REESE LIBRARY 
 
 '1 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Deceived IVIAR 23 1894 , i8g . 
 
 Accessions No .*5~ L /-~} '*A3 
 
 
 
RECENT PROGRESS 
 
 ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 " The more a science advances, the more it becomes 
 concentrated in little books." LEIBNITZ. 
 
WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MA- 
 CHINES AND PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS 
 FOR DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTING 
 DYNAMOS, with an Appendix containing several 
 Articles on Allied Subjects, and a Table of Equivalents 
 of Units of Measurements. Sixth Thousand, cloth, 
 2 79 P a 8 es -> 59 illustrations, $2.50 
 
 UNIVERSAL WIRING COMPUTER. For De- 
 termining the Sizes of Wires for Incandescent 
 Electric Lamp Leads and for Distribution in General, 
 Without Calculation, Formula or Knowledge of 
 Mathematics, with some Notes on Wiring and a 
 Set of Auxiliary Tables. Cloth, 44 pages, $1.00 
 
 PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR WINDING 
 MAGNETS. Cloth, 63 pages, $1.25 
 
 TABLES of Equivalents of Units of Measurements. 
 Flexible covers, n pages, - .50 
 
 Copies of these books will be mailed to any address in the 
 world, postage prepaid, on receipt of the price. 
 
 The W. /. JOHNSTON COMPANY, Ld., 
 
 TIMES BUILDING, NEW YORK. 
 
RECENT PROGRESS 
 
 IN 
 
 ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 
 
 BEING 
 
 A SUMMARY OF CURRENT PERIODICAL LITERATURE 
 RELATING TO ELECTRIC RAILWAY CONSTRUC- 
 TION, OPERATION, SYSTEMS, MACHINERY, 
 APPLIANCES* ETC., COMPILED 
 
 BY 
 
 CARL BERING, 
 
 Author of "Principles of Dynamo-Electric Machines," 
 "Universal Wiring Computer," etc. 
 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 THE W. J. JOHNSTON COMPANY, LTD.,^' 
 
 167-176 Times Building. 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 WHITTAKER & COMPANY, 
 Paternoster Square. 
 
COPYRIGHTED, 1892, BY 
 THE W. J. JOHNSTON COMPANY, LD. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 IN the earlier days of the development of electrical engineering the 
 current literature was so small in amount and the branches so few 
 that the electrical engineer who wished to do so found little difficulty 
 in keeping up with the progress in every department, and in making 
 sufficient notes or abstracts to permit of reference to the various 
 sources in which information of interest to him had been published. 
 
 The progress in this active field during the past few years has 
 been such, however, that the volume of current electrical literature, 
 as well as the number of branches of electrical engineering, is be- 
 coming so great as to render it almost if not quite impossible for one 
 to keep satisfactorily informed of all that is going on in the different 
 departments, much less to take the time to keep notes and records 
 that will enable him afterward to refer back to an article or descrip- 
 tion that he knows he has read, but does not remember where. 
 
 The numerous electrical and other technical journals, which give 
 such a large amount of valuable information, must cover so many 
 fields that their bound volumes are not convenient records in any one 
 branch, besides being of necessity large and bulky, and therefore 
 not handy for connected reading or for subsequent reference. 
 
 As a consequence of this it is thought that a series of little volumes 
 in clear, legible type, well printed on good paper and substantially 
 bound in cloth, containing a resume to date of what is of value in 
 current electrical literature, will appeal to those who do not wish 
 to lag in the march of progress. Should this first volume meet with 
 the success which it is hoped it will merit it is the intention to extend 
 
 5 
 
6 PREFACE. 
 
 the series by issuing other volumes embracing all the important 
 branches of electrical science, and also adding to these from time to 
 time as the advance in the respective branches shall warrant. 
 
 Each volume is intended to contain a classified summary up to date 
 of the literature on that particular branch or department from the 
 time of the publication of the preceding volume on the same subject, 
 to serve not only as a record for. reference, but also as a book contain- 
 ing the latest information obtainable on the subject. Articles which 
 have been published will be given in full or in abstract, or only by 
 reference to the source, depending on their importance, length, etc. 
 
 "Current Progress in Electric Railways," being the first of the 
 series, has not had as much time devoted to its preparation as the 
 compiler would have liked, and moreover most of the material for 
 this volume has been taken from the columns of one journal. In 
 subsequent volumes it is intended to cull from all the prominent 
 electrical and other engineering journals, foreign as well as Ameri- 
 can, and to so arrange and connect the matter that the work shall have 
 rather the character of a logical summary of recent progress than 
 that of a mere compilation. It is aimed to make these books standard 
 works of their kind. References by foot notes and otherwise will be 
 made to articles of a character too special for the scope of these 
 volumes, yet of value in special researches or to special students. 
 
 It is understood, of course, that no responsibility is assumed for 
 statements compiled, or that their insertion necessarily implies any 
 endorsement. A work of this kind must include some descriptive 
 matter relating to new inventions, devices, etc., but these will be 
 regarded from a technical rather than from a commercial standpoint. 
 
 Any assistance or suggestions tending to enhance the usefulness of 
 these volumes are solicited and will be cordially appreciated. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER. PAGE. 
 
 I. Historical Notes - 9 
 
 II. Development and Statistics 23 
 
 III. Construction and Operation - - 35 
 
 IV. Cost of Construction and Operation 100 
 
 V. Overhead Wire Surface Railways - 136 
 
 VI. Conduit and Surface Conductor Systems - 167 
 
 VII. Storage Battery Systems 188 
 
 VIII. Underground (Tunnel) Systems 206 
 
 IX. High Speed Interurban Eailroads - - 247 
 
 X. Miscellaneous Systems 279 
 
 XI. Generators, Motors and Trucks - 286 
 
 XII. Accessories - 354 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 
 
 \ J V f tf 
 
 HISTORICAL NOTES. 
 
 N S^OPWU 
 
 During the past year some interesting informa- 
 tion has been added to our present knowledge of the 
 history of the electric railway, including also some 
 compilations, abstracts of which are given below 
 in order of date. 
 
 1835-37. Mr. Frank L. Pope who may with 
 right be called the discoverer of the inventor of 
 the electric railway found quite accidentally that 
 a certain Thomas Davenport constructed a model of 
 a small electric railway as early as 1835, which 
 model still exists. In a very interesting lecture on 
 electric railways (reprinted in full in The Electrical 
 World, January 31, 1891, page 81) Mr. Pope remarks 
 as follows : 
 
 "In the expectation that electricity would soon 
 be the universal motive power, the problem of 
 its utilization was, during the next ten years, 
 (1831-41) attacked with great zeal by a considerable 
 number of inventors. The earliest, as well as the 
 most meritorious of these was a Green Mountain 
 village blacksmith, by the name of Thomas Daven - 
 port. Some time since, while preparing a lecture to 
 be delivered before the Board of Trade, in Spring- 
 
 
10 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 field, Mass.. I accidentally learned that this inventor 
 had constructed a model of an electric railway in 
 Springfield more than fifty years ago. This was 
 undoubtedly the very first appearance of the elec- 
 tric railway in the history of the world. The work 
 of this electrician, and even his very name, is 
 almost unknown to the present generation of labor- 
 ers in this fertile field. 
 
 " Time does not permit the rehearsal of the detailed 
 story of his struggles, his failures, and his successes. 
 During the six years between 1835 and 1841 he built 
 more than 100 operative electric motors, scarcely 
 any two of which were of the same design, and 
 which varied in size from a small model up to an 
 engine capable of driving a rotary printing-press 
 for twelve hours in succession. In December, 1835, 
 he exhibited in Boston the model of an electric loco- 
 motive and circular railway which he had built in 
 Springfield, and a similar, though more finely fin- 
 ished, model which was built by him the following 
 year is still in existence in a good state of preserva- 
 tion. He published in 1840, now more than fifty 
 years ago, in the city of New York, a weekly jour- 
 nal called the Electro-Magnet and Mechanics' Intel- 
 ligencer, which was printed upon a press driven by 
 an electro-magnetic engine. Some of his motors, 
 constructed as early as 1837 and 1838, were admira- 
 bly designed, and in essentials, even to the shunt- 
 winding, differed but little from some of the most 
 advanced and successful types in use at the present 
 day." 
 
 In a paper read by the same author before the 
 American Institute of Electrical Engineers (re- 
 
HISTORICAL NOTES. 11 
 
 printed in The Electrical World, March 21, 1891, 
 page 228) he describes the inventions of Thomas 
 Davenport, from which we make the following 
 extract : 
 
 "The year 1837 marked a very important era in the 
 history of the industrial development of electricity. 
 During that year two of the most extraordinary 
 inventions of the present century made their advent 
 in this city (New York), the electric telegraph of 
 Prof. Samuel F. Morse and the electric motor of 
 Thomas Davenport. The motor came first. Daven- 
 port, a self-taught Vermont blacksmith, who had 
 invented and constructed his machine in a remote 
 country village in a crude form, as early as 1834, 
 came to New York in February, 1837, bringing with 
 him some of the machinery which had been made 
 for the purpose of exhibition, by himself and Ran- 
 som Cook, with a view of enlisting capital to build 
 a large motor." Mr. Pope found that several of the 
 original models were still in existence, one of these be- 
 ing shown in the following cut (Fig. 1), and was ex- 
 hibited in operation by him at his lecture, even with 
 the original three-cell Grove battery of pint cups. It 
 is a circular railwaj^, 2i feet in diameter, with the 
 locomotive traveling on it. He thinks that there is no 
 doubt that that model was built in the early part of 
 1837, possibly as early as 1836. The locomotive has a 
 fixed field magnet below, and a revolving armature 
 above, through which the current is reversed twice 
 in every revolution. "So far as I have been able to 
 discover, that is a combination found in every prac- 
 tical motor to-day, which Davenport was the first to 
 make known and to use in 1834. The motor is con- 
 
12 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 nected to the axle by bevel gear. The field magnet 
 and armature in the model are connected in series. 
 In another model of 1837, they are connected in 
 shunt." 
 
 Further information about the electric motors of 
 Davenport will be found under the history of motors 
 in another volume of this series. 
 
 Mr. Riley Bowers writes, concerning Davenport's 
 
 FIG. 1. DAVENPORT'S ELECTRIC RAILWAY. 
 
 model of his electric railroad: "My father told his 
 family in my presence that when Mr. Davenport 
 arrived in New York he was offered $250,000. He 
 would not take it, but took his model to England 
 and set it running. Michael Faraday was well 
 pleased with it, but after it had been running some 
 time it occurred to him to try its power. He took a 
 broom that was in the room, put it against the fly- 
 wheel, and stopped the motor. After that Mr. Fara- 
 day refused to invest, or recommend it to others. So 
 
HISTORICAL NOTES. 13 
 
 Mr. Davenport had to bear all the expense, and 
 received nothing for his trouble." 
 
 1850. Thomas Hall is said to have made an elec- 
 tric locomotive that was "the marvel of the time." 
 
 1851-52. In this year an electric locomotive was 
 constructed by Prof. George G. Page, using bat- 
 teries of the Grove type, for which experiment Con- 
 gress voted $50,000; it was tried on the Baltimore 
 and Ohio Railroad, and was said to be a partial suc- 
 cess. Regarding this experiment, Mr. Pope says: 
 "It was a noteworthy achievement, but developed 
 no new practice, nor did it contribute anything to 
 the ultimate solution of the electric railway prob- 
 lem. Many other promising experiments were made, 
 but all resulted in failure, until the very name of 
 the electro-magnetic motor became almost a syno- 
 nym for 'humbug.' " 
 
 1855. Mr. A. M. Tanner published the following 
 facts in the London Electrical Eeview (reprinted in 
 The Electrical World, December 19. 1891, page 
 453) : He states that Major Alexander Bessolo, now 
 in Turin, Italy, and at that time lieutenant in the 
 artillery of the Sardinian States, proposed an elec- 
 tric railway system in which an overhead conductor 
 and the rails served as a circuit, and the rotary elec- 
 tric motor on a car was included in a traveling con- 
 nection between said overhead conductor and the 
 rails. In reference to the propulsion of cars on rail- 
 ways, the inventor states that the current is con- 
 veyed to the locomotive motor machine by means 
 of the rails and by a conductor insulated from the 
 ground and suspended in a manner analogous to tele- 
 graph wires. The inventor furthermore states: 
 
14 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 " Such a system of locomotion has many advantages, 
 because the current can conveniently reach inde- 
 pendent vehicles or those united in small trains. 
 Also, encounters or collisions on the same track are 
 rendered impossible, because the same current will 
 never allow two trains to be present in the same 
 section with a common conductor. Besides, the gen- 
 erators are so located that they can be controlled 
 from the stations." 
 
 Mr. Tanner also states that "in the same year 
 Chevalier Bonelli, inspector of telegraphs of the 
 Sardinian States, invented his so-called locomotive 
 telegraph system and worked it practically between 
 Paris and St. Cloud, for which a French patent was 
 granted on January 9, 1855. It showed what is 
 known as the ' third rail conductor ' for conveying 
 an electric current to a translating device upon a 
 car through the medium of a contact device sliding 
 upon said third rail conductor. In this system of 
 Bonelli, as well as in others devised about the same 
 time by De Castro, Guyard, Du Moncel and others, 
 for establishing a telegraph communication between 
 a train and the station, it was proposed to use a con- 
 ductor insulated from the ground, and the rails as a 
 circuit, and obviously in all these systems the trans- 
 lating device was in derivation between the insula- 
 ted conductor and the rails. Consequently, when 
 Bessolo stated that he proposed to use an overhead 
 wire and the rails of a railway track as the circuit of 
 a stationary generator of electricity, he obviously 
 had the intention of completing the circuit through 
 a traveling connection between the overhead con- 
 ductor and the rails. This naturally placed the elec- 
 
HISTORICAL NOTES. 15 
 
 trie motor on the car in a branch or * leak ' between 
 the overhead conductor and the rails, just as is the 
 case in all electric railways of the overhead con- 
 ductor and trolley type." 
 
 I860. Hall is said to have exhibited an improve- 
 ment on his locomotive of 1850, and to have run it 
 upon a circular track. 
 
 1874. Mr. C. J. Van Depoele was experimenting 
 with electric motors in Detroit, and it occurred to 
 him that trains of cars and even commercial street 
 cars could be run by electricity ; this was demon- 
 strated to the satisfaction of his associates in vari- 
 ous ways, but no public exhibition was made until 
 1883. 
 
 1877. Mr. F. L. Pope writes: "The credit of 
 priority in the invention of the electric railway 
 in its modern form that is to say, the moving 
 electro-motor on the car connected by electric 
 conductors with a stationary dynamo I believe 
 to be justly due to Stephen D. Field, now of Stock- 
 bridge, Mass., who was living in San Francisco 
 in 1877. This was about the time of the introduc- 
 tion of the cable system of street railways, which 
 was resorted to in San Francisco, for the reason 
 that some of the grades were so excessive that the 
 use of horse power was absolutely out of the ques- 
 tion. Observing the operation of the cable road, it 
 at once occurred to Field that electric power might 
 be applied to the same purpose with as great or even 
 greater advantage. At that time no dynamo-electric 
 machines suitable for this purpose were be to had in 
 the United States, and he accordingly ordered one 
 from Europe for experimental purposes. It took a 
 
1C KECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 long time to make it, but at last it was completed 
 and shipped to San Francisco by a sailing vessel. 
 The vessel was wrecked on the voyage, and the 
 machine went to the bottom of the sea. Not yet 
 discouraged, he ordered another one, which eventu- 
 ally reached hirn in good order, and enabled him to 
 commence Jiis long-delayed experiments. He tried 
 first an electric elevator, in which he was successful. 
 In 1879, having exhausted his resources, he came 
 to New York, bringing with him his plans, with 
 which he hoped to enlist capital to continue his 
 work. He laid these plans before me, and being 
 impressed with the entire practicability of his 
 scheme, I gave him every encouragement in my 
 power. The plan which he had devised contempla- 
 ted the inclosing of the conducting wire in a con- 
 duit beneath the street. He was not successful in 
 obtaining sufficient means to properly develop his 
 invention ; he became involved in tedious, harassing, 
 and expensive litigation with wealthy corporations, 
 and his health failed him at a critical time, so that 
 for years he was incapacitated from active work; 
 but the single railway which is in operation in this 
 country to-day, and embodies his matured concep- 
 tions, is regarded by competent judges as in many 
 respects superior to any yet brought before the pub- 
 lic. 
 
 1882. The same writer states : "In the summer 
 of 1882, Dr. Joseph R. Finney exhibited in Alle- 
 gheny, Pa., an electric street car, for which the 
 current was supplied by a copper wire, about the 
 thickness of a lead pencil, 15 or 20 feet above the 
 street. A small trolley, fitted with grooved wheels, 
 
HISTORICAL NOTES. 17 
 
 running on this wire as on a track, and connected 
 with the car by a flexible conducting cord, served 
 to convey the electric current from the suspended 
 conductor to the motor. Some of the earliest of 
 the successful lines in this country were arranged 
 upon this plan. At a later date this was super- 
 seded by the type of contact wheel now in gen- 
 eral use, which runs underneath the wire and is 
 mounted upon the end of a long yielding rod bear- 
 ing a certain resemblance to a n'shpole, supported 
 upon the roof of the car." 
 
 1883. Leo Daft operated a full-sized passenger 
 car over the Mt. MacGregor Railway at Saratoga. 
 Van Depoele exhibited a car in operation in Chi- 
 cago. Field's electric locomotive was exhibited at 
 the Exhibition of Railway Appliances in Chicago, 
 transporting in the aggregate 27,000 passengers. 
 
 Mr. Eugene Griffin states: "When the Chicago 
 elevated railway was under consideration, it was 
 proposed to demonstrate the feasibility of utilizing 
 electricity as a motive power. A track 400 feet 
 in length was built, with a 5 per cent, grade in 
 the centre. One car was equipped with a 3 horse- 
 power motor, and ran for several weeks with 
 considerable success, carrying crowds of people. 
 This was in February, 1883. In the same year 
 an elevated railway car was operated electrically 
 at the Chicago Inter-State Fair. The car was 
 suspended from the truck instead of being mounted 
 on it ; and was in operation during the entire expo- 
 sition some fifty days. 
 
 "On July 27, 1884, an electric car was running 
 scheduled trips over a mile track of the East Cleve- 
 
18 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 land Street Railway Company, in Cleveland, O. 
 This was the first electric car in regular operation 
 on a street railway track in the United States. The 
 motor was placed between the wheels and supported 
 from the car body, and geared to the axles by belts 
 ! of spring wire cables. The current was conveyed 
 to the car by the conductors supported on insulators 
 in a small wooden conduit, and connection made 
 with the conductors by means of a plow extending 
 through the slot to the conduit. This was the initial 
 installation of the Bentley & Knight system. The 
 road was given up in 1885. 
 
 "During the Toronto Annual Exhibition in 1884, 
 an electric railway some 3,000 feet long was opera- 
 ted from the entrance to the grounds to the main 
 building. This was a conduit road, and the wires 
 carried a potential of over 1,000 volts without acci- 
 dent. A 30 horse-power electric locomotive was used 
 hauling trains of cars." 
 
 1885. Mr. Pope writes: "It is only six years 
 ago that an electric street railway was put in 
 actual commercial service in the United States 
 for the first time. This was in the city of Cleve- 
 land. O. To-day considerably more than one-third 
 of the total street railway mileage of the United 
 States is either operated by electric power, or 
 contracts have been entered into for the substitu- 
 tion of an electrical equipment for that now in use 
 at the earliest possible moment." 
 
 1886. Mr. F. J. Sprague writes: "The develop- 
 ment of electric traction is unequaled in the 
 industrial history of the world. In 1886 a list of 
 twelve or thirteen comprised all the electric roads 
 
HISTORICAL NOTES. 19 
 
 in operation, and this included every electrical road 
 in the world, whether operated by the split tube, the 
 side rail, the traveling trolley carriage on an over- 
 head wire, the centre rail, or by a conduit or storage 
 .battery. There was little similarity in these differ- 
 'ent plans, but they all served to show that elec- 
 tricity, in a more or less effective way, could propel 
 a car." 
 
 1887-88. Mr. Griffin states: "After various ex- 
 periments, the road in Allegheny City was begun 
 in the summer of 1887. The cars were started 
 during the winter of 1887-88, although the road 
 was not formally opened to traffic until February, 
 1888. Four cars were furnished to this road, 
 which, I believe, are still running. On the lower 
 end of the road was a mile of double track 
 conduit, which was continued by an overhead 
 system of about five miles. The conduit was on a 
 long grade of about 12 per cent. Over-running trol- 
 leys were used with the overhead system. The Con- 
 duit was in operation for two years or more, but 
 has now been taken up and replaced by the over- 
 ihead system. 
 
 "It was not until 1888 that the electric railway 
 became a practical commercial success. I fix the 
 date at 1888, as it was in that year that Bentley & 
 Knight opened the Allegheny City road to regular 
 traffic; that the Sprague company equipped the 
 Richmond road, and the Thomson-Houston com- 
 pany installed the Eckington & Soldiers' Home Road 
 in Washington. It was in 1888 that railway officials 
 began to realize the possibilities of this new active 
 force, that the great West End system of Boston 
 
20 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 adopted electricity to the exclusion of cable, and that 
 orders began to flow in upon the electric companies 
 for street car motors to such an extent as to soon 
 make the manufacture of such motors one of the 
 leading branches of the electric industry. 
 
 "Previous to 1888 electric motors had been used 
 on several roads. Some of these roads were doing 
 well and have been prosperous since; but to the 
 public these were experiments on a comparatively 
 small scale, and did little to inspire general confi- 
 dence. The early inventors found it difficult to 
 secure adequate financial backing ; orders were few 
 and business unprofitable. The stronger companies, 
 which took up the work in 1888, had the organiza- 
 tion and capital necessary to achieve success. 
 
 "In the fall of 1887 Frank J. Sprague contracted 
 for the electric equipment of the Union Passenger 
 Railway, at Richmond, Ya. This was an important 
 road in a large city, and Mr. Sprague's undertaking 
 was the most ambitious effort in this direction up to 
 that date. It is worthy of note that Sprague 's origi- 
 nal intention was to use motors with but one reduc- 
 tion, but he was forced to abandon this idea, as 
 none of the electrical companies of that date were 
 able to produce single reduction motors. The motors 
 used at first were too light for the work, the copper 
 brushes scored the commutators badly, and were 
 rapidly consumed. Nevertheless, Mr. Sprague per- 
 severed despite all obstacles, and in 1888 the road 
 was running with so much success that it was one 
 of the object lessons which induced Henry M. Whit- 
 ney and his brother directors of the West End 
 Street Railway of Boston to adopt electricity as a 
 
HISTORICAL NOTES. 21 
 
 motive power when they were already far advanced 
 in the plans for cabling their system." 
 
 Regarding this road in Richmond, Mr. Pope writes : 
 "Lieut. Frank J. Sprague designed, carried out, 
 and completed the first installation of electric rail- 
 roading on a large scale in the world, in Richmond, 
 Va., in 1888. Laboring under enormous difficulties 
 and drawbacks, Lieutenant Sprague succeeded, by 
 the completion and operation of this plant, in estab- 
 lishing beyond peradventure the future supremacy 
 of the electric street railway, and many of the char- 
 acteristic features at that time designed and intro- 
 duced by him have practically become standards in 
 the modern system, and are found in nearly every 
 one of the thousands of cars now in service." 
 
 Mr. Sprague himself writes regarding this road: 
 "On the 8th of February, 1888, there was opened 
 for traffic, under the Sprague system, a road at 
 Richmond, Va., which presented conditions of 
 length, grade, curves, road-bed, and number of cars 
 to be operated, which, if successfully overcome, 
 would mark a new era in the development of elec- 
 trical railway traction. The conditions, while not 
 perhaps now seeming remarkable, were then con- 
 sidered insurmountable, not onty because of diffi- 
 culties relating to street car service itself, but also the 
 electrical and mechanical ones. The length was 
 from 11 to 12 miles. There was a straight grade 
 of 10 per cent. ; there were grades in curves of 
 7 and 8 per cent. ; there were twenty-nine curves, 
 and some were as low as 27 and 30 foot radius. 
 The roadbed was of an execrable character. 
 Thirty cars had to be operated at one time from 
 
RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 a common station, and some of them four miles 
 away from the station. That road had its vicissi- 
 tudes, but its victories as well. Forty cars were 
 operated, and no less than twenty-two simul- 
 taneously at one end of the line. The electrical and 
 mechanical features, hastily designed and crudely 
 constructed, were a radical departure from the pre- 
 vious work." 
 
 A paper by Mr. Griffin contains the following 
 summary : " As nearly as can now be ascertained, 
 the following electric roads were actually in opera- 
 tion on January 1, 1888: 
 
 ROADS. 
 
 System. 
 
 Location. 
 
 1 
 
 ^2 
 
 eg 
 
 !* 
 
 Union Passenger Ry. Co. .. . 
 
 Daft . . 
 
 Baltimore, Md. . 
 
 9 no 
 
 3 
 
 Windsor Electric Ry. 
 
 Van Depoele opp. 
 
 Detroit, Mich. 
 
 1 95 
 
 v, 
 
 Appleton " 
 
 
 Appleton, Wis 
 
 o 50 
 
 5 
 
 Port Huron " 
 
 
 
 Port Huron, Mich... 
 
 2.75 
 
 4 
 
 Highland Park. .. 
 
 Fisher 
 
 Detroit, Mich.. . . 
 
 3 9,5 
 
 4 
 
 Scrantori Suburban road 
 Los Angeles Electric Ry. Co. . 
 
 Van Depoele 
 Daft. 
 
 Scran ton, Pa. .. 
 Los Angeles, Cal... 
 
 5.00 
 500 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 Lima Street Ry. and Motor 
 Power Co 
 
 Van Depoele. 
 
 Lima, Ohio. 
 
 1 00 
 
 fi 
 
 Columbus Consolidated Street 
 Ry. 
 St. Catherines Street Ry. Co 
 Seashore Electric Ry. Co 
 San Diego Street Ry. Co. . . 
 E. Harrisburg Passenger Ry. Co. 
 
 Short . . . 
 Van Depoele. . 
 Daft 
 Henry 
 Sprague 
 
 Columbus, Ohio. 
 St. Catherines, Ont. 
 Asbury Park, N. J . . 
 San Diego, Cal 
 Harrisburg, Pa.. 
 
 1.00 
 T.OO 
 4.00 
 3.00 
 4 50 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 18 
 9 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "A total of 13 roads, 48.25 miles of track and 95 
 cars. 
 
 "On July 1, 1891, there were 354 roads in actual 
 operation, with 2,89*3 miles of track equipped elec- 
 trically, and 4,513 motor cars. Such has been the 
 growth of three and a half years. On January 1, 
 
DEVELOPMENT AND STATISTICS. 23 
 
 1889, the first electric car was started in Boston with 
 the Sprague system, and later the Thomson-Houston 
 system was adopted." 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT AND STATISTICS. 
 
 The development of electrical railway engineer- 
 ing has been so rapid, that it is perhaps without a 
 parallel in any other industry. It was only a few 
 years ago that an electric railway was still consid- 
 ered an experiment, while at the present time horse- 
 car lines and cable lines are not only being rapidly 
 replaced by electrical roads, but it is not likely that 
 many new horse-car lines will be started, and there 
 are many cases where electric roads have been built 
 where horse-car lines would hardly have been con- 
 sidered feasible. 
 
 The rapid development is illustrated very well by 
 the following extract from a paper read at a street 
 railway convention : At a meeting of the American 
 Street Railway Association, held in Washington in 
 1888, almost the sole subject of discussion was the 
 question of improved motive power for street rail- 
 way service. Every manager and superintendent 
 present realized that the demands of traffic were 
 rapidly outgrowing the existing methods, and many 
 of them had begun to look forward to the applica- 
 
24 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 tion of electric power as the only possible solution 
 of the problem. As one delegate after another 
 reported his experiences and observations in respect 
 to electric traction, a member who had listened to 
 it all with evident impatience, arose and entered his 
 solemn protest against all the new-fangled talk 
 about electricity. He said that he had come there 
 upon the assumption that it was a horse railroad 
 convention, in order to get information about horses. 
 He wanted to know how to shoe them, how to feed 
 them, and how to work them to the best advantage. 
 And as he continued to complain, it was evident 
 that in more than one place in the assemblage his 
 ideas met with a sympathetic response. In Septem- 
 ber, 1890, the same association held its annual meet- 
 ing at Buffalo, and, in his opening address, the presi- 
 dent, Thomas Lowry, of Minneapolis, made the fol- 
 lowing significant remark: "I am so thoroughly 
 convinced that electricity is the coming power for 
 street railways (except on very heavy grades, where 
 the cable is best suited), and that it will prove so 
 effective as a means of rapid transit for cities, that 
 I believe that this is the last convention that will 
 ever seriously consider horses for the operation of 
 street railways." 
 
 The development of the street railway has as 
 much, or perhaps more, to do with the growth and 
 prosperity of towns and cities than any other one 
 thing, as the transportation of people through the 
 city is most intimately connected with the social 
 and business life of the people. The daily loss of 
 time to the people of any city where horse-car lines 
 are run at four to six miles an hour, when compared 
 
DEVELOPMENT AND STATISTICS. 25 
 
 with electric roads running at six to twelve hours, 
 is far greater than one would at first suppose. The 
 effect of rapid transit on the growth of cities is 
 shown very well in the following extract from a 
 paper by Mr. Griffin, from which will be seen what 
 an important effect rapid transit has on the increased 
 value of property in and about towns and cities: 
 " Let us assume that a man can allow thirty minutes 
 morning and evening for his car ride, paying five 
 cents for each ride. At the rate of six miles per 
 hour, fast for horses, he has a radius of three miles 
 and an area of 28i square miles within which to 
 select a home. At the rate of nine miles per hour, 
 slow for electricity, he has a radius of four and a 
 half miles, and an area of 63- square miles within 
 which to select a home. An increase of only three 
 miles per hour in rapidity of transit doubles the 
 available residence area without increasing the 
 time or expense of the laborer in going to and from 
 his work." 
 
 In dealing with the problem of street railways for 
 any city, one should not consider only the present 
 population, but prepare also for the great increase 
 which is certain to come in most of our American 
 cities. There are 74 cities in the United States 
 which have a population of over 40,000. In these 
 the average increase of population during the last 
 10 years was nearly 47 per cent. While this rate of 
 increase may not continue at that* high figure, the 
 growth is however reasonably sure to be very great 
 for quite a number of years. 
 
 Among the details in electric railroad engineer- 
 ing, there are a few features whose development 
 
26 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 were especially marked during the past year. Chief 
 among these was the reduction in the gearing. 
 Formerly, a double reduction gearing and a high 
 armature speed in the vicinity of 1,000 revolutions 
 were almost universally used; at present most of 
 the motors introduced have but a single reduction^ 
 the armature speed having been reduced to about 
 one-third, while the gear wheels are now usually 
 run in cases filled with oil or grease, which has 
 greatly reduced the noise and the wear and tear of 
 the gearing. An attempt has also been made to do 
 without any gearing by connecting the armature 
 directly to the car axle, forming the so-called gear- 
 less motor. Although reports appear favorable, it 
 cannot be said that it is likely to replace the single 
 reduction motor. It is claimed that the necessary 
 loss in efficiency of these gearless and single reduc- 
 tion motors over a double reduction is not as great 
 as the gain in having less gearing. 
 
 From reports received from different companies, 
 it appears that a perceptible improvement has been 
 made within the last year in the mortality of arma- 
 tures, and it is likely that a still further improve- 
 ment will follow the introduction of the single 
 reduction and gearless motor. It was stated that at 
 least three armatures were damaged to one field 
 coil rheostat or switch box. The general adoption 
 of the Gramme armature has also decreased arma- 
 ture repairs. Iri the stations the tendency has been 
 to use larger dynamos, large and more economical 
 compound and triple-expansion engines, and a bet- 
 ter proportioning of the plant to the average power 
 required. Another improvement has been made in 
 
DEVELOPMENT AND STATISTICS. 2? 
 
 the substitution of long cars for short ones, which 
 is accompanied by the use of two pivoted trucks to 
 a car in place of the usual rigid truck and frame 
 used with the ordinary 16 foot cars. 
 
 In comparing the relative merits of cable railways 
 with those using electrical power, it seems to be the 
 almost. universal opinion that the former are better 
 for very heavy grades and where extremely heavy 
 traffic is to be handled, and probably also where dis- 
 tances are very short. 
 
 The comparative merits of the two systems are 
 shown in the following extracts from an article by 
 Mr. J. C. Henry, in which he states that arrange- 
 ments had been completed in Boston for running 
 cable railways. After investigation, the company 
 changed their plans and have now introduced elec- 
 tric power. The same was true of the Minneapolis 
 and St. Paul railways, while in Omaha the cable 
 plant had already been introduced, but was aban- 
 doned in favor of electricity. He adds : " To build 
 a cable road on Broadway (New York) of the most 
 approved pattern requires excavation 4 feet deep 
 and about 1*5 feet wide along the entire street; maiw 
 gas and water pipes would have to be removed ; the 
 street, in all probability, would be torn up and par- 
 tially blocked for a year, as the work can only be 
 carried on during the building season. The residents 
 know full well what this means with a soil so pol- 
 luted with gas that a single paving block cannot be 
 removed without making the atmosphere offensive. 
 I Cable conduits mean two open sewers the entire 
 | length of the street. They are certainly objectiona- 
 I ble from a sanitary point of view. Electric cars can 
 
28 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 be stopped much quicker than cable ones, for the 
 reason that the propelling force can be instantly 
 reversed. Cable cars necessarily run at a fixed 
 rate of speed. Electric cars can be operated with 
 the greatest certainty at any desired speed. An 
 accident to an electric car means it must stop ; acci- 
 dents to grips or cables sometimes means the cars 
 must go whether the road is clear or not. Imagine 
 a heavy cable car going down lower Broadway with 
 a snarl caught in its grip and no way of stopping 
 it until word was sent to the power house to shut 
 down the engines. Such accidents are of frequent 
 occurrence on cable roads." 
 
 STATISTICS. 
 
 In connection with the development of this indus- 
 try and its relative importance in the whole street 
 railway business, the following statistics, compiled 
 from various sources, may be of interest. 
 
 It is only six years ago that an electric street 
 railway was put in actual commercial service in the 
 United States for the first time. This was in the 
 city of Cleveland, O. To-day considerably more 
 than one-third of the total street railway mileage of 
 the United States is either operated by electric 
 power, or contracts have been entered into for the 
 substitution of an electric equipment for that now 
 in use at the earliest possible moment. 
 
 Mr. F. L. Pope stated : " The official returns show 
 that during the year ending September 30, 1889, 
 the 110 street railways in the State of New York 
 carried over 686,000,000 passengers, or 100 times the 
 
DEVELOPMENT AND STATISTICS. 29 
 
 total population. In New York city alone the sur- 
 face and the elevated roads carried together about 
 400,000,000. In Boston 100,000,000 and in Philadel- 
 phia 150,000,000 passengers were carried. In fact, 
 statistics indicate that the street railways of the 
 United States carry something like twice as many 
 passengers as all the steam roads, and moreover, it 
 has also been found that the number of passengers 
 increases from year to year in a much greater ratio 
 than the population, which means, not only that 
 more people ride, but that the same people ride 
 more frequently each succeeding year." 
 
 Regarding the traffic in the city of New York, 
 Mr. Sprague states : " The total annual passenger 
 traffic that is, the total number of persons carried 
 in this city has increased at the rate of over 140 
 per cent, in each period of 10 years since 1866, and 
 is now something over 325,000,000. At the same 
 rate of increase it would amount in 1890 to over 500,- 
 000,000 and in 1900 to 1,225,000,000. 
 
 Mr. John N. Beckley states: "As many as 30,000 
 street cars, horse, cable and electric, are to-day 
 (Sept., 1891) running upon the 8,000 miles of street 
 railroads in this country. In these cars, and on 
 these tracks, are carried as many as 3,000,000,000 
 of people yearly, or 50 times the entire popula- 
 tion of the United States. When we consider 
 that the number of people carried by all of the 
 steam railroad companies in all of the States of 
 this Union last year is estimated at less than 
 500,000,000, and that more people are carried on 
 the street surface railroads in the city of New 
 York, in a year, than are carried by all the 
 
30 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 steam railroads of the State in the same period, we 
 come to have some conception of the immense 
 importance to the people of the rapid, efficient and 
 safe service of street cars in the rapidly growing 
 cities and towns of this wonderfully prosperous 
 country." 
 
 The new census. bulletin shows that in four of the 
 largest American cities the mileage of street rail- 
 ways of all kinds was nearly doubled between the 
 years 1880 and 1889, the figures being 1,983 miles in 
 1880, and 3,150 in 1889. In December, 1889, 476 cities 
 and towns in the United States had street railways. 
 There is now scarcely a town of 5,000 inhabitants 
 without one or more street railways. 
 
 The following very good abstract of the Eleventh 
 United States Census appeared in the Street Rail- 
 way Journal for January, 1892 : 
 
 " The development of street railways during the 
 decade lying between the tenth and eleventh cen- 
 suses a development both as to facilities and 
 amount of business done may certainly be counted 
 as one of the most remarkable features of the whole 
 comprehensive business of transportation. Looking 
 first to the question of length, it is found that in 
 1880 there were 2,050 miles of street railways in 
 operation, while in 1890 this number had risen to 
 5,783 miles, an increase in the ten years of 3,733 
 miles. This increase, remarkable as it is for the 
 whole ten years, is still more remarkable when the 
 decade is divided into two periods of five years each, 
 for then it is seen that the most astonishing devel- 
 opment has been during the last half of the ten 
 years, and at a rate before unparalleled. The fig- 
 
DEVELOPMENT AND STATISTICS. 
 
 31 
 
 ures show that during the first five years the 
 increase of mileage was 888 miles, while during the 
 last half it was 2,845 miles. Looking for the cause 
 of this extraordinary increase, it can readily be 
 found in the introduction of electric roads. Of these 
 roads, which on June 30, 1890, constituted nearly 
 one-fifth of the number of street railways, none were 
 in operation previous to the year 1886. In that year 
 two electric railways commenced operations; in 
 1887 the number had increased to six; in 1888 to 
 thirty; and in 1889 to fifty-seven, while during the 
 first six months of 1890 no fewer than forty-nine new 
 electric roads were reported. The development of 
 cable roads has also largely assisted in this increased 
 mileage, but not nearly to such an extent as the 
 electric railway, while, as has been shown, the year 
 1886 was the year of inception of the electric road, 
 the first cable road began to run in 1887. The 
 increase by years is shown in the following table : 
 
 YEAR|. 
 
 Total Length 
 (Miles.) 
 
 Increase. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 1880 
 
 2,050.16 
 2,150.09 
 2,342.20 
 2,506.14 
 2,680.31 
 2,938.29 
 3,268.58 
 3 890.22 
 4.49&.49 
 5.285.11 
 6,783.47 
 
 99.93 
 192.11 
 163.94 
 174.17 
 257.98 
 330.29 
 881.64 
 609.27 
 785.62 
 498.36 
 3,733.31 
 
 4.87 
 8.93 
 7.00 
 6.95 
 9.93 
 11.24 
 19.02 
 15.66 
 17.46 
 9.43 
 182.10 
 
 1881 
 
 1882 
 
 1883 
 
 1884 
 
 1885 . . 
 
 1886 
 
 1S8T 
 
 1SS8........ 
 
 1889 
 
 1890 (6 months) 
 
 Ten years, 1880-1890. 
 
 
 "Looking to the urban locality of increase, it is 
 found that the most remarkable is in the smaller 
 
32 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 cities, a fact that is plainly illustrated in the sub- 
 joined table: 
 
 ITEMS. 
 
 Length of Street Railways 
 
 Factor of 
 Increase. 
 
 1890. 
 
 1880. 
 
 All cities 
 
 5.783.4T 
 3,205.59 
 2.57T.88 
 
 2,050.16 
 1,584.16 
 466.00 
 
 2.82 
 2.02 
 5.53 
 
 Cities of more than 50,000 inhabitants- 
 Cities of less than 50,000 inhabitants. . . 
 
 " When the final computations were made it was 
 found that on July 1, 1890, the street railway com- 
 panies of the United States in independent operation 
 numbered 789, and that these, repeating the pre- 
 vious figures, carried on their operations over 5,783 
 miles of street line, or over a total track length of 
 8,123 miles. On this length of line 33,505 passenger 
 cars were in use ; the roads and equipment cost, all 
 told, $389,357,289, they gave employment to 70,764 
 men, and carried the astonishing total of 2,023,- 
 010,202 passengers. A good idea of the extent of 
 this traffic may be realized when it is stated that the 
 street railways of the United States carried last 
 year a number of passengers considerably greater 
 than the population of the globe, and when it is also 
 stated that the steam railways of the United States 
 with all their 157,759 miles of line and 25,665 passen- 
 gers cars only carried during the same year 472,- 
 171,343 passengers, or 1,550,838,859 passengers less 
 than were carried by the street railways." 
 
 In September, 1891, the same journal published the 
 
DEVELOPMENT AND STATISTICS. 33 
 
 following summary, which is probably the most relia- 
 ble one that has been published : " The total number 
 of miles of street railways in the United States and 
 Canada is 11,029. Of these 5,442 are operated by 
 animal power, 3,000 by electricity, 1,918 by steam and 
 660 by cable. The total number of cars in the United 
 States and Canada is 36,517, of which 25,424 are run 
 by animal power, 6,732 by electricity, 3,317 by cable 
 and 1,044 by steam. The total number of lines in 
 the United States and Canada is 1,003, of which 412 
 use electricity and 54 cable. The number of horses 
 is 88,114, mules 12,002 and steam motors 200. The 
 diminution of the number of horses in one year was 
 28,681. 
 
 Mr. Sprague, in February, 1891, published the fol- 
 lowing summary : " The number of electric railways 
 in the United States is 310; number of motors, 
 7,000; total horse-power, 175,000; the number of car 
 miles run per day,^400,000; passengers carried annu- 
 ally, 1,000,000,000; the investment in horse-car lines, 
 $58,000,000, ; the investment in electric roads, 
 $50,000,000; and that in cable roads, $49,000,000." 
 
 Mr. Watson, in October, gave the investment in 
 electric roads as $75,000,000. Mr. Griffin gave the 
 number of miles of electric railroads as 2,893, the 
 number of cars on these roads 4,513, and the number 
 of electric railroads 345. By way of comparison it 
 may be interesting to note here that on January 1, 
 1888, the number of electric railways was 13, the 
 number of cars 95 and the number of miles 48.25. 
 
 The Street Railway Journal published in October, 
 1891, the number of miles of track of street railways 
 in the following cities : 
 
34 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 Philadelphia 510 
 
 Chicago 452 
 
 New York.. 289 
 
 Brooklyn ... 285 
 
 Boston 283 
 
 St. Louis. 275 
 
 Baltimore 207 
 
 Sail Francisco... ...205 
 
 Cleveland 192 
 
 Cincinnati.. ...".. 181 
 
 Pittsburgh. ... let 
 
 Kansas City , ui 
 
 New Orleans 139 
 
 Louisville ............!'.... i&j 
 
 Buffalo. Ho 
 
 Minneapolis ..." '"101 
 
 Los Angeles . . 99 
 
 Detroit \ ... 94 
 
 Birmingham (Ala.)' " 92 
 
 St. Paul 90 
 
 Washington "85 
 
 One of the largest electric companies in this coun- 
 try published at the close of the year a list of the 
 roads built by them, showing a total of 181 roads 
 using 2,769 motor cars and having 2,264 miles of 
 track; besides this they had 23 roads under con- 
 tract. 
 
 At the beginning of 1891 the Thomson-Houston 
 Company published the following list of electric 
 railways, showing the relative distribution among 
 the various electrical companies. Thomson-Houston 
 roads, 103; Edison (Sprague), 83; United States 
 Traction, 21; Van Depoele, 8; Rae, 8; Short, 8; 
 storage, 4; Westinghouse, 3; Bentley-Knight, 1; 
 storage, 1; total, 240. 
 
 A report from England states that there are now 
 29 miles of electric lines in operation in that coun- 
 try, on four different systems. Among the heavy 
 electric lines at present in progress there are the 
 Central London Railway (underground), 6 miles; 
 and the Liverpool overhead railway, 6 miles. A 
 permit has been granted for the overhead trolley 
 system on the StaiTordshire lines, comprising 23 
 miles of track. 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 35 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 
 
 The following opinions, information and advice, 
 extracted and compiled from the papers of some of 
 the best writers on the subject, being based chiefly 
 on past experience, will give a very fair idea of the 
 present practice in the construction and operation 
 of electric roads. The matter is divided here into 
 the following classes : Power plant, line, track, trac- 
 tion power; speeds, grades, loads, etc.; cars, mis- 
 cellaneous. 
 
 POWER PLANT. 
 
 Mr. C. J. Field states: "The problem requires 
 much more careful consideration than has been 
 given steam power in electric lighting generally 
 in the past. The work to be successfully done 
 by the steam engine in the generation of elec- 
 tricity for the operation of railroads is of the severest 
 kind, and can be compared only to that of the 
 engine operating rolling mill trains. It is owing 
 to not fully appreciating this fact that we hear 
 in some parts of the country of failures of steam 
 plants on this kind of work. Electrical manufac- 
 turers are assisting the solution of this problem by 
 building the larger generators in units of 200 to 
 400 or 500 horse-power. What we want in the gener- 
 ating station for electricity is the smallest division 
 of units consistent with the safe and economical 
 operation of the station. Each unit should be 
 entirely independent and separate from all other 
 units, thereby increasing the reliability. This can- 
 not be obtained in a safe and economical way by 
 
36 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 the use of the countershaft; in railway work, with 
 large generators, we can see no excuse at the pres- 
 ent time for its use. Generators should be belted 
 directly to the engines, whether Corliss or high 
 speed, or else coupled directly to the engine shaft. 
 With a Corliss engine of 500 horse-power, operating 
 at 80 or 90 turns, with a flywheel 18 to 20 feet in 
 diameter, we can belt with belt centres of, say, 40 
 feet 2 inches, generators of several different com- 
 mercial types; this gives us advantages which we 
 have heretofore had only in high speed engines with 
 direct connection. The engines should, in any 
 event, as heretofore stated, be extra heavily built 
 for the work to be done, with ample flywheel 
 capacity. On engines of this size and speed a fly- 
 wheel capacity of approximately 600,000 pounds is 
 about right; on engines operating about 150 turns, 
 say, 30,000 to 40,000 pounds. Generators on this 
 work are subjected to the severest and most exces- 
 sive strain, particularly where of small type, but 
 the building of them in larger units is going to 
 remove, to a great extent, the question of the over- 
 loading of the machine. Eailway machines are ( 
 often subjected to overloads of from 25 to 50 per 
 cent. In general these are only momentary, and we' 
 find most of them able to stand up to the work to 
 be done. 
 
 " High speed engines in the development of railway 
 work have received in some cases a setback, owing 
 to the engine manufacturers not appreciating fully 
 the conditions and necessity of the work under- 
 taken. So called high speed, or automatic engines, 
 pan be as successfully operated on this class of 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 37 
 
 work as any other, if they are especially built for it. 
 This means larger parts, bearings of more ample 
 size and length, and ample flywheel capacity. On 
 a cross compound engine of, say, 300 horse-power, 
 there should be about six to eight tons in the fly- 
 wheels, the bearings seven or eight inches in diam- 
 eter, and 15 or 18 inches in length. In the case of 
 engines built in this manner there can be no fault 
 found with their operation. A type of engine, which 
 we believe is going to be largely used on this class 
 of work, as well as lighting work, is one that will 
 come in between the high speed engine and the Cor- 
 liss and which will combine many of the advan- 
 tages of both. Such an engine has been sought for 
 by many engineers, and has been attempted by a 
 number of builders. To-day, however, we cannot 
 find it on the commercial market. This engine, in 
 units of 500 horse-power, would run at a rotative 
 speed of about 140 or 150 revolutions, and with a 
 piston speed of about 650 to 700. 
 
 "The question which has troubled most engine 
 men in regard to the high speed engine with a 
 single valve, covering this kind of practice, has 
 been a question of valves and clearances. Beyond 
 any question, when it comes to this size, we have 
 got to come to the Corliss practice of double valve, 
 thereby reducing the clearances and bringing it 
 down to the exte'nt of the Corliss practice. The 
 trouble in this line has been to get electric manu- 
 facturing companies to take up the building of large 
 multipolar generators adapted for direct coupling 
 at a speed of from 100 to 200 revolutions. This prob- 
 lem was developed on a much smaller scale in this 
 
38 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 country, for marine plants, several years ago. We 
 find that in Europe, where their work has been 
 more special, that they have successfully developed 
 this type of engine and generator, and, beyond any 
 question, it is going to be both for lighting work 
 and for railway work the type of unit for central 
 station practice in the future. It means, where the 
 vertical engine is used, the installation of the steam 
 and electric plant in the space formerly used for 
 engines alone. This means reduction in the cost of 
 building, operation, and maintenance. 
 
 " We append a few interesting figures and data 
 which the writer collected for presenting to street 
 railway companies, in order to give them some 
 useful information in this respect. The figures given 
 in the table, etc., are not ones that the manufac- 
 turer of an engine would tell you were those of the 
 best economy for his engine or plant, but they are 
 figures which will be appreciated by station owners 
 and railway companies as those which are obtained 
 in every day commercial tests. 
 
 " Thp relative commercial economy of engines and 
 cost are as follows : 
 
 TYPE. 
 
 Lbs. of coal 
 per 
 h. p. hour. 
 
 Cost per h. p., 
 sizes 
 over 100 h. p.' 
 
 High speed single .... 
 
 4 to 5 
 
 $11 to $13 
 
 
 3 to 3^ 
 
 
 " corn, cond 
 
 2V to 2> 
 
 14 to 16 
 
 com. triple. . 
 
 1% to 2 
 
 18 to 22 
 
 Corliss single ., 
 
 8# to 4 
 
 16 to 18 
 
 " compound cond 
 
 1% to 2 
 
 22 to 25 
 
 " triple. 
 
 \% to \% 
 
 27 to 30' 
 
 
 
 
 * This is based on an evaporation of 9 Ibs. of water per pound of coal. 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 
 
 "There are four classes of boilers: 
 
 "1. Horizontal return tubular, whichis the most 
 general in use, and costs $9 to $10 per horse-power. 
 
 " 2. Vertical tubular (Corliss or Manning), which is 
 a vertical tubular boiler, with water leg, giving an 
 internal fire-box, economical in floor space, largely 
 used throughout New England. Cost $10 to $12 
 per horse-power. 
 
 "3. Sectional or water tube boiler, of which the 
 Babcock & Wilcox is the best known, especially 
 adapted for higher pressures and safety. Cost $17 
 to $19 per horse-power. 
 
 "4. Scotch type of marine boiler one that has not 
 been used to any extent as yet in station work but 
 we believe it will be as an offset to the sectional 
 type, and fulfilling the requirements for higher 
 pressure and economy of space. 
 
 " The capacity of engines requisite for different 
 generators at a steam pressure of 100 pounds: 
 
 GENER- 
 ATOR. 
 
 Engine. 
 
 Watts. 
 
 Horse- 
 power. 
 
 High Speed. 
 
 Corliss. 
 
 Size. 
 
 Speed. 
 
 Wt. 2 fly- 
 wheels. 
 
 Size. 
 
 Speed. 
 
 Wt. 2 fly- 
 wheels. 
 
 50,000 
 80,000 
 150,000 
 2,150.000 
 
 75 
 125 
 225 
 450 
 
 12 X 12 
 is X 16 
 18XX 18 
 
 280 
 225 
 200 
 
 7,000 Ibs. 
 9,000 IbR. 
 1 5,000 IbS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20X36 
 
 24X48 
 
 90 
 
 80 
 
 25,000 IDS. 
 50,000 IbS. 
 
 
 
 
 "The cost of steam plant complete is about $50 to 
 $60 per horse-power for high speed, and $65 to $75 
 per horse-power for Corliss. 
 
 " We desire to call the attention of central station 
 
40 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWA V T S. 
 
 owners to the profit to be made from the furnishing 
 of power in street railway operation, and also by 
 the combining in smaller towns of the street rail- 
 way companies and electric light companies. The 
 trouble in most cases in central stations obtaining 
 'contracts for power, outside of small roads, has 
 been to convince the railway companies that the 
 electric light station can economically and reliably 
 furnish this power, and we must say that in many 
 cases their fears are well founded. Therefore, it 
 behooves the central station companies to place 
 their generating plants and stations, not only for 
 their own business, but for this added business, in 
 such a shape as to remove this objection. There is 
 no reason why electric light stations should not do 
 a large and profitable business in this line as well 
 as in stationary motor work, for the same factor is 
 introduced here, and the same reasons why they 
 can safely and profitably furnish this power; if 
 they have a station properly built, and large enough 
 to add this power, that factor is established. If they 
 have a proper station operating force, in many cases 
 this force need not be added to at all. As to what 
 basis this work can be probably done on, we hesi- 
 tate to state figures, except in specific cases, but 
 will try to give a general idea of some of them. For 
 many small roads power contracts have been taken 
 at so much per day, assuming a basis of 100 to 125 
 miles operated. Such contracts have been at from 
 $3 to $5 per car. The regular basis, in accordance 
 with which most street railway companies make 
 their contracts and desire to base their cost of 
 operation, is the unit of car mile operated; there- 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 41 
 
 fore, most contracts are on this basis. This comes 
 down, therefore, to a basis of from three to five 
 cents per car mile; the latter figure we consider 
 excessive, and one which would be only made by 
 , any company for temporary necessities. We know 
 of cases where the matter has been carefully con- 
 sidered and the plant properly installed for it, where 
 contracts have been made for between 2-J- and 2f 
 cents per car mile for 16-foot cars, on roads with 
 grades not exceeding 1-J- to 2 per cent. In this case, 
 and, in fact, in most cases where the closer figures 
 prevail, the railway company furnishes the gen- 
 erators and the station owner furnishes the steam 
 power and all expenses of both steam and electric 
 power due to ordinary wear and tear. A profitable 
 source of investment has been found in the more 
 moderate sized towns of, say, up to 30,000 or 40,000 
 inhabitants, in the installation of combined electric 
 railway and lighting stations ; the companies either 
 equipping new ones or purchasing old street rail- 
 way systems and dilapidated lighting plants run- 
 ning on an unproductive basis, but which have 
 a good franchise and field for business. Such com- 
 panies have proved very profitable, as the combining 
 of the operating expenses for railway and lighting 
 station has done much to reduce expenses, and in 
 many cases one manager or superintendent has 
 proved sufficient for the entire system." 
 
 Mr. Beckley advises not to make the units in a 
 power station too large: "Accidents will happen 
 as long as machinery is run, and an accident 
 to a 500 horse-power plant is serious, while you 
 can keep your cars or most of them moving if 
 
42 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 one of two or three small engines breaks down. 
 The same rule, of course, holds as to the genera- 
 tors. Always put in a condensing steam plant. 
 One large item of expense of operation is the 
 coal bill. Cut that down at least 40 per cent, by 
 erecting condensing engines. The first cost is, of 
 course, a little more. Locate your power station as 
 near as may be in the centre of your system, but, 
 above all, if possible, on a stream large enough to 
 furnish all the water you require for the boilers and 
 condensers. City water, where your consumption 
 runs into the millions of gallons, is expensive." 
 
 The following test of the power plant of the Utica 
 (N. Y.) Electrical Belt Line Railway, made by 
 Messrs. Heilman and Clarke, contains some figures 
 and results which may be of interest and use, as the 
 test was probably carefully made. It is to be regret- 
 t: j d very much that such a good opportunity was 
 lost to note other data also, such as the number of 
 cars, etc., from which very useful results could have 
 been deduced. As it is, it is simply a boiler and 
 engine test, but as such, it is quite interesting. This 
 company operates 26 miles of road. Twenty motor 
 cars, and a number of "trailers," used when traffic 
 is heavy, comprise the rolling stock of the system. 
 The steam part of the plant consists of three 200 
 horse-power Armington & Sims cross compound 
 engines. Only two of* the three engines are con- 
 stantly in use during the day, the third being 
 required only at intervals, when heavy loads are 
 suddenly applied. Its use was not required at any 
 time during the test. The boiler room contains four 
 horizontal tubular Curtis boilers. These boilers are 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 43 
 
 each 6 feet diameter of shell, 16 feet long, and 
 contain eighty-eight 3i inch tubes. Two boilers 
 only are used at a time, a change to the other 
 set being made when cleaning or repairing is neces- 
 sary. Two independent boiler feed pumps and one 
 independent Davidson air and circulating pump 
 with jet condenser are provided. A National feed 
 water heater is placer between the boiler and feed 
 supply, while a separator was placed on the main 
 steam pipe, being furnished with a Curtis regulator 
 to return the separator water to the boiler. In the 
 generation of electricity, six Thomson-Houston 
 dynamos are in use, two being driven from each 
 engine. The instruments used for measuring currents 
 and voltage are also made by the same company. 
 
 Two runs were made, a preliminary run on May 
 2d of five hours' duration, and the main test on the 
 following day of ten hours, readings being taken 
 from 9 A. M. until 7 P. M. The feed water was 
 measured by means of two calibrated barrels, one 
 being filled while the other was emptying, and then 
 reversing the process. Although the quantity of 
 water required was large, by the use of this method 
 no difficulty was experienced in keeping the supply 
 equal to the demand. The injection water for the 
 condenser was drawn from a pond near by, and 
 after passing through the system was again returned 
 to the pond through a sluice of rectangular section. 
 The quantity of flow was obtained by placing a weir 
 in the sluice, and the height of flow over the weir 
 was measured by a hook gauge. The weight of 
 coal consumed was determined in the usual man- 
 ner, a Fairbanks scale being placed in the boiler 
 
44 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 room, and loads of 200 pounds each were dumped in 
 front of the boiler at a time. The ash-pits were 
 cleared at the end of the test, and the ashes placed 
 in a barrow and weighed. In order to obtain the 
 quality of steam at the engines, a calorimeter was 
 connected to the pipe leading to the oiling appara- 
 tus, the connection being made close to the engine 
 throttle. A comparison of results taken from boiler 
 calorimeter and engine calorimeter shows a wide 
 difference in moisture in steam. Electrical readings 
 of current and voltage were taken every five min- 
 utes during the test. Below are tabulated some of 
 the more important results : 
 
 Chai'acter of draught Natural 
 
 Temperature of external air 54.5 degrees Fahr. 
 
 Temperature of boiler-room 68.9 degrees 
 
 Duration of test 10 hours 
 
 Fuel burued 7,000 pounds 
 
 Total ash 988 
 
 Moisture in 100 pounds 8 " 
 
 Weight of combustible 5,4f 2 " 
 
 Efficiency of combustion 82.15 per cent. 
 
 Kind of coal One-third bituminous slack and two-thirds anthracite culm 
 
 Fuel per square foot of grate per hour ll.<><> poum's 
 
 Combustible per square foot grate per hour 9.087 " 
 
 Per cent, entrained water (boiler cal.) 1.24 per cent. 
 
 Total water supplied 49,355.4 pounds 
 
 .Dry steam per hour from temperature feed water 4.875.1 pounds 
 
 " 212 degrees 5,414.22 
 
 " " ' pound of coal... '. 6.90 
 
 " " " square foot of grate 81.25 
 
 " " " " " " heating surface 1.67 
 
 Thermal units per hour... .. |JJ o JJV< ?! d sjgg^Jg 
 
 Horse-power (34.5 pounds water evap. per one horse-power per hour) 143 
 
 Efficiency of boiler 73.29 per cent. 
 
 A verage steam pressure (absolute; 133.H pounds 
 
 Temperature of feed water to heater 77-2 degrees 
 
 " " " from heater 164.5 degrees 
 
 Change of temperature due to heater 87.3 degrees 
 
 Revolutions of engine 2(il 
 
 Per cent, variation of speed 1-1* per cent. 
 
 A verage indicated horse-power, 100.53 
 
 Quality of steam at engine 3.88 per cent. \v t. 
 
 Coal per indicated horse-power per hour 3.5 pounds 
 
 Water per indicated horse-power per hour (without charging 
 
 condenser) 21.72 pounds 
 
 Average electrical horse-power 
 Average efficiency = = 81 P er cellt - 
 
 Average indicator horse-power 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 45 
 
 LINE. 
 
 Regarding the usual practice on various overhead 
 trolley roads, and other like data, some very inter- 
 esting information was compiled by Mr. Mansfield 
 from a large number of circulars sent out by him to 
 all the various roads in operation, asking certain 
 questions. He received answers from 137 roads, 
 operating 1,546 miles of trolley wire and 1,657 motor 
 cars. Of these 71 were Thomson-Houston roads, 
 and 66 Edison or miscellaneous. He summarizes the 
 answers as follows : 
 
 "The trolley wire: Of the 137 roads PO were using 
 copper wire, 28 silicon bronze wire, eight were using 
 both, and two were using phosphor bronze. 
 
 "Of those using copper, one used No. 000; five No. 
 00; three, No. 1; two, No. 2; one, No. 5 hard drawn 
 copper ; one used No. soft drawn copper, making 
 13 in all, and leaving 86 as the number using No. 
 hard drawn copper wire. 
 
 "Of the 28 using silicon bronze, 16 use No. 4; six, 
 No. 2 ; one, No. 3 ; and the five remaining roads had 
 combination, of two or more sizes. 
 
 " Of the eight using both silicon bronze and hard 
 drawn copper, six prefer the latter. 
 
 "Out of all these 90 using copper, not one dissents, 
 but of the 28 using silicon bronze 11 advise copper. 
 The proof is conclusively in favor of hard drawn 
 copper wire and of the larger sizes, No. JB. &: S. 
 seeming to be the standard. 
 
 " In regard to the wearing, the universal testimony 
 is that it is exceedingly slight. What wearing is 
 observable is found to be at the switches or on the 
 curves. 
 
46 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 " Serious mistakes have been made in the past by 
 using iron flanged trolley wheels. These cut the 
 trolley wire badly. Everything should be done to 
 throw all the wear on to the trolley wheels. These 
 are much less expensive than wire, and not so haz- 
 ardous for the public if they give out. 
 
 "From my own information and knowledge, I can 
 say that the life of the trolley wire is much longer 
 than I originally anticipated. The criterion is not 
 the years that it has been up, but the number of 
 times the trolley wheels have passed over it. It 
 would seem that with ordinary brass trolley wheels 
 the wear was about .001 of an inch to the passage of 
 65,000 cars. This is at the rate of one in every six 
 minutes, for 18 hours per day, for one year. With 
 only this wear the life of the wire would certainly 
 be 20 years, unless through some process of crystal- 
 lization it became more brittle. I anticipate but 
 very little trouble in this direction, but eternal vigi- 
 lance is nevertheless necessary. Undoubtedly, at 
 curves and on switches the wear is somewhat 
 greater. How much I cannot say. 
 
 " The breaking of the trolley wire has been rare, 
 the breaks occurring either at splices or switches, 
 or were due to some extraneous cause, such as fall- 
 ing trees, telephone poles, or the catching of the 
 trolley pole. One road reports a break as due to the 
 striking of the trolley wire by a locomotive smoke- 
 stack. In no instance was any casualty reported, 
 excepting in one case, where a mule was killed. 
 
 " Forty-one roads have their trolley wires divided 
 into sections, and consider it necessary and advi- 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 47 
 
 sable. Analysis shows that these roads are in the 
 largest cities or towns. 
 
 "As to the relative wear of the sliding and the 
 rolling contact trolley I believe only one road used 
 a sliding contact trolley, and I think that has been 
 abandoned. 
 
 "Span Wires. Regarding span wires, forty-nine 
 report as using galvanized iron wire, fifty-five as 
 using galvanized steel, twenty as using galvanized 
 iron cable, and one as using copper wire. The sizes 
 range from No. to No. 14. Comparatively few 
 breaks are reported and no casualties. 
 
 " My own experience has led me to adopt No. 4 B. 
 & S. soft galvanized iron wire. Whenever a long 
 span or a curve is to be constructed I have had two 
 of these wires twisted together into a cable. 
 
 " I have found that a cable made of small wires is 
 hard to joint, and it rusts much more quickly. 
 Avoid joints, and use a ball fastener in attaching 
 span wire to eyebolt. On the whole, however, I 
 have concluded that iron is not the proper material 
 to use in any shape. It will rust, and then your 
 structure is weak. Pursuing my investigations into 
 this matter a year ago, I found that a certain special 
 quality of silicon bronzed wire was the best. Tests 
 of this wire, in comparison to iron, showed the fol- 
 lowing results : 
 
 Breaking Elongation Twists 
 Breaking weight in in 
 
 Dlam. weight, per sq. in. six feet, six feet. 
 
 No. 1. silicon bronze 200 2.550 81,800 .8 per ct. 37.4 
 
 Galvanized Iron .205 1,720 42,000 7.8 per ct. 19 
 
 " I am aware that the price of this wire is five or 
 six times as great as that of iron wire, but as the 
 
48 KECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 total sum in either case per mile is small, I strongly 
 recommend it. Some of the wire has been in service 
 on the West End road in Boston for nearly a year. 
 It certainly will never rust out. 
 
 "Guard Wires. Guard wires are universally con- 
 demned, but are put up as a compulsory protection 
 from existing evils. When there is only one trolley 
 wire to protect, we extend two light wires, about 
 No. 14, on each side of the trolley wire, and about 
 18 inches above it and from 12 to 18 inches to each 
 side. We suspend the longitudinal wires running 
 parallel with the trolley wire upon an additional 
 span wire. The additional span wire is insulated as 
 perfectly as possible from the poles and from the 
 trolley span wire, and the longitudinal or guard 
 wires proper are also insulated as far as possible 
 from the span wire. In the case of two trolley 
 wires, the general practice, so far as 1 have 
 observed, is to stretch three guard wires, two of 
 them outside the two trolley wires and one over the 
 center, all insulated perfectly from the other wires. 
 I think they are of great value. I think it neces- 
 sary to put them up. Most municipalities require 
 them to be put up, and as long as you keep them 
 perfectly insulated from the trolley wires, any 
 extraneous wire which may fall will strike them, 
 instead of the trolley wire, and will dangle in the 
 street as a dead wire, which may be removed. 
 
 "Feeders. The descriptions of the various feeder 
 systems are so vague I will not attempt to describe 
 them. The average distance to which power is 
 transmitted on these roads is about three miles. The 
 greatest is 10,7 miles on the Tacoma & Steilacoom 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 49 
 
 Railway, Tacoma, Wash. There are many, how- 
 ever, operating from eight to ten miles from the 
 station. 
 
 "There are two general methods of operating the 
 overhead system. One is by having a continuous 
 trolley wire wherever the track runs, and the second 
 is to have this trolley wire divided into sections. 
 For towns and for suburban traffic the former is 
 almost, invariably adopted and carried out. Prac- 
 tice would seem to indicate that but little trouble 
 is experienced, and that there is practically no 
 advantage in dividing the trolley wire into sections, 
 in fact, a disadvantage, since you lose its conductive 
 capacity. The sectional trolley wire surely must be 
 used for all city work. It would be practically 
 impossible to operate in Boston without proper 
 divisions. It is, however, almost impossible to origi- 
 nally fix all of these divisions once for all, as the 
 topography of the city, the grades, location of 
 power houses, routes, lines of traffic, etc., all have 
 to be taken into consideration. It is bound to be a 
 gradual growth to a large extent. 
 
 " Obviously the methods of feeding the trolley wire 
 vary with the methods of arranging the trolley 
 wire. With the first method mentioned (using a 
 continuous trolley wire) the feeders are either 
 extended from the station the entire length of the 
 line, tapping into the line at intervals, or else sepa- 
 rate feeders are run out from the station to certain 
 predetermined distances, and there tapped into the 
 trolley wire. When more than one feeder wire is 
 needed, in either case a repetition of the scheme is 
 carried out from feeder wire to feeder wire ; there 
 
50 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 is little to choose between the two methods ; both 
 are good. 
 
