University of California Berkeley JOSEPH M. BRANSTEN COFFEE & TEA COLLECTION 5vs r* x \ > . \ \ V TREATISE FOOD AND DIET: WITH | OBSERVATIONS ON THE DIETETICAL REGIMEN SUITED FOR DISORDERED STATES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS; Account of t!ie ZHetacrfi I OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL METROPOLITAN AND OTHER ESTABLISHMENTS FOR PAUPERS. LUNATICS. CRIMINALS, CHILDREN, THE SICK, &c BY JONATHAN PEREIRA, M,D,, F.R.S., & LS, LICENTIATE OP THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS IN LONDON, ETC., ETC. EDITED BY CHARLES A. LEE, M.D. NEW YORK: PUBLISHED BY FOWLER & WELLS. 389 BROADWAY. NEW YORK Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1843, BY J. & H. G. LANGLEY, the Clerk's Office of the Dis*.riit Court for the Southern Distrio of New York. Stereotyped by RICHARD C. VALENTINE, 4f GolU-trfet, New fork. PREFACE. THE idea of the present treatise occurred to the author during the preparation of an- other work, when he repeatedly experienced the want of a detailed and individual account of alimentary substances. His original intention was to have treated the subject in the same full and systematic manner that he has elsewhere done the articles of the Materia Medica ; and he had, in fact, begun to collect materials for a work on this plan. But he soon found that the sub- ject was too extensive to be treated in such a way ; within, at least, reasonable limits. He was, therefore, compelled to abandon, though with considerable reluctance, his original design, and to substitute for it the present work, in which he has excluded all Natural Historical details ; preferring this course to that of giving a mere sketch or epitome of the subject. The present treatise on Diet differs from its predecessors in several particulars, some of which it may not be useless to point out. In the first place, it contains a tolerably full account of the chemical elements of food, a subject which has always appeared to the author of considerable importance, and to which the recent researches and conclusions of Boussingault, Liebig, and Dumas have given additional interest. It is one, however, which preceding dietetical writers have al- together passed over, or only incidentally alluded to ; and in no work, with which he is acquainted, has it been systematically treated. Another peculiarity of the present work is the increased space devoted to the considera- tion of alimentary principles, the number of which the author, for reasons he has else- where assigned, has considered it proper to augment. The plan of separately considering Alimentary Principles and Compound Aliments, adopted from Tiedemann,* he considers to be greatly superior to the ordinary method of treating these subjects, and which consists in the arrangement of foods according to the proximate or immediate principle predominating in their composition. Such a classifica- tion is open to the glaring and obvious objection, that most of the foods in ordinary use consist of several alimentary principles. Thus, butchers' meat consists of fibrine, albumen, gelatine, and fat ; bread, of starch, gluten, gum, and sugar ; milk, of caseine, butter, and sugar. Now, to arrange meat among fibrinous, bread among starchy, and milk among caseous, foods, is to overlook the other important constituents of these substances, and / to give a very imperfect view of their alimentary properties. The author did not venture, without considerable hesitation and doubt as to its pro- priety, to deviate from Dr. Prout's beautifully simple and generally admitted classification of alimentary principles, into the aqueous, the 'Saccharine, the albuminous, and the oleagin- ous. After mature consideration, however, he satisfied himself of the impossibility of reducing all nutritive principles to these four heads. Common salt, for example, which a recent write~f justly observes, " can by no means be considered only as a luxury, but as * Untersuchungen uber das Nahrungs-Bedurfnvss den Nahrungs-Trieb und die Nahrungs-Mittel des Menschen. Darmstadt, 1836. j t On Gravel, Calculus, and Gout, by H. Bence Jones, M.A., p. 46. London, 1842. I ' iv PREFACE. a substance as essential to life as nitrogenous or non-nitrogenous food and water," can be referred to no one of these four classes. Moreover, lemon juice, which constitutes one of our most valuable antiscorbutic foods, does not owe its efficiency to water, etigar, albumen, or oil. Furthermore, to call gum, starch, and acetic acid, sac- charine substances, gelatine an albuminous one, or alcohol an oleaginous one, is to assign new meanings to common and familiar terms. Gelatine and albumen are not mutually convertible into each other by any known chemical process, nor can oil be transformed into alcohol, or. vice versa, alcohol into oil. For these reasons, therefore, the author has ventured to adopt a new and enlarged arrangement of alimentary prin- ciples, which he now submits to the notice of his professional brethren. Considerable pains have been taken iii the preparation of Tables representing the pro- portion of some of the chemical elements, and of the alimentary principles contained in different foods ; and the author believes they will be found as complete and accurate as the present state of our knowledge admits. Another peculiar feature of this treatise is the chapter on Dietaries, which has been rendered necessary by the discussions which have been going on, for many months past, in the public journals and elsewhere, respecting the amount of food proper to be supplied to paupers, prisoners, and others. The subject has in this way forced itself on the atten- tion of all grades of society ; and professional men and others must have long felt the want of a work giving an account of the dietaries in use in various Public Establishments in this country, as well as in the Navy and Army. The author greatly regrets that the necessarily limited extent of the present treatise has precluded him from entering into a variety of interesting details connected with this subject 47 FINSBURY SQUARK, LOWDON. I June 13, 1843. AMERICAN PREFACE. IN complying with the request of the Author of the following work, to make such additions as would better adapt it to the wants of the American reader, it was far from my design or expectation to extend my remarks so far, or to comment on such a variety of topics. The subject of "food and diet" is, however, so extensive, embracing such a multitude of facts, and not a little of theory, as to embarrass by its very copiousness, so that the chief difficulty of one who enters upon this boundless field, is, to know where to begin, and when to stop. My object has been, chiefly, to notice those topics upon which additional information would, perhaps, be considered desirable by the American reader ; and, while I left the text entire, to offer such brief comments as some reading and reflec- tion would naturally suggest. This plan was also in accordance with the wishes of the publishers. Such notes, therefore, as have been added, will be found either at the bottom of the page, or in the Appendix. With respect to the merits of this treatise, it is scarcely necessary for me to speak. It fully meets a desideratum, which modern discoveries, the improvements in practical and experimental physiology, and especially the late achievements in analytic chemistry, have created ; and which, since the appearance of Liebig's remarkable works, every one must have felt could not long remain unsupplied. On perusal of these pages, the reader will doubtless agree with me in opinion, that the task could not have fallen into abler hands, as it certainly could not have been accomplished, in all respects, in a more satisfactory manner. The author, Mr. Pereira, is well known throughout Europe and America, as one of the most learned, scientific, and practical men of the age, a physician of great experience and accurate observation, a highly successful writer, unsurpassed in the judicious selection and arrangement of facts, and in the felicity of his illustrations and reasonings. To the medical profession especially, he is universally and most favorably known, as the author of the best work on the Materia Medico, which has hitherto appeared ^ in our language. With such rare qualifications, he could hardly fail in producing a most valuable treatise ; and, as such, we commend it to the favorable consideration of the public, as no less adapted to inform the physician and rr an of science, th*.n to interest and instruct the general reader. C A. L. CONTENTS. Preface jjj_ iv American Preface -- v Contents V H x i v PART I. OF FOODS. Distinction between the Chemical Elements of Food, Alimentary Principles, and Compound Aliments 1 CHAP. I. OF THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS OF FOODS. Number of Simple Bodies known suspicions as to their real elementary character. Chemical Elements of organized beings cannot be formed in the living body Prout's idea that some of the so-called elements are formed by vital agents. Chemical Elements of the food of man 2 3 1. CARBON its forms quantity in foods daily consumption of amount of oxygen required to burn the carbon carbonic acid and heat produced in the process. Consumption of food augmented by cold error of Liebig in ascribing the glut- tony of certain nations to the coldness of climate exclusively case of the Hot- tentots and the^ Bushmen gluttony ascribed by the author in part to cerebral organization Case of the Germans, Spaniards, and French deficiency of food attended with diminished evolution of heat. Diseases of the liver in- duced by external heat how mode of artificially enlarging the liver of the goose pates de foies gras less food