placed. The language is very different from that of his contemporary Ezekiel, and "in general character resembles the Hebrew of the Chronicler, who wrote shortly before the beginning of the Greek period nl (i.e. B.C 332, see § 51, I). On other grounds than those of language, many, in modern times, date the composition of the book about the time of Antiochw ines and thr lx-ginning of the Maccabean period (after H.C 170). It may be observed that the assigning of the book to so late a date does not necessarily imply that the book is not historically accurate, for we do Dot know what 1 Dclilnck. 154 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS older materials such a late writer might employ. Diffi- culties have been raised as to the identification of Belshazzar and Darius the Mede ; but it is more probable that our own knowledge of those remote times is defective than that the writer should have drawn upon his fancy in such matters. 2. The prophetic visions in the second part of the book, and the dream of Nebuchadnezzar in chap, ii., have the same general import — the rise and fall of successive world-powers and the final triumph of the kingdom of God. In chaps, ii. and vii. there is a succession of four great powers ; but there are differences of opinion as to the empires indicated, particularly the fourth. The view that used to be held is that the empires are (i) the Chaldean, (2) the Medo- Persian (Cyrus), (3) the Macedonian (Alexander and his successors), and (4) the Roman (divided afterwards into east and west). But many modern writers separate the Median from the Persian, and make the four to be, the Chaldean, the Median, the Persian, and the Macedonian (which broke up into the Seleucidae and the Ptolemies). If the Roman Empire is intended, as many still suppose, the book, even on the latest date assigned to it, would be predictive. If the fourth empire is the Macedonian, and the writer lived under Antiochus Epiphanes, though not strictly predictive, the book would have a prophetic significance, as exhibiting, in one comprehensive scheme, the rise and fall of successive empires in the unfolding of Providence. And in any case, the clear indication of the triumph of the kingdom of God, the power of the stone cut out of the mountain without hands (ii. 45), and the dominion given to one like unto a son of man (vii. 13 R.V.), are indubitable proofs of the strong Messianic hope which sustained the writer in what was evidently a time of deep distress ; and the conception of God as the source of all wisdom and power (ii. 20-23), ruling all things in heaven and earth for the execution of His purpose, would give confidence and patience to those to whom the book was addressed. THE BOOKS OF EZRA AND NEHEM1AH 1S5 CHAPTER XXVI THE BOOKS OF EZRA AND NEHEMIAH §91. THESE two books are in the Hebrew Canon counted as one, and were originally one book, although made up of various elements. The names that have come to be attached to them conveniently indicate the period of history to which they relate, and the activity of the two men who took the most prominent part in the consoli- dation of post-Exilian Judaism. 1. The two books were in the earliest times spoken of collectively as " Ezra" ; and Origen, who is the first to speak of them as two, which he names First and Second Ezra, states particularly that in the Hebrew original they were but one. They stand in the Hebrew Bible after Daniel ami before Chronicles ; but it will be ol»crved that Ezra begins with the closing words of Chronicles, so that the series, as arranged in our English Version, forms a connected history. 2. Those parts in the two books which are expressed in the first person must be ascribed to Eira and Nehemiah respectively (see Ezra vii. 27-viii. 34; \x. ; Neh. L i-vii. 73; xii. 27-43; xiu - 4 - 3*)' Olliei parts, however, which spr;ik of the two leader* in the third person, teem to \ic from anothei hand (see Ezra 1. l-X; iiL iv. 6; »i. I9-33| vn. 111: x 1-191 Neh, xii 44 nil 3). Hesides the k 1 <'ivr portions, rarious lists, derived from tuir-r official nuiin, have l>ceo 1& OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS incorporated in both books (see Ezra i. 9- 1 1 ; iu (compare Neh. vii. 6-73) ; x. 20-44 J Neh. iii. ; x. 1-27 ; xi. 3-36; xii. 1-26). We even find in the book of Ezra two pieces in Aramaic (§ 89, 2) apparently extracted from some chronicle in that dialect (Ezra iv. 7-vi. 18; and vii. 12-26). In endeavouring