 "With the second method (the divided trolley 
 wire) there are two ways of accomplishing the 
 feeding. First, to extend a feeder the entire 
 length of the line and tap into the centre of each 
 section of trolley wire; or second, to extend 
 the feeder the entire length of the line and tap 
 into both ends of each section. The advantages 
 of the former are that in time of trouble a man has 
 to run to only one box to cut-out a section, or the 
 whole arrangement could be made automatic by 
 putting a fuse, or mechanical circuit breaker, in the 
 box. The disadvantage is that you lose the value of 
 the trolley wire as a conducting medium, which in 
 the case of hard drawn copper wire is considerable. 
 
 " In the latter method (tapping into the section at 
 each end) obviously a man has to go to each end of 
 the section to entirely cut out that section, and two 
 sets of automatic devices would have to be arranged 
 to operate in case of trouble. You have, however, 
 the advantage of utilizing the trolley wire as a con- 
 .ductor. 
 
 I " It is undeniably true that the question of feeder 
 wires is one of great importance and a difficult one 
 to always economically solve for all conditions. 
 The point, however, which the railroad corporations 
 should watch above all others is that they have 
 enough. I have visited many roads where I found 
 that the larger part of the trouble which they were 
 complaining of lay in the fact that they did not 
 have either sufficient trolley wire or track feeders. 
 Railroad officials are very apt to object to feeders, 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 51 
 
 because of, first, their cost, and second, the placing 
 of so many wires overhead, which is liable to bring 
 them in conflict with the municipalities and the 
 public. The question of having an insufficient num- 
 ber of feeders underground for the track is one which 
 they can have no valid or reasonable excuse for. 
 
 " I am strongly of the opinion that for large cities 
 all feeders should be placed underground. The 
 cities in which this underground work has -been 
 adopted are Buffalo, Minneapolis and St. Paul. The 
 question is one almost entirely of construction. The 
 cables alone will cost in all probability less than 
 overhead wires. This construction work can be 
 done simultaneous!/ with the track reconstruction, 
 for it is my experience that whenever a large city 
 railway adopts electric power it is almost absolutely 
 necessary to rebuild its tracks. Under these circum- 
 stances 1 doubt if the cost of the conduits or ducts 
 would be more that a few thousand dollars addi- 
 tional per mile. 
 
 "Ground Plates. I strongly recommend as many 
 ground plates as it is possible to have, not only at 
 the station, but also along the line; brooks, bog 
 land, water pipes, everything should be utilized for 
 this ground circuit wherever possible. The plates 
 can be made of sheet copper or iron, preferably the 
 latter, and should have a superficial area of several 
 hundred square feet. The wire connecting them to 
 the tracks should be of sufficient size and very 
 solidly attached to the plate and the rails. The con- 
 tinuous supplementary wire should in all instances 
 be employed, and the rails bonded at least once. In 
 
52 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 no instances do I think it necessary or wise to place 
 the track feeders overhead. 
 
 "Accessory Devices. In regard to the overhead 
 devices and material used, 1 can only urge the 
 advice that the most substantial and perfect appara- 
 tus that can be secured be used. Too much care and 
 attention cannot be bestowed upon these devices. 
 It does not pay to put in some little cheap fifteen- 
 cent arrangement, when for fifty or sixty cents a 
 substantial, reliable, and standard device can be 
 obtained. It is also well to consider the question 
 of uniformity in the apparatus. The only part that 
 is liable to deterioration is the insulating material. 
 Make this, therefore, of a uniform pattern, and 
 arrange the various holders for its reception." 
 
 Regarding overhead line construction, Mr. C. J. 
 Field states: "We find in the past about as great a 
 development in overhead and line construction for 
 electric work as in any other part of the subject. 
 While formerly this was one of the greatest sources 
 of unreliability in the operation of the plants, to-day 
 it has reached a very practical development. In the 
 insulation of a single trolley system, with one side of 
 the system grounded, we have the most severe re- 
 quirements that it is possible to obtain in any electric 
 insulation, in that any grounding on the other side 
 of the system means trouble in operation of the 
 road. This led to the introduction of double and 
 even triple insulation into our line material to 
 properly protect the trolley wire from grounding. 
 Where streets are wide enough to spread the tracks 
 to six feet, and six feet six inches within the near 
 rails, we see introduced in many places centre iron 
 
CONSTRUCTION ANI) OPERATION. 53 
 
 poles, which make a considerabty stronger style of 
 construction than cross suspension. There are 
 not many streets, however, where street cars are in 
 operation that are wide enough, or where the city 
 will allow the spreading of the tracks to this dis- 
 tance, and in closer proximity it is not safe to oper- 
 ate with centre poles." 
 
 Mr. Beckley states : " The overhead wire cannot 
 be too well put up. Cheap devices should never be 
 used because they are cheap. The best and strongest 
 are none too good. In putting up the feed wire and 
 putting in the ground wire return to the generators, 
 do not spare copper. I am convinced that much that 
 we have heard about the inefficiency of generators 
 and motors is due to trying to get too great a quan- 
 tity of current through too small a quantity of cop- 
 per." 
 
 Regarding guard wires, Mr. Bickford states that 
 nothing short of No. 10 should be used. The idea is 
 not so much as to its life as its additional strength 
 in supporting fallen wires, especially when loaded 
 with sleet in winter. On a portion of their lines they 
 had broken telephone and telegraph wires on the 
 guard wires for a long distance, and through it all 
 they operated their cars without interruption by 
 using a No. 10 steel wire. 
 
 Mr. Littel thinks it is advisable to cut up the 
 guard wire into sections, of say 1,000 or 1,500 feet, 
 and put in circuit breakers, so that if any wire does 
 fall, the current will not be carried a great distance. 
 It is done on many roads. The West End Road, in 
 Boston, is said to do so with the line every 500 feet j 
 it is done in Buffalo also. 
 
54 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 According to the experience of Mr. Wason, gal- 
 vanized iron span wires used in Cleveland were 
 rusted so badly at the end of a year that they did 
 not feel safe to tighten them. They claim to have 
 been the first to use No. 4 soft drawn copper for 
 span wires, which has been up for a year and there 
 has been no perceptible elongation or stretching. 
 
 Regarding the trolley wheel and poles, Mr. Ever- 
 ett advocated having a wheel that is capable of fol- 
 lowing the wire at any angle, with a trolley pole 
 brittle enough to break should it become entangled 
 in the wires, without pulling them down, and a 
 trolley pole rigid enough to give good, steady pres- 
 sure on trolley wire, and so constructed that when 
 the car is in the car house or going under a low 
 bridge the pole could come very close to the roof of 
 the car, also flexible enough to give good pressure 
 when the trolley has to be 21 or 22 feet high at the 
 railway crossings. 
 
 Among the articles published was a short serial 
 by Mr. Arthur E. Colgate, on "The Construction 
 and Care of Electric Railroads." Being eminently 
 practical in character, and containing many useful 
 hints, we have reprinted here in full that portion 1 
 which refers to the line : " The power which may be 
 said to be lost in the resistance of the trolley and 
 feed wires is easily calculated by the formula, 
 
 C 2 R 
 
 "ivTTr = the horse-power lost. 
 
 "The resistance of a copper wire is very nearly 
 what is expressed by the formula 32.37 times its 
 length in yards, divided by the square of its diam- 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 55 
 
 eter in thousandths of an inch; and for other 
 metals the resistance may be found in the same 
 manner, the constant being changed according to 
 the relative conductivity compared to that of copper. 
 For example, if the conductivity is half that of 
 copper, the constant should be multiplied by two. 
 The formula is based on the resistance of a copper 
 wire one yard long and of one circular mil sectional 
 area, and as the conductivity of silicon bronze and 
 most other trolley wires is about 25 to 40 per cent, 
 higher than that of copper, either the constant or 
 the result should be multiplied by 1 plus the per 
 cent, increase of resistance. 
 
 "Where feed wires are run in connection with the 
 trolley lines, and are cross connected with them at 
 short distances, the joint resistance may be consid- 
 ered as that of one conductor, whose resistance is 
 equal to the product of the several resistances 
 divided by their sum, and the loss of power calcu- 
 lated in the same manner as it would be in one wire. 
 The lo%s permissible on a line depends greatly on 
 the grade and cost of power. In most cases, where 
 coal is reasonable, it is about 25 per cent, of the 
 total amount developed by the generators, and on 
 grades it should be much less, the current being 
 supplied at these points by a separate feed wire, 
 and a circuit breaker being put in both trolley lines 
 at the top and bottom of the hill, if it is a short one ; 
 and if it is sufficiently long to warrant it, the circuit 
 should be again broken in the centre of the grade. 
 The object of this is to protect the rest of the 
 system, should any car motor burn out or the line 
 become grounded through defective car wiring, the 
 
56 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 insulation of which would be liable to give way and 
 ground the line when subjected to heavy service on 
 grades. 
 
 " The weight of copper wire is about equal to the 
 square of its diameter in thousandths of an inch 
 multiplied by the constant (which is .016), and its 
 tensile strength 11 times its radius in thousandths 
 of an inch squared multiplied by the strength of a 
 square inch of the material, which, in the case of 
 copper, is 61,200 pounds, and in the case of iron 103,- 
 000 pounds. The strength of cable wire is about 10 
 per cent, more than that of the various strands of 
 which it is composed, and the strength of rope is 
 expressed by the circumference squared multiplied 
 by the constant, which is for white rope 1,140 and 
 for manila 810, the strength of tarred ropes being 
 about 10 per cent. less. The weight of round iron 
 poles is 2.65 times the mean outside diameter multi- 
 plied by the strength of the pole. 
 
 "Where the use of untried apparatus is contem- 
 plated, tests as to the relative strength and dura- 
 bility under strain should be made by means of a 
 testing machine. Imagine a case in which a log of 
 wood about ten feet long and eight inches in diam- 
 eter is held in an upright position by suitable 
 means. Projecting pieces of wood are bolted to the 
 log by inch bolts or lag screws, there being two 
 chains of half-inch iron links, kept from sliding 
 together by means of projecting bolts. A small 
 Fairbanks dynamometer is used, but, if not pro- 
 curable, may be replaced by a steelyard. There 
 are two clamps, one of which is attached to the 
 dynamometer and the other to the turnb tickle by 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 57 
 
 means of a swivel. The piece of apparatus to be 
 tested, having had short pieces of suitable trolley 
 wire attached to it in the regular manner, is held by 
 means of these and the clamps, and the strain 
 applied by the turnbuckle, the amount of which 
 should be read on the dial of the dynamo'meter. 
 Should a steelyard be used, it will be much more 
 convenient if a small spring balance is substituted 
 for the weight or counterbalance. 
 
 FIG. 2. TESTING A POLE. 
 
 " If it is thought necessary or desirable to test any 
 of the various makes of poles, it may be done as is 
 shown in Fig. 2, in which strong pieces of wood are 
 firmly set in the ground, and a stout piece of hard 
 wood is placed behind the pole to distribute the 
 strain evenly along that part which is afterward set 
 in the ground. The strain is applied and read in the 
 same manner as in the previous case, by means of 
 the dynamometer and turnbuckle. In applying this 
 test to side and pull-off poles, the rope or chain by 
 which the strain is brought to bear should be 
 attached to the insulated cap at the top, which is 
 usually the weakest part of the pole. This has 
 proved so weak in many instances that constructors 
 are discarding it, and are attaching the span and 
 
58 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 pull-off wires to circuit breakers, which are attached 
 to the pole a few inches from the top by a short 
 pendant and turnbuckle, or by means of an insu- 
 lated turnbuckle. These methods, while not pre- 
 senting so symmetrical an appearance, have a most 
 decided advantage of superior strength and dura- 
 bility. 
 
 FIG. 3. LOCATING A CDRVE. 
 
 "In centre construction a pole should be set as 
 near each end of the curve as possible without 
 involving danger of being struck by the overhang- 
 ing ends of the cars. The precise point for the loca- 
 tion may be found as is shown in Fig. 3. A line with 
 the distances corresponding to the length of the 
 wheel base and distance from the rear axle to the 
 front dashboard of the car marked on it is held 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 
 
 59 
 
 between three men. The men who represent the 
 wheel base, 1 and 2, stand on the inside rail, the 
 other standing in line with them at the point repre- 
 senting the forward dasher. A short stick is held by 
 him at right angles to the line. The curve is fol- 
 lowed in this manner, and the location should be 
 fixed at a point where the stick clears a line drawn 
 
 FIG. 4. LOCATING A PULL-OFF POLE. 
 
 parallel to the rails between the tracks by a little 
 more than half the diameter of the pole. 
 
 "Fig. 4 shows the correct location of a pull-off pole, 
 which is found by an equilateral triangle B, having 
 for its base a line drawn between the last two poles, 
 located at the ends of the curve A A, the apex of 
 which is the pull-off pole C. If it is not convenient 
 to set it here, it may be moved farther back, or a 
 short distance to the right or left, as circumstances 
 
60 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 may require, or the pull-offs may be brought 
 together at this point and made up into an iron 
 ring with a pendant running to the pole, or two 
 poles may be placed at the points E and F, and the 
 i ring secured by pendants running from them. In 
 the case of side pole and span wire, construction 
 poles should be placed at the points represented and 
 a span wire run between them, as shown by the dot- 
 ted lines, the object being to support the curve and 
 
 FIG. 5. MODEL FOR POLE LOCATION. 
 
 keep slack from running back should the pull-off 
 pole bend to any extent, or should the wire part. 
 The ears by which the trolley is fastened to these 
 spans should in all cases be soldered very firmly 
 with a solder composed of equal parts of tin and 
 lead soldering, salts being used as a flux. 
 
 " Poles are often located by means of pins driven 
 into a card on to which a sketch of the curve and 
 line has been pasted, the line being in this case 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 
 
 61 
 
 represented by a thread which is pulled out over 
 the track in the same manner as the trolley line 
 should be. In the diagram, Fig. 5, A is an elastic 
 band fastened to the board by a nail B, C C being 
 the pins which represent the poles at each end of 
 the curve, around which the thread is run and 
 anchored to the pin E. F F F are pins driven into 
 the board on the curve line at a distance of eight or 
 
 FIG. 6. PULL-OVER FOR DOUBLE CURVE. 
 
 ten feet apart, on the scale to which the sketch is 
 drawn, which serves as a guide to the length of the 
 pull-offs, and which are attached to the pull-off pole 
 H, on the curb line. After the line is pulled out 
 against the pins they are removed, and if the thread 
 follows the curve the location of the poles is correct. 
 "When the'-e is a switch in the line, where it 
 branches in the shape of a Y, the curves may be 
 pulled from each other as is shown in Fig. 6, in 
 
62 RECENT .PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 which A is the switch, B is a pull-off pole, which is 
 located in line with the switch A, and C C C are the 
 last poles on the straight line. The switch A should 
 be situated about four feet beyond the switch in the 
 track. Turn-out switches should be located in the 
 same manner. 
 " This chapter would not be by any means complete 
 
 A 
 
 FIG. 7. SHORT'S ARRANGEMENT OF PULL-OVERS. 
 
 without speaking of the most excellent manner of 
 curve building devised by Mr. Sidney S. Short, of 
 the Short Electric Company. Two poles A, Fig. 7, 
 are set on opposite curves, and a heavy span wire 
 run between them, and insulated from the poles by 
 circuit breakers. Short pull-off s are then run to the 
 trolley wire from the span wire. 
 " All poles for electric railroad lines should be set 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 63 
 
 either in concrete made of Portland or Rosendale 
 cement, sand and broken stone; or, in case of 
 bracket or centre pole work, they may be set in 
 cobble-stones and earth. The earth in the latter 
 
 FIG. 8. WAGON FOR POLE ERKCTION. 
 
 case should be well tamped by means of wooden 
 or iron tamps. 
 
 " One of the best ways of setting the poles, after 
 the holes are dug, is by the use of a tower wagon, 
 which is made according to Fig. 8. To the body of a 
 wagon are fastened four uprights, the tops of which 
 
64 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 should reach 19 feet above the ground ; and these are 
 stiffened by four braces, which are made of hem- 
 lock about six inches wide and two inches thick. 
 
 " Across the two front uprights run boards, which 
 form a ladder, and this enables a man to ascend to 
 the platform, which is about 7 feet X 4 feet 6 
 inches, and has a slight bulwark around it one foot 
 high and lockers on each side for tools. At 12 feet 
 from the ground is the arm, which is securely 
 fastened at two points. A winch is fastened to the 
 body of the wagon, a little back of the centre. A 
 rope leading from this is led through a snatch block, 
 and is fastened to the pole a little above the centre 
 of gravity. 
 
 " By this means a pole may be set in a very short 
 time by three men. After the pole is in the proper 
 position and the proper rake given it by means of a 
 spirit level, which should have a taper on one edge, 
 it is held in place by pike poles and the cement 
 packed in around it. This concrete should be made 
 in a large dump cart, which can be driven from one 
 hole to the other, and the cement shoveled directly 
 into the holes, and well tamped in around the poles. 
 
 "About a week after the poles are set the arms 
 should be attached; and this may be done by 
 means of the tower wagon or by men using ladders, 
 depending largely on the nature of the arm used. 
 
 " The ladder should be five feet longer than the pole 
 and should be lashed against it top and bottom. A 
 snatch block is attached to the upper rung and a 
 rope run through it, by means of which the arm is 
 raised, one man being at the top of the pole to guide 
 it into place and fasten it there with bolts. All pins, 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 65 
 
 etc., should be attached to the arm before it is put 
 in place. 
 
 "Erection of Feed and Trolley Wires. After the 
 poles are set and properly guyed, the feed and trol- 
 ley wires should be run, starting from circuit 
 breakers which are firmly anchored to heavy poles, 
 either on the side or between the tracks. These 
 poles should be set very firmly in concrete to a depth 
 of seven feet and have a rake of about ten inches. 
 The feed wire should be spliced by means of 
 soldered Western Union joints into lengths of about 
 a mile to a mile and a half each, and wound on 
 a large reel firmly mounted on a flat truck, suffi- 
 ciently large to allow two or three men room to 
 work comfortably. The end of the coil is attached 
 to the circuit breaker and about 60 feet run out, 
 which is kept clear of the ground by passing it over 
 a drum mounted on the tower used in setting poles. 
 This follows the truck bearing the reel. The wire 
 is kept sufficiently , tight to prevent much sag 
 between the poles by a wooden bar which is held 
 against the side of the reel by two men. After a 
 certain amount, depending on the size of wire, has 
 been run out, it will be found difficult to keep it 
 sufficiently tight to keep the slack clear of the 
 ground. At this point a wire head guy should be 
 run from the top of one pole to within ten feet of 
 the base of the next. The feed is pulled tight by 
 means of blocks and fall attached to the top of the 
 pole and to the wire by a small chain or rope strap, 
 which should be braided around it. After being 
 pulled tight the wire is made fast to a pole back of 
 
66 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 the blocks, which has been previously guyed in the 
 same manner, and the blocks and fall removed. 
 
 " The line should then be tied in or fastened to the 
 insulators with short tie pieces of wire by linemen, 
 who go back over the line for this purpose, the 
 tower and reel wagon keeping right ahead, paying 
 out and hanging up wire. At the n^xt pull up one 
 man stays back and unfastens the strap which 
 holds the line after it is pulled sufficient^ tight to 
 prevent slack from running back into it through the 
 ties. 
 
 "Just before turning curves the line should be 
 pulled tight and secured by straps, and should be 
 again pulled up at the other end of the curve, but 
 not quite to such a degree of tightness as the rest of 
 the line. Where it is desirable to drop one feeder 
 it should be secured to a circuit breaker which is 
 fastened to a pole by means of a pendant and a 
 turnbuckle or by an insulated turnbuckle. The 
 largest feed wires are run before the smaller ones 
 and on the pins nearest to the poles. 
 
 " If it is thought necessary to run guard wires they 
 should be made of steel not smaller than No. 5 
 B. & S. gauge, which in cities should be painted 
 with waterproof paint or Nubian enamel, as the 
 zinc coating is soon destroyed by the chemical 
 action due to the smoke in the atmosphere. They 
 are run very much in the same manner as the feed 
 wires, about two feet above the trolley lines, and 
 pulled very tight. These guard wires should have 
 circuit breakers in them at regular distances of 
 about one thousand feet or less, which may have a 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 
 
 67 
 
 lead wire or. jumper around them if the wire is to 
 be used for signaling purposes. 
 
 "In the case of side pole construction, where the 
 feed wires are run on arms attached to the span 
 
 FIG. 9. METHOD OF CROSSING LINE WITH FEED WIRES. 
 
 poles, the feed wires where they cross should be 
 raised above the trolley and guard lines by means 
 of raised arms similar to the one shown in Fig. 9, 
 which is clamped to the pole by means of iron 
 
H8 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 bands and is kept from turning by set screws. The 
 span wires, with the hangers attached, should now 
 be put in place, after the completion of the feed 
 lines, and the trolley wire run in a similar manner, 
 the only difference being on the curves and joints 
 and in its being hung under the arms or span wires 
 by means of hooks made of heavy steel wire. There 
 is also a great difference in the manner of making 
 splices, which is by the use of splicing ears that are 
 put in the line after it is pulled up tight, the wire 
 being held temporarily by clamps and turnbuckles, 
 
 FIG. 10. METHOD OF HOLDING LINE PKEPAKATOIIY TO MAKING SPLICE. 
 
 as shown in Fig. 10. These ears should be attached 
 to the arms' or span wires in the same manner as 
 the regular supporting ears. The practice of making 
 Western Union or sleeve joints, in these lines is, I 
 hope, a relic of the past. After a reasonable amount 
 of wire, say a mile or so, is run out, or a curve is 
 reached, the wire is drawn up sufficiently tight to 
 allow about eight or nine inches sag in summer and, 
 about five inches in winter, depending largely on' 
 the size and strength of the wire used, and it is held 
 in place by a head guy clamped to it running to the 
 base of a pole. The turnbuckle at the joint is then 
 drawn up about a foot, and the exact location of the 
 splicing ear marked on the wire with chalk or a 
 burnisher, but under no circumstances should it be 
 scratched there with a file. The surplus ends are 
 then cut pflf with a bolt cutter, which is, by the 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. Gl 
 
 way, the only thing which will cut trolley and 
 cabled wires and make a good job of it. The splic- 
 ing ear is then put in position and the wire fastened 
 to it in the regular way according to its kind, when 
 the turnbuckles are slacked off and the clamp 
 removed. Circuit breakers are put into a line in an 
 exactly similar manner. 
 
 " After the splicing ears and circuit breakers are 
 in place, the section may be fastened to the support- 
 ing insulators either by soldered ears or good me- 
 chanical clips. If the former are used they should 
 be soldered by means of a copper bolt, and not by 
 either pouring the solder on to them or by the use 
 of blow lamps, the former being weak and the lat- 
 ter injuring the wire. And under all circumstances 
 soldering salts should be used instead of acid or 
 resin. On curves the trolley wire is pulled out over 
 the track by loosely attached temporary pull-off 
 wires running to the poles, their location having 
 been ascertained, as described in previous pages. 
 Their length is just sufficient to allow the trol- 
 ley to curve about one foot to the inside of the 
 centre of the track, its exact location being deter- 
 mined by the radius of the curve and the nature of 
 the trolley stand, together with the judgment of the 
 constructor. The outside wire is first run, and the 
 inside one pulled from it by a continuation of the 
 pull-off wires. 
 
 "Line switches should be so constructed as to 
 admit of their being moved if necessary, and should 
 be without moving parts. All movable apparatus 
 intended to be operated by the trolleys passing 
 under it and by gravity is liable to become clogged 
 
?0 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 with grease or ice, and is. as a usual thing, either 
 weak or bulky. Where these switches are to be 
 put in, the line is temporarily held by means of 
 clamps and turnbuckles, as is shown in Fig. 11. until 
 after it is pulled up and the curves are in position. 
 Then the switch is put in in very much the same 
 manner as the splicing ears and circuit breakers, 
 
 FIG. 11. TEMPORARY MANNER OF HOLDING CURVE. 
 
 enough of the end of the wire being left to allow 
 the switch to be moved should the occasion require. 
 " Before the insulators are placed in position they 
 should be painted with either P. & B. paint or with 
 Bonnell's enamel, which will lessen to a great 
 extent the leakage due to moisture. These insula- 
 tors should also be of sufficient size to obviate any 
 possibility of an arc being formed by the trolley 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 71 
 
 running off and striking both line wire and hanger. 
 The permanent pull-off for the curves should be 
 made of cable wire, and should not be fastened to 
 the ear bodies permanently until the road has been 
 in operation for some time, as they are liable to 
 stretch some one or two inches. 
 
 " If the trolley runs off at any switch it should be 
 chalked and the car run under it a few times, when 
 it will be seen just where it runs off, and the switch 
 moved forward or backward will remedy the trouble 
 if the switch is properly constructed. 
 
 " At every tenth pole short pieces of No. 6 B. & S. 
 wire should be run from the feed wires to the trol- 
 leys and there fastened by regular feed ears, and 
 the trolleys should also be cross connected at short 
 intervals. 
 
 "Broken or otherwise defective insulators may be 
 found where iron poles are used by a wire leading 
 from the base of the pole to the rail, a flash due to 
 the resistance of the current indicating a ground. 
 Slight ones give a very small shock, but a man 
 standing on the rail holding the wire will receive a 
 very decided shock. 
 
 " A mixture of black lead and vaseline rubbed on 
 the trolley wire will prevent the clinging of sleet, 
 and will not clog the trolleys unless too thickly 
 applied. Breaks in the line may be temporarily 
 repaired by means of a short section of wire 
 clamped to the trolley and pulled up with a turn- 
 buckle ; after which the permanent repairs may be 
 made by splicing in a section of wire with regular 
 splicing ears." 
 
72 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 TRACK. 
 
 In an article by Mr. C. J. Field, he states: "The 
 track of street railway companies before the intro- 
 duction of electricity was more behind the times 
 than any other part of their equipment. The old 
 flat rail is antiquated and antedated, and in a few 
 years its use will be obsolete. The necessities of 
 electric railway traction in fact, of any traction- 
 have impressed upon the street railway companies 
 in their equipments the requirement of a good road- 
 bed for the successful operation of a road, and we 
 find this part of the problem receiving as much at- 
 tention as any with companies who appreciate fully 
 the work before them. The general construction 
 to-day is girder rails of from 60 to 80 pounds per 
 yard, placed on chairs where block paving is in use, 
 with ties 2-J to 3 feet between centres. We find in 
 some cases even 90 and 100 pound rails used, bat we 
 believe in more moderate weight for the rails and 
 the ties placed closer on centres. We believe this 
 has been the general experience in railway work. 
 Such a style of construction costs from $9,000 to 
 $10,000 per mile. In suburban roads, on streets 
 where there is no paving, we find the T rail being 
 used ; the roadbed can be properly constructed on 
 this basis with 45 to 50 pound rail, for $6,000 to 
 $6,500 per mile, the rail being spiked directly to the 
 ties." 
 
 Mr. Beckley states : " Those who propose to substi- 
 tute electric for horse power will make a great blun- 
 der if they attempt to put in cheap construction or 
 material. We who have gone into this matter have 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 73 
 
 learned that the track upon which it is proposed to 
 operate electric cars should be of girder or T-rail, of 
 not less weight than 50 pounds to the yard of T, 
 and 62 pounds to the yard of girder rail. The weak- 
 est place in the track is, of course, at the joint, and 
 no cheap contrivance at that point should on any 
 account be permitted. With girder or T-rail con- 
 struction it is, it seems to me, a useless expense to 
 lay a continuous supplementary wire. The rails 
 should, of course, be well and heavily bonded at the 
 joints with iron, not copper, wire, and cross connec- 
 tion of rails be frequently made. Where tram rail 
 track is used I think a continuous wire should be 
 laid and connected with the bond wires." 
 
 In the article by Mr. Colgate before referred to 
 the following instructions were given regarding the 
 bonding of the track: 
 
 "In the successful operation of all single trolley 
 electric railroads it is necessary to provide suitable 
 means for maintaining a complete metallic circuit, 
 which is generally accomplished by connecting one 
 pole of the generator (in most cases the positive 
 one) to the rail or supplementary return wire, the 
 other pole being connected to the trolley wire. 
 
 "Many attempts have been made to operate roads 
 on what is known as a grounded circuit; that is 
 to say, by using the earth for the return circuit. 
 This practice, although advocated by some one 
 man even going so far as to apply for patents on 
 the details of this form of construction is, in the 
 writer's opinion, poor policy, except as a makeshift. 
 In case of necessity, it may be done by driving bars 
 into the soil in the vicinity of the tracks, to which 
 
74 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 the rails are connected by wires, or by connecting 
 the rails to the remains of some defunct tin roof, 
 which should be buried in the moist earth. 
 
 " The wire leading from the dynamo should be con- 
 nected to a similar ground plate, which ought to be 
 about 20 feet square. This was done in the case of 
 the Essex Electric Road in Peabody, Mass., and 
 has proved quite successful . I understand that this 
 method of grounding is to be done away with on 
 this road and bonding substituted at an early date. 
 
 " One of the first methods of connecting the rails 
 was to drive copper wedges between their ends, but 
 this did not give satisfaction, owing to the expan- 
 sion and contraction of the rails The method which 
 came into use was that of connecting each rail to the 
 rail next it by means of a copper or iron bond, which 
 should be of sufficient sectional area to carry the 
 current with almost no loss, No. 6 copper wire being 
 the size in general use. At every fifth rail the two 
 sides of the track should be united by means of a 
 No. copper wire, and in the case of a double-track 
 road both tracks should be connected at about every 
 tenth rail by a similar bond. The object of cross- 
 connecting the tracks and rails is to insure a con- 
 tinuous circuit should any of the bonds become 
 broken by the settling of the pavement or of the 
 rails. 
 
 " In case of the track being of the ordinary stringer 
 type, and already laid, it is best drilled by means of 
 an upright drill clamped to the rail and operated by 
 hand. The drill I have in mind is very strong and 
 light, and when operated by two ordinary laborers 
 it will bore a 3-inch hole in f-inch iron in about four 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 75 
 
 minutes, including the time to set it in position. The 
 best mode of operating is to raise the end of the rail 
 and insert under it a block of wood about 12 X 
 3X3 inches to keep it in place. On no account 
 should the men be allowed to use stones for this 
 purpose, as they are liable to slip out at the most 
 inopportune moments, and the spring of the rails is 
 quite sufficient to amputate a finger or two with 
 surprising quickness. After the end of the rail is 
 secured in position the drill is fastened to the rail by 
 means of a clamp and set screw. I may say here 
 that a spanner should always be used in connection 
 with this rail, as a monkey wrench soon becomes so 
 clogged with sand as to render it useless. A hole is 
 then drilled through the thinnest part of the rail 
 about three inches from the fishplate. 
 
 " The driller then proceeds to drill all the rails in 
 rotation. At every fifth joint he drills a hole two 
 feet from the fishplate for the reception of the long 
 bonds. A corresponding hole is also drilled in the 
 opposite rail. At every tenth rail, if it be a double 
 track road, an extra hole is drilled in the inside rail 
 for the other cross bond. I consider it the wiser 
 plan to have enough drillers to enable them to keep 
 a distance in advance of the rest of the gang, for 
 various reasons, the most prominent one being that 
 the drills suffer less from being clogged with dirt. 
 
 " After being drilled the holes should be counter- 
 sunk to the depth of about one-eighth of an inch by 
 means of a countersink and carpenter's brace. One 
 of the best tools for this purpose is made like that 
 shown in Fig. 12. Such countersinks can be made 
 by any blacksmith, and are easily sharpened. It is 
 
76 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 necessary to keep them very sharp, as they are abso- 
 lutely useless if dull. 
 
 "After the holes are countersunk the paving 
 between rails at the joints is removed for the space 
 of about two feet, and an excavation made just 
 wide snough to enable a man to dig out the soil to 
 a sufficient depth to expose the ties. The men 
 engaged in this work labor to the best advantage in 
 sets of three, two loosening the paving, while the 
 
 FIG. 12. 
 
 third removes it. At the extra holes for the cross 
 bonds a small trench should be dug, uniting them. 
 "On the completion of the digging the bonds are 
 riveted in place. This should be done by men work- 
 ing in pairs, one man raising the rail, while the 
 other does the riveting. The end of the rail is raised 
 by means of a bar, and a block of iron is placed 
 under it parallel with the stringer. This block 
 should be about 8xl|X3 inches. The end of the 
 rivet is then riveted in the hole, and is forced home 
 by allowing the rail'to spring down on it. Some- 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 77 
 
 times it is necessary to pound on the rail with the 
 head of the bar, which will help very materially in 
 forcing the rivet into place. The riveter must exer- 
 cise care and see that his helper does not cut the 
 wire off between the web of the rail and the rivet- 
 ing plate. While the plate is still in this position 
 the projecting end of the rivet is cut off flush with 
 the rail, and a head formed which fills up the coun- 
 tersinking. The end of the rail is then raised again, 
 the block removed and the stringer cut away suffi- 
 ciently to allow one-half inch clearance between 
 it and the head of the rivet, which gives the rail a 
 chance for free movement without danger of sever- 
 ing the bond between the stringer and the web of 
 the rail. 
 
 "The rivet in the other end of the bond is fastened 
 to the adjoining rail in the same manner. After this 
 the bond is bent down alongside the stringer, held 
 in place by a tinned iron staple, and the paving 
 replaced. The cross bonds should be buried deep 
 enough to be out of danger of being broken by the 
 settling of the pavement. All bonds should be of 
 sufficient length to allow a slight movement of the 
 rail caused by expansion, loose spikes, the passing 
 of cars and other vehicles. The writer prefers those 
 bonds which are made of one piece of copper, as 
 they are not so liable to cause trouble by the rivet be- 
 coming loosened from the side. There is another ex- 
 cellent bond made by having a hole in the rivet near 
 the -head just large enough to contain the wire, which 
 is then upset in such a manner as to cause it to jam, 
 making it impossible for it to pull out. (See Fig. 13). 
 If the bonds are made by twisting the wire around 
 
78 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 the rivet under the head and then soldering it, it is 
 good policy to examine them and see that the 
 rivets do not taper near the head under the wire ; 
 also make sure that the wire is up close to the head 
 of the rivet. If they do not comply with these 
 requirements they should be rejected as worthless, 
 for they will cause endless trouble by the wire 
 breaking loose. The rivets should be about one- 
 fourth of an inch longer than the thickness of the 
 rail for which they are intended, the projecting end 
 being cut off as has been described, and should be 
 
 FIG. 13. 
 
 FIG. 14. 
 
 FIG. 15. 
 
 one thirty-second of an inch larger than the holes 
 in the rail. 
 
 "Figs. 14 and 15 show about the correct shape of 
 the rivet. Attaching bond wires to the track by a hole 
 drilled partly through the rail, into which the wire 
 is inserted and held in place by a dowel pin, has 
 rather fallen into disrepute owing to the wire break- 
 ing off close to the rail when the paving is replaced. 
 But there is no reason why this arrangement should 
 not be used on suburban roads where there is no 
 paving and the road is used not for a highway, 
 though care should be taken not to cut the wire when 
 inserting the pin. 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 70 
 
 "All methods of bonding without the use of a sup- 
 plementary return wire are generally avoided for 
 various reasons, the most prominent one being that 
 the breaking of a number of bonds caused by the 
 removal of rails will produce trouble. But in this 
 case a short length of wire might be run tempora- 
 rily to take the place of the rails which have been 
 taken up during repairs. 
 
 "Frogs, switches, and other castings should be 
 connected in the same manner as other rails, but 
 should be wired by a small gang of men after the 
 rails are all done. 
 
 "These castings should be drilled from the top 
 down, though much difficulty is sometimes experi- 
 enced owing to the presence of sand and slag. The 
 latter usually is found low down, and is so hard 
 that it will turn the edge of the hardest drill. The 
 best way to drill these difficult castings is to use a 
 Morse twist drill which has been tempered glass 
 hard, which should be turned and fed very slowly, 
 being kept moist with turpentine, to which a little 
 spirits of camphor has been added. After drilling 
 all but one-fourth of an inch take out the drill and 
 put in a punch, which may be struck with a sledge. 
 This treatment will cause the lower coating of slag 
 to give way. Care must be taken not to strike hard 
 enough to fracture the casting. In crossing steam 
 and other railroad tracks, their rails at the point of 
 crossing should also be connected with the track, 
 or, better, with the return wire. 
 
 " The most approved manner of bonding track is by 
 means of a return supplementary wire, which 
 should be one No. 0, or two of No. 3, tinned copper. 
 
80 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 After the rails are drilled and countersunk in the 
 manner just described, the paving should be 
 removed at the joints in the left hand side of the 
 track between the rails. The openings are deepened 
 enough to expose the ties, or very nearly to that 
 depth. A ditch is then dug next to the right hand 
 stringer on the inside of the track, to a sufficient 
 deplh to enable the supplementary wire to be easily 
 stapled to the ties. The bonds are now riveted in 
 place,every alternate bond on the left hand side being 
 long enough to reach across the intervening space 
 to the ditch opposite, where it is afterward con- 
 nected to the supplementary wire; adjoining left 
 hand bonds are connected, and the joint soldered. 
 The right hand bonds should be about six inches 
 longer than the height of the stringer, which will 
 allow two wraps around the supplementary wire, 
 two bonds being fastened in each rail. After the 
 bonds are riveted in place the supplementary wire 
 is run out along the ditch. This wire should be No. 
 tinned copper (and should be purchased in coils 
 not larger than about 150 pounds each), to which 
 the bonds are connected by wrapping the ends 
 around the wire. Gas tongs are far better than 
 pliers for this work, on account of the latter getting 
 clogged with sand. The joints are now all soldered 
 by pouring hot solder into them, holding a ladle 
 underneath to catch the surplus. The solder must 
 be very hot for this work. A large charcoal furnace 
 is about the best means of keeping it at the proper 
 temperature. All gasoline apparatus the writer has 
 ever seen proved a failure on account of getting 
 clogged with dirt, After the joints are soldered the 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 
 
 81 
 
 wire is fastened down in place by means of tinned 
 staples, one being driven into every third tie. 
 
 " In bonding track while being laid the holes are 
 drilled and the rivets fastened in before the rails 
 are finally in place. A small hand punch may be 
 advantageously used for this purpose. 
 
 " After the rails are placed in position and the ties 
 tamped two No. 3 wires are run out to the stringers 
 and the ends of the bonds fastened to them. These 
 two wires are connected every 200 feet by means of 
 
 FIG. 16. 
 
 short pieces of wire of the same size. The object in 
 using two wires in this case is a saving of copper in 
 the bonds, which is quite an item in a long road. 
 
 "Girder and T rails should be drilled through the 
 side, but in the case of rails already laid this is not 
 practicable except in the latter case, where a 
 ratchet drill may be used. The rivets are held in 
 place while being headed by means of a crowbar 
 and block of iron about 6X6x3 inches, and is 
 used as shown in Fig. 16. 
 
 " In bonding Johnstown rails already in use, the 
 
82 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 drill is clamped to the rail as is shown in Fig. 17, the 
 soil having previously been dug away to a sufficient 
 depth to allow the drill to be easily set in position. 
 To rivet bonds in this type of rail it is necessary to 
 use a bar with a flat turned up end, similar to a 
 claw bar used for the purpose of drawing spikes. 
 This is used in connection with the riveting block 
 
 Eitt.WbTtJ.tn 
 
 FIG. 17. 
 
 as shown in Fig. 18. One man holds the rivet in 
 place while the head is being formed by the other. 
 "The rivets of broken bonds should be removed 
 with a punch to which a wooden handle is attached. 
 Extra long bonds may be made by twisting the 
 wire around the rivet close up to the head and there 
 securing it by soldering. Tinned rivets are the best 
 for this purpose, but if it is impossible to procure 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 83 
 
 them already tinned this may be done by heating 
 them red hot, plunging them into a saturated solu- 
 tion of sal ammoniac to which a little muriatic acid 
 has been added, and then dipping them while still 
 wet into melted solder. The workman should take 
 great care during this process, as the solder is 
 almost sure to spatter. 
 
 "Castings through which it is impossible to drill 
 may be connected to the rest of the circuit by plac- 
 
 jSltc. Wortet.NX 
 FIG. 18. 
 
 ing a copper plate under them which is connected 
 to the supplementary wire, and spiking them down 
 with extra long spikes, or by bolts, to insure good 
 contact. Girder rails are sometimes grounded in a 
 similar manner by means of a sheet of copper 
 between the rail and chair." 
 
 TRACTION POWER. 
 
 There appears to be no small difference of opinion 
 regarding the co-efficient of traction, that is, the 
 
84 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 number of pounds pull per ton which is necessary to 
 move a car on a level. These differences are due 
 not so much to inaccurate measurements, but prob- 
 ably chiefly to the fact that slight differences in 
 the track, roadbed, imperceptible grades, and the 
 amount of dirt, affect the results quite materially. 
 Mr. Crosby found by means of a dynamometer that 
 it required about 25 pounds per tori for a car weigh- 
 ing about 12,000 pounds on an average street car 
 track with an ordinary flat rail. Mr. Mailloux found 
 that the traction per ton in some cases reached over 
 30 pounds and as high as 40. He believes that the 
 traction per ton increases with the weight of the 
 car, stating that it might be 20 to 25 pounds per ton 
 for 3-ton cars, while for 7 or 8 ton cars it might 
 probably be 30 or 35 pounds per ton. This view 
 might explain the lower figure found for the trac- 
 tion of horse cars, as they are of so much smaller 
 weight. Mr. Prescott reports a test made with a 
 dynamometer on a car pulled by men, in which he 
 found the co-efficient to be in the neighborhood of 
 30 pounds to the ton for a 6-ton car. Some tests 
 made in Paris on the Decauville narrow gauge road 
 were reported to give as low as 5^ pounds per ton, 
 which is extremely low. A test made by Tresca on 
 an electric line between Paris and Versailles gave 
 27 pounds. A set of numerous careful experiments 
 made by Mr. Hubel on horse car lines in Hamburg 
 gave 33 pounds. Mr. C. J. Field states : " A fair basis 
 for the power, on general conditions, for 16 to 18 foot 
 car bodies, is 20 to 25 horse-power per car, which, with 
 a properly designed and constructed plant, will give 
 the desired power. The cost of generating this 
 
CONSTEUCTION AND OPERATION. 85 
 
 power for railway work for 16 and 18 foot cars is 
 three to five cents per mile for all expenses of the 
 generating station. In some roads we find that cars 
 of a larger size than these do not necessarily take a 
 proportionately larger amount of power. We find 
 from practical experience that a car 32 or 33 feet 
 long, double the size of the 16-foot car, takes, under 
 general conditions, about 50 per cent, more power, 
 and we find by the same experience that a trail car 
 adds about 50 per cent, to the amount of work to be 
 done on the motor car for the same size. As to the 
 minimum and maximum amount of power taken on 
 an electric car, we find that a general average for 
 a 16-foot car, under ordinary commercial con- 
 ditions, without excessive grades, is one horse-power 
 per car mile per hour; or, a car operating at an 
 average 10 miles per hour means an average of 10 
 horse-power per car. This same car will give, how- 
 ever, on a load diagram, taking all its conditions, 
 from maximum to minimum, a variation of from 
 nothing to 50, 60, or even 80 horse-power. This gives 
 us an idea of the severe strains and conditions to 
 which an electric motor is subjected. Under gen- 
 eral conditions, 30 horse-power, with two 15 horse- 
 power motors, has been found about right; in fact, 
 we even find the companies tending toward a larger 
 installation of power, particularly when using larger 
 than a 16-foot car body, and we find to-day, being 
 installed for rapid transit in inter-suburban work, 
 40 and 50 horse-power electric equipments per car, 
 many of them operating at a speed of 30, and even 
 40 miles per hour. As the amount of power is 
 directly proportionate to the speed, we can readily 
 
86 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 see the requirements for such an amount of 
 power." 
 
 Regarding the starting effect, Mr. Crosby reports 
 a test in which he found it took 14 amperes to start 
 an ordinary car with Sprague motors, on a level, 
 rusty track; as the current was cut down by a 
 resistance, this does not mean that the voltage was 
 the full 500. He checked it with a dynamometer 
 and a rope and found it took 175 to 200 pounds for 5 
 tons, or about 35 to 40 pounds per ton, which he said 
 checked exactly with the calculated torque result- 
 ing from the 14 amperes. Mr. Mailloux found that 
 the initial traction was as high as 80 to 100 pounds 
 per ton. 
 
 SPEEDS, GRADES, LOADS, ETC. 
 
 Regarding the speed of electric cars, Mr. F. L. 
 Pope states : " The average speed of the horse car is 
 about six miles per hour. The question is some- 
 times asked, how fast may electric cars be safely 
 run in a city street? One fact within my own 
 knowledge will go far to answer this question. 
 There is a heavily traveled street in Pittsburgh only 
 36 feet wide, containing a double-track cable road, 
 which leaves not more than nine feet space on each ' 
 side. At first the cable cars were run at the rate of 
 seven miles per hour; afterward the speed was 
 increased to 9^ miles per hour. The records show 
 that there are not so many accidents under the 
 present arrangement as there were before. Pedes- 
 trians and drivers are more careful and take fewer 
 chances. The schedule rate of the electric cars in 
 Cleveland is nine miles per hour, and in some parts 
 of Boston as high as 12. The value of an electric 
 
CONSTRUCTION ANI> OPERATION. 8? 
 
 railway to the public is largely determined by its 
 speed, but the economical aspect of the question is 
 equally important. If we make six miles per hour 
 with horses, and nine with electricity, each car 
 does 50 per cent, more work without increased 
 expense for conductors' and drivers' wages, which 
 is an important item. Another economical feature 
 due to the use of electricity is the ability to haul 
 one, or even two, tow cars without loss of schedule 
 time on special occasions, when the traffic is unusu- 
 ally great. Nothing is more astonishing than the 
 capacity of the electric cars to make their schedule 
 time in the face of the heavy storms of a New Eng- 
 land winter. It is a common sight to see an electric 
 car running, apparently with perfect ease, up a 
 heavy grade through snow a foot deep, pushing or 
 pulling other cars loaded to their utmost capacity." 
 From the reports of a number of companies com- 
 piled by Mr. Mansfield, he finds the following: 
 "The average speed of all the roads is 8.7 miles per 
 hour. The maximum is 30. The average grade is 6.7 
 per cent., and but 12 roads report as having none, 
 or very small ones. The maximum grade is 13 per 
 cent., and this extends for 1,500 feet. The road 
 suffering from such an infliction is in Amsterdam, 
 N. Y. Thirteen roads report 10 per cent, or over. 
 Nashville, Tenn, reports an 11 per ,cent. grade for 
 1,300 feet, and Burlington, la., an 8-J per cent, for 
 1,500 feet, while Wilmington, Del., reports a 7^ per 
 cent, for 3,000 feet. The loads carried up these 
 grades by two 15 horse-power motors are, to say the 
 least, surprising. Amsterdam reports one motor car 
 and 52 passengers. Nashville reports one motor car 
 
88 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 and 77 grown passengers ; Burlington, one motor car 
 and 75 passengers, and Wilmington, Del., reports one 
 motor car towing a disabled motor car. Several roads 
 report as towing one car with both full of passen- 
 gers up eight and even nine per cent, grades, but 
 for short distances. Auburn, N. Y., reports as hav- 
 ing towed five cars, all loaded, with one motor car. 
 The grades in this instance were slight. In all these 
 instances unquestionably the motors were exerting 
 power considerably beyond their rated capacity. 
 Trains carrying 350 passengers have been moved by 
 two 15 horse-power motors; 200 passengers is an 
 every-day occurrence. Surely this is approaching 
 steam railroad practice. Such information is cer- 
 tainly useful to the electric manufacturing com- 
 panies." 
 
 A number of interesting and instructive tests were 
 made by Mr. Charles Hewitt of the speed of electric 
 cars in city streets, from which important conclu- 
 sions can be drawn. The report is given here prac- 
 tically in full, as published : " It has been asserted 
 that it is impossible for any car operated on the sur- 
 face of a city street to make real rapid transit, on 
 account of the crowded condition of the streets. A 
 close study of our large cities will show that the 
 principal lines of travel are crowded for only short 
 distances, and that beyond these crowded portions 
 a high rate of speed can be maintained with safety. 
 
 u lt only remains to be shown, then, what the elec- 
 tric cars can do with safety on the unobstructed 
 portions of their routes. 
 
 " Much has been said and written about the speeds 
 of electric cars, but so far as the writer is aware, no 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 89 
 
 \r 
 
 speed record of an electric car in actual service has 
 ever been published heretofore. Last summer the 
 writer had the pleasure of making some tests for 
 the Edison General Electric Company, on Niagara 
 street, Buffalo, covering this question, and the 
 result of those tests is shown in the accompanying 
 diagrams. The route extends from Main street, in 
 the heart of the city, to Hertle avenue, by way of 
 Niagara street, a distance of 4 miles," or 9 miles 
 for the round trip. The schedule time, including 
 terminal stops, is 64 minutes, or an average running 
 speed of 9 miles per hour. Referring to the dia- 
 grams, we will see what speed the car actually made 
 in order to fill the schedule requirement. A few 
 words of explanation will perhaps make the dia- 
 grams clearer. The record was made by a Boyer 
 railway speed recorder,* belted direct to one axle by 
 means of a flexible wire belt. Every movement of 
 the car, either forward or backward, is therefore 
 recorded. The horizontal lines represent speed in 
 miles per hour as shown at the left hand end of 
 each diagram. The vertical lines represent quarter 
 mile distances. 
 
 " The car in each instance was started from the car 
 barn, which is in the middle of the line, and run to 
 Hertle avenue, the suburban terminus, thence back 
 to Main street, the city terminus. Ampere and volt- 
 meter readings were taken every 15 seconds, and 
 when the car was carrying passengers the number 
 on the car was noted every time any one got on or 
 off. The car was 35 feet long over all, was mounted 
 
 * For n description of this instrument see Miscellaneous Appliances and 
 Acc-essories. 
 
90 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 upon two trucks, and weighed, with the No. 10 and 
 No. 14 motors, about 20,000 pounds, and with No. 12 
 motors about 22,000 pounds. 
 
 " The first test was made with the No. 10 motors ; 
 the car being run from the car barn to Hertle 
 avenue terminus and back to car barn without pas- 
 sengers, in order to determine what was the high- 
 est speed that could be obtained. As the car had to 
 be run in between two cars in regular service, the 
 result is somewhat less than what it would have 
 been if the track had been entirely unobstructed, 
 but it will be noted that a speed of 21 miles per hour 
 was attained within a distance of 2,100 feet from 
 the full stop. The gradual acceleration of speed 
 shown by the gentle curvature of the line is also of 
 some interest. The remaining runs before reaching 
 the car barn were interfered with by overtaking 
 the car ahead, although a speed of 17 miles was 
 attained. At the car barn the car was put in regu- 
 lar service carrying passengers, and the record 
 speaks for itself. The average speed shown is some- 
 what greater than the schedule speed, as the time 
 of stops is not recorded. It is interesting to note 
 that in order to make a schedule speed of nine miles 
 per hour it is necessary to make a maximum speed 
 of about 13-J- miles, or 50 per cent, above the sched- 
 ule speed. This record also shows that a car can 
 attain a speed of 15 miles per hour within a distance 
 of 350 feet from full stop. 
 
 "The next test was made with the No. 14 motors. 
 These motors were mounted on the same tracks 
 that had been used in the previous test with the No. 
 10 motors. The car was first run to Hertle avenue 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 
 
 91 
 
 FIG. 19. Two No. 10 MOTORS. AVKRAGE LOAD ABOUT 27,000 POUNDS. TRACK 
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CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 
 
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CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 05 
 
 and back without passengers, and was then put in 
 regular service. In connection with this diagram I 
 wish to refer to what has been said in the beginning 
 of this article. Although no part of Niagara street 
 is very crowded, still the interference is greatest 
 near the Main street terminus. It will be noted that 
 in every instance between Main street and the car 
 barn the stops are very numerous, for long stretches 
 being one to every block (about 600 feet). Between 
 the car barn dud Hertle avenue, however, the stops 
 are comparatively few, and it is here we would 
 expect to get a greater speed, as is distinctly shown 
 by the diagram. It is not so prominent, however, as 
 it would have been had the required schedule speed 
 been 10 or 12 miles per hour, as on some of the long 
 lines in Boston and other cities. It is evident from 
 the first part of this diagram that a speed of 17 
 miles could have been maintained for long stretches 
 if necessary, thereby increasing the average speed. 
 "The third test was made with the No. 12 motors. 
 These motors are larger and more powerful than 
 the No. 10 and No. 14. The same car body was used 
 as in the former tests , but the motors were mounted 
 on new trucks, used for the first time in this test. 
 For this reason the car was not put in regular ser- 
 vice. Two trips were made from the car barn to the 
 Hertle avenue terminus without passengers with 
 results as shown in the diagram. Since this test 
 was made this car has attained a speed of 28 miles 
 per hour, and has shown an average ampere con- 
 sumption of less than 20. With regard to the aver- 
 age ampere readings in all these diagrams, it may 
 be said that they are somewhat higher than they 
 
OH RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 would be in ordinary practice, due to the long runs 
 at high speed without passengers, and also to the 
 fact that the starting current is included in many 
 readings." 
 
 CARS. 
 
 The chief matter of interest during the past year, 
 regarding cars, has been the question of whether it 
 is more satisfactory to use long or short cars. The 
 balance of the opinion appears to be in*avor of long 
 cars. Mr. C. J. Field states: "One of the questions 
 on which we find more variety of opinion than any 
 other is what is the best size, type and style of car 
 for given cases and conditions. The old standard 
 16-foot car body we find is now being widely 
 departed from, and the problem is, how large a car 
 can we get on a single truck with four wheels with- 
 out excessive destructive effect on the roadbed? 
 and what is the longest car we can operate on 
 street car service economically on an eight- wheel 
 base? We believe the limit is reached with a single 
 truck in a 20-foot car body ; we know that the truck 
 manufacturers claim in some cases to operate a 
 longer body, but we do not believe it wise. An 18 
 or 20 foot car, running under close headway, we 
 believe to fulfill best the conditions of city traffic in 
 the larger cities. Such a car, with a wheel base of 
 seven feet, and in some cases seven feet six inches, 
 where curves are not too sharp, will give satisfac- 
 tion, and not be too severe on the roadbed where 
 the same is properly constructed. Some companies 
 have favored the use of a vestibule on street cars. 
 We believe, though, that any vestibule is a failure 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 97 
 
 and a misnomer. It accomplishes no good, and 
 causes much trouble. A shield over the dashboard 
 for the motor man in winter would give all that 
 would be required. What is wanted on a street car 
 is that which will allow the freest ingress and egress , 
 from the car for the passengers, and anything that- 
 retards this and a vestibule most certainly does 
 is a detriment and an obstacle to rapid transit. On 
 some roads we have tried the introduction of even 
 larger cars, say, 28-foot body, or 36 feet over all. 
 Such a car, of course, has to be put on a double 
 truck. These cars have found favor with some com- 
 panies when first considering the problem. The 
 difficulty with them is in getting the passengers in 
 and out of the cars as quickly as possible, and 
 making too many stops, due to the larger number of 
 passengers carried. For inter-suburban heavy traf- 
 fic, with few stops, we believe such a car would ful- 
 fill the requirements, but only in such a case." The 
 same writer states that a 32 to 33 foot car takes, 
 under general conditions, about 50 per cent, more 
 power than a 16-foot car. 
 
 The West End Company of "Boston find that there 
 is a decided gain in the ratio of the operating- 
 expenses per passenger to the earnings in the long 
 cars as compared with the short cars. The weight 
 of a long car empty is about 18,000 pounds, and they 
 find that on the level it takes an almost impercep- 
 tibly small amount of additional power to draw this 
 car when loaded with 15,000 pounds besides the 
 weight of the car ; on grades, of course, the differ- 
 ence is felt. From this they conclude that the cost 
 of the power for the long cars is very little more 
 
98 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 than for the short ones, although they carry nearly 
 double the number of passengers ; the expense for 
 conductors and drivers, of course, remains the same, 
 while the accommodation of the passengers is con- 
 siderably greater. They contemplate the general 
 introduction of long cars; 175 are to be added before 
 January, 1892, making a total of 400 long cars in 
 use during the winter of 1891-92. They also con- 
 template getting double deck cars for the same 
 eason. The long cars earned 44 cents per mile in 
 May and 47 cents in June. The short cars are 1G 
 feet long and are said to cost $4,000 each. The long 
 cars which they have adopted as their standard are 
 26 to 28 feet in the body and 35 feet over all. 
 
 Mr. Beckley, however, differs from the above 
 opinions, as he considers it a mistake to equip a 
 car body of greater length than 18 feet, and thinks 
 a 16-foot car is better still. During the hours of the 
 day when travel is heavy he says it is easy to pull 
 a trailer, and when traffic is light you are not 
 then using up your power in hauling around a 
 "great lumbering double truck structure practically 
 empty." 
 
 | MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 In a compilation from reports made of a number 
 of companies, Mr. Mansfield finds that 44 roads 
 report as never having been stopped by any cause, 
 23 were forced to stop because of the steam plant, 
 failure of water, floods or fire, and 26 from electrical 
 troubles, the main cause of these troubles being 
 lightning. " I consider this a very fair showing, and 
 feel confident that as the art advances these tie-ups 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 99 
 
 will grow less and less, and finally become of rare 
 occurrence. 
 
 " Out of the total number of 137 roads heard from, 
 only 32 report as having made any tests of either 
 engines, dynamo, or motors, and 53 upon the over- 
 head work. Surely this is lamentable.' There is 
 nothing more essential to an electric railroad than 
 a first-class voltmeter, ammeter, galvanometer, 
 and, if possible, a wattmeter. Electric light, tele- 
 graph and telephone, and all other electric com- 
 panies are supplied with necessary testing instru- 
 ments, and in most instances a most rigid system is 
 maintained. Every railroad should be continually 
 testing its circuits, station and cars for leaks or 
 grounds. By this means, and this means only, can* 
 they avoid trouble and consequent damage. Fur- 
 thermore, for the sake of economy, these instruments 
 should be used freely. Particularly is a wattmeter 
 useful in a power station. I advise, urge, and 
 beseech every company to supply itself with these 
 instruments, and to put them in the hands of a 
 competent person, or if they can afford it, a thor- 
 ough electrician." 
 
 In another similar compilation it was found that 
 the average car mileage of a car was about 101 
 miles. The maximum reported was on a small road, 
 in which the cars made 175 miles a day. Two other 
 small roads report 160, while a considerable number 
 gave 125 to 150. The lowest was 46. 
 
 Mr. Everett advocates the use of an oil headlight 
 that can be removed easily, so that when anything 
 happens, say underneath the car, the oil headlight 
 can be used to better advantage than the electric 
 
100 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 light. For the same reason, he says that one porta- 
 ble oil light should be kept in every car. He also 
 advocates electric brakes, electric fare registers, 
 and electric heaters, which, he states, are now used 
 on quite a number of roads. 
 
 In a committee report read by Mr. Crosby on 
 "Standards in Electric Railway Practice," published 
 in The Electrical World, page 328, October 31, he 
 advocated the adoption of uniformity in rating 
 motors, defining dimensions of car, in the nomen- 
 clature of terms and phrases used in electric railway 
 work, and in the method of keeping accounts. The 
 report is accompanied by suggestions for the basis 
 of such standards, including a list of terms, with 
 their definitions, and a proposed standard method 
 of keeping accounts. The report is well prepared 
 and should be studied by all those interested in rail- 
 way work. Want of space prevents us from reprint- 
 ing it here. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 COST OF CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 
 
 Among the matter published was an article by 
 Mr. J. S. Badger, which we reproduce here in full, 
 as it contains very interesting and doubtless very 
 reliable matter, and is probably the best article pub- 
 lished during the year on this subject. 
 
 After pointing out how difficult it was to secure 
 sufficient data to be of value for purposes of com- 
 parison, Mr. Badger states : 
 
 " The data herewith presented concerning electric 
 roads have been very carefully collected, and will 
 enable accurate conclusions to be drawn respecting 
 
COST OF CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 101 
 
 the relative merits of horses, cable and electricity 
 as a motive power for street cars. The electric 
 roads, which really control the results, have been 
 in operation since the earlier days of the electric 
 railway, and, having passed the experimental stage, 
 their operations are well settled and uniform. In 
 several cases very considerable changes are in 
 progress, but they are such as will conduce to still 
 greater economy of operation. 
 
 " The elements which enter into a consideration 
 of the questions at issue are: 
 
 " First cost of road and equipment. 
 
 " Operating expenses per passenger carried. 
 
 "Ratio expenses to receipts. 
 
 " Operating expenses per car mile. 
 
 " Upon the first and last must rest the decision as 
 to what is the most economical power for street 
 railways. 
 
 " The element of first cost may or may not decide 
 the question at once. If the capital available is lim- 
 ited to the amount necessary for the least expensive 
 construction and equipment, this settles the ques- 
 tion of choice of motive power. If the capital is 
 limited only by the ability of the road to pay a rea- 
 sonable return upon the investment, the question 
 becomes more complex; and whether a cheap or 
 expensive construction shall be adopted depends 
 upon whether the interest charge added to cost of 
 operation will be large or small when divided by 
 the total number of units of comparison. 
 
 " 'Passengers carried per mile of route' or 'per 
 mile run' relates chiefly to density of traffic and 
 consequent value of the franchise, and has only a 
 
102 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 distant bearing upon the question of operating 
 expenses. 
 
 u Cost per passenger carried, and ratio of operating 
 expenses to receipts, considered in connection with 
 fixed charges, relate to the dividend paying ability 
 of the road, or the 'value of its securities as an 
 investment, bearing in mind the fact that two roads 
 may sh*>w the same ratio of operating expenses to 
 receipts, and one be able to pay twice as much as 
 the other in dividends, "therefore these elements do 
 not necessarily have any bearing upon the actual 
 economy of operation, or give any indication as to 
 which of any two or more systems is the most 
 economical. 
 
 " Cost per car mile, for cars of about equal carry- 
 ing capacity, seems to be at present the only basis 
 of comparison. This expense, within the limits of 
 traffic for which the power plant and equipments 
 are adapted, remains pretty constant, regardless of 
 variations in amount of traffic, but this is directly 
 affected by change in value in any item of opera- 
 ting expense just to the extent that such variation 
 is part of the whole expense. 
 
 " Whether a road shall show a high or low cost per 
 car mile depends upon its physical characteristics, 
 the motive power employed, to a certain extent 
 upon whether cars are run singly or in trains, and 
 upon the ability of the man responsible for its me- 
 chanical operations. 
 
 "Whether it shall show a high or a low cost per 
 passenger carried depends to a certain extent upon 
 the foregoing, but principally upon whether few or 
 many can be induced to ride upon it, and therefore 
 
COST OP CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 103 
 
 upon good management. A careful examination 
 of the roads in question shows the incorrectness 
 of the statement that those 'which have the least 
 expense per car mile have the greatest expense 
 per passenger carried.' There is no uniformity 
 in this respect one way or the other, as between 
 different roads. Theoretically, the expense per 
 car mile would slightly increase with an increase 
 in traffic. In a general way, and without at- 
 tempting to produce any proof in support of this 
 opinion, it may be said that, other conditions re- 
 maining the same, the expense per car mile would 
 increase about as the cube root of the number of 
 passengers carried. In this way, and under con- 
 ditions seldom realized in practice, the foregoing 
 statement might be true. 
 
 "Expense per car mile, for an electric road, 
 depends chiefly upon cost of fuel, efficiency of steam 
 and electric plant, wages, character of road as 
 relates to grades and curves, and last, but by no 
 means least, intelligent care of machinery, etc. 
 Without a knowledge upon these points, a simple 
 statement of expenses per car mile conveys little 
 definite information. With coal varying from $1 to 
 $3.80 per ton, its consumption from 4.3 pounds to 12.2 
 pounds per car mile, a station output from 3.7 to 
 8.4 and even 10.7 electric horse-power per car in 
 operation, and wages of conductors and motor men 
 from 10 to 20 cents per hour, the importance of these 
 data is at once evident. 
 
 " Regarding care of machinery, a comparison may 
 not be amiss. In the case of one road, an average 
 of one-sixth of the armatures in use go into the 
 
104 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 repair shop every month, generally because burned 
 out. Another road using the same system, opera- 
 ting more cars upon heavier grades, has not had an 
 armature burned out in nearly a year. As both do 
 their own repairing, the manufacturing company is 
 relieved of responsibility for this difference. Many 
 similar examples could be given. 
 
 " In another instance, upon a road of less than 10 
 miles, there was for months a constant leakage of 
 20 to 30 amperes on the line. 
 
 "While, therefore, the manufacturing companies 
 may have been guilty of sins of omission, the opera- 
 ting companies have been guilty of sins of omis- 
 sion and commission. Experience has been costly 
 for both. Electrical apparatus must have intelli- 
 gent care, or the repair bills soon assume large 
 proportions, and this frequently causes railway 
 companies, who do not understand the true cause 
 of the trouble, to condemn electricity as an expen- 
 sive motive power. What can be and is actually 
 accomplished in practice is shown elsewhere in 
 this paper. In isolated cases circumstances may 
 strongly favor some one of the three systems 
 under consideration to the exclusion of the 
 others. This must be determined by expert exami- 
 nation ; but whichever shows the best results out of 
 a large number of cases must stand at the head, as 
 the most desirable and economical motive power for 
 street railways. 
 
 "The item of first cost is the subject of considera- 
 ble discussion. Direct information concerning cable 
 roads has not been obtainable; but as the figures 
 we cite are those given by the Census Department, 
 
COST OF 'CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 105 
 
 and do not seem to have been questioned by any 
 authority upon the subject, they may be accepted 
 as substantially correct. Our data concerning horse 
 roads, being taken from sworn reports to the Massa- 
 chusetts Board of Railroad Commissioners, can also 
 be relied upon. The figures given concerning 
 investment in electric roads have come from official 
 'sources, and are confirmed by private information. 
 These are, however, excessive. Most of the roads 
 mentioned were formerly horse roads, and to the 
 original investment has b^en added the cost of 
 change of motive power; and in almost every case 
 the amount now charged to permanent investment 
 is far in excess of what it would cost to renew the 
 entire power plant, track and equipment. 
 
 "Estimates upon the track construction differ 
 greatly, but the limit of profitable investment is not 
 likely to exceed $10,000 per mile; while as fine and 
 substantial a roadbed as electric car ever ran over 
 was built at a cost, exclusive of paving, of about 
 $5,000 per mile. 
 
 "The overhead structure need not cost to exceed 
 $2,500 to $3,000 per mile of single track for best 
 wood poles, or $3,500 to $5,000 for iron poles. For 
 double track, iron poles, it would vary from $4,500 
 to $6,500 per mile, centre pole construction being 
 the cheaper, and in many other respects preferable 
 where it can be adopted. 
 
 "From $3,000 to $3,500 per car is a liberal estimate 
 for 16-foot to 20-foot cars, fully equipped, and the 
 average is about two cars per mile of road. 
 
 "An allowance of 15 to 20 horse-power per car. at 
 $80 to $100 per horse-power for station equipment, 
 
106 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 including steam plant, but not real estate or build- 
 ings, is very liberal. 
 
 " Thus we have, as an extremely liberal estimate, 
 $26,000 per mile, exclusive of real estate, buildings 
 and paving, for a road suitable for the heaviest 
 metropolitan traffic. And it is a fact that a good 
 and satisfactory road can be built and equipped for 
 $20,000 per mile. 
 
 " As records of actual experience a careful exam- 
 ination of the statistics presented is invited, and 
 especially of those relating to electric railways. The 
 greater part of these has been obtained by personal 
 visits to the roads reported. 
 
 Comparison of Investment and Operating Expenses. 
 
 
 Total investment 
 real estate, road 
 and equipment. 
 
 Car miles 
 run per 
 annum 
 per mile 
 of street 
 length. 
 
 Passengers car- 
 ried annually 
 per mile of 
 street length. 
 
 Passengers car- 
 ried per car 
 mile run. 
 
 Per mile 
 of street 
 length. 
 
 Per mile 
 of track 
 length. 
 