required in tropical climates and hot sea- sons why 4 11 2. HYDROGEN. Relative quantity of hydrogen and oxygen in alimentary princi- ples. Hydrates of carbon respiration of graminivorous animals. Aliments with excess of hydrogen oxydation of hydrogen during respiration heat developed by the combustion of hydrogen. Aliments with excess of oxy- gen - - - - T - - - 1113 3. OXTGEN. Constitutes three fourths of the terraqueous globe animal life insep- arably connected with the influence of oxygen on the organism vital air the cause of death. Relative quantity of oxygen in aliments. Consumption of oxygen in respiration modified by the nature of the food changes effected by the system on the vegetabb alkalin3 salts, and probable consequences - - 13 15 CONTENTS. Page 4. NITROGEN. Quantity of in foods. Plastic elements of nutrition and elements of respiration arguments in favor of nitrogenized foods alone being elements of nutrition inconclusiveness of some of them Dr. Prout's notion of the gen- eration of nitrogen in the system, and of the conversion of fat and sugar into nitrogenized compounds proteine and its compounds composition of the food consumed by, and of the excretions of, a horse during twenty-four hours resume of the opinions of Liebig on foods difficulties. Uses of non-nitrogen- ized foods alcohol an element of respiration is a fuel its action on the brain and liver Temperance and Tee-total Societies formation of fat by non- nitrogeriized foods Oriental mode of producing obesity Hogarth's Beer Alley and Gin Lane. Boussingault's scale of nutritive equivalents. Nitrogen a con- stituent of all vegetable poisons, according to Liebig ........ 15 29 5. PHOSPHORUS. A constituent of the body and of food insanity and idiotcy ascribed to abnormal variations in its quantity csecal phosphatic calculi of horses quantity of phosphorus in foods 29 31 6. SULPHUR. Its existence in the body organic origin of native sulphur evolu- tion of sulphur by organic substances cause of the awful miasma of the Western Coast of Africa effect of lead on the gums quantity of sulphur in foods - - 3153 7. IRON. A constituent of the blood Liebig's hypothesis of its agency in respira- tion, and of the action of sulphureted hydrogen and prussic acid on the system iron a constituent of foods --------_...._ 33 35 8. CHLORINE. A constituent of the blood and of several secretions Pepsin Liebig's fermentation hypothesis of digestion objections to it .T> 9. SODIUM. A constituent of the animal body, of the secretions, and of the food - 36 10. CALCIUM. A constituent of animals and of their food. Does the lime of the skeleton of the chick pre-exist in the egg, or is it generated? Gypsum eaten by the Chinese morbid appetite for calcareous substances 36 37 11. MAGNESIUM. A constituent of the body and of the food - - - 37 12. POTASSIUM. Potash necessary for the secretion of milk found in vegetables - 37 13. FLUORINE. Found in the bones and teeth 38 CHAP. II. OF ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. Dr. Prout's classes of alimentary principles reasons for admitting others 1. THE AQUEOUS ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. Quantity of water contained in the animal body and in foods. Is water a nutriment? Uses of water in the sys- tem its influence on the conversion of uric acid into urea diluent diet dry diet - - 38-42 CONTENTS. i x i. Common Water. Rain Water its impurities carbonate of ammonia a con- - stituent of it. Snow Water Spring Water River Water analyses of Thames and Colne Waters injurious effects of water contaminated wit-ii decomposing organic matters illustrative cases Metropolitan churchyards and the pumps British army at Ciudad Rodrigo affected with dysentery. Entophyta and Entozoa. Well Water Artesian Wells effects of Hard Water Water impregnated with lead its effects remedy. Lake Water Marsh Water. Tests of the impurities in common water purification of water Professor Clark's patent error of the patentee 42 51 ii. Sea Water* Solid constituents of effects of -------- .-51 iii. Mineral Waters. Classes of- their properties --------_ 52 iv. Distilled Water. Employment of, as a preventive of constitutional dis- ease 5253 2. THE MUCILAGINOUS ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. Quantity of gum in food prox- imate and ultimate analyses of gum effects and uses of guni. Gum Water Mucilage Gum Lozenges Gum Pastes, Pate de Jujubes, and Pate de Gui- mauve 5354 3. THE. SACCHARINE ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. Quantity of sugar in foods table of saccharine matters composition of sugars dietetical effects and uses of sugar fondness of children for it instinctive. Viscous or mucilaginous fer- mentation formation of lactic acid in the stomach. Diabetes oxalate of lime and phosphatic diatheses. Refined Sugar Brown Sugar Sugar Candy Sugar Water and Syrup Boiled Sugars, Barley Sugar, x^cidulated Drops, Hardbake and Toffee, Pulled Sugar or Penides Molasses and Treacle Burnt Sugar, Caramel, Browning Hard Confectionery, Lozenges, &c. Liquorice, Sugar Preserves 55 59 4. THE AMYLACEOUS ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. Quantity ot starch in plants shape of the grains (figures) necessity of cooking alimentary qualities Sago Tapioca and Cassava Arrow-root Tons les Mois Potato Starch Tahiti Arrow-root East Indian Arrow-root Portland Arrow-root Rice Starch- Lich- enin or Feculoid Salep 59 66 [j , 5. THE LIGNEOUS ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. Quantity in plants its composition doubts as to its nutritive quality wood-brea(J bark-bread indigestible parts of vegetables Fungin _...-----..-.-_. 66 68 6. THE PECTINACEOUS ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. Vegetable Jelly Pectine Pectic Acid composition dietetical properties Fruit Jellies Jams Carragee- nin 6971 7. THE ACIDULOUS ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. Reasons for aaaiitting it Acetic Acid, Pyroligneous acid Vinegar usefulness ill consequences. Citric Acid Artificial Lemon Juice Lemon and Kali. Tartaric Acid Concrete Acid- ulated Alkali Soda, Ginger-beer, and Seidlitz Powders Imperial Acidu- ulated Lozenges Malic Acid Oxalic Acid Lactic Acid Tannic Acid - 71 76 8. THE ALCOHOLIC ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. Quantity of alcohol in wines, spirits, malt liquors, &c. Brandy Rum Gin Whiskey Arrack Liqueurs and Compounds 76 SO CONTENTS. 9. THE OILY ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. Fixed Oil quantity in different foods composition digestibility nutritive qualities. Olive or Sweet Oil Butter Marrow Animal Fats Essential or Volatile Oils 8089 10. THE PROTEINACEOUS ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. Proteine composition Animal Proteinaceous Principles, Fibrine Albumen Caseine quantities of each in foods Milk Cheese. Vegetable Proteinaceous Principles, Vegetable Fibrine, Albumen, Caseine, and Gluten 8999 11. THE GELATINOUS ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. Quantity in foods Collin Chon- drin Gelatine from Elastic tissues Gelatine altered bi, heat composition digestibility nutritive qualities. Isinglass Cod Sounds Dry and Hard Gel- atine, Grenetine Hartshorn Calves' feet, heads, &c 99 107 12. THE SALINE ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. Common Salt Earthy Phosphates Potash Salts Ferruginous Compounds .......... 107 110 CHAP. III. COMPOUND ALIMENTS. I. SOLID ALIMENTS, OR ALIMENTS PROPER. Man an omnivorous animal denied by some 110 111 SECTION I. ANIMAL FOODS. Chemical and organic nature of animal foods composition of animal flesh ... Ill CLASS I. MAMMALS. Bones, their composition Bone Soup Cartilages, Tendons, Aponeuroses, and Ligaments Cellular Tissue Muscles or Flesh Viscera, brain, tongue, heart, thymus or sweetbread, liver, kidneys, alimentary canal, (tripe) Blood Milk, composition, sugar of milk Cream, skimmed milk Milk diet Whey Molkencuren or Cures de Petit Lait Buttermilk Devon- shire cream different kinds of Milk Ill 125 LASS II. BIRDS. Flesh, its varieties Viscera brains, gizzard, intestine, liver. Fat Eggs 12&-130 CLAS III. REPTILES. Turtle Callapash and Callipee Green Fat Turtle Soup 130131 CLASS IV. FISHES. Ichthyophagi White Bait, mode of cooking Integuments of fishes Flesh, its- composition, digestibility, varieties, effects, prepara- tion Viscera, liver, swimming bladder or sound, roe or ovary, milt or tes- ticle 131138 CLASS V. CRUSTACEANS. Lobster, Sea Craicfish, Crabs, Prawns, Shrimps - 138 139 CONTENTS. X i CLASS VI. MOLLUSKS. Shell fish bivalves and univalves The Oyster Mussel Cockles Scallops Periwinkles Limpets Whelks Snails .... 139 142 Diseased and Decayed Animal Substani'& 142 143 SECTION H. VEGETABLE POODS. Mode of arrangement 143 144 Class I. Aliments from Flowering Plants. Order I. Seeds. 1. MEALY OR FARINACEOUS SEEDS their division .......... 144 Cereal Grains or Corn 'composition and digestibility ....... 144 145 i. Wheat its composition. Semolina Soujee Mannacroup Macaroni Ver- micelli Cagliari Paste Hard's and Densham's Farinaceous Foods. Fer- mented or leavened bread compressed bread gluten bread. Unfermented or unleavened bread biscuits gingerbread Dodson's patent bread. Dis- eases of Wheat Cakes, pastry, puddings, panado 145 154 ii. Oats, Groats. Oatmeal. Composition. Oat-bread Gruel Porridge Flum- mery or Sowans - 154 156 iii. Barley. Scotch and Pearl Barley. Composition Barley-bread Barley Water, simple and compound. Mall Sweetwort --------- 156157 iv. Rye. Composition. Rye or black bread Rye pottage. Ergotism - 157 158 v. Rice. Composition. Rice starch Rioe gluten Mucilage of Rice Rice milk, puddings, and cakes ..._ 158 160 vi. Maize or Indian Corn. Composition. Polenta --. 