to determine the date of a composite writing of this kind, we look foi the latest ascertainable fact that is mentioned. Now we find that in one place (Neh. xii. 26) the times of Nehemiah and Ezra are spoken of as past, in another (Neh. xii. 10, 11) the list of high priests is brought down to Jaddua, who, according to Josephus, was a con- temporary of Alexander the Great, while in still another passage (Neh. xii. 22) Darius the Persian is named, who is most probably Darius Codomannus, the last Persian king (B.C. 336-331). The latest writer, there- fore, whose hand can be detected in these books, must have lived in the Greek period (§51, l); and many believe he was the author of the books of Chronicles, which are later in date than Ezra-Nehemiah. 3. The whole period of history covered by the books is a little over a century, viz. from the first year of Cyrus, B.C. 536 (Ezra i. 1) to the thirty-second year of Artaxerxes I., B.C. 432 (Neh. xiii. 6). But they do not give a connected or complete history of the period, as will be seen from the following scheme : — (a) Before Ezra's arrival. Ezra L-vi., B.C. 536- 515. In this period Haggai and Zechariah prophesied (see §§ 72, 73). (6) Fifty -seven years without record, viz. B.C. 515- 458. (c) Arrival of Ezra. Ezra vii.-x., B.C. 458. (d) Thirteen years without mention of Ezra, viz. B.C. 458-445. (e) Joint activity of Ezra and Nehemiah. Neh. i.-xiii., B.C. 445-432. Here probably is to be placed the prophecy of Malachi (see § 74). 4. The leading events in this period are the fol- lowing : — THE BOOKS OF EZRA AND NEHEMIAH 157 (a) In the twenty-one years preceding the appearance of Ezra at Jerusalem, the colony under Zerubbabel (also named Sheshbazzar) and Joshua had set up an altar for burnt offering and celebrated the Feast of Tabernacles, and then proceeded to lay the foundations of the temple. In the work of building they were hindered by the Samaritans, and it was not till the sixth year of Darius that the temple was finished. (6) In order to fill up the blank of the narrative,. and to understand the condition of things on Ezra's arrival, it is necessary to note the succession of Persian kings in the period ieferred to. Between Cyrus and Darius there intervened a space of about eight years, covered by the reign of Cambyses, son of Cyrus, and the brief usurpation of the Pseudo-Smerdis. Some have identified these with the Ahasuerus and Artaxerxes mentioned in Ezra iv. 6, 7 ; but it is generally agreed that the latter names stand for Xerxes I. and Artaxerxes I., who sue- tuded iJarius. The passage iv. 6-23 would thus give a summary statement of repeated or continued efforts nn the part of the Samaritans to hinder the work, and re us for the situation in the time of Ezra and Nehcmiah. (c) Kzra with his colony arrived in the seventh year of Artaxerxes, i.e. B.C. 458, the jouinc> having occupied four months ( Kzra viii. 1-32; compare vii. 8-10). On his arrival he found things even worse than he had expected. The people had contracted mixed marriages and conformed to heathen customs; and even the :s and Levites were involved in the trespass. Krra sat down astonied till the evening sacrifice (Ki.a ix. 1-4); and, moved by his confession ot the national backsliding (ix. 5-15), the leaden bound themselves by oath to put away their heathen wives and aid him in the cleansing of the community (x.) ; is recorded 01 Em it y up to this poinl coul'l not have occupied long time, and wr hear no more oi him for thirteen years, when Nehemiah appears upon the scene. Whether he was at Jerusalem 158 OLD TESTAMENT AND fTS CONTENTS all the time, and If so, how he was employed, we do not know. What follows, taken along with the passage Ezra iv. 6-23, shows that the position of the colony was, in tlie interval, one of great hardship and depression. (e) Nehemiah arrived in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes, i.e. B.C. 445, entrusted with full powers as governor, which only added to the enmity of the Samaritans (Neh. ii. 1-10). Unmoved by opposition he took in hand the repair of the walls (Neh. ii. 11- iii. 32), keeping his builders under arms to repel hostile attacks of Ammonites and Arabians (Neh. iv.), at the same time attending to the wants of the poor (Neh. v.) In fifty-two days, notwithstanding plots of his adversaries and unfaithfulness within Jerusalem itself, the walls were completed, and faithful men appointed to keep the gates (Neh. vi. i-vii. 4). And