 * 22 Electric roads 
 
 38,500 
 33,406 
 350.325 
 
 27,780 
 31,093 
 184,275 
 
 76,158 
 43,345 
 309,395 
 
 237,038 
 251.816 
 1,355,965 
 
 3.10 
 5.81 
 4.38 
 
 i 45 Morse roads 
 
 J 10 Cable roads 
 
 
 " Table I. shows that, taking street length as the 
 unit of comparison, in the cases of the roads under 
 consideration, the total permanent investment of 
 the electric is only 15 per cent, more than that of 
 
 * Car miles run per annum, 14.013,187; passensrers carried per annum, 
 43.614.972; street length. 184 miles ; track length, 255 miles. 
 
 t All the roads in Massachusetts operated exclusively by horses for 
 1885-90. Average for six years. 
 
 I From Census Bulletin No. 55. 
 
COST OF CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 
 
 107 
 
 the horse roads, while the cable roads cost more 
 than nine times as much as the electric roads. The 
 average speed of cable and of electric cars is about 
 the same, consequently the cable roads ran about 
 four times as many cars per mile of street length as 
 the electric. This would be expected, as the cable 
 roads generally occupy the routes of heaviest' 
 travel. The horse roads ran more cars than the 
 electric, for an equal length of road, but the latter, 
 having an advantage in higher speed, greatly 
 exceed in car miles run. The electric roads carried 
 fewest passengers per car mile, but carried as many 
 per mile of street occupied as the horse roads. On 
 account of their more favorable location, the cable 
 roads. exceed both the others in passengers per mile 
 of route. The column showing passengers carried 
 per mile run gives a general idea of the relative 
 number of passengers on a car at any one time. 
 
 TABLK II. 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 li 
 
 &21 
 
 "as O 
 *"* . 
 
 '^^ 
 
 0) CO 
 
 II 
 
 M 
 
 8tg 
 
 S 
 
 
 M.2 
 
 I'! 1 ! 
 
 P, S 
 
 co Q 
 
 |.s 
 
 
 
 
 
 ft 
 
 P* 'rt 
 
 p< 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 c" 
 
 
 /. 
 
 ^'S'S 
 
 
 
 fl 
 
 w S g 
 
 c C- S 
 
 
 fr'-'s 
 
 
 2n 
 
 P ^4 &J [> 
 
 ^5 ^ s *"* 
 
 r-t ^ 
 
 r^ ^ 
 
 
 
 
 S g P..C 
 
 *^ <c.2'S 
 
 " 
 
 ? a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 Elootvic roads 
 
 (Cejits.) 
 11.02 
 
 (Cents.) 
 3.03 
 
 (Cents). 
 14.05 
 
 (Cents.) 
 3.55 
 
 (Cents.) 
 4.53 
 
 Horse roads 
 
 24.32 
 
 4.62 
 
 28.94 
 
 4.18 
 
 4.98 
 
 Cable rojids 
 
 14.12 
 
 6.97 
 
 20.91 
 
 3.22 
 
 4.77 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "Table II. shows operating expenses per car mile, 
 all taxes and fixed charges excluded, for each of 
 
108 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 the three systems; interest charge per mile at six 
 per cent, upon the total permanent investment; 
 total of operating expenses and interest per car 
 mile; cost per passenger carried, interest charge 
 excluded, and the same with interest charge 
 included. Upon every point, save the one unim- 
 portant one of cost per passenger carried (interest 
 excluded), the superiority of the electrc road is 
 plainly evident. 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 
 I, 
 
 If 
 
 11 
 
 ||2|| 
 
 
 If 
 
 I| 
 
 |i 
 
 pit!' 
 
 
 tn ty 
 
 B a 
 
 g^f 
 
 ^ o ^ S 
 
 
 t- "" 
 
 <M 
 
 ct S 
 
 " s 
 
 
 
 
 
 c '^ 
 
 c ^'S 
 
 g^^ C co 
 
 
 0.2 
 
 .25 =" 
 
 | 2 
 
 
 
 *" 
 
 1 s - 2 
 
 PH 
 
 
 
 Electric roads 
 
 1.152 
 
 1.757 
 
 .485 
 
 .852 
 
 Horse roads 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.000 
 
 Cable roads... 
 
 10.486 
 
 7.138 
 
 .722 
 
 5.154 
 
 "Table III., for greater convenience in compari- 
 son, shows the ratios of the three most important 
 items, and the proportional traffic that must be done, 
 per mile of street occupied, for each system, to pay 
 operating expenses and six per cent, on the invest- 
 ment. Here, more than anywhere else, the superi- 
 ority of the electric road is plainly evident, the last 
 column showing that in but few cases can there be 
 even a question as to which system offers the great- 
 est inducement to the investor. 
 
COST OP CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 109 
 
 SKVEN REPRESENTATIVE ROADS, OPERATED ENTIRELY BY ELECTRICITY. 
 
 
 Length. 
 
 A i*3 
 
 S 
 
 k* 
 
 J-> 00 
 
 <D t4 .- 
 
 >j 
 
 ' !-> 
 
 X s 
 
 1 3 
 
 fl 
 
 
 
 **3 
 
 gs 
 
 i* 
 
 =?,3 
 
 5 3 
 
 o o 
 
 g 
 
 ^S 
 
 != 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 cS 
 
 PL 
 
 ^ 
 
 <D 
 iC 
 il S 
 
 CS 13 . 
 
 ill 
 
 s% 
 
 61- a 
 
 S?^ 1 
 
 M 
 
 &^ 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 lill 
 
 |a| 
 
 pi 
 
 Icl 
 
 111 
 
 HI 
 
 III 
 
 f S 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 PH 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 PH 
 
 
 
 o ' 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 51.0 
 
 35.0 
 
 *162,857 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 313 
 
 3.13 
 
 12.29 
 
 12.29 
 
 3.93 
 
 2 
 
 40.0 
 
 19.5 
 
 487,582 
 
 140 
 
 91 
 
 188 
 
 2.06 
 
 7.80 
 
 7.10 
 
 3.79 
 
 3 
 
 16.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 199,000 
 
 16 
 
 125 
 
 343 
 
 2.75 
 
 8.43 
 
 10.54 
 
 3.07 
 
 4 
 
 8.5 
 
 5.0 
 
 *460,000 
 
 20 
 
 83 
 
 318 
 
 3.82 
 
 11.82 
 
 9.80 
 
 3.09 
 
 5 
 
 15.5 
 
 14.0 
 
 167,511 
 
 18 
 
 106 
 
 357 
 
 3.35 
 
 11.00 
 
 11.70 
 
 3.28 
 
 6 
 
 28.0 
 
 23.5 
 
 286,852 
 
 31 
 
 108 
 
 597 
 
 5.51 
 
 12.74 
 
 13.76 
 
 2.31 
 
 7 
 
 3.8 
 
 2.8 
 
 200,000 
 
 5 
 
 92 
 
 307 
 
 3.33 
 
 8.49 
 
 7.81 
 
 2.55 
 
 
 162.8 
 
 109.8 
 
 
 280 
 
 
 
 
 9.83 
 
 
 3.28 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total annual car mileage, 9,862,000. Total number of passengers carried 
 annually, 29,144,000. 
 
 " If the electric roads carried as many passengers 
 per car mile run as the horse or cable roads, which 
 they could easily do, and allowing for the increase 
 in operating expenses due to increased traffic, the 
 cost per passenger carried would be as follows : 
 
 Per passenger. 
 Cents. 
 
 At, 5.81 passengers per car mile (number carried by horse roads) 
 the cost would be. interest charge excluded 2.38 
 
 At ft.81 passengers (as above) cost would be, interest charge in- 
 cluded. 3>2 
 
 At 4.38 passengers per car mile (number carried by cable roads) 
 the cost would be, interest charge excluded 2.82 
 
 At 4.38 passengers (as above) cost would be, interest charge in- 
 cluded 3.51 
 
 " This is not in any way an attempt to decry the 
 cable system, as it is undeniable that it has a place 
 of its own. where it is satisfactory to the public and 
 profitable to the investors; but the claim is that, 
 under all circumstances, the electric road can 
 handle just as heavy traffic, as readily and satisfac- 
 
 * Estimated. 
 
110 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 torily to the public, with much greater economy in 
 operation and much less investment of capital." 
 
 Mr. Badger's paper concludes with the following 
 statistics of electricity. 
 
 Operating Expenses of Electric Roads. 
 "Average of 22 trolley roads. Length varying 
 from 3 to 51 miles; cars in daily operation, 3 to 140; 
 daily mileage per car, 80 to 150; average daily 
 mileage per car, 110. 
 
 Expense per car mile. 
 
 . (Ceuts) , 
 
 Highest. Lowest. Av'r. 
 
 Maintenance of roadbed and track 1.86 .10 .54 
 
 Maintenance of line 95 .0] .12 
 
 Maintenance of power plant, including repairs on 
 engines, dynamos, buildings, etc 86 .05 .36 
 
 Cost of power, including fuel, wages of engineers, 
 firemen, dynamo tenders, oil, waste, water, and 
 other supplies 4.95 .48 1.96 
 
 Repairs on cars and motors 5.2* .51) 1.80 
 
 Transportation expenses, including wages of con- 
 ductors, motor men, starters, and switchmen, re- 
 moval of snow and ice, accidents to persons and 
 property, etc 9.47 2.74 4.98 
 
 General expenses, including salaries of officers 
 and clerks, office expenses, advertising, printing, 
 legal expenses, insurance, etc 2.95 .79 1.26 
 
 Total *22.99 *7.80 11.02 
 
 Cost of coal varies from $1 per ton for slack, to 
 $3 for r. o. m. (run of mine), and $3.80 for lump. 
 
 Wages. of conductors and motor men vary from 
 10 cents to 20 cents per hour. 
 
 Consumption of coal varies from 4.3 pounds of 
 slack per car mile to 12.2 pounds r. o. m. per car 
 mile. 
 
 The station output varies from 3.7 e. h. p. (elec- 
 trical horse-power) to 8.4 e. h. p. per car in opera- 
 tion, for roads equipped with 10-foot cars and Edison 
 motors. In the latter case the road had many heavy 
 
 * Respectively the highest and lowest total for any one road. 
 
COST OF CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. Ill 
 
 grades and sharp curves. One road, equipped with 
 30-foot double-truck cars (weight complete about 
 10 tons), six Edison and 14 Short double 15 h. p. 
 equipments, traffic medium and grades moderate, 
 required an average of 10.7 e. h. p. per car in opera- 
 tion. 
 
 The best station performance is one e. h. p. for 
 every five pounds of slack or four pounds of nut 
 consumed ; and evaporation of 7i pounds of water 
 for every pound of slack consumed. Return tubular 
 boilers, Murphy furnaces, Armington & Sims high- 
 speed, single cylinder, non-condensing engines, and 
 Edison generators are in use. 
 
 Detailed Distribution of Operating Expenses. 
 
 For roads of 10 or 15 miles and upward, operating 
 20 or more cars per day, averaging 105 to 110 miles 
 each, grades moderate, a careful distribution of 
 expenses, based upon the experience of the best 
 roads, will average about as follows : 
 
 Expenses per car mile. 
 (Cents.) 
 
 Maintenance of roadbed and track .54 
 
 Maintenance of line .12 
 
 Maintenance of power plant : 
 
 Repairs on endues and boilers 180 
 
 Repairs ou dynamos 101 
 
 Miscellaneous repairs 078 .36 
 
 Cost of power : 
 
 Fuel ." 868 
 
 Wagea of engineers and firemen 653 
 
 Wages of dynamo tenders, etc 232 
 
 Oil, waste, water and other supplies 2181.96 
 
 Maintenance of rolling stock : 
 
 Repairs on motors (extra gearing) 695 
 
 Repairs on gearing and trolleys. 594 
 
 Repairs on car bodies and trucks 5121.80 
 
 Transportation expenses : 
 
 Wages of conductors and motor men 4.262 
 
 Wages of starters, switchmen, track sweepers, etc...'. 268 
 
 Cleaning and inspecting cars 238 
 
 Oil, waste and other supplies 083 
 
 Accidents to persons and property 061 
 
 Miscellaneous 068 4.98 
 
112 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 Expenses per car mile, 
 
 (Cents.) 
 General expenses: 
 
 Salaries of officers and clerks 743 
 
 Office expenses 138 
 
 Ad vertising aud pri u ting 061 
 
 Legal expenses 068 
 
 Insurance '. 161 
 
 Miscellaneous 0911.26 
 
 Total... 11.02 
 
 Some Representative Roads. 
 
 ROAD NUMBER ONE. 
 
 BOILERS. Four H. T. ; 10x66, with 54 4-iri. tubes. 
 
 FUEL. Nut and slack, at $2 per ton. Consump- 
 tion, 5.7 pounds per car mile. 
 
 ENGINES. One 250-h.p. Corliss, one 150-h. p. Ball, 
 one 150-h. p. Brown. Generators driven from coun- 
 tershafts, except from Ball engine. 
 
 GENERATORS. Two No. 32, four No. 20. Edison. 
 
 ROADBED. Tram and centre-bearing and side- 
 bearing girder rail. Weight, 45, 52, and 56^ pounds. 
 Four miles paved. Railway company do not pave 
 or do repairing. Length of all tracks, 8.5 miles; 
 street length, 5 miles. Generally good condition. 
 
 GRADES. Steepest, 13.2 per cent.; length, 100 
 feet. General character of road moderately heavy. 
 
 CARS. Total number in equipment, 36 motor; 
 length 14 and 16 feet. Average number in daily use, 
 20. No trail cars used. 
 
 CAR MILEAGE for one year, 601,966; daily aver- 
 age, 1,663; daily average per car, 83.15. 
 
 WAGES. Conductors and motor men, 15 cents per 
 hour ; engineers, $100 aiict $90 per month. 
 
COST OF CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 113 
 
 DETAILS OF OPERATING EXPENSES. 
 
 Expenses per car mile. 
 (Cents.) 
 
 Maintenance of roadbed and track* 1.05 
 
 Maintenance of line .07 
 
 Maintenance of power plant : 
 
 Repai rs on engines 035 
 
 Miscellaneous repairs 016 .05 
 
 Cost of poicer : 
 
 Fuel (nut and slack, at $2.00 per ton) 671 
 
 Wages of engineers and firemen 591 
 
 Oil and waste 063 
 
 Water (at 7 cents per 1,000 gallons) 092 
 
 Other supplies 0101.43 
 
 Maintenance of rolling stock : 
 
 Repairs on motors (ex. gearing) 917 
 
 Repairs on gears and trolleys 224 
 
 Repairs on car bodies and trucks , 501 
 
 New attachments 2041.85 
 
 Transportation expenses : 
 
 Wages of conductors and motor men 4.635 
 
 Wages of starters, switchmen, and track sweepers 318 
 
 Removal of snow and ice 137 
 
 Accidents to persons and property 026 
 
 Cleaning and inspecting cars 298 
 
 Oil, waste and other supplies 032 
 
 Animals, registers, and sundries 268 5.72 
 
 General expenses: 
 
 Salaries, insurance, etc 1.532 
 
 Office ex penses 041 
 
 Advertising and printing 051 
 
 I ,egal expenses 004 
 
 Miscellaneous 0181.65 
 
 Total 11.62 
 
 ROAD NUMBER TWO. 
 
 BOILERS. Four H. T., 14x78. 
 
 FUEL. Nut and slack, at $1.75 per ton. Consump- 
 tion, 11 pounds per car mile. 
 
 ENGINES. Two 125-h. p. Taylor-Beck; one 175-h. p. 
 Taylor-Beck; and (put in July, 1891), one 250-h. p. 
 Armington & Sims. Steam pressure, 80 pounds. 
 
 GENERATORS. Five No. 32, Edison, belted direct 
 from engines. 
 
 ROADBED. 25, 30, 40 and 56 pound T rail; 35, 
 
 * Fncluding the entire reconstruction of one and one-half miles of track 
 with new rail. 
 
116 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 DETAILS OF OPERATING EXPENSES. 
 
 Expenses per car tnilc. 
 (Cents.) 
 
 Maintenance of roadbed and track .95 
 
 Maintenance of line .20 
 
 Maintenance of power plant : 
 Repairs of engines, dynamos, etc .39 
 
 Cost of power: 
 
 Fuel (r. o. in. , at $2.68 per ton) 1.643 
 
 Wages of engineers and flremeu 425 
 
 Oil, waste, and other supplies 2042.27 
 
 Maintenance of rolling stock : 
 
 Repairs on motors (ex. gearing) 1.210 
 
 Repairs on gearing, car bodies, and trucks 852 
 
 Machine shops and mechanics 9433.01 
 
 Transportation expenses : 
 
 Wages of conductors and motor men 4.473 
 
 Accidents to persons and property (insurance) 190 
 
 Cleaning and inspecting, oil, waste, etc., included in machine 
 shops and mechanics 4.66 
 
 General expenses : 
 
 Snliiries of officers and clerks 460 
 
 Office expenses 162 
 
 Miscellaneous 188 .81 
 
 Total 12.29 
 
 ROAD NUMBER FOUR. 
 
 BOILERS. H. T., with Murphy furnace. 
 
 FUEL. Slack, at $1.00 per ton. Consumption, 4.3 
 pounds per car mile. 
 
 ENGINES. Three 200-h. p. and three 125-h. p. 
 Armington & Sims, belted direct to generators. 
 Steam pressure, 100 pounds. 
 
 GENERATORS. Six No. 32 and six No. 16. Edison. 
 
 ROADBED. Sixty-six pound girder rail. All 
 paved. Railway company pave and maintain 1C feet 
 in width of street. Length of all tracks, 40 miles; 
 street length, 19^ miles. In good condition. 
 
 GRADES. Steepest, 5 per cent. ; length, 400 feet. 
 General character of road, level. 
 
 CARS. Total number in equipment, 85 motor, 140 
 
COST OF CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 117 
 
 trail. Length, 16 feet. Average number in use 
 daily, 70 motor. 70 trail. 
 
 ANNUAL CAR MILEAGE. 4,625,636 miles; daily 
 average, 12,776; daily average per car. 91.1. 
 
 WAGES. Motor men, $2 for 12 hours. Conductors, 
 $1.75 for 12 hours first year, $1.90 after first year. 
 Shop men $1.50 to $3 for 10 hours. 
 
 DETAILS OF OPERATING EXPENSES. 
 
 Expenses per car mile. 
 (Cents.) 
 
 Cost of power : 
 
 Fuel 218 
 
 Wages of engineers and firemen 152 
 
 All station repairs and supplies Ill .48 
 
 Md iulenance of rolling stock : 
 
 Repairs on motors and gearing 918 
 
 Repairs on car bodies and trucks . . . . .4421.36 
 
 All other operating expenses 6.96 
 
 Total 7.8 
 
 ROAD NUMBER FIVE. 
 
 BOILERS. H. T., two 78x16. 
 
 FUEL. R. o. m. at $2.15 per ton. Consumption, 
 6.4 pounds per car mile. 
 
 ENGINES. Ball; three 150-h. p., single high-speed. 
 Steam pressure, 95 to 100. 
 
 GENERATORS. Six No. 32, belted direct from 
 engines. 
 
 ROADBED. Forty-five and fifty -two pound girder. 
 Street length, 14 miles; length of all tracks, 15.5 
 miles. Seven miles track length paved. Company 
 pave between tracks and maintain. In good con- 
 dition. 
 
 GRADES. Steepest, 10 per cent. ; length, 775 feet. 
 General character of road, moderate. 
 
 CARS. Total number in equipment, 52; 25 motor 
 (20 double, 5 single). Length, 16 feet closed, 21 feet, 
 
118 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 30 feet. 32 feet open. All single track. Average 
 number in use daily, 18 motor. 
 
 ANNUAL CAR MILEAGE, 699,060; daily average 
 per car, 106.4. 
 
 WAGES. Conductors and motor men, 15 cents per 
 hour ; engineers, $70 and $85 per month ; mechanics, 
 $2 to $2.25 per day; laborers, 15 cents per hour. 
 
 DETAILS OF OPERATING EXPENSES. 
 
 Expenses per car mile. 
 (Cents.) 
 
 Maintenance of roadbed and track .17 
 
 Maintenance of line .21 
 
 Maintenance of power plant : 
 
 Repairs on engines and boilers 027 
 
 Repairs on dynamos 026 
 
 Miscellaneous repairs 037 .09 
 
 Cost of power : 
 
 Fuel (r. <>. in. at $2.15 per ton) 690 
 
 Wajres of engineers and firemen 393 
 
 Oil and waste 058 
 
 Water (at 10 cents per 1,000 gallons) 0541.20 
 
 Maintenance of rolling stock : 
 
 *Repairs on motors 2.086 
 
 Repairs on car bodies and trucks 2392.33 
 
 Transportation expenses : 
 
 Wages of conductors and motor men 5.032 
 
 *Cleaning and inspecting, and oil and waste for motors (see note 
 
 below 
 
 Miscellaneous 035 5.07 
 
 General expenses : 
 
 Salaries and office expenses 544 
 
 Advertising and printing 086 
 
 Insurance 071 .70 
 
 t Incidental expenses 1.23 
 
 Total... 11.00 
 
 ROAD NUMBER SIX. 
 
 Length of road, four miles ; grades, heavy ; aver- 
 age number of cars in daily operation, five passen- 
 
 *Tn the item of repairs on motors are included geai'ing. cleaning and in- 
 specting, oil and waste for motors, and also the expense" incurred in cliang- 
 ing the motors from closed to open cars in the spring and back aeain in the 
 fall. 
 
 t Under this head are included a large number of small items which should 
 probably be distributed about pro rata under the seven other heads. 
 
COST OF CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 119 
 
 ger, one freight ; average daily mileage of passen- 
 ger cars. 96.6. 
 
 DETAILS OF OPERATING EXPENSES. 
 
 Expenses per car mile. 
 (Cents.) 
 
 Maintenance of roadbed and track .10 
 
 M aiutenance of line .06 
 
 Maintenance of power plant : 
 
 Repairs 011 engines and boilers 072 
 
 Repairs on dynamos 017 
 
 Miscellaneous repairs 007 .10 
 
 Cost of power : 
 
 Fuel 2.147 
 
 Wages of engineers and ti reinen 774 
 
 Wages of dynamo tenders and mechanics 100 
 
 Oil :uid waste 217 
 
 Water 294 
 
 Other supplies 2323.76 
 
 Maintenance of rolling stock : 
 
 Repairs on motors 410 
 
 Repairs on car bodies and trucks 176 .59 
 
 Transportation expenses : 
 
 Wages of conductors and motor men 3.653 
 
 Wages of track sweepers, etc 237 
 
 Accidents to persons and property 007 
 
 Cleaning and inspecting cars ,826 
 
 Oil, waste and other supplies 134 
 
 Wages of freight hands 1.2706.13 
 
 General expenses: 
 
 Salaries of officers and clerks 1.370 
 
 Office expenses 070 
 
 Advertising and printing 261 
 
 Insurance 1681.87 
 
 Total 12.61 
 
 The above are results for a period of nine months. 
 Coal cost $3 per ton for r. o. m. and $3.80 for lump. 
 Wages of conductors and motor men, 9 to 11 cents 
 per hour. Water cost 20 cents per 1,000 gallons. In 
 the above no account is taken of the mileage of the 
 freight cars. The cost of operation per car per day, 
 including freight cars, is $10.11. Deducting cost of 
 operating freight cars entirely, cost of passengers 
 cars alone is 11.20 cents per car mile. In the nine 
 months the freight cars hauled 16,738,000 pounds 
 of freight. 
 
120 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 This road is not one of the six already referred to. 
 
 ROAD NUMBER SEVEN. 
 
 Operating 18 miles by electricity and 4| by horses. 
 
 Electric System. 
 
 BOILERS. Babcock & Wilcox. 
 
 FUEL. Three parts "pea and dust" (hard) to one 
 part lump (soft). Average price, $2.23 per ton. Con- 
 sumption, 4.7 pounds per car mile, costing .524 
 cent. 
 
 ENGINES. One 400-h. p. Green, condensing, 50 to 
 55 pounds steam pressure, belted direct to three No. 
 32 Edison dynamos, and two 150-h. p. Corliss, con- 
 densing, 80 pounds steam pressure, belted to count- 
 tershaft, thence to three No. 32 Edison dynamos. 
 
 ROADBED. Johnson girder rail, 45, 56 and 63 
 pounds. Length of all tracks, 18 miles; street 
 lengths, 15 miles. All paved between tracks. Rail- 
 road company keep paving in order. Track in good 
 condition. 
 
 GRADES. Steepest, 8.4 per cent. ; length, 500 feet. 
 General character of road moderate. 
 
 CARS. Thirty-six closed, double motors, 16 and 20 
 feet long; 25 open, single motors, 16 feet. Average 
 number in use daily, 19 closed, 9 open. 
 
 CAR MILEAGE. Total from April 1 to October 1, 
 1891, 549,177. Daily average per car, 107. 
 
 PASSENGERS CARRIED. Total from April 1 to Octo- 
 ber 1, 1891, 3,508,168. 
 
 WAGES of conductors and motor men, $2 per day 
 of 11 hours. 
 
COST OP CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 121 
 
 OPERATING EXPENSES, TAXES AND TOLLS. 
 
 Expenses per car mile. 
 (Cents.) 
 
 Maintenance of roadbed and track, based on experience of seven 
 years at $900 per mile per annum 1.516 
 
 Maintenance of line, including material, wages of linemen and 
 horse keeping 569 
 
 Cost of power, including fuel, oil and waste, engineers and fire- 
 men, master mechanic, water, repairs to engines, boilers, station 
 apparatus and building 1.304 
 
 Motor repairs, including material, wages superintendent and repair 
 men, carpenter, blacksmith and machinist work 1.402 
 
 Wages of conductors and motor men 4.815 
 
 Sundry expenses, including starters, flagmen, foremen, watchmen, 
 washing cars, sundry help, gas, coal, water, oil, repairs to car 
 bodies and trucks by carpenters, blacksmiths and machinists 1.684 
 
 Extraordinary repairs, including repairing two burned cars, two 
 dynamo armatures burned by lightning, $2,000 paid for exchange 
 of 46 motor armatures, shaft repairs, and rent of extra station 
 building 725 
 
 Extraordinary horse expenses, including horses kept over and not 
 used on horse road 284 
 
 General officers, clerks and superintendents, less 20 per cent, 
 charged to horse road 1.051 
 
 Legal expenses and damages, less 20 per cent., as above 291 
 
 Insurance 184 
 
 Property, dividend and capital taxes, and bridge rent and tolls 1.090 
 
 Total of all operating expenses, taxes and tolls 14.915 
 
 Depreciation* 
 
 The yearly depreciation on cost of boilers, electric 
 lines, motors, and electrical and mechanical appli- 
 ances connected therewith, is estimated at 10 per 
 cent ; the yearly depreciation on engines, dynamos, 
 and appliances at 5 per cent. On this basis the total 
 depreciation is 2.141 cents per car mile. 
 
 Horse System. 
 
 CAR MILEAGE. Total from April 1 to October 1, 
 1891, 136,933, on 4i miles of track. 
 
 OPERATING EXPENSES. 
 
 Expenses per car mile. 
 (Cents.) 
 Maintenance of roadbed and track, based on experience of seven 
 
 years, at $500 per mile per annum 1.059 
 
 Power, including feed, shoeing, repairs to harness, depreciation of 
 
 horses, barn men, etc 9.141 
 
 Conductors and drivers 7.806 
 
 Other items, including \v;ishing cars, foremen, watchmen, starters, 
 gas, water, coal, oil, etc... 1.464 
 
1%% RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 Expenses per car mile. 
 (Cents.) 
 General officers, clerks, superintendents, etc., 20 per cent, of total 
 
 amount 1.054 
 
 Legal expenses and damages, 20 per cent., as above .292 
 
 Insurance 179 
 
 All taxes and bridge tolls and rents 980 
 
 Total of all operating expenses, taxes and tolls 21.975 
 
 NOTE. In justice to the horse system, it might be added that for the past 
 two years the price of feed has been much above the general average. 
 
 COMPARATIVE SHOWING. 
 
 Electric. Horse. 
 
 Recodpts per car mile 30.30 21.07 
 
 Operating expenses, taxes and tolls 14.92 21.98 
 
 Net earnings 15.38 
 
 In an article on the cost of equipment, Mr. C. J. 
 Field gives the following estimate : 
 
 I propose to take, as the best means of illustrat- 
 ing practically the purchase, equipment and oper- 
 ation of a street railway system with electricity, 
 a city with a population of say 100,000 with a 
 dilapidated street railway system, earning a gross 
 income of $125,000, to purchase same for $500,000 
 property rights, franchises, etc. and equip it with 
 40 miles of single track and 65 electric cars. 
 
 COST OF EQUIPMENT. 
 
 Steam plant n,500-/t. p. steam plant) : 
 Five engines, 250-1). p. each, compound condensing, size 16 
 
 inches X 32 inches X 42 inches, with wheels weighing 
 
 30,000 pounds $32,500 
 
 Eight R. T. boilers, 72 inches X 16 feet 9.COO 
 
 Jet condensers 3,000 
 
 Two boiler feed pumps 900 
 
 Steam and exhaust piping 12,000 
 
 Five engine foundations. I 3,500 
 
 Eight boiler settings 3,200 
 
 Five 30-inch belts 2,000 
 
 Erecting and starting 3,500 
 
 Freight and miscellaneous '. 2,500 
 
 $72,700 
 
 Electrical plant: 
 
 Fi ve generators, 200 kilowatts, $7,500 $37,500 
 
 Switchboard installation, foundations, etc 4,000 
 
 41,500 
 
 Building : 
 
 Power station, including stack, traveling crane, etc $25,000 
 
 Car house and repair shop, including tools, etc 15,000 
 
 40,000 
 
COST OF CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 123 
 
 Track construction : 
 40 miles irirder rail construction, ties 1)4 feet centres, G3- 
 
 ponml rail, etc., $1.15 per foot $244.880 
 
 Relaying, including paving, etc., at 60 cents per foot 12(>,T20 
 
 Trucking, hauling, etc 24,000 
 
 Ties, including 10 per cent, of joint ties, 130,000 at 40 cents 52,000 
 
 Ties, including 10 per cent, of joint ties, 15,000 at 70 cents.. 10,500 
 
 45G,K,0 
 
 Line construction : 
 
 Ten miles iron poles, etc $75,000 
 
 Ten miles wooden poles, etc 40,000 
 
 115,000 
 
 Car equipment: 
 
 65 electrical equipments at $2,000 $130,000 
 
 65 car bodies, 18-foot body, with open ends 65,000 
 
 65 trucks at $250 16,250 
 
 211,20) 
 
 Summary: 
 
 Steam plant $72.700 
 
 Electrical plant 41.500 
 
 Building 40.000 
 
 Track 456,000 
 
 Line construction 115,000 
 
 Car equipment 211,250 
 
 $936,550 
 
 Superintendent's and engineer's work $50,000 
 
 General and miscellaneous 50,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 $1,035,550 
 Original purchase 500,000 
 
 Total cost re-equipped $1,535,550 
 
 Gross income, say, $350,000. 
 
 Net income, say 35 per cent., equal to 8 per cent, on 
 cost on the basis of an investment of about one million 
 and a half of dollars, and from a property which in 
 many instances was hardly earning its fixed 
 charges formerly. 
 
 The cost of overhead construction he summarizes 
 as follows : 
 
 Line construction per mile, complete, including track bond- 
 ing, plain pole work, cross suspension or bracket with 
 feed wire $2,000 to $2.500 
 
 With sawed and painted poles 2,500 to 3,000 
 
 Iron poles, cross suspension, concrete setting, double track, 
 
 feed nnd guard wires 6,500 to 7,noO 
 
 Same with centre poles 4,500 to 5,500 
 
 He also appends a table, which will give a gen- 
 eral summary of the cost of electric equipment of 
 street railway systems, omitting the track construe- 
 
124 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 tion, which, of course, varies with the number of 
 miles to be equipped. 
 
 COST OF ELECTRIC EQUIPMENTS FOR STREET RAILROADS. 
 
 No. 
 of 
 cars. 
 
 Steam 
 plant 
 h.p. 
 
 Capacity 
 of gener- 
 ators. 
 K. W. 
 
 Steain 
 plant.* 
 
 Station 
 elec- 
 trical 
 equip- 
 ment. 
 
 Car 
 equip- 
 ments, 
 car 
 trucks 
 and 
 
 Line con- 
 struction 
 y> mile 
 of double 
 track 
 
 Total 
 equip- 
 ment 
 (omitting 
 track). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 motors. 
 
 
 
 6 
 10 
 
 120 
 225 
 
 80 
 150 
 
 $7,000 
 11,000 
 
 $fi,400 
 10.500 
 
 $19,500 
 32,500 
 
 $7,500 
 12,500 
 
 $40,400 
 66,500 
 
 15 
 
 375 
 
 240 
 
 17,500 
 
 15.000 
 
 48,750 
 
 30,000 
 
 111,250 
 
 20 
 
 450 
 
 300 
 
 22,000 
 
 17,500 
 
 C6,()00 
 
 40,000 
 
 144,500 
 
 30 
 
 675 
 
 450 
 
 2H,000 
 
 22.000 
 
 97.500 
 
 90.000 
 
 237,500 
 
 50 
 
 1.125 
 
 750 
 
 50,000 
 
 33,000 
 
 1(52,500 
 
 187,500 
 
 433,000 
 
 100 
 
 2,025 
 
 1,350 
 
 90,000 
 
 00,000 
 
 325,000 
 
 375,000 
 
 850,000 
 
 The above figures are approximate only, and based on the best city rail- 
 road practice. 
 
 The cost of a single car equipped, including the 
 car body, truck and motors, he states, is from $3,000 
 to $3,500, and the cost of the electric part of the 
 power-generating plant is from $35 to $45 per horse- 
 power. 
 
 In a lecture by Professor Marks on high speed 
 inter-urban electric roads to be run at a speed of &J- 
 miles per minute, he states that a conduit could be 
 devised for containing the wires which would not 
 cost more than $35,000 a mile ; the power, he says, 
 would not cost more than five cents per horse-power 
 per hour, including the regie. 
 
 The following table, taken from the U. S. Census 
 Reports, gives some statistics showing the distribu- 
 tion and costs of roads operated in different ways : 
 
 ' Add 25 per cent, to these figures for Corliss. 
 
COST OF CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 
 
 125 
 
 Items. 
 
 All motive 
 powers. 
 
 Distributed. 
 
 Auimal. 
 
 Electric. 
 
 Cable. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Length of 
 line 
 Lenirth of 
 sill tracks 
 No. of cars 
 No. of em 
 ploy es.. 
 No. of pas 
 senders. 
 Total cost. 
 
 5,783.47 
 
 8,123.02 
 32,505 
 
 70,764 
 
 2,023,010,202 
 
 $389,357,288.b7 
 
 4,061.94 
 
 5,661.44 
 22,408 
 
 44,314 
 
 1,227.756,815 
 $195,121,682.50 
 
 914.25 
 
 1,261.97 
 2,896 
 
 6,619 
 
 134,905,994 
 $35,830,949.63 
 
 283.22 
 
 488.31 
 5,089 
 
 11,873 
 
 373,492.708 
 $76,346,618.23 
 
 524.06 
 
 711.30 
 2,113 
 
 8,158 
 
 286,854,685 
 $82,058,038.51 
 
 Commenting on this table, the Street Railway 
 Journal stated : " Perhaps the most notable feat- 
 ure of the above table is the fact that in 1890 the 
 railways operated by animal power were still 
 far ahead of all others as regards their gross 
 operating statistics. Rapid as was the advance 
 of electric and cable roads the last five years 
 of the decade, only a beginning was made in 
 the supplanting of the older form of motive power. 
 It is interesting also to see that although both in 
 number and length of lines the electric railways 
 have far outstripped the cable railways, the latter, 
 nevertheless, represent twice as great an invest- 
 ment, operate nearly twice the number of cars and 
 do a business more than twice as great. These rela- 
 tive figures point clearly to the far greater density 
 of traffic upon the cable lines and to their large 
 first cost. The cable lines, almost without exception, 
 operate in the denser portions of the large cities, 
 while the greater part of the electric roads are either 
 suburban or serve the people of comparatively small 
 cities." 
 
126 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 Further tables, too large to be reproduced here, 
 giving in detail the capital stock, dividends, inter- 
 est, receipts and expenditures, taken from these 
 census reports, will be found on page 25 of the Jan- 
 uary number, 1892, of the Street Railway Journal. 
 
 The table on the following page, compiled from 
 various sources, gives some interesting data regard- 
 ing some of the principal roads, and will explain 
 itself. 
 
 As far as operating expenses per car mile are con- 
 cerned, both cable and electric railways appear to 
 be cheaper than those operated by animal power, as 
 shown by the figures from the U. S. Census; the 
 cable roads were built at a cost per mile of street 
 occupied of over seven times as much as the electric 
 railways were. The passenger traffic is about six 
 times as great upon cable lines as upon electric rail- 
 ways. The figures correspond with the generally 
 accepted fact that cable railways attain their great- 
 est efficiency where an extremely heavy traffic is to 
 be handled. 
 
 In the statistics for the six roads in Massachu- 
 setts, the cost of equipment was about half that of 
 the cost of construction, and therefore about one- 
 third of the total cost as given in the above table. 
 On one of these roads the cost of repairing of bed 
 and track amounted to $340 per mile, and on 
 another $441. The repairs for cars and electrical 
 equipment per car mile on one of the roads was .278 
 cent per car mile. The average car miles run per 
 day on the six roads was 90.2. 
 
 The following table giving the receipts and opera- 
 ting expenses in cents per car mile, and the ratio 
 
COST OF CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 
 
 127 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Per 
 
 to 
 
 cent of operating expenses 
 receipts 
 
 
 
 
 
 -* 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 ^ CO 
 
 s g 
 
 
 
 
 
 t- 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 CT5 
 
 @ 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 Gross receipts in dollars 
 
 
 
 
 
 $ 
 
 w 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 1 * 
 
 X>| 
 
 Ditto 
 
 , iu cents, per passenger 
 
 % 
 
 CO 
 
 a 
 
 CO 
 
 eo 
 
 
 ei 
 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 co 
 
 CM O 
 
 
 Ditto 
 
 in cents, per car mile 
 
 CM 
 
 ** 
 
 01 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 5 
 
 
 i 
 
 co 
 
 o 
 c-i 
 
 i 
 
 s s 
 
 CM CM 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 en 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 Tjt 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *O 
 
 rH 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 Ir- CN 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 
 ! 
 
 * 
 
 8 
 
 CM 
 
 9 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 en ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t- 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 j 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 o 
 
 t- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 3 
 
 
 Total 
 
 passengers carried 
 
 10 
 
 
 ** 
 
 
 
 
 
 of 
 
 o of 
 
 
 
 
 OS 
 
 
 
 
 
 CN 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 % 
 i-i 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 O C^ 
 
 * 
 
 Total 
 
 length of track in miles 
 
 w 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 00 
 
 en 
 
 CO 
 
 8<M 
 rH 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 11 
 
 g 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Total 
 
 cost, including equipment.. 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 or 
 
 s 
 
 
 oT 
 
 
 
 
 cs 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 r 
 
 K'H 
 
 Si 
 
 1 
 
 [8 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 :' s 
 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 O g 
 
 g :| 
 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 K! ^ 
 
 t w 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ' 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 | 
 
 cj - : 
 
 ' 
 
 S:C 
 
 
 OS 
 
 ^rt 
 
 :a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 la 
 
 _0 
 
 |5 
 
 i 
 
 ^3 
 
 
 
 g-S 
 
 a ;-^ 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 C5 O 
 
 3 
 
 2 '? 
 
 
 Si 
 
 " ? 
 
 % :5 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 E 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 sf^S 5'"3 i5s 
 
 8. Census 
 
 , -a o Ivo "7 
 
 'Ipls 
 
 - tr * 
 
 OS'S H 00^ 
 5 CJ cj jj 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 2 
 
 easant Val 
 x electric 
 
 a^:- 
 
 - cS's^J 
 
 !'?! 
 
 ^^^-3 
 
 
 P 
 
 
 i^ 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 q 
 
 ES 
 
 
 
 
1L2S RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 between them, for a number of different roads, was 
 compiled from various sources. 
 
 
 M 
 
 c o> 
 
 ss 
 
 il 
 WL 
 
 a 
 
 | 
 
 o 
 
 B 
 
 1 
 
 Operating expenses in 
 cents per car mile 
 
 Net earnings in cents | 
 per car mile 
 
 Operating expenses in 
 per cent, of receipts.. 
 
 U. S. Census 10 cable roads; maximum 
 
 
 21.91 
 
 " minimum 
 
 
 9 39 
 
 
 
 " mean 
 
 
 14.12 
 
 
 
 10 electric roads ; maximum 
 
 
 36.04 
 8.34 
 13 21 
 
 
 
 " minimum .. 
 
 
 
 
 " mean .. 
 
 
 
 
 30 horse car lines; maximum.. 
 
 
 27.02 
 
 
 
 " " minimum 
 
 
 9.10 
 
 
 
 " " mean 
 West End line; April to August, 1891; electric 
 * " horse . . 
 Pleasant Valley road. 1890 
 
 "38.5" 
 
 35.0 
 
 27.56 
 30.4 
 22.4 
 22.77 
 14.37 
 
 40.5 
 31.5 
 21.5 
 37.0 
 
 18.16 
 21.13 
 24.49 
 20.26 
 25.9 
 17.6 
 11.07 
 11.06 
 
 19.5 
 22.0 
 19.0 
 12.0 
 
 
 
 17.4 
 10.5 
 7.3 
 4.5 
 4.8 
 11.7 
 3.3 
 
 21.0 
 
 9.5 
 2.5 
 25.0 
 
 55.0 
 70.0 
 73.0 
 85.2 
 78.8 
 49.0 
 77.0 
 
 48.0 
 70.0 
 89.0 
 32.5 
 49.0 
 
 35.0 
 
 Six electric roads in Mass., one year 
 City & South London line; first 6 mos. 1891.. 
 Rochester line, June, 1891; electric 
 
 " " horse 
 
 Birmingham (Eng.), 12 mouths; electric ac- 
 cumulator 
 
 Birmingham (Eug.), 12 mouths; steam 
 horse 
 " " cable. 
 
 St Paul & Minn 11 lines July. 
 
 St. Paul & Minn., lines of heaviest traffic 
 (9^ miles) 
 
 
 
 
 Chicago cable lines 
 
 
 9.65 
 
 
 " horse " 
 
 
 21.9 
 
 
 
 Barking (Eng.) accumulator line, 12 months. 
 Budapest conduit line, 1890 
 
 
 16 4 
 
 
 
 24.0 
 
 
 
 
 " 1891, August... 
 
 
 
 
 37.0 
 
 The following table gives the cost of operating 
 per passenger carried : 
 
 Six roads in Massachusetts 4.2 cents per passenger. 
 
 10 cable roads in U. 8 3.22 
 
 10 electric roads in U. S 3.82 
 
 30 horse car roads in U. 8 3.67 
 
 City & South London road (6 months) 3.08 
 
 Pleasant Valley (Pittsburgh) 3.67 
 
COST OF CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 129 
 
 In order to show the sub division of the expenses 
 per car mile the following table has been calculated 
 from information obtained from various sources. 
 Two of the roads are of the West End Line, Boston, 
 one an electric and the other a horse car line. It will 
 be noticed that the expenses for car repairs are about 
 two and a half times greater in the case of the 
 electric line ; but this difference is much more than 
 made up in the saving in cost of motive power. 
 The total cost per car mile for the Rochester line is 
 only one half of that for the West End roads. It 
 should be -understood, however, that a strict com- 
 parison cannot be made, as there is a difference of 
 opinion among those who give the figures as to 
 what heading various expenses should come under. 
 The figures given must, therefore, be understood 
 to be only approximate. For further data on this 
 subject, see the article by Mr. Badger at the begin- 
 ning of this chapter. 
 
 
 j 
 
 
 s 
 
 W 
 
 bd 
 
 
 K H > 5j ?' 
 
 ffi 
 
 S^'S 
 
 t^g 
 
 tf.% ^2 
 
 
 H- -'^ ~ ** 
 
 o 
 
 2-S ^'OD 
 
 B -^ 
 
 5 2 pT 1 
 
 
 ao a T~ Lfi 
 
 2 
 
 ~- H S J3 
 
 2 
 
 5' 
 
 
 ctS B 
 
 CD 
 
 << :rS- 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 CENTS PER CAR 
 
 "i ? Q ' 
 
 S 
 
 ^S^ <j 
 
 3 
 
 ^^^3 
 
 MILE. 
 
 o 5' s '. ! 
 
 s 
 
 ' *1 
 
 W 
 
 1 * 
 
 
 ^ r*M cs 
 
 5' 
 
 H^.CD 
 
 - 1 
 
 c ^ 
 
 
 2 ^" "* -^ 
 
 P 
 
 f^O ' 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 IS^o 
 
 
 rt ^ ta-l 
 
 p 
 
 111 
 
 
 ^ ^ "P 
 
 
 ! S'5 CD 
 
 
 % % 1 
 
 Motive power 
 
 7.44=359/0 
 
 10.74=44% 
 
 1.54= 8% 
 
 2.40=21.7% 
 
 5.7=35% 
 
 Conductors and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 drivers 
 
 7.14=34% 
 
 8.22=34% 
 
 6.80=34% 
 
 5.66=51.2% 
 
 2.9=18% 
 
 Cur repuirs. 
 
 1.32= 6% 
 
 .56= 2 % 
 
 1.68= 8 % 
 
 1. = 9.0% 
 
 6.6=40% 
 
 Other expenses. . . 
 
 5.23 
 
 4.97 
 
 10.24 
 
 2.01 
 
 1.2 
 
 Total cost per car 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mile 
 
 21.13 cents. 
 
 24.49 cents. 
 
 20.26 cents. 
 
 11.07 
 
 16.4 cents. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
130 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 The following table gives the subdivision of the 
 expenses per car mile for the Pleasant Valley Rail- 
 way, of Pittsburgh, for the year 1890, and is doubt- 
 less quite reliable : 
 
 Conductors and motor men per mile, 6.80 cts. 33.5% 
 
 Motor and electric repairs " 1.68 " = 8.3% 
 
 Mechanical repairs " 1.14 " 
 
 Motive power " 1.54 " 7.69/6 
 
 Overhead system " 0.45 " 
 
 Maintenance of way " 1.08 " =5.3% 
 
 General expense " 0.88 " 
 
 Stables " 0.46 " 
 
 Officers and salaries " 0.84 " 
 
 Interests " 2.71 " 
 
 Tolls " 0.25 " 
 
 General labor " 2.43 " 
 
 Total cost per car mile 20.26 cts. 
 
 The following table gives some further data of 
 interest for the same road, and is taken from the 
 annual report : 
 
 EARNINGS. 
 
 Gross receipts for the year $331,900.80 
 
 Total passengers carried during year, 6,612,913. 
 
 EXPENDITURES. 
 
 Pay rolls $141,207.71 
 
 Motor and car supplies 13,688.35 
 
 Fuel and light 8,628.45 
 
 Engines and boilers 2,767.69 
 
 Dynamos 1,724.27 
 
 Overhead system 1,713.33 
 
 Roadway and stables 12,5] 5.72 
 
 General expense, taxes, bridge tolls, etc 33,268.12 
 
 Interest on bonds 27,000.00 
 
 $242,513.64 
 
 Net earnings $89,387.16 
 
 Surplus Jan 1, 1890 21,026.70 
 
 Total $110,4:3.86 
 
 Paid dividend No. 31, July, 1890 39,000.00 
 
 Surplus Jan. 1,1891 $71,413.86 
 
 The subdivision of operating expenses of the West 
 End electric and horse lines (Boston) for one 
 month (June, 1891) is shown in the following table ; 
 it should be remembered that the mileage of the 
 horse lines was far greater than that of the electric 
 lines: 
 
COST OF CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 131 
 
 OPERATING KXPENSKS. Electric. Horse 
 
 G em-nil $7,465 $.2,217 
 
 Maintenance of track 3.334 9,023 
 
 Maintenance of huildiiiirs 462 2,057 
 
 Maintenance of cars, etc 4,281 6.579 
 
 Su perm temlence 2,397 9,22 ', 
 
 Road and snow 1,463 4,355 
 
 Injuries and damages 560 1.637 
 
 Car and lamp cleaners 1,000 3,045 
 
 Conductors and drivers 26,132 88.573 
 
 Total motive power $26,359 $116,210 
 
 Total operating expenses $78,459 $263,825 
 
 Net earnings $80,529 $131,729 
 
 A report of the Barking Accumulator Road (Lon- 
 don) for the year 1890 contains the following fig- 
 ures showing the subdivision of expenses : 
 
 Waires at generating station $3,280. or 3.3 cts. per car mile. 
 
 Waires of drivers 2,910, or 2.9 
 
 Fuel 2,100, or 2.1 
 
 Oil 310, or .3 
 
 Battery depreciation and repairs 5,730, or 5.7 
 
 Motor " " 8fiO, or .9 
 
 Other " " 1.210,orl.2 
 
 Total $16,400, or 16.4 cts. per car mile. 
 
 The Birmingham (England) Central Tramway 
 Company employs steam, cable, horse, and electric 
 systems for operating its cars. The table on p. 132, 
 taken from their report for the year ending June 30, 
 189-1, will afford a very good opportunity to make 
 comparisons of these systems. The city has over 
 400,000 inhabitants, and it is stated that the people 
 use the cars very freely. It is also claimed that 
 mechanical traction has been employed to a greater 
 extent in that city than in any other in Great 
 Britian and Ireland. 
 
 Commenting on this table, the Street Railway 
 Journal states: "A great preponderance will be 
 observed in the steam department over the other 
 three. This is, of course, due to its more extensive 
 
132 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 EXPENSE ACCOUNT. 
 
 
 Steam 
 Department. 
 
 Horse 
 Department. 
 
 Cable 
 Department. 
 
 Electric 
 Department. 
 
 FOR MOTIVE POWER. 
 Wages 
 
 $49,326.20 
 
 $31,358.28 
 
 $15,395.40 
 
 $7 268 W 
 
 Fuel 
 
 45,289.34 
 
 
 6,997.26 
 
 4,625 38 
 
 Fora <r e and bedding 
 
 
 46,775.26 
 
 
 
 Water and gas 
 
 5,174,62 
 
 804.76 
 
 737.34 
 
 190 10 
 
 Veterinary and shoeing 
 
 
 5,094.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 053 60 
 
 
 
 Stable utensils 
 
 
 563.72 
 
 
 
 Stores 
 
 8,328.08 
 
 
 1.932.66 
 
 2 032 90 
 
 
 1,644.80 
 
 954.80 
 
 299 46 
 
 260 52 
 
 Repairs Wages 
 
 21.269.12 
 
 
 772.90 
 
 5 32 
 
 Materials 
 
 21,253.18 
 
 
 9,284 48 
 
 828 62 
 
 Renewals. 
 
 
 5,570.60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 $152,285.34 
 
 $93,175 02 
 
 $35,419.50 
 
 $15 211 74 
 
 CAR REPAIRS. 
 Wages 
 
 $4,256.08 
 
 $3,640 74 
 
 $1,774 56 
 
 $1 689 56 
 
 Materials 
 
 3 542 68 
 
 3 263 16 
 
 6 991 38 
 
 3 6')4 94 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 $7,798.76 
 
 $6,903.90 
 
 $8,765.94 
 
 $5 384 50 
 
 TRAFFIC EXPENSES. 
 Wages 
 
 $32,267.70 
 
 $13,549.64 
 
 $11 100 14 
 
 $3 000 62 
 
 Water and gas. 
 
 2,719.04 
 
 442 00 
 
 737 32 
 
 190 14 
 
 Stores 
 
 1,368.00 
 
 430 84 
 
 446 02 
 
 7066 
 
 Stationery tickets, etc. 
 
 3,182.22 
 
 1 289 80 
 
 1 113 56 
 
 361 5 A 
 
 Sundries . .. 
 
 604.22 
 
 553.82 
 
 254 66 
 
 114 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 $40,141.18 
 
 $16,266.10 
 
 $13 651.70 
 
 |3 737 56 
 
 PERMANENT WAY AND BUILD- 
 INGS. 
 Wages 
 
 $6,310.80 
 
 $212.28 
 
 589.48 
 
 $207 70 
 
 Materials 
 
 30,668 04 
 
 1 542 20 
 
 1 243 42 
 
 172 64 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 $36,978 84 
 
 $1 754 48 
 
 $1 832 90 
 
 $380 34 
 
 To GENERAL CHARGES. 
 Stationery and incidentals. . 
 Salaries 
 
 $1,815.42 
 2,381.16 
 
 $762.40 
 1 249 10 
 
 $510.62 
 1,040.58 
 
 $195.98 
 279 82 
 
 Compensation 
 
 3,870.14 
 
 363.92 
 
 155.44 
 
 213.56 
 
 Rates, taxes and insurance 
 Professional charges 
 
 8,626.56 
 7,258.66 
 
 2,551.08 
 1,010.34 
 
 3,769.50 
 678.82 
 
 1,423.06 
 528.12 
 
 Sundries 
 
 1,263 92 
 
 798 62 
 
 698 46 
 
 309 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals. 
 
 $25,215 86 
 
 $6 735 46 
 
 $6 853 42 
 
 $2 049 66 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No miles run. 
 
 1 184 401 
 
 131 528* 
 
 522 876 
 
 138 396 
 
 Passengers carried 
 
 14 242 827 
 
 506,196t 
 1 114 3H8* 
 
 5 241,362 
 
 1,144,718 
 
 
 
 2,638,028t 
 
 
 
 * Street cars, 
 t Omnibuses. 
 
COST OF CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 133 
 
 use over the cable, horse, or electric systems. The 
 electric department makes a very good showing, 
 but is defective, as will be explained later. The 
 cable division, in our opinion, makes a much better 
 showing than its associates, considering the fact that 
 but twenty 14- foot cars are operated in this depart- 
 ment. The horse department is almost monopolized 
 by the 'buses, but the cars make a good showing. 
 On the whole, the report appears satisfactory. The 
 net profits, after deducting the expenses from the 
 gross receipts, show almost 4fd. or about nine and 
 a half cents, in the steam department, lid. in the 
 horse department, 12d. in the cable department, 
 and lO|d. in the electric department. The cost to 
 operate the steam division was twenty -two cents, 
 the horse division nineteen cents, the cable divis- 
 ion twelve cents, and the electric division nineteen 
 and a half cents. However, for a city of the size of 
 Birmingham more than 24,381,323 passengers should 
 have been carried in one year, especially since rapid 
 transit is employed here to a greater extent than in 
 any other city in Europe. The cable division of the 
 Birmingham company has been a most pronounced 
 success, as is always the case with the cable system 
 where it is given a fair trial. The writer was 
 informed, by one of the company's engineers, that 
 the net profits were already very large, and to 
 materially increase them the fares were to be 
 reduced, and a great increase for the future was 
 confidently expected. Twenty 14-foot cars, mounted 
 on bogie trucks, are run by cable power, and con- 
 sidering that they carried over 5.000,000 passengers 
 during the last year they may be deemed most sat- 
 
134 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 isfactory. It is surprising, however, that the profits 
 are so large, considering the service given. The 
 cars are very dirty, and we are quite sure that they 
 would not be tolerated in America. The conductors 
 and gripmen, or drivers, as they are called in Bir- 
 mingham, look quite as shabby as the cars. They 
 stand in strong contrast to the well-uniformed men 
 in the cable service at St. Louis, San Francisco, and 
 New York. The steam and electric cars are much 
 cleaner, and as it is with the latter we have to deal, 
 we shall proceed to do so immediately. 
 
 " The electrical division using storage batteries was 
 opened on July 16, 1890, and inspected by the Board 
 of Trade July 24 of the same year. The latter 
 approved it, and from the very first it has been well 
 received by the public, and so much so that the run- 
 ning of additional cars is contemplated. But let it 
 be understood from the first that the road is an 
 experimental one, like most storage battery roads 
 now in existence, and it is upon the economical 
 running of the road in the future more than upon 
 its past record that its adoption depends. We were 
 told by a person who is an authority, that the road 
 was reported to have earned $15,000 clear profit, but 
 in reality there was a deficit of $5,000, because the 
 storage battery account was not handed in, and, as 
 a great many no doubt know, this is one of the 
 greatest items of expense attending a storage bat- 
 tery road." 
 
 A report on the two-mile open conduit at Black- 
 pool, England, gives the following figures. There 
 are 12 cars in operation, which have run 98,000 car 
 miles and carried 9,034 passengers during the year, 
 
COST OP CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 135 
 
 which is an increase of G and 1 5 per cent, respect- 
 ively. The dividend declared was 7i per cent. The 
 conduit repairs for one year amounted to 144, or 
 72 per mile. The motor and car repair amounted 
 to 192, or 16 per car, which is about five per cent, 
 of their original total cost, and about 13 per cent, 
 of the original cost of the complete electrical appa- 
 ratus. 
 
 A report on the Rochester railroad for the middle 
 of this year states that they operated 44 vestibule 
 electric cars 18 feet long; that the gross receipts 
 were 23.05 cents per car mile for a mileage of 159,- 
 567. The cost of operation of these cars for one 
 month was $18,332, and the receipts were $37,053, 
 leaving a net profit of $18,721. The division of 
 expenses will be found in one of the above tables. 
 
 The average cost of haulage in London for street 
 cars and omnibuses is said to be about 20 cents per 
 car mile, while the cost of horse haulage in that 
 city is given as 12 cents per car mile. 
 
 In an article by Mr. Field, he states that the cost 
 of generating power for 16 and 18-foot cars is from 
 three to five cents per car mile for expense at gen- 
 erating station. For 33- foot cars, or trailers, he 
 assumes that the cost will be 50 per cent. more. 
 
 In a report of some figures from six electric street 
 railways in different parts of various States, in 
 which the Thomson-Houston system is used, it is 
 stated that the average amount of coal used per 
 horse-power hour at the power station is about five 
 pounds; while the average amount used per car 
 mile on the road, computed from a mileage of over 
 1,200,000 miles, is about eight pounds, or over 50 per 
 
134 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 isfactory. It is surprising, however, that the profits 
 are so large, considering the service given. The 
 cars are very dirty, and we are quite sure that they 
 would not be tolerated in America. The conductors 
 and griprnen, or drivers, as they are called in Bir- 
 mingham, look quite as shabby as the cars. They 
 stand in strong contrast to the well-uniformed men 
 in the cable service at St. Louis, San Francisco, and 
 New York. The steam and electric cars are much 
 cleaner, and as it is with the latter we have to deal, 
 we shall proceed to do so immediately. 
 
 " The electrical division using storage batteries was 
 opened on July 16, 1890, and inspected by the Board 
 of Trade July 24 of the same year. The latter 
 approved it, and from the very first it has been well 
 received by the public, and so much so that the run- 
 ning of additional cars is contemplated. But let it 
 be understood from the first that the road is an 
 experimental one, like most storage battery roads 
 now in existence, and it is upon the economical 
 running of the road in the future more than upon 
 its past record that its adoption depends. We were 
 told by a person who is an authority, that the road 
 was reported to have earned $15,000 clear profit, but 
 in reality there was a deficit of $5,000, because the 
 storage battery account was not handed in, and, as 
 a great many no doubt know, this is one of the 
 greatest items of expense attending a storage bat- 
 tery road." 
 
 A report on the two-mile open conduit at Black- 
 pool, England, gives the following figures. There 
 are 12 cars in operation, which have run 98,000 car 
 miles and carried 9,034 passengers during the year, 
 
COST OF CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. 135 
 
 which is an increase of C and 15 per cent, respect- 
 ively. The dividend declared was 7? per cent. The 
 conduit repairs for one year amounted to 144, or 
 72 per mile. The motor and car repair amounted 
 to 192, or 16 per car, which is about five per cent, 
 of their original total cost, and about 13? per cent, 
 of the original cost of the complete electrical appa- 
 ratus. 
 
 A report on the Rochester railroad for the middle 
 of this year states that they operated 44 vestibule 
 electric cars 18 feet long; that the gross receipts 
 were 23.05 cents per car mile for a mileage of 159,- 
 567. The cost of operation of these cars for one 
 month was $18,332, and the receipts were $37,053, 
 leaving a net profit of $18,721. The division of 
 expenses will be found in one of the above tables. 
 
 The average cost of haulage in London for street 
 cars and omnibuses is said to be about 20 cents per 
 car mile, while the cost of horse haulage in that 
 city is given as 12 cents per car mile. 
 
 In an article by Mr. Field, he states that the cost 
 of generating power for 16 and 18-foot cars is from 
 three to five cents per car mile for expense at gen- 
 erating station. For 33- foot cars, or trailers, he 
 assumes that the cost will be 50 per cent. more. 
 
 In a report of some figures from six electric street 
 railways in different parts of various States, in 
 which the Thomson-Houston system is used, it is 
 stated that the average amount of coal used per 
 horse-power hour at the power station is about five 
 pounds; while the average amount used per car 
 mile on the road, computed from a mileage of over 
 1,200,000 miles, is about eight pounds, or over 50 per 
 
136 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 cent, more than the first quantity. It is also found 
 from the figures obtained from these roads that the 
 average cost of coal at the power station is $3 per 
 ton. From this it is seen that the cost of fuel per 
 (horse-power hour at the station and per car mile on 
 Jthe road are respectively .75 and 1.02 cents. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OVERHEAD WIRE SURFACE RAILWAYS. 
 
 Under this heading will be included what is 
 usually known as the overhead trolley system. The 
 general construction is so well known that no 
 description need be given here. In general the cur- 
 rent is led from the power station to different por- 
 tions of the line by feeders, which are in. some cases 
 underground, but more generally overhead. The 
 feeders are connected at various points with the 
 trolley wire, which is usually in separate sections. 
 From this the current is taken by the trolley on the 
 roof of the car, passes through the motors, thence 
 to the iron framework of the car, and from there to 
 the track, returning to the station either through 
 the track or through the ground. 
 
 By far the largest number of roads are run by 
 this system, and it may be said that this is the only 
 one which is at present in extended use. Its success 
 is already far beyond dispute, as the rapid intro- 
 duction of the system shows. 
 
 In many cities objections have been raised to this 
 system, chiefly by the municipal authorities. What 
 these objections are, and whether they are valid or 
 
OVERHEAD WIRE SURFACE RAILWAYS. 137 
 
 not is best seen by the answers which were pub- 
 lished by a number of writers, of which we give 
 here a few of the most important. 
 
 Regarding the overhead system, Mr. F. H. Monks 
 writes as follows : " The only system for the opera- 
 tion of street cars by electricity which has, up to 
 date, met with commercial success is the overhead 
 wire system, and, therefore, the application of elec- 
 tricity as a motive force at present must be confined 
 practically to that system. The extension of the 
 overhead system in the large cities of the country 
 has undeniably been greatly checked by the oppo- 
 sition of the municipal authorities to the erection of 
 poles, the stringing of wires, the fear that loss of 
 life or injury to persons would ensue as an inevita- 
 ble result of the operation of cars by electricity, and 
 the belief that any line so operated would of neces- 
 sity succumb to the rigors of a Northern winter. 
 Notwithstanding such opposition, the number of 
 roads operated by the overhead wire system has 
 increased with great rapidity, and after the people 
 have had an opportunity to learn to their complete 
 satisfaction that the poles and wires, though cer- 
 tainly objectionable, are yet justifiable under the 
 circumsta.nces, that absolutely no one is killed by 
 the electrical current and that no snow storm, how- 
 ever severe, has any terrors for the managers of the 
 line, they clamor for the rapid extension of the sys- 
 tem, as they certainly are doing in Boston to-day. 
 The progress of invention respecting the develop- 
 ment of the overhead system has been marvelous, 
 and the great danger has been the possibility of 
 getting too far committed to present methods and 
 
138 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 appliances to prevent the acquirement of the 
 improved devices, which are coming into sight 
 almost daily. These facts have unquestionably 
 acted as a deterrent with street railway managers 
 everywhere to the even more rapid extension of the 
 overhead system. I make no doubt but that within 
 a few months matters of detail respecting this sys- 
 tem will be so generally regarded as settled that its 
 extension will be more rapid than in the past." 
 
 An editorial in the New York Tribune, referring 
 to the overhead trolley system, says : " It is danger- 
 ous, inefficient, destructive, and unsightly. That the 
 overhead wires are destructive, firemen have 
 repeatedly declared, and proven to the dismay of 
 numerous owners and tenants of burning buildings. 
 Under perfectly favorable conditions, it does 
 undoubtedly do its work reasonably well, but it is 
 peculiarly liable to break down just when the public 
 need of it is greatest. An ice storm is always 
 expected to interrupt its course, even if it does not 
 bring the wires in a tangle to the ground. The 
 experience of Boston in this particular has been 
 exceptionally uncomfortable and irritating, but the 
 same inherent defect has been experienced else- 
 where. Lastly , the existence of overhead wires carry- 
 ing a current of electricity capable of operating a 
 line of street cars is, and in the end of the case must 
 be, a constant menace to public safety and a com- 
 mon cause of fatalities. In cities the trolley system 
 is intolerable." 
 
 To this editorial, Mr. S. J. MacFarren published a 
 reply, of which the following abstract is taken. He 
 states that recently printed replies from the mayors 
 
OVERHEAD WIRE SURFACE RAILWAYS. 139 
 
 of nearly 60 cities and towns possessing electric 
 traction showed that nine-tenths praised the trolley 
 rapid transit system with more or less enthusiasm, 
 and not one condemned it. (See Electrical World, 
 Nov., 1890). Many of these officials denied explicitly 
 that the trolley system is considered dangerous by 
 their people. He states that electric railway wires 
 have never killed or maimed a human being. He 
 claims that the firemen's complaint against over- 
 head wires was generally, if not invariably, against 
 light and telephone wires, which are strung by the 
 hundreds over the sidewalks where fire ladders are 
 to be hoisted, while electric railway wires need be 
 but two, and those in the middle of the street. 
 Regarding the stoppages in storms, he claims that 
 the electric railway motor is immensely superior to 
 animal traction in this emergency, and when prop- 
 erly equipped and managed, is equal to the cable. 
 
 Regarding the question of the danger of the over- 
 head system, Mr. F. L. Pope states: "With a view 
 of getting at the actual facts in the case, the Boston 
 Advertiser, a few months ago, sent out a circular 
 letter asking for information from every city in 
 which electric railways are in actual operation, 
 from Portland, Me., to Galveston, Tex. It was 
 asked what system was used in each place ; whether 
 there had ever been loss of life or injury from the 
 wires ; whether there was any serious objection on 
 the part of the public to overhead wires, and what 
 was the general opinion in the locality as to the 
 effect of the introduction of electricity upon the 
 street railway service. Replies were published from 
 64 cities and towns. All but four of them were 
 
140 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 favorable. Not one solitary instance of accident or 
 serious injury from electric currents was reported. 
 One of the objecting places was Newport, R. I., 
 where it seems the "upper ten" strenuously opposed 
 the introduction of anything that would popularize 
 riding on the streets. 
 
 "Many persons are alarmed at the vivid flashes 
 of light which are often seen at night beneath the 
 wheels of an electric car, and at the point of con- 
 tact of the trolley wheel with the overhead wire, 
 and are under the impression that they must indi- 
 cate a very dangerous electric pressure. Such, how- 
 ever, is not the case. In an electro-plating estab- 
 lishment at Ansonia, Conn., I once saw a workman 
 accidentally set a tin pail filled with water upon a 
 pair of electric conductors near the dynamo. The 
 pail instantly disappeared, being not merely melted, 
 but being converted into metallic vapor, with a ter- 
 rific flash which illuminated the whole building 
 with a dazzling and instantaneous radiance; yet 
 the current which produced this startling phenome- 
 non was of such low pressure that it was impossible 
 to detect its presence by the sense of touch, even by 
 applying the hands directly to the conductors. 
 