160 161 & Leguminous Seeds Peas, Beans, Lentils their composition alimentary qual- ities - ... 161163 Y- Seeds of Cupulifera. Chestnuts 163 2. OILY SEEDS, Walnuts Hazel-nuts Cashew-nuts Pistachio-nuts Stone Pine nuts Cocoa-nuts Almonds, composition of bitter and sweet ones bitter al- monds amygdaline prussic acid macaroons or ratifia cakes volatile oil of aim >nds its poisonous properties 163 165 xii CONTENTS. Pag. Order II. Fleshy Fruits. 1. DRUPACEOUS OR STONE FRUITS. The Peach Nectarine Apricot Plum, Prune Cherry Olive olives farcies 1'huile, pickled olives, and olives a la picholine Date 1651:7 2. POMACEOUS FRUITS OR APPLES. Apples Pears Quinces ----- 167 168 3. BACCATE OR BERRIED FRUITS. Currants Gooseberries Cranberries Elder- berries Grapes, Raisins, Cure de Raisins ------- -- 168171 4. THE ORANGE OR AURANTIACEOUS FRUITS. Oranges Lemons Citrons Shad- docks 171173 5. THE CUCURBITACEOUS FRUITS. Cucumbers Melons Water Melons Vege- table Marrow Pumpkin * 173 175 6. THE LEGUMINOUS FRUITS. Tamarinds French Beans Scarlet Beans - 174 175 7. SYCONUS. Figs - 175 8. SOROSIS. Mulberries The Pine Apple 175176 9. ET-ERIO. Strawberries Raspberries Blackberries .--..... 176 Order III. Roots, Subterraneous Stems, and Tubers. Relative digestibility of the different kinds. The Turnip Carrot Parsnip Jeru- salem Artichoke Potato 177 182 Order IV. Buds and Young Shoots. Onions Leeks Garlic Shallots Asparagus 183 Order V. Leaves and Leaf Stalks. ,x^ Chlorophylle The Cabbage Savoy Greens Cauliflower Broccoli. Sauerkraut Turnip tops Spinage Mustard and Cress Lettuce Endive Rhubarb for tarts 183185 Order VI. Receptacles and Bracts. The Garden Artichoke, (Cynara Scolymus) .....185 Order VII. Stems. Cycadaceae and Palms -..-------.---..--- 185 ' CONTENTS. Xlll Page Class II. Aliments from fflmverless Plants. Order I. Ferns. Tuberous Rl izomes * ' 186 Order II. Lichens. Lichenin or Feculoid. Tripe de Roche Iceland Moss ........ 186 187 Order III. Algae or Sea Weeds. Lai-er Carrageen or Irish Moss Ceylon or Jaffna Moss ....... 187 183 Order IV. Fungi or Mushrooms. Common or Field Mushroom Common Morel Common Truffle .... 188 189 II LIQUID ALIMENTS, OR DRINKS. Order I. Mucilaginous, Farinaceous, or Saccharine Drinks. Slops or Tisans. Toast Water, &c 189 Order II. Aromatic and Astringent Drinks. Tea, botany, composition, effects, and uses Coffee, varieties, adulteration, compo- sition, effects and uses Chicory or Succory Chocolate Cocoa * - - 189 195 Order III. Acidulous Drinks. Lemonade Raspberry-vinegar Water Imperial Apple Tea Soda Water Ginger Beer. Other effervescing aqueous drinks 195 196 Order IV. Drinks containing Gelatine and Osmazome. Broths and Soups. Composition of broth and boiled meat. Beef Tea-*-Mutton Broth Chicken Broth Veal Broth 196197 Order V. Emulsive or Milky Drinks. Animal Milk Almond Milk Orgeat Cocoa-nut Milk 197198 Order VI. Alcoholic and other Intoxicating Drinks. Malt Liquor or Beer density, composition, effects. Ale Indian Pale Ale Table Ale Porter, adulterations. Wine, varieties, constituents, effects, and uses Sherry Port Wine Madeira Champagne German Wines Claret Wines Burgundy. Other mtoxicating drinks 198 209 xiv CONTENTS. Page m. CONDIMEFTS, OR SEASONING AGENTS. Order 1. Saline Condiments. 2. Acidulous^ondiments. 3. Oily Condiments. 4. Saccharine Condiments. 5t Aromatic and Pungent Condiments - - 209 210 PART II. OF DIET. CHAP. I. OF THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FOOD. secondary assimilation artificial digestion pepsine or chymosine fer- mentation hypothesis of digestion 211 212 1. Digestibility of foods affected by circumstances relating to the foods themselves vege- table or animal food cohesion tenderness of fibre incipient decomposition age minuteness of division by cooking and mastication insalivation cookery -^ 212213 2. Digestibility of foods affected by circumstances relating to the individual or organism state of body or mind idiosyncrasy habits intervals between meals keen- ness of appetite exercise amount of food eaten passions of the mind morbid states of system. Difference of opinion as to repose after meals author's opinion. Beaumont's table of the Digestibility of Foods - - - 213 217 CHAP. II. OF THE NUTRITIVE QUALITIES OF FOODS. Amount of water in foods indigestible constituents relative value of nutritious substances non-nitrogenized and njtrogenized aliments. Table showing the amount of^dry mailer, moisture, carbon, and nitrogen in foods. Conclusions of the Gelatine Commission 217 220 CHAP. III. TIMES OF EATING. Time required for the digestion of the food interval between the meals experi- ments made at the Zoological Gardens on the carnivorous mammalia fixed periods for eating number of meals per day. Breakfast Luncheon Dinner Tea Supper 220222 CONTENTS. Pa t e CHAP IV. DIETARIES. Importance of the subject ill effects of prison dietaries quantity of food required subject to variation Captain Parry's opinion fatigue, hard labor, and term of imprisonment, are modifying circumstances. Mental influence in scurvy variety of food necessary uses of nitrogenized and ,non-nitrogenized foods 222226 1. Dietaries for Children. Children require food more frequently than adults why fondness for sugar errors in the dieting of children consequences on them of defective nutriment. Dietaries of the Foundling Hospital, the Royal Military Asylum, the Naval Asylum, tJie Infant Orphan Asylum, Mr. Aubin's Establishment at Norwood, the Hospice des Enfans Trouves and Hospices des Incurables in Paris, and the Merchants' Seamen' s Orphan Asylum - - - 226 232 2. Dietary for the Naval Service. Scale of Diet used in the^Navy error in the scale of equivalents adopted Water used in the navy. Scale of Victualling, of Troovsfrom England to India, and Dietary for Emigrants .... 232 236 3. Army Rations ....... 236 * 4. Dietaries for Paupers. The six dietaries of the Poor Law Commissioners com- parative view of them. Soup, Gruel, and Suet Puddings, used in poor- houses. Loss in cooking and serving meat 236242 5. Dietaries for Prisoners. Conclusions of the Inspectors of prisons Dissent of Mr. Hill Instructions issued by the Secretary of State Dietaries ordered to be used in prisons in England and Wales comparative view of them objections raised to them reply 242 246 6. Dietaries for the Sick. General observations natural instincts too often thwarted. 1. Full, Common, or Meat Diet. 2. Animal Diet diabetes effects of animal diet on it. 3. Vegetable Diet. 4. Spare or Abstemious Diet. 5. Fe- ver Diet. 6. Low Diet. 7. Milk Diet. 8. Dry Diet. Dietaries of the Metro- politan Hospitals. London Hospital Si. Bartholomew's Hospital Guy's Hos- pital St. Thomas's Hospital St. George's Hospital Westminster Hospital Middlesex Hospital King's College Hospital North London Hospital Dread- nought Hospital Ship. Dr. Carpenter's observations on the dietaries of English Hospitals reply thereto. Dietaries of the Royal Naval Hospitals, the Marine Infirmaries, and the Royal Ordnance Hospitals _------- 246 255 7. Dietaries for the Insane. Dr. Conolly's observations thereon cases of refusal of food. Dietaries of the Hanwell Lunatic Asylum, Belhlem Hospital, and St. Luke's Hospital 255257 8. Dietaries for Puerperal Women. Dietaries 'of the City of London. Lying-in Hospital and General Lying-in Hospital, Westminster 257 xvi CONTENTS. CHAP. V ON THE DIETETICAL REGIMEN SUITED FOR DISOR- DERED STATES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. General observations thereon. Division of the subject 257 1. Cookery of Foods. Boiling, Roasting, Broiling, Baking, and Frying. Relative influence of these processes on the digestibility of food 258 259 2. Times of Eating. General precepts thereon ............ 259 3. Quantity of Food taken at one Meal. To be judged of by the feelings satisfac- tion, not satiety, to be produced 259260 4. Conduct before, at, and after eating. Circumstances affecting digestion - - - 260 5. Nature and Quality of the Food eaten. Relative value of animal and vegetable diet bulk of food soifcd and liquid food acidity of stomach, what induced by lactic acid fatty acids fatty fermentation. Bread, biscuits, pastry, pud- dings, pancakes. Butcher's meat. Venison and rabbits. Birds. Fish. Shell- fish. Potatoes, the cabbage tribe, peas, beans. The oily seeds. Fleshy fruits. Drinks, aqueous, malt liquor, wine, weak spirit, tea, coffee, chocolate, cocoa. Condiments. Conclusion 260263 APPENDIX - * - 265 i ON FOOD AND DIET. PART I. OF FOODS. THE substances employed by man as food consist of certain compound bodies termed Alimentary Principles, which, by their mixture or union, constitute our ordinary foods : these, for the sake of distinction, I shall denominate Compound Aliments. Thus meat (a compound aliment) consists principally of fibrine, albumen, gelatine, haBmatosin, fat, and water, (alimentary principles.) Wheat (a compound aliment) is composed of starch, gluten, sugar, and gum, (alimentary principles.) Alimentary principles are themselves compound substances. They consist of two, three, four, or more, simple or undecompounded bodies, usually denominated elements. These are the Chemical Elements, or Elementary Constituents of Foods. Thus fibrine (an alimentary principle) is composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulphur, (chemical elements.) Gum (an alimentary principle) consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, (chemical elements.) I propose, therefore, to consider successively 1. The Chemical Elements of Foods. 2. Alimentary Principles. 3. Compound Aliments. CHAP. L Of the Chemical Elements of Foods. Those bodies from which chemists have hitherto failed to extract other substances of entirely different properties, are denominated Simple or Undecompounded Bodies, or Chemical Elements. At the present time, fifty-five* such bodies are known. Arranged alphabetically, fiey are as follows : CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. 