only when all this is ac- complished, in the beginning of the seventh month (Neh. vii. 73), Ezra again appears. This was on the memorable occasion when the Law was publicly read at a great assembly of the people (Neh. viii. 1-12); then followed a great observance of the Feast of Tabernacles, at which there was a similar daily reading of the Law (viii. 13-18). The people separated themselves from strangers (ix. 1-3), and bound themselves by solemn covenant to carry out the requirements of the Law (ix. 4-x. 39) ; measures were taken for bringing a sufficient population to reside within the city (xi.) ; and the completed walls were dedicated by a solemn pro- cession (xii.) Nehemiah was recalled to the court of Persia in the thirty-second year of Artaxerxes, B.C. 432 (Neh. xiii. 6). We are not told how long he was absent, but on his return he found that the old abuses had crept in, the high priest being a glaring culprit (Neh. xiii. 7, 28) ; and the book concludes rather abruptly with the energetic measures taken by the governor against the offenders (xiii. 7-31). 5. The details furnished in these books, fragmentary as they are, have the greatest significance in the history of the Jewish people. Two outstanding facts are here THE BOOKS OF EZRA AND NEHEMIAH 159 seen which are characteristic of the period, and influenced the succeeding history down to the time of the New Testament. The one is the position which the written Word from this time takes in the religious life of the people (see § 13), — a position which it continued to hold, though it gradually degenerated into an Inordinate regard for the letter, and a punctilious cultivation of the study of the Law. The other is the opposition of the Samaritans, which developed into a rival worship, and a religious animosity which is a characteristic of the New Testament time. These two facts are deserving of very careful attention in connection with the much-disputed question as to the date of certain parts of the Pentateuch (§ 33, 3). It is well known that the Samaritans have the same Pentateuch as the Jews (§41, 1) ; and it must, therefore, have been a completed work at the time of the schism. If, however, a great part of it was for the first time composed by Ezra or about his time, as many modem critics assert, it is very difficult to understand how the Samaritans should have, just at this time, concurrently with the Jews, conceived such a high regard for "Scripture"; and still more difficult to understand how the Samaritans, with their bitter opposition to the Jews, should have accepted a code newly elaborated by the latter. It is much more reasonable to conclude that the reverence for the written law, and the acceptance of it on the part of both, indicate a common belief in the high antiquity and authority of the book. x6o OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS CHAPTER XXVII THE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES § 92. These two books (like those of Samuel and Kings) form one whole. The name given to them in our version was suggested by Jerome, who described them as "a chronicle of the whole of sacred history." It is more appropriate than the title given by the L.XX., viz. Paraleipomena, or " things passed over," which was bestowed with the idea that they were intended to supplement preceding historical books. A very slight examina- tion of their contents shows that, though later than the books of Kings, they form an independent work, with a plan and purpose of their own. i. The Hebrew name given to these books is "Acts" or "Affairs of the Times," i.e. annals or journals. This was the name given to the official records kept at the courts of the kings (§ 48, 3), and Seems to have been applied to formal books of history based upon or made up of materials drawn from such sources (see 2 Chron. xvi. 1 1 ; xxv. 26 ; xxviii. 26 \ xxxii. 32 ; also 2 Chron. xxvii. 7 > xxxv. 27 ; xxxvi. 8). The work, or works, referred to in these passages can scarcely have been the records of the individual reigns to which the writer of the books of Kings referred, though the similarity of language would imply that the same primary documents lie at the foundation of both Kings and Chronicles. That the book of Chronicles was not intended to be a supplementary work is shown by the repetition THE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES 161 of many things which had been narrated in Kings, whole lections agreeing very closely in actual words (§32, 4). 