 "An extraordinary amount of nonsense has been 
 printed and talked in respect to the alleged dangers 
 of both electric light and railway wires. The public 
 have been needlessly alarmed by the exaggerated 
 statements of interested parties, but, nevertheless, 
 the danger is so small, as a matter of fact, that the 
 actual figures are almost astonishing. Most of the 
 accidents which have been reported occurred in 
 New York city. Yet the statistics show that in 
 
OVERHEAD WIRE SURFACE RAILWAYS. 141 
 
 1889, out of 1,467 deaths in New York city by acci- 
 dents of various sorts, only nine were due to elec- 
 tricity, a considerably less number than were killed 
 by being run over by horse cars. Not a single death 
 was recorded in Boston, although there are perhaps 
 more wires there in proportion to the population 
 than in New T York. There are in the six New Eng- 
 land States nearly 140 arc light stations, burning 
 over 20,000 arc lamps and distributing 30,000 horse- 
 power of electricity through the streets of the prin- 
 cipal cities and towns. During the last ten years, so 
 far as I can ascertain, there have been but five 
 deaths from electricity ; four of these were employes 
 of the lighting companies, and one was a careless 
 boy who climbed upon a shed and took hold of a 
 wire. During the same ten years the steam rail- 
 roads of New England have killed 2,339 employes 
 and 2,902 other persons; 5,241 against 5. Not only 
 is electrical power far less dangerous than the same 
 quantity of power used in other industries, but it is 
 relatively safer, as the few accidents that do occur 
 are among the employes. These remarks refer to 
 electric wires in general. Now as to electric railway 
 wires : 
 
 " I believe that it is an incontestable fact that not 
 one single man, woman, or child has ever been 
 killed or even seriously injured by a 500-volt cur- 
 rent, which is the highest pressure ever permitted 
 upon electric railway wires. Every alleged case of 
 accident by railway wires has, upon investigation, 
 proved to be either without foundation, or to have 
 been caused by an electric light current. When we 
 consider that shocks have been experienced by 
 
142 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 men, women, and children, persons of all ages and 
 all sorts of physical condition, sometimes for a 
 period of several minutes, experience seems to war- 
 rant the positive assertion that the electric railway 
 current is not dangerous to human life, and that we 
 may dismiss that question from further considera- 
 tion." 
 
 On the same subject Mr. Griffin states: "On this 
 point I think the public are now well satisfied. 
 While there are few employes on any of the roads 
 now in operation who have not had the full shock 
 of 500 volts repeatedly, there is not a single instance 
 of any of the patrons of these roads who have been 
 killed or even seriously injured by the 500-volt cur- 
 rent from the overhead wire. Electric cars will run 
 over and kill the careless pedestrian or the drunken 
 passenger who falls from the platform in front of 
 the wheels, as will the horse car, but no passenger 
 or pedestrian has ever been killed by the trolley 
 wire, and statistics do not show that the electric car 
 is in any respect any more dangerous to life than 
 the horse car or cable car. Last year (1890) the 
 West End street railway system of Boston carried 
 114,853,081 passengers, and all the steam railroads 
 of the whole State of Massachusetts only carried 
 98,843,712. The West End system killed 15 passen- 
 gers and employes, and the steam roads killed 325. 
 Of the 15 fatal accidents on the West End system, 
 five were attributed to electric cars and 10 to horse 
 cars. It is only fair to say that the narrow and 
 crooked streets of Boston and the enormous traffic 
 of the West End system are conditions peculiarly 
 conducive to accidents. 
 
OVERHEAD WIRE SURFACE RAILWAYS. 143 
 
 "In the year 1889 nine human beings were killed 
 by the arc light wires in New York city (2,500 
 volts), and the authorities were roused to such a 
 pitch of frenzy that the poles were chopped down 
 and a large part of the city left in darkness. Yefc, 
 with perhaps one exception, all of the victims were 
 employes of the lighting companies, and suffered 
 because of failure to observe proper and well-known 
 precautions. In the same year twelve persons were 
 asphyxiated by gas and over thirty were killed by 
 signs and other objects falling on their heads as 
 they walked peacefully along the streets. In time 
 we are able to estimate every danger relatively, but 
 in the beginning, unknown dangers, those to which 
 we are not accustomed, are greatly exaggerated." 
 
 In a compilation of data obtained from a number 
 of companies, in answer to a set of questions, Mr. 
 Mansfield states : " I am happy to state that under 
 this heading not one road reports as killed or even 
 seriously injured an employe or passenger by the 
 electric current, or falling trolley or span wire. 
 Several report employes as receiving shocks, and 
 one of a boy throwing a wire over the trolley wire 
 and receiving the full potential of the current. 
 None, however, were seriously injured. Several 
 accidents are reported of collision and running 
 over, but these cannot be entirely avoided, and are 
 inherent in any system." 
 
 Descriptive. 
 
 A very fair idea of some of the larger overhead 
 wire roads in operation may be had from the follow- 
 ing extracts, taken from the published descriptions 
 
144 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 of some of the largest and most typical plants. 
 Owing to the difficulty of getting full and reliable 
 descriptions, some of these are necessarily very 
 incomplete. 
 
 West End Railway, Boston. This line comprises 
 the street railways of the city of Boston, and is run 
 partially by horse and partially by electricity, using 
 the overhead system. It is the largest electric rail- 
 way plant in the world. The mileage of the electric 
 system was about one-quarter of the whole mileage. 
 On September 30, 1891, they owned 244.47 miles 
 of track and leased 14.63 miles, a total of about 260 
 miles; of this 81.234 is equipped with electric over- 
 head system, 18.907 is partially equipped. The aver- 
 age receipts per passenger were for both horse and 
 electric lines 4.938 cents. Total mileage of the elec- 
 tric cars was 4,588,146 car miles, or 26.27 per cent, of 
 the whole, while the horse cars ran 12,874,426 miles, 
 or 73.73 per cent. They contemplate converting the 
 whole road into an electric one as soon as possible, 
 and to get the cost of transportation down to 16 or 17 
 cents a car mile. The cost of running in the dense 
 parts of the city is considerably greater on account 
 of the slow speed. In these parts they estimate that 
 the average speed is from one to two miles an hour. 
 Further statistics will be found tabulated, together 
 with those of other roads, under the heading of cost 
 of construction and operation. 
 
 Minneapolis Street Railway. This is claimed to 
 be one of the most complete and extensive systems 
 in operation. The novelty of the system employed 
 throughout lies in the fact that there is not a wire 
 in sight in the heart of the city except the overhead 
 
OVERHEAD WIRE SURFACE RAILWAYS. 145 
 
 trolley wire. The feeders, mains and track feeders 
 are contained in a conduit underground, the trolley 
 wire connecting with the feeders by means of a sub- 
 feeder through the hollow iron supporting poles. 
 The conduit is located between the tracks, and is 
 built as follows : A two-inch plank, first treated by 
 boiling in fernoline, is used for constructing a long 
 trough of the desired size. This trough is so nailed 
 together as to be continuous, and without joints 
 from manhole to manhole, a distance of 408 feet. 
 The trough is placed below the surface at such a 
 depth that the top is six inches below the paving 
 blocks. The conduit proper consists of a number of 
 heavy paper tubes of the Interior Conduit and Insu- 
 lation Company's make. The tubes employed are 
 one inch or one inch and a quarter inside diameter, 
 laid in the trough in ten-foot lengths, and separated 
 from each other and the sides and the bottom of the 
 trough by rings or spacers. The tubes are made 
 continuous from manhole to manhole by use of a 
 telescopic joint. After the tubes have been put in 
 place, pitch is poured in, filling the interstices, and 
 leaving the tubes with a solid insulating filling, 
 impervious to moisture, around them. 
 
 It is claimed that the system is the first installa- 
 tion of underground conductors ever made in which 
 copper wires were drawn into a conduit without other 
 insulation than the conduit itself. There is at the 
 present time about 60 miles of bare copper cable 
 resting in the conduits, varying in size from 100,000 
 to 500,000 centimetres. The insulation resistance on 
 the entire amount of tubing with overhead trolley 
 and outlying feeders, as shown by a test, is 1,081,- 
 
146 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 147 ohms. Some recent tests of the feeders in the 
 conduits show an insulation resistance as follows: 
 Feeder, a, 37,719,598 ohms; b, 18,647,000; c, 2,251,- 
 000; d, 10,298,000; e, 1,791,000; /, 1,815,000; g, 1,488,- 
 
 ,000. 
 
 The population of Minneapolis and St. Paul is 
 350,000. There is not a horse car in either city. 
 Minneapolis has 120 miles, with posts in the middle 
 of the streets, with arms extending over the track 
 on either side. St. Paul has 90 miles, 75 of which 
 are electric and 15 cable. The cable will be kept 
 only for a portion which has a grade of 17 per cent. 
 They use Lima oil for fuel, at a cost of $1 a bar- 
 rel. Three barrels are said to be the equivalent 
 of a ton of coal. It is said to cost them $1 a 
 day for power for an electric car for a system 
 of 150 cars; horses used to cost them $3.85 to $4 
 a day per car, even with the low priced grain. 
 The principal item of repairs is the burning out 
 of the armatures. The line of their heaviest travel, 
 9i miles long, between Minneapolis and St. Paul, 
 shows a cost of operating of only 35 per cent, of 
 the receipts. 
 
 Federal Street and Pleasant Valley Passenger 
 Railway (Pittsburgh). Mr. D. F. Henry gives the 
 following description, presumably for the year 1890 : 
 "There are about 58,000 feet, or 11 miles, of track 
 laid with the improved Johnson girder rail; 31,000 
 feet, or about six miles, were relaid and completed 
 with tram rail; there are now about 18 miles of 
 single track. The large substantial fireproof power 
 station is equipped with two Hazelton tripod boilers, 
 of 500 horse-power each; also a battery of two hori- 
 
OVERHEAD WIRE SURFACE RAILWAYS. 147 
 
 zontal tubular boilers, of 125 horse-power each; 
 total, 1,250 horse-power, with the Roney patent 
 smokeless stokers, tanks, coal and ash conveyers, 
 steam pumps, heaters, and purifiers; an artesian 
 water well, with steam pump ; two large tanks for 
 a water reserve in case of accident, or shutting off 
 the city water supply; also a fire protection. The 
 coal bins have a capacity of 1,000 tons, or 40 days' 
 supply. 
 
 "There are three Buckeye engines, two of 400 
 horse-power each, and one of 200 horse-power ; total, 
 1,000 horse-power; five Edison dynamos, of 80,000 
 watts each, or combined, 535 electric horse-power; 
 three Thomson-Houston dynamos, of 60,000 watts 
 each, or combined 240 electric horse-power, making 
 a total of 775 electric horse-power; all connected 
 with main shaft, with idle pulleys thereon to attach 
 two additional dynamos of 80,000 watts each, which 
 would balance the engine capacity. There would be 
 still in reserve 250 horse-power boiler capacity. 
 They have contracted for a 250 horse-power engine, 
 also dynamo of equal capacity. They will have 
 ample power, with a reserve both in steam and elec- 
 tricity, for all requirements of the near future. In 
 the power station there still remains room enough 
 for considerable power for future extensions. 
 
 "They have remodeled the buildings into repair 
 shops, with suitable examining pits ; machine shops, 
 with engine, elevator, lathes, drill presses, planers, 
 milling and boring machines, emery and grinding 
 wheels, and blacksmith forges; electric shops, with 
 lathes, dryers, and insulating apparatus for the 
 building of new car motors, and station equipments 
 
148 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 and their repair; a carpenter or car shop, with 
 engine, planers, lathes, saws, boring machines, for 
 building new or altering cars suitable for electric 
 service; a complete stable outfit, with first-class 
 horses, harness, wagons for hauling coal and other 
 supplies, track sweeper, water carts, etc. 
 
 "The car house covers a space of 140 by 145 feet, 
 having a capacity for 75 cars. This will afford am- 
 ple storage room for all cars on the main line, as 
 well as all not in daily use on all the other divisions. 
 
 " Upon the completion of the branches they expect 
 to have one of the most extensive and valuable 
 street railway properties in the country, as well as 
 one of the most complete electric roads in all its 
 details in the world. They have now 50 motor cars, 
 25 trail cars, 6 snow plows, 5 salt cars, 1 snow 
 sweeper, a stone crusher, engine and boiler, ena- 
 bling them to ballast the suburban roads at the 
 least possible expense. They claim to have one of 
 the most difficult roads to operate in existence, with 
 streets having over one hundred curves, many of 
 which have a stort radius, and with heavy grades, 
 leaving but little straight and level roadway. 
 
 "In the twelve months that the road has been in 
 operation, the total time lost was but 20 hours, 3 of 
 which was on account of the shutting off of the 
 water supply to the boilers, and 3 hours from 
 engine and line troubles. The other 12 hours was 
 caused by two of the most severe snow storms expe- 
 rienced for many years. The first snow fall was 16 
 inches and the last 10 inches. With the narrow 
 streets and sharp curves, the sweeper piled the snow 
 on either side of the track to the height of from 4 to 
 
OVERHEAD WIRE SURFACE RAILWAYS. 149 
 
 6 feet ; consequently the snow fell back upon the 
 track, thereby destroying the traction and derailing 
 the cars, but not, as has been erroneously reported, 
 interfering with the electric contact. Steam, cable, 
 or even horse cars, under the same circumstances 
 would fyave been compelled, as we were, to resort to 
 shovels. The wires, too, during this storm gave no 
 trouble; but they were somewhat annoyed by the 
 falling of telegraph wires upon theirs, which were 
 easily and quickly removed. 
 
 " They have been in operation nearly a year, and 
 during that time not one single person has received 
 the slightest injury while on board their cars, nor 
 has any person or animal been injured by their 
 wires upon the streets. I believe this record to 
 be unsurpassed by any company handling a like 
 number of passengers, with either steam, electric, 
 cable, or horse power." 
 
 Some statistics about this line will be found under 
 that heading. 
 
 The Riverside Park Electric Railway. This plant, 
 in Sioux City, la., which was opened in June, is 
 stated to be in many respects a model plant. The 
 following description is therefore given here in full: 
 The power house is located at the edge of the park 
 near the confluence of the Big Sioux with the Mis- 
 souri River. The station is a solidly constructed 
 brick building 62x95 feet, divided into two rooms with 
 fire wall between. One room contains two Wicks 
 tubular steel boilers, 60 inches by 16 feet, having 
 forty-four 4-inch tubes ; the base of stack, which is 113 
 feet in height, is 42 inches in diameter, and built of 
 No. 10 and 12 iron ; the Worthington pump ; a 250 
 
150 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 horse-power Kroeschell heater, two Hancock inspi- 
 rators, and four sets of steam loops. The second 
 room contains the two 125 horse-power compound 
 Westinghouse engines, at 100 pounds steam pres- 
 sure, having special flywheels of double the ordi- 
 nary weight, insuring close regulation under the 
 sudden changes incident to heavy loads. Coupled 
 directly to the engines by two of Schieren's perfora- 
 ted electric belts, 16 inches in width by 53 feet long, 
 are two Westinghouse compound wound generators 
 of the improved U. S. type, each of 100 horse-power 
 capacity, having 54-inch paper pulleys running at 
 350 revolutions. These generators rest on a brick 
 foundation 6 feet in depth, and leveled off with a 
 half-inch layer of melted sulphur, on top of which 
 rests a hardwood base 8 inches in height, that is 
 covered with three sheets of one-eighth inch asbes- 
 tos previously saturated with P. & B. paint, and 
 thoroughly dried. On this the rails are placed and 
 firmly fastened to the foundation by insulated bolts. 
 Powell's patent oil cups and lubricators are used on 
 both engines and generators. The dynamo leads are 
 carried from the generator through rubber tubing 
 down to and under the flooring and to the switch- 
 board of polished sycamore with marble face on 
 which is placed the improved form of Westinghouse 
 voltmeter, lightning arrester, automatic cut-outs, 
 switches, etc. An independent circuit is used for 
 the light in the station and car house. The car 
 house is within 100 feet of the station and is a brick 
 building 50x150 feet, designed to hold 20 cars, and 
 containing every requisite for the rapid handling of 
 the same. The present equipment consists of six new 
 
OVERHEAD WIRE SURFACE RAILWAYS. 15l 
 
 motor cars, eight old trailers, and the steam dum- 
 mies. Each of the new cars is equipped with two 
 McGuire improved trucks, each of which supports a 
 30 horse-power Westinghouse single reduction motor, 
 especially built for heavy work required on this 
 line. The nine miles of roadbed is nearly a con- 
 tinuous series of curves, there being 38 in number, 
 ranging from 4 degrees to 20 degrees, and has been 
 built through several deep cuts, from one of which 
 over 60,000 cubic yards of earth were removed, at 
 an expense of $4,800, while close to the power house 
 there is a trestle built 634 feet long, having a rise of 
 4 per cent, on a 19-degree curve of 300 feet, the 
 upper end of the trestle being 16 feet above grade. 
 The pole-line circuit is a model one, every pole being 
 truly aligned and, when necessary, properly guyed. 
 The feed wires are Roebling's weather-proof 000, 
 and the trolley wire No. 0, bare copper, suspended 
 by means of a special form of insulator attached to 
 a bracket arm bolted to the pole. 
 
 The Sissach-Gelterkinden Electric Street Railway. 
 Although America is in the lead in the electric 
 railroad industry, we may often learn something 
 from the careful and intelligent workers in this field 
 abroad. In this connection a few details regarding 
 the construction of this small Swiss railway, opened 
 in April, and some of the results of its operation, 
 may be of interest. From a recent article on the 
 subject in Schweizerische Bauzeitung by Dr. A. 
 Denzler, it appears that the whole length of the 
 route is 3.25 kilometres, starting at the central rail- 
 way station in Sissach and running by a somewhat 
 circuitous route to the terminus at Gelterkinden. 
 
152 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 The maximum grade on the whole line is 15 per cent., 
 and the sharpest curves are two of 60 metres radius, 
 one of these being on a 12 per cent, grade; the 
 gauge is one metre. 
 
 The central station and turbine house are one 
 kilometre from Sissach, the beginning of the line. 
 The power is furnished by a Jonval turbine, which, 
 with the mean quantity of water at a flow of 6.75 
 metres, is about 40 horse-power. The water is sup- 
 plied by the river Ergalz, and is led to the turbine 
 house in a channel partly open and partly closed. As 
 the dynamo makes 600 revolutions per minute and 
 the turbine runs at a speed of but 98 to 100 a spur 
 gearing is interposed between the wheel and the 
 dynamo shaft. A so-called brake regulator is used, by 
 means of which the turbine always runs under full 
 load, that part of the power which is at any ti^ne 
 not absorbed by the dynamo being taken up by 
 the brake of the regulator. This method has 
 been employed quite extensively in this class of 
 work abroad, but of course it can be economically 
 used only in those cases where the quantity of 
 water consumed need not be taken into considera- 
 tion. 
 
 The dynamo which furnishes the current for the 
 car motors was built for a normal output of 50 
 amperes at 700 volts pressure, or, in other words, 
 about 35 kilowatts. It is a two-pole machine with 
 series windings and a flat ring armature. The cur- 
 rent is taken from the bronze commutator by two 
 pairs of brushes of copper wire gauze. It is eaid 
 that by using this style of brush instead of those of 
 sheet copper the disturbing effects of induction are 
 
OVERHEAD WIRE SURFACE RAILWAYS. 153 
 
 not felt so much in the telephone circuits in the 
 neighborhood of the railway lines. 
 
 The foundation of the dynamo is insulated from 
 the ground by wooden beams, the positive pole 
 being connected with the ground and the rails 
 which end at the station. On the switchboard are 
 mounted a main circuit breaker, with carbon con- 
 tact points, an ampere meter, a lightning arrester, 
 and an automatic short circuiting apparatus. The 
 first mentioned of these is designed for short cir- 
 cuiting the field magnet windings of the dynamo so 
 that the current is interrupted as soon as the maxi- 
 mum potential has been reached. The discharge 
 points of the lightning arrester consist of carbon 
 rods so arranged that they can be easily replaced 
 and carefully adjusted. Any arc which may be 
 formed over these terminals by the dynamo current 
 following to the ground when a lightning discharge 
 has taken place is extinguished by an arrangement 
 which consists of a solenoid in the earth circuit, the 
 core of which is drawn down by the continuous pas- 
 sage of the current through its coils. By this means 
 the two contact points established between them 
 is extinguished. Special apparatus for regulation 
 are not used, so that the required duties of the 
 attending engineer in the station are considerably 
 reduced. 
 
 The rails are connected by strips of sheet copper, 
 which are soldered and bolted to the rails; when 
 another type of rail is used, the connection is made 
 by copper wires which are soldered to hooks of 
 sheet copper bolted to the side of the rails. In 
 addition to this the two rails of the track are 
 
154 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 always electrically connected by copper wires of 
 six millimetres diameter at intervals of four rail 
 lengths. 
 
 In addition to the overhead trolley line which 
 forms the return, a feed wire is placed upon the 
 bracket poles; this feed wire and the trolley line 
 are connected in multiple arc by insulated cables at 
 intervals of about 100 metres. By this means the 
 overloading of the trolley wire is prevented and at 
 the same time it is possible to use the current when 
 the trolley wire at any section is broken. 
 
 The trolley wire consists of hard drawn copper 
 wire six millimetres in diameter placed at the uni- 
 form height of o| metres above the rails. The feed 
 wires are run on oil insulators, while the trolley line 
 insulators are of the Sprague type. The author of 
 the article in question points out the fact that the 
 awkward and clumsy liquid insulators form a strik- 
 ing contrast with the little bell insulators used on 
 the trolley wires. 
 
 The trolley line insulators are fastened to plain 
 brackets made of tubing. The brackets are secured 
 to poles of round timber which are placed alter- 
 nately on opposite sides of the street. The poles are 
 35 to 40 metres apart, and although it is not to be pre- 
 tended that these poles are ornamental, it cannot be 
 said that they disfigure the streets; on the con- 
 trary, one gets the impression that when light and 
 well designed iron supports of a little greater height 
 than those here described are used, overhead wires 
 could be employed without hesitation in the broad 
 streets found in most of the suburbs of Swiss 
 cities. 
 
OVERHEAD WIRE SURFACE RAILWAYS. 155 
 
 The truck and the motor used will be found illus- 
 trated and described among the others, under those 
 headings. 
 
 The current flows from the car wheel into the iron 
 frame and then branches out into the field magnet 
 coils of the two motors, which are connected in mul- 
 tiple arc ; from the field magnet coils the current 
 passes into the armatures, which are connected in 
 series with the fields. After passing through the 
 armatures the lines from the two machines join and 
 pass through the regulating resistance and the 
 ampere meter. 
 
 Between the armatures and the field magnet coils 
 is placed a double two-pole reversing switch, by 
 which the circuit may be entirely opened or the 
 direction of the rotation of the armatures may be 
 reversed. The speed of the train is regulated by 
 resistance coils, which are arranged about a central 
 spindle. The hand wheel by which the mechanical 
 car brake is applied is mounted within easy reach 
 of the motor man, and is directly above the handle 
 of the rheostat switch. It is claimed that by opera- 
 ting both of these hand wheels at once the motor 
 man can stop the train within 20 metres, even when 
 running at full speed. An alarm bell is placed on 
 top of the locomotive, the end of the bell cord hang- 
 ing directly at the side of the motor man. 
 
 The total weight of the locomotive is 6,170 kilo- 
 grammes, the total length being 4.69 metres and the 
 total height 2.94 metres. Usually the train consists 
 of a locomotive and two passenger cars, one of 
 which has a seating capacity of 24 and the other a 
 seating capacity for 12 persons, besides considera- 
 
156 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 ble space for packages. The cars weigh 4,140 kilo- 
 grammes, and their total length is 7.8 metres. Dr. 
 Denzler points out that the weight of the cars seems 
 decidedly too great when it is considered that a 
 common closed horse car for 24 passengers weighs 
 only 1,300 to 1,500 kilogrammes. Even in the favor- 
 able case, when the train consists of three fully 
 loaded cars, the paying load of 72 passengers is 
 5,400 kilogrammes, while the locomotive weighs 
 6,170 kilogrammes, the passengers cars 16,420 kilo- 
 grammes, the train crew 150 kilogrammes; the 
 total load is 22,740 kilogrammes. From this it will 
 be seen that the paying load is but 23.7 per cent, of 
 the dead load, and that but 18.3 per cent, of the 
 total weight transported brings any revenue to the 
 company. Dr. Denzler says : " If we compare this 
 with the general results of an American motor car 
 for 24 passengers equipped with two motors of 15 
 horse-power each, we find the mean values for the 
 corresponding quotients 47 per cent, and 36 per 
 cent., that is about twice as much as those given 
 above. Even in those cases where sufficient power 
 is available it is of no consequence to increase the 
 efficiency of the locomotive by improved construc- 
 tion when the advantage thus gained is again lost 
 by the use of too heavy cars." 
 
 For lighting the train it was not thought best to 
 use electric lamps, since the frequent changes of 
 the coupling connections between the locomotive 
 and the cars would extinguish the lights, It is pro- 
 posed in the near future to use electric heaters 
 throughout the train. 
 
 Th. tests made to ascertain the amount of power 
 
OVERHEAD WIRE SURFACE RAILWAYS. 
 
 157 
 
 consumed are of considerable interest. In Fig. 22 are 
 shown the fluctuations of the output in watts as 
 measured at the terminal of the dynamo at inter- 
 vals of 15 seconds during a run of one kilometre. 
 During this run the minimum and maximum output 
 were 13.1 and 25.2 kilowatts respectively. The aver- 
 
 5 10 15 20 25 30 
 
 KILO WATTS. 
 FIG. 22. POWER CURVE. 
 
 age of 34 measurements was 16.7 kilowatts, so that 
 the highest and lowest values are respectively 50.8 
 per cent, above and 21.5 per cent, below the mean 
 value. 
 
 The potential dynamo terminals varied from 560 
 to 760 volts. The current usually varied during the 
 run from 17 to 30 amperes, the maximum consump- 
 
158 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 tion being 50 amperes, this reading being taken at 
 the moment of starting on a 15 per cent, grade, the 
 total output at the same being 30.2 kilowatts. Dur- 
 ing this run the train consisted of the locomotive, 
 6,170 kilogrammes; three passenger cars, 12,4:20 
 kilogrammes; 30 passengers, including conductor 
 and brakeman, 2,250 kilogrammes, or a total weight 
 of 20,840 kilogrammes. 
 
 The largest consumption of power was 33.5 kilo- 
 watts, or 45.5 horse-power. This was observed at 
 the starting of a train of 33 tons weight on a level 
 track. Even here the variation from the mean 
 value during the run was but 92 per cent., while 
 with motor cars, which are provided with a double 
 reduction gear, this variation is often more than 
 200 or 300 per cent. 
 
 An idea of the efficiency of the locomotive may 
 be obtained from the formula 
 
 in which 
 
 A number of watts per second of the work done 
 by the dynamo, 
 
 (7 weight of train in tons, 
 
 v speed per second in metres, 
 
 s = grade in per cent., 
 
 / = the traction co-efficient, that is, the effort 
 which is necessary in order to move it on a level 
 track. 
 
 Tf the weight G It., and the speed per second 
 v = 1 m., n is the efficiency, that is the quotient of 
 the useful work done at the circumference of the 
 wheels and the total electrical energy absorbed by 
 
OVERHEAD WIRE SURFACE RAILWAYS. 159 
 
 the locomotive. In tbe above formula / and n are 
 unknown; A = 16,700 watts; G 20.84 t. ; s (mean 
 value) = 5.7 per cent. ; in 8 minutes 30 seconds 2,200 
 m. were made. From this t v = 4.3 m. If we put 
 these values in the formula, then we find as an 
 
 approximation ( 
 
 
 In order to find n we must accept for / an approxi- 
 mate value. If we take/ = 7.5, which is about the 
 mean value between that of 2.5 found at the last 
 Paris exposition with the Decauville narrow gauge 
 road, and the value / = 12.2, found by Tresca for 
 level routes on the electric car line between Paris 
 and Versailles, a road which is kept in good con- 
 dition, then n = 70 per cent. 
 
 Engineer J. L. Hubel has, however, found by 
 numerous and careful experiments on a line of 
 horse cars in Hamburg a larger value, viz. : / = 15, 
 but the conditions on the Sissach-Gelterkinden road 
 resemble much more nearly the first two lines when 
 "Yignol" rails are used. The measurements given 
 above had to be made with the volt and ampere 
 meters in' use at the station, and their constants had 
 to be accepted as correct. 
 
 Comparing these results with those obtained in 
 this country Dr. Denzler says: "Even if the real 
 efficiency should be a little smaller than 70 per 
 cent., as obtained above, still the great progress 
 made here cannot be denied in comparison with the 
 results obtained with the best known American 
 systems. If we take, for instance, as a basis, the 
 results published by Dr. Louis Bell on the electric 
 
160 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 road in Lafayette, Ind., then we get n = 47 per 
 cent., even if we take Huberts larger value for 
 /= 15." 
 
 Another measurement on a grade of s = 5.3 gave 
 n = 49.5 per cent. 
 
 Similar results can be calculated from Crosby's 
 experiments with reference to the roads in Cleve- 
 land, Scranton and Kichmond. In no instance does 
 the value of n exceed 50 per cent. This means that 
 in every case about half of the expended energy is 
 lost in the form of heat and friction when high 
 speed motors with double transmission are used. 
 The value obtained shows plainly that the recently 
 applied method of increasing the efficiency of elec- 
 tric roads by reducing the speed of the motor is the 
 proper one. The ideal in these regards is a motor 
 car or an electric locomotive in which the car axles 
 and the armature shafts are the same, so that all 
 loss in gears is avoided. 
 
 Dr. Denzler also points out the importance in 
 electric railway operation of deciding whether it is 
 desirable to use independent motor cars or an elec- 
 tric locomotive with trail cars, and under what cir- 
 cumstances each system should be employed. In 
 favor of the locomotive it is pointed out that at first 
 larger electric motors may be employed, which can 
 be constructed for slower speed and of better design 
 than if it is necessary to build the motors for the 
 limited space available between the surface of the 
 street and the floor of an ordinary car. In an elec- 
 tric locomotive, too, the motors are more easily 
 accessible and can be better cared for. Dust and 
 moisture proof appliances can be employed more 
 
OVERHEAD WIRE SURFACE RAILWAYS. 161 
 
 conveniently, and nearly every part of the appara- 
 tus can be constructed more solidly than when 
 smaller machines are employed. On small roads 
 like the one described above, light trains are some- 
 times needed and at other times heavy ones, and it 
 is especially desirable to be able to attach freight 
 cars to the trains at different times, For necessi- 
 ties of this kind there are no difficulties in the way 
 of constructing locomotives of any desired capacity, 
 as is the case with independent motor cars, where 
 the space to be occupied by the motor is limited. In 
 this latter case it is not possible to go beyond a cer- 
 tain size of motor, and when larger trains are needed 
 two or more motor cars must be used, in which 
 case additional employes are needed, although the 
 demand for more cars may be confined to Sundays 
 and holidays. Interest on the capital invested, 
 maintenance and attendance, will cost more than 
 when a single locomotive of large capacity is 
 employed. The disadvantages which are connected 
 with the use of special locomotives are pointed out 
 by Dr. Denzler to be as follows: The length of the 
 train is greater than when independent motor cars 
 are used, a disadvantage which would be especially 
 felt in narrow business streets. The first cost of an 
 electric street railway in a city where many cars are 
 run at the same time will be greater if electric loco- 
 motives are employed than when independent motor 
 cars are used, while repairs and maintenance will 
 be rather less with locomotives. For these reasons 
 it is impossible to select either of the systems as the 
 best for all cases. The advantages and disadvan- 
 tages of each system must be carefully considered 
 
162 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 in each particular case in connection with the local 
 circumstances and demands. 
 
 On the electric road described above nine regular 
 trains are run daily in each direction ; for frieght 
 distribution special trains are run. The time con- 
 sumed in running from Sissach to Gelterkinden is 
 15 minutes, including stops. The stations on the 
 line are connected with the power lines by tele- 
 phone, the telephone line having a metallic circuit, 
 the wires of which are run upon the same poles that 
 carry the feed wire for the trolley line, and it is 
 said that only a slight humming sound is percep- 
 tible on the telephone line when the train is in 
 motion along the line. 
 
 Siemens & Halske Roads. In place of the usual 
 trolley, which they claim jumps out from under the 
 wire too frequently, the firm of Siemens & Halske 
 (Berlin) use a horizontal wire four or five feet long, 
 running crosswise to the car as seen in the adjoin- 
 ing illustration ; this is pressed up against the over- 
 head line, against which it slides ; the contact wire 
 is attached to a single bar, making a T-shaped 
 figure, the upper part having a bearing against the 
 line and the lower part being hinged and over- 
 weighted at its lower end. Besides being a sliding 
 instead of a rolling contact, and avoiding the 
 rupture of the contact by a jumping out of the 
 usual trolley wheel, they claim as additional advan- 
 tages that the suspension of the line wires thereby 
 becomes much simpler at curves and switches, in 
 which they are doubtless right. On straight stretches 
 the line wire must be suspended slightly zigzag, so as 
 not to cut grooves in the contact piece. An objec- 
 
OVERHEAD WIKE SURFACE BAILWAY3. 163 
 
 
164 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 tion to it is that it' wears out the line wire and that 
 it makes a disagreeable hissing noise, which is 
 transmitted along the wire far enough to be dis- 
 tinctly audible almost one square each side from 
 the car. The line wire is five metres (16 feet) above 
 the track, and is suspended between the tops of 
 wrought iron tubular poles made by the Mannes- 
 mann process. The line wire is a six millimetre 
 (full No. 3 B. & S.) iron wire, continuous through- 
 out ; it is connected at every 50 and 60 metres to a 
 feeder. 
 
 Thomson-Houston Freight Locomotive. The 
 freight locomotive, shown in the accompanying 
 illustration, weighs 21 tons, and is said to be the 
 largest electric locomotive ever built in this coun- 
 try ; its general appearance is that of a small steam 
 locomotive without the boiler. The massive iron 
 frame consists of two heavy pieces of cast iron 
 bolted together at the ends. The end plates are pro- 
 vided with heavy spring drawbars such as are used 
 on the heaviest freight cars, while a cow catcher is 
 cast solid with the end of the locomotive. One 
 motor, having a maximum capacity of 125 horse- 
 power, supplies the motive power. This motor is 
 geared to the forward axle by a train of powerful 
 cast steel gears. Parallel rods li inches by 4 inches 
 connect the two axles. The distance between the 
 centres of axles is six feet four inches, while the 
 diameter of the drive wheels is 42 inches. The motor 
 is made with a special waterproof finish throughout, 
 designed for the purpose. The armature makes 
 1,000 revolutions per minute, when the car is run- 
 ning at a speed of five miles per hour. This speed is 
 
OVERHEAD WIRE SURFACE RAILWAYS. 
 
 FIG. 24. THOMSON-HOUSTON FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVE. 
 
166 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 reduced by the gears from 25 revolutions at the 
 armature shaft to one at the axle. All the gears are 
 of steel, and entirely enclosed in tight iron cases 
 carrying heavy grease. The largest of these, that 
 attached to the axle, has a width of eight inches. 
 A very powerful brake, consisting of a cast-iron 
 drum keyed solidly to the intermediate shaft of the 
 motor, is provided. This is covered with a wooden 
 lagging, and the whole embraced by two steel 
 bands which are tightened by powerful cams opera- 
 ted by a lever in the cab. This brake is sufficient to 
 stop a train of eight cars when going five miles an 
 hour down a two per cent, grade. Sand boxes 
 deliver the sand at the rails directly under the 
 wheels on both sides of the locomotive, thus secur- 
 ing maximum traction effect. In the cab, or opera- 
 ting stand, is placed the controlling mechanism, 
 consisting of a rheostat, reversing switch, brake, 
 and sand box levers. The current is taken from a 
 trolley wire by means of what is known as the " Uni- 
 versal" trolley, the peculiar feature of which is that 
 when the locomotive is reversed it is not necessary 
 to reverse the trolley. This locomotive is to be used 
 for hauling freight cars from the factory to the 
 main line of the railroad, a distance of two miles. 
 Some data oh the locomotive are given below : 
 
 Voltage required for the motor 500 volts. 
 
 Horse power at the drawbar 100. 
 
 Speed on level track when developing this power 5 miles per hour. 
 
 Wheel base 6 feet 4 inches. 
 
 Diameter of wheels 42 inches. 
 
 Speed reduction between armature and axle l to 25. 
 
 Gauge 4 feet 8% inches. 
 
 Wheel base 6 feet 4 inches. 
 
 Measured height above rail platform 4 feet 4 inches; 
 
 Greatest length of locomotive (at cowcatcher) 15 feet 1% inches. 
 
 Greatest length of platform 7 feet % inch. 
 
 Weight of locomotive less trolley pole 42.525 pounds. 
 
 Approximate weight of motor 5,400 pounds. 
 
CONDUIT AND SURFACE CONDUCTOR SYSTEMS. 167 
 
 In a number of trials, the first test was made by 
 coupling the locomotive to two cars heavily loaded 
 with iron. These were shifted from one track to 
 another, both tracks being on a 2 per cent, grade, 
 and also on a curve of about 150 feet radius. The 
 total weight of the cars was 54^ tons. The second 
 test was made by coupling on two more cars, mak- 
 ing four in all, and shifting them as before. The 
 total weight of the load was 96 tons. The third and 
 final test was made with six loaded cars handled in 
 the same manner, and with apparently as little 
 effort as was required to shift two cars. 
 
 Another freight locomotive built by the same 
 parties was illustrated in The Electrical World, 
 June 20, 1891, page 462. It differs from this one in 
 that its general appearance is that of an ordinary 
 platform freight car, measuring 8x18 feet, and can 
 therefore be used as a car besides being a locomo- 
 tive. It is capable of hauling a load of 60,000 pounds 
 at a rate of five miles an hour. The single motor is 
 of 30 horse-power. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CONDUIT AND SURFACE CONDUCTOR SYSTEMS, 
 
 Under this heading are included those systems in 
 which the contact wires are placed in conduits, 
 open or closed, or those in which the two rails are 
 used, as the two conductors. While much is hoped 
 for from this system, with one exception little has 
 been accomplished in actual practice. The road 
 running in Budapest, described below, is the only 
 large plant of this kind, and it appears to be run- 
 
168 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 ning very successfully. The introduction of this 
 system into America appears, from reports, to be in 
 the near future. While the Americans have been 
 losing time in endeavoring to reduce the preju- 
 dice against overhead wires in large cities, this 
 European firm complied with the requirements of 
 municipal authorities, and has constructed a suc- 
 cessful conduit system. The features of conduit and 
 rail systems are best shown from the following 
 extracts taken from the published expressions of 
 writers. 
 
 In a very interesting article on electric railroads, 
 Mr. F. L. Pope states: "The original invention of 
 Field contemplated the supply of electricity to the 
 traveling car from conductors inclosed in a conduit 
 beneath the pavement. He. as well as many other 
 inventors, appreciating the force of that prejudice 
 which undoubtedly exists among newspaper edi- 
 torsagainst any avoidable multiplication of over- 
 head electric wires in the streets, realized that the 
 great prize to be sought for above all others was the 
 invention of a system of electrical supply which 
 should dispense altogether with the overhead line. 
 Hosts of inventors have diligently wrought for ten 
 years upon this most difficult problem. Hundreds 
 of patents have been taken out and more than a 
 million dollars have been disbursed in paying for 
 tuition in the costly school of experience. More 
 than once, and in more than one direction, success 
 has at times seemed almost certain ; yet the truth 
 compels me to say that from the hard practical 
 standpoint of dollars and cents, by which every 
 invention must first or last be tried, the net out- 
 
CONDUIT AND SURFACE CONDUCTOR SYSTEMS. 169 
 
 come of all this vast expenditure of labor, time, and 
 money has, up to the present moment, been almost 
 insignificant. The reward which awaits the fortu- 
 nate person who succeeds in completely solving this 
 problem may well be regarded as a potentiality of 
 wealth beyond the dreams of avarice. The problem 
 of the underground conduit does not at first sight ap- 
 pear to be a very difficult one. It renders necessary, 
 in the first place,a construction which will effectually 
 resist the action of forces tending to disturb the con- 
 dition of the wires, and with the heavy traffic on 
 the streets this involves a very strong structure. It 
 is absolutely necessary that the conductors shall 
 remain insulated from each other and from the 
 ground, under all conditions of weather. The exi- 
 gencies of heavy rains and snows necessitate a con- 
 struction which shall permit of a thorough insula- 
 tion of the conductors and a drainage of the entire 
 system. There are other minor points which require 
 to be taken into consideration. Without going into 
 details, it is sufficient to say that the conduit system 
 has been tried on an extensive scale in Denver, 
 Cleveland, and Boston, and to a lesser extent in 
 several other places, but in every case the continual 
 interference and interruptions consequent upon its 
 use have exhausted the patience of the traveling 
 public and compelled its abandonment. I do not 
 wish for one moment to convey the impression that 
 the problem is an insoluble one. I may, perhaps, 
 say that I think great progress has been made in 
 this direction within the past year, and I cannot 
 but feel that the disappearance of the overhead sys- 
 tem from the streets of all our larger cities and 
 
170 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 towns is only a question of time, although the objec- 
 tions which have been most strenuously made to its 
 introduction are for the most part rather of a senti- 
 mental than of a practical character." 
 
 The following opinions were given by Mr. Mans- 
 field; we would add, however, that he does not 
 appear to be aware of the fact that there is such a 
 system running with apparent success in the city of 
 Budapest : " There have been in this country at least 
 four practical experiments with conduit roads, sev- 
 eral hundred thousand dollars have been expended 
 in testing it, and thousands additional in perfecting 
 it, particular attention being given to the protection 
 and insulation of the bare conductor. In spite, how- 
 ever, of all this refinement and study, practically 
 nothing has been accomplished; and I have no 
 hesitation in asserting that the continuous live con- 
 ductor in an open slotted conduit is to-day a failure, 
 and that it cannot be made a success throughout 
 our cities of to-day, its fatal weakness being our 
 inability to prevent the conduit from becoming 
 filled with water, mud, etc. The time may come 
 when our sewerage systems will be perfect enough 
 to enable us to overcome this fatal weakness. 
 To-day, however, they are not, and even an opti- 
 mistic view puts this time a long way distant. 
 
 "The inventions covered by the surface method 
 are somewhat similar to those employed in the con- 
 duit system, only, in place of being in a conduit, 
 they are placed upon the surface of the street. By 
 far, however, the larger number of arrangements 
 are based upon what might be called the "interval" 
 or "point" system. Primarily this arrangement con- 
 
CONDUIT AND SURFACE CONDUCTOR SYSTEMS. 171 
 
 sists of an underground insulated conductor con- 
 nected by means of taps to contact points on the 
 surface of the ground, held in place by means of 
 iron boxes, and insulated therefrom by means of 
 rubber, wood, fibre, or other similar substances. 
 Upon the car is swung a long contact plate extend- 
 ing practically from one end to the other. This 
 plate is carried close to the ground, and is arranged 
 to touch the points as it passes along. Many auto- 
 matic arrangements have been devised to cut these 
 contact points into circuit by the car as it passes 
 along One inventor had electro-magnets on his car, 
 which imparted their magnetism to the iron contact 
 pins or points. These becoming magnetized would 
 lift a little armature inside the iron casing, which 
 in turn moved a switch and cut the iron contact 
 points into circuit. Another inventor arranged a 
 slot between his tracks, in which the plow passed. 
 As this plow passed the contact points, it would tip 
 a lever or some other automatic device, which would 
 throw a switch and put the iron contact points into 
 circuit. All these arrangements have the same fatal 
 weakness a liability to ground or short circuits. I 
 do not consider any of them practically possible. 
 There is one more system, which practically com- 
 bines all these methods, and which obviates many 
 of the objections. The inventor has a slot between 
 his rails and boxes, with contact device within, 
 placed at proper intervals. Upon his car is a plow 
 which passes along through the slot, and also a long 
 contact plate or arrangement extending its entire 
 length. The operation of the invention is as fol- 
 lows : The plow as it passes through the slot strikes 
 
172 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 a lever placed in connection with each box, which 
 lifts for a distance of six or eight inches above the 
 ground a piston carrying the contact piece proper. 
 This is made in the shape of a right angle hook 
 placed within a vertically moving piston, and thor- 
 oughly insulated from it. As this is raised up, the 
 long contact plate under the car passes beneath the 
 hook and holds it up. The current is taken into 
 the car as the plate slides under the live hook. Nat- 
 urally, as the car passes along, the hook slides off 
 from the end of the contact bar and drops back into 
 place. To protect this hook, or contact piece proper, 
 it is covered with an extension of the cylinder, so 
 that, as far as the street is concerned, the surface is 
 perfectly smooth, and one sees nothing but a small 
 round cover in the centre of each of these boxes. 
 The contact hook is alive only when it is resting 
 on the contact plate of the car. Certainly, in so far 
 as getting rid of all the troubles due to the street 
 being covered with water, this is successful. The 
 fatal weakness whereby the contact points remain 
 permanently on the street surface is obviated here 
 by the contact point being practically lifted six or 
 eight inches above the surface. In regard to the 
 permanence and reliability of this system, I can 
 say nothing, as no trials have been made. 
 
 " I have no hesitancy in asserting that this class 
 will never prove a success, nor can it be made to 
 work successfully throughout any of our cities to- 
 day. The reason for this is obvious. It is immaterial 
 whether the automatic devices prevent the sections 
 or contact points from being alive all of the time or 
 not; if the conduit is filled with water or mud, and 
 
CONDUIT AND SURFACE CONDUCTOR SYSTEMS. 173 
 
 the points are made alive just as the car passes, 
 there is bound to be a momentary grounding from 
 these points. In other words, a point made alive in 
 water with the other side of the circuit grounded, 
 is just about as dangerous and bad as if it remained 
 alive. It is true that the grounding may-not be as 
 severe, but still it will occur, and with a large num- 
 ber of cars throughout the city moving at the same 
 time, causing therefore a large number of points to 
 be alive, if any number of points were grounded 
 through water it would cause a tremendous loss 
 upon the central power station, and in all proba- 
 bility a complete grounding or short circuiting of 
 the entire system. Numerous ingenious schemes 
 have been devised to overcome this fatal weakness. 
 None, however, have ever been put to trial. I have 
 seen many, yet to-day there is no hope in this direc- 
 tion. 
 
 " Several of these devices are very interesting and 
 worth mentioning. One inventor placed his bare 
 conductor in a rubber tube made something like a 
 hose pipe. Arranged upon the upper side of this 
 tube are the contact points, which might be likened 
 to rivets punched or tapped through the tubing. 
 The contact wheel or device rolls along the top of 
 this tube, and is sufficiently heavy as it proceeds to 
 press the tube together so that the contact points or 
 rivets come in contact with the conductor inside 
 the tube. By this means the current is transmitted 
 to the motors. Obviously, as the car proceeds, the 
 tube behind the contact wheel springs back into its 
 original position. 
 
 "Another arrangement was to have inside the 
 
174 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 conduit a large elastic tube with a bare conductor 
 inside, this tube to be slit along its upper side. 
 Attached to the car is a plow with a contact device 
 at its lower end inside the tube and in contact with 
 the conductor. The plow moves along with the car 
 and slides through the slit. With this arrangement 
 it is apparent that if the conduit were filled with 
 water it would run in just before and behind the 
 plow. Should this occur, the old fatal trouble would 
 be bound to follow. Furthermore, it would be 
 exceedingly difficult to arrange the tube sufficiently 
 rigid in position to withstand the action of the plow, 
 and the sides of the slit sufficiently tough to with- 
 stand the friction. The question of turnouts would 
 also be serious and troublesome. 
 
 " Another inventor arranged on each side of his 
 conduit slot rubber flaps shod with steel and held 
 together by means of springs. Attached to the car 
 is the plow as usual. As the plow passes along in 
 the conduit it presses back the flaps. The objection 
 to this is, of course, the liability of the water getting 
 into the slit before and behind the plow. To obviate 
 this, the inventor ingeniously suggested that the 
 whole conduit be kept under an air pressure, which 
 air pressure would be sufficient to blow the water 
 out at any of these open places where it tended to 
 run in. I do not consider that any of these plans 
 can ever be successful. 
 
 "Summing up the general results of the under- 
 ground and surface methods, it certainly looks as if 
 wo could not expect very much from them in the 
 immediate future. Much perseverance and money 
 must be expended before as practical and certain a 
 
CONDUIT AND SURFACE CONDUCTOR SYSTEMS. 175 
 
 method as our present overhead one is 'attained. 
 We surely are all anxiously and hopefully waiting 
 for it." 
 
 Mr. F. H. Monks says: "The conduit system has 
 been thoroughly tested, and has been shown to pos- 
 sess no commercial value for the propulsion of street 
 cars to date." 
 
 Descriptive. 
 
 Besides the few systems incidentally described in 
 the above extracts, the following may be of inter- 
 est: 
 
 FIG. 25, 
 
 Siemens & Halske Conduit System; Budapest 
 Railway. Undoubtedly the most interesting Eu- 
 ropean street railway system to the Americans, who 
 can learn little from abroad regarding the overhead 
 plan, is the underground conduit system of Siemens 
 & Halske, as introduced by them in the city of 
 Budapest, the capital of Hungary. 
 
17G RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 The conduit, as seen in Fig. 25, is placed under 
 one rail. It consists of castings having flanges of 
 18 centimetres (7 inches) placed every 1.2 metres 
 (about 4 feet), the space between being a conduit 
 of concrete. The oval shaped conduit has a width, 
 clear, of 28 centimetres (11 inches) and a height of 
 33 centimetres (13 inches). 
 
 The slot consists of two beam rails having no 
 inside lower flange, and fastened to the conduit 
 frames by wrought-iron angle pieces. The width of 
 the slot is 33 millimetres (1^ inches). The total depth 
 of the foundation below the rail top is 70 centimetres 
 (27i inches). The conductors, both positive and 
 negative, are made of angle irons, secured, as seen 
 in the figure, by means of insulators fastened to the 
 castings. They are sufficiently high above the floor 
 of the conduit to be protected from the water which 
 may collect in the conduits. They are, furthermore, 
 under the top of the oval, so that they cannot be 
 touched from the outside. It should be noticed that 
 there is no earth return used in this system, as both 
 leads are insulated. The water which runs into the 
 conduits is collected at the lowest points and passes 
 through settling boxes to the sewers. The second 
 track may be of any desirable form, even only a 
 flat rail. An objection to having the conduit under 
 one rail instead of in the middle arises in cases 
 where, by the nature of the course of the track and 
 the curves, the cars become reversed in their posi- 
 tions on the track-, such cases can probably be 
 avoided by proper laying out of the road, and in the 
 worst case by a second conduit under the other rail 
 for parts where it cannot be avoided. On a one- 
 
CONDUIT AND SURFACE CONDUCTOR SYSTEMS. 177 
 
 track line the cars must have their front and back 
 platform alike, as they cannot be turned around. 
 
 The car truck and the motor are the same as 
 those used in connection with their overhead sys- 
 tem ; they will be found illustrated under the head- 
 ing of motors and trucks. Only one axle is driven, 
 the other is flexibly connected to the third point of 
 support of the motor frame. The starting, stopping, 
 and reversing of the motor is done as usual by a 
 crank at either end of the car, operating the same 
 switches. Controlling resistances are placed under 
 the body of the car. 
 
 An illustration of the generating station, too 
 large for reproduction here, may be found in The 
 Electrical World, October 24, 1891, page 304. This 
 station contains three compound condensing steam 
 engines of 100 horse-power each; in another part 
 there are two more of 200 horse-power each, driving 
 direct coupled dynamos. The system is run with 300 
 volts, and all the dynamos lead to common bus wires. 
 The leads are made of lead covered cables armored 
 with iron bands and laid directly in the earth ; these 
 lead to junction boxes from which others run out 
 along the road and are connected at intervals by 
 means of short branch cables to the iron leads in 
 the conduits. 
 
 The greatest up grades are 1.5 per cent, and 1.6 
 per cent., and the smallest curves have a radius of 
 50 metres (168 feet), 25 metres (84 feet), and 45 
 metres (148 feet) ; the latter is on a 1.6 per cent, up 
 grade. The allowable speeds are as follows: 15 kilo- 
 metres (9.3 miles) in the city, 18 to 20 kilometres (11 
 to 12| miles) in the ontlying portions, 10 kilometres 
 
178 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 (6.2 miles) in the densest parts of the city, and six 
 kilometres (3.7 miles) over street crossings. There 
 are at present 20 kilometres (12.4 miles) of road in 
 use, and 50 cars. Each car travels daily 120 to 130 
 and even 150 kilometres (75-93 miles) in a 16-hour 
 service. 
 
 The first part of the road, 2.5 kilometres (1.55 
 miles) long, was opened July 30, 1889, and has, 
 therefore, been running over two years. The sys- 
 tem has been so satisfactory that it is being 
 extended quite rapidly. It was built at the expense 
 of the firm of Siemens & Halske, and may, there- 
 fore, be said to be a practical experimental line of 
 that company. They state that some Americans 
 have been negotiating with them to introduce this 
 system on a large scale in one of the principal 
 American cities, but the name of this city was not 
 given. 
 
 The following figures from the official reports of 
 1890 may be of interest, as also the deductions which 
 can be made from them. There were running 
 during that year three lines. The total number of 
 passengers carried was 4,459,234; the total car ki- 
 lometres were 758,838.1 (about 470,000 car miles) ; the 
 total income from fares was 275,742.97 florins (about 
 $113,000). From this it follows that the average 
 number of passengers per car kilometre was 5.88 
 (9.48 per car mile); the average income was 36.27 
 kreutzer (about 14.8 cents) per car kilometre (about 
 24 cents per car mile) ; the income per passenger, 
 that is, the cost of the ride to the passenger, was 
 6.18 kreutzer (2.53 cents). There were 6 kilometres 
 of line in operation at the beginning of the year and 
 
CONDUIT AND SURFACE CONDUCTOR SYSTEMS. 179 
 
 9.1 at the end. In a public address, one of the 
 engineers of the company stated that the latest 
 figures (July and August, 1891) of cost of running 
 were only 37 per cent, of the income, which cer- 
 tainly is remarkably low. The city tax, which is 
 very high in Budapest, is not included in this. 
 
 Comparing this with the corresponding official 
 figures of the horse-car lines of the same city, we 
 find that the total number of passengers carried 
 was 18,107,543; the income from fares was 1,485,180 
 florins (about $609,000) ; the income per passenger, 
 that is, the cost of the ride to the passenger, was 
 therefore 8.20 kreutzer (about 3.36 cents) as com- 
 pared with 6.18 kreutzer for the electrical roads. 
 The fares of the electrical roads are therefore 
 cheaper, being 24.6 per cent, less than the horse 
 lines, or the latter are 32.7 per cent, more expen- 
 sive to the passenger than the electric roads. The 
 frequency of the cars per kilometre of line was 
 larger at the beginning of the year than on the 
 horse-car lines, and at the end was double the other. 
 The income of the electrical road per kilometre of 
 track was more than 1.5 times that of the horse 
 cars in the latter half of the year. The latter figure, 
 however, depends on the traffic in the particular 
 districts through which the roads pass and is not 
 necessarily a criterion in favor of electric roads ; 
 the income on the electrical roads, however, 
 increased from 1,153 florins per kilometre of road in 
 January to 3,621 in December, while that for the 
 horse car roads remained about the same in Decem- 
 ber as it was in January, namely, 2,267 against 
 3,124. The length of the horse-car roads was 45,6 
 
180 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 kilometres in January, and 45.8 in December. 
 Unfortunately the report does not give the number 
 of car miles of the horse-car lines, so that no com- 
 parison caa be made with that figure. It should be 
 noticed, however, that the length of the horse-car 
 lines was five times as great in December as that of 
 the electric lines, and it is therefore likely that the 
 lengths of the rides were greater than in the short 
 electrical roads. This is all the more likely, from 
 the fact that the number of car miles of the horse 
 cars was omitted in the report. 
 
 Love Conduit. This system consists briefly of a 
 small conduit 15 inches deep, placed between the 
 rails, as in the cable system, and having a slot. The 
 slot rails forming the top of the conduit are 
 arranged so as to be detachable, thus permitting 
 the conduit to be readily inspected and cleaned. 
 Two bare copper wires are secured on insulators 
 near this slot, but are protected by a deep flange 
 which protects them from any interference through 
 the slot. Two illustrations of this conduit will be 
 found on page 9 of The Electrical World of July 
 4, 1891. 
 
 Gordon System. Like in the Lineff system, this 
 consists of a closed conduit, the top of which is com- 
 posed of metallic sections which are in circuit only 
 when the car passes over them. It was described in 
 the London Electrical Engineer, as follows : 
 
 "The conduit carrying the current is a very small 
 one, some two inches or three inches of ground being 
 quite sufficient to contain it. The supply rail is 
 laid midway between the two line rails, and con- 
 sists of flat iron laid in concrete in lengths of about 
 
CONDUIT AND SURFACE CONDUCTOR SYSTEMS. 181 
 
 eight feet, or one-third the length of the car. The 
 system arranges for charging these sections by the 
 full current of, say, 400 volts, as the car progresses, 
 so that no section is charged except those under the 
 car. This is done by a system of connections laid 
 in a gas pipe with T-pieces connecting to each 
 length and leading back to a commutating box, 
 which is the feature of the system; the conductor 
 sections are charged by a return insulated circuit 
 actuated by magnets placed, not in the car, but in a 
 box under the pavement. These boxes are placed 
 every 100 yards under the curb, and contain strong 
 long-pull magnets, one for each section. As the car 
 progresses, a shunt current comes back from section 
 No. 1 to magnet No. 2, which rises and puts section 
 No. 2 into connection, cutting off No. 1, and so on, 
 as the car moves the main, of course, running the 
 entire length of the road. The pull of the magnet 
 is about seven pounds, a.nd evidently is more than 
 ample to do its work. The advantages of the sys- 
 tem are, the use of the closed conduit, no slot or 
 wires that can be touched being needed, the small 
 cost of conduit and corresponding small cost of 
 alteration of track. Another advantage is that by 
 the addition of one contact the absolute metallic 
 return for the current can be made by way of the 
 section behind, and thus the difficulty with the tele- 
 phone companies can be avoided a matter impos- 
 sible of arrangement with most systems without 
 costly additions to the mains. The cost of alteration 
 of track and laying the electric conduit is estimated 
 (the figures being checked by Messrs. Merry- 
 weathers' engineer) as 2,000 per mile, of which 25 
 
182 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 each is the cost of commutator boxes. The cost of 
 a new electric car would be 400. He estimates the 
 actual cost of traction at 2d. per car mile." 
 
 Pollack System. In this system there is a middle 
 contact rail in short, insulated sections; the con- 
 ductor carrying the current lies directly beneath 
 this rail, and by means of flexible contacts momen- 
 tary connections are made from it to that particular 
 section of the contact rail over which the car is at 
 that moment. These temporary connections are 
 made by the aid of a magnet on the bottom of the 
 car, which, in passing over, attracts iron blocks 
 under the rails, making contact with that section. 
 It will be noticed that this is similar to the Lineff 
 system. Pollack claims to have invented it in 1886, 
 though not in just this form, which he devised a 
 year later. The iron contact rails are double, in 
 order that the magnetic circuit shall be open at the 
 bottom, thereby developing a greater magnetic force 
 there than if a single band of iron was used, through 
 which it would be more difficult to attract a mass of 
 iron on the other side of it. Permanent magnets are 
 to be used, having in addition a winding through 
 which the current may be passed to reinforce them. | 
 The independent spaces inclosing the movable 
 blocks, being entirely inclosed by asphalt, may be 
 kept dry. As there are two contacts to each sec- 
 tion, ID is stated that there is no sparking at these 
 contacts, as the current is never interrupted there. 
 In addition, he proposes to provide the car with a 
 device (presumably some accumulators) to drive it 
 back on to the rails in case of derailing. This sys- 
 tem is not yet in use anywhere. If these contacts 
 
CONDUIT AND SURFACE CONDUCTOR SYSTEMS. 183 
 
 can really be kept dry and free from sparks, this 
 system looks like a very simple solution of the prob- 
 lem of an underground supply for the current. 
 
 Schuckert System. A modification of this was 
 proposed by Schuckert & Co., of Nuremberg. It 
 differed in the nature of the contacts, which were 
 made of iron filings contained in little chambers 
 under the rail. When attracted by the magnet on 
 the car they bridged over from the main to the con- 
 tact rail, making the necessary connection. The con- 
 ductor sections are laid along in the roadway upon 
 solid wood planks, imbedded in the ground, under 
 which is the main strip conductor. Each wooden 
 plank is pierced downward at intervals along its 
 length by taper holes of li inches to 2 inches dia- 
 meter, which have the smaller diameter at the top. 
 Before laying the iron conductor rails over the 
 planks, these holes are each partly filled with a hand- 
 ful of iron filings, which drop down upon the main 
 conductor. As the tram passes, its magnet energizes 
 the roadway beneath it, and the iron filings rise in 
 a heap and make contact with the surface con- 
 ductor, falling again as the car passes. The taper 
 form of the hole prevents their continued contact 
 after the car passes, and the number of holes and 
 the mass of filings is said to obviate all difficulty 
 with reference to contact or sparking. It is claimed 
 that in this case if there should be sparking it 
 would do no harm, as the iron filings would always 
 present many new contacts. It is not in operation 
 at present. It was noticed in an experimental line 
 that, even when the rest of the street appeared dry, 
 there was considerable moisture in the narrow sec- 
 
184 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 tion of asphalt which separated the two ends of the 
 sections, quite sufficient to conduct considerable 
 current from one to the next, thereby doing just 
 that which this system was intended to avoid. The 
 iron contact rail was in this case a single flat band 
 of iron, and not double as in Pollack's system. It 
 is a question whether the iron filings will behave as 
 they are intended to behave. It is ingenious, but 
 can hardly be called a good mechanical construc- 
 tion. 
 
 Edison's Proposed System. During the month of 
 October, Mr. Edison made some statements to the 
 reporters of a daily paper, regarding a new system 
 which he is about to introduce. His published 
 description is so meager and unsatisfactory, and 
 the language used is such, that only a very rough 
 idea can be obtained from it. We give below some 
 points gathered from these short reports as well as 
 from other sources. 
 
 He claims that he will be able to obtain a speed of 
 100 miles an hour with great ease on a lOO-.pound 
 rail, on a rock-ballasted track. He claims that it 
 will be the cheapest system known, and that the 
 plant will not cost half as much as the cable on a 
 cable line. He claims to be able to lay a mile of 
 track in a single night. He furthermore expects to 
 get one horse-power from one to two pounds of cheap 
 coal, while a steam locomotive requires six pounds 
 of expensive coal. 
 
 He intends to begin with the Chicago and Mil- 
 waukee road, at the time of the World's Fair, on 
 which he intends to run a train of two cars every 
 20 minutes. He claims that there are special engines 
 
CONDUIT AND SURFACE CONDUCTOR SYSTEMS. 185 
 
 with a horse-power of 10,000 and 12,000 each, which 
 would run the whole Pennsylvania Railroad sys- 
 tem, between New York and Philadelphia, includ- 
 ing freight, local and express trains, at a reduced 
 expense, with much less depreciation of rail stock 
 and roadbed. There are said to be 400 or 500 
 engines on the Pennsylvania Railroad at one time. 
 He furthermore stated that he will soon have a 
 track for demonstration ready in the vicinity of 
 New York. 
 
 The Edison Monthly Record for December states: 
 "Mr. Edison has devised the new system for roads 
 of heavy traffic, in large cities where the expense 
 of the original installation is warranted by the 
 traffic, and where the trolley system will not be per- 
 mitted. For instance, the new system would not 
 be applicable, in a commercial sense, to long roads 
 operating less than fifty cars simultaneously. It 
 must therefore be understood that, outside of the 
 large cities, the best system that can be advocated 
 is the trolley. " 
 
 The following particulars have been furnished by 
 Mr. Edison : " The overhead system is entirely dis- 
 pensed with. Cars, trucks, tracks, and roadbed, 
 such as are now in use, are retained, certain changes 
 being made in the joints and cross-ties. The power, 
 furnished by 1,000-volt generators, is distributed to 
 reducing apparatus placed in boiler-plate manholes 
 at intervals varying in accordance with the number 
 of cars required to be operated. At these various 
 reducing points the current is transformed from 
 1,000 volts to a pressure of 20 volts, and put in direct 
 communication with the tracks c This limit of 20 
 
186 DECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 volts is fixed in order to prevent horses from being 
 affected by the current. The economy of current is 
 about the same as with the present system of 
 trolley. 
 
 "The car motors being wound with uninsulated 
 copper wires, and the pressure of current being so 
 low, there is entire freedom from burning out of 
 armatures, as water can be poured upon the arma- 
 tures without any ill effect. The problem of pro- 
 ducing a perfect rail joint, and the picking up of a 
 heavy current from a mud -covered rail, has been 
 solved in a practical manner. The experimental road 
 at Mr. Edison's laboratory is a quarter of a mile 
 long, with a six per cent, grade and very short 
 curves. It is operated successfully when the rails 
 are entirely buried in mud or in dry sand. 
 
 "Mr. Edison is arranging to have the system 
 placed in practical operation on a heavy traffic road 
 in some large city (probably New York) to demon- 
 strate its practicability. This will be done during 
 the coming year." 
 
 The effect which the announcement of this system 
 has had on the electric railroad industry was a very 
 harmful one, as it made many railway companies 
 hesitate about adopting the present systems. 
 Unless, therefore, Mr. Edison can substantiate what 
 he claims, he has done great injury to the industry, 
 as well as to his own reputation. 
 
 Commenting on this system, Professor Elihu 
 Thomson says : " Of course every electrician knows 
 as well as I that the conditions of practice in street 
 railway work are not such as are likely to permit 
 any such scheme to have a ghost of a chance to 
 
CONDUIT AND SURFACE CONDUCTOR SYSTEMS. 187 
 
 survive. Certainly such statements, coming from Mr. 
 Edison, are calculated to retard the growth of the 
 industry, particularly as the schemes which he puts 
 forward as the solution of the problem of street rail- 
 way work have not reached the beginning of a 
 demonstration of their feasibility, a demonstration 
 which is hardly likely ever to be made." 
 
 Professor Sydney H. Short says : " If the pressure 
 is so low that it will do no harm to vehicles or ani- 
 mals coming in contact with the conductor, it will 
 be impossible to keep contact with the rails through 
 dust, mud, snow, etc.; it is now a very common 
 thing for a car operating with 500 volts pressure to 
 become stranded by being insulated on dry dust or 
 on snow. The question of resistance comes in also, 
 as a very important one. The resistance across 
 four or five feet of wet earth from one rail to the 
 other in a track several miles long must of neces- 
 sity be very low, so low that I think it would prac- 
 tically short circuit the rails. It troubles me to think 
 of the size of the conductor that would be necessary 
 to carry the enormous volume of current needed in 
 such a system. While I am willing and anxious to 
 believe it possible to operate street railways in the 
 manner described, my experience has been such as 
 to make me incredulous." 
 
 Mr. O. T. Crosby states: "Plainly stated, the 
 problem of high speed electrical work does not 
 demand a genius. It demands good railroading, 
 good engineering, and plenty of money. A current 
 flowing through each rail, in case there be a heavy 
 traffic, will be at a point near the secondary gener- 
 ating station (at the motor dynamos) anywhere 
 
188 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 from 1,000 to 3,500, or even a larger number of 
 amperes. What this will do at the rail joint 
 remains to be seen. It is also a subject of easy cal- 
 culation, to determine how much copper must be 
 added to the rail in order that the loss, at 20 volts 
 even, from the short distances in question, shall not 
 be considerable. Metal tie bars joining one rail to 
 the other must be given up, or be used with non- 
 metallic bushings. At switches, turnouts, crossings, 
 etc., the problem of preventing metallic contact 
 between rails on opposite sides of the track would 
 be one which would startle almost any practical 
 track builder who knows the difficulties of using 
 anything but metal in track construction. Concern- 
 ing the matter as a whole, that is, the transfer from 
 high to low potential, and the use of the rails as 
 conductors, it presents such an enormous burden in 
 the shape of first cost of plant, together with such 
 unusually large transmission losses from primary 
 engine to the motor on a car, and requires such 
 apparently impracticable changes in ordinary rail- 
 roading methods, that in my opinion nothing save 
 the magic of Mr. Edison's name could obtain for it 
 any hearing from the interested public." 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 STORAGE BATTERY SYSTEMS. 
 