1. Aluminum 2. Antimony (Stibium) 3. Arsenicum 4. Barium . 5. Bismuth . 6. Boron 7. Bromine . 8. Cadmium 9. Calcicm 10. Carbon * A fifty-sixth element, called Didym, has been recently announced. It is a metal which is found along with Cerium and Lanthanium. (Poggendorff's Annakn der Physik und Chemie, vol. xlvi. No. 7, p. 503.) Equivalent Equivalent or or Combining Pro- Combining Pro- portion. pOTtlO7l ydrogen=l) Symbol. (Hydrogen=l) Symbol. 10 Al 11. Cerium 46 Ce 65 An or Sb 12. Chlorine t 36 Cl 38 Ar or As 13. Chromium 28 Cr 69 Ba 14. Cobalt 30 Co 72 Bi 15 Columbium (Tanta wwi; . 185 Ta 10 Bo 78 Br 16 Copper (Cuprum) 17. Fluorine 32 Cu 19 F 56 Cd 18. Glucinum 27 G 20 Ca 19. Gold (Aurum) 200 Au 6 C 20. Hydrogen . 1 H J. ELEMENTS OF FOODS. i CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. Continued. Equivalent Equivalent or or Combining Pro- Combining Pro- portion. portion. 21. Iodine . (Hydrogen=l) Symbol. . 126 I 39. Rhodium (Hydiogen=l) Svmbol. 22. Iridiurr, . 98 Ir 40. Selenium 40 Se 23. Iron (Ferrum) . 28 Fe 41. Silicon 8 Si 24. 1 aiuhiimuin ? La 42. Silver (Argentum] 108 Ag 25. Load (Plumbum) 104 PI 43. Sodium (Narium 24 N 26. Lithium . . 8 Li 44. Strontium 44 Sr 27. Magnesium 12 Ma 45. Sulphur 16 S 28. Manganese 28 Mn 46. Tellurium 64 Te 29. Mercury (Hyd argyrum) . 202 Hg 47. Thorium 30. Molybdenum . . 48 Mo 48. Tin (Stannum) 60 Th 58 Nn 31. Nickel 29 Ni 49. Titanium 24 Ti 31. Nitrogen 14 N 50. Tungsten (Wolfram, 95 W 33 Osmium . 100 Os 51. Uranium 63 U 34. Oxygen 8 O 52. Vanadium . 217 V 35. Palladium 54 Pd 53. Yttrium 32 Y 36. Phosphorus 16 P 54. Zinc 32 Zu 37. Platinum 99 PI 55. Zirconium . 33 Zr 33. Potassium (Kahum) 40 K ; As far as we have at present ascertained, these are the substances which constitute the elements of all known bodies, (mineral and organized.) It has long been suspected that many of these supposed elementary bodies are them- selves compounded.* The suspicion has arisen from the analogies which exist between some of the undecompounded substances, (especially the metals ;) z is well as from the difficulty of accounting for the presence of several of the so-called elements found in or- ganized beings. But though it may be well founded, yet chemists have agreed to cal. those substances simple or elementary which have hitherto resisted every attempt to resolve them into other and simpler parts ; and, therefore, when the phrase element or simple body is used, we merely mean a substance which no one, as yet, has been able to t] 79098 Ditto. [ Olive Oil 7775 Calculated from Saussur^ b. NITROGEN i ZEU: 'Animal Albumen (from Eggs) . . . 55.000 Scherer. 55002 Ditto ivr;iL-\ tij QO ProtemeCom- Vegetable Albumen (from Wheat) ' '. 55.oT" pou Fibrine 54.617 .Ditto. Jones. Scherer. 54 133 Oi ttf\ Gluten (from Wheat 5522 JL/1 LLO. Jones. Tendons of Calves' Feet 50 960 Scherer Gelatinous . Isinglass .... . 50.557 Ditto. Cartilages of Calves' ribs (chondrine) . . 50.895 Ditto 2. Compound Aliments. a. VEGETABLE : Wheat (dried in vacuo at 230 Fahr.) Oats rditto) 46.1 50.7 Boussingavut. Ditto. Rye (ditto) 46.2 Ditto. Potatoes . . . . . 12.2598 Ditto. Ditto (dried in vacuo at 230 Fahr.) 44.0 Ditto. Turnips 3.217 Ditto. Ditto (dried in vacuo at 230 Fahr.) 42.9 Ditto. Jerusalem Artichoke (ditto) 43.3 Ditto. Peas 35.743 Playfair. Ditto (dried in vacuo at 230 Fahr.) Lentils . ... 46.5 37.33 Boussingault Playfair. Beans . ... 38.24 Ditto. Fresh Bread 30.15 Liebig. Black Bread (dried at 210) 45.41 Bceckmann. 6. ANIMAL : OxBiood . .... 10.392 ) Playfair and Ditto (dried) 51.96 < Bo3ckmann Fresh Meat (devoid of fat) . 13.6 Liebig. Ditto (with l-7th fat and celhilar tissue) 21.75 Ditto. Dry muscular Flesh (Beef) . 51.89 Bceckmann. Roasted Flesh (Roe Deer) . 52.60 Ditto. Ditto (Beef) 52.59 Playfair. Ditto (Veal) 52.52 Ditto. Soup of the House of Arrest at Gies_on 0.46348 Liebig. The quantity of carbon consumed, in the form of food, by different individuals and at different times, is subject to very considerable variation. Age, sex, peculiaiities, (indi- from Liebig' s Ammal Chemistry, (London, 1842.) Those of Boussingault, are taken from his papers in the Annales de Ckimie el de Physique, (t. Ixiii., Ixvii., Ixix., and Ixxi.) The results of Mulder's analysis of pectine, I have taken from the Pharmaceutisches Central-Blattfur 1833, (p. 338;) those of Fremy's analy- sis of the same substance from the Journal de Pharmacie, (t. xxvi. p. 373.) Prout's experiments were published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1827. I have taken the results of Berard's anc Chev- reul's analyses from L. Gmelin's Handbuch der theorelischen Chemie, (vol. ii. p. 439.) ELEMENTS OF FOODS. vidual or national,) temperature and density of the air, occupation, (laborious or inac- tive,) and amount of clothing, are among the circumstances which produce these diversi- ties. " From the accurate determination of the quantity of carbon daily taken into the sys- tem in the food, as well as of that proportion of it which passes out of the body in the faeces and urine, unburned that is, in some form in which it is not combined with oxygen it appears that an adult, taking moderate exercise, consumes 13*9 oz. [Hes- sian=15'3 oz. avoirdupois] of carbon daily.* Liebig's statement is based on observations made on the average daily consumption of food by from 27 to 30 soldiers, of the Body Guard of the Grand Duke of Hesse Darm- stadt in barracks, for a month, or by 855 men for one day. I have drawn up the follow- ing table from his statements, and converted the Hessian weights into avoirdupois weights. Kinds of Food. Avoirdupois of Food weight Avoirdupois of Carb weight on. Ordinary meat containing l-7th of fat and cellular tissue Fat or Lard Lentils Peas . Beans Potatoes . Bread Ibs. oz. | 306 4 3 13 3 10 12 12 15 1093 2 1923 9 gn. 186 304-5 412 161 76 357 214-5 Iba. oz 66 9 3 1 | 11 10 133 5 603 15 gre. 397-5 156-1 131-2 374-2 300-5 Total for 855 men for one day Average for one man for one day .... 3358 5 | 3 14 398-5 370-5 818 11 15 46 140 In addition to the above, the 855 men consumed, Of Green Vegetables (Cabbages, Greens, Turnips, &c.) Of Sourkrout Of Onions, Leeks, Celery, &c Total for 855 men for one day Average for one man for one day lb. oz. crs- 192 15 15 110 2 325 26 11 203-5 326 6 55 6 635 it also appears, from an approximate report of the serjeant-major, that each soldier consumed daily, on an average, out of the barracks, the following quantities of other foods : Sausages Butter Beer . Brandy . 33-10oz. 3-4 oz. & 33 5- 10 pint 1-10 pint -3 gre. Avoirdupois weight. So that we may fairly assume, that each of these soldiers consumed daily about one pound (avoirdupois) of carbon. Now if we suppose that while under experiment he neither gained nor lost in weight, what, it may be asked, became of the carbon thus taken in the form of food "? I shall assume, with Liebig, that the carbon of the green vegetables, sourkrout, and onions, was equal to that of the faeces and the urine, and shall exclude from our calcula- * Liebig, Animal Chemistry, or Organic Chemistry .1 its Applications to Physiology and Pathology, edited by Dr. W. Gregory, p. 14. Lond. 1842. CARBON. tion the carbon of the small quantity of food (sausages, butter, beer, and brandy) taken in the alehouse. We have, therefore, to account for the disposal of 15 ozs. 140 grs. avoirdupois (=6702$ grs. troy) of carbon ; nearly the whole of which quantity must have been thrown out of the system by the lungs and the skin in the form of carbonic acid. Now, 6 grs. of carbon combine with 16 grs. of oxygen, and form 22 grs. of carbonic acid. Hence 6702$ grs. troy of carbon require 17.S40 grs. of oxygen gas to yield 24,542J grs. of carbonic acid ; and this quantity of oxygen must, therefore, be derived from the air, either by the lungs or skin, or by both. But oxygen is also consumed in the system in the oxidation of hydrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus, and this quantity also must be derived from the same source (the atmosphere) and by the same means. The quantity of oxygen consumed, and of carbonic acid produced, in respiration, by an adult man, in twenty-four hours, has been variously estimated as follows: Consumption of Oxygen and Production of Carbonic Acid in Respiration by an Adult Man in 24 hours. Oxygen consumed. Carbonic Acid produced. Carbon contained in the Carbonic Acid. Cubic In. Grs. Lavoisier & Seguin 46037 or 15661 Menzles .... 51480 or 17625 Davy . ... 45504 or 15751 Allen & Pepys . . 