2. The difference in literary plan of these books as compared with the earlier historical books is apparent at a glance. In the series from Genesis to Second Kings each book takes up the history where the preceding drops it, •o that in the whole series of separate books we have one continuous history from the Creation to the Baby- lonian Captivity. Chronicles, on the other hand, is complete in itself, and it covers the whole history from Adam down to the Restoration from Captivity and even much later. To do this in the compass of one book (or a book in two divisions) the writer had to adopt a very different style, which, as we shall see, is also character- istic of the point of view from which he wrote and the purpose he had before him. 3. There can be no doubt that these books are of late authorship. Not only is this apparent in the language, but it is proved by the point to whirh the history is brought down, and the still later date to which the genealogies are carried. The descendants of David are traced to the sixth generation after Zerubbabel (1 Chron. iii. 19 ff.), which would bring the composition down to the close of the Per- sian or the beginning of the Greek period (§51,1). It is l)elieved by many that the compiler of the Chronicles had an active share in arranging the materials which now form the hooks of Ezra and Nehemiah (see §91,2 end). 4. This lateness of date, and the situation of the writer which it implies, throw light upon the purpose he had in view and the peculiar manner in which he has worked it out. National independence was gone, and the Jew i h People were under the sway of a heathen power. Two national possessions however remained — the religion and the descendants of the royal house of 1 >avid. I, 'inking hack over the past, the writer perceived thnt the prosperity of his people had risen or fallen with their faithfulness or unfaithfulness to the requirements of their religion : and the only hope he could see for the future lay in adherence to the old faith and the observance of its forma. It was a II i62 OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS CONTENTS time at which attention was being more and more given to the ceremonies of worship. Hence we perceive the fit- ness of the two great characteristics of this book, (a) The history is almost entirely confined to the kingdom of Judah, the northern kingdom being alluded to only when its affairs touch those of the southern, while the whole Davidic line passes in review. In that line lay the promise of the future, as it was the chosen line in the past, (b) Not only does the writer, in common with other Biblical historians, treat the history from a religious point of view, but he is peculiar in the stress he lays on religious observances. He has more to say of the temple and its ritual than of the wars of the kings ; and he dwells with special emphasis on the reigns of kings who had been distinguished for zeal in religion and reforma- tion in worship. Thus he narrates at length the removal of the ark to Jerusalem in David's reign (I Chron. xv., xvi.), and dwells upon the steps which that king took for the building of the temple (I Chron. xvii.,xxviii.,xxix.) It is the same in the succeeding reigns, when he mentions the steps taken by Jehoshaphat for instructing the people in the Law (2 Chron. xvii. 7-9), and gives full details of the reforming work of 1 lezekiah (2 Chron. xxix.-xxxii.), and the more thojough reformation in the time of Josiah (2 Chron. xxxiv., xxxv.) This predilection gives a priestly colour- ing to the book, so that we have genealogical and family lists in which the priests and Levites figure largely (see I Chron. vi., xxiii. -xxvi.), although the activity of prophet* is not overlooked (see 2 Chron. x. 15 ; xi. 2; xii. 5; xv. 1 ; xvi. 7). By the time the author wrote, a pre- vailing priestly tendency had set in, and he looked at the past history in that light. Nevertheless we must not conclude that he drew upon his imagination for facts which are not recorded elsewhere ; although it is not difficult to see that, from the point at which he stood, the course might tend, as it did tend, towards the dull period of legalism and formalism which preceded the freedom and spirituality of the Gospel. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below JAN 2 195! i FEB 1 & 1951 irl JAN 1273 "GJ6RECU c< OCT 2 4= 1953 DEC 2 7 m[ MAY 3 1958 . im***^ 1 " REF0 M0V6 1 #EC'D LD-URL ,