 From the published expressions of a number of 
 writers it appears that the opinion is almost uni- 
 versal that the storage battery system is the " ideal" 
 system ; but at the same time it is also their almost 
 
STORAGE BATTERY SYSTEMS. 189 
 
 universal opinion that it has not yet to-day been 
 developed to a perfectly satisfactory system. The 
 fact that such roads have been abandoned, that 
 very few are in operation, and that still fewer are 
 contemplated does not appear to be a favorable state 
 of affairs. The objections, however, seem to be all 
 traceable to the defects of the batteries and not to the 
 system, notwithstanding the fact that such a system 
 requires the carrying about of its source of power. 
 The steam locomotives and the horse cars have to do 
 the same. It will be seen from some of the plants 
 described below that the weight of the battery, 
 though large, is not a very large proportion, being 
 in one case only about 23 per cent, of the total load. 
 The fault appears to lie in the fact that the batteries 
 cannot stand the strain of the heavy output required 
 of them in starting the car, and to the fact that they 
 deteriorate too rapidly. As soon, therefore, as the 
 battery is perfected, storage battery traction will 
 take a much more prominent place among the other 
 systems. 
 
 Among the numerous opinions expressed during 
 the past year on this system, the following extracts 
 will give a very good summary of what is thought 
 about it. 
 
 Mr. F. L. Pope, in a very interesting lecture, made 
 the following remarks on this subject : " The storage 
 battery system, both from the standpoint of the 
 public and of the street-car manager, is an ideal 
 solution of the problem of electrical transportation. 
 It has many features which especially commend it 
 for city work. Each car is an independent unit, and 
 hence no accident can materially cripple a well 
 
190 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 organized system. The idea of being able to store 
 a large quantity of electricity in a box under the 
 seats of a car, to carry it around, and to draw from 
 it a large amount of power, as required, is a most 
 attractive one. Storage battery cars can be intro- 
 duced in the existing systems, one car at a time. In 
 cases of emergency they can be run over almost any 
 route where a horse car can be run, not being 
 restricted to the route of an electric conductor, and 
 under ordinary circumstances the car can be run 
 just as rapidly and controlled just as effectively as 
 it can be with the trolley system. 
 
 " All these advantages were recognized at an early 
 day, and hardly had the storage battery been 
 invented before it was applied to street-car pro- 
 pulsion. The first storage car was operated in Paris, 
 in 1882. The system was put in practical service on 
 one of the lines in Brussels, Belgium, and continued 
 for two years. It was also introduced in 1886, on 
 the Madison avenue line in New York city, and has 
 been in operation there ever since. The results of 
 the ten cars now running on the Madison avenue 
 line appear to have demonstrated that the system 
 may, with careful management, be made thor- 
 oughly reliable. Each car will carry a full load on 
 a straight and level track 15 miles per hour, and 
 will ascend grades not exceeding five per cent, and 
 not more than 500 feet long at five miles per hour. 
 A run of 40 miles can be made on a level track, 
 which is considered a half day's work, with one 
 charge of battery. The time required to replace the 
 exhausted batteries with fresh ones is not more than 
 two minutes, There are, however, two serious 
 
STORAGE BATTERY SYSTEMS. 191 
 
 objections to this system, which have thus far been 
 sufficient to prevent its adoption in other than 
 exceptional cases. One of these is the great weight 
 of the batteries, and the other is the lack of reserve, 
 power in the emergencies which sometimes occur. 
 In other words, two considerations enter into the 
 question, one of economy and the other of efficiency. 
 To take up the question of comparative efficiency 
 first, a very little consideration of the matter will 
 show that the progress of the art, so far as yet 
 developed, practically limits the use of storage bat- 
 tery cars to lines having very light grades not 
 more than five per cent, at the outside. Very many 
 of our eastern cities, for instance, Springfield, Provi- 
 dence, Worcester, Albany, Troy, and many others 
 which I might mention, have very severe grades, 
 from 7 to 10 per cent., and some of them half a mile 
 long. To start a heavily loaded car in bad weather 
 on such a grade as this means an expenditure for a 
 few seconds of from 50 to 80 horse-power. Experi- 
 ence has shown that this is far too heavy a tax upon 
 the powers of a storage battery. Even on compara- 
 tively level lines, in our northern climates, the 
 occurrence of a heavy storm of snow or sleet neces- 
 sitates the expenditure of an abnormal amount of 
 power, and it is on just such occasions as these 
 when everybody wants to ride, so that the cars are 
 loaded to their utmost capacity, and great dissatis- 
 faction prevails if there is any delay or any lack of 
 sufficient accommodation. It is at such times as this 
 that the advantages of a distribution from a central 
 station are most apparent. The whole number of 
 cars, or extra ones, if necessary, can be run, and 
 
192 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 any amount of power required to force them through 
 obstructions and to keep them running on schedule 
 time can be supplied from the power station. It is 
 merely a question of burning more coal. 
 
 "Considering the economical aspect of the ques- 
 tion, first, as to the original cost, it may be said, 
 roughly, the difference between the storage and 
 overhead line system is not very great. The whole 
 outfit, exclusive of roadbed, track and building, for 
 either system, will aggregate perhaps $10,000 per 
 car. Now as to the cost of maintenance and opera- 
 tion: 
 
 "A 16-foot car with two motors, such as are most 
 commonly used, will weigh 8,000 pounds, of which 
 4,000 is electric apparatus. A storage battery car of 
 the same size and capacity weighs 14,000 pounds, of 
 which 3,800 is battery. A full load may be estimated 
 at 30 passengers, weighing about 4,000 pounds. It 
 will be seen that the storage battery car weighs 
 nearly as much as two ordinary electric cars. It 
 seems at present impracticable to operate a car 
 with less than 3,800 pounds weight of battery, and 
 unless great improvements are made there is little 
 reason to hope that this weight can be materially 
 reduced. 
 
 "What is termed the commercial efficiency of an 
 electric railway is the ratio between the power gen- 
 erated by the steam engine and that exerted upon 
 the car wheels. We may call the weight of the car 
 body and truck, plus the full load of passengers, the 
 useful load. The best authorities seem to concur in 
 the opinion that it requires, roughly speaking, nearly 
 twice as much power per unit of useful work done, 
 
STORAGE BATTERY SYSTEMS. 193 
 
 with the storage battery system, that it does with 
 the direct distribution system. The dead weight of 
 the battery is nearly equal to that of a paying load 
 of 30 passengers, and this load must be transported 
 whether there are any passengers or not. The 
 increased weight adds to the cost of renewal and 
 repairs, both of the track and of the cars. 
 
 " The cost of horse power for drawing cars has been 
 found by long experience to rary from 10 to 11 cents 
 per car per mile. The cost of power for the ten 
 storage battery cars on the Madison avenue line in 
 New York is said to figure out 10.6 cents per car 
 mile, practically the same as horse power. A care- 
 ful computation of the average cost of power by the 
 direct distribution system, on a considerable num- 
 ber of different lines in this country, shows that the 
 cost for coal, atcendance, real estate, oil and waste, 
 repairs of machinery and line, foots up 5.09 cents 
 per car per mile. I am now speaking solely of the 
 cost of power ; the greater part of the expenses of 
 any street railway company remain substantially 
 unchanged, whatever kind of power is used. 
 
 " The total number of electric cars now running 
 in this country is probably between 2,500 and 3,000. 
 Of the whole number, I presume not more than 30 
 or 40 are operated by storage batteries. The fact 
 that the overhead system, though introduced at a 
 later period than either the storage system or the 
 underground distribution system, has so far sur- 
 passed them both, goes far to show that as yet it is 
 the only system which has been able to meet the 
 various exacting requirements of our street railway 
 service." 
 
194 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 In a report on the various systems, Mr. Knight 
 Neftel states the following regarding storage bat- 
 tery systems : " Owing to litigation and a variety of 
 causes, the storage battery system has made but little 
 material progress in a commercial way during the 
 past year. So far, primary batteries have been ap- 
 plied only to the operation of the smallest stationary 
 motors. Their application in the near future to trac- 
 tion may, I think, be entirely disregarded. Were it 
 not a purely technical matter, it might easily be 
 demonstrated, with our knowledge of electro-chem- 
 istry, that such an arrangement as an electric pri- 
 mary battery driving a car is an impossibility. In 
 view of the claims of certain inventors, I regret to 
 be obliged to make so absolute a statement, but the 
 results thus far have produced nothing of value. 
 
 "The application of secondary or storage batter- 
 ies to electrical traction has been accomplished in a 
 number of cities with a varying amount of success. 
 Roads equipped by batteries have now been suffi- 
 ciently long in operation to allow us to draw some 
 conclusions as to the practical results obtained and 
 what is possible in the near future. The advantages 
 which have been demonstrated on Madison avenue, 
 in New York; Dubuque, la.; Washington, D. C., 
 and elsewhere, may be summarized as follows: 
 
 "First, the independent feature of the system. 
 The cars being independent of each other, are free 
 from drawbacks of broken trolley wires .temporary 
 stoppages at the power station, the grounding of 
 one motor affecting other motors, and sudden and 
 severe strains upon the machinery at the power 
 station, such as frequently occur in direct systems : 
 

 STORAGE BATTERY SYSTEMS. 195 
 
 the absence of all street structures and repairs to 
 the same, and the loss by grounds and leakages are 
 also very considerable advantages both as to 
 economy and operation, 
 
 " Second, the comparatively small space required 
 for the power station. Each car being provided with 
 two or more sets of batteries, the same can be 
 charged at a uniform rate without undue strain on 
 the machinery of the power station, and as it can be 
 done more rapidly than the discharge required for 
 the operation, of the motors, a less amount of gen- 
 eral machinery is necessary for a given amount of 
 work. 
 
 " Another and important advantage of the system 
 is the low pressure of the current used to supply the 
 motors and the consequent increased durability of 
 the motor, and practically absolute safety to life 
 from electrical shock. It has been demonstrated 
 also that the cars can be easily handled in the street, 
 run at any desired speed, and reversed with far 
 more safety to the armature of the motor than in 
 the direct system. The increased weight requires 
 simply more brake leverage. 
 
 "The modern battery, improved in many of its 
 details during the last year, is still an unknown 
 quantity as to durability. There is the same doubt 
 concerning this as there was at the time incan- 
 descent lamps were first introduced. At that time 
 some phenomenal records were made by lamps 
 grouped with other lamps. Similarly, some plates 
 appear to be almost indestructible, while others, 
 made practically in the same manner, deteriorate 
 within a very short time. It is consequently very 
 
190 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 difficult as yet to exactly and fairly place a limit on 
 the life of the positive plates. Speaking simply 
 from observation of a large number of plates of 
 various kinds, I am inclined to put the limit at 
 about eight months, though it is claimed by some 
 of the more prominent manufacturers and undoubt- 
 edly it is true in special cases that entire elements 
 have lasted ten months, and even longer. It must 
 be remembered, however, that the jolting and 
 handling: to which these batteries are subjected in 
 traction work increases the tendency to disinte- 
 grate, buckle, and short circuit; and that the 
 record for durability for this application can never 
 be the same as for stationary work. 
 
 " A serious inconvenience to the use of batteries in 
 traction work is the necessary presence of the liquid 
 in the jars. This causes the whole equipment to be 
 somewhat cumbersome, and unless arranged with 
 great care, and with a variety of devices lately 
 designed, a source of considerable annoyance. The 
 connections between the plates, which formerly 
 gave so much trouble by breaking off, have been 
 perfected so as to prevent this difficulty, and the 
 shape of the jars has been designed to prevent the 
 spilling of the acid while the car is running. The 
 car seats are now practically hermetically sealed, 
 so that the escaping gases are not offensive to the 
 passengers. 
 
 " The handling of the batteries is an exceedingly 
 important consideration. Many devices have been 
 invented to render this easy and cheap. I have wit- 
 nessed the changing of batteries in a car, one set 
 |>eing taken out and a charged set replaced by four 
 
STORAGE BATTERY SYSTEMS. 197 
 
 men in the short space of three minutes. This is 
 accomplished by electrical elevators, which move 
 the batteries opposite the car, and upon the plat- 
 forms of which the discharged elements are again 
 charged. 
 
 "In the past four years a great change has come 
 over everything connected with the storage battery 
 as regards the plates, and the shape has changed 
 completely, so that the storage battery of to-day, as 
 manufactured by the leading companies, is an 
 entirely new thing. I remember five years ago 
 receiving a letter from the Thomson-Houston com- 
 pany, which I have preserved as a curiosity, asking 
 me whether I thought electric traction would ever 
 be successful, and whether it would pay an electric 
 light company to manufacture motors for electric 
 traction. In the light of the developments made in 
 the past in the general field of electric traction, we 
 should not cast discredit on the stora,ge battery, or 
 throw it aside as a failure. 
 
 "I think it is a mistake to expect batteries to 
 make a long run. If we have a perfected storage 
 battery system, it will not be a system in which our 
 cars will run 100 to 200 miles; but it will be a sys- 
 tem in which each car will make one trip, then 
 newly charged batteries will be put in the car. The 
 batteries can be changed easily, and there is no 
 earthly object in dragging them along for 30, 40, or 
 50 miles ; it is taking along an unnecessary weight 
 in lead. 
 
 "The general conclusions which the year's experi- 
 ence and progress have afforded us an opportunity 
 to make may be summarized as follows: Storage 
 
198 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 battery cars are as yet applicable only to those 
 roads which are practically level, where the direct 
 system cannot be used, and where cable traction 
 cannot be used; and applicable to these roads only 
 at about the same cost as horse traction. I feel justi- 
 fied in making this statement in view of the guaran- 
 tees which some of the more prominent manufac- 
 turers of batteries are willing to enter into, and 
 which practically insure the customer against loss 
 due to deterioration of plates, leaving the question 
 of the responsibility of the company the only one 
 for him to look into. " 
 
 Mr. E. A. Scott states : " I have seen the changing 
 of the plates done in the Dubuque road in about 30 
 seconds, so that the question whether a storage bat- 
 tery car will run 100 miles without recharging, or 
 50 miles, does not become a matter of importance. 
 There is no more necessity to run a battery 100 
 miles than there is of making a pair of horses pull 
 a car that distance. You can work a pair of horses 
 until they drop in their tracks, and you can do the 
 same with a battery until it becomes exhausted, but 
 there is no necessity in either case. We calculate 
 to run about 20 or 25 miles before we make a change 
 of batteries, and if they are run in that way in a 
 road where grades do not exist beyond five or six 
 per cent., there is no trouble. The question of how 
 expensive the system is going to be is controlled by 
 the question of how often you are going to renew 
 the positive plates. We believe from what we know 
 that the cost of running is considerably less than 
 horses, although we have no figures to show. We 
 believe that in about one year it can be run in com- 
 
STORAGE BATTERY SYSTEMS. 199 
 
 petition, so far as economy is concerned, with any 
 overhead system. 
 
 " When a car is run about 20 miles at the ordinary 
 street-car speed, it will take about two and one-half 
 hours to charge the batteries for that 20 miles or 
 more; but practice has shown us that it is very 
 foolish to draw out the entire charge of the battery. 
 The question of how long the battery will run before 
 it will absolutely break down ought not to be con- 
 sidered for a moment, because it is very bad prac- 
 tice that is the thing which destroys the cells. If 
 the cells are properly used in this respect, the bat- 
 teries will last a long time, for many months. I 
 know of one plant in Philadelphia in the lighting 
 service that has run five years without change. 
 
 "As to the amount of power that is required to 
 run a storage battery car, I took for one week the 
 mileage of the cars on the Dubuque road, and also 
 measured at the dynamo the amount of power put 
 into the batteries. I was enabled to get from the 
 mileage of the cars the amount of horse-power it 
 took per car mile, and it was a little less than one and 
 one-half per car mile. The road has grades of over 
 six per cent ; on a level road I have no doubt it can 
 be done with less power. On one road it averaged 
 for six months in a commercial way eight-tenths of 
 a horse-power per car mile." 
 
 Mr. Crosby states: "No doubt the future has 
 within it such possibilities as none of us, I think, 
 should dare to measure to-day. I even go so far as 
 to say that I believe in the future that it will be pos- 
 sible to propel a car by electricity without tying it 
 by a string to the station. The trouble is we do not 
 
200 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 see how to do it at the present time. I think we can 
 leave the matter for a time to those who are hard at 
 work upon it." 
 
 Mr. F. H. Monks states : " Perhaps the ideal sys- 
 tem of application is through the accumulator or 
 storage battery. But can it be shown that any stor- 
 age battery system has proved commercially suc- 
 cessful after thorough and practical tests actually 
 conducted for a period of 12 months upon a city 
 road? Storage battery cars have been exhaustively 
 tried in England for several years, and the latest 
 reports from that country show that no degree of 
 commercial success has been attained to date. The 
 result in this country seems to be the same. Now 
 and again we have been assured that a new inven- 
 tion in the storage battery field has been found, 
 which will surely meet with commercial success in 
 operation, but the report of actual tests and results 
 in proof thereof is lacking. Personally, I have faith 
 to believe it will come some day. Perhaps it is near 
 at hand." 
 
 Mr. Montague states: "I have seen within three 
 months a storage battery car that will take 85 pas- 
 sengers on a 16-foot car, and carry them up a grade 
 of 10 per cent., and do it steadily and easily. It 
 takes an hour and thirty minutes to charge the 
 batteries. They do not allow the batteries, as a rule, 
 to run more than 20 to 22 miles; but on one day 
 three cars ran respectively 42, 46, and 48 miles, and 
 when they got back to the power house the engineer 
 had gone home, and they remained outside all 
 night. In the morning there was sufficient power 
 left in the batteries to take the cars into the power 
 
STORAGE BATTERY SYSTEMS. 201 
 
 house. It takes about 30 seconds to change the 
 batteries. These cars run on level ground at a speed 
 faster than most city governments will permit, and 
 in mounting grades they go quite fast. On one occa- 
 sion when a car was mounting a grade with 30 peo- 
 ple in it, I got out and walked alongside of the car, 
 and not until it had reached the top could I keep up 
 with it. The grade was about five per cent, There 
 are six cars running now." 
 
 Mr. Bar r states: "The Lehigh Avenue Passenger 
 Railway, in Philadelphia, was built to operate stor- 
 age battery cars. In May, 1890, the road started 
 with six storage battery cars. In October, 1890, 
 application was made to the Philadelphia Council 
 for the use of the overhead system, claiming that 
 unless they could use it they would have to abandon 
 the road. The Council refused permission to the 
 company to use the overhead wire, and on January 
 1, 1891, the storage battery cars were abandoned, 
 and the road has since been operated by horse 
 power." 
 
 Mr. Vhay states : " I represent a road which per- 
 haps experimented with the storage battery system 
 more than any other road in the country. The 
 Woodward storage battery car was put on our road 
 for about a year and a half. The system worked 
 very well ; the cars ran at the rate of about 12 or 14 
 miles an hour. The cost for coal was considerable, 
 however ten dollars a day and it seemed to take 
 from seven to ten hours to charge the plates, while 
 it is not possible for the car to make over 35 miles 
 a day. There were no grades, but some sharp 
 curves. We thought that considering the expense 
 
202 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 and getting only 30 miles out of the battery, it was 
 not much of a commercial success." 
 
 Mr. Everett states: "Almost all street railway 
 men admit that the storage system, if successful, 
 would be the ideal system, and all hope for its ulti- 
 mate achievement; and in this age of progress it 
 would be very short-sighted and bigoted to say that 
 it will never come." 
 
 Descriptive. 
 
 Barking Road (London). This line was started 
 about the beginning of the year 1890, and has been 
 in regular service since. The contract with the 
 parent company was to run the cars at 4jd. (9 cts.) 
 per car mile, driver included. The generating sta- 
 tion cost 3,500; 6 cars at 450 each (batteries 300 
 per car) ; during the first 12 months 5 cars ran with 
 regularity which left nothing to be desired. The 
 road is fairly level and considered in good repair. 
 The cars weigh 3.275 tons; the motors and gear, 1.36 
 tons; the batteries, 2.4 tons (22.6 per cent, of the 
 total weight, loaded); the passengers, 3.6 tons; the 
 total rolling load, 10.63 tons, of which 34 per cent, is 
 paying and 23 per cent, is battery. 
 
 The following figures were supplied by Mr. Fra- 
 zer, one of the contracting company's engineers: 
 Number of car miles run, 100,844; running expenses, 
 3,390; wages at generating station, 677; wages of 
 drivers, 602; fuel, 434; oil, 64; balance, 1,613 
 (not 1,777, as was reported), for depreciation and 
 repairs. The battery depreciation and repairs 
 amounted to 1,184, or 66 per cent, of the prime cost, 
 which alone added 2.8d. to the cost per car mile. 
 
STORAGE BATTERY SYSTEMS. 203 
 
 The motor repairs are given as 1,000, or .428d. per 
 car mile; this first figure (1,000) must be a mistake, 
 as it does not check with the total. Assuming the 
 latter (.428) to be correct, the motor repairs were 
 178, leaving 251 for other expenses. The item of 
 depreciation of the electric plant on the car alone 
 amounted to nearly 3|d. per car mile. The mere 
 haulage expenses amounted to within 2d. of the 
 total cost of tramway working in London, and have 
 exceeded the cost of horse haulage by about the 
 same amount. The result of the first year's working 
 has been a loss of nearly 1,500; the running 
 expenses per mile having been 8d. instead of 4^d. 
 The figures regarding the subdivision of the items 
 of expenses will be found tabulated and reduced to 
 comparative figures under the heading "Cost of 
 Operating," where they are compared with those of 
 other roads. 
 
 Other Accumulator Plants. The following data 
 were published about some of the accumulator roads 
 now running: 
 
 Hague (Holland). Six accumulator cars are now 
 running from the Hague to the Casino at Scheven- 
 ing, a distance of about 3 miles. The speed of 
 running is 12 miles an hour, including stops. 
 The loaded car weighs 16 tons; it is 32 feet 
 long, carries 68 passengers, and the battery of accu- 
 mulators weighs 4 tons. The cars, constructed at 
 Harlem, have two bogies of two axles each. Only 
 one bogie is driven, having its wheels coupled 
 together. The axles are connected to the motor by 
 solid gearing, and the whole weight is carried by 
 the axles. The motor is supplied by carbon brushes 
 
204 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 from a battery of 192 Julien accumulators, weigh- 
 ing 40 pounds each. This battery, when charged, 
 provides current for a run of 45 miles, after which 
 the cars return for change of cells. The accumu- 
 lators are arranged in eight boxes or drawers, 
 weighing half a ton each, placed under the seats. 
 The ear is provided with switches and resistances 
 to allow the speed to be varied. The changing of 
 the sets of cells is carried out by the aid of a special 
 mechanical arrangement to allow rapid handling. 
 Two sets of turntables and rolling carriers are 
 placed at the end of a charging bench. The draw- 
 ers, when taken from the car, slide easily on rollers 
 placed on the bench and turntables, the operation 
 of changing requiring five minutes. The spare sets 
 of cells are always being charged as the others are 
 being used. The connections are made with spring 
 contacts arranged so that no mistake can occur. It 
 is intended to settle the question of maintenance by 
 the erection of a small manufactory of battery 
 plates on the spot, with a laboratory. 
 
 Lyons (France). The car is fitted with a motor 
 by Alroth. of Basle, the current being supplied by 
 112 Faure-Sellon-Volckmar cells weighing 2i tons, 
 the gearing being a Gall steel chain. The cells are 
 placed under the seats and in two cupboards at the 
 end, and the motor is placed beneath the car floor, 
 so that nothing is seen but the switch handle along- 
 side that of the brake. The total weight of the 
 loaded car may be analyzed thus (giving the weights 
 in hundredweights) : Car 104, motor 13, switch and 
 resistance 2, 40 passengers 53, battery 47; total, 
 about 11 tons. The accumulators can be connected 
 
STORAGE BATTERY SYSTEMS. 205 
 
 in four different ways, corresponding with 50, 100, 
 100 and 200 volts for 80, 40, 20 and 20 amperes 
 respectively. The various couplings are brought 
 about by a set of brush contacts under the car, 
 moved by a handle with dial and figures. At normal 
 speed, 7-J miles an hour (12 kilometres) on the level, 
 the current is used at 10 amperes, rising to 30 and 
 45 on gradients. The capacity of the battery is 150 
 ampere hours, so that a minimum run of eight hours 
 can be achieved without recharge. The lighting of 
 the car is taken off the cells at 50 volts. So far the 
 experiment appears to have been very successful, 
 and the director seems strongly inclined to increase 
 the number of electric cars. 
 
 Siemens & Halske road at the Frankfort Exhibi- 
 tion. The car had two motors, each from 8 to 10 
 horse-power ; they are very easily replaced in case 
 of any accident or repairs. There are 162 cells of 
 batteries of the Tudor system (a modified Plante 
 cell), weighing about 2,200 pounds. The weight of 
 the car without passengers is said to be about 17,600 
 pounds, and it carries about 40 passengers. The 
 cells are used in three parallel sets of 54 cells (of 
 about 110 volts) each; for starting they use a 
 smaller number of cells, and in this respect it is an 
 imperfect system, as the cells are thereby unevenly 
 discharged. It takes 45 to 48 amperes to start the 
 car. They will run for about five and one-half 
 hours. The brushes are of carbon as usual. This 
 system is not in practical use at present, but they 
 are experimenting with it in Budapest. 
 
 Dubuque (la.) Storage Battery Railway. A full 
 description of this road, which has now been 
 
206 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 changed to a trolley road, will be found on page <>1 
 of the issue of The Electrical World for July 25, 1891. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 UNDERGROUND (TUNNEL) SYSTEM. 
 
 As the requirements and the engineering features 
 of an electric road running in underground tunnels 
 are so very different from those of surface lines, 
 they have here been placed under a separate hea'ding. 
 The contact wire, feeders, grades, curves, and many 
 other features, are entirely different, and in many 
 cases much simpler than in surface roads. The size 
 of the units, the speed and the less frequent stops, 
 particularly when compared to surface roads in a 
 city with dense traffic, are all much more favora- 
 ble than in surface roads. 
 
 There is, perhaps, no branch in electric railway 
 engineering that is of such importance at the pres- 
 ent time, and that has such a good immediate future 
 as electric underground roads. The first road of 
 this kind which was built, and which was to a cer- 
 tain extent an experiment, has proven so successful 
 that the same parties soon after contemplated a 
 second and larger line, which was followed very 
 rapidly by propositions for similar lines in Paris, 
 New York, and a third road in London. That such 
 a system has no rival, is evident from the fact that 
 steam roads of a similar kind, such as have been 
 running in London for many years, have proven to 
 be unsatisfactory as far as comfort to passengers 
 is concerned, as well as in other features. The 
 
UNDERGROUND (TUNNEL) SYSTEM. 207 
 
 fact has already been demonstrated that individual 
 motors are much more economical than individual 
 steam engines, as they derive their power from a 
 central station where large steam engines can be 
 run to a much greater advantage than the small 
 inefficient engines on locomotives. There are numer- 
 ous other evident advantages, such, for instance, as 
 the fact that the air is not vitiated by the smoke 
 and products of combustion, including obnoxious 
 sulphurous vapor, that the tunnel may be made 
 much smaller, that the rolling stock, and conse- 
 quently the roadbed, may be made much lighter, 
 and that the train may be controlled entirely from 
 stationary block stations, instead of relying on sig- 
 nals, which, as was shown in a recent fatal acci- 
 dent in New York City, cannot be relied upon in 
 the smoky atmosphere of a tunnel for a steam road. 
 The units may also be made smaller, and the inter- 
 vals between trains therefore more frequent than 
 would be economical in a steam road. We believe 
 that it is not over sanguine to state that before the 
 next year is over extensive roads on this plan will 
 not only be contemplated, but perhaps also in course 
 of construction. 
 
 Mr. F. L. Pope, in referring to the underground 
 tunnel systems, terms them "the most important 
 development of electric transportation which has 
 yet come before the public." Referring to the Lon- 
 don road and to a contemplated similar road in New 
 York, he states: "This undertaking having been 
 placed in the hands of electrical engineers whose 
 competency cannot be questioned, and backed by 
 ample capital, has proved in London a phenomenal 
 
208 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 success. We are now assured that a syndicate of 
 the most prominent capitalists of New York have 
 undertaken to establish a system of transportation 
 upon the same plan, consisting of a network of tun- 
 nels at a depth of 100 feet beneath the surface, and 
 connecting all important points not only in the city 
 itself, but in the adjacent sections of Long Island 
 and New Jersey. In such a system it necessarily 
 follows that the train must be run by electricity to 
 the exclusion of any other power. 
 
 "Statistics show that the traffic of the horse cars 
 and elevated lines in New York has increased 46 
 per cent, within the five years from 1884 to 1889. A 
 careful estimate which has recently been made of 
 the movement of passengers in and about New York 
 during the year 1890 gives the following amazing 
 result : 
 
 New York city (surface and elevated roads) 400,000,000 
 
 Brooklyn Bridge 38,000,0'X) 
 
 Lonir Island ferries 90,000,000 
 
 Staten Island and New Jersey ferries 85,000,000 
 
 Total 603,000,000 
 
 " If the profit derived from carrying these passen- 
 gers amounts to only one cent each per trip, it 
 nevertheless figures up to the snug little sum of 
 $6,000,000 per annum, which makes a very com- 
 fortable dividend upon a capital of $100,000,000. 
 Such a system would admit of the running of solid 
 trains at very short invervals through the city, to 
 and from all points in the suburbs, in every direc- 
 tion, and I venture here and now to predict that 
 within the next 20 years, if not the next 10 years, 
 electrical underground transportation will be 
 brought to such a state of perfection that a passen- 
 
UNDERGROUND (TUNNEL) SYSTEM. 209 
 
 ger entering one of the central stations of New York 
 may be deposited at his home station at any point 
 within a radius of 10 miles in 15 minutes' time at a 
 fare of five cents. And the magnificent result is to 
 be the contribution to the convenience and the pros- 
 perity of the public of the electrical engineer." 
 
 Referring to the requirements of an electric 
 underground system, Mr. Stephen D. Field stated: 
 "In such an underground installation, using 
 numerous power stations, very high potential, 
 say 1,500 volts or more, can be safely employed, 
 with consequent economy of operation. There is 
 one very important point on which the comfort of 
 travel materially depends. Great care should be 
 taken to deaden vibration caused by the movement 
 of the trains; continuous rails should be used, 
 which, together with composition wheels and 
 upholstered carriages, will do much to further this 
 result. The locomotives should be 'direct coupled/ 
 and in no case should the armature be placed direct 
 on the axle without the intervention of springs. 
 The power stations should be located at the middle 
 and at either end of the line. Two insulated con- 
 ductors would lead from these stations along the 
 top of the tunnel. The conductors should be of soft 
 iron, suspended from the tunnel roof in such a 
 manner as to be readily accessible for repairs and 
 cleaning of insulators. The insulators should be 
 very strong and of great electrical resistance. Con- 
 tact with the power conductors could be best secured 
 by means of a 'magnetic trolley,' which gives great 
 adhesive contact without much weight or resistance 
 to rotation. Greater economy of operation will be 
 
210 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 secured if one large tunnel be used for two lines of 
 tracks instead of a single tunnel for each. In the 
 first case the air displaced by the moving train can 
 find room for circulation, while in the latter it must 
 be almost wholly forced out by each train. At mod- 
 erately high speeds this becomes a factor of great 
 resistance. In either case, however, plenty of air 
 movement for thorough ventilation will be secured 
 by the passage of the trains." 
 
 Further discussions on underground roads, which 
 space prevents us from reprinting here, may be 
 found in The Electrical World, page 247, March 28; 
 page 196, March 7; page 402, May 30; page 437, 
 June 13. 
 
 Descriptive. 
 
 City and South London Underground Railroad. 
 Owing to the impossibility of getting reliable tech- 
 nical data and detailed descriptions, the following 
 short description and criticism has to be limited to 
 such parts as could be seen from personal inspec- 
 tion, and to data obtained directly and indirectly 
 from various sources. The officials, though court- 
 eous, evaded or declined to answer questions regard- 
 ing details. 
 
 This railroad is the first and at present the only 
 underground electrical railroad running through a 
 large city for furnishing rapid transit between 
 points in the city/ The road starts at Monument 
 station, not far from London Bridge, which is near 
 the busiest part of London, crosses under the River 
 Thames, and continues in a slightly winding course 
 under the streets, entirely through built up portions 
 
UNDERGROUND (TUNNEL) SYSTEM. 211 
 
 of the city, to the district called Stockwell. Its course 
 forms to a certain extent a sort of diameter to the 
 circular course of the local stearn railroad lines. 
 The tunnel itself consists of two lines of circular 
 subways, one for the up and one for the down 
 trains, sometimes located side by side, and some- 
 times over each other. The tunnels are over each 
 other at various places, partly to avoid encroaching 
 on private property, and partly so that at the sta- 
 tions one elevator may be used for both lines, instead 
 of two, one on each side of the street. It is claimed 
 that the cost of excavating and lining is less for two 
 small tunnels than for one large one. The tunnels 
 are made of a circular steel cylinder 10 feet 6 inches 
 in diameter inside of the flanges and formed of 
 rings of cast iron segments bolted together at their 
 internal flanges. The rings are 1 foot 7 inches long. 
 The circular joints are made with tarred rope and 
 cement, and the longitudinal joints with thin strips 
 of pine wood. The surfaces are not planed, but 
 remain just as they came from the foundry. The 
 tunnels pass for the most part through clay, and 
 ! partly through sand and gravel. The tunnel was 
 driven by hydraulic cutters,* the whole being done 
 without the slightest interference with the traffic 
 along any of the thoroughfares under which it was 
 being built, a matter of great importance to the 
 residents of the city. The line of the two tunnels 
 as they pass under the River Thames is not by any 
 means a level one. The greatest up grade is 1 in 30, 
 at the river, but otherwise the road is practically 
 
 * For a detailed description spe The Engineer, London. June 7, 1889, p. 477, 
 third column. 
 
212 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 level. The north end of the road, which is near the 
 river, is about 80 to 90 feet below the street, but the 
 average depth is much less than this, though it is 
 said to be deep enough to pass under ail sewers and 
 pipes. 
 
 At each station there is a large hydraulic eleva- 
 tor, the power for which is supplied by pipes from 
 the main power station, which is at the Stockwell 
 end. Why such a cumbersome method was used 
 instead of electricity is difficult to see ; perhaps it 
 was because the original intention was to run the 
 trains by cable ; perhaps also because the promoters 
 were civil and not electrical engineers, who were 
 not sufficiently well posted on the advantages of 
 electrical elevators, and therefore resorted to the 
 older and more primitive method. If electricity can 
 be relied upon to run the trains, why should it be less 
 reliable for the elevators? Should the trains stop by 
 failure of the line, what is the use of the elevators, 
 as there is a staircase next to each of them? To 
 transmit hydraulic power through such distances 
 must surely be more expensive and less reliable than 
 to transmit electric power. We are informed that cer- 
 tain bad stoppages, which are made so much of by 
 the opposition parties, have been due to the failure 
 of the hydraulic transmission, which fact speaks for 
 itself. The hydraulic plant at the generating station 
 forms no small part of the total plant. As to its 
 efficiency, we have no data, but it certainly cannot 
 be as good as that of electricity would be. It would 
 seem that the matter of transmission of power 
 ought in a well-regulated plant be put into the 
 hands of electrical rather than civil engineers, 
 
UNDERGROUND (TUNNEL) SYSTEM. 213 
 
 To an American used to smoothly running rail- 
 road cars, the roadbed appears very rough, as 
 noticed from the violent shaking of the cars, and 
 this must affect materially the consumption of 
 power and must strain the framework and joints of 
 the tunnel. The air in the tunnel is cool and it is 
 entirely free from the sulphurous odors in the 
 underground steam roads, but it has a decidedly 
 musty smell like that of a damp, deserted cellar. 
 The cars are closed and there are no windows ; the 
 strong draught on the outside of the train is there- 
 fore not felt much in the cars. For long rides, how- 
 ever, this damp smell would be very objectionable, 
 which could probably be overcome by building the 
 tunnels so that they are drier. There is said to be 
 only a small quantity of water leaking into the tun- 
 nels, which is pumped out daily by means of hydrau- 
 lic injectors placed at the low points and operated 
 from the high-pressure water pipes which operate 
 the elevators. The underground stations are lined 
 with white glazed brick, and appear to be dry and 
 well ventilated ; they are lighted by gas, strange to 
 say. A train consists of one locomotive and three 
 cars for about 30 to 35 passengers each, or about 100 
 to .a train. They are run regularly at 4 minute 
 intervals, making a maximum carrying capacity of 
 1,330 passengers per hour. There are three trains 
 running each way at one time about one mile apart, 
 and one at each end station, making a total of 
 eight trains, six of which are always running. The 
 maximum speed is said to be 25 miles and the mean 
 20. The average speed, including stops, is said to 
 be 15 miles per hour. The total length of the line is 
 
214 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 about 3i miles. The cars are nearly circular in sec- 
 tion, have two rows of longitudinal side seats, and 
 entrances at the ends; the entrances are closed and 
 locked while the train is in motion. The cars com- 
 municate, and in case of an accident completely 
 stopping the train, the passengers could walk out 
 through the tunnel, provided the doors, which are 
 locked and bolted from tlie outside, can be forced 
 open by the imprisoned passengers. The cars are 
 calculated for 30 cubic feet of capacity per passen- 
 ger (20 cubic feet is the usual number required on 
 English railroads). The cars are very inadequately 
 lighted by incandescent lights, five in series on the 
 500-volt mains supplying the motor. They are natu- 
 rally very unsteady, which is very annoying; all 
 grades and changes of speed are very noticeable in 
 the brightness of the lights. Oil lamps are used as 
 reserves, and contrast very favorably with their 
 poor competitor. 
 
 The locomotive has two axles, each with two 
 wheels. Each axle carries a Gramme ring armature 
 secured on it, and forms, therefore, a gearless 
 motor. The magnets, one set for each armature, are 
 formed of two large massive cores and a yoke 
 piece, which extends from the shaft upward, in an 
 inclined position toward the middle of the car ; their 
 lower end rests on bearings on the axles and the 
 upper end is suspended by means of a bolt ; each 
 axle, therefore, has four bearings, two for the car 
 and two for the magnets. Each motor is said to 
 have a maximum output of about 50 horse-power, 
 making 100 horse-power per train ; when the train 
 is fully loaded with 100 passengers, this would make 
 
UNDERGROUND (TUNNEL) SYSTEM. 215 
 
 about 1 horse-power per passenger, which seems 
 very high; it is likely, however, that the normal 
 power used is far below this figure. Each motor is 
 said to be capable of running the train alone, 
 though slowly, in case of an accident to the other 
 motor, which case has, it is said, happened more 
 than once. The reserve motor power is, therefore, 
 50 per cent, of the maximum, or 100 per cent, of the 
 normal if horse-power can be taken as the normal. 
 Another statement made to the writer by the 
 attendant at the generating station was that each 
 motor took about 75 amperes, which at 450 volts and 
 80 per cent, efficiency represents 36 horse-power at 
 the wheels per motor, or 72 per car. There are two 
 sets of carbon brushes held in tangential holders; 
 the whole space surrounding the brushes and com- 
 mutator is dust-proof and is covered with a thick 
 plate of glass forming part of the floor of the loco- 
 motive, and thus permitting the engineer to see the 
 action of the brushes all the time a commendable 
 feature. The brakes used are the usual air brakes ; 
 a supply of compressed air at 80 pounds pressure is 
 carried in iron cylinders sufficient for one return 
 trip. They claim that air brakes are much simpler 
 than electrical brakes; besides this, the brakes 
 might have to be used quickly and unexpectedly in 
 case the current was interrupted, which itself may 
 be sufficient reason for not using electrical brakes. 
 Regarding the electrical details and data of the 
 locomotive and the circuits, no information could 
 be obtained, although application was made in turn 
 to the officials, the engineers, and contractors 
 (Mather & Platt). But as far as could be seen, there 
 
RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 was nothing unusual of any importance. Judging 
 from this and from other things that were noticed, 
 we surmise that the electrical part is not altogether 
 satisfactory ; in another similar road there would 
 probably be changes r$ade, as indeed is quite 
 natural, because the present road is to a certain 
 extent, at least, an experimental one, and it would 
 have been surprising if this first road had left noth- 
 ing to be improved upon. It would be quite inter- 
 esting, however, for engineers to know what not to 
 do. One thing we noticed was quite significant ; in 
 the repair shops there was seen a large scrap heap 
 of copper wire, which, from its shape and general 
 appearance, evidently came from burnt-out arma- 
 ture coils. An attendant at the repair shop remarked 
 that they had become quite experienced armature 
 winders, a remark which is significant, as the road 
 had been running only seven months. The burning 
 out of these armatures may have been due to the 
 fact that they were originally poorly made, and 
 perhaps the rewinding of them has been more satis- 
 factory; at all events, the insulation of the wires 
 of a gearless armature (that is, one whose shaft is 
 the axle of the wheels of the car) is strained very 
 badly, particularly when the roadbed is very 
 rough, as in this case. No springs can relieve it of 
 the direct blows which the armature gets when the 
 track is not perfectly even. Besides this, the strong 
 current required at starting is far greater, and acts 
 for a longer time than in a geared motor. This is 
 readily noticed from the variable brightness of the 
 lamps in the car, which in this case can almost be 
 said to be a crude ampere meter. 
 
UNDERGROUND (TUNNEL) SYSTEM. 217 
 
 The locomotive receives its current from a single 
 rail laid on the sleepers near one of the tracks; the 
 tracks themselves formed the return lead. This cur- 
 rent rail was made of an alloy of steel (the com- 
 position is said to he a secret) which is at the same 
 time very hard and a good conductor. The rail has 
 a rectangular section, and lies almost directly on 
 the sleepers. The insulation appears to be quite thin 
 and without much surface; it is likely, therefore, 
 to cause trouble by leakage in such a damp place. 
 Why such a good opportunity was lost to place it 
 on the side or top of the tunnel is not apparent ; this 
 would have avoided almost completely the difficul- 
 ties of insulation. The contact from the locomotive 
 to this rail was made by a very crude arrangement 
 consisting of a heavy cast-iron tongue which slid 
 on the top of the rail and was held by a loosely fit- 
 ting hinge; there was no provision for shunting the 
 poor contact at this loose hinge, though it might 
 easily have been done. There were three of these 
 tongues on each locomotive; being curved, they 
 work equally well for both directions of motion. 
 The contact rail was in sections, supplied by inde- 
 pendent leads, presumably the same as usual. 
 
 There was only one generating station, which was 
 located at the Stock well end, presumably because 
 ground was cheaper there than in the middle of the 
 road, the space occupied by this station and the 
 adjoining repair shop being quite large. It included 
 an inclined plane tunnel leading down to the sub- 
 way for raising the cars for repairs ; this was oper- 
 ated by a cable and a windlass. The main part of 
 the interior of this station was shown in an illustra- 
 
218 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 tion too large to be reproduced here, which will be 
 found on page 301 of The Electrical World, October 
 24, 1891. There are three dynamos of 500 volts and 
 about 500 amperes each, having a speed of 500 revolu- 
 itons. There is an engine of 375 horse-power for each ; 
 they are non-condensing, and govern very poorly. 
 The dynamos are compound wound, and contain 
 switches on their yoke pieces, by which the com- 
 pound winding on each limb of the magnets may be 
 cut out. There is no equalizing arrangement 
 between the compound windings. Link belts and 
 idle pulleys are used. The belts stretch very mate- 
 rially when carrying a load. The dynamos are 
 cooled artificially by air blasts supplied from air 
 pumps. The lubrication is by means of a milky 
 white mixture of castor oil and water. 
 
 The switchboard for this station is quite simple. 
 The dynamos are connected separately to it, and 
 can be variously connected to the different sections 
 of the road, It includes an ampere meter to five 
 amperes, by means of which the insulation is meas- 
 ured every morning before starting with a 500-volt 
 current. We understand that a few amperes leak- 
 age is not considered to be too much. At 2 amperes 
 the insulation resistance would be but 200 ohms, 
 which surely is not good. The cost of this wasted 
 energy (.6 horse-power per ampere of leakage) is 
 probably not of as much importance as the electro- 
 lytic corrosion of the rails and destruction of the 
 insulation which probably accompany it. The 
 switchboard, furthermore, contains automatic cut- 
 outs, which for .abnormal currents switch a resist- 
 ance into the circuit; if after that the current is 
 
UNDERGROUND (TUNNEL) SYSTEM. 219 
 
 still too great it opens the circuit entirely; if the 
 latter does not take place the engineer in charge 
 cuts out the resistance again. 
 
 Strange to say, there is no telephonic communica- 
 tion between the generating station and the way 
 stations. Instead of this there is a needle telegraph 
 system. The reason given for this otherwise poor 
 substitute is that all communications must be made 
 in writing and filed at the office, which naturally 
 has its advantages. 
 
 Inquiry at the main telegraph office of London 
 showed that there were no serious disturbances of 
 the telegraph lines by these powerful earth return 
 currents ; but they are said to materially affect the 
 magnetic observations at the Greenwich Observa- 
 tory, which is about five miles from this railroad. 
 The nearest earth plate to the railway is 2-J- miles 
 distant, but in spite of this the currents are regu- 
 larly and continuously visible from 7 in the morn- 
 ing to 11 o'clock at night. The differences of poten- 
 tial registered are, of course, comparatively slight, 
 ranging, however, from a small fraction of a volt 
 to nearly half a volt. 
 
 The interruptions in the running of this railroad 
 are said to have been due chiefly to the hydraulic 
 pipes and to short circuiting and burning out of 
 the armatures. But these interruptions are said not 
 to have been of a serious nature. The former could 
 readily have been avoided by using electric instead of 
 hydraulic transmission of power. For the latter 
 electricians will soon find a remedy, be it by more 
 careful insulation or by using a geared motor which 
 is supported on springs to dampen the concussions. 
 
220 'RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 Much is made by opposition parties of the inter- 
 ruptions which have occurred, but this is presuma- 
 bly exaggerated. In the first 11,000 trains run, there 
 were only 18 failures. We surmise, however, that 
 there was, perhaps, too much civil engineering and 
 too little electric engineering in some features of 
 the road, and we are led to believe from this that 
 the latter engineers, who were mere contractors 
 under the former, were not altogether responsible 
 for some of the unsatisfactory features. 
 
 The road was opened in December, 1890. The 
 uniform fare is 2d. (4 cts.). During the first 27 work- 
 ing days 414,000 passengers were carried. Up to 
 February 25th, the earnings were 7,500; 900,000 
 passengers were carried, 60,000 train miles were 
 run. The receipts per train mile were 2-Js. (60 cts., or 
 20 cts. per car mile for trains of three cars). Reports 
 in April state that there were about 100,000 passen- 
 gers per week. During the first six months 2,412,343 
 passengers were carried; 141,408 train miles were 
 run; gross earnings, 19,688; receipts per train mile 
 were therefore 2s. 9d. (66.8 cts., or 22.4 cts. per car 
 mile); total expenses, 15,520, or 78.8 per cent, of 
 gross earnings; net earnings, 4,168, which was 
 only sufficient to pay an ordinary interest on the 
 bonds. The running expenses per car mile were lid. 
 (22 cts.), from the above figures it was 26. 4d. (or 52.7 
 cts.) per train mile, (or 17.6 cts. per car mile for 
 trains of three cars) ; average number of passengers 
 per train mile, 17, that of the Metropolitan Steam 
 Road being 43. Average receipts from passengers, 
 2s. 9d. per train mile. For October the average 
 weekly receipts were said to be 750; operating 
 
UNDERGROUND (TUNNEL) SYSTEM. 221 
 
 expenses were 3.08 cts. per passenger. The fare dur- 
 ing the busy hours is to be increased from 2d. to 3d. 
 
 Central London Underground Railroad (Pro- 
 jected). The best proof that the present City and 
 South London road described above is a success is 
 shown by the fact that this second similar road is 
 projected by the same parties. This new road is to 
 extend between Shepherd's Bush and the Royal 
 Exchange, a distance of about six miles, under 
 Cheapside, Holborn Viaduct, Oxford street, etc., 
 which is the main artery running east and west 
 through the heart of London. There is said to be 
 more traffic there than in any other thoroughfare 
 in the world, Broadway in New York included. This 
 route forms a sort of diameter of the circular route 
 made by the present underground steam road. As 
 a line of travel it is very similar to Broadway in 
 New York. 
 
 The tunnel will be chiefly under streets, at an 
 average depth of 00 to 70 feet, at times reaching 80 
 to 90 feet, passing under the present underground 
 steam road in two places. The steepest grade will 
 be one per cent. The tunnel will be 11 feet 6 inches 
 in diameter, which is larger than that of the City 
 and South London road by 18 inches. This will 
 enable the cars to be larger and more comfortable. 
 The cars are cylindrical, fitting the tunnel quite 
 closely. A train will have four cars, carrying 350 
 passengers (seated), and will run on three minute 
 time, instead of 100 passengers on four and a half 
 minute time, as on the other road. The present road 
 does not pass through a district where there is as 
 much traffic as in the line of this new road, 
 
RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 The average speed will be 15 miles an hour, the 
 total rolling load 120 tons. There will be 13 stations. 
 The generating station will have from two to three 
 thousand horse-power. The proposed capital is 
 3,500,000. The cost is estimated at about 600,000 
 per mile, and the working expenses 9d. per train 
 mile. 
 
 It is very significant and instructive to notice 
 what changes in the construction are to be made in 
 this new road as compared with the present one, 
 the promoters being the same. Any one interested 
 in such roads will do well to compare the two roads 
 in detail, when such detailed descriptions are pub- 
 lished. At present such information is scarce. It 
 appears that the general features will remain about 
 the same. The feature of having two independent 
 motors on the locomotive, one for each pair of driv- 
 ing wheels, is said to be very satisfactory ; one of 
 these motors is said to be able to run the train 
 alone in case the other is disabled. One of the prin- 
 cipal changes is that there will be a separate system 
 of mains for the lighting of the stations and tun- 
 nels, and probably the cars also, so as to avoid the 
 very annoying and unceasing changing of the 
 brightness of the lights. The brakes will be opera- 
 ted by compressed air carried on the locomotive, 
 and supplied at the end stations as at present ; elec- 
 tric brakes are claimed to be so much more compli- 
 cated than air brakes. The strange feature in the 
 present road of running the large elevators at the 
 stations by hydraulic pressure, transmitted through 
 miles of pipe from the generating station, will prob- 
 ably be changed in the new road, in which electrical 
 
UNDERGROUND (TUNNEL) SYSTEM. 223 
 
 elevators will probably be used. To an American, so 
 accustomed to electrical elevators, it seems strange 
 that this was not done on the present road instead 
 of making the system more complicated by the intro- 
 duction of a second system of transmitting power 
 which, it would appear, is more complicated and 
 more liable to failure than the electrical trans- 
 mission for which the circuits exist. If the latter is 
 relied upon for propelling the trains, why should it 
 be less reliable for running the elevators? Hydrau- 
 lic transmission surely cannot be cheaper. 
 
 Paris Underground Railway (Projected.) It is 
 reported that the municipal authorities of the city 
 of Paris have just decided on building an under- 
 ground electric railroad from one side of the city to 
 the other, as a sort of a long diameter to the nearly 
 circular city, passing near most of the prominent 
 parts of the city. The system adopted is that pre- 
 sented by M. J. B. Berlier. The concession includes 
 an underground tunnel nearly following the course 
 of the Seine, and traversing Paris at its greatest 
 breadth. There are to be six stations, and a genera- 
 ting depot at the end of the line. The construction 
 of the tunnel will be very similar to that of the City 
 and South London underground electric railroad. 
 
 The transversal sleepers of injected wood are 
 placed a metre apart ; on these run two parallel 
 ways formed of rails 30 kilos to the running metre. 
 In the middle of each line is placed a central rail 
 insulated by india-rubber plates from the sleepers 
 to which it is fastened. The motor carriage carries 
 under its framework two gearless motors on the 
 same circuit. The motors are each 25 horse-power, 
 
224 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 and will be regulated for proportionate speeds and 
 for stoppages by a rheostat regulator, while the 
 reversing of the machinery will be effected by a 
 special commutator. During the journey, all the 
 doors will be closed by an electric bolt under the 
 charge of the engine driver ; on arriving at a station 
 they will be released and will open automatically. 
 The lighting question is to be solved by a special 
 service established at the works at the end of the 
 line, and will include arc lighting for the stations 
 and incandescent lights for the carriages, signals, 
 and for the general service of the tunnel through- 
 out its length. The electricity generating machinery 
 will be duplicated, so as to provide against break- 
 downs. 
 
 A Four Track Tunnel Road Proposed for New 
 York City. In the supplement to The Electrical 
 World, of February 21, 1891, there is published an in- 
 terview of Mr. F. J. Sprague, on " The Solution of the 
 Problem of "Rapid Transit for New York City," of 
 which we give below an abstract of the plan which 
 he proposes. 
 
 The first portion of the interview is a considera- 
 tion of the various systems proposed for New York, 
 which we will omit here. He states that the total 
 annual passenger traffic, that is, the total number 
 of passengers carried in that city, has increased at 
 the rate of 140 per cent, in each period of ten years, 
 since 1866, and is now something over 325,000,000. 
 At the same rate of increase, it would amount in 
 1890 to over 500,000,000, and in 1900 to 1,225,000,000. 
 
 He states that a road should be built not only in 
 the most substantial manner, but with well-hedged 
 
UNDERGROUND (TUNNEL) SYSTEM. 225 
 
 privileges and franchises, which will protect the city 
 in its undoubted rights, and offer the certainty of 
 fair and equitable returns to an investor, large or 
 small, so that its bonds or stocks should be as safe 
 and as much sought after as a government bond. 
 
 The following is an abstract of the description of 
 the plan which he proposes: "An independent and 
 way express service, each having double tracks, but 
 having independent paths, run in independent cir- 
 cular iron tunnels, and forming a loop around the 
 city from tli e Battery to Jerome Park ; the express 
 and way tracks to intersect or join at different 
 levels at common stations, and to be operated by 
 electricity ; way tracks to have stations every third 
 of a mile, express every mile and a half; and a loop 
 to be provided just south of the Harlem River. 
 Independence of express and way service is essen- 
 tial. The operation of express and way trains on a 
 two-track railroad, to meet the condition of service 
 of New York City, should not be thought of. It is 
 impossible to satisfactorily so operate to-day; it will 
 be vastly more so twenty years from now. 
 
 "To illustrate this point, we have only to consider 
 the work done on the Third avenue elevated road, 
 such as it was a short time ago, and it cannot be 
 less to-day. I have made a special study of it for six 
 years past. 
 
 "This road is eight and a half miles long. Grades 
 vary from 8 to 105 feet to the mile. The level 
 stretches amount to about one-third of the whole 
 distance, and this includes the stations. On the 17 
 miles of single track there are 52 stations, In the 
 busy hours there are no less than 63 four and five- 
 
226 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 car trains on the track. These trains, weighing 
 from 80 to 95 tons, make the half trip in 42 minutes, 
 including stopping at 26 stations, or at the rate of 
 about 10 traffic miles per hour. The work of the 
 engines may be divided into three parts, viz., over- 
 coming the train's inertia, lifting the train on the 
 grades, and traction, and the maximum is at least 
 seven times that necessary for traction at mean 
 speed on a level. Three times in every mile this 
 weight of 80 to 95 tons must be started from a dead 
 rest, raised to a speed of 20 or more miles an hour 
 and brought to rest in about 80 seconds. The engines 
 are run with 130 pounds boiler pressure and have a 
 capacity of 185 horse-power. Fifty-nine per cent, of 
 the power on a round trip is used in accelerating speed 
 24: per cent, in lifting and 17 per cent, in traction, 
 and the average power developed per minute per 
 round trip, including stoppages, is 70.3 horse-power. 
 " These are instructive figures, which alone should 
 show the fallacy of a two-track system. They show 
 that it is perfectly certain that on the present sys- 
 tem a greater traffic speed than 10 miles an hour 
 cannot be maintained, while it is equally true, on 
 the other hand, that we cannot consider any less 
 frequent stations for way service than three to a 
 mile, yet note what tremendous duty is required of 
 engines to make even this moderate speed under 
 conditions of frequent stops. I am well within 
 bounds when I say that a motor which can do the 
 service of a way train at short intervals can equally 
 well do the work of a heavy express train at long 
 intervals. If an individual tunnel construction be 
 used, there would not only be no room for a train to 
 
UNDERGROUND (TUNNEL) SYSTEM. 227 
 
 fall, but a broken axle or a derailed train would 
 not, of itself, be apt to prove serious. The tunnels 
 would be lighted constantly and uniformly; the 
 rails would be always in perfect condition for 
 adhesion, and the temperature of the tunnel would 
 be almost constant. Heating of the trains or sta- 
 tions would be unnecessary. Ventilation could be 
 made perfect. 
 
 "Cars for such underground systems would 
 require no windows, landscape views not being 
 essential to rapid transit in a city, and hence, with 
 the same weight, can be more strongly constructed. 
 Absolute freedom from sharp curves and the 
 arranging of grades so that, instead of being a 
 detriment, they can be of positive aid in train ser- 
 vice, are not among the least advantages of an 
 underground system. Where curves occur, they can 
 be either on a dead level or the grades can be so 
 managed that they will be of service. 
 
 " Having determined upon a tunnel construction, 
 independence of express and way tracks is not all 
 that is essential. These might be obtained if all four 
 tracks were in a common tunnel, but when we real- 
 ize some of the other conditions which must be met, 
 and that such a four-track system could not be 
 placed in a common tunnel not less than 50 feet in 
 width and 20 feet in height, objections to such con- 
 struction are pronounced. It is manifest, also, that 
 if the size of a tunnel for four tracks has objections 
 structurally and otherwise, one for two tracks must 
 have similar objections, although in a less degree. 
 Hence my plan is a system of independent express 
 and way routes, each having two tracks, each car- 
 
228 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 ried in independent tunnels, and having their paths 
 intersect at certain common important points, say 
 on an average every mile and a half. I would have 
 not only the routes of these services independent of 
 each other, save at their common meeting points, 
 but I would have them, at all other points, inde- 
 pendent also in the matter of grade, and further- 
 more, I should have the tunnels of each system, 
 while normally running side by side, sufficiently 
 independent to permit of such variation of route for 
 each track as the meeting of obstructions in the con- 
 struction should require ; or briefly, I would have 
 four independent tunnels, all four meeting at a 
 common station once every mile and a half, and the 
 way tunnels meeting at common stations every 
 third of a mile. 
 
 "The advantages of such a method are: 1. A 
 much stronger construction is possible with the 
 same weight of materials, because a tunnel of 
 12 or 13 feet in diameter can be built with strength 
 to support a given outside pressure with much less 
 than one-quarter of the weight of material required 
 to build a tunnel of four times the area, and a 
 tunnel to accommodate four tracks would have more 
 than four times the area of a tunnel to accommo- 
 date one. 
 
 " 2. At any given depth there will be far less inter- 
 ference with and danger to the foundations of a 
 building with a small tunnel than with a large one ; 
 in fact, a tunnel of the smaller size could be run 
 with perfect safety almost through and certainly 
 under or alongside the very foundations of the 
 heaviest buildings. 
 
(TUNNEL) SYSTEM. 229 
 
 " 3. The nearer the surtace a system is run the 
 greater the variety of ohs Auctions which will be 
 met, which with a large tunnel would require a 
 very costly change of gas, sewet , and other pipes. 
 A 13-foot tunnel, independently run, could easily 
 deviate up or down, to the right 01 left, in fact, 
 weave its way through and around obstructions, 
 which it would be impossible to do with a large 
 tunnel. This is one of the very greatest advantages 
 to be obtained with the independent tunnel con- 
 struction. 
 
 "The express route, if a difference of level exists 
 between express and way tracks, should be the 
 lower one, and being lower, it can run in more direct 
 lines with less necessity of divergence on account of 
 obstructions. While express tracks should thus run 
 in the most direct line possible between main sta- 
 tions, the way tracks could take more or less 
 divergent paths as determined by the best positions 
 for the way stations. On this account the express 
 route will be somewhat shorter than the way, which 
 would be an important help to a quick schedule 
 time. 
 
 " If, as should be the case, the tunnel is built of 
 iron and of circular cross section, not only will the 
 construction be the strongest which can be built for 
 any given clearance, but with the minimum of 
 excavations. Its safety would consist in its arch 
 presenting the maximum of resistance to vertical 
 and side pressure. The thickness can be varied to 
 suit the condition of strain to be met. The entire 
 New York City line could be ready for active opera- 
 tion within 18 months. The cost of such a construe- 
 
RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 tion would be about $500,000 per mile of single tun- 
 nel. This facility of access to trains can only be had 
 where there is a common station, which station 
 should be between the up and down tracks, and 
 should be roomy, well-lighted, and easy to reach 
 from the street. Sole^ dependence should not be 
 placed on elevator service, although such should be 
 provided whenever their use could be of advantage. 
 At way stations a common platform between two 
 tracks is easily provided, because the two tracks 
 are on the same level, and there is nothing to pro- 
 vide for special changes. At the common way and 
 express stations, however, a somewhat more ela.bo- 
 rate station system should be adopted ; the depth of 
 the way tracks below the surface would be the same 
 here as at regular way stations, but the express 
 tracks would be about 13 feet lower, and preferably 
 directly under the way tracks; thus the four trains 
 would occupy the four corners of a parallelogram. 
 Elevators, when used, should be in the centre of the 
 ntation, open on both sides, and operated primarily 
 by electricity. The entrance to stations should take 
 no street room, and hence form no obstruction. The 
 station and offices should occupy the first floor and 
 deep basement of a building especially constructed 
 for the purpose, all the upper portion of which 
 could be utilized for ordinary business purposes, 
 and two or more elevators could run the full height 
 of the building from the station platform. 
 
 "There should be no grade crossings. While the 
 importance of this rule has met little recognition in 
 this country, and does not mark any widespread 
 p?actice here, yet it is the standard practice of the 
 
UNDERGROUND (TUNNEL) SYSTEM. 231 
 
 main trunk lines in London. Its merits need little 
 comment, because whatever other conditions may 
 exist, high speed, safety, and regularity of service 
 can only be had in a fully satisfactory manner 
 where there is a clear right of way. 
 
 "There should be no connection between an 
 express and a way track, except at the dispatching 
 and' siding stations, where everything could be 
 under the most rigid personal supervision, and 
 where the necessary complication of tracks can be 
 properly supervised. Switches, even between the 
 way tracks and between the express tracks, should 
 be used only in case of emergency, and the main 
 line of rails should be absolutely unbroken. The 
 roadbed should be of the most rigid and even char- 
 acter, and the weight of rail commensurate with 
 the duty. 
 
 "Train intervals and passenger requirements 
 should determine the length of trains, instead of 
 length of trains determining train intervals. It is 
 not express service to have to wait 10 or 15 minutes 
 for an express train after leaving a way one. The 
 most frequent interval that can be safely run is 
 that which should be adopted, of course, with rea- 
 sonable regard to the amount of passenger traffic, 
 which, however, will be better accommodated at 
 certain portions of the day by smaller units and 
 more frequent trains. The number of cars in a unit 
 determines the number of passengers that can be 
 carried with a given safe interval between trains, 
 because the time of discharging and taking on pas- 
 sengers will be almost constant with a given traffic 
 per car, whether the trains be long or short. So 
 
232 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 long only as there is a safe interval between a train 
 standing at the station and one approaching it, the 
 train unit is not too small for passenger require- 
 ments, providing the following train is not delayed. 
 When, however, the following train has to wait 
 on approaching a station for another train to clear 
 the way, the train unit is too small. The use of way 
 and express tracks would relieve that congestion of 
 traffic which characterizes the two track system of 
 the elevated railroads, and which on any two-track 
 road cannot be avoided in New York. 
 
 "Electricity will unquestionably be the motive 
 power. The hum of the motor is the song of eman- 
 cipation. As an independent way and express sys- 
 tem of tracks should be an essential of a rapid tran- 
 sit system, so also should the use of electricity as a 
 motive power be a sine qua non, and accepting the 
 statement that this agent is capable of satisfying in 
 the highest degree the most exacting demands of 
 service, the system should be planned with a special 
 reference to its use. One great trouble with most of 
 the rapid transit plans which have been proposed is 
 that they have been designed from a steam 
 engineer's point of view. Steam practice has deter- 
 mined not only the form of roadbed or tunnel, but 
 also the laying of tracks, the construction of the 
 cars, the ventilation and lighting of the trains and 
 the roadway, the length of trains, the system of 
 switching and dispatching in short, there has been 
 scant recognition of the fact that electricity has, 
 within the past three years, jumped to the front 
 with tremendous strides, and given practical and 
 most conclusive proof of its pre-eminent fitness for 
 
UNDERGROUND (TUNNEL) SYSTEM. 233 
 
 at least all transit of this character. Many of these 
 systems were planned before electricity was in its 
 swaddling clothes, and even recently when elec- 
 tricity has been spoken of by the steam engineer, it 
 has been with a somewhat indistinct idea that elec- 
 trical engineers would fit their conceptions to steam 
 demands. But this will not be done. The best 
 informed of them know that the time has come 
 when it will accept no secondary place; that 
 there is nothing which steam can do in the 
 matter of handling trains, certainly within the 
 limits here considered, which electricity cannot 
 perform in a more satisfactory and a more perfect 
 manner. 
 
 "The method of supplying the current will 
 undoubtedly be by the overhead single conductor 
 underneath contact system, with rail and tunnel 
 return, despite the criticisms of what is properly 
 known as the overhead wire system, which is the 
 necessary street development, with many limita- 
 tions, of the underneath plan. With a tunnel road 
 the overhead wire would be replaced by a rigid rail, 
 supported at short intervals at a fixed distance 
 from the roadbed, and following accurately the 
 centre line of all track and switch paths. 
 
 "We would then have a system in which the 
 electrical part, or rather the overhead conductor, 
 because all parts would be electrical, would be just 
 as rigid and permanent as the roadbed, and we 
 should have perfection of insulation, freedom from 
 personal liability, continuous contact with a single 
 device, and speed limited only by the capacity of 
 the motors. With such an overhead conductor, a 
 
234 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 speed of 120 miles per hour has already been suc- 
 cessfully obtained on experimental work. 
 
 "The so-called difficulties of the overhead system 
 would then absolutely disappear. A centre rail sys- 
 tem, with the conductor hear the level of the tracks, 
 must necessarily be broken at all switches, thus 
 requiring double contacts on the motor car, and 
 cannot offer the same advantages of insulation and 
 freedom from personal contact. The overhead sys- 
 tem would have been used upon the London road if 
 there had been room enough. Of this I was assured 
 by the consulting engineer of the road. The current 
 could be supplied to this entire system for not only 
 the motive power, but for lighting, and, 'if neces- 
 sary, for ventilation. The station would be operated 
 by triple-expansion condensing engines in three 
 units, each driving a pair of multipolar slow speed 
 dynamos directly coupled, the units being large 
 enough so that two engines could handle the nor- 
 mal maximum demand upon the station. The 
 economy of coal consumption under these con- 
 ditions is too well known to need comment. 
 
 "While for the purposes of traction, getting 
 quickly under way, and for marvelous braking 
 power in case of emergency, a motor on every truck 
 with control from a pilot car is possible, and would 
 be a great service, I think it likely that an inde- 
 pendent motor car will be found to be more advan- 
 tageous, because of the care which the machines 
 can have, the lack of necessity to subordinate the 
 motor to abnormal conditions, and because, with 
 the grades which an underground system will pre- 
 sent, and with the constant co-efficient of traction 
 
UNDERGROUND (TUNNEL) SYSTEM. 235 
 
 which the rails would have, a motor car could be 
 relied upon to efficiently handle six times its own 
 weight of passenger cars behind it. The multi- 
 plicity of parts should ordinarily be avoided, and 
 the construction of the cars which the tunnel can 
 best have might make the use of a motor under 
 each and every car inconvenient. 
 
 " It is unnecessary to go into the question of motor 
 construction. Gearing will be done away with, 
 slow-speed motors used, directly coupled, and it is 
 safe to say that they will be quite as reliable as the 
 best steam locomotive. 
 
 *' For use on an electric train, not only is every 
 system of braking in common use, the vacuum, the 
 air whether the continuous pressure or the stored 
 resevoir system available, but more than this, and 
 acting with a certainty, rapidity, and delicacy 
 almost inconceivable, is the dynamo power of the 
 motor system. In a perfect system of transmission, 
 every car running on a down grade, while not 
 accelerating its speed, and every car coming to a 
 stop ought to be of service in helping to propel other 
 cars. 
 