39600 or 13464 Coatbupe . . Cubic In. Grs. 14930 or 8584 31680 or 17811 39600 or 18612 17856 2820 (French) (English) 4853 (ditto) 5148 (ditto) 2616 (ditto) It is obvious that the highest of these estimates is below the quantity of oxygen re- quired to oxidate the carbon consumed by the Darmstadt soldiers. But in drawing any conclusions as to the absolute amount of oxygen consumed in respiration, we must not omit to consider the numerous circumstances which interfere with the results, and render it difficult, if not impossible, to obtain a correct estimate. The management of the ap- paratus, the nicety of the manipulation, the degree of muscular exertion employed, the quantity and quality of the food consumed by the individual experimented on, the state of the system, and various other circumstances, concur in affecting the results. Moreover, it is probable that the skin produces on the air changes analogous to those effected by the lungs : that is, it absorbs oxygen, and evolves carbonic acid. * Furthermore, if the amount of carbonaceous food be less than that supplied to the Darmstadt soldiers, it is obvious that less oxygen will be required to oxidize the carbon. Now, according to Liebig, "prisoners in the Bridewell at Marienschloss (a prison where labor is enforced) do not consume more than 10 - 5 oz. [Hessian=lV568 avoirdupois] of carbon daily ; those in the House of Arrest at Giessen, who are deprived of all exercise, consume only 9 oz. f [Hessian=9'9 avoirdupois;) and in a family well known to me, consisting of nine individuals, five adults, and four children of different ages, the aver- age daily consumption of carbon for each is not more than 95 oz. (Hessian =1046 avoirdupois) of carbon. We may safely assume, as an approximation, that the quanti- ties of oxygen consumed in these different cases are in the ratio of these numbers.' * See Bostock's Elementary System of Physiology, vol. ii. p. 237, et sty. Lond. 1826. t At p. 36 of the English translation of Liebig's Animal Chemistry, it is stated that 8-5 oz. of carbon are consumed : but at p. 293, the translator has given reasons for believing that the quantity should be 9oz. 8 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. Ten ounces avoirdupois or 4375 grs. troy of carbon combine with 11666 P 6 grs. troy of oxygen, and thereby form 16041-6 grs. of carbonic acid. By the union of carbon with oxygen, in whatever part of the system this" is effected, heat must be evolved. At least, in all other cases, the formation of carbonic acid is attended with the evolution of heat ; and we have a right, therefore, to assume, that the same takes place* within the body. We are, in fact, acquainted with no conceivable reason why it should be otherwise. Now, according to Despretz,* one pound of pure charcoal evolves, by its combustion in oxygen gas, sufficient heat to raise the tempera- ture of 781os. of water from 32 Fahr. to 212 Fahr. ; and this must be about the amount evolved in the cas3 of the Darmstadt soldiers, independently of the heat produced by the union of oxygen with hydrogen hereafter to be noticed. It appears to me that we have a sufficient explanation of animal temperature in the chemical changes just referred to. Indeed, it cannot be doubted that a large proportion, if not the whole, of the heat evolved by animals, is produced by chemical action. But it is scarcely to be expected that experiments can be so nicely and delicately performed as to demonstrate in a precise manner the truth of this chemical theory of animal heat : for while, on the one hand, considerable difficulty is experienced in determining the actu- al quantity of combustible matter oxidated in the system, it is almost impossible, on the other, to estimate, with absolute nicety, the amount of heat actually imparted by a living animal to surrounding bodies. The results of our experiments, therefore, can only fur- nish, at the most, approximations to the truth, f Liebig lias endeavored to show, that by the conversion of starch or sugar into fat, oxygen is supplied to the system ; and that by the union of this disengaged oxygen with carbon (from the bile, for example) heat is developed. Suppose 1 equivalent of carbonic acid, CO, and 7 equivalents of oxygen, O 7 , to be abstracted from 1 equivalent of starch, C 13 UK, O,o, we have, in the residue, the empirical formula for fat, C n II 10 O. RELATIVE COMPOSITION OF STARCH AND FAT. 1 eq. Starch . . Cu H w O JO 1 eq. Fat ..... C,, II 10 O 1 eq. Carbonic Acid C O 7 eq. Oxygen ... Or O The oxygen thus presumed to be separated from the starch, can only be disengaged in the form of either carbonic acid or water, or of both; therefore it must have combined with carbon or hydrogen, or both.J Now, Liebig has adduced several reasons for pr ins: that hrat must attend the formation of carbonic acid under these circumstances. "Thus," says this distinguished chemist, "in the formation of fat, the vital force pos- sesses a means of counteracting a deficiency in the supply of oxygen, and consequently in that of the heat indispensable for the vital process. In the natural and healthy condition of the system, the food supplies the necessary carbon for the support of animal heat, but when food is withheld, the fat of the body is consumed ; its carbon being converted into carbonic acid, its hydrogen into water. Ex- perience has satisfactorily shown that the heat of the blood in health is the same in all climates and in all conditions of atmospheric temperature. Now it follows that a 'arger * Graham, Elements of Chemistry, p. 250 t Despretz observes, that in none of his experiments did resplratiori produce less than 7-10ths, nor more than 9-10ths of the whole heat emitted by the animal, (Ann. de Chimie el Physiq. t. xxvi. p. 361, 1824.) See also Dulong's paper in the Mtm. de VAcad. Royale des Sciences, t. xviii. p. 327, t For some objections to these views of Liebig, see note on page 27. L. CARBON. 9 quantity of combustible matter is required in cold climates and cold weather, for keeping up this temperature, than in hot climates and warm weather ; since a greater amount of ,ieat must be given off to surrounding media in the former than in the latter. Hence the necessity for a more liberal supply of food in cold weather. " He who is well fed," ob- serves Sir John Ross,* " resists cold better than the man who is stinted, while the starvation from cold follows but too soon a starvation in food. This, doubtless, explains in a great measure the resisting powers of the natives of these frozen climates ; their consumption of food, it is familiar, being enormous, and often incredible."f Moreover, it is obvious that the foods which, theoretically, appear to be best suited for the inhabit- ants of these colder climates, are those which contain the largest amount of carbon and hydrogen, viz., the fats and oils, which contain from 66 to 80 per cent, of carbon. The celebrated traveller just quoted, further remarks, "that in every expedition or voyage to a polar region, at least if a winter residence is contemplated, the quantity of food should be increased, be that as inconvenient as it may. It would be very desirable indeed, if the men could acquire the taste for Greenland food, since all experience has shown that the large use of oil and fat meats is the true secret of life in these frozen countries, and that the natives cannot subsist without it, becoming diseased, and dying, with a more meager diet." The effect of cold in augmenting, and of heat in diminishing the appetite for food, is well known. I will not, however, go the length of Liebig in asserting, that if we were to go naked, as the Indians, or if in hunting or fishing we were exposed to the same degree of cold as the Samoyedes, we should be able to consume the half of a calf, besides a dozen of candles.J For though it must be admitted that the inhabitant of a frozen * Narrative of a Second Voyage in Search of a Northwest Passage, page 200. London, 1835 t Most persons are familiar with the accounts which have been published respecting the gormandizing powers of the natives of the Arctic regions. Captain Sir W. E. Parry (Second Voyage for the Discovery of the Northwest Passage, p. 413, London, 1824) states that, as a matter of curiosity, he one day tried how much food an Esquimaux lad, scarcely full grown, would consume, if freely supplied. " The under- mentioned articles were weighed before being given to him ; he was twenty hours in getting through them, and certainly did not consider the quantity extraordinary." Ibe. oz. Sea-horse flesh, hard frozen ... 4 4 ditto boiled 4 4 Bread and bread-dust . . . 1 12 Total 10 The fluids were in fair proportion, viz :- Rich gravy soup, . . H pint. Raw spirits, .... 3 wine ' Strong grog, .... 1 tumbler. Water, 1 gallon 1 pint. Sir John Ross (Narrative, p. 448, 1835) says, that ari Esquimaux " perhaps eats twenty pounds of flesh and oil" daily. But the most marvellous account of gormandizing powers is that published by Captain Cochrane, (Narrative of a Pedestrian Journey through Russia and Siberian Tartary, vol. i. p. 255, 3d edit. 1825.) He says that the Russian Admiral Saritcheff was told that one of the Yakuti consumed in twenty-four hours "the hind quarter of a large ox, twenty pounds of fat, and a proportionate quantity of melted butter for liis drink." The Admiral, to test the truth of the statement, gave him " a thick porridge of rice boiled down with three pounds of butter, weighing together twenty-eight pounds, and although the glutton had already breakfasted, yet. did he sit down to it with great eagerness, and consumed the whole without stir- ring from the spot ; and, except that his stomach betrayed more than ordinary fulness, he showed no sign I of inconvenience or injury!!" Captain Cochrane also states (p. 352) that a good calf, weighing about ' two hundred pounds, " may serve four or five good Yakuti for a single meal." In another place (p. 255) the same traveller dbserves that he has repeatedly seen a Yakut or Tongouse devour forty pounds of meat a day ; and, he adds, " I have seen three of these gluttons consume a rein-deer at one meal." t Annalen der Chenne und Pharmacte, vol. xli. Liebig, or his translator, seems to have had some misgivings about the "/to// of a calf," since, in the English translation, I find 10 pounds of flesh" substituted. 10 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. region requires more abundant food than he who lives in a temperate climate, yet ,t i.s an error to ascribe the voracity and gormandizing powers of some of the natives of the colder regions to the influence of cold only. Tne Hottentots and the Bushmen [Bosjes- mans]* of Southern Africa, indulge, as is well known, in beastly gluttony, yet this cannot be the effect of the temperature of their climate; while "the inhabitants of the Alpine regions of Southern Europe demand no such extravagance of food, nor are even the people of Lapland and the northern extremity of Norway conspicuous for such eating; as is not less true of the Icelanders."