 " As already pointed out, the work done on a train 
 may be divided into three classes : First, the work 
 of accelerating the speed, that is, of getting from 
 zero up to its maximum speed, the process of 
 imparting to the train a certain amount of stored 
 up energy which, when trains are stopped by the 
 use of the brake in the ordinary manner, is nearly 
 all wasted. Second, in lifting the train from one 
 level to another, that is grade work ; this is par- 
 tially recovered on down grades, more so on express 
 
236 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 service than it can be on way service, on account of 
 the less frequent stops. Third, traction, the work 
 expended in hauling a train on a level. 
 
 "In a cable system running on a straight line, 
 cars which are running on down grades do help to 
 pull others on level or up grades, but the amount 
 of power used to propel the cable itself is so largely 
 in excess of that used for propelling the car that 
 this is not of much importance, and on roads with 
 curves it becomes even less so. Slowing down cars 
 on cable roads is of no service in restoring energy 
 to the system. In an electric car, however, when 
 operated under proper conditions, all this is 
 changed. There is intimate relationship between 
 every foot of the system, and a train slowing down 
 or a train running on a down grade can give back 
 a large proportion of the energy to the system for 
 use on other trains. The transmission of the energy 
 by the current proceeds with calm indifference to 
 grades and curves, or the condition of the ther- 
 mometer or the barometer, and serenely annihilates 
 time and space. Be it hot or cold, wet or dry, the 
 interchange of energy is perfect. 
 
 "This method of braking is of great commercial 
 importance, since by it there is a saving of about 
 40 per cent, in the amount of power at the central 
 stations, and it effects a similar saving in the size 
 and cost of stations and conductors. Instead of the 
 current being all supplied from the main genera- 
 ting stations, it would be supplied from nearly as 
 many moving stations along the line as there would 
 be trains slowing down or running on a down grade. 
 In fact, the loss of the two conversions and one 
 
UNDERGROUND (TUNNEL) SYSTEM. 237 
 
 transmission would be fully counterbalanced, and 
 the original horse-power at the central station 
 would be no more than the aggregate net horse- 
 power developed on the entire line. 
 
 u Another method of using the motors for braking 
 purposes is to break the connection with the line 
 and reverse the machine through a local circuit on 
 the train, varying either the local circuit or the cir- 
 cuits of the machine. While in this position of 
 braking, if the local circuit is opened and the line 
 connection made, the machine would be instantly 
 reversed. 
 
 " Elaborate experiments have been made in hand- 
 ling a car without shoe-brakes by these methods 
 of braking. When desired, the braking could be 
 made so sudden as to cause the wheels to have a 
 continuous skidding rotation, not such a skidding 
 as is caused when an air brake is put on too sharply, 
 but a rotating slip which is just enough to relieve 
 the motor when the strain on it reaches the point 
 determined by the co-efficient of adhesion on the 
 rails. This is the ideal method of braking, because 
 fixed skidding and flat wheels are an impossibility, 
 and the wheels will turn until the train comes to a 
 dead stop, although where the braking power is put 
 on too suddenly and exceeds the grip of the wheels, 
 they will relieve themselves by slipping just enough 
 to keep the braking at the maximum limit. A train so 
 governed can be made to creep down the maximum 
 grade of a road at a snail's pace, and in an emer- 
 gency such a car, running 21 miles an hour on a 
 down grade, has been stopped and reversed within 
 90 feet. 
 
238 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 "When an electric motor is reversed, its action is 
 cumulative, and thus much increases the effort to 
 stop itself ; and the higher the velocity at which it 
 is traveling the greater this effort. In fact, it would 
 be practically impossible with a properly con- 
 structed railroad motor to prevent its reversing 
 when the switch is thrown over far enough." 
 
 Reno Underground Road (Proposed). Among 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 FIG. 26. METHOD OF CONSTRUCTING THE RENO TUNNEL. 
 
 the proposals made for an underground road for 
 New York City was the following, proposed by Mr. 
 Reno, which contains some interesting suggestions. 
 The proposed method of construction is shown in 
 Figs. 26 to 30. One side wall at a time is constructed. 
 A trench outside of the car tracks is excavated 3 
 feet in width and 38 feet deep, and the ground thor- 
 oughly supported and braced by a plank lining. 
 
UNDERGROUND (TUNNEL) SYSTEM. 
 
 239 
 
 The tunnel wall is then made by filling in this space 
 with the best concrete. When the wall is built up 
 to within 11 feet of the surface, the plank lining is 
 removed, the trench filled in, and the strip of street 
 paving relaid. The other side wall of the tunnel is 
 similarly constructed. The excavation of the ground 
 between the side walls is then effected without dis- 
 turbing the street surface, pipes or subways, by a 
 
 FIG. 27. 
 
 steel "cutting edge," as seen in Fig. 27, which rests 
 at each end upon the completed side walls and is 
 forced ahead by hydraulic pressure, while the chan- 
 nel steel roof sections are built in behind it and the 
 construction of the internal steel structure imme- 
 diately follows. The ground adjacent to the steel 
 roof is solidified by liquid cement forced in under 
 pressure. This in conjunction with the asphalt coated 
 
240 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 steel roof is to insure a perfectly dry tunnel. The row 
 of iron columns 12 feet apart through the centre of the 
 tunnel support a longitudinal steel girder, upon 
 which rest the roof sections. These iron columns 
 are braced from the side by the transverse girders 
 that support the track beams. 
 
 The proposed method of construction will admit 
 of great rapidity in driving the tunnel, as the side 
 
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 FIG. 28. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE RENO TUNNEL. 
 
 walls can be built in advance of the "heading," and 
 all four tracks could be utilized in removing exca- 
 vated material. With five points of attack giving 
 ten "headings" and an average speed of 10 feet per 
 day each, the tunnel proper could be constructed 
 from Battery Park to Fifty-ninth street (five miles) 
 in 264 days. The building of the stations could be 
 carried on while the tunnel is in progress. 
 
UNDERGROUND (TUNNEL) SYSTEM. 
 
24:2 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 The tunnel is constructed on the principle of 
 "square sets" used in mine timbering, the hori- 
 zontal girders resisting the pressure of the tunnel's 
 side walls, while the vertical columns divide the 
 span of the roof. The proposed method of construct- 
 ing the roof and driving the tunnel hy side channel- 
 ing and small blasts insures rapid advancement 
 in rock work, and will not unsettle the ground sur- 
 rounding underground pipes and subways, nor inter- 
 fere with the construction or operation of cable rail- 
 ways, nor will street traffic be seriously disturbed in 
 constructing concrete walls from the surface. The 
 outside width of the tunnel being only 23 feet, these 
 side walls can be built without injury to the founda- 
 tions of adjacent buildings. 
 
 The line of iron columns through the centre of 
 the tunnel permits the use of a flat roof, which may 
 come to within about 10 feet of the surface without 
 disturbing underground pipes or subways. It will 
 readily be seen that the open spaces between the 
 girders and ties that separate the two levels of 
 the tunnel allow free circulation of air, and with 
 the use of electric motors insure good ventila- 
 tion. 
 
 Three large power stations would be located along 
 the Hudson Eiver, where real estate and fuel are 
 cheap and water for condensing is plentiful. In this 
 way power could be generated at the rate of two 
 pounds of coal per horse-power instead of 10 pounds 
 per horse-power now required on the engines of the 
 New York elevated" roads. The electric conductor 
 (which could be of heavy copper of T-shaped cross 
 section in order to give it rigidity) might be sup- 
 
UNDERGROUND (TUNNEL) SYSTEM. 243 
 
244 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 ported above the cars, using the rails and structure 
 as an auxiliary conductor for the return current. 
 
 Since there are two tracks only, on each level, 
 cars on each track can be reached without incon- 
 venience to passengers or complicating the con- 
 struction of the tunnel at the station platforms, this 
 feature being a great advantage over tunnel sys- 
 tems requiring four tracks on a level. Station plat- 
 forms, brilliantly lighted by electricity, could easily 
 be reached by passengers from the surface, the dis- 
 tance to local train platforms being 20 feet, and to 
 express train platforms 33 feet. 
 
 The lower level carrying express tracks would 
 be available for trains of the Hudson and East 
 River tunnels, and could also connect with the New 
 York Central trains at Forty-second street. The 
 facility for handling trains rapidly by electricity 
 would be such that loops at the terminals would 
 probably not be required, and the express tracks 
 being on the lower level, a speed of as high as 40 
 miles an hour could be attained without causing 
 vibration of the structure. 
 
 Fig. 30 shows a cast-iron construction that it is 
 proposed to substitute for the concrete walls and 
 masonry in places where, from very great dampness 
 of the ground or other special reasons, the concrete 
 walls of the general system prove undesirable. For 
 example, in running a line of Reno tunnel up Broad- 
 way, the cast-iron construction would be employed 
 for a considerable portion of the length in the lower 
 part of the city, below Grand street, for instance. 
 In this the walls, roofs, and floors are composed of 
 flanged panels of cast iron about two feet in width, 
 
UNDERGROUND (TUNNEL) SYSTEM. 245 
 
 set in place in the rear of a shield pushed forward 
 hydraulically ; this shield will not be circular, as in 
 most cases where it has been employed, but rect- 
 angular in section to cut the tunnel to the exact 
 size necessary. The shield will be advanced for two 
 feet, and then the eight iron panels will be placed 
 in position and bolted at the flanges, after which 
 a grouting of liquid cement will be forced through 
 holes left for the purpose and form a solid packing 
 that both prevents the entrance of water and shields 
 the iron from corrosion. The method is a common 
 one in tunneling work, and has been employed on 
 the Croton Aqueduct. In the upper part of the city 
 the plans described first would be followed as being 
 simpler, cheaper, and more easily applied in ground 
 of the character to be found on that part of Manhat- 
 tan Island. As before mentioned, the grouting would 
 be freely used to make the tunnel perfectly tight 
 and prevent any difficulties from moisture or sewer 
 gas forcing.their way in. 
 
 The following estimate per mile (excluding the 
 stations) furnished by Mr. J. W. Reno, the inventor 
 of the plan, is based upon similar contracts in the 
 Croton Aqueduct, and places the total at not far 
 from one and a quarter millions per mile : 
 
 EARTHWORK AND MASONRY. 
 
 Outside area of tunnel, 24 X 28 allowing an average of one-half 
 
 rock work and one-lialf earth work : 
 
 66,440 cubic yards earth excavation at $2.50 $166,100 
 
 66,440 " " rock " at $6 438,504 
 
 Side walls (concrete, 3 to 1), 2 feet thick at top, 3 feet at bottom and 
 
 flarin.sr out to 4 feet base ; 28 feet high : 
 
 Two walls, 28,160 cubic yards concrete at $6 168,960 
 
 Earth excavation for same, 17,600 cubic yards at $1.40 24,640 
 
 Rock " " " 17,600 " " at $2.50 44,000 
 
 Line of masonry under centre iron columns, 1,460 cubic yards at $10. 14,608 
 Concrete iloor, 18 inches thick, 4,671 cubic yards at $5 23,355 
 
RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 STEEL STRUCTURE. 
 
 410 cast-iron columns, 24 feet long, 12 inches diameter, 2 inches 
 
 thick = 4,883 pounds each, at 2 cents 42,680 
 
 21.120 lineal feet 12 inch I-beams, 781,440 pounds, at 3 cents 23,443 
 
 -40 transverse 12-inch I-beaius,22 feet long e;ich = 9,680 feet, at $1.11.. 10,744 
 
 5/280 feet 20-inch I-beams for centre of roof, at $2.20 11,721 
 
 5,280 feet "channel" steel sections tor roof, 22 feet long, 12 X8X X inch, 
 
 1,552 pounds each, at 3 cents... 245,836 
 
 87 pounds steel rails, 14,080 yards = 612 tons, at $30 18,360 
 
 ] 0.560 creosoted ties (2 feet apart), at 60 cents 6,336 
 
 Spikes, fastenings, etc 6,000 
 
 Total $1,232,371 
 
 Munsie-Coles Underground System (Proposed). In 
 
 FIG. 31. SECTION OP THE MUNSIE-COLES UNDERGROUND SYSTEM. 
 
 its construction the transverse girders are made in 
 sections, to admit of placing the vertical columns in 
 position without obstruction to the daily street 
 traffic, and, by a proper distribution of labor and 
 material to make it possible to place the superstruc- 
 ture and new paving in place without any interfer- 
 ence with the ordinary travel of the street. By two 
 open slots from the tunnel to the surface of streets 
 
HIGH SPEED INTERURBAN RAILROADS. 24? 
 
 ventilation of the tunnel is provided for while the 
 labor of excavating is in progress. The vertical 
 depth required from the surface of the street to the 
 bottom of the foundation for the concrete floor is 11^ 
 feet. The superstructure, with the paving, which is 
 of steel, is very light, but strong, and will not 
 require over 14 inches from the top of the paving to 
 the bottom of the transverse girder. 
 
 To permit the running of cars of such a height of 
 body as would accommodate ordinary travel, and at 
 the same time utilize the limited vertical space of 
 the tunnel, the body of the car hangs between 
 trucks of special construction, which admits of the 
 use of a very high wheel to give an easy motion 
 while running at a high rate of speed or in passing 
 around curves. With the open slots located between 
 the surface railroad tracks, both underground and 
 surface cars can be worked from the same circuit as 
 shown in the cut. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 HIGH SPEED INTERURBAN RAILROADS. 
 
 During the past year an entirely new branch of 
 electric railroad engineering has arisen, namely, the 
 introduction of electric railroads to replace the pres- 
 ent steam roads running from one/city to another, 
 as distinguished from local roads in a city. From 
 present appearances this subject promises to be one 
 of the largest and most important branches in elec- 
 trical engineering, as it contemplates not only the 
 replacing of the present steam locomotives, but also 
 
248 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 promises an increase of speed of more than double 
 what is accomplished now by steam locomotives, 
 and to increase the frequency of trains, both of 
 which will diminish the time it takes to go from 
 one city to another to such an extent as to have a 
 most important bearing on the development of 
 commerce and industries. 
 
 The speed of steam locomotives may be said to 
 have reached almost if not quite the possible maxi- 
 mum, considering both safety and efficiency. 
 Although isolated cases are recorded in which phe- 
 nomenal speeds have been made, yet they are 
 exceptional and not regular, and it is doubtful 
 whether even with the most improved engines the 
 speed can be materially increased. The best regular 
 running time on some roads is from 50 to 60 miles 
 an hour, which may be considered to be the maxi- 
 mum at present attained in regular service, 
 although for short distances the speed sometimes 
 reaches 70 miles. A recent run was reported on the 
 Bound Brook Line, between Neshaminy Falls and 
 Langhorn, N. J., of a Wootten steam locomotive, in 
 which a single mile was made in 39| seconds, which 
 is equivalent to 90. 45 miles an hour; 10 consecutive 
 miles were made at 43 seconds per mile, or a speed 
 of 83.72 miles an hour. Owing to the danger and 
 inefficiency, however, it is not likely that such 
 speeds will be attained in regular service on the 
 present steam roads. The limitations of speed with 
 the present steam locomotives'are due to the heavy 
 reciprocating parts, which not only are in constant 
 danger of being strained or broken by such rapid 
 oscillating motion, but which, as they cannot be 
 
HIGH SPEED INTERURBAN RAILROADS. 249 
 
 completely balanced, both statically and dynamic- 
 ally, impart to the engine an oscillating motion 
 which is a source of great danger of derailment, and 
 requires an exceptionally heavy roadbed and con- 
 struction to resist it. But supposing even that the 
 reciprocating parts did not limit the speed, the size 
 and weight of an engine and the amount of fuel 
 which would have to be carried for the enormous 
 powers required at high speed would alone render 
 that system impracticable, In an electric motor, on 
 the other hand, there are absolutely no reciproca- 
 ting parts and their speed is therefore limited only 
 to that at which a body may be revolved around a 
 shaft ; this limit is that at which such bodies would 
 burst, due to centrifugal force. Prof. Wm. Marks, in 
 a lecture on high-speed rai1roads ; states that no 
 matter whether the wheels are large or small, the 
 limiting speed due to bursting admits of a maximum 
 safe speed of 24 miles a minute, that is, 150 miles an 
 hour. Assuming his calculations to be correct, this 
 is the maximum speed which any car running on 
 revolving wheels can ever attain, no matter what 
 the source of power is. 
 
 In actual practice the time it takes to go from one 
 city to another is not dependent only on the speed 
 of the trains, but also on their frequency, as the 
 time lost in waiting for a train might in many cases 
 almost as well be consumed on the road. The pres- 
 ent steam system does not adapt itself well for the 
 running of frequent short trains, but an electric sys- 
 tem is specially well suited for just that kind of ser- 
 vice. If, for instance, short trains or single cars 
 could be run from New York to Philadelphia every 
 
250 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 ten minutes, instead of a long train every hour, the 
 time it takes to go from the one city to the other 
 would be materially reduced in many cases, even 
 if the present speed was not exceeded. 
 
 Much attention has been given this subject of 
 high speed interurban traffic by electrical motors 
 during the past year, and it is not unlikely that in 
 the near future some actual trials will be made. It 
 is reported that a certain large railroad in this coun- 
 try is at present building an experimental line, which 
 is to be run by electric motors and on which experi- 
 ments are to be made to demonstrate the feasibility 
 of its introduction on a large scale. 
 
 The advantages, the possibilities, and the require- 
 ments of high speed systems will be best seen from 
 the extracts given below, taken from published 
 opinions. The most interesting literature on the 
 subject which has appeared during the past year is 
 a paper by Mr. O. T. Crosby, read before the Ameri- 
 can Institute of Electrical Engineers February 24, 
 1891, a reprint of which will be found in The Elec- 
 trical World of March 14. This paper is a record 
 of some very interesting experiments made on a 
 small scale and includes a project of a road on a 
 large scale worked out in detail, including also a 
 summary of the commercial aspect of such a pro- 
 ject. Space does not permit us to reprint it here, but 
 any one interested in the subject should not fail to 
 read it. Attention is also called to the chapter on 
 high speed service in a book recently published, 
 called "The Electric Railway," by Crosby and Bell, 
 in which part of the above paper is included, and is 
 accompanied by much additional information. In 
 
HIGH SPEED INTERURBAN RAILROADS. 251 
 
 addition to these, an article on train resistance will 
 be found in a paper on "Limitations of Steam and 
 Electricity," by O. T. Crosby, read before the Amer- 
 ican Institute of Electrical Engineers May 21, 1890, 
 and reprinted in The Electrical World May 31, 1890. 
 In reference to the atmospheric resistance to rapidly 
 moving trains, a paper was read by the same author 
 before the West Point Branch of the Military Ser- 
 vice Institute, which was published in Engineering 
 (London) May 31 to June 13, 1890, and reprinted 
 in abstract in The Electrical World, May 3, 1890. 
 
 Regarding the efficiency of high speed traffic, Mr. 
 Crosby has made some very interesting calculations 
 to show at what speed electric traction becomes 
 feasible. As a result of these deductions he states: 
 " At a speed of 20 miles an hour and with an effi- 
 ciency of 90 per cent., and a frequency which is not 
 excessive as compared with the local traffic, say of 
 the New York Central Railroad, the electrical pro- 
 pulsion is slightly more economical than steam pro- 
 pulsion. Now, as you increase your speed the rela- 
 tive value of the electrical propulsion increases enor- 
 mously, and finally at high speed, say 120 miles, the 
 electrical propulsion is something like six times 
 more economical than steam propulsion, considering 
 steam propulsion even possible. But it is not pos- 
 sible to propel ordinary trains by steam at 120 miles 
 for any length of line worthy of consideration, 
 because the amount of coal and w r ater that you are 
 required to carry has reached a quantity that would 
 require two or three tenders to take care of. You 
 can see readily that it is a cumulative thing. Every 
 pound of coal you put in requires some more coal to 
 
252 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 be burnt to pull that pound, and you have to carry 
 it, and you have water, so that when you get to the 
 high speeds it is out of the question, and we have 
 nothing to look for at very high speeds, save elec- 
 trical propulsion. But if we come to comparatively 
 low speed service, and a comparatively infrequent 
 service, the steam will beat us." 
 
 Regarding heavy freight service, the same writer 
 concludes that "heavy freight service, unless its 
 frequency is far beyond anything we have to-day, 
 can be carried on more economically by steam than 
 by electricity." 
 
 Regarding the point at which high speed electric 
 roads begin to be practicable, Mr. Crosby gives as 
 his opinion : " I do not think there is anything what- 
 ever in high speed work for say, even 40 miles. I do 
 not think you can properly do 120 miles an hour for 
 a run of, say, 30 or 40 miles. It is applicable only to 
 connecting very large cities. I think you could run 
 from here to Albany, if you had the New York 
 Central line to run on ; from Albany to Rochester, 
 from Rochester to Buffalo, and then stopping at the 
 principal lake cities. It might be found later on 
 that it would be necessary to make shorter stops ; 
 but the first efforts should be made only with very 
 long runs." 
 
 Regarding automatic systems he says: "I do not 
 consider it practicable to run a train that is, of 
 size enough to make it commercial without a man 
 on it. I think the enormous complexity of an auto- 
 matic system that would take care of the entrance 
 into a city and the departure from a city, and of all 
 the varying conditions of service, without a man on 
 
HIGH SPEED INTERURBAN RAILROADS. 253 
 
 board, is really beyond anything that would stand 
 up. You might put it all down to work and have 
 trains 011 it, but I think the complexity would soon 
 break it down." 
 
 On the same point Mr. F. J. Sprague writes: "I 
 wish to take the decided position that no automatic 
 system of high speed service for either passengers, 
 freight, or mail will ever come to a commercial 
 issue. I will go further still , the moment you deny 
 to a man the privilege of traveling 100 or 150 miles 
 an hour you will have a flood of applications from 
 people that want the opportunity." 
 
 Mr. F. L. Pope, on the other hand, in his report on 
 the Portelectric system (which will be found de- 
 scribed below under the heading of miscellaneous 
 systems) states : " The opinion has recently been 
 publicly expressed by an electrical engineer of repu- 
 tation and experience that no automatic system of 
 high-speed service for either passengers, freight, or 
 mail, can ever come to a commercial issue. No 
 arguments were adduced in support of this dictum, 
 and, for my part, I am wholly unable to see any 
 good reason why this assertion should have been 
 made in such an unqualified and authoritative man- 
 ner. The experiments conducted under my direc- 
 tion at Dorchester are, in my opinion, sufficient to 
 prove the contrary." 
 
 Regarding derailment at such high speeds, a 
 prominent civil engineer, at one time professionally 
 connected with the Lake Shore road, expressed the 
 opinion that safety from derailment at very high 
 speeds would be best secured by very slightly cur- 
 ving the line of the road just sufficient to cause the 
 
254 RECENT PROGRESS IK ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 flanges of the wheels to bear constantly against one 
 side. With that construction he should expect that 
 any possible speed up to, say, 200 miles an hour, 
 that could be got from the motors, would be per- 
 fectly safe. He was led to this conclusion from long 
 observation of the performances on the Lake Shore 
 road of railroad wheels at high speed, on which 
 road some of the best running in this country has 
 been done. 
 
 Regarding the traction co-efficient, Dr. P. H. Dud- 
 ley, referring to some experiments made *by him on 
 the resistance of different trains on steam roads, 
 states : " The experiments were made several years 
 ago, and not on as good tracks as we have at the 
 present time. The resistance of the passenger train 
 is given by the formulae in books as 17 or 18 pounds 
 per ton. I found on the Lake Shore & Michigan 
 Southern Railway and the New York Central & 
 Hudson River Railroad that, with trains of about 250 
 tons, the resistance was only from 10 to 12 pounds 
 per ton at speeds of from 50 to 60 miles per hour. 
 The resistance per ton is not nearly so great on 
 those long trains as on the short ones. With trains 
 of two and three cars, sometimes it ran as high as 
 35 or 40 pounds per ton, but with long trains it ran 
 down to about 10 and 12 pounds per ton. 
 
 "The greatest variable that we find from day to 
 day over the same track and same train is the wind 
 resistance. I found in one special experiment I 
 made in 1878, to see why the New York Central was 
 not able to make its time with its trains, that on a 
 still day, with the schedules they had, they were 
 able to make time, but a wind of 10 or 12 miles 
 
HIGH SPEED INTERURBAN RAILROADS. 255 
 
 would retard the trains, so that in running from 
 Buffalo to New York they would lose two hours. 
 The trouble at that time was that the boilers were 
 not large enough to quickly generate the steam 
 required to meet the increased resistance. The 
 trains would run up to a speed just about the capa- 
 city of the boiler, and that would limit the speed 
 they could maintain. Therefore, when a head or 
 side wind was blowing against them the speed of 
 the train would be reduced very materially. 
 
 " The fastest speed usually found on trains is in 
 the local passenger service, for 5 to 20 seconds 
 especially those stopping every two or three miles. 
 They often attain a speed for a few seconds as high 
 as 55 or 60 miles per hour. Then they shut off steam 
 and apply the brakes, to stop the train. The heavy 
 trains of eight to ten cars, running long distances, 
 rarely attain 60 miles an hour that is, on the ordi- 
 nary schedules. 
 
 " The greatest improvement that has been made in 
 decreasing train resistance is in the improvement 
 of the track by bringing up the standard of excel- 
 lence and adoption of heavier and stiffer rails. I 
 have been making a number of heavy rail sections 
 for different railroads, and instead of making them 
 simply heavy I have made them very stiff, which 
 has reduced the deflection or wave motion under 
 each of the wheels. Comparing the resistance of 
 the Chicago Limited Express on stiff 80-pound 
 rails with that of 65-pound rails which have 
 been on the track some time, it makes a difference 
 of 75 to 100 horse-power per mile. I have just made 
 some 95-pound rails for a road which will be 
 
256 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 very much stiffer than the 80-pound rails. We 
 find now that the condition in which they are keep- 
 ing the line is so perfect that there is scarcely any 
 oscillation on the best roads, and there is very little 
 difference in the oscillation now in riding on a 
 tangent or a curve. I should prefer a tangent for 
 smooth riding, although the wheels press against 
 the rails on curves. Unless they are properly ele- 
 vated, there will be some oscillation, though our 
 present trains move very steadily on the best tracks. 
 I have made careful experiments, and with a track 
 in good condition the heavy cars ride very steadily, 
 leaving little to be desired." 
 
 Regarding the difference of the traction co-efficient 
 of high speed roads and the ordinary street roads, 
 Mr. Sprague states: "If you are dealing with street 
 car service, it is one thing. If you are dealing with 
 high speed, clean rail service, it is an entirely differ- 
 ent thing. I have found, so far as my practical 
 experience goes, that the dirt on the track, the snow 
 and mud, and the grades, were the questions that 
 determined the power of the motors. When you 
 consider that with 20 pounds traction per ton, the 
 work on a one per cent, grade is equal to the work 
 of traction, and that our street car service demands 
 12, 13, and even 14 per cent, grade work, the ques- 
 tion of rail traction on a level amounts to very little 
 in street car motor design, but it does amount to 
 the greatest possible importance in high speed ser- 
 vice. " 
 
 In discussing the subject of rails, which is of such 
 vital importance in high speed work, Dr. P. H. Dud- 
 ley gave some interesting figures and results ob- 
 
HIGH SPEED INTERURBAN RAILROADS. 257 
 
 tained by him from a series of elaborate experiments. 
 In describing the results obtained from improved 
 forms of rails, he says : " About the best results are a 
 reduction of nearly 100 horse-power per mile com- 
 pared with the ordinary 65-pound rail. I have 
 designed some 105-pound rails which are nearly 
 1,100 per cent, stiffer than the 80-pound rails. We 
 will probably save on the fast express trains nearly 
 200 horse-power per mile, as compared with worn 60 
 or 65-pound rails. We have not rolled such a large 
 rail yet; but it will not be long, probably, before 
 that will be done. All trials show a very material 
 reduction in train resistance with the heavy rails, 
 as we increase the stiffness. I think it will be per- 
 fectly safe 011 a track of the 105-pound rails to run 
 120 miles an hour. I have ridden several times 75 
 miles an hour on heavy rails, and did not feel it 
 nearly so much as on the light rails when running 
 45 miles an hour. There is scarcely any oscillation. 
 The track is in perfect line and the joints are all 
 kept up. One serious trouble with many of the rail- 
 road people is that, while they want a heavy rail, 
 they never consider the question of stiffness. I dis- 
 tribute my metal so as to make the section very 
 stiff, not allowing so much in depth of the head of 
 the rail as usually is done, but widening the head, 
 because when these rails have been in the track a 
 few years they become worn very unevenly, and 
 must be removed from the track. I am making the 
 heads on that account very much broader and the 
 sections stiff, so the deflection of my 75 and 80-pound 
 rail is less than one-tenth of an inch in the track. 
 We mark all those rails for any deflection exceed- 
 
258 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 ing three thirty-seconds of an inch, under a load of 
 six tons per wheel. That is about as close a the 
 trackmen can work on a 65-pound rail. On an 80- 
 pound rail they can work closer, but require great 
 skill." He described the condition in which tracks 
 were found, after continued service, for illustrations 
 of which see The Electrical World, p. 230, March 
 21, 1891. To study the unevennesses in tracks he uses 
 an ingenious device which is carried on the moving 
 train and which ejects paint. on the rails wherever 
 there is a certain deflection. 
 
 Regarding the braking of trains Mr. E. P. 
 Thompson states : " I found in some tests made by 
 me in behalf of a brake company upon a railway 
 in Pennsylvania that if it needs a certain amount of 
 energy to start a train it needs about nine-tenths as 
 much to make an emergency stop." 
 
 Referring to the possible recovery of energy in 
 braking a train Mr. F. J. Sprague states: "From 
 careful calculations I know it to be possible to 
 return about 40 per cent, of the total energy used 
 back to the line, and the facility with which this 
 can be done increases very rapidly with the size of 
 machine which is used. Where you can use shunt 
 machines, and excite your field magnets up to a 
 very high saturation, and have a very reasonable 
 latitude of variation, the criticism that was made 
 that there would be a loss in energizing the field 
 magnets more than when in using series machines 
 I do not think holds particularly good, for this 
 reason, that the total energy used in the field 
 magnets forms a very small proportion of the total 
 amount of energy used on the line, and if the return 
 
HIGH SPEED INTERURBAN RAILROADS. 259 
 
 energy is 40 per cent, of the total, and the field 
 energy of the magnet is only two or three per cent, 
 of the total, the value of this method seems ap- 
 parent." 
 
 Descriptive. 
 
 One of the most complete projects published, on 
 rapid transit between cities, is contained in a very 
 interesting lecture delivered by Mr. Carl Ziper- 
 nowsky, at the Frankfort Congress, on a proposed 
 road between Vienna and Budapest, entitled " Elec- 
 tric Railroads for Rapid Transit Between Cities." It 
 contains so many points of interest that we give a 
 translation here in full, as follows : 
 
 Introductory. The need of some means for in- 
 creasing the speed of trains between cities, above 
 that which can be accomplished by the present rail- 
 roads, is becoming a question of such importance 
 that it is now only a matter of a short time before 
 something will be done, and it is for this reason that 
 we have occupied ourselves with a proposed elec- 
 trical railroad to accomplish this object. 
 
 All persons who have much traveling to do will 
 appreciate the great loss of time while on the road. 
 To increase the speed of the present system of rail- 
 roads above 100 kilometres (62 miles) an hour may 
 be excluded as impracticable. The reciprocating 
 motion of heavy parts of express locomotives gives 
 rise to oscillations which greatly strain the rolling 
 stock as well as the roadbed. For this reason the 
 present system of steam locomotives is limited as 
 to maximum speed. With electrical motors there 
 are no reciprocating parts, and the limitation of the 
 speed due to the reciprocating motions does not 
 
260 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 exist ; the speed can, therefore, be increased above 
 the present limit, without increasing the strain on 
 the rolling stock or the roadbed. The electrical 
 locomotive needs no coal, no water, no tender, no 
 generator of power, only a motor whose rotating 
 parts are directly on the axles. 
 
 The electrical railroad has these advantages: 
 it offers the possibilities of a new system of transit 
 which, owing to the great increase of speed which 
 it admits, adapts itself particularly well to the rap- 
 idly inreasing demands for rapid transit. As soon as 
 the possibility is shown, the working out of the 
 details will soon follow, as the very rapidly increas- 
 ing demands of commerce make it necessary that 
 everything possible be done to accomplish this end, 
 and it is certain that within a few years such rail- 
 roads will be built between some large cities, which 
 are closely connected commercially. It may also be 
 predicted that whole continents will be crossed by 
 such railroads. 
 
 We chose for our project the two chief cities of 
 the Austrian-Hungarian empire, Vienna and Buda- 
 pest, not only because there is a very large inter- 
 course between them, but also because this lies on the 
 throughfare between the centres of the oriental 
 and the western countries. An electrical rapid tran- 
 sit road between Budapest and Vienna will form 
 the beginning of a through line from the east to 
 Paris and Havre on the one hand, and to Berlin and 
 Hamburg on the other. 
 
 This projected road is furthermore particularly 
 well adapted for an experimental road, as it intro- 
 duces all the difficulties encountered in building 
 
HIGH SPEED INTERURBAN RAILROADS. 261 
 
 such a road through different kinds of country. The 
 crossing of the wooded hills of Bakonyer, the very 
 low islands of a branch of the Danube, and the hilly 
 country between the Danube and the Leitha Moun- 
 tains, gave us the opportunity to show how we 
 would build such a road over flat lands, hills, and 
 through mountains, and what fundamental princi- 
 ples we would lay down. 
 
 Before going into this, we wish to mention that, 
 from the nature of such a system, there would not 
 be trains of cars at long intervals, but on the con- 
 trary single cars for few persons, following each 
 other in quick succession. This is preferred not 
 only in order to have frequent connections between 
 the cities rather than occasional fast trains carrying 
 many people, but more particularly for technical 
 reasons, namely, to have the greatest economy in 
 the power used per car, and to equalize as much as 
 possible the consumption of power over the whole 
 line. The smaller the weight of a train, the smaller 
 will be the motors, the smaller the current consumed 
 per train, the simpler, surer, and cheaper will be the 
 leads. The smaller the units, the surer and the more 
 profitable will be the working of the system, because 
 one can prepare for the variations in the traffic dur- 
 ing the day, and can thereby always obtain a more 
 favorable relation between the dead and the live 
 loads. Small units at short intervals have the addi- 
 tional advantage that the leads are more equally 
 loaded than they would be with long heavy trains. 
 The utilization of the leads and the machines 
 becomes more nearly constant, and the whole plant 
 will be more efficient. The increase in the number 
 
RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 of employes necessitated by such a system is negli- 
 gently small as compared with the very greatly 
 increased cost which would be necessitated by run- 
 ning the plant under unfavorable circumstances. 
 These are the reasons which have led us to adopt 
 this tramway system in preference to the usual rail- 
 way system. 
 
 In order to design the cars and roadbed, it was 
 necessary first to determine upon the speed, the 
 shortest time intervals between the trains, the num- 
 ber of passengers and the nature of the cars, and to 
 base on these values the size and shape of the cars, 
 the power required and the size of tbe motors, the 
 total weight of a car, the roadbed, the method of 
 distributing the current, etc. 
 
 As to the speed, we wish to reach the maximum 
 which appears to be possible to attain with simple 
 adhesion and a modified roadbed. The speed can be 
 increased only up to the limit of the strength of the 
 materials, especially of that of the wheels. This 
 limit is shown by calculation to be about 250 kilo- 
 metres per hour (155 miles per hour, or about 2 miles 
 per minute). The circumferential speed of the 
 wheels of 2.5 metres (about 8 feet 3 inches) diame- 
 ter, becomes so great, being nearly 70 metres (229 
 feet) per second, that the bursting due to centrifu- 
 gal force comes into consideration. It may be 
 shown that even with wheels made of discs it is 
 not safe to exceed the circumferential speed of 70 
 metres per second, as even the best materials at our 
 disposal do not all'>w a sufficiently large factor of 
 safety against rupture. 
 
 The adhesion also limits the speed to which we 
 
HIGH SPEED INTERURBAN RAILROADS. 263 
 
 may go in order to be able to propel a car with suffi- 
 cient reliability. But this limit cannot be readily 
 determined, as the grades, nature of the materials, 
 weather, and similar factors vary very greatly. It 
 is not possible to determine, therefore, the speed at 
 which propulsion is still possible, and we are com- 
 pelled in this case to make an approximate estimate 
 on the basis of the greatest grades. 
 
 We will assume that the maximum speed attaina- 
 ble with single cars is 250 kilometres on the level 
 and 200 on the grades. The intervals between the 
 cars will be regulated by the traffic and the size of 
 the car. Here, too, there is a limit due to safety ; 
 no car should follow another at a less distance than 
 that at which it can be brought to a stop if some- 
 thing should delay the one ahead. The stopping 
 and signaling evidently depend on the facilities pro- 
 vided for this purpose. If we were to employ for 
 such rapid transit the same system of signaling as 
 on the present roads at 100 kilometres speed, we 
 would run the risk of their failing at this high 
 speed, at which both seeing and hearing are ren- 
 dered difficult and unreliable. It is, therefore, 
 necessary to adopt an entirely new system of sig- 
 naling specially designed for such speed. Further- 
 more, there must be provisions for the case that the 
 signals should fail to be seen from the car, in which 
 case the signaling station must be able to stop any 
 car even without any further signaling, which is 
 easily accomplished on electrical roads by simply 
 introducing switches controlling the main current. 
 The cars may be said to be controlled from the out- 
 side as in the case of pneumatic tube projectiles. 
 
2f>4 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 The minimum interval between cars, therefore, 
 is determined by the condition that a car cannot 
 move any farther, by virtue of its momentum and a 
 possible grade, after the current has been turned 
 off, than a certain minimum distance, which must 
 be kept, for safety's sake, between it and the pre- 
 ceding car, even when at rest. This distance can be 
 made less the better the braking facilities on the 
 car, and the surer the engineer is to notice when 
 the current has been cut off by the signaling station. 
 It is evident, therefore, that the smallest interval be- 
 tween cars can be determined only in connection 
 with the braking facilities, but it should not be made 
 less than 10 minutes. This minimum interval is, of 
 course, only for those hours of the day when there 
 is most travel. 
 
 The capacity of the cars must be such as the 
 densest traffic demands; but on the other hand the 
 cars should not be any larger or heavier than is 
 necessary, for reasons already given, for which 
 reasons it would also be inadvisable to couple sev- 
 eral cars into a train. The determination of the 
 dimensions of the cars is difficult to make until one 
 has had experience in how far the public would 
 patronize such rapid transit. But we believe that it 
 is safe to estimate 40 seats to a car, and intervals of 
 from 10 to 60 minutes. During the times of great- 
 est travel 200 persons could be carried per hour, 
 which surely is considerable; during the times of 
 least travel this would be reduced to about 50 per 
 hour. 
 
 Besides the transporting of passengers, such a 
 system would be of great use for the mails. The 
 
HIGH SPEED INTERURBAN RAILROADS. 265 
 
 transportation of freight other than the small bag- 
 gage of the passegers can hardly be considered, as 
 the cost per pound would ncessarily be too great for 
 any but very exceptional cases ; even for heavy bag- 
 gage it would hardly pay. 
 
 The two generating stations are intended to be in 
 the cities Banhid and Zurndorf, which are about 60 
 kilometres from Budapest and Vienna respect- 
 ively. From there currents of 10,000 volts are to be 
 sent along the whole line on poles, from which wires 
 branch off to secondary stations all along the roads, 
 which are at the same time signaling stations. In 
 these secondary stations this high tension alter- 
 nating current is transformed into one of lower ten- 
 sion or by means of one of our transformers into a 
 continuous current. It will depend entirely on the 
 results of some experiments with the motors for the 
 cars which of these two currents will have the 
 preference. 
 
 Construction of the Car. The car was constructed 
 in the car factory of Ganz & Co., of Budapest. It 
 contains 40 seats for passengers, two toilet rooms, 
 and some available spaces for the mail. It is 45 
 metres (148 feet) long, 2.15 metres (7 feet) wide, and 
 2.20 metres (7i feet ) high; the two ends are shaped 
 somewhat like a parabola, in order to reduce to the 
 smallest possible amount the air resistance, which 
 at such speeds absorbs the greatest part of the power. 
 
 The two ends of the cars are exclusively for the 
 motors, and are inaccessible to passengers. They 
 are separated from the main part by partitions with 
 doors and windows. They must also be separated 
 from the engineer's stand, on account of the very 
 
266 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 violent currents of air which are generated in this 
 space. Each of the motor rooms represents a sepa- 
 rate truck. 
 
 The framework of the car is a system of beams 
 which rest on the two motor trucks, and in the body 
 of the car form a sort of truss bridge, with cross 
 braces at every 1.5 metres. The bridge construction 
 adapts itself best to the conditions. The body of the 
 car rests on the two pivoted trucks, and is supported 
 by 16 pairs of evolute springs, which are held in 
 cast steel telescopic cases. The support is such that 
 both trucks can turn, corresponding to a curve of 
 1,000 metres radius; the side motion of these cases 
 inside of the rails is in that case 6 millimetres. 
 
 Each truck has two axles, and each axle has its 
 motor, making therefore four motors to a car. The 
 magnets are secured to the frame of the truck and 
 the armatures are directly on the axles. The driv- 
 ing wheels (all of the four pairs of wheels of a car 
 are drivers) were made as large as possible, and 
 have two flanges, the outside one being merely for 
 safety sake against derailing, and is 5 millimetres 
 distant from the edge of the rail. The inner flanges 
 also have 5 millimetres' clearance, to allow for the 
 heating and the expansion of the axles. The wheels 
 are made of two solid conical discs, secured on the 
 outside edge to the tires in such a way tha.t the tire 
 is readily replaceable. On account of the great 
 strain on the tires they must be very carefully made. 
 The bearings are of special importance; the pres- 
 sure on the wheel being nearly 7,500 kilogrammes, 
 and the speed 600 revolutions, an entirely new con- 
 struction was chosen. The bearing boxes are solid, 
 
HIGH SPEED INTERURBAN RAILROADS. 26? 
 
 notwithstanding the attending disadvantages. In 
 the exact middle of each truck there are two 
 contact wheels, which run on separate rails, carry- 
 ing the current. These wheels are flanged so as to 
 be guided by the rail ; it is very important that they 
 be exactly in the centre and that their axial motion 
 be as little as possible. As the currents are neces- 
 sarily quite great, the nature of these contacts is a 
 very important matter. The contact wheels must 
 have a large diameter in order not to have too great 
 a speed of revolution which would introduce diffi- 
 culties at the hearings; they must furthermore be 
 light, so as to follow any motions readily, and must 
 rest on the rails with some pressure. We have made 
 them similarly to the driving wheels, of two steel 
 discs secured together, holding a readily replaceable 
 tire of bronze. The three bearings of each of these 
 contact wheels are secured to the truck by means 
 of three pivoted arms and pressed on to the contact 
 rail by means of three vertical springs. The current 
 is taken off of these wheels by means of massive 
 copper blocks which rest against the wheels. Their 
 shafts are made of two parts, and insulated in such 
 a way that neither the shaft nor the bearings carry 
 current. The contact wheels and electric motors 
 are accessible from a narrow bridge which runs the 
 whole length of the motor room above the axles. 
 
 The braking mechanism must be particularly 
 well designed, as it is of vital importance for 
 safety's sake, with a speed of 250 kilometres an 
 hour, to absorb or destroy a momentum represent- 
 ing 60 tons in the shortest possible time, and thereby 
 to stop the car. The air friction itself acts as a 
 
268 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 powerful brake, being equal to about 200 horse- 
 power. On the level all other resistances are very 
 small as compared to that of the air. It is evident, 
 therefore, that the first braking action on stopping 
 the current will be that of the air. But this applies 
 only to the first moments, as its action diminishes 
 very rapidly as the speed becomes less. A second 
 powerful braking action may be produced by con- 
 necting the terminals of the motor to a resistance, 
 which may be put under the bottom of the car, and 
 to let the motor act as a generator. It is immaterial, 
 as far as the necessary switching arrangements are 
 concerned, whether continuous or alternating cur- 
 rents are used, and no difficulties present themselves. 
 As the speed diminishes to about a half, the motors 
 which were originally in parallel should be capable 
 of being connected two in series and two in paral- 
 lel, and at, say, one-quarter speed all four in series. 
 
 This braking action, although effective, is not suf- 
 ciently powerful for speeds below 30 kilometres per 
 hour (about 18 miles). There must be an additional 
 mechanical brake, for which we prefer the usual 
 Westinghouse air brake, as the safest and quickest. 
 For this purpose there are two air chambers and 
 eight cylinders on the car. The dimensions, capac- 
 ity, and pressure from these are quite ample, and 
 the loss of pressure can be replaced either by hand 
 or by means of a small electric motor. The two 
 reservoirs are made of 4-inch pipes, each 30 metres 
 (96 feet) long. 
 
 The car is equipped with air buffers, the heat gen- 
 erated by their action being: used to generate steam, 
 which is then allowed to escape. The cars further- 
 
HIGH SPEED INTERURBAN RAILROADS. 269 
 
 more have couplings, so that a disabled car could 
 be drawn by another. The headlight for the night 
 must be so arranged that it can be directed. The 
 illumination of this must be so powerful that any 
 obstacle, as for instance a fallen tree, can be seen 
 at a sufficient distance to enable the car to be 
 stopped. This distance will be about 2 kilometres (1 
 miles) ; the headlight reflectors will, therefore, have 
 to enable one to see even in bad weather at this dis- 
 tance. 
 
 The illumination of the car is to be effected by 
 means of incandescent lamps supplied from the 
 main current, through a special apparatus which 
 equalizes the variable potential. The heating is by 
 means of two coal stoves, which may be placed 
 between the two walls. The windows have double 
 panes of glass, and are arranged so that they can- 
 not be opened. Ventilation is effected by suitable 
 pipes on the roof of the car. 
 
 Construction of the Road. In the above we have 
 endeavored to give the general principles of our 
 projected system which form the basis on which to 
 work, namely, the mode and the means for a sys- 
 tem of rapid transit. We will now consider the con- 
 ditions which are thereby necessitated concerning 
 the construction of the road itself. 
 
 As already explained, the grades at such a speed 
 of 200 kilometres do not offer as many difficulties as 
 the curves. In order to mount grades with greater 
 speed requires merely a greater power, and it can 
 always be so arranged that this increase of power 
 can be obtained at the proper places. The speed is 
 limited on the curves, for which reason only curves 
 
270 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 of large radius can be used. For that part of the 
 road over which cars are to be run at full speed we 
 have limited ourselves to curves of not less than 
 3,000 meters radius (9, 840) feet; where the nature of 
 the land does not permit this the speed will have to 
 be diminished. The side pressure on the curves is to 
 be avoided entirely by raising the- outside rail. By 
 this we mean, of course, that the difference in height 
 of the two rails is obtained partly (one-half) by a 
 lowering of the inside rail and partly (one-half) by 
 raising the outside rail. The difference in the 
 heights of the two rails for a speed of 200 kilo- 
 metres and a curve of 3,000 metres radius is 148 mil- 
 limetres (5f inches), at which the resultant of the 
 centrifugal force and the weight is normal to the 
 rail. The greater this difference, the more difficult 
 will be the passage from a straight stretch to a 
 curve. It will not be possible to make this differ- 
 ence greater than 180 millimetres (74 inches) with- 
 out endangering the safety of the passengers at 
 the curves. In laying out the road the curves and 
 the greatest possible speed will have to be consid- 
 ered for each case, taking into account the grade, 
 direction, etc., and the rise of the outer rail deter- 
 mined from this. 
 
 The great attention which has to be given to the 
 curves, in laying out the road to comply with the 
 contour of the land, increases the difficulties greatly, 
 and for this reason one should not be too particular 
 to avoid grades. In our projected road from Vienna 
 to Budapest, we have not hesitated to use grades 
 of 10 per cent., and we assume that the speed on 
 these grades shall not be less than 200 kilometres 
 
HIGH SPEED INTERURBAN RAILROADS. 271 
 
 (124 miles); the power, however, will be twice as 
 great as for the same speed on the level. Steeper 
 grades than 10 per cent, would increase the weights 
 of the more powerful motors to an unfavorable 
 degree, and they are, therefore, to be avoided if 
 possible ; if they cannot be avoided the speed on 
 these grades will simply have to be reduced. 
 
 It will be seen from the above that the average 
 speed in hilly and mountainous districts will not be 
 more than 200 kilometres (124 miles) per hour ; on 
 down grades and on the level the time lost on the 
 curves and up grades is made up by a maximum 
 speed of 250 kilometres (155 miles). 
 
 Having now considered the laying out of the road 
 we next take up the construction of the road itself, 
 which is so intimately connected with that of the 
 cars. We are, above all, safe against derailing, on 
 account of the large diameter of the drivers and the 
 nature of the construction of the cars, whose pivoted 
 trucks can be guided so much better (having but 
 five millimetres or three-sixteenth inch play) than is 
 possible with the usual rigid shafts.* Furthermore, 
 the great length of the car is the best means for 
 preventing the lateral motions of the car, and there- 
 by avoiding the chief cause of derailing. A second 
 safeguard is secured in the second flange on the 
 drivers, both of which are furthermore made 50 mil- 
 limetres (two inches) high. Finally, to guide the 
 car in case the wheels should leave the rails, we 
 have provided that the framework of the car extend 
 down outside of and below the top of the rail. 
 
 The usual railroad rars In Europe have no pivoted trucks, being built 
 more like the American horse curs. ED. 
 
272 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 Besides this, the body of the car is carried so low 
 that the distance to the current-carrying rails is 
 only 100 millimetres (four inches), and therefore in 
 case of derailing these rails would still act as a sort 
 of guide and support for the car. 
 
 But the best protection against derailing is the 
 particular roadbed and rails which we have chosen. 
 The latter is a 180-millimetre (7i inch) high Vignol 
 rail, weighing 50 kilogrammes per metre (about 33| 
 pounds per foot), which is screwed down to cast- 
 steel sleepers by cast-steel supports on both sides of 
 the rail. The latter have their surfaces planed and 
 grooved so a.s to assure the proper width of gauge 
 beyond question. They are placed at distances of 1 
 metre (3) feet apart, and are bolted down to a con- 
 tinuous foundation of concrete. The rails are sup- 
 ported along their whole length on the foundation, 
 so that in case of a rail breaking it is still held in 
 place. The current rails are constructed as a sort of 
 air line, supported on insulators about 500 milli- 
 metres (20 inches) from the ground, by means of 
 cast-iron carriers held in supports cast for them in 
 the steel sleepers. The whole roadbed must be con- 
 structed with the utmost care and precision even in 
 the minutest details, and the rails must be screwed 
 to the foundation. Such a construction, on a contin- 
 uous foundation, increases the cost of the road very 
 greatly, but we consider this as unavoidable, on 
 account of the great necessity to guard against all 
 sources of danger. It is above all the weight and 
 stability of the roadbed which insures safety. It is 
 out of the question to make the bed of loose stones, 
 as this is altogether too elastic. Almost all the cases 
 
HIGH SPEED INTERURBAN RAILROADS. 273 
 
 of derailment can be traced back to changes in the 
 bedding ; most of the accidents which have occurred 
 can be traced to unequal settling of the roadbed, 
 and similar causes. In our system there is further- 
 more another reason for having a very heavy, mas- 
 sive roadbed ; the shock or blow which such a heavy 
 car exerts at that great speed must be met by some 
 correspondingly heavy and massive body, and only 
 then will the roadbed stand the strains without 
 danger. The car must roll perfectly quietly on its 
 absolutely solid foundations. 
 
 The desired rigidity is secured only when the rails 
 and sleepers are actually bolted to the foundation. 
 This foundation may be made of two continuous 
 underground walls of masonry ; where the road has 
 been filled in, these walls must be made much 
 stronger than in cuts or where they are built in the 
 natural ground. For that reason there should be no 
 high embankments, as they keep on settling even 
 after several years, and therefore do not offer a 
 sufficiently secure foundation. For bridges the con- 
 ditions of the road are more favorable than for 
 steam roads, as it is necessary to consider only the 
 maximum weight of two cars passing each other, 
 say about 120 tons; the rigidity must, however, be 
 considered on account of the violent action, almost 
 like a blow, which such a rapidly moving car 
 exerts. Stone viaducts will be found to be necessary 
 much more frequently than for steam railroads, 
 partly because, as we have mentioned, high embank- 
 ments cannot be relied upon as sufficiently safe; 
 partly, also, because the former will be cheaper 
 than the latter. The reasons for this are, that for 
 
274: RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 such a system of single cars instead of trains, long- 
 roads must unquestionably be built with double 
 tracks, as turn-outs are out of the question, partly 
 because of the loss of time, which is just that which 
 our system is intended to avoid at all costs, and 
 partly because switches would have to be traversed 
 at great speeds, which would heighten the source of 
 danger very greatly. Anything but a double track 
 road is therefore entirely out of the question, except 
 on very short roads on which there is only one car 
 at a time. The two tracks must be at least 10 metres 
 (33 feet) apart, on account of the intense air cur- 
 rents and air friction, the shock from which might 
 become a great source of danger at a smaller dis- 
 tance than this. With a distance between the rails 
 of 10 metres, a high embankment would become so 
 very expensive that its cost would be greater than 
 that of two independent parallel viaducts 10 metres 
 apart. We proposed for the latter to use the best 
 construction of cement and iron on piers with spans 
 of 12-15 metres (40-50 feet), and a width of 2-j- metres 
 (8i feet). We have found from calculations that 
 for the line from Vienna to Budapest such viaducts 
 are not more expensive than embankments when 
 the height of the track above the natural surface of 
 the ground is 6 metres (19| feet), even when the 
 wide space between the two tracks is not filled in. 
 
 The road, of course, must be made inaccessible to 
 all pedestrians except the railroad employes. 
 Grade crossings are out of the question. To save 
 the trouble of clearing away the snow, we propose 
 to elevate the top of the foundation of the roadbed 
 500 millimetres above the lower level of the road, 
 
HIGH SPEED INTERURBAN RAILROADS. 275 
 
 in order that the snow may be partly, at least, blown 
 away by the intense current of air accompanying 
 each car. 
 
 As already mentioned, great attention must be 
 given to the signaling. As it may be necessary that 
 the signaling station has to stop a car even when 
 the locomotive engineer has failed to see the signal, 
 all signaling arrangements must be so designed that 
 with each signal the current supplied to the rails 
 must be correspondingly turned off or on by the 
 signaling station. 
 
 To accomplish this we lay down the following 
 conditions : 
 
 1. Along the whole line signaling stations must 
 be erected, which for a double track road must not 
 be at a greater distance apart than two kilometres 
 (li miles). 
 
 2. The rails carrying the currents for each section 
 must be cut and insulated from those of the next 
 section ; the leads supplying these sections at these 
 places must pass through a controlling and regula- 
 ting device. 
 
 i 3. This device must show when the current is 
 greater than the normal, by reason of two succes- 
 sive cars being closer together than the normal dis- 
 tance, and it must furthermore diminish the current 
 for the second car, so as to compel it to go slower 
 until the distance between it and the one ahead is 
 again normal. 
 
 4. Every signaling station must be capable of 
 sending its signals to the two neighboring stations. 
 
 5. Every signal should be such that the engineer 
 can readily see it. 
 
276 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 6. The signals must be quite long, in order that lio 
 may see the colors or lights as stripes or bands. 
 
 We propose to signal with three bands, having 
 the following significance:* 
 
 Three bands, "stop;" two bands, speed of 50 kilo- 
 metres; one band, speed of 100 kilometres; no 
 bands, full speed. 
 
 7. Besides the above there should be signals for 
 covering stations, and a telephone connection be- 
 tween the stations. 
 
 Power Required. The power required for propel- 
 ling a car of about 60 tons, and having a cross sec- 
 tion of nearly 5 square metres (about 50 square feet), 
 is very considerable, and it is evident that the 
 greater part of the power is required to overcome 
 the resistance of the air. In the absence of reliable 
 empirical data regarding the various resistances 
 encountered by a railroad train, we have taken up 
 each of them in series, as far as concerns the scope 
 and object of the present project, and give the 
 results here as follows : 
 
 The air resistance was determined lately by Crosby 
 (see The Electrical World, 1890, vol. XV., p. 346) 
 to obtain a safe basis for calculating the projected 
 rapid transit road from New York to Chicago. He 
 obtained figures for the moving of differently shaped 
 bodies in air, which are considerably smaller than 
 those of the formulae heretofore used. 
 
 As Crosby's experiments were made with great 
 care, we can unhesitatingly use his empirical for- 
 
 * We would suggest that it would be more rational to reverse this set of 
 signals so that if the engineer fail to see the signal, or if one or more fail to 
 act, it would cause him to stop or diminish his speed rather than to increase 
 itt as he would with the above arrangement. Ei>. 
 
HIGH SPEED INTERURBAN RAILROADS. 2tt 
 
 mulae for the resistance of air at the face of the car, 
 namely : 
 
 P= 0.1441 V 
 
 in which P is in pounds per square foot- and F the 
 velocity in miles ; and 
 
 P + cos. 
 
 T) 
 
 2 
 for the pressure against surfaces moved at an angle. 
 
 According to these formulae one can assume that 
 the air resistance of a well-constructed car for 200 
 kilometres, average speed will not exceed 250 horse- 
 power. If steep grades (10 per cent.) are to be 
 ascended at this speed, it will require for a car 
 weighing 60 tons nearly 450 horse-power. 
 
 To this must be added the resistance of curves, 
 the air resistance on the lateral surfaces, the rolling 
 friction, bearing friction, loss of power by lateral 
 oscillations, etc., which, however, cannot be calcu- 
 lated for want of experimental data, but which are 
 no doubt quite small as compared to the others, and 
 may, therefore, be safely estimated at 100 horse- 
 power. 
 
 The maximum power required for a car is accord- 
 ing to this 800 horse-power, and every car would, 
 therefore, have four motors of 200 effective horse- 
 power each. Each car will, therefore, require in 
 favorable weather about 260,000 watts when the- 
 road is level, and up to 600,000 watts in ascending 
 grades. 
 
 The voltage of the working current could not be 
 chosen higher than 1,000 volts, as interruptions and 
 complications are too apt to be caused by poor insu- 
 
2?8 RECENT iPROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 lation, etc., at higher voltages than this. Besides, 
 all parts of the circuit on the car should be capable 
 of being handled without danger to life. 
 
 The amount to be transmitted to the moving car 
 must therefore be from 260-600 amperes, which re- 
 quires very good contact surfaces. 
 
 We may assume that the above problem may be 
 considered solved, as far as the railroad engineering 
 is concerned. There remains to be considered what 
 the best means are for the electrical transmission of 
 the power. 
 
 We reserve this question, however, for our recon- 
 sideration in view of the results which are to be 
 obtained from some experiments which we are at 
 present making with a new form of motor specially 
 designed for railroad purposes. 
 
 To the above paper the following additional fads 
 taken from other sources may be added: The gauge 
 of this proposed road is to be 1.45 metres (4 feet Oj- 
 inches) the same as that used in Europe at present. 
 The cost of such road is estimated to be about two 
 and a half times that of an ordinary railroad. The 
 car is shaped somewhat like a cigar pointed at both 
 ends. The seats are like those in the usual horse cars ; 
 the entrances are at side doors where the car proper 
 joins the motor rooms. The proposed speed is about 
 double that of a train at present running regularly 
 between Brighton and London, on a 6-foot gauge. 
 The cost of this road is estimated at from $16,000,000 
 to $20,000,000. The total distance is 250 kilometres 
 (156 miles). On the present steam road it takes an 
 express train four and a half hours. In connection 
 
MISCELLANEOUS SYSTEMS. 279 
 
 \vith tliis project Prof. Elihu Thomson is stated to 
 have given the opinion that the highest attainable 
 speed might reach 300 kilometers (186 miles) an 
 hour, or 3.1 miles a minute. ED. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SYSTEMS. 
 
 Patton Self-Contained System. Quite a departure 
 from the usual plan is made in this system, as it 
 does away with trolleys, conduits, power stations, 
 etc. It consists briefly of a car equipped with a 
 small gas engine, a dynamo, accumulators, and a 
 motor. The source of power is carried in the form 
 of gasoline. Though it may seem cumbersome, it 
 nevertheless is interesting as a radical departure, 
 and although it hardly looks as if it would replace 
 the more usual systems, it nevertheless has a num- 
 ber of points in its favor. 
 
 The experimental car which has been in daily ser- 
 vice at Pullman, 111., is said to have attained a speed 
 of 11 miles an hour while drawing a loaded trailer. 
 The apparatus used consists of a vertical 10 horse- 
 power gasoline engine, a 10 horse-power compound 
 wound generator driven by friction, a battery of 
 100 accumulators and a 15 horse-power single reduc- 
 tion motor suspended from the front axle. The cells 
 are placed under the seats that extend across the 
 car, and are seldom if ever removed from their posi- 
 tion. The gas engine and generator occupy a space 
 the width of the car by 44 inches in length, rela- 
 
280 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 tively the seating capacity of eight passengers 
 where two seats extend across the car. The base of 
 the engine is supported on an iron fi ame placed six 
 inches above the rails ; the muffler extends length- 
 wise of the car. The engine and generator weigh 
 about 1,500 pounds, and the section of the car con- 
 taining them is inclosed to the ceiling. The gasoline 
 is stored in a tank fastened to the ceiling and is fed 
 by gravity to the burner in the engine through flex- 
 ible rubber tubes, the rate of consumption being 
 one and a half gallons an hour, irrespective of the 
 load, the fluid costing six cents a gallon. Thus, to run 
 continuously for 18 hours would require a tank capa- 
 city of 27 gallons, or a tank holding 14 gallons to be 
 filled twice a day. As the gasoline is automatically 
 fed to the engine no special attention is required, 
 and only a car operator and a conductor are 
 employed, as the engine continues in operation 
 throughout the day, whether the car is in motion or 
 not, and is only stopped when the car is withdrawn 
 from service. 
 
 When the engine is in operation the current gen- 
 erated by the dynamo passes to the accumulators if 
 the car is standing, but when the car is in motion 
 the current passes to the motor, both generator and 
 battery being placed in multiple with the motor. 
 The movement of a simple switch handle controls a 
 pole changer, and also cuts in or out the necessary 
 resistance employed. On a level track the motor is 
 supplied with current only from the generator, but 
 on rounding a sharp curve or ascending a heavy 
 grade, where the potential of the generator falls to 
 that of the cells, the latter are automatically placed 
 
MISCELLANEOUS SYSTEMS. $81 
 
 in circuit and assist in supplying the necessary 
 quantity of current to enable the motor to perform 
 its work. Thus on an ordinary track the cells would 
 only be in service about one-sixth of the time the 
 car was on duty, and there would always be a suffi- 
 cient supply of current in the cells to run the car 
 for two hours or more independent of engine and 
 generator. 
 
 The field in which this motor car can compete is 
 in the service in the small towns, where the cars 
 run "at will;" in the smaller cities, where short 
 competing lines practically prohibit the outlay for 
 cable systems or electric power house and overhead 
 equipments; and in the larger cities, where the 
 trolley will not be tolerated. 
 
 A Novel Electric Railway for the World's Fair. 
 This novel railway will differ from ordinary rail- 
 ways, in that the passengers are transported on a 
 movable sidewalk instead of by cars of the ordinary 
 type. This sidewalk is to be constructed on an ele- 
 vated structure 25 feet high and 900 feet long, in the 
 form of an ellipse, and is to consist of 75 cars, each 
 12 feet long, connected together, making one solid 
 train. There are to be constructed two parallel side- 
 walks, one running at the rate of two miles an hour, 
 the other at four, both walks moving in the same 
 direction. The passengers can step from the station- 
 ary walk to the one which moves at the rate of two 
 miles an hour, and if it is desired to move at a 
 greater speed they can step from this walk to the one 
 running at four miles an hour. The passengers can 
 safely walk upon either of the movable sidewalks 
 while in motion if desired. The carrying capacity 
 
2&2 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 is intended to be 30,000 passengers per hour. Three 
 of the 75 cars are to be equipped with two 15 horse- 
 power Thomson-Houston railway motors, each 
 mounted upon trucks with wheels 18 inches in diam- 
 eter. As the car platform, or sidewalk, is arranged 
 it is perfectly level with the stationary walk, allow- 
 ing the trolley wire to be placed beneath the sur- 
 face of the platform, and the current taken there- 
 from by means of small trolleys attached beneath 
 the car floors. The operation of this train of cars 
 will be arranged in a novel manner, doing away 
 with the use of motor men, the entire train being 
 controlled and operated by one man. There will be 
 constructed at a central point, at one side of the 
 track, a controlling station, which will contain a 
 main switch, reversing switch, automatic circuit 
 breaker, lightning arrester, ampere meter, and rhe- 
 ostats, all arranged so that they can be operated by 
 the attendant from that point, who will have the 
 train under perfect control. 
 
 Parcel Exchange System. A London corre- 
 spondent gives the following description of a 
 parcel exchange system devised by Mr. A. R. Ben- 
 nett, of London. In many of the large towns of 
 England, the vehicular traffic is so heavy that in 
 order to avoid absolute blocking of the thoroughfares 
 the collection or delivery of goods is forbidden in cer- 
 tain localities during business hours. The results of 
 this restriction are that trade suffers, and ware- 
 houses have to be made of larger capacity than 
 would be necessary if the free receipt and dispatch 
 ot goods were permitted. With a view to overcome 
 this difficulty, and to allow of comparatively small 
 
MISCELLANEOUS SYSTEMS. 283 
 
 packages being handled at all times, this scheme 
 was worked out, founded upon the " telephone ex- 
 change" principle, by which parcels could be readily 
 interchanged between any number of buildings, no 
 matter how widely far apart they may be situated. 
 The following is a brief resume : 
 
 It is proposed to effect this system of interchang- 
 ing by the establishment of a number of miniature 
 underground electric railways, radiating from a 
 central station, and having branch lines or sidings 
 into all the buildings to be served. According to 
 this plan, the railways would be laid in tubes of a 
 rectangular section, and would be so arranged that 
 the down track would occupy the lower portion, 
 and the up track the upper portion of the tube. The 
 tubes would be made sufficiently large say two feet 
 wide by three feet high to allow a man to creep 
 through for examination ^nd repairs, and in order 
 to afford space for this the rails would be laid, not 
 on cross sleepers or ties, but on brackets fastened to 
 the walls of the tube. Trucks actuated by electro- 
 motors would run on the rails, the current being 
 obtained either from one of the latter or from a 
 separate conductor laid parallel with the track. On 
 the down journey the current would be collected by 
 a kind of shoe pressing against the under side of 
 this conductor, and on the up journey by a second 
 shoe or collector. Separate shoes are, however, pro- 
 vided and connected with the motor so that a truck 
 could not travel in the wrong direction. The size of 
 tube suggested would permit of trucks 20 inches 
 wide by 14 inches deep being used, and their length 
 might be considerable, but it would be regulated by 
 
284 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 the radius of the curves. Each train would consist of 
 a motor truck, and one, or perhaps two or three, trail- 
 ers or other trucks. The generating and operating 
 station would be established in a suitable locality ; 
 in a large town there might be several. The station 
 would contain the engines, boilers, and dynamos, 
 and might also be used as an electric light station. 
 Here would be arranged various turntables for the 
 interchange of trains between the tubes, while 
 sidings would be provided for empty trucks. 
 
 Regarding the delivery of goods, connection with 
 the premises of subscribers would be made by short 
 spurs or sidings diverging from the nearest main 
 tube. A.t the junction of the branches with the main 
 track, switches similar to ordinary railway switches 
 would be placed and controlled by means of electro- 
 magnets by the operator at the central station. 
 Various methods for finding and working any 
 switch with certainty and rapidity are proposed, 
 and also for ascertaining that the switch has been 
 put over or vice versa. The sidings into subscribers' 
 buildings would consist of down and up tracks, but 
 where space is available they would be caused to 
 diverge after entering the building and ultimately 
 meet on one track, so that trains might be shifted 
 from the down to the up track without lifting them 
 off the rails. Various arrangements are provided for 
 signaling and for informing the operator or operators 
 of the progress or position of the trains, and for the 
 return of loaded or empty trucks from subscribers' 
 sidings or on the main up line. The starting levers 
 could be interlocked with the levers controlling the 
 siding switches, so that a following train could not 
 
MISCELLANEOUS SYSTEMS. 285 
 
 leave until the switch for the preceding one had 
 been restored to its normal position. 
 