! Instead, therefore, of ascribing the gluttony of the inhabitants of frozen regions solely to the low temperature to which they are exposed, I consider it to be in part the result of an instinct or propensity exercised by some portion of tho brain. Phrenologists place alimentiveness, or the organ of the propensity to t . drink, "at the base of the middle lobe of the brain, adjoining and immediately below the situation occupied by the organ of destructiveness in carnivorous animals."! But while I entertain no doubt of the existence of such a propensity, I do not wish to offer any opinion as to the precise seat of it within the skull. To varying degrees in the powrr and activity of this propensity I ascribe the greater or less fondness for good living evinf il by different individuals. It is well known that some persons are notorious, among tln-ir friends and acquaintances, for their gormandizing propensity, while others are commonly reputed as being little eaters. Similar differences are observed between different nations. "The great difference which exists between the French and German?, in the organs of alimentiveness, accounts for the difference between the two nations in sobriety. AtVr the Spaniards, no nation in Europe is more sober than the French ; while the Germans are essentially great feeders. Among a pretty considerable number of German, Spani.-h, and French soldiers, who were in the same hospital at Caen, I have observed,' Dr. Vimont, "that a remarkable difference existed among them in regard to the faculty in question. A light soup, some fruit, or a little meat, were sufficient for the Spaniards ; the repast of the French consisted of three fourths of the portion ; while the Germans swallowed the whole allowance, and continually complained that they did not receive enough of meat and potatoes. Every time I happened to pass the wards where th mans were placed, I was certain to be assailed by the words Jlesh, flesh, */' Much less heat is evolved when there is a deficiency of food. " During tho \\\\ our march," observes Sir John Franklin,1T " we experienced, that no quantity of clothing * Barrow (Account of Travels into the Interior of Southern Africa, vol. i. p. 152. 1801) says that the Hottentots are " the greatest gluttons upon the face of the earth. Ten of our Hottentots," he adds. middling-fixed ox, all but the two hind legs, in three days ; but they had very little sleep durina the time, and had fasted the two preceding days. With them the word is to fnt or to sleep. When they cannot indulge in the gratification of the one, they generally find immediate relief in (lying to the other." The same authority, when speaking of the BotjaMMOt, (op cit. p. 28-*,) says that they are equally filthy and gluttonous with the voracious vultures. "The three who accompanied us to our wagons had a sheep given to them about five in the evening, which was entirely consumed by them before the noon of the following day. They continued, however, to eat all night, without sleep and without i intermission, till they had finished the whole animal. After this, their lank bellies were distended to such a degree that they looked less like human creatures than before." ! t Sir J. Ross, <>p. supra cit. p. 447. t A Syntem of Phrenology, by George Combe, p. 230, 4th ed. Edinburgh, 1836. ' $ Dr. VimotU, quoted by Mr. G. Combe, in his System of Phrenology, . 765. II See Appendix, A. 1T Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Polaj Sea, in the. years 1819 to 1822 p 424 London 1823. HYDROGEN. 11 could keep us warm while we fasted, but on those occasions when we were enabled to go to bed with full stomachs, we passed the night in a warm and comfortable mannci." In tropical climates, and even in cooler regions during the summer, a smaller quantity of food suffices to keep up the temperature of the bo( y, and under the same circumstances substances containing a less proportion of carbon are better adapted for the preservation of health. The frequency of diseases of the liver, in hot seasons and tropical climates, is ascribed by Liebig to the accumulation of carbon in the system. ** In our climate," he observes,* "hepatic diseases, or those arising from excess of carbon, prevail in summer; in winter, pulmonic diseases, or those arising from excess of oxygen, are more frequent." When the external temperature is high, less carbon is requisite to support the natural heat of the body, and in consequence of tne air being expanded, we inhale, at each inspiration, less oxygen by weight than in colder climates and seasons. If, therefore, we continue to consume large quantities of food, there will be an excess of carbonaceous matter in the system. The influence of external temperature, excess of food, and want of exercise, on the condition of the liver, is well shown in the goose. The celebrated pales de foies gras, prepared at Strasburg, are made of the livers of geese, artificially enlarged " by the cruel process of shutting the birds up in coops, within a room heated to a very high tempera- ture, and stuffing them constantly with food."f In tropical climates and in hot seasons the system requires a smaller quantity, and a loss carbonaceous quality, of food than in colder countries and cold seasons ; and the frequent occurrence of hepatic disease among Europeans, who reside in tropical countries, is probably in part owing to their continued employment of a dietetical system fitted for colder climates^ 2. HYDROGEN. Hydrogen, like carbon, is an essential constituent of every organized tis- sue ; and is, in consequence, a necessary ingredient of the food of every living being, both vegetable and animal. The nutritive principles of seeds, the albumen and oil of eggs, and the sugar, the butter and caseine of milk, therefore, contain it. RELATIVE QUANTITY OF HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN IN ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. GROUP 1. Principles wh >s< oxygen and hydrogen arr in the same ratio as in water. GROUP 2. Principles con- taining an excess of hy- drogen. GROUP 3. Principles con- taining an excess of oxy- gen. Acetic Acid Starch Sugar Gum Oil Alcohol Malic Acid Fibrine } Animal Albumen > and Caseine ) Vegetable Gluten Gelatine Pectine Citric Acid Tartaric Acid Considered with respect to the quantity of hydrogen which they contain, alimentary principles may be arranged in three groups : the first containing those substances whose and hydrogen are in the same relative proportion as in water; the second, in- * Awtwuz/ Chemistry, p. 24. t Murray's Hand-Book for Travellers on the Continent : leing a Guide through Holland, Belgium, Prussia, and Northern Germany, p. 448. London, 1836. t See Appendix, B. 12 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. eluding those whose oxygen is to the hydrogen in a less proportion than in water, or which contain an excess of hydrogen ; and the third, comprehending those whose oxygen is to the hydrogen in a proportion greater than is necessary to form water, or which possess an excess of oxygen. GROUP 1. Alimentary principles whose oxygen and hydrogen are in the same ratio as ~i water. The substances of this group may be regarded as hydrates of cmbon, since they consist of carbon and water, (or its elements.) Their composition is as follows: HYDRATES OF CARBON. Acetic Acid 12 C 4- 9 Water Starch 12 C - - 10 Water Cane Sugar 12 C - - 10 Water -f- 1 Water Gum 12 C -f- 10 Water 4- 1 Water Sugar of Milk . . . . 12 C 4- 10 Water -f 2 Water Grape Sugar . . 12 C -j- 10 Water -{- 4 Water It is obvious that these foods can yield carbon only to be oxidated in the system, since the hydrogen is already in combination with oxygen. This, therefore, is a sufficient explanation of the fact mentioned by Liebig, that the graminivorous animals expire a volume of carbonic acid equal to that of the oxygen inspired ; in other words, there is no loss of oxygen, since one volume of carbonic acid gas contains a volume of oxygen. 2eq. Oxygen = 16 leq. Carbon In a state of nature, a ;arge proportion of the food of these animals consists of prin- ciples (starch, sugar, and gum) whose hydrogen is saturated with oxygen. In no other way can we account for the fact just referred to ; for, as Liebig correctly observes, " at the temperature of the body, the affinity of hydrogen for oxygen far surpasses that of carbon for the same element," and, therefore, the return of an equal volume of carbonic acid by expiration is an evidence that there was a want of hydrogen for the oxygen to combine with. GROUP 2. Alimentary principles, whose oxygen is to the hydrogen in a less proportion than in wy-ter, or which contain an excess of hydrogen. This group includes both nitrogenized and non-nitrogenized food. If we suppose the oxygen of these principles to be combined with hydrogen in the ratio to form water, there will remain, for each, an excess of hydro- gen; the amount of which, however, varies in different substances. The following table, constructed on this view, shows the excess of hydrogen which each principle contains, the amount of carbon in each being calculated to be the same : ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES CONTAINING AN EXCESS OF HYDROGEN Malic Acid (anhydrous) Fat (Lard' . Alcohol Proteine Albumen Fibrine Caseine Gelatinous tissues, terubns Chondrine . =48 C4- 18 =48 C4- 4.5 =48 C4- 24 =48 C4- 14 =48 C- - 14 =48 C4- 14 =48 C4- 14 =48 C-- 18 =48 C-- 20 Wftter4- 6 H " - - 38.5 H " + 48 " 4- 22 _ _ 22 ' - - 22 " --22 " - - 23 " --20 H H4-6N H--6N4-5-KP* H--6 N4-2S+P H4-6 N+5 H4-7.5 N H--6N * The letters .S' and P are no 1 ", intended to express the absolute number of equivalents of sulphur and phosphorus, but only the relative proportions of these two elements to each other. HYDROGEN. 13 The ultimate changes which these constituents of food undergo in the system, are the conversion of the carbon into carbonic acid, and the hydrogen into water. ** It signifies nothing," says Liebig, "what intermediate forms food may assume, what changes it may undergo in the body, the last change is uniformly the conversion of its carbon into carbonic acid, and of its hydrogen into water. The unassimilated hydrogen of the food, along with the unburned or unoxidized carbon, is expelled in the urine or in the solid excrements." By the union of hydrogen with oxygen, and the consequent formation of water., a con- siderable degree of heat is developed. According to Despretz,* one pound of hydrogen yields, by combustion with oxygen ; sufficient heat to raise the temperature of 236*4 Ibs. of water from 32 Fahr. to 212 Fahr. ; weight for weight, therefore, hydrogen greatly ex- ceeds carbon in its calorific power. Part of the heat developed in carnivorous animals must arise from the oxidation of hy- drogen ; for, in the first place, hydrogen (as of the fat) disappears from the system, and there is no other mode by which it can have done so except by union with oxygen, and its consequent conversion into water.f In the second place, of the atmospheric oxygen taken into the lungs during inspiration, the whole is not found, in the inspired air, in union with carbon, nearly every experimenter having detected a loss.f Bostock calculates that'45,000 cubic inches of oxygen gas are consumed in respiration by a man, under ordinary circumstances, in twenty-four hours; but that of this quantity only about 40,000 cubic inches are found in the expired air in combination with carbon. The remaining 5000 cubic inches must, therefore, be employed in the oxidation of other combustible matters (principally hydrogen) in the system. GROUP 3. Alimentary principles, whose oxygen is to the hydrogen in a proportion greater than is necessary to form water. None of the substances of this group, which includes pec- tine (vegetable jelly) and some vegetable acids, are nitrogenized. The following table represents the composition of these principles, on the supposition that the hydrogen is com- bi-ned with oxygen, in the ratio to form water, the calculation being made for the same amount of carbon in each : ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES CONTAINING AN EXCESS OF OXYGEN. Pectine .... =12 C+ 8-5 Water-f-11 O Citric Acid (dry; . . = 12 C-f 5 * 4- 6 O Tartaric Acid (dry) . . =12 C-f 6 " -j- 9 O All the hydrogen and part of the carbon of these principles are, theiefore, in combination with oxygen. 3. OXYGEN. Of all undecompounded or elementary substances, none presents, to my mind, so much interest as oxygen a principle which constitutes not less than three-fourths of the known terraqueous globe|| which is concerned in almost every change that occurs * Graham, Elements of Chemistry, p. 250. t Hydrogen gas is often secreted within the intestinal canal ; sometimes, in cases of disease, in very large quantities. L. t Messrs. Allen and Pepys (Phil. Trans. 1809, p. 404) ascribed the slight loss observed in their researches to some accidental circumstance, and inferred, therefore, that the oxygen which disappears is exactly re- placed by an equal volume of carbonic acid. $ Elementary System of Physiology, vol. ii. p. 110. London, 1826. il The following calculations support the ahove statement : Oxygen is a constituent of the Atmosphere, of the Water, and of the Mineral Crust of the globe. It constitutes 23-100 by weight cf the air, 8-9 of the aqueous vapor, and 16-22 of the carbonic acid of the atmosphere. "Water, which coveis 3-4 of the globe, at an average depth of about three miles, contains 8-9 of its weight of oxygen. Silica, carbonate of lime, and, alumina, the three most abundant constituents of the strata of the earth, contain nearly half their weight of oxygen. Mr. De la Beche (Researches in Theoretical Geology, p. 8) calculates that silica alone constitutes 45 per cent, of the mineral crust of the globe, and of this, one-half is oxygen 14 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. among natural bodies and which is so mysteriously connected with life, that without its never-ceasing influence all vital phenomena would speedily cease ! As the continuance of the flarne of a candle or lamp depends on the due supply of oxygen to the fat or fhe oil, and as in the voltaic apparatus, an electric current is excited by the ox/dizement of a metal, so animal life seems to be inseparably connected with the influence of oxygen on the organism. Interrupt the influence of oxygen and the flame is extinguished, the electric current is stopped, and all vital phenomena cease. In all three processes, matter (oil, zinc, organic substances) is destroyed or consumed by the oxygen, or in other words, un- dergoes a change of form. So that though oxygen be essential to life though it be vital air yet its ultimate effect is destructive; just as, in the lamp, it is the cause of the flame, but consumes the oil. " Man, and every other animal, are exposed at every period of their lives to the unceasing and destructive action of the atmosphere ; with every breath he expires a part of his body, every moment of his life he produces carbonic acid, the car- bon of which his food must replace." Oxygen is a necessary ingredient of our food. The relative proportions of oxygen and hydrogen in different foods have been already alluded to. (p. 12.) The following table, taken from Liebig, gives the relative proportions of carbon and oxygen in several alimen- tary principles : RELATIVE PROPORTIONS OF CARBON AND OXYGKN IN ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. In I'nts (on an average) . . 120 equivalents of Carbon 10 equivalents of Oxygen In Fibrinc, Albumen, and Caseine !'!> M " In su.rcli . ... 1'2 > 100 In Cane Sugar ... 120 " 110 " In <;nm . 120 110 I:. S, w , ro fMi!k . l'J " 130 In C^rape Sugar . 120 140 Ji the carbon and hydrogen of the food are ultimately, for the most part, throw : of the system in combination with oxygen that is, in the form of carbonic acid and water it follows that those foods which contain a small proportion of oxygen only must consume a greater amount of atmospheric oxygi-n than those which possess a larger quantity of this element. It cannot be doubted, therefore, that the quality of the food must affect the activity of the function of respiration. This is quite in accordance with the result- perience. Mr. Spalding,* a diver, found that he consumed more atmospheric <'.\v n in his diving-bell, when he had used a diet of animal food, or drank spirituous liquors ; and experience, therefore, had taught him that vegetable food, and water for drin . adapted for the performance of the duties of his business. Dr. Fyfef also found that the consumption of oxygen was greatly reduced by the employment of vegetable diet, though he differed from Mr. Spalding in his account of the effect of alcohol on the respiratory function. The influence exercised by matters taken into the stomach on the process of respiration, is well illustrated in the case of the vegetable salts of potash or snla. It' the acetate, citrate, or tartrate of either of these alkalies be swallowed, the salt suffers partial decom- positior in its passage through the system. Its base can be detected in the urine ; but its acid has disappeared, and is replaced by carbonic acid. T: effect this change, a con- siderable quantity of oxygen must be consumed. In the case of acetate of potash, no less than eight equivalents of oxygen are required to convert the carbon of every atom of acetic acid into carbonr. acid. * Sec Dr. John Murray's System of Materia Medico, and Pharmacy, rol. i. 509, 5lh ed. Edinb. 1 t Quoted by Dr. Bostock, in his F.!, mrnlary System of Physiology, vol. ii. p. 90. London 1826. NITROGEN. 15 CONVERSION OF ACETIC ACID INTO CARBONIC ACID AND WATER. 1 equivalent Acetic Acid Ci Os Hs 8 " Oxygen Os 4 equivalents Carbonic Acic C 4 Os 3 " Water O 3 H Total . . C 4 On H 3 Total . . C 4 On H 3 When we take an ordinary effervescing draught composed of tartaric acid and bicar- bonate of soda, there is developed, by their mutual reaction, tartrate of soda, which in its passage through the system, suffers decomposition. Its tartaric acid disappears, and is converted into carbonic acid and water by means of oxygen. CONVERSION OF TARTARIC ACID INTO CARBONIC ACID AND WATER. 1 equivalent Tartaric Acid C4 Os Hs 5 " Oxygen O 5 4 equivalents Carbonic Acid C4 Os 2 " Water O 2 lit Total C 4 Oio H 8 Total C 4 Oio H 2 Now the eight equivalents of oxygen in the first case, and the five equivalents in the latter instance, must be derived either from the organism or from the atmosphere. But, as Liebig justly observes, there is no evidence presented by the organism in itself that any of its constituents have yielded so large a quantity of oxygen ; and we have a right, therefore, to infer that it must have been derived from the air ; and that these salts, in their passage through the lungs, appropriate to themselves the necessary amount of oxy- gen. But do they appropriate that which, if they were not present, would be otherwise employed in the organism 1 Or do they consume an extra quantity of oxygen 1 We have no precise data on which we can satisfactorily answer this question. Liebig asserts that they must consume a part of the oxygen, which would otherwise unite with the con- stituents of the blood ; and "the immediate consequence," he observes, " of this must be the formation of arterial blood in less quantity ; or, in other words, the process of respira- tion must be retarded." But it appears to me, that Liebig's conclusion is by no means a necessary one, and that on this, as on several other occasions, he has decided somewhat hastily, and written much too positively. I have already shown that the amount of oxy- gen, consumed by respiration, is modified by the quality of the food ; and it is by no nii.