 The inventor claims that the details do not com- 
 prise any device which has not been thoroughly 
 tested in the telegraph and signaling department of 
 the post office and railway companies, or in con- 
 nection with electric traction. He is of opinion 
 that the system of electrical parcel exchange as 
 proposed would be invaluable to the various post- 
 offices, and to parcel receiving and great dispatchers 
 of small packages ; buyers could, he says, telephone 
 for samples, hotels and restaurants could telephone 
 for and receive in a few minutes supplies they may 
 be short of, etc. As a parting shot, the inventor 
 gives a friend's suggestion that a mother could send 
 hjer baby bodily to the doctor via the central sta- 
 tion, and receive it back with " a bottle of medicine 
 in its fist and a mustard leaf on its chest." 
 
 The Electrical Transportation System of the New 
 England Portelectric Company. This system con- 
 sists in general of a small projectile-like car oper- 
 ated entirely by electrical means from stationary 
 stations. A very good description, too long to be 
 reproduced here, in the form of a full report by 
 Franklin L. Pope, will be found in The Electrical 
 World, May 23, 1891, p. 375. Other descriptions, with 
 illustrations, will be found in the same journal for 
 May 4, 1889,and October 18, 1890. 
 
286 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 
 
 The subject of dynamos in general will be found 
 in a separate volume of this series on that subject. 
 The generators and motors described below are 
 limited to such as are designated and constructed 
 especially for railroad service, and therefore more 
 properly belong under this heading of railways. 
 
 Generators. The chief feature of generators for 
 railways in which they differ from those for run- 
 ning lights is that they must be able to stand very 
 much rougher usage and considerable overloading 
 for short periods. They must therefore be designed 
 on different lines than those for incandescent light- 
 ing. They must also have their wires more carefully 
 insulated from the frame of the machines, because 
 in railway service one pole is almost invariably 
 grounded, which adds a greater strain on the insu- 
 lation, which besides this is subjected to 500 volts 
 instead of the usual 110. A feature worth noticing 
 is that most of the new railway generators are made 
 multipolar and many of them use carbon brushes. 
 
 Westinghouse 500 Horse-Power (370 kilowatts) Six- 
 pole Generator. In the accompanying illustration 
 it will be seen that' in general design it resembles 
 somewhat the well-known alternating current 
 dynamo of that company. There is the same c}din- 
 drical yoke parting along a horizontal plane through 
 the shaft, and the same arrangement of inwardly 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 
 
 287 
 
288 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 pointing pole pieces. It is claimed to be the largest 
 American built dynamo. The 125 and 250 horse- 
 power machines have four pole pieces, and the 500 
 horse-power six poles. In this latter machine the 
 shaft has a bearing outside of the pulley, which 
 relieves it in a large degree from the bending strain, 
 and adds to the rigidity of the armature. The 
 pole pieces are built up of thin sheet-iron plates 
 bolted together and cast into the cylindrical yoke. 
 The field is compound wound, the shunt and series 
 coils being wound side by side upon metal bobbins, 
 which are then slipped over the pole pieces, and 
 held in place by bolts. The bearings are self-oiling 
 as well as self-aligning, and a great amount of 
 bearing surface is obtained by the great length and 
 large diameter of the journals. The armature is of 
 the Gramme ring type, the core being laminated in 
 the usual manner. The conductors are laid under 
 the surfaces of the armature in oval perforations 
 which are afterward milled into deep slots. It is 
 stated that the electrical efficiency of these genera- 
 tors is from 94 to 96 per cent, at full load. They are 
 wound for 500 volts, but they can be worked up to 
 550 or even 600 volts with the same armature speed, 
 by throwing resistance out of the shunt circuit with 
 the hand regulator. The action of the series coils is 
 such as to cause a considerable rise in voltage as the 
 current increases, the rise in voltage being suffi- 
 cient to make up for any ordinary loss or " drop" in 
 the line. The number of sets of carbon brushes cor- 
 responds to the number of pole pieces, and the alter- 
 nate ones, being of the same polarity, are connected 
 together. Each individual brush has its own spring, 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 289 
 
 by means of which its pressure on the commutator 
 may be adjusted, and any one may be removed 
 without disturbing the others. The dynamos may 
 be run in either direction. A 1,000 horse-power 
 machine of this type is said to be in course of con- 
 struction. 
 
 Thomson-Houston (250 kilowatt) Four-Pole Gen- 
 erator. In general outline this machine, as will be 
 seen from the adjoining figure, is quite similar to 
 the large Oerlikon (Swiss) machines designed by 
 Brown, and probably well known to many readers. 
 It has four radial magnets connected around the 
 outside by a massive octagonal yoke piece. The 
 armature is of the Gramme ring type. In order that 
 the conductors inside the armature may be held 
 securely in place, an adjustable, internal wire sup- 
 port has been designed. When the armature is 
 being wound the wires are forced into position so 
 that they cannot sag, vibrate, or chafe the insula- 
 tion. The commutator has 180 sections. The fields 
 will be separately excited, although the connection 
 at the switchboard is so arranged that by throwing 
 a switch the dynamo can be made self-exciting 
 should emergency require it. The movement of the 
 brushes is effected by means of a shaft moved by 
 means of a hand wheel, on which a small worm is 
 attached, and which in turn works in a rack fas- 
 tened to the yoke. By means of this a very fine 
 adjustment of the brushes can be made. The worm 
 locks the yoke so that it cannot be moved except by 
 hand. The total floor space occupied by this genera- 
 tor is 13 feet 3-J inches by 7 feet 1 inch. The height 
 of the machine is a little less than 8 feet. The 
 
290 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 pulley is 43 inches in diameter and has a 35-inch 
 face. The speed is 400 revolutions per minute. The 
 complete weight is about 21 tons. 
 
 One of the most important features claimed for 
 this generator is the arrangement for lubrication 
 and good alignment of the bearings. The boxes are 
 made in two parts, and are entirely separate from the 
 stands. On the top of the stand is a seat into which 
 the spherical surface of the box fits, and in which 
 the box is free to move. The bolts whicli secure it 
 to the stand are smaller than the holes which are 
 drilled through the box, so that a slight play of box 
 in the seat is permitted. 
 
 The bearing shells or linings are removable, and 
 are made in the following manner : A skeleton shell 
 of brass is made, the interstices of which are filled 
 with Magnolia metal. This is then bored and reamed 
 to size, oilways being cut so that the oil circulation 
 begins at the point where the oil rings touch the 
 shaft. This method of manufacture permits a per- 
 fect circulation of oil, insures the cool running of 
 the bearings, and greatly reduces the care and 
 attention required by the dynamo when in opera- 
 tion. This type of box and bearing lining has proved 
 so satisfactory that it is now being introduced in 
 machines of smaller size, and will in future be used 
 on all machines of large capacity. In order that the 
 outboard bearings may be perfectly aligned with 
 the other bearings, the stand of the extension base 
 has two adjustments one in a horizontal and the 
 other in a vertical direction. These adjustments are 
 made by the screws. Whenever it is necessary to 
 examine bearing linings the armature is jacked up 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AIID TRUCKS. 
 
 FIG, 33. THOMSON-HOUSTON FOUR-POLE GENERATOR, 
 
292 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 about one-sixteenth of an inch, so that the bearing 
 is relieved of its weight, two bolts removed from 
 each stand and the entire box taken out. In case 
 it is not desired to remove the box the cap can be 
 taken off and the bearing linings readily removed. 
 
 Short (112 kilowatt) Four-Pole Generator. The 
 field magnet frame weighs over 800 pounds, nothing 
 but the softest and purest iron being used in the 
 melting pots. It is annealed very slowly in the 
 molds, and when finished is so soft that it can easily 
 be indented with a hammer. To this frame are 
 bolted eight field magnets carrying the shunt and 
 series coils and provided with the eight pole pieces 
 making it a four pole machine. The general type of 
 the frame is similar to the Brush, Schuckert, and 
 Mordey machines. Upon a shaft nine feet long by 
 six inches in diameter is keyed a spider carrying 
 the foundation ring upon which the armature is 
 built up. The armature is of the "flat ring" type 
 and the core is formed of sheet iron wound spirally 
 on the foundation ring and riveted firmly together. 
 The outside circumference of the ring is somewhat 
 wider than the remainder, and this portion is milled 
 out into notches forming a modified Pacinotti ring. 
 The coils are then wound on the core, the method 
 being such that each one of the 200 coils is exposed 
 to the air on all sides, thus securing ventilation. 
 The projecting coils are a sort of fan, and in stand- 
 ing before the machine the current of air set in 
 motion by the armature can be detected 10 or 15 
 feet away. As a consequence, both armature and 
 field run cool, and there is therefore less likelihood 
 of burning out a coil even with heavy overloads. It 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 
 
 is stated that a burned out coil can be wound by any 
 good mechanic at a cost of two or three dollars and 
 a half day's labor. One of the features of the arma- 
 ture is its large diameter, viz., 36 inches. The arma- 
 ture shaft runs in large self-centring and self- 
 oiling bearings, the lubrication being acomplished 
 by rings carried by the shaft and drawing oil from 
 a reservoir in the usual way. At the commutator 
 box is also found an adjustable ball bearing thrust 
 collar containing several hundred balls, and so 
 arranged as to carry the armature thrust in either 
 direction without heating. The commutator is quite 
 large, being 20 inches of diameter ; it has 200 bars, 
 so that the pressure between two adjacent bars is 
 only 5 volts. It is a four-pole machine, and there are 
 four multiple carbon brushes carried by two inde- 
 pendent collars and sets of brush holders. The com- 
 pounding has been carefully calculated, and the 
 "pressure curve" is a straight line, passing from 500 
 volts at no load to 525 volts at full load, with the 
 speed maintained constant at 500 revolutions. 
 
 A very good illustration of this generator, too 
 large to be reproduced here, will be found in The 
 Electrical World, Sept. 5, 1891, p. 165. 
 
 Baxter Multipolar Generator. This generator is 
 designed for slow speed. It is an eight-pole machine, 
 the field being built up of eight magnets, forming 
 consequent poles. The magnet cores are laminated, 
 and are clamped together so as to form a rigid ring, 
 almost as much so as if they were made of one solid 
 piece. This field ring is secured to the frame of the 
 machine by four stout bolts attached to the poles of 
 similar sign. The armature is a tooth "Gramme" 
 
'294 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 ring, and the total air space is very small, being but 
 a small fraction of an inch. The magnetizing force 
 required to saturate the field in the 10 horse-power 
 motors is less than 4,500 ampere turns. The shaft 
 runs in two large bearings in the centre; the driv- 
 ing pulley is placed at one end, while the armature 
 is at the other. The bearings are both in one solid 
 
 FIG. 84. BAXTER MULTIPOLAR GENERATOR. 
 
 frame, so that it is impossible for them to get out of 
 line. By this construction the machine can be 
 easily taken apart. All that is necessary is to take 
 off the pulley and the brush holders, then the arma- 
 ture and shaft can be removed at once. This design, 
 
GENERATORS; MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 295 
 
 with the addition of an outside bearing for the 
 pulley end on the shaft, will be used in the large 
 generators for railway work. They will either be 
 compound wound or separately excited. The makers 
 advocate separate exciting where it is desired to 
 obtain the very best results. Although the speed at 
 which the machines run is very low, their efficiency 
 Is said to be very high, and the output per pound of 
 weight is claimed to be greater than can be obtained 
 with the ordinary two-pole machines. 
 
 It is stated that the 8 horse-power 500 volt 
 machines, which revolve at 800 revolutions per 
 minute, will weigh complete a little over 500 pounds, 
 and the electrical efficiency will be over 95 per cent. 
 This is equal to about 12 watts per pound, which is 
 very good. The 75 horse-power generator, which 
 runs at 500 revolutions per minute, will have an 
 electrical efficiency of over 96 per cent., and will 
 weigh about 6,000 pounds, which is about 9.3 watts 
 per pound. This generator has an armature 24 
 inches in diameter, with a 9-inch face. The shaft 
 will be 4| inches in diameter, and of hardened steel. 
 
 The accompanying illustration shows another 
 form of the Baxter railway generator. It is wound 
 for a potential of 500 volts, which is kept constant, 
 regardless of load variations, by means of a sepa- 
 rate exciter, and the multipolar field construction, 
 while the Gramme ring armature, of" large diam- 
 eter, allows of a slow speed, thus reducing to a 
 minimum the wear on the commutator, brushes, 
 bearings, belting, and shafting. The brush holders 
 are so designed that the brushes are automatically 
 fed down upon the commutator with a light and 
 
296 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 constant pressure which insures long life to the 
 commutator, and eliminates sparking due to uncer- 
 tain pressure. A special feature of this generator is 
 
 FIG. 36. BAXTER GENERATOR. 
 
 the mounting of the pulley between the bearings, 
 thereby relieving the machine from all torsional 
 strain. 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 297 
 
 Motors, Gearing, and Trucks. 
 
 The subject of motors in general will be found in a 
 separate volume in this series on the subject of dyna- 
 mos and motors. The descriptions given below are 
 limited to those of motors specially designed and built 
 for railway service, and therefore more properly be- 
 long under the heading of railways. The subjects of 
 gearing and truck are so intimately connected with 
 that of motors, that no attempt has been made here 
 to separate them, except in a general way. 
 
 Kailway motors have passed through such a stage 
 of development during the past year that they may 
 almost be said to have been completely revolution- 
 ized. Double reduction motors, in which two pairs 
 of gears were used, have given way to single reduc- 
 tion motors, having only one pair of gear wheels. 
 Some makers have gone even farther and have 
 introduced a gearless motor, in which the armature 
 is directly coupled with the shaft of the driving 
 wheels. Although the latter have been introduced 
 in a few cases, they must still be looked upon to a 
 certain extent as experi cental. On account of their 
 slow speed, the size and weight necessarily in- 
 crease, and an additional feature is introduced 
 owing to the fact that irregularities or dirt on the 
 track will cause the resulting hammer blow to be 
 communicated to the armature, unless this is pro- 
 tected by some means. Other features which have 
 been overcome, or which are desired, will be seen 
 from the descriptions of several motors given below. 
 
 In a report of a committee of the National Elec- 
 tric Light Association on a perfect street railway 
 
298 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 motor Mr. Everett gives the following opinions on 
 what he thinks are the most important requirements 
 for a railway motor : 
 
 "The motors, when first constructed, were alto- 
 gether too light, both mechanically and electrically, 
 but these difficulties are being overcome very rap- 
 idly, as well as the serious difficulty of too rapid 
 motion, which swelled the operating expenses very 
 largely in maintaining the parts and replacing the 
 gearing. The best motors manufactured hereafter 
 will be the most simple in the matter of the con- 
 struction of the parts, and at the same time not con- 
 suming too great a quantity of electricity, so that in 
 addition to being simple they will also be economi- 
 cal. I think it would be an improvement if in all 
 machines made a better insulated wire were used 
 in both armatures and fields. A more reliable and 
 positive fuse wire application, one that would 
 always burn out while still under the capacity of 
 the motor, would also be a great improvement. 
 
 " I would again reiterate the fact that motors have 
 been wonderfully perfected within the past year, 
 and if as much progress is made during the coming 
 year there can be very little to ask in perfecting a 
 motor, although it is very desirable that the mechan- 
 ical application should be more carefully looked after. 
 
 "All the prominent companies seem to have fallen 
 into the same error, and seem to persistently and 
 maliciously continue in their evil ways. I do not 
 think that any one subject connected with elec- 
 trical propulsion has received so much attention 
 from the railways as this one, and with so little 
 co-operation and assistance from the electrical com- 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AN!) TRUCKS. 
 
 panies. I, of course, refer to the price of their equip- 
 ment. It appears to me that the companies, instead 
 of operating 4,000 motor cars, could be operating 
 40,000 within a very short time, if they would bring 
 the price down to a reasonable figure, so that all 
 companies could afford to purchase an equipment. 
 I think it would be desirable if the electric com- 
 panies would supply all extra parts from their shops 
 at a price allowing a reasonable margin for profit. 
 
 "The perfect motor ought to have, as herein- 
 before suggested, a reliable fuse plug that will inva- 
 riably blow before injury is done to the machine. It is 
 desirable to use a controlling switch that is easily 
 operated and readily reversed, in case of accidents. 
 The simpler the controlling device the better, and it 
 should be constructed with a view to guard against 
 any possible disarrangements of the parts, so that it 
 will be reliable in all cases, both electrically and 
 mechanically. The rheostat should also be care- 
 fully looked after, and properly protected to keep it 
 from injury, by reason of water, snow, or dirt get- 
 ting upon it. It should only be available in starting 
 the car to avoid the lunge of a start, and should be 
 so arranged as to be cut out as soon as the car is 
 started, and give the entire efficiency of the motor 
 proper. The motor should be well protected in all 
 parts from any outside interference, so that in run- 
 ning along the street it will be impossible to pick up 
 nails, wire, or anything that would short circuit it, 
 at the same time observing that a motor must be 
 properly ventilated to keep it from heating while 
 in use. The cover should be made so as to be easily 
 removed. 
 
300 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 " I deem it very advisable to have an armature of 
 a large diameter, making a small number of revolu- 
 tions per minute, with the bearings made of extreme 
 width, with proper grease cups, and in such a con- 
 dition that they can be readily re babbited when 
 slightly worn. The diameter of the commutator 
 should also be large, and to have the brushes easy 
 of access is very desirable. The winding of the 
 armature ought to be of the simplest kind, and the 
 size of the wire and insulation of same should be 
 carefully looked after. I think the insulation wires 
 in armatures is at present one of the weakest points 
 in the motor. 
 
 "The armature gears should have a wide face, 
 and run in oil. The armature shaft ought to be of 
 ample diameter, and there is nothing gained by 
 having the keyway too small for the securing of 
 the commutator to the shaft. The commutator 
 should be carefully insulated, so that there will be 
 no grounds between it and the case. The box in 
 which this gear runs ought to be constructed of 
 copper, or some light material that is somewhat 
 flexible, so that if struck from the outside it will 
 bend rather than break. The fields should also be 
 wound with a wire of better insulation, and of 
 ample size to take the current. Of course, in this 
 particular I do not intend that the wire of either 
 field or armature should be great enough to take 
 more horse-power than ought to be used by the 
 machine. To my mind it is very desirable to have 
 the armature in such a condition that it can be 
 readily taken from the machine and put in again. 
 " One of the serious disadvantages to operators of 
 
302 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 electric roads is the expensive labor necessary in 
 winding the armature and fields, also in regard to 
 high-priced mechanics who ought to be employed to 
 attend to the machines. There is nothing gained in 
 employing a cheap class of labor to handle an elec- 
 tric equipment, either as electricians, armature or 
 field men, or mechanics. This proposition is a self- 
 evident truth, as can readily be observed in many 
 roads now in operation. At present (October. 1891,) 
 I think the single reduction motor is the nearest 
 perfection of any on the market. The durability of 
 the motor is a question which requires very careful 
 attention. The single reduction motor, when prop- 
 erly looked after, ought to last for many years. We 
 have had one in operation for over 10 months, and 
 it appears to be in as good condition as when it first 
 went on the road. The noise of the motors has been 
 very largely done away with, and by careful atten- 
 tion the old countershaft machines can be used 
 until worn out by simply covering the gearing with 
 an oil box, and by not attempting to run them too 
 many miles without inspection." 
 
 Gearless Motors. 
 
 Short Gearless Motors. The accompanying illus- 
 trations, Figs. 3G, 37, 38, show the method of mounting 
 this motor. The armature, which is intended to run 
 at from 100 to 150 revolutions per minute, is mounted 
 upon a hollow shaft through which passes the car 
 axle. This hollow shaft is made of steel, and is 
 about six inches in diameter on the outside, with an 
 opening inside of nearly five inches, so that there is 
 a clearance between the axle of the car and the 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 303 
 
 inside of this hollow shaft of an inch space all 
 around. In the centre of this hollow shaft the arma- 
 ture and the commutator are fastened, and on each 
 end of the armature shaft are keyed two heavy 
 crank discs, made with an iron hub and rim, and a 
 wooden web. This thoroughly insulates the arma- 
 ture shaft from the rim of the crank wheel. This 
 crank wheel rim has upon one side a crank pin, as 
 will be seen in the illustration. The car wheel has 
 a crank pin also, and between the two is stretched 
 a heavy coil spring, capable of pulling with a very 
 slight elongation 2,500 or 3,000 pounds. The power 
 of the motor in turning the wheel is transmitted 
 through these springs. Just inside the crank discs 
 are the bearings of the hollow armature shaft in the 
 motor frame. This motor frame is made of two cast- 
 ings of steel with arms projecting forward and back- 
 ward (see Figs. 37, 38, 39.) These arms rest on rub- 
 ber cushions placed on channel bars which go from 
 side to side of the motor frame. In this way the 
 armature is held up in the frame and away from the 
 axle, and the entire weight of the motor is sup- 
 ported by these spring cushions and by the car 
 boxes outside of the wheels at the points where the 
 car body is supported. None of the weight of the 
 motor falls on the axle inside of the wheels. The 
 spring cushions upon which the motor frame rests 
 are limited in their movements to a fixed distance, 
 so that the inside of the armature shaft cannot 
 come down upon the axle. By these means the 
 motor is carried entirely on springs. 
 
 A sheet-iron casing one-fourth inch thick covers 
 the entire motor. This casing is so hung on hinges 
 
304 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 that it can be swung open to allow examination of 
 the motor from beneath. The motor is constructed 
 entirely of iron and steel, and its weight is about the 
 same as that of the standard type of Short motor, 
 and its efficiency is stated to be somewhat greater. 
 The armature has the form of a flat Gramme ring 
 wound with a very large number of independent 
 sections. The diameter is as great as is consistent 
 with getting the motor under the car, giving, of 
 course, a powerful torque to compensate for the lack 
 
 KC.CC . 
 
 FIG. 37. 
 
 of gearing, and also a high back electromotive force 
 to secure as much efficiency as possible at low rota- 
 tive speed. The field magnets are of the regular 
 Brush type, eight in number, producing a four-pole 
 machine with a very intense field and ver}^ narrow 
 air gaps. The first movement of the armature is 
 cushioned, as shown in the cuts, by a pair of 
 springs, one acting in tension and the other in com- 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 
 
 305 
 
 pression, and the full torque of the armature comes 
 upon the axle only after a rotation of nearly 60 
 degrees. This feature of a semi-flexible connection 
 between armature and axle is said to lessen the 
 wear and tear on the armature very considerably. 
 
 Owing to the large diameter of the armature, a 36- 
 inch car wheel is recommended for use with this 
 motor, and under these circumstances there is a 
 clearance of five and a half inches between the low- 
 
 FlG. 38. 
 
 est part of the motor and the track, ample to allow 
 for contingencies that are likely to arise. Whatever 
 efficiency may be lost in winding for slow speed is 
 claimed to be more than made up for by the gain of 
 dispensing with the waste of power always incident 
 to gearings. The resistance of the motors is an ohm 
 and a quarter for the two coupled in parallel. In 
 trials made in Cleveland the motor was subjected to 
 the severe test of reversing at full speed without 
 
306 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 injury to the armature or producing any result more 
 serious than a violent spinning of the wheels in the 
 wrong direction. The 15 horse-power machine very 
 closely resembles the 20 horse-power illustrated, 
 except that it has only two poles and four field mag- 
 nets, arranged as in the ordinary Brush dynamos ; 
 otherwise the construction is the same as that of 
 the larger machine. 
 
 It is very difficult for any motor, gearless or 
 geared, to crawl through city streets efficiently, and 
 the gearless type is at a special disadvantage in this 
 respect. Its best field is on comparatively level sub- 
 urban roads, running at rather high speeds, and for 
 such service it is capable of giving excellent results. 
 The absence of heating and the type of armature 
 employed with widely separated coils very thor- 
 oughly ventilated give good reason for expecting 
 small repair bills, and even in case of accident dam- 
 age is easily repaired, as a coil can be wound in a 
 short time without removing the armature sleeve 
 from the axle or doing anything more than clearing 
 away the fields to obtain ready access to the com- 
 mutator. 
 
 A later description contained the following note 
 and illustration (Fig. 39) : As yet, no roads have been 
 fully equipped with this motor, so that a careful 
 study of its performance under various conditions is 
 still lacking. The result of a year of investigation 
 and experiment on gearless motors by the Short 
 company went to show that a working gearless 
 motor would be unlikely to prove successful unless 
 it was of multipolar construction, with very power- 
 ful magnetic circuit and small magnetic gap, 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 
 
 30^ 
 
 equipped with a Gramme armature of compara- 
 tively large diameter. These characteristics were 
 embodied in the present gearless motor, which in 
 its latest form is shown in Fig. 39. There are but 
 
 three wearing points on each motor, and the arma- 
 ture is of extra large diameter ; there are eight field 
 magnets making four poles. A three-armed spider 
 is placed on each bed of the hollow shaft, each arm 
 
308 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 is provided at the extremity with a socket to receive 
 the rubber cushion or spring, these cushions bear 
 upon lugs cast on the car wheels, and as the arma- 
 ture shaft and spider revolve the action is trans- 
 ferred to the car axle. The rubber cushion serves 
 the double purpose of insulation and easy starting 
 and has replaced the metallic spiral spring of the 
 earlier forms of the motor. The insulation from the 
 truck is very complete. The distance from the cen- 
 tre of the axle to the bottom of the casting is 12 
 inches, and at a speed of 12 miles per hour with 36- 
 inch wheel the armature revolves at 94 turns per 
 minute. The electrical output of the motor has been 
 quite carefully investigated, and as an average of a 
 large number of readings taken on the three electric 
 lines in Cleveland the following results have been 
 obtained : Average volts, 480 ; average amperes, 24 ; 
 electrical horse-power, 15.44; average number of 
 passengers, 48. 
 
 Regarding this gearless motor, Mr. C. C. Curtis, 
 of the Short Electric Railway Company, said : " In 
 the city of Rochester there has been kept day by 
 day an accurate record of the motor and generator 
 repairs. That road started running in November, 
 1890, and giving it eight months of run, through the 
 winter months the hardest months in the year up 
 to the first day of August, the average cost of 
 repairs per car mile was four mills. When I say 
 four mills per car mile, I mean only the repairs on 
 the generators and the repairs on the motors ; that 
 is, the electrical repairs. In Muskegon, Mich., 
 where we have been running about a year and a 
 half, our record shows two mills per car mile. By 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 300 
 
 removing four bolts, you take off the two lower 
 wheels and raise one end of the car and you roll out 
 your armature and the car axle. Should a bobbin 
 burn out, it can, because of its peculiar construc- 
 tion, be repaired for from two to three dollars. 
 These bobbins are only about three-quarters of an 
 inch deep and surround the outer circle of the arma- 
 ture. They are not connected ; and, should one burn 
 out, it does not interfere with or necessitate the 
 burning out of any of the others. The hue-and-cry 
 has been raised that the gearless motor is a very 
 nice thing, theoretically, but in practical operation 
 it is going to take an enormous amount of current. 
 I have a report of a test made in Cleveland, O., by 
 Mr. Al. Johnson. It was a trial between one of his 
 cars and one of the Short gearless motor cars. 
 These two cars ran over the Brooklyn street railroad 
 line, running about 20 minutes apart, doing com- 
 mercial work. The gearless car checked up some 80 
 passengers, and the single reduction motor, which 
 Johnson was running, checked up 47. The car ran 
 for about two hours and a half, and we have the 
 half -minute readings. The report and the readings 
 show that the single reduction motor takes 24 per 
 cent, more current than the gearless motor." 
 , Westinghouse Ironclad Gearless Motor. As will 
 be seen in the figure, this motor is completely sur- 
 rounded and protected by the field frame, which 
 forms a casing of sufficient strength to withstand all 
 shocks and obstructions of the roadbed. The field 
 consists of two symmetrical castings of special iron, 
 sleeved upon the armature shaft or axle, hinged on 
 top and secured together by bolts. The joints are 
 
SlO RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 made watertight, and the bearings are provided 
 with leather cups for the same purpose, which 
 makes it dust proof. The armature, which is of the 
 drum type, is built upon the car axle. The sheet- 
 iron discs, being solid and keyed to the axle_. give 
 
 the axle an additional strength, which precludes 
 any possibility of its bending. This arrangement, of 
 course, eliminates all gearing. The car wheels are 
 fastened to the shaft by a new arrangement, which 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 311 
 
 makes it possible to replace them easily and quickly 
 without any special tools or skilled labor. The 
 armature is but 16 inches in diameter, with a 
 grooved periphery for the wires, which not only 
 increases the efficiency, but holds the wires rigid. 
 It is securely fastened to the shaft, and connections 
 with the armature are made by short, heavy wires. 
 The brush holder, which is rigidly fastened to the 
 magnet frame, is well insulated and easily accessi- 
 ble by openings provided with watertight lids. The 
 weight of the magnet frame is counterbalanced and 
 cushioned upon powerful spiral springs which rest 
 upon the cross bars of the truck. These springs pre- 
 vent the field from rotating, and give the motor the 
 necessary flexibility for easy starting. The total 
 depth of the motor is but 20 inches, giving 5 inches 
 clearance between the bottom of the motor and the 
 rail, with a 30-inch wheel. Actual tests are said to 
 have shown a working efficiency of 90 per cent. It 
 is also claimed that, after two hours' run with a 
 load of over 20 horse-power the rise in the tempera- 
 ture of the armature and field coils was only 30 C. 
 above the surrounding air. There are three types of 
 gearless motors made; one for heavy grade city 
 work, one for ordinary level city lines, and a third 
 for suburban service. 
 
 Dahl Slow Speed Motor. This motor is not strictly 
 speaking "gearless," as it drives by means of a fric- 
 tion clutch, but as there are no reduction gears, it 
 properly belongs to this class of gearless motors. 
 
 In this motor an armature of the ring type of 
 large diameter is attached to a non-magnetic spider, 
 which is placed on a shaft or on the car axle, and is 
 
312 RECENT PROGEESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 free to revolve about it. Attached to this at one end 
 is one-half of a friction clutch, the other side of 
 which is attached to the axle by means of a coiled 
 spring. On each side of the web of the spider are 
 two magnetic spools and cores, through the latter 
 of which the hub of the spider is free to revolve. 
 Consequent poles are formed by these magnets on 
 the interior and exterior of the armature, alterna- 
 ting in position, those magnets on the outside being 
 brought together and held in position with dowel 
 pins, and a yoke being bolted rigidly to them. This 
 yoke is fastened to the frame or truck to keep the 
 field magnets from revolving. The whole motor ie 
 protected from dust and other foreign substance by 
 a brass case arranged to be accessible. All fuses, 
 connections and brushes are at the top of the motor, 
 and are accessible to the operator when he has 
 opened a trap-door in the car and one of the slides 
 in the casing. The clutch, which is one of the feat- 
 ures of the motor, is composed of sheet-iron discs, 
 each alternate one being fastened at its centre or 
 periphery. Those fastened at the centre are attached 
 to the end of the spider of the armature. Those fas- 
 tened at the periphery are joined to a spring, as 
 before mentioned. Rigid action is secured by press- 
 ing the sheets together by springs interposed in such 
 a manner that at a predetermined pull on the clutch it 
 slips and allows the armature to revolve faster than 
 the axle. The armature is so constructed that each 
 individual section can be replaced without disturbing 
 the others, should it be needed. By the use of the 
 clutch mentioned it is claimed that it will be impos- 
 sible to overload the motor beyond a predetermined 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 
 
 313 
 
 
314 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 point. The armature may be kept running continu- 
 ously, thereby gaining whatever advantages such a 
 method of operation may possess. The construction 
 of the motor is such that it is practically ironclad, 
 with no outside leakage of magnetism. Mitis iron is 
 used for magnet cores, and the clutch is composed 
 of 40 discs of iron. The weight of a motor rated at 
 15 horse power is 1,690 pounds. 
 
 Eickemeyer Motor and Truck. This form of 
 motor and truck embodies the features of both the 
 gearless and reduction gear motors in a combined 
 motor and truck. Fig. 43 shows the truck complete, 
 as fitted with the motor ; Fig. 44 gives an idea of the 
 various parts and their construction, the motor 
 being removed from the car, its frame inverted, and 
 the armature, coils, etc., shown separately. A drum 
 form of armature is used, having 74 coils. These 
 are wound on an arbor, from which they are 
 removed and thoroughly dried and insulated, and 
 then placed in position so that, should a coil become 
 damaged it may easily be removed and replaced 
 without interfering with the other coils or with 
 their work. The armature is supported midway 
 between the two axles and has its shaft connected 
 by ordinary connecting rods with crank pins to 
 both axles, the connecting rods attached to both 
 ends of armature shaft, and the cranks set at an 
 angle of 90 degrees, preventing the armature from 
 ever getting on the dead centre and also giving a 
 maximum starting torque in all positions. A second 
 feature is the use of only a 26-inch car wheel in 
 place of the usual 36-inch wheel required to raise 
 the gearless motor above the roadbed, the smaller 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 
 
 315 
 
 wheel allowing a higher armature speed, and con- 
 sequent increase in commercial efficiency. Owing 
 to the form of frame no extra seating is required to 
 protect the motor, as it is entirely inclosed in an 
 
 ironclad casing. The rheostats are placed in boxes 
 supported over the axles, and the controlling mech- 
 anism connected by shafts running the entire length 
 
316 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 of the car may be operated from either end ; while 
 all switch mechanism is protected in casing below 
 the car floor within easy access for repair and 
 inspection. The sills of the car body rest on the four 
 iron brackets placed on the motor castings, and on 
 beams that extend across each end of the truck. 
 
 Leonard's Method of Avoiding Gearing. Under 
 the subject of motors, in the volume on "Dynamos 
 and Motors," will be found described a method for 
 running motors at any speed with constant torque 
 and nearly constant efficiency. It consists essen- 
 tially of using three motors and dynamos in place 
 of one, so arranged that the current and voltage for 
 the last motor may be varied to suit the require- 
 ments of the speed and torque. The portion of that 
 description referring to railway motors is reprinted 
 here in full, in the language of the inventor : 
 
 " For operating an electric railway we will place a 
 shunt-wound motor on the car, and directly driven 
 by this motor will be a special generator, which 
 will be connected to the electric motor below the 
 car. It is evident that the generator and working 
 armature may be wound for any voltage desired, 
 say 20 volts, which will make the problem of insu- 
 lating the street-car motor an extremely simple one. 
 If desirable, we can supply several cars of a com- 
 mon train from one special generator on the for- 
 ward car. With this outfit we will be able to take 
 any car up any practicable grade or around any 
 curve with no more power than is required to move 
 the car on a level, and always consume the same 
 power, regardless of weight, grades, or curves. 
 That is, the automatic increase of current, to take 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 317 
 
318 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 care of any increased torque, will be compensated 
 for by a corresponding decrease in the volts and 
 speed. We may start a car up any grade or curve 
 with but a small fraction of the power required for 
 normal speed on a level. 
 
 "I wish to call attention to a very important 
 development leading out from this, namely, that we 
 will be able to use alternating currents for opera- 
 ting our street cars, for it is well known that the 
 ordinary alternating current generators will oper- 
 ate perfectly as motors, if the speed and torque be 
 kept constant. Since by this system we can, from 
 a constant torque and speed, get any other torque, 
 and automatically a corresponding speed, we shall 
 be able to run street cars perfectly by alternating 
 currents. This, again, will enable us to dispense 
 with trolleys, conduits* storage batteries, etc. We 
 will place between our tracks, in manholes, con- 
 verters whose primary pressure can be anything 
 required for proper economy, and whose secondary 
 will be say, 15 volts. This secondary circuit will 
 connect directly with the rails. The road will be 
 divided in sections, each a few hundred feet long, 
 and each section will be supplied by its own con- 
 verter. 
 
 " On first consideration, the additional apparatus 
 necessary would seem to make the system prohib- 
 itory in practice ; but the capacity of the present 
 single molor is greater than the combined capacity 
 of the apparatus this system would require, and the 
 capacity of the prime motor is very much reduced. 
 
 " In order to reduce the first cost to a minimum 
 and yet secure the advantage of different automatic 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 319 
 
 speeds and high efficiency, I have devised two mod- 
 ifications of the arrangement described above. The 
 first is adapted to power in which a smooth, efficient 
 acceleration of -a load from rest is required, as in 
 the case of passenger locomotives and elevators. 
 The second case is where various automatic speeds 
 are desired, but no special importance attaches to 
 the starting of the load from rest, as is the case in 
 machinery in general. 
 
 " For the first case, we have the trolley system of 
 electric street cars as the most important. Let us 
 suppose we have two motors of 15 horse-power each 
 for the car. We find that for full speed upon a level 
 we require about 15 amperes at 500 volts. Upon 
 heavy grades we find that about 50 amperes are 
 required, and, as before, we have 500 volts. With 
 this consumption of energy We find that we get a 
 speed upon the heavy grade which is about one- 
 quarter of the speed upon a level. In order to oper- 
 ate upon my system, let us place upon the car a 
 motor generator, the motor part of which is wound 
 for 500 volts and 12| amperes and the generator 
 part of which is wound for 125 ' volts and 50 
 amperes. The fields of the motor and generator part 
 are distinct, and are wound for 500 volts, as are the 
 fields of the two propelling motors under the car. 
 All these fields are supplied from the 500-volt trolley 
 circuit. In the field of the auxiliary generator is 
 placed a rheostat. 
 
 " Now suppose the car at rest upon a grade. The 
 motor generator is running, but the generator has 
 a very weak field. Its armature is connected by a 
 controlling switch to the propelling motors, We 
 
320 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 now gradually cut out resistance from the genera- 
 tor field circuit, and finally get about 20 volts at the 
 brushes of the generator. With this E. M. F. we get 
 sufficient current to produce 50 amperes through the 
 armatures of the propelling motors in a saturated 
 field. This gives us the full torque, and the car 
 starts at a speed of perhaps half a foot a second. 
 This speed can be maintained constantly and indefi- 
 nitely, and the consumption of energy will be less 
 than two horse-power. This is less than three am- 
 peres from the trolley line. In practice, however, 
 the speed will be rapidly but gradually accelerated, 
 until we have 125 volts upon the terminals of the 
 propelling motors. We will now be running at one- 
 quarter speed, and will be consuming 125 volts and 
 50 amperes, that is, 6 kilowatts instead of 25 kilo- 
 watts to get the same result with existing motors. 
 To put it another way, we will not be using as muoh 
 energy as is represented by the 500 volts and 15 
 amperes- necessary for full speed on a level. 
 
 " The next step on the controlling switch will dis- 
 connect the armatures of the propelling motors 
 from the auxiliary generator and put the two arma- 
 tures in series across the trolley line direct. We will 
 now go at a speed represented by 250 volts, that is, 
 one half full speed. The next- step of our switch will 
 place the two armatures in multiple across the 500 
 volts, and the next and last step will place the 120- 
 volt auxiliary generator in series with the main 
 central station generators and give us 625 volts on 
 our armatures and correspondingly increased speed. 
 We will be able to go up a grade of six to eight per 
 cent, at full speed, with 50 amperes and 500 volts, 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 321 
 
 which, with the present motors, gives only about 
 one-quarter of that speed. 
 
 "Under this arrangement it will be noticed that 
 the only apparatus which could be called addi- 
 tional is the small motor of 500 volts for the gener- 
 ator part of our motor generator, which is usefu), 
 not only for starting, but for full speed also. In 
 stopping the car we have an electric brake action 
 delivering back energy to the line at full efficiency 
 and not through a rheostat, as at present. 
 
 " If we have a train of, say three cars, so that we 
 have six motors, we can start from rest with suffi- 
 cient smoothness by placing all six armatures in 
 series, which will give us something less than one- 
 sixth speed as the first step. Then we can place 
 three in series with two multiples, which gives us 
 one-third speed. Next, two in series with three mul- 
 tiples, which gives us one-half speed ; and finally, 
 all in multiple, which gives us full speed. Under 
 such conditions, we can dispense with the small con- 
 verting plant altogether." 
 
 Single Reduction Motors. 
 
 Westinghouse Four-Pole Motor. Fig. 45 shows 
 a general view of the new motor closed in its 
 casing and ready for use. Its general form is 
 cylindrical, giving both the shortest possible 
 magnetic circuit and maximum strength with 
 minimum amount of material. All the sharp cor- 
 ners that tend to leak magnetism are eliminated, 
 and the machine is claimed to be rendered thereby 
 slightly more efficient. The details of the magnetic 
 circuit are best shown by examining Fig. 47, which 
 
322 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 shows the casting freed from armature and coils 
 and opened up to exhibit its arrangement. The 
 
 FIG. 45. GENERAL VIEW OF MOTOR. 
 
 form of the magnetic circuit makes it possible to 
 utilize four poles with great advantage ; they are, 
 as will be seen, rather narrow, and consequently 
 are capable of being magnetized by comparatively 
 
 FIG. 46. BRUSH HOLDER AND COIL. 
 
 short and small windings. One of these coils, 
 together with a brush holder, is shown in Fig 46. 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 323 
 
 The brush holder is a casting bolted on to the lower 
 side of the main frame of the motor, and lifting its 
 brushes quite on to the top of the commutator, 
 where they rest 90 degrees apart. The castings are 
 of a specially soft grade of iron that has proved 
 to have excellent magnetic properties. 
 The gearing, inclosed as it is in an oil-tight case 
 
 FIG. 47. MOTOK WITH AUMATI RI; REMOVED. 
 
 (Fig. 48). is always thoroughly lubricated and free 
 from dirt. All the bearings are bushed with metal, 
 and the armature shaft is tightly tapered to facili- 
 tate the removal of the pinion. The gear ratio is 
 3.3 to 1. The iron-clad form of the motor enables it 
 to be completely shut in by applying side plates, 
 so that in actual practice it is inclosed so tightly as 
 
324 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 to be quite free from the numerous difficulties so 
 often experienced from dirt and moisture finding 
 their way into the working parts of a machine. As 
 the lower surface of the motor presents only a solid 
 casing it cannot .be injured by casual blows from 
 projecting rubble, a source of difficulty with which 
 electric street railway men are only too familiar. 
 Fig. 49 gives a perspective view of the motor, show- 
 
 FlG. 48. 
 
 ing its arrangement in the frame and connection to 
 the gears. The armature of the new machine is of 
 the drum type. The core is built up of grooved iron 
 plates, so that the windings are in slots upon its 
 surface, thus completely imbedded in insulating 
 material. The surface of the finished armature is 
 therefore entirely smooth and the clearance space 
 very small. Even should the bearings become worn 
 so that the armature would brush against the pole 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 325 
 
 pieces, no serious damage would be done because no 
 wire is exposed. 
 
 The electrical efficiency of the motor is said to 
 rise to 95 per cent., and the commercial efficiency to 
 75 or 76. Inasmuch as the efficiency of the two- 
 pole motors of various makes with the complicated 
 gear is generally held to be a little over 60 per 
 cent., the abolition of the intermediate gear ought 
 certainly to be good for more than 10 per cent, 
 increase in efficiency. The normal speed of the 
 armature at a car speed of about 10 miles per hour 
 
 FIG. 49. 
 
 is 380 revolutions per minute. The commutator is 
 designed with special reference to obviating the 
 heating that is sometimes so disastrous in street-car 
 motors. Each segment of the commutator has a 
 bearing along its entire lower edge, so that even if 
 there should be any slipping the symmetry of the 
 commutator would not be destroyed. The cross-sec- 
 tion of the armature enables the two brushes, as 
 before mentioned, to be placed 90 degrees apart, 
 and both upon the top of the commutator, where 
 
326 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 they can be readily inspected or replaced if neces- 
 sary. 
 
 Thomson-Houston Slow Speed Motor. The single 
 reduction gear motor, ordinarily called the " S. R. 
 
 G.," seen in Fig. 50, is very nearly iron-clad, having 
 two pole pieces of ample surface and carrying two 
 field coils, which partially surround the armature 
 core. The magnetic circuit is completed on the front 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 327 
 
 end of the motor through the face plate and at the 
 back through the frame on which are cast the axle 
 boxes and arms which serve as a support for the 
 armature shaft bearings. The armature is of the 
 Gramme ring type, and the bobbins are wound close 
 together around the entire rim. One advantage of 
 this construction is the fact that any coil can be 
 easily rewound without disturbing the others, while 
 with the drum armature formerly used the wind- 
 ings all had to be renewed down to the injured coil. 
 The brushes are placed exactly opposite and in a 
 horizontal fixed position. There seems to be no 
 sparking under the ordinary running conditions, 
 and the brushes are easy of access. The field spools 
 are protected on all sides by the fields and frame. 
 The gears are entirely inclosed in a dust and oil- 
 tight case, which is provided with a hand-hole 
 closed by a spring cover, permitting ready exami- 
 nation of gears and the introduction of lubricants. 
 
 A sheet-iron pan extending above the centre of the 
 armature shaft entirely incloses the bottom and sides 
 of the motor and protects the armature and commu- 
 tator from dust, snow, and water. This pan has a 
 sliding bottom, and is attached to the motor in such 
 a manner as to permit of being readily removed for 
 access to the various parts. The motor when 
 mounted on a truck with 30 inch wheels is de- 
 signed to clear the tops of the rails four inches. 
 The spur gear on the armature shaft is of steel, four 
 and one-half inches face, and has 14 teeth. The split 
 gear on the car axle is of cast iron, with the same 
 width of face, and has 67 teeth. The speed of the 
 armature shaft relative to that of the car axle is 
 
328 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 nearly as 4.8 to 1 ; when the car is running ten miles 
 per hour the armature makes 538 revolutions per 
 minute, or the speed of the armature is 53.8 turns 
 per minute when the car speed is one mile per hour. 
 The gears are surrounded by an iron box so that 
 they may be run in oil. 
 
 The facility with which the armature can be re- 
 moved simply by lifting the upper field, the ease 
 with which an armature bobbin can be rewound, 
 less liability to damage from centrifugal action, 
 such as bursting of binding wires, displacement of 
 coils, breaking of commutator connections, all in- 
 sure a minimum amount of expenditure for repairs. 
 
 The accompanying illustrations show very plainly 
 the general appearance and detailed construction of 
 the motor. The advantages claimed by the design- 
 ers have been summarized as follows: Noiseless 
 single reduction gears, protected from dust and run 
 in oil, and noiseless commutator. Electrical and 
 mechanical simplicity attained by use of two-pole 
 type of motor, Slow speed and powerful torque 
 obtained by proper proportions. Protection for 
 fields and armature from dust and water. Accessi- 
 bility to all parts. A ring armature not likely to 
 become damaged, and, if accidentally injured, per- 
 mitting easy repairs. Moderate weight. Reason- 
 able cost. Commercial efficiency. Small mainte- 
 nance expense. 
 
 Thomson-Houston W. P. Motor. The accompany- 
 ing illustrations show a new motor known to the 
 trades as the W. P. motor, which means water 
 proof, because of the particularly complete iron-clad 
 character of the field magnets. 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 
 
 329 
 
 It is a two-pole machine, based on the theory that 
 the comparatively slight gain in weight efficiency 
 that could be obtained with a multipolar type is 
 more than offset by the increased complication of 
 the windings. The only portions of the machine 
 open to the outside air are exposed at the two oval 
 openings at the ends of the armature shaft, and 
 even these can be easily fitted with cover should it 
 be desirable. The whole magnetic circuit is com- 
 
 FIG. 51. THOMSON-HOUSTON W. P. MOTOR. 
 
 posed of two castings bolted together and free to 
 swing apart by a hinge allowing ready access to 
 the armature. Fig. 52 shows the internal arrange- 
 ments. The armature itself is very nearly twenty 
 inches in diameter, a very powerful Pacinotti ring 
 nearly six inches on the face and of about the same 
 depth. It is wound with comparatively coarse wire 
 in sixty-four sections, with fourteen turns to the 
 section. Each coil is tightly placed in the space 
 between two of the protecting teeth, and about the 
 
330 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 interior space the separate coils are closely packed, 
 leaving only sufficient room for the four-armed 
 driving spider. As will be seen, the armature takes 
 up most of the full height of the machine, the pole 
 pieces being but trifling projections and the requis- 
 ite cross section of iron being obtained by extend- 
 ing the poles to form a closely fitting iron box that 
 appears in the exterior view. An unusual feature 
 
 FIG. 52. THOMSON-HOUSTON W. P. RAILWAY MOTOR. 
 
 is the use of but a single magnetizing coil wound 
 not directly about the upper pole piece but on the 
 casing immediately surrounding it. The lower pole 
 is but slightly raised and both pole pieces have the 
 greatest surface permissible with the dimensions of 
 the machine. The use of a single magnetizing coil 
 produces naturally an unbalanced field and a strong 
 upward pull on the armature tending to relieve the 
 pressure on the bearings. The iron-clad form, how- 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 
 
 331 
 
 ever, tends to distribute the lines of force so as to 
 avoid the sparking and change of lead that might 
 otherwise have to be feared. The single field coil is 
 wound with quite coarse wire and its position is 
 
 claimed to insure the maximum magnetic effect 
 from the current. The speed of the motor is about 
 the same as that of the older S. R. G. form, but its 
 general working efficiency is somewhat better, 
 
332 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 owing not so much to a greater maximum of 
 efficiency as to a better working curve at both 
 heavy and light loads. The brush holders are shown 
 in Fig. 53, and the slots in which they fit render 
 their position evident. The brushes are of the ordi- 
 
 nary carbon description and are readily accessible 
 through the opening at the end of the shaft. The 
 gears run in oil. 
 
 Short Motor. In this motor, known as the water- 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 333 
 
 tight, and more familiarly as the W. T., one pinion 
 and one gear have been dispensed with and the re- 
 maining gear is run in oil. The figure gives an idea 
 of the arrangement. It is claimed to be of about the 
 same efficiency as the other types, and is the lightest 
 and smallest of their standard motors. It weighs all 
 told a trifle less than 1,800 pounds, is incased and 
 completely protected by its iron frame and can be 
 operated on 30, 33 or 36 inch wheels, and any gauge 
 of track down to three feet. It is especially recom- 
 mended for narrow gauge roads, for mining and 
 similar purposes. Two sizes are made, 15 and 20 
 h. p. One of the features of these is the facility 
 with which repairing, in cases of necessity, can be 
 carried on. With the geared motors it is not neces- 
 sary to remove the motor and car wheels ; the car 
 can be run over a pit and every part of the motor 
 reached without difficulty. The armature coils may 
 be rewound without removing the armature from 
 the axle, and the field coils can be quite as easily 
 repaired. The commutator may be reached and 
 cared for with ease while the machine is running. 
 The motor field coils and armature are easy of 
 access, and the armature can be removed in case of 
 necessity by two men in eight minutes, its weight 
 being only 198 pounds. In fact, every part of the 
 motor can be removed without taking the machine 
 to pieces. On the Rochester (N. Y.) railway daring 
 eight months the total cost of repairs, including 
 material and repairs to electrical machinery, was 
 but four mills per car mile, and the average loss 
 per car from necessary repairs was but four per 
 cent, of the total car mileage. 
 
334 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 The Edison motor shown in the adjoining figure 
 was illustrated but not described. It will be seen 
 that it is a four pole frame, with only two coils ; it 
 is partially iron-clad. The armature is a Gramme 
 
 ring, presumably with iron projections. It has a 
 single reduction gearing, 
 
 A Swiss Motor and Truck. The truck and motor 
 shown in Figs. 56 and 57, used on the small Swiss road 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 
 
 335 
 
336 RECENT PROORESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 from Sissach to Gelterkinden, described else- 
 where, are of interest as showing the practice in that 
 country. The published description was very 
 meagre, but the cuts will explain themselves. The 
 motor was made by the Oerliko'n Company and is 
 their new standard type, they having abandoned 
 the worm wheel motor, used before. 
 
 The construction of the electric locomotive is 
 shown in Fig. 56. 
 
 The most important feature of the construction is 
 the arrangement of electric motors, which rest 
 directly upon the car axles, a 1 a 2 . Power is trans- 
 mitted to the car axle through a single set of gears. 
 The motor armatures make about 450 to 500 revolu- 
 tions per minute when the train is running at its 
 normal speed. The placing of the armature shaft 
 and car axle in the same vertical plane is claimed 
 to give better results than the arrangement in 
 which the four shafts of the armatures and car 
 wheels are placed in one horizontal plane, since 
 under all conditions of load the same distance is 
 maintained between the centres of the intermediate 
 gear wheels. 
 
 The motors, Fig. 57, are four-pole drum armature 
 machines having a normal output at full capacity 
 of 25 h. p. Each motor has but a single pair of 
 carbon brushes which press against the bronze com- 
 mutator in such a position that the motor man can 
 reach them easily even when the car is in motion. 
 The machine has been so carefully designed that 
 the position of the brushes remains constant under 
 all variations of load. 
 
 Siemens & Halske Motor and Truck. The form 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 
 
 337 
 
 of motor and truck used at present by this firm is 
 shown in the adjoining figures. This firm is the 
 
 largest and oldest electrical manufacturer in Ger- 
 many and it will be remembered that they were the 
 
338 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 pioneer electrical railroad builders. They have 
 furthermore constructed the only large plant of a 
 conduit road running at present in the city of Buda- 
 pest in Hungary. The motor and truck described 
 below are those used on this line. In their trucks 
 there is only one motor of 15 h. p. driving one pair 
 of the four wheels with fixed axles; the wheels 
 have a slight axial motion. There is a double reduc- 
 tion gearing from the armature to the axle ; the 
 first pair is driven by a chain to reduce the noise, 
 the second pair sometimes consists of two gear 
 wheels and sometimes of a chain. Fixed carbon 
 brushes are used. The magnets are of wrought iron 
 and the whole motor and gearing is inclosed in a 
 zinc box. . The second pair of wheels, which are not 
 driven, are connected to the motor frame by means 
 of a flexible coupling, which enables them to turn. 
 Such trucks can readily go over curves of 12 metres 
 (39 feet) radius. The trucks are complete in them- 
 selves, and can readily be secured to the bottom of 
 any car which has previously been used for horse 
 traction. They use 300 volts and state that it takes 
 about 80 amperes to start a car for 24 passengers. 
 
 Henry Motor and Gearing. Nearly all the pres- 
 ent forms of street car motors are centred upon 
 the axle and are free to move through a small arc 
 about its centre. In this form, however, for sim- 
 plicity and strength of construction, fchis method is 
 abandoned for a design which reminds one of the 
 English locomotive designs ; the mechanical differ- 
 ence between this new motor truck and the usual 
 ones is like that between the English and Ameri- 
 can locomotives. The latter, as is well known, was 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 339 
 
340 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 designed for as great a degree of flexibility as the 
 conditions of the problem allow, supported on 
 springs at every point practicable. The English 
 designers, on the other hand, rely on the perfection 
 of the track for freedom from shocks, and make 
 the frame work of the machine as strong and sim- 
 ple as possible. As might be expected the results 
 of the two types are equally good under the two 
 conditions for which they are severally intended. 
 In the Henry motor and truck all spring supports 
 are deliberately avoided, and an attempt is made 
 to reduce the working parts to the smallest number 
 possible, and to support them so firmly that there 
 will be no danger of their getting out of order. 
 
 Only one motor is employed, instead of two, and 
 only one pair of wheels is driven by the gearing, 
 the other being operated by a connecting rod. This 
 construction, which might be objectionable on an 
 old horse car track full of inequalities and continu- 
 ally getting out of line, is said to be excellent when 
 used in connection with proper track construction. 
 The motor itself is rigidly fastened to the steel 
 frame that connects the axles, its ends having bear- 
 ings on three-inch steel axes, parallel with the axles 
 of the wheels. The magnetic circuit has but two 
 joints, and its form is not dissimilar to that which 
 has been employed by Reckenzaun in England. It 
 is very short and the windings are very compact ; 
 it has two consequent poles that embrace a Gramme 
 armature 18 inches in diameter. 
 
 The armature is wound with two layers of No. 7 
 wire divided into 72 armature segments, each con- 
 nected to its appropriate commutator bar. The 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 341 
 
342 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 winding is continuous throughout, loops being 
 taken out at the commutator instead of the wire 
 being cut. The face of the armature is 13 inches 
 wide, and the clearance space is as small as is con- 
 sistent with good mechancial construction. The 
 insulation of the armature wires is exceptionally 
 thick and firm, almost equal in thickness to that on 
 line wire, and the whole is so firmly put in place in 
 case of an armature section burning out it need 
 only be cut off at the commutator, and the machine 
 may then be run until the damage can be repaired. 
 The fields are wound with No. 9 wire, and the four 
 coils arranged for three combinations at the switch- 
 board, all in series, two in series and two in paral- 
 lel, and all in parallel, therefore giving three speeds 
 by this rearrangement. It will be seen that the 
 size of the wire used in this motor is much larger 
 than it has been customary to employ, so far, and 
 the resistance of the machine is therefore very low, 
 so low, in fact, that it would be difficult to employ 
 the machine without danger of excessive starting 
 currents were it not for the clutch device through 
 which it drives the truck. This consists in the 
 well known epicyclic gearing arrangement, 
 capable of running freely when the epicyclic 
 pinion is free to move, and exerting its full power 
 when the pinion is held fast by the clutch 
 lever. The armature therefore can run all the time, 
 or be allowed to give its full speed before any of 
 the load is thrown on ; as soon as the clutch is tight- 
 ened, it can take hold and utilize its momentum in 
 starting the car, thereby avoiding a sudden rush of 
 current that has proved so disastrous to many arm- 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 343 
 
 atures. The epicyclic gear is inclosed in. a tight case 
 and runs in oil, so that the noise is very much 
 diminished, and the wear is much less than with 
 exposed gears. It will be noticed that the armature 
 is geared down but once instead of twice. The re- 
 duction is seven to one instead of twelve to one as 
 in many other trucks. A slight modification will 
 allow the armature to be connected directly with 
 the internal gear after the car is under way, thus 
 allowing very high speeds. A mechanical addition 
 to the motor gear is an automatic brake ; there are 
 two friction wheels, one upon the axle and the 
 other upon the shaft which supports one end of 
 the motor ; the latter is arranged with an eccentric 
 operated by a lever, so that it can be thrown 
 into gear with the friction drum upon the axle when 
 set in motion ; by this means it winds up the brake 
 chain and checks the car. 
 
 A convenient feature of this truck is the fact that 
 the field magnets can be slid sidewise along the two 
 axles which support their ends, and the armature 
 can then be slipped in the opposite direction so as 
 to expose nearly its entire face, thus enabling small 
 repairs to the armature to be executed quite easily 
 without removing it. The present machine weighs 
 little over 2,500 pounds, and is of about 30 h. p., thus 
 replacing in power more than the two motors ordi- 
 narily used. 
 
 Winkler Gearing. In the system shown in the 
 cut a single 20-h. p. motor is employed per car; it is 
 arranged to run loosely until the power is applied to 
 the car by a friction clutch, which allows putting 
 on the load gradually. This reduces the great initial 
 
344 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 current, and utilizes to a great extent the momen- 
 tum cf the armature in overcoming the static fric- 
 tion of the car. Both axles are driven by this single 
 motor, the power being transmitted from the di- 
 rectly driven axle to the other by means of a pair 
 of wire ropes running over pulleys of the peculiar 
 construction shown in the cut. These give a grip 
 on the driving rope that renders slipping less liable. 
 The momentum of the armature is sufficient to start 
 the car from rest even when the current is cut off 
 before throwing on the friction clutch. The arma- 
 
 FIG. 60. WINKLER GEARING. 
 
 ture speed is low enough to permit the use of a sin- 
 gle reduction gear. 
 
 Goss Truck and Gearing. In the accompanying 
 illustration of the Goss truck, the armature shaft 
 runs lengthways of the car, and has two gears of 
 different diameters which mesh into two gears of 
 corresponding different diameters fitted with fric- 
 tion clutches, on a shaft running parallel to the 
 armature shaft, on each end of which are bevel 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 
 
 345 
 
 gears meshing into gears on the axles. On each end 
 of the car is placed a controlling stand with three 
 handles. The upper one controls the speed of the 
 car by a rheostat. The middle one is the reversing 
 
 FIG. fil. Goss GEARING. 
 
 lever, and the lower one connects to the two 
 clutches. By the use of this lower lever the driver 
 has at his command by a single movement an oppor- 
 tunity to obtain either power or speed. On this 
 
346 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 truck with 36-inch wheels, when the lever is 
 thrown to the left a speed of only four miles per 
 hour is obtained, but with great power for use on 
 hills, pulling out cars, etc. Throwing it to the 
 right a speed of 16 miles per hour is obtained. 
 Different speeds can be had for different roads by 
 a change of gears on the armature shaft, etc. In 
 one case the regular car, being partially disabled, 
 was unable to climb the hill six miles from the 
 power station, and called upon this car to push it 
 up, which it did with its load, starting on the hill. 
 The car is especially adapted for very heavy grades 
 and sharp curves. 
 
 Loose Wheel Gearing. In the truck shown in 
 the accompanying illustration, the wheels, 26 inches 
 in diameter, are loose upon the axle, and are fitted 
 inside the hub with the Tripp roller bearing, carried 
 on a 4 1-2 inch journal. Upon the inside of each 
 wheel is bolted a 20-inch gear, fitting into a pinion 
 eight inches in diameter that is keyed to each end 
 of the armature shaft. This applies power to four 
 different points, and gives traction upon all the 
 wheels. The entire weight of the motor is supported 
 by two rigid axles, thus overcoming the fric- 
 tion caused by the motor bearing upon a revolv- 
 ing axle. The truck is interchangeable and will 
 swivel under either an open or a closed car. It will 
 also take any radius of curve without interfering 
 with the car sills. 
 
 Peckham Truck. Fig. G3 shows the radial geared 
 cantilever truck as adapted for the usual styles of 
 motor. Figs. 64 and 65 show the yoke and journal 
 box. The object is to obtain the maximum flexibility 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 
 
 347 
 
348 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 in a four-wheel truck, and to this end the axles are 
 cushioned and are given the advantage of a per- 
 ceptible though small radial flexibility. The side 
 frames are composed of wrought iron and steel bars 
 riveted to yoke pieces of malleable iron so as to 
 form a practically continuous structure. The ex- 
 tensions that support the end springs to prevent 
 swaying of the car body are rendered rigid by a 
 cantilever truss, as shown in the figure. The bend 
 in the side bar is for the purpose of allowing the 
 free removal of the armatures sidewise. One of the 
 most important features is the radial gear intended 
 to give flexibility to the axle connections and to 
 
 FIG. 63. PECKHAM TRUCK. 
 
 provide cushioned supports for the boxes. The 
 malleable iron yokes that support the side frames 
 upon the journal boxes are formed with sockets in 
 the upper sections, into which are inserted rubber 
 cushions, shown at B, Fig. 64 ; the upper section of 
 the spherical bearing (7, Figs. 64 and 65 is constructed 
 of the same size and shape as the apertures in the 
 yoke; the lower sections fit into sockets in the 
 journal boxes, but with a little more play than 
 usual to give increased springiness in the whole 
 structure. The whole weight of the side frames 
 rests upon the rubber cushions inserted between the 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 
 
 349 
 
 yoke and the upper section of the spherical bear- 
 ings. The lower section, E, Figs. 64 and 65, serves 
 simply to steady the boxes, and is carried directly by 
 the repairing piece E in the lower portion of the 
 yoke and held in position by the bolts shown in Fig. 
 65 ; removing these enables the side bars to be com- 
 pletely detached from the boxes. The car body is 
 
 FIG. 
 
 supported on the springs upon the side frames and 
 given additional steadiness by the double plungers 
 bearing in the yokes. 
 
 Fulton Truck. The object in this truck, shown in 
 the accompanying illustration, is to construct it in 
 such a manner that the wheels are always in line 
 
350 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 and run true, preventing the uneven wearing of 
 the wheels, as the truck is rigid. 
 
 The main sills and cross sills are made of wood, 
 which prevents bolts working loose and rattling. A 
 new form of brake is used, which is set on the main 
 sills, so constructed that a direct pull is made on 
 
 FIG. 65. 
 
 each brake shoe, giving the same pressure on each 
 wheel, and when the brake is set its position is 
 always the same relative to the car axles, so that 
 no effect in pulling down or lifting the car body is 
 noticeable. If it becomes necessary to remove the 
 wheels, the car can be jacked up and raised with 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 351 
 
 ~ 
 
352 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 the sub-sill left stationary to the body by removing 
 four bolts on the side of the journal boxes and four 
 others on the side of one of the main sills, and tak- 
 ing the lids off the oil boxes and removing the brass 
 keys, when the whole side of the truck can be 
 pulled off with springs and boxes attached. 
 
 Three Rivers Truck. The special feature embod- 
 ied in this truck, shown in the figure, is the principle 
 of the equalization of strains. A cross equalizing 
 bar is placed across one end of the truck, by means 
 of which a three point suspension of the car body 
 is effected, a double spring being placed in front of 
 and a single spring at the side in rear of the front 
 wheels. Springs are also supported on the bar at 
 each end of the rear axle. The wheels are ground 
 to a perfect equality in circumference, after being 
 pressed upon the axle, thus insuring wheels that 
 will run true with the axle. Self-oiling boxes con- 
 taining simple device holding a strip of wool felt 
 close to the axle require attention only once in two 
 or three months, even when the traffic is heavy. 
 The operating mechanism of the brakes is simple 
 and entirely out of the way of the motor, while 
 the shoe brakes are both flange and tread, and 
 when worn oan be quickly replaced by simply re- 
 moving a key. The entire truck may be lifted from 
 either or both axles by simply removing a bolt 
 under the end of the axle. 
 
GENERATORS, MOTORS AND TRUCKS. 
 
 353 
 
 II, 
 
354 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 ACCESSORIES. 
 
 The following is a collection of abstracts made 
 from some of the more important of the numerous 
 descriptions of accessories published during the past 
 year. Some of them must be looked upon as mere 
 suggestions, while many will no doubt be super- 
 seded by improvements, which their defects will 
 point out. 
 
 Trolley Arms and Trolleys. The accompanying 
 illustration shows a one spring compression trolley ; 
 by a proper adjustment of the set screws in the link 
 any tension that may be desired can be obtained, 
 from 1 to 20 pounds. The spring is inserted in a 
 cylinder or casing so that it cannot get out of 
 place or out of working order. It is light and is 
 easy and convenient to handle. The top of the base 
 stands only seven inches above the top of the car 
 roof and the pole may be drawn down at either end 
 of the car. The wheel is made from the best 
 bronze, provided with hardened bearings and will 
 run from one to two weeks with only one oiling. 
 
 The construction of the "Common Sense" arm 
 will be seen from the adjoining figure. The arm 
 can be used at angles varying from two to fifty 
 degrees on either side of the perpendicular. The 
 advantage of this trolley arm is that, as the pole 
 is bent further away from the perpendicular, or 
 
ACCESSORIES. 
 
 355 
 
 say 40 degrees (the usual working angle), the 
 upward pressure of the arm, instead of growing 
 stronger as in most other trolley carriers, becomes 
 less, thus allowing of working under bridges and 
 other places where the trolley wire is low. 
 In the Lieb trolley, illustrated on page 356, the alu- 
 
 FIG. 68. DUGGAN TROLLEY AND ARM. 
 
 minium wheel which was at first used, being found 
 unsuitable for the purpose, has been replaced by a 
 similar one of other material. In the trolley base the 
 pull on the side springs is applied in such a way as 
 to leave only a very slight resistance to the move- 
 
356 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 ment of the trolley pole and wheel in a lateral 
 direction. It is said that this is the only trolley 
 wheel made in which the spindle revolves with the 
 wheel. The wear due to the friction will be such 
 
 FIG. 69. THE COMMON SENSE THOLLEY ARM. 
 
 that the trolley spindle and the bearing in which it 
 revolves will always have a perfect fit, and the 
 wheel will turn easily upon its centre. It is often 
 the case when the trolley wheel turns upon the 
 spindle that the bearing inside the wheel soon wears 
 into a shape other than circular, causing a very 
 
 FIG. 70. LIEB TROLLEY WHEEL. 
 
 uneven and undesirable motion of the wheel. The 
 spindle is bored out at each end, the cavities thus 
 formed being filled with oiled felt ; three small holes 
 extending from the cavities to the surface of the 
 
ACCESSORIES. 357 
 
 spindle serve to carry the necessary amount of 
 lubrication to the wearing surfaces. Lignum vitse 
 bushings are used, and these can be replaced with- 
 out removing the trolley wheel. The tension 
 brought upon the trolley pole by the~springs of the 
 base is so evenly distributed for the different posi- 
 tions of the pole that it is possible to pass under a 
 
 FIG. 71. -ELECTRICAL SUPPLY Co.'s HANGER. 
 
 bridge only five inches higher than the top of the 
 car. 
 
 Trolley Wire, Hangers, Clamps and Insulators. 
 The Electrical Supply Co. 7 s hanger shown here dis- 
 penses with soldered ears and riveted clips in sus- 
 taining trolley wires. By tightening the bolt at the 
 top of the clamp the wire is firmly clasped, while 
 
358 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 by loosening the bolt the wire is instantly released 
 with great ease. The time and trouble of shifting 
 its position on the trolley wire is so small that it is 
 easy to adjust it to any contracting or slackening 
 of the lines. The hanger is sprung upon the span 
 wire in the ordinary way, the tension of the wire 
 holding it in place. The clamp screws into a plate 
 dovetailed in the vulcanized rubber, incased in the 
 metallic shell. It will be observed the clamps do 
 not quite reach the lower surface of the wire and 
 
 FIG. 72. CLINCH HANGER. 
 
 are trimmed and rounded so that they escape the 
 trolley. 
 
 In the " Clinch" hanger shown here the insulating 
 material is of rubber, similar to that ordinarily 
 used for combs ; the stem and yoke of the insulator 
 are of malleable iron and the pin is made of brass. 
 Whatever strains are brought upon the insulator 
 are entirely those of compression. There are no 
 screw threads either upon the pin or the insulating 
 material. 
 
ACCESSORIES. 
 
 359 
 
 The Pierce hanger is made of malleable iron, of 
 the bell type, and has a cavity in its interior, in 
 which is placed a porcelain insulator of the ordi- 
 nary type. This is held in position by an insulating 
 compound, which is poured around the porcelain 
 while hot, and filling the grooves in the sides of the 
 bell chamber and on the side of the porcelain, holds 
 the latter firmly in position. 
 
 f "T ' S 
 
 L^LJU^r 
 
 FIG. 73. PIERCE HANGER. 
 
 The Creaghead hanger shown in the cuts was 
 described as follows : The superiority of glass as 
 an insulator is recognized by all. The glass insu- 
 lator, screwed on the wood pin, has been used in 
 electrical line work for years, and is recognized as 
 the best practice for line insulation. The wood act- 
 ing as a cushion adapts itself to any condition 
 arising from unequal expansion of the wood and 
 
360 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 glass, thus securing the glass insulator against 
 breakage. As shown in Fig. 74, this hanger con- 
 sists of a grooved glass insulator into which is 
 
 FIG. 74. CREAGHEAD HANGER. 
 
 screwed a wooden plug. The bolt for securing the 
 clamp to the wooden plug, has a round head at the 
 top and a thread at the bottom and is screwed into 
 
 FIG. 75. CREAGHKAD HANGKR. 
 
 the clamp. The yoke shown in Fig. 75 fits loosely in 
 the groove of the insulator, as shown in Fig. 74. The 
 inner curve of the yoke, coming in contact with the 
 
ACCESSORIES. 361 
 
 insulator, is a half circle with a slightly larger 
 radius than that of the smallest circle of the 
 groove. It is necessary to remove the yoke from the 
 insulator about three-quarters of an inch before it 
 becomes disengaged from the groove. The yoke 
 can be put on and taken off of the span wire easily 
 and without tools. All strains on the insulator tend 
 to increase the hold of the yoke and span wire on 
 the insulation. While the attachment of yoke and 
 
 FIG. 76. LIEB HANGER. 
 
 trolley wire is secure, it is at the same time flexible, 
 and will adjust itself to unequal expansion of mate- 
 rials. 
 
 The accompanying illustration, Fig. 76, shows a 
 complete Lieb hanger, and Fig. 77 shows the method 
 of construction. In Fig. 77 the metal socket in which 
 the clip screw fits is part of a ring imbedded in the 
 composition, and the rivet which holds the iron 
 
362 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 hood to the insulator passes through this ring, being 
 separated, however, from it by the insulating com- 
 position. The advantage of this is that it prevents 
 the insulator from dropping the trolley wire, no 
 matter what accident may happen to it. Repeated 
 blows of the trolley can break the composition, and 
 sven make connection between the span wire and 
 the trolley wire, but the trolley wire is always sup- 
 ported by means of the rivet passing through the 
 
 FIG. 77. LIEB HANGER. 
 
 ring, so that there is no danger of the trolley wire 
 falling in the street. The clip has two jaws hinged 
 so as to clasp the trolley wire, and these jaws are 
 forced together by means of a taper point on the 
 screw holding the clip to the insulator, and which 
 forces the jaws on the trolley wire. The clip is ad- 
 justable, and will fit any size of wire, from a num- 
 ber zero to a number four. In attaching, the insu- 
 lator is first screwed to the trolley wire and then 
 
ACCESSORIES. 
 
 363 
 
 snapped in place on the span wire. By this con- 
 struction the jaws of the clamp cannot become acci- 
 dentally loose, since the clamp can be opened only 
 by turning the insulator, which involves discon- 
 necting it from the span wire. 
 In the Robinson hanger shown in the figure the 
 
 FIG. T8. ROBINSON HANGER. 
 
 span wire clamp is of brass and can be made to 
 clasp the span wire with sufficient tightness to pre- 
 vent any slipping or side movement. The globe part 
 is of cast iron, the two halves being separated by 
 about one-half inch of hard rubber extending be- 
 
364 RECENT PROGEESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 yond the edge, and so shaped as to make an um- 
 brella-like watershed. The clamp holding the trol- 
 ley wire is set up by a screw, and leaves the under 
 part of the wire exposed. 
 
 The Gustin clamp is formed in three distinct 
 parts, two sections with opposing lips, one of which 
 is provided with a threaded projection upon which 
 the clamping nut is screwed ; the other with a dog 
 inclosed by the protruding lower rim of the nut. 
 Through the lower portion of these opposing sec- 
 
 FIG. 79. GUSTIN CLAMP. 
 
 tions a groove is formed to contain the trolley wire 
 of any size. The opposite lips are cut at such an 
 angle that they still engage each other when the 
 largest trolley wire is inserted in the groove. The 
 screwing down of the nut upon the threaded projec- 
 tion and over the dog causes the lips to slide one 
 within the other, thus forcing together the lower 
 sections of the clamp upon the wire, preventing all 
 possibility of falling. The movement of the wire 
 from expansion and contraction is provided for in 
 
ACCESSORIES. 
 
 365 
 
 the hinge joint included in the nut. The clamp is 
 independent of the style of insulator used in con- 
 nection with it. 
 
 The McTighe clamp is composed of a single piece 
 of hard rolled sheet copper stamped out in such 
 form that it may be folded up from beneath around 
 the trolley wire, and the folded bends clamped 
 together and supported by any of the usual forms 
 of insulators. The final tightening on the wire is 
 done by means of the key bolt shown in the cut, 
 
 FIG. 80. MCTIGHE CLAMP. 
 
 which, acting on the interlaced portions of the clip, 
 causes the latter to tighten around the wire like a 
 strap. By suitable selection of the size of key, any 
 degree of grip may be obtained, and any of the 
 usual sizes of trolley wire may be used without 
 changing the construction of the clip. One advan- 
 tage lies in the fact that the clips may be attached 
 to the trolley wire and to the line hangers without 
 actually tightening the clips themselves on the trol- 
 ley wire, and this operation may therefore be de- 
 ferred until such times as the entire line is ready for 
 
366 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 drawing in and straightening, and then it is neces- 
 sary only to apply key bolts. After a line has be- 
 come stretched and needs tightening, the hanger 
 
 FIG. 81. STERLING CLAMP. 
 
 permits the key bolts to be withdrawn from any 
 desired section of the line so that the latter may bo 
 adjusted. During this operation there is no possi- 
 
 FIGS. 82 AND 83. STERLING CLAMP. 
 
 bility of the trolley wire falling to the street, and 
 the motor traffic is not obstructed. For curve 
 hangers the suspension bolt is made with a broad 
 
ACCESSORIES. 36? 
 
 downward extension which fits the face of the clip 
 and gives it all necessary lateral support. 
 
 The Sterling clamp is shown in the adjoining fig- 
 ures. Fig. 81 shows the completed hanger. Fig. 82 
 the clasp which passes around the wire and into the 
 edge of a slotted block and Fig. 83 is the support, 
 which is passed through a hole in the slotted block 
 and is screwed into the core of the bell-shaped insu- 
 lator. It will be seen by an examination of these 
 parts that when put together and fastened into the 
 
 FIG. 84. WHEELER CONNECTOR. 
 
 position which is shown in Fig. 81 they cannot be 
 detached from each other. 
 
 The clip for connecting two trolley wires, shown 
 in Fig. 84 explains itself. Both wires are firmly held 
 in place with their ends bent under the clip, by a 
 key that is held in place by a screw. 
 
 In the accompanying illustrations Fig. 86 shows 
 a centre curve insulator made of locust wood 
 with caps of mild steel pressed upon the tapered 
 ends of the wooden centre piece. The eyes 
 
368 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 and caps are in one piece, making the insulator 
 simpler and saving the expense of extra eye bolts. 
 
 Fig. 85 shows a complete pull-off bracket, the body 
 of which is also made of locust wood. After several 
 
ACCESSORIES. 369 
 
 years of experimenting in work, Mr. Lieb has con- 
 cluded that locust wood is the best insulating mate- 
 rial to use for a fixture that is subject to all the 
 abuses of an insulator on a street railway curve. 
 The shrinking or expanding of the wood in dry or 
 wet weather does not affect the insulator, as the 
 wood is larger at the bottom of the caps. When a 
 strain is put on the insulator it acts as an inverted 
 wedge, and the wood inside of the cups is com- 
 pressed, preventing splitting, etc. The more strain 
 is placed upon the insulator the tighter will it be 
 made to fit in the caps. 
 
 FIG. 87. ANDERSON INSULATOR. 
 
 The accompanying figure shows a half sectional 
 view of the Anderson railway bell insulator, made 
 of solid insulating material. Besides possessing high 
 insulating properties this material is claimed to be 
 very strong, tough and durable, and absolutely im- 
 pervious to water and unaffected by atmospheric 
 conditions. 
 
 The Robinson centre curve insulator in the ad- 
 joining figure is chiefly composed of cast iron, the 
 insulation being effected by the introduction of 
 
370 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 hard rubber bushings of ample extent and thickness 
 to prevent leakage. He claims that the chief objec- 
 tion to some of the other styles of curve insulators is 
 the lack of sufficient strength to hold a heavy line, 
 j especially in winter, when the strain of the ice is 
 considerable. 
 
 The accompanying illustration shows the Gould 
 & Watson molded mica insulator for span wires, 
 which possesses the advantages of a span insulator 
 and turn buckle combined. In setting up a span the 
 wire is cut off to length and attached to the eye- 
 bolts, of which one is unscrewed from its case. One 
 
 FIG. 88. ROBINSON INSULATOR. 
 
 end of the span is hung up with the insulator on the 
 other pole. The free end of the span wire, which is 
 attached to the eye bolt, is strained up with a tackle 
 until it will enter the insulator, which can then be 
 turned up with a wrench sufficiently to strain the 
 span wire. The strength of these insulators is said 
 to be sufficient to break a No. 2 B. W. G. span wire 
 without injury to the material, and it is claimed that 
 spans can be wired with this insulator in one-half 
 the time usually taken. 
 
 The features of the Winton insulator are the 
 interlinking hooks inclosed or embedded within the 
 
ACCESSORIES. 371 
 
 insulating material, preferably hard rubber, the 
 hooks being separated from each other by means 
 of a layer of hard rubber secured between them and 
 also covering the whole body portion, the whole 
 being vulcanized together in one piece. Each inter- 
 locking hook is provided with a threaded stud pro- 
 jecting from its extremities, one of which is adapted 
 to receive a clamping ear and the other adapted to 
 receive interchangeable supporting pieces arranged 
 for attachment to a supporting wire or bracket, as 
 the case may be. The principle of the interlinking 
 hooks gives the necessary strength to the body or 
 bell portion, and at the same time it requires only 
 
 FIG. 89. SPAN "WIRE INSULATOR. 
 
 a small amount of a high grade insulating material 
 to make a perfect insulator. For further description 
 accompanied by an illustration see The Electrical 
 World, October 24, 1891, p. 310. 
 
 Cross-Overs and Switches. Among the cross- 
 overs and switches described may be mentioned the 
 following: The accompanying illustration shows 
 an adjustable cross-over which may be adapted to 
 crossings at any angle, and furnishes a smooth 
 passage and unbroken contact for the trolley, 
 whether the trolley wheel be deep or shallow. This 
 is accomplished by making an upper flange or plate 
 
372 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 on each of the four arms, as shown in the cut, ex- 
 tending a short distance out from the centre at 
 
 a slightly greater incline than that of the trolley 
 rib. The trolley rib is then made very shallow and 
 
ACCESSORIES. 
 
 the centre post very small and short, so as to form 
 no obstruction to the shallow wheels, the deeper 
 wheels being provided for by the flange on the 
 wheel coming gradually in contact with the face of 
 the plate on the arm, which, in connection with the 
 centre plate and that on the opposite arm, forms a 
 smooth surface over which the trolley wheel passes. 
 There is thus no arcing or jar in crossing, whatever 
 the depth of the wheel may be, the flange of the 
 deeper wheels merely reaching the plate on the arm 
 sooner than the flanges of the shallower wheels. 
 This is an important feature, as the depths of the 
 wheels are continually varying by wear. 
 
 In many forms of cross-overs one of the wires is 
 so arranged that its contact with the trolley wheel 
 is broken. When the car passes such a crossing the 
 lights will be momentarily extinguished and the 
 current must be cut off from the motors to avoid 
 an undesirable flash between the trolley wheel and 
 wire when the break occurs. In the trolley shown 
 in the accompanying illustration neither line is cut 
 in placing it on the lines. It is a live crossing and 
 cars can be run over it at full speed with the cur- 
 rent turned on or off. The tongue is of steel and 
 very strong, and of a peculiar shape, so that when 
 it falls back it is well drawn up out of the way, and 
 as the trolley wheel strikes it so far from the pin on 
 which it is pivoted it has quite a leverage, and 
 moves very easily. The tongue is brought back by 
 gravity, and works with a positive motion. They 
 are furnished, if necessary, with a sleet proof cap, 
 so that snow and ice cannot interfere with the 
 working of the tongue. An objection to it is that 
 
374 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 on the lower line the trolley can move in only one 
 direction. 
 
 In the inverted switch, shown in the adjoining 
 cut, the trolley wheel advancing on either of the 
 diverging lines Automatically throws the hinged 
 portion of the switch over to the end of that line by 
 an arrangement of the arms, such that the flange of 
 the wheel striking the arm brings the movable por- 
 tion of the switch into the required position. The 
 switch is made of only two pieces, is entirely of 
 metal, and the line passes over its back without the 
 necessity of any cutting whatever. 
 
 Span Wire Tighteners. The following cuts will 
 
 FIG. 92, PIERCK SWITCH. 
 
 explain themselves: They can be fastened in the 
 old way, with bolt, washer and nut, as shown, or 
 by discarding the bolt entirely and passing the 
 span wire through the pole to the rachet fastened 
 at the further side. This latter method would 
 appear to offer decided advantages. 
 
 Brackets. The arm of the Giles bracket, shown 
 in Fig. 95, is made of a steel tube, the truss 
 rods being also of steel. In the construction of 
 the bracket there are no castings except at the ex- 
 treme end, where a malleable casting weighing 
 about three-fourths of a pound is used. The upper 
 
ACCESSORIES. 375 
 
 truss rods pass on either side the pole, thus prevent- 
 ing any swaying motion, while the lower rod pre- 
 
 FIG. 93. SPAN WIRE TIGHTENER. 
 
 vents the bracket from being pressed upward when 
 the trolley wheel passes under it. 
 
 FIG. 94. SPAN WIRE TIGHTENER. 
 
 The Duggan adjustable trolley wire bracket, 
 shown in the cut, is adapted to be adjusted to the 
 
376 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 supporting pole whether the pole be straight or 
 crooked. It commends itself when perfectly straight 
 poles are expensive or hard to obtain. 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 Pullman Car. As seen in the accompanying 
 illustration, this car has two decks, and is designed 
 to double the carrying capacity of street railways, 
 
 FIG. 95. GILES BRACKET. 
 
 FIG. 96. DUGGAN BRACKET. 
 
 as well as adding to the comfort of passengers. It 
 is 32 feet long, 7 feet and 4 inches wide, with a 
 height of 14 feet 9 1-2 inches. A seating capacity 
 for 40 passengers on each deck is provided for, the 
 car body being arranged so that passengers may 
 enter at the centre of either side, spiral stairways 
 leading to the upper deck. Two compartments 
 
ACCESSORIES. 
 
 377 
 
 comprise the lower car body, each 12 feet long, with 
 circular ends, the seats being arranged around the 
 ends and sides. A canopy covers the top. It weighs 
 28,000 pounds and cost $3,500. The car exhibited was 
 operated by the trolley system, Westinghouse 
 motors being used, of 25 horse power. It is 
 equipped with electric chandeliers and electric 
 heaters in each compartment, the finish being in 
 
 FIG. 97. THE PULLMAN CENTRE VESTIBULE CAR. 
 
 mahogany, with a handsomely painted exterior. It 
 rests on two trucks of special design, having double 
 brake attachments and a friction brake. The inte- 
 rior conveniences introduced are electric signal 
 bells for stopping and an electric diagram showing 
 vacant seats. The services of three employes are 
 necessary in its operation. It is thought that it will 
 
378 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 be adopted by roads where traffic is exceedingly 
 heavy, as each car will carry 250 passengers. 
 
 Snow Sweeper. In the McLain track sweeper 
 the various parts are so arranged that the running 
 gear and propelling motors may be utilized for the 
 transportation of passengers during the summer 
 season and for a sweeper in the winter. The main 
 object had in view was to overcome the difficulty 
 due to the defective transmission of the motive 
 power whenever the rotary brushes or track sweep- 
 ers were necessarily raised or lowered in the opera- 
 tion of the machine, and to afford ready and con- 
 venient means for accompliishing this part of the 
 operation. Two 15 h. p. motors are mounted upon a 
 truck of ordinary construction in the usual manner, 
 beins: geared with the axles of the traction wheels 
 and regulated by a rheostat operated from either 
 end of the machine. The platform of the car is 
 rhomboidal in form, so that the two rotary sweep- 
 ers located at each end of the machine and placed 
 obliquely to the track may be raised to a point even 
 with or slightly above the edge of the platform if 
 desired. Upon the platform are secured two 15 h.p. 
 Thomson-Houston motors which operate their re- 
 spective brushes independently, each being regu- 
 lated by a separate rheostat. The axial shafts of 
 these motors are geared with their countershafts in 
 the usual manner, the only change in the form of 
 gearing being in the substitution of sprocket 
 wheels, belted with sprocket wheels on the axles of 
 the sweeping brushes, for the toothed pinion wheel 
 ordinarily gearing with the toothed wheels of the 
 car axles. The sweeping brushes are of steel wire 
 
ACCESSORIES. 379 
 
 formed in four sections, bound together, the sets of 
 steel wire projecting radially at right angles relative 
 to each other. The device for raising and lowering 
 the sweeping brushes consists of two screw- 
 threaded vertical shafts located on each side of the 
 platform, one of which is provided with a hand 
 wheel, and each having a sprocket wheel, about 
 which a sprocket chain passes, so that both of the 
 shafts may be operated simultaneously from one 
 point. 
 
 These horizontal levers being pivoted on a line 
 with the countershaft carrying the driving sprocket 
 wheels permit the raising and lowering of the 
 sweeping brush without in any wise slackening the 
 sprocket chain about the sprocket wheel on the 
 countershaft and the sprocket wheel of the brush, 
 thus always preserving the transmitting chain taut 
 whatever may be the position of the brush. From 
 the centre of the platform a vertical mast rises to 
 which the trolley pole is pivoted, a cluster of lamps 
 being disposed in a circle at its upper end. Two 
 horizontal levers are pivoted on a line with the 
 countershaft carrying the driving sprocket wheel, 
 threaded wrought iron blocks being provided, 
 located under each lever through which the vertical 
 shafts pass. These levers extending forward are 
 bent downwardly over the edge of the platform 
 and constitute the pivots of the brush. For an illus- 
 tration see The Electrical World, January 17, 1891, 
 p. 43. 
 
 Snow Plow. A snow plow of the Eastern Electri- 
 cal Supply Company was illustrated in The Electri- 
 cal World, October 24, 1891, p. 309, and is designed 
 
380 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 with foundations to accommodate any motor system. 
 A V-shaped wooden nose or plow reaching over the 
 track 15 inches is attached to each end, which 
 serves to throw the snow away on each side, while 
 a leveling wing extends out 4 feet, hung fore and 
 aft, and held in place with hooks. These wings 
 are raised with ropes and stand up at the side of 
 the body when not in use. To clean the track of 
 snow and ice four diggers are applied, made of 2 1-2 
 inch square Norway iron, with steel feet, which 
 are operated by levers on the body of the plow, with 
 four grounding brushes. 
 
 Snow Cleaner of the Thomson- Houston Co. Mr. 
 Barr of that company described their new cleaner 
 as follows : " The machine we had last year was a 
 brush of rattan set at an angle of 60 degrees, revolv- 
 ing in front of a frame, and driven by a motor by 
 means of sprocket chains. In a light sugar snow 
 that brush gave good satisfaction ; but in a heavy 
 wet snow the brush would clog, and served rather 
 to pack the snow on the rail and make it solid ; and, 
 therefore, rendered it impossible for the wheel to 
 get traction. The sprocket chain is always a source 
 of trouble and annoyance. The lines were laid 
 down to follow, first, to do away with the rattan 
 broom, and second, to get a positive drive for the 
 cylinder. We have built a broom with steel teeth. 
 It is supported from 36-inch 400-pound wheels, on a 
 '22a' Bemis box. The wheels are driven in the same 
 way as with cars, the motors being placed on the 
 axles. We are using single reduction motors for 
 them. The cylinder is set at an angle of forty-five 
 degrees to the track extending completely across, 
 
ACCESSORIES. 381 
 
 and is hung from a rocker shaft. The motor coun- 
 terbalances the blade of the broom around that 
 shaft, and is geared directly through spur gearing 
 to the flyer. The main feature of the flyer is that it 
 has a series of blades. The best description of it is 
 to refer you to the paddle-wheel of a steamer only 
 of smaller diameter, having the blade cut at the 
 centre, to allow the spur gearing for the drivings. 
 These blades are of steel plate, about a quarter of 
 an inch thick, and there are eight of them on each 
 flyer. To the back of the blades are bolted steel 
 brushes, the brushes being made of flat steel wire, 
 cutting edgeways. These brushes are adjustable, 
 and ordinarily their surfaces project from five- 
 eights to one and one-half inches beyond the blade. 
 The blade does the major part of the work. It 
 breaks the heavy snow, and will actually cut ice. 
 The steel brush does the rest of the work. It sweeps 
 the road clean, and if allowed to remain long 
 enough in one place, will cut the ice as well. The 
 motor driving the broom or brush is independent of 
 the motors driving the car, so that the sweeper can 
 be propelled in a light snow at a speed sufficient to 
 keep it ahead of any of the cars on the line. If 
 heavy snow or ice should be encountered on the 
 track, the sweeper can be slowed down, the brush 
 steel keeping its normal speed. By doing this, these 
 brushes, made of steel or wire, will actually cut the 
 ice clean down to the rail. The whole thing is very 
 novel, but it has done good work. We have experi- 
 mented some with a new machine, somewhat 
 different from the old-one. Where the latter only 
 had four blades the new one has eight; the old 
 
382 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 one was set at 60 degrees angle, the new one at 45; 
 in the old we used the sprocket chain, in the pres- 
 
 FIG. 98. HARRINGTON CUT-OUT. 
 
 ent the spur gearing. We had a 10-h. p. motor but 
 now have a 25. In the old one the blade made 80 
 
ACCESSORIES. 383 
 
 turns a minute, in the new one it will run up to 150 
 turns a minute." 
 
 Magnetic Cut-Out. As a simple fuse is not to be 
 relied on in all cases, the device shown here is made 
 by combining a magnet with a fuse. A properly 
 proportioned magnet is placed in shunt with a fuse 
 which can carry but a small part of the maximum 
 safe current. The resistance of the magnet being 
 low, the fuse is practically shunted out until the 
 current through the magnet becomes too great. 
 Then the armature is drawn up, and the whole cur- 
 rent is sent through the small fuse, which is sure to 
 blow. A spring catch holds the armature until the 
 fuse is replaced, which can be quickly done without 
 the use of any tools. The magnet is protected from 
 the molten metal by a thick sheet of asbestos. 
 
 Car Lightning Arrester. The one shown in the 
 accompanying illustration, consists of two air 
 chambers, having vents through which a curved 
 carbon, hinged at its centre of curvature can freely 
 pass. The carbon point in the chamber should be 
 set so that it is separated from the curved carbon 
 when in its normal position by one-sixteenth of an 
 inch. The distance between, the two carbons 
 should likewise be one-sixteenth of an inch when 
 the curved carbon is in the other chamber. 
 A lead fuse, and an insulating block, with a slot 
 through which the lead fuse is passed, are provided. 
 Connections to the motor and trolley are made as 
 shown in the figure. The action of the arrester is 
 as follows : When a discharge takes place it passes 
 through the lead fuse to one of the carbons, then 
 across the air space to the curved carbon and from 
 
384 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 there to the ground, as shown in the figure. The 
 dynamo current then following causes an arc to be 
 established between the carbons. The heat gen- 
 erated by this arc expands the air in the chamber, 
 increasing the air pressure, and causes the curved 
 carbon to be instantly blown from one chamber to 
 the other. This ruptures the arc and adjusts the 
 arrester for the next discharge. In the reported 
 tests upon this arrester, 500-volt and 1,000-volt gen- 
 
 FIG. 99. WESTINGHOUSE CAR LIGHTNING ARRESTER. 
 
 erators have been repeatedly short-circuited through 
 it. In every case the circuit has been instantly 
 broken without injury to the dynamo, and the 
 arrester has as quickly set itself in readiness for 
 future use. In one of the tests made to demonstrate 
 its promptness and reliability, the carbons in the 
 chambers were so adjusted as to touch the curved 
 carbon in either of its two normal positions. A 1,000- 
 volt generator was then short-circuited through the 
 arrester, which resulted in the circuit being sev- 
 
ACCESSORIES. 
 
 385 
 
 eral times automatically 
 opened and closed in one 
 second without injury 
 to either dynamo or ar- 
 rester. 
 
 Safety Devices for 
 Electric Wires. T h e 
 Electric Wire Safety 
 Attachment Company's 
 safety device shown in 
 the adjoining cut has 
 for its object the ren- 
 dering harmless of a 
 broken line wire. The 
 plate to which the end 
 of the wire is attached 
 is inserted in the slide 
 at the end of the wire 
 projecting from the tie 
 or supporting wire, 
 which is slotted to re- 
 ceive it, thus forming 
 the connection and hold- 
 ing it in position unless 
 the wire should break. 
 In this case the springs 
 would draw this plate 
 out and away from the 
 other, allowing the trol- 
 ley wire to drop down, 
 thus breaking the con- 
 nection and rendering 
 the broken wire per- 
 
386 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 fectly harmless until it could be repaired. An ad- 
 vantage claimed is the facility of attachment, as 
 the springs may be put in place and removed if 
 necessary without interfering in any way with the 
 line. 
 
 Sand Distributor. The trouble which has been 
 experienced in the ordinary forms of distributors 
 is the clogging of the sand in the narrow neck of 
 
 FIG. 101. BATES SAND DISTRIBUTOR. 
 
 the containing bag. To overcome this, a corrugated 
 metallic ribbon is in the form shown made to ex- 
 tend from the opening, up through the sand, the 
 slightest jar being sufficient to keep the sand from 
 becoming fast in the neck. 
 
 Speed Recorder. The principal parts of this in- 
 strument are a rotary pump, a cylinder and piston. 
 Oil is used as a circulating medium, the pump 
 
ACCESSORIES. 
 
 387 
 
 chambers and cylinders being entirely filled. While 
 the machine is at rest, the piston, to which the 
 gauge-wire and pencil are attached, is retained in 
 its lowest position by two coil springs ; but when 
 given motion the pump produces a pressure of oil 
 beneath the piston, causing it to rise to a position 
 where an equilibrium is established between the 
 
 FIG. 102. -BOYKR RAILWAY SPEED RECORDER. 
 
 pressure of oil and the tension of the springs ; this 
 point is determined by the speed at which the pump 
 is moved, each thirty-second of an inch rise of the 
 piston indicating a speed of one mile per hour. 
 Moving around a drum in the upper part of the 
 machine at the rate of one-half inch to the mile is a 
 ribbon of paper, having horizontal and perpendicu- 
 
388 RECENT PROGRESS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
 
 lar lines, each horizontal line from the base repre- 
 senting five miles per hour, and each perpendicular 
 line a mile traveled by the car. If the car is moving 
 at the rate of 20 miles per hour, the pencil will trace 
 its mark on the fourth line from the base, and for 
 every mile traveled the paper will move under the 
 pencil one-half inch, or the exact distance from one 
 perpendicular line to another. By examining the 
 chart the exact speed at which the car passes any 
 point on the road, the number and location of stops, 
 
 FIG. 103. DUGGAN'S RAIL CHAIR. 
 
 the distance, speed and location of any backward 
 movement that may have been made, can be deter- 
 mined at a glance. A gauge is provided, the needle 
 of which indicates the speed at any given time. The 
 pencil is a brass wire, and when in good condition 
 makes a distinct line on the prepared surface of the 
 paper. It is held by friction and is forced against 
 the Daper on which the record is made by a spring 
 within the holder. 
 
ACCESSORIES. 389 
 
 Rail Chair. In the railway chair, shown in the 
 illustration, there are no bolts, rivets or wedges 
 used. Paving blocks may be laid close to the rail, 
 and the rail may be removed at any time without 
 drawing the spikes or changing the position of the 
 chair. 
 
 Connector for Street Car Lighting Circuits. In 
 the accompanying illustration of the Armstrong 
 connector for the lighting circuits of motor and 
 town cars on electric railways, the two parts are 
 
 FIG. 104. CONNECTOR FOR STREET CAR LIGHTING CIRCUITS. 
 
 interchangeable, and the projecting metal tips are 
 in circuit only when the two parts are slipped 
 together ; when the parts are separated these ends 
 are dead and may be handled with safety, even in 
 wet weather. The end of each conducting cord is 
 soldered into a brass tube, and a knot in the cord 
 takes the strain off this joint. The contact surfaces 
 are large, and a stiff spring insures a quick make 
 and break. The insulating bushings, as well as the 
 shell, are made of hard rubber. The whole connec- 
 tor is not much larger than the illustration. 
 
IF YOU WISH TO KNOW 
 
 The latest and best work or works on the principles and 
 theory of Electricity, or relating to any particular ap- 
 plication of Electricity, The Electrical World will be 
 pleased to promptly furnish the information, personally 
 or by letter, free of charge. If you live in or near New 
 York, and would like to examine any electrical books, 
 you are cordially invited to visit the office of The 
 Electrical World and look them over at your leisure. 
 
 Making a specialty of Electrical Books, there is no 
 work relating directly or indirectly to Electricity that 
 is not either published or for sale by The Johnston 
 Company, and the manager of the Book Department 
 keeps himself at all times familiar with the contents of 
 every work issued on this subject at home and abroad. 
 
 Any Electrical Book in this catalogue, or any elec- 
 trical book published, American or foreign, will be 
 promptly mailed to ANY ADDRESS in the world, 
 POSTAGE PREPAID, on receipt of the price. Ad- 
 dress and make drafts, P. O. orders, etc., payable to 
 
 THE I. J, JOHNSTON COMPOY, La. 
 
 TIMES BUILDING, NEW YORK. 
 
SECOND EDITION. 
 
 Revised. Enlarged. Entirely Rewritten. 
 
 HOUSTON'S DICTIIIIIT 
 
 OP 
 
 Electrical Words, Terms and Phrases. 
 
 562 Pages. 570 Illustrations. Price, $5.00. 
 
 The plan of the Dictionary is such as to bring 
 it within the range of the entire community. 
 
 To electricians and electrical engineers, and 
 to the superintendents and others at the head 
 of the great electrical industries of the country, 
 it ought to prove literally worth its weight in 
 gold as a handy book of ready reference. 
 
 To the editor or journalist; to the intelligent 
 reader of scientific periodicals, as well as of 
 the newspapers and magazines; to the school 
 teacher, the college professor, the lawyer, the 
 doctor, the professional man generally, it will 
 be a place where he can satisfactorily find the 
 proper meaning of electrical terms. 
 
 To students of general electricity the book 
 will be necessary as supplying what no other 
 dictionary in the English language has hither- 
 to attempted to define. To students in col- 
 leges or schools it will be indispensable as a 
 labor saver, enabling them to find in concise 
 
form the general heads under which electrical 
 terms are arranged. 
 
 To manufacturers, contractors, engineers ; 
 to the army of electrical linemen, operatives 
 in electrical manufactories, runners of dyna- 
 mos, drivers of motors and electrical tram- 
 ways, and to the hosts connected with tele- 
 phony and telegraphy, both as operators and 
 in construction work, to the numerous manu- 
 facturers and constructors of hotel annuncia- 
 tors, burglar alarms, electro-plating devices 
 and the like, the book, we feel confident, will 
 prove invaluable as enabling them to find ex- 
 pressed in plain and simple language the exact 
 meaning of the terms they so frequently em- 
 ploy and how they should be used. 
 
 And last, but not least, in this Electrical Age 
 the Dictionary is positively an actual necessity 
 to the general public, to enable them intelli- 
 gently to use their mother tongue, which is 
 now becoming thoroughly imbued with elec- 
 trical words, terms and phrases, with which 
 they constantly come in contact in conversa- 
 tion respecting the lighting of their streets, 
 houses and factories, the driving of their 
 system of cars, the operation of telephone and 
 telegraph lines, the protection of their houses 
 by burglar alarms, the regulation of house 
 temperature by thermostats, the adornment of 
 their homes by electro-metallurgical process 
 and the many other of hundreds of ways in 
 which electricity has been made useful to man. 
 
Some idea of the scope of the work and of 
 the immense amount of labor involved in it 
 may be formed when it is stated that the dic- 
 tionary includes upward of 5,000 distinct 
 words, terms or phrases. Each of the great 
 classes or divisions of electrical investigation or 
 utilization comes under careful and exhaustive 
 treatment, and while close attention is given 
 to the more settled and hackneyed phraseology 
 of the older branches of work, the newer words 
 and the novel departments they belong to are 
 not less thoroughly handled. Every source of 
 information has been referred to, and while 
 libraries have been ransacked, the note-book of 
 the laboratory and the catalogue of the ware- 
 room have not been forgotten or neglected. So 
 far has the work been carried in respect to the 
 policy of inclusion, that the book has been 
 brought down to date by means of an appendix, 
 in which are placed the very newest words, as 
 well as many whose rareness of use had con- 
 signed them to obscurity and oblivion. 
 
 The scheme of treatment is as follows : 
 
 1st. The words, terms, and phrases are in- 
 variably followed by a short, concise definition, 
 giving the sense in which they are correctly 
 employed. 
 
 3d. A general statement then follows of the 
 principles of electrical science on which the 
 definition is founded. 
 
 8d. When, from the complexity of the ap- 
 paratus, or from other considerations, it has 
 been thought desirable to do so, an illustration 
 or diagram of the apparatus is given. 
 
4th. To facilitate study, an elaborate system 
 of cross references has been adopted, so that it 
 is as easy to find the definitions, as the words, 
 and aliases are readily detected and traced. 
 
 In applying these rules great care has been 
 exercised to secure clearness, to the end that 
 while the definitions and explanations shall be. 
 satisfactory to the expert electrician, they shall 
 also be simple and intelligible to those who have 
 had no training at all in electricity or are no- 
 vices in the art. This is work of some dif- 
 ficulty, but Professor Houston has successfully 
 achieved his purpose. No one will regret the 
 detail into which he goes, but, on the contrary, 
 in view of the fact that so many of his defini- 
 tions are new, and are not to be found else- 
 where, in any form, every one will be glad that 
 the latest terms in vogue in the most recent ap- 
 plications come in for elaborate, yet " popular,' 1 
 treatment 
 
 The dictionary is a handsome book. The 
 typography is excellent, being large and bold, 
 and so arranged that each word catches tb< 
 eye at once by standing out in sharp relief 
 from the page. The volume is convenient in 
 size, and the binding and paper are perfect. 
 In a word, the mechanical production of the 
 book has been given special attention, and no 
 cost has been spared ; but it is placed within 
 the means of all who have an interest in a 
 great, new and fascinating department of 
 modern knowledge and discovery. 
 
What is Said of the Dictionary, 
 
 The generally-recognized necessity that has 
 existed for a book defining electrical terms is 
 clearly shown by the great sale the Dictionary 
 has enjoyed from the very first, and which it 
 still continues to enjoy, while the enthusiastic 
 words of praise regarding it from purchasers 
 and from newspapers and scientific journals of 
 every class, from one end of the country to the 
 other, and the unanimity with which ther 
 recommend it, demonstrate beyond peradven- 
 ture how satisfactory the work proves on ex- 
 amination and, therefore, its great value to all 
 in any way interested and who, nowadays, is 
 not? in electrical progress and development. 
 
 The following opinions, selected almost at 
 random from among hundreds received, will 
 give an idea of the views expressed : 
 
 It is just what I need; it fills the bill. 
 
 J. H. HARDING, La Porte, Ind. 
 Invaluable to those interested in electricity. 
 
 A. C. TERRY, Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 It is an excellent work and very complete, and one 
 that ought to be in every library. 
 
 E. W. KITTREDGE, Minneapolis, Minn. 
 Interesting and instructive even to those only re- 
 motely interested in electrical subjects. 
 
 GEO. B. PRESCOTT, JR., New York. 
 Houston's Dictionary is the most valuable of any 
 single book belonging to the literature of electricity. 
 L. R. CURTISS, Mendota, 111. 
 
Fills a very large gap that previously existed in 
 electrical literature. A . E. KENNELLY, 
 
 Edison Laboratory. 
 
 Involved a vast amount of labor, and the work has 
 been well done. It ought to be of much use to a very 
 large class of men engaged in electrical pursuits. 
 
 H. S. CARHART, Prof, of Physics, Univ. of Mich. 
 
 The first impression is one of satisfaction, and this 
 grows with further examination. .Must prove valu- 
 able both to the professional man and the general 
 reader. GEORGE A. HAMILTON, New York. 
 
 The book is one that every man engaged in elec- 
 trical work should have on his desk or in his library. 
 I cannot speak too highly of it, and shall certainly 
 recommend it among my friends. 
 
 JOHN INGALLS CARMICHAEL, E. E., *' 
 Bridgeport, Conn. 
 
 I desire to congratulate you upon the publication of 
 an Electrical Dictionary. A reference book of this 
 kind is of great importance, and your Dictionary is 
 one of the most valuable contributions to electrical 
 literature. The work shows that great care has been 
 bestowed upon it. It is accurate, and must be of the 
 greatest value to every one interested in electrical 
 matters, particularly to the student of electricity. 
 S. S. WHEELER, Expert, Board of Elec. Control, N. Y. 
 
 It is not simply a classification of subjects and 
 terms culled from other sources in a haphazard 
 manner, but the entire work bears throughout the 
 impress of rare judgment, discernment and high 
 scientific intelligence, and the latest developments of 
 electrical science are briefly and admirably presented, 
 It is multum in parvo, and will prove an invaluable 
 reference book to both students and professionals. 
 
 F. W. JONES, General Manager and Electrician the 
 Postal Telegraph and Cable Co., New York. 
 
Press Opinions, 
 
 The following are only a few of the many 
 nattering notices of the Dictionary that have 
 appeared, but they are fair samples : 
 
 Engineering News. 
 A valuable and convenient work of reference. 
 
 London Electrical Review. 
 
 The name of the author is a sufficient guarantee of 
 the excellence of the work. 
 
 Light, Heat and Power. 
 
 Professor Houston, being an electrician of promi- 
 nence, is peculiarly well fitted for his task. 
 
 Practical Electricity. 
 
 By far the most useful book ever printed on this 
 continent for the benefit of electrical students. 
 
 Age of Steel. 
 
 In view of the wonderful expansion of the electri- 
 cal industry, this new work is almost indispensable. 
 
 San Francisco Chronicle. 
 
 Virtually a condensed encyclopedia. It fills a new 
 field, and may be Warmly commended for its fullness, 
 accuracy and good arrangement for ready reference. 
 
 Indianapolis Journal. 
 
 The book contains all the technical terms and 
 phrases now used by electrical scientists and invent- 
 ors, with definitions and applications. It might be 
 called an electrical cyclopedia. 
 
 Philadelphia Times. 
 
 In this age of common and almost universal use of 
 electricity, a dictionary of electrical terminology be- 
 comes a necessity. Professor Houston's work is very 
 carefully prepared, and it will be found useful both 
 by electricians and the general public. 
 
FIRST BOOK ON ELEOTEIO RAILWAYS. 
 
 THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY 
 
 IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 
 
 By O. T. CROSBT and Dr. Louis BELL. 
 
 This timely book, just issued, treats all 
 departments of the Electric Railway of the 
 present day as comprehensively as is practi- 
 cable in a volume of reasonable size. 
 
 The illustrations have been prepared espec- 
 ially for it, and many of them will prove 
 entirely new to the electrical public. 
 
 The intent of the work is to place before all 
 who are interested in the subject of electrical 
 traction whether electrically, financially, or 
 simply in a general way an explanation of the 
 general principles and methods which have led 
 to the model electric railway, and the latest 
 information as to the methods that have proved 
 and are proving successful in practice. At the 
 beginning the rudiments of general electrical 
 theory are explained in a manner as simple as 
 possible, and the reader is led on to the com- 
 prehension of the principles that underlie the 
 design, construction and operation of the elec- 
 .tric motor, especially the form which is used 
 for the propulsion of street cars. Having con- 
 sidered the motor in general, the next topic to 
 engage the reader's attention is the ultimate 
 
source of the power which is utilized in the 
 motor ; in other words, the mechanism by 
 which the operating machinery is driven 
 engines, water-wheels, and the like. 
 ^Having thus obtained a general view both of 
 the electrical transmission of energy and the 
 generation of mechanical energy from natural 
 sources, the treatise goes on to take up more in 
 detail the principles of electric railroading. 
 
 Then the subject of street car motors proper, 
 considered both electrically and in their relation 
 to the mechanical problems that have to be met, 
 is taken up at considerable length, and a series 
 of working instructions is given for the proper 
 care of such apparatus. The line that furnishes 
 power to the moving motors is the next subject 
 for consideration, and the principles of the 
 electrical transmission of energy so far as the 
 working conductors are concerned are fully 
 set forth, together with various details of the 
 applications of these principles to every-day 
 electric roads and suggestions for their proper 
 equipment. Here, too, properly should be 
 mentioned a complete set of rules for the erec- 
 tion of overhead lines, fully illustrated with 
 diagrams and cuts of the apparatus. Following 
 this the design, arrangement and proportioning 
 of power stations to fulfill any required con- 
 ditions is taken up, and in connection with this 
 a considerable amount of instruction is given 
 concerning the practical operation of the 
 dynamo, particularly with reference to the 
 accidents that are likely to befall it and the 
 ways of remedying them. 
 
 The general consideration of the subject is 
 
then completed by an exhaustive chapter on 
 the efficiency of electric traction, both with 
 reference to what has already been accomplished 
 and to the lines of possible improvement for the 
 future. Next in order come chapters treating 
 of the use of the storage battery in connection 
 with electric traction as a separate problem, the 
 underground conduit and its various modifi- 
 cations, together with telpherage and similar 
 unfamiliar applications of electricity. 
 
 Chapter X, is one that should be especially 
 commended to all who are interested in engineer- 
 ing problems having for their objective point 
 the facilitating of rapid transit. It is a dis- 
 cussion as exhaustive as the state of the art 
 permits on the application of the electric motor 
 to regular railroad work, substituting for the 
 ordinary locomotive a simpler, more efficient, 
 and more manageable apparatus in the electric 
 motor. Following this is a chapter which 
 should be very useful to those who are operating 
 or intend to operate electric railroads. It is a 
 treatment of the commercial side of the prob- 
 lem, cost of installation and operation, the 
 probabilities of a paying traffic, and the 
 financial aspect of the question generally. 
 
 Finally, the volume closes with a brief resume 
 of the history of electric traction from the 
 invention of the electric motor up to the period 
 of development in which we are living to-day. 
 
PRESS COMMENTS ON 
 
 In Theory and Practice. 
 
 Street Railway Journal. 
 
 We are often asked by our readers for some work from 
 which they can learn the cost and details of construction 
 and operation of electric street railways. We take pleasure 
 in referring them to " The Electric Railway in Theory and 
 Practice," by O. T. Crosby and Dr. Louis Bell. No one 
 interested in the operation of an electric line, and no one 
 who contemplates adopting this method of traction can 
 afford to be without this work. 
 
 Electrical Engineer. 
 
 This work, we have no hesitation in saying, is the most 
 valuable, on the lines which the authors have taken up 
 which has thus far appeared. We can go further and eay 
 that every electric railway engineer and street railway 
 manager will find in it many suggestions which may lead 
 to increased economy in the operation of a road, while to 
 the student the practical discussion of the principles 
 involved will be of the utmost interest. 
 
 Electric Power. 
 
 The opening chapter on " General Electric Theory " is 
 especially valuable to the street railway manager who 
 wishes to gain some knowledge of " how the wheels go 
 round " without taking a full course of electrical engineer- 
 ing. It is brief and simple yet comprehensive. A similar 
 chapter on "Prime Movers" is equally valuable in its 
 explanation of the merits of the leading types of steam 
 engines and water wheels. * * * We conscientiously 
 recommend the work as one of the highest grade. Nor 
 should the mechanical make-up of the book be overlooked. 
 The cuts are especially clear and were made to fit the book, 
 rather than suiting the book to the cuts, as is sometimes 
 the case in such publications. In every respect the book is 
 alike creditable to authors and publishers, and its advent 
 may be considered as adding much to the prestige of the 
 electric railway as it is to-day. 
 
Street Railway News. 
 
 The work presents both the elementary theory of elec- 
 trical trrdion and the general features of the best practice, 
 describing in detail particular methods and forms of car 
 machinery only so far as they are of importance in illus- 
 trating the broader principles on which they depend * * * 
 The electric railroad at the present time is attracting more 
 attention than any other branch of the electrical industry, 
 and this book appears at a time when all the information 
 possible on the subject is being sought after. 
 
 Scientific American. 
 
 With nearly 150 illustrations this book is a very good 
 contribution to one of the most important branches of 
 electrical engineering. What the railroad of the future 
 will be,and what part electricity will play in its development 
 is altogether conjectural. This book tells what the aspect 
 of the subject is to-day. The subjects of prime motors, 
 electric motors, and car equipments, the line track and 
 station economy, storage battery traction, high speed 
 service, and commercial considerations are typical subjects. 
 In the five appendices considerable useful information is 
 given, notably a section on lightning protection, by 
 Professor Elihu Thomson. 
 
 Street Railway Gazette. 
 
 Every now and then there appears among the literature 
 of every industry some work that can be considered a 
 standard. Only once, however, comes a work that can be 
 called the standard on the subject treated. Of such a nature 
 is the work of Oscar T. Crosby and Dr. Louis Bell, entitled 
 "The Electric Railway in Theory and Practice," published 
 by the W. J. Johnston Company, Limited, Times Building, 
 New York. * * * The thorough scientific knowledge 
 of Dr. Bell is very happily blended with Mr. Crosby's 
 equally thorough practical knowledge of the same subject. 
 It is highly scientific without being scientific, that is, it is 
 perfect science treated in a way to be clearly understood 
 without further and more painstaking study. 
 
 Railroad Gazette. 
 
 This eminently practical treatise on the methods of 
 operation and construction of electric railroads and their 
 equipment is a real addition to the literature of the subject. 
 
No other work gives much that is of practical use to the 
 operating officers and the mechanics of such railroads. 
 
 The chapter on motors and equipment contains general 
 instructions as to the care of motors and their operation 
 which are well prepared and are a valuable addition to the 
 work. Anyone reading this chapter can, from it, become 
 comparatively well informed upon the purpose and con- 
 struction of the mechanism which has directly to do with 
 the starting and stopping of cars. 
 
 The cuts showing the characteristics of the winding 
 on the different kinds of dynamos and motors are excep- 
 tionally explicit, and the meaning of the words "series" 
 and " multiple," BO confusing to the layman, are explained 
 in such a simple way, on page 15, that no one could fail to 
 understand them. There are some general deductions 
 about electricity which have been drawn from complex 
 experiments that are so complex when expressed in words 
 that it is next to impossible for the beginner to understand 
 them, yet in this work they are clearly shown by diagrams 
 and curves, and so well lettered and arranged that they are 
 easily comprehended. This is particularly true of the 
 varying efficiences of motors under different conditions 
 with different amounts of current and running at different 
 speeds. So, too, with the magnetic properties of various 
 kinds of iron and steel. The diagram for this last shows 
 forcibly the great value of soft annealed irons for the field 
 magnets and armatures of electric motors of light weight. 
 
 The part of this work which is of most direct interest 
 to the capitalist and the investor in street railroad stocks 
 is that on the efficiency of electric traction. Diagrams are 
 given showing the efficiency of the dynamo itself under a 
 varying load, of the plant as a whole, and of motors com- 
 bined with the plant. 
 
 "THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY" or any 
 other Electrical or Street Railway Book pub- 
 lished, will be mailed to any address in the 
 world, postage prepaid, on receipt of price. 
 Address 
 
 THE W. J. JOHNSTON COMPANY, LTD., 
 
 Times Building, New York. 
 
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 
 
 A Series of Advanced Primers, 
 
 By Prof. EDWIN J. HOUSTON, 
 
 AUTHOR OF 
 
 "A Dictionary of Electrical Words, Terms and Phrases." 
 Cloth. 225 pages, 128 illustrations. Price, $1.00. 
 
 Prof. Houston's Primers of Electricity written in 
 1884 enjoyed a wide circulation, not only in the United 
 States, but in Europe, and for some time have been out 
 of print. Owing to the great progress in electricity since 
 that date the author has been led to prepare an entirely 
 new series of primers, but of a more advanced charac- 
 ter in consonance with the advanced general knowl- 
 edge of electricity. 
 
 Electricians will find these primers of marked inter- 
 est from their lucid explanations of principles, and the 
 general public will in them find an easily read and 
 agreeable introduction to a fascinating subject. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 I. Effects of Electric Charge. II. Insulators and 
 Conductors. III. Effects of an Electric Discharge. 
 IV. Electric Sources. V. Electro-receptive Devices. 
 VI Electric Current. VII. Electric Units. VIII. 
 Electric Work and Power. IX. Varieties of Elec- 
 tric Circuits. X. Magnetism. XL Magnetic Induc- 
 tion. XII. Theories of Magnetism. XIII. Phenom- 
 ena of the Earth's Magnetism. XIV, Electro-Mag- 
 nets. XV- Electrostatic Induction. XVI. Frictional 
 and Influence Machines. XVII. Atmospheric Elec- 
 tricity. XVIII. Voltaic Cells. XIX. Review, Prim- 
 er of Primers. 
 
 PUBLISHED AND FOR SALE BY 
 
 THE W. J. JOHNSTON COMPANY, Ltd., 
 
 TIDIES BUILDING, NEW YORK. 
 
THE ELECTRIC MOTOR 
 
 AND ITS APPLICATIONS. 
 
 By T. C. Martin and Joseph Wetzler, with an 
 
 appendix bringing the book down to 
 
 date by Dr, Louis Bell. 
 
 This timely work is the first American Book on 
 Electric Motors, and the only book in any lan- 
 guage dealing exclusively and fully with the 
 modern Electric Motor in all its various practical 
 applications. The book is a handsome quarto, 
 the page being of the same size as Dredge's large 
 work on "Electric Illumination," and many of 
 the cuts are full page. 
 
 No effort has been spared to make the book 
 complete to date, and it will prove invaluable to 
 every one interested in the progress and develop- 
 ment of the Electric Motor or the Electrical 
 Transmission of Energy 
 
 Copies of the above, or of any electrical book published, will 
 be sent by mail, POST A GE PREPAID, to any address in 
 the world, on receipt of price. Address 
 
 THE W. J. JOHNSTON CO., Ld. 
 Times Building, NEW TORE. 
 
AN IMPORTANT NEW BOOK. 
 
 ALTERNATING CURRENTS 
 
 TREATED ANALYTICALLY AND ALSO 
 TREATED GRAPHICALLY. 
 
 BY 
 
 FP^EDEPJCI^ BEDEIiIi, Ph.D., and 
 R. C. Ct^EfiO^E, Ph.D., (Cornell Univ.) 
 
 Uniform with "the Electric Railway" by Crosby and Bell. 
 
 Cloth. 250 pages and 112 illustrations. Price, $2.60. 
 
 While there are many monographs and special treatises on 
 alternating currents, they are either fragmentary or special in 
 character, or couched in mathematical language requiring a 
 special mathematical education to interpret. 
 
 In this volume the theory of alternating currents is, for the 
 first time, treated in a connected and logical manner, and in 
 mathematical language familiar to the ordinary mathematical 
 public, while the graphical extension can be followed by those 
 not having a special knowledge of mathematics. 
 
 Some parts of this volume have been published in separate 
 papers, and from the cordial welcome they received, it is be- 
 lieved that the present work will fill a distinct want in an im- 
 portant branch of electrical science. 
 
 Copies of BEDELL AND CREHORE'S ALTERNATING CURRENTS, or o* 
 any other electrical books published, will be promptly mailed to 
 any address in the world, POSTAGE PREPAID, on receipt of price. 
 Remit by express, post office order, draft or registered letter. 
 
 THE W. J. JOHNSTON COMPANY, Ld., 
 
 TIMES BUILDING NEW YORK. 
 
OF 
 
 STATIC ELECTRICITY, 
 
 'WITH FULL DESCRIPTION OF THE HOLTZ AND TOPLER 
 MACHINES AND THEIR MODE OF OPERATION. 
 
 By PHILIP ATKINSON, A.M., Ph.D. 
 
 Cloth, 12mo; 228 Pages; 64 Illustrations. 
 
 :F:R.IO:E], S1.SO., 
 
 POSTAGE to any part of the world PREPAID. 
 
 The author of this treatise has made a special study 
 of Static Electricity, and is an acknowledged master 
 of the subject. The book embodies the result of 
 much original investigation and experiment, which 
 Dr. Atkinson's long experience as a teacher enables 
 him to describe in clear and interesting language, 
 devoid of technicalities. 
 
 The principles of electricity are presented untram- 
 meled, as far as possible, by mathematical formulae, 
 so as to meet the requirements of a large class who 
 have not the time or opportunity to master the in- 
 tricacies of formulae, which are usually so perplexing 
 to all but expert mathematicians. 
 
 The views expressed in the book are the result of 
 many years' experience in the class room, the lecture 
 room and the laboratory, and were adopted only 
 after the most rigid test of actual and oft-repeated 
 experiment by the author. 
 
 Copies of the above book will be sent by mail, to any addretf 
 in the world, POSTAGE PREPAID, on receipt of price. 
 
ORIGINAL PAPERS 
 
 DYNAMO MACHINERY 
 
 AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 
 
 By JOHN HOPKINSON, F.R.S. 
 
 Uniform with Thompson's " Lectures on the Electromagnet." 
 PRIGS, INCLUDING POSTAGE, $1.OO. 
 
 This collection of papers includes all written on 
 electro-technical subjects by the distinguished author, 
 most of which have been epochal in their character 
 and results. 
 
 The papers are arranged according to subject. Five 
 papers relate wholly or in part to the continuous cur- 
 rent dynamo ; four are on converters and one each on 
 the theory of alternating current machines and on the 
 application of electricity to light-houses. 
 
 In the words of the author "The motive of this 
 publication has been that I have understood that one 
 or two of these papers are out of print and not so acces- 
 sible to American readers as an author who very greatly 
 values the good opinion of American electrical engi- 
 neers would desin ." 
 
 PUBLISHED AND FOR SALE BY 
 
 THE 111. 3. OOHIISTOO CI!iy, [tl 
 
 Times Building, New York. 
 
The 
 
 Electromagnet, 
 
 BY 
 
 Prof. SILVANUS F. THOMPSON, D.SC., B..A., M.I.E.E. 
 
 A full theoretical and practical account of the proper* 
 
 ties and peculiarities of electromagnets, together 
 
 with complete instructions for designing 
 
 magnets to serve any specific purpose. 
 
 Published with the express con* 
 
 sent and careful revision of 
 
 the author. 
 
 Cloth. 280 Pages. 75 Illustrations. 
 Price, $1.00. 
 
 LECTURE I.t Introductory ; Historical Sketch ; Generalities 
 Concerning Electromagnets ; Typical Forms ; Polarity ; Uses 
 in General ; The Properties of Iron ; Methods of Measuring 
 Permeability ; Traction Methods ; Curves of Magnetization 
 and Permeability ; The Law of the Electromagnet , Hysteresis ; 
 Fallacies and Facts about Electromagnets. LECTURE II.: Gen- 
 eral Principles of Design and Construction ; Principle of the 
 Magnetic Circuit, LECTURE III.: Special Designs; Winding of 
 the Copper ; Windings for Constant Pressure and for Constant 
 Current; Miscellaneous Rules about Winding ; Specifications 
 for Electromagnets ; Amateur Rules about Resistance of Elec- 
 tromagnet and Battery ; Forms of Electromagnets ; Effect of 
 Size of Coils; Effect of Position of Coils; Effect of Shape of 
 Section ; Effect of Distance between Poles ; Researches of 
 Prof. Hughes; Position and Form of Armature ; Pole-Pieces 
 on Horseshoe Magnets. Contrast between Electromagnets and 
 Permanent Magnets ; Electromagnets for Maximum Traction; 
 Electromagnets for Maximum Range of Attraction ; Electro- 
 magnets of Minimum Weight ; A Useful Guiding Principle ; 
 Electromagnets for Use with Alternating Currents: Electro- 
 magnets for Quickest Action ; Connecting Coils for Quickest 
 Action; ^Battery Grouping for Quickest Action ; Short Cores 
 vs. Long Cores. LECTURE IV.: Electromagnetism, etc. * 
 Copies of the above book promptly mailed to any address, 
 postage prepaid, on receipt of price. Address 
 
RECENT PROGRESS 
 
 IN 
 
 ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 
 
 BEING A SUMMARY OF CURRENT PROGRESS 
 
 IN ELECTRIC RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION, 
 
 OPERATION, SYSTEMS, MACHINERY, 
 
 APPLIANCES, &c., COMPILED 
 
 By CARL HERING. 
 
 386 pages and 120 illustrations. Cloth, - Price, $1.00 
 
 This volume contains a classified summary of the 
 recent literature on this active and promising branch 
 of electrical progress, with descriptions of new appa- 
 ratus and devices of general interest. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Chapter I. Historical. Chapter II. Development 
 and Statistics. Chapter III. Construction and Opera- 
 tion. Chapter IV. Cost of Construction and Opera- 
 tion. Chapter V. Overhead Wire Surface Roads. 
 Chapter VI. Conduit and Surface Conductor Roads. 
 Chapter VII. Storage Battery Roads. Chapter VIII. 
 Underground Tunnel Roads. Chapter IX. -High 
 Speed Interurban Railroads. Chapter X. Miscellan- 
 eous Systems. Chapter XI. Generators, Motors and 
 Trucks. Chapter XII. Accessories. 
 
 Copies of "Recent Progress in Electric Railways," or 
 of any other Electrical book or books published, will be 
 promptly mailed to any address in the world, POSTAGE 
 PREPAID, on receipt of the price. Address 
 
 THE W. J. JOHNSTON COMPANY, Ld., 
 
 Times Building, New York. 
 
SECOND EDITION, JUST ISSUED. 
 Revised. Enlarged, Entirely Rewritten. 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF 
 
 ELECTRICAL WORDS. 
 
 TERMS ^ PHRASES. 
 
 By EDWIN J. HOUSTON. A.M. 
 
 562 Large Octavo Pages. 670 Illustrations. Price, $5.00. 
 
 Some Idea of the scope of this timely and important 
 
 work and of the immense amount of labor Involved in it, may 
 be formed when it is stated that it contains definitions of about 
 5,OOO DISTINCT WORDS, TERMS OR PHRASES. 
 
 The Dictionary is not a mere word book. The words, terms 
 and phrases are invariably followed by a snort, concise 
 definition, giving the sense in which they are correctly em- 
 ployed and a general statement of the principles of elec- 
 trical science on which the definition is founded. 
 
 1 As one feature, an elaborate system of cross references has 
 been adopted, so that it is as easy to find the definitions 
 
 as the words, and aliases are readily detected and traced. 
 
 The typography is excellent, being large and bold, 
 and so arranged that each word catches the eye at 
 
 a glance by standing out in sharp relief from the page. 
 
 COPIES OP THE DICTIONARY, OR OF ANT OTHER ELECTRICAL 
 WORK PUBLISHED, WILL BE MAILED TO ANY ADDRESS IN THE 
 WORLD, postage prepaid, ON RECEIPT OF PRICE. REMIT BY P. O. 
 ORDER, DRAFT, REGISTERED LETTER OR EXPRESS AND ADDRESS : 
 
 THE id. 3. aonnsTon corny, ctd., 
 
 TIMES BUILDING, NEW YORK. 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHTING 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS 
 
 FOR THE USE OF 
 
 ENGINEERS AND ARCHITECTS, 
 
 By E. A. MERRILL. 
 
 The author has drawn up a set of specifications covering the 
 various classes of lighting installations, which will serve as 
 forms for any special type or character of plant, and which are 
 at the same time full enough to cover the ordinary installation 
 of electrical apparatus and electric light wiring. The book will 
 prove especially useful to architects and engineers who desire a 
 full knowledge of the necessary requirements of the various 
 classes of electrical installations in order to meet the demands 
 of the insurance inspectors and the conditions of safety. The 
 latest rules are given of the (l) National Electric Light Asso- 
 ciation. (2) National Board of Fire Underwriters. (3) New 
 England Insurance Exchange. 
 
 OTHER CONTENTS: 
 
 Specifications for the Installation of Electric Lighting Plants. 
 General Specifications. Installation of Dynamos und Switch- 
 boards. Alternate Current Converter System. Constant Poten- 
 tial. General Specifications for Alternate or Direct Current Dy- 
 namos for Parallel System of Distribution. Arc Dynamos. Fix- 
 tures, etc. Interior Wiring. Two -Wire, Direct or Alternating 
 Current System. Three-Wire System. Three-Wire System 
 Adapted to Two-wire System. Arc System. Conduit System, 
 Two-Wire. Interior Wiring for Central Station Plants. Pole 
 Lines. Low Potential, Direct Current, Two or Three-Wire. - 
 Alternating System. Street Lighting Circuits. Specifications 
 for Steam Plant. 
 
 Cloth. 176 pages, Price, including postage, $1.50. 
 
 Copies Of MERRILL'S ELECTRIC LIGHTING SPECIFICA- 
 TIONS, or of any other Electrical book or books published, will 
 be mailed to any address in the world, postage prepaid, on re- 
 ceipt of the price. Address the Publishers, 
 
 THE W. J. JOHNSTON COMPANY, Ld., 
 
 167-176 Times Building, New York. 
 
JUST PUBLISHED. 
 
 The Eleetrie Railway 
 
 IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 
 
 By 0. T- CROSBY and Dr. LOUIS BELL 
 
 400 Octavo Pages, 179 Ifetrations. Price, $2.50. 
 
 This is the Jirst SYSTEMATIC TREATISE that has 
 been published on the ELECTRIC RAILWAY, and 
 it is intended to cover the GENERAL PRINCI- 
 PLES OF DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION 
 AND OPERATION. 
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS: 
 
 Chapter I. General Electrical Theory. 
 
 II. Prime Movers. 
 
 III. Motors and Car Equipment. 
 
 IV. The Line. 
 
 V. Track, Car Houses, Snow Machines. 
 
 VI. The Station. 
 
 VII. The Efficiency of Electric Traction. 
 
 VIII. Storage Battery Traction. 
 
 IX. Miscellaneous Methods of Electric Traction. 
 
 X. High Speed Service. 
 
 XI. Commercial Considerations. 
 
 XII. Historical Notes. 
 
 APPENDICES : 
 
 Appendix A. Electric Railway vs. Telephone Decisions. 
 
 B. Instructions to Linemen. 
 
 C. Engineer's Log Book. 
 
 *' D. Classification of Expenditures of Electric 
 
 Street Railways. 
 " E. Concerning Lightning Protection, by Prof. 
 
 Elihu Thomson. 
 
 Copies of CROSBY AND BELL'S ELECTRIC 
 RAILWAY, or of any other Electrical or Street Railway 
 Book published, will be promptly mailtd to any address in 
 the world, postage prepaid, on receipt of the price, 
 i Address 
 
 THE W. J. JOHNSTON COMPANY, Limited, 
 Times Building, New York. 
 
PRINCIPLED OK 
 
 DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINES 
 
 AND 
 
 Practical Directions for Designing 
 and Constructing Dynamos, 
 
 By CARL HKltlNU. 
 
 Sixth Thousand. 279 pages. 59 illustrations Price, $2.50. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Review of Electrical Units and Fundamental Laws. 
 
 Fundamental Principles of Dynamos and Motors. 
 
 Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction. 
 
 Generation of Electromotive Force in Dynamos. 
 
 Armatures. 
 
 Calculation of Armatures. 
 
 Field Magnet Frames. 
 
 Field Magnet Coils. 
 
 Regulation of Machines. 
 
 Examining Machines. 
 
 Practical Deductions from the Franklin Institute Tests 
 
 of Dynamos. 
 
 The So-called "Dead Wire" on Gramme Armatures. 
 Explorations of Magnetic Fields Surrounding Dynamos. 
 Systems of Cylinder-Armature Windings. 
 Table of Equivalents of Units of Measurements. 
 
 PUBLISHED AND FOR SALE BY, 
 
 THE W. J. JOHNSTON COMPANY, Ltd., 
 
 TIMES BUILDING, NEW YORK. 
 
THE PIONEER ELECTRICAL JOURNAL OF AMERICA. 
 
 THE ELECTRICAL WORLD 
 
 Read Wherever the English Language is Spoken, 
 THE ELECTRICAL WORLD is the largest, most handsomely 
 illustrated, and widest circulated electrical journal in the world. 
 It should be read not only by every ambitious electrician anx- 
 ious to rise in his profession, but by every intelligent Ameri- 
 can. The paper is ably edited and is noted for explaining elec- 
 trical principles and describing new inventions and discoveries 
 in simple and easy language, devoid of technicalities. It also 
 gives promptly the most complete news from all parts of the 
 world, relating to all the different applications of electricity. 
 
 Wiilicnfin+irtn J Including postage in the) dfco Q V^Q^ 
 OUDSCripllOIl, j u s ^ Canada or Mexico./ P<* a * ear. 
 
 May be ordered of Newsdealers at 10 cents a week. 
 
 ELECTRICAL I STREET RAILWAY 
 
 DIRECTORY, 
 
 Published annually and containing a list of Electric Light 
 Central Stations and Isolated Plants; Street Railways, Elec- 
 trical Companies and Manufacturers of and Dealers in Electrical 
 Machinery and Supplies, with the names of the managing offi- 
 cials, superintendents, purchasing agents, electricians, etc. 
 
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 Remit by P. o. Order, Draft, Registered Letter or Express. 
 
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 STAMPED BELOW 
 
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