-ans improbable, therefore, that the passage of the above-memtioned salts through the hiiigs may occasion a temporary augmented consumption of oxygen ; but the evidence for or against this notion is yet to be adduced. 4. NITROGEN or AZOTE. Nitrogen is distinguished from the three preceding substances, by the indifference which it manifests to enter into chemical combination with other bodies. It is an essential constituent of every animal tissue.* Fat and water are non- nitrogenized components of the animal body, but they are not organized or living sub- stances. It is obvious, therefore, that for the development, growth, nutrition, and renova- tion of living animal parts, nitrogen is essential ; and accordingly we find, that nature has supplied it in the food which she has furnished for the nourishment of the young animal ; it being a constituent of the albumen of the yolk of the egg, (the food of tho embryo chick,) and of the caseine of the milk, (the aliment of the young mammal.) A large number of vegetable and animal substances used as food contains no nitrogen. The followirg table shows the per-centage quantity of this element in various foods : * " The chief ingredients of the blood contain nearly 17 per cent, of nitrogen, and no part of an organ contains less than 17 per cent, of nitrogen." LIEBIG. 16 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. QUANTITY OF NITROGEN IN CERTAIN FOODS. 1. In Alimentafy Principles. Per cenlcge of Nitrogen. Authority. (Animal Albumen (of eggs) .... 15-920 Scherer. Vegetable Albumen (of wheat) 15-920 Jones. Animal fibrine 15817 Scherer. Vegetable fibrine . . 15-809 Ditto. Animal caseine ... 15-724 Ditto. Vegetable caseine 15-672 Ditto. Gluten 15-93 Jones. S Tendons of calves' feet 18-470 Scherer. Isinglass 18-790 Ditto. Cartilage of calves' ribs (chrondine) 14-908 Ditto. 2. Compound Aliments. Wheat (dried in vacua at 230 Fahr.) 2-3 Boussingault Rye (ditto) 1-7 Ditto. Oats (ditto) 2-2 Ditto. Barley (dried at 212) 2-02 Ditto. Rice (ditto) 1-39 Ditto. Indian Corn or Maize (ditto) 2-0 Ditto. Peas (dried in vacua at 230 Fahr.) 4-2 Ditto. Horse beans (dried at 212 Fahr.) 5-5 Ditto. White haricots (ditto) 4-3 Ditto. Lentils (ditto) 4-4 Ditto. Potatoes (fresh) 0-37 Ditto. Ditto (dried at 212 Fahr.) 1-80 Ditto. Ditto kept ten months 0-28 Ditto Ditto (dried at 212 Fahr.) M8 hitto. JtTU-ulfin artichokes (dried in vacua at 230 Fahr.) 1-6 Ditto. While ^;inlt'ii cnhhace 0-28 Ditto. Ditto (dried at 212 Fahr.) 3-70 Ditto. Carrot (dried at 212 Fahr.) 2'40 Ditto. Turnips 0-17 Ditto. Ditto (dried at 212 Fahr.) .... 2-20 Ditto. Dried ox blood 15-08 Bceckman. Dried muscular flesh (beef) 15-05 Diuo. Roasted flesh (roe deer) 15-23 Ditto Ditto (beef) 15-214 Play fair. Ditto (veal) 14-70 Ditto. Several circumstances have induced recent writers to conclude that nitrogenized foods are alone capable of conversion into blood, and of forming organized tissues; that, in fact, they only are the foods properly so called. Hence Liebig has denominated them the plastic elements of nutrition. The non-nitrogenized foods, it is said, are incapable of trans- formation into blood, and are, therefore, unfitted i'or forming organized or living tissues. They are, nevertheless, essential to health ; and 1 Liebig asserts that their function is to support the process of respiration, (by yielding carbon and hydrogen, the oxidation of which is attended with the development of heat,) and some of them, he states, contribute to the formation of fat These non-nitrogenized foods he calls elements of respiration. J*'itrtrenized Foods, or Plastic Elements of Nutrition. Vegetable Fibrine Albumen Caseiue Animal Kle.-h Blood Won-nitrofrmi'Lrd Foods, or Elements of Respiration.^ Fat Pectin e Starch Bassorine Gum Wine Cane Sugar Beer Grape Sugar Spirits Sugar of Milk I propose now to stat'j briefly those circumstances which have been adduced in favor of the opinion, that nitrogenized foods alone nourish the tissues offering, as I proceed, short commentaries on them. 1. The first argument is, that as the animal tissues contain nitrogen as one of their essen- r NITROGEN. 17 Hal constituents, and as this element cannot be created in the system, it must be derived from either the food or the atmosphere ; but as it is not absorbed from the atmosphere in the vital process, it must be obtained from the food. It appears to me, that if it can be demonstrated that ** no nitrogen is absorbed from the atmosphere," the most important fact in favor of nitrogenized food is obtained. But has this been satisfactorily done 1 I think not. Numerous researches have been undertaken by different persons to determine this point, but the results have been most discordant. Some of the experimenters have declared that the nitrogen of the air is passive in respiration ; some have asserted that nitrogen is generated in the lungs ; some that it is absorbed ; others that it is both absorbed and exhaled under certain circumstances ab- sorption being most active, under others exhalation. What conclusions, then, it may be asked, have cautious, unbiassed, and well-informed physiologists drawn from these discrepant assertions 1 Muller, one of Liebig's countrymen, and the most.distinguished physiologist of the age, observes that "The conclusion to be deduced from all these experiments seems to be, that during respiration nitrogen is both absorbed and exhaled by the blood."* Dr. Carpenterf concludes his account of the chemical phenomena of respiration with the following observation : " Thus, there will be a continual exosmose of carbonic acid and nitrogen, and a continual endosmose of oxygen and nitrogen ; and the relative quantities of these gases exhaled and absorbed will be subject to continual va- riation from secondary causes." Lastly, Dr. BostockJ observes, that " It is probable that the blood, as it passes through the lungs, both absorbs and exhales nitrogen, the proportion which these operations bear to each other being very variable, and depending upon cer- tain states of the system, or upon the operation of external agents." Thus, then, it appears that some of the best systematic physiological writers admit the absorption of nitrogen ; and it is, therefore, somewhat remarkable that both Liebig and Dumas should make such positive and unqualified denials of it, without adducing some new facts in proof of the accuracy of their own views. Their opinions must, I presume, be founded on the experiments of DulongH and Despretz.lT The first of these philosophers has given an account of seventeen experiments made on animals. In fourteen cases he found'that nitrogen was exhaled, in one that it was absorbed, in one that it underwent no change, and in one the result is not stated. Dulong, however, seemed to think that fur- ther experiments were required to verify these results ; for he observes, that " the exhala- tion of nitrogen by the pulmonary surface was a phenomenon too remarkable to be passed over without an attempt being made to verify it in an indubitable manner ; and I propose," he adds, " to make some special experiments for this purpose." With regard to Des- pretz's experiments, it is deserving of especial notice, that whenever his conclusions mili- tate against the opinions of Liebig and Dumas, they offer sundry objections to his experi- * Daly's Translation of Mutter's Elements of Physiology, vol. i. p. 310. London, 1833. t Principles of Human Physiology, p. 433. London, 1842. t Elementary System of Physiology, vol. ii. p. 143. 1826. " Animals constantly exhale nitrogen," says M. Dumas, (Essai de Statique Cldmique des Etres Organ- ises p. 06 2 m - . ed. 1812.) " I insist on this point," he adds, " in order to dispel one of those illusions, which, in my opinion, are among the most obnoxious to your studies. Some observers; have admitted, in respira- tion, an absorption of nitrogen; but this is never observed except under circumstances which render it more than doubtful. The constant phenomenon is the exhalation of this gas, as Despretz has very cor- rectly stated." II Memoirc sur la Chaleur Animate, read to the Academy of Sciences at Paris in 1822, but published in the 18th vol. of the Memoires of the Academy in 1842. T Annales de Chimie et de Physique, t. xxvi. p. 337. 1824. 18 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. conclusions ; but where the results of his investigations coincide with their opinions, no objections are made to his experiments.* That animals frequently, if not generally, exhale nitrogen, can scarcely be denied ; but the question is, whether, when animals are supplied with food which contains a quantity of nitrogen insufficient for the wants of the system, nitrogen may not then be absorbed by the lungs ? This question, it appears to me, remains yet to be solved ; and I am not, therefore, disposed to adopt Liebig's unqualified assertion that " no nitrogen is absorbed from the atmosphere ;" the more especially as it is in opposition to the experiments of Priestley, Davy, Cuvier, Pfaff, Henderson, Spallanzani, Edwards, and others, and to the generally received opinions of physiologists. It appears to me to be completely begging the question. The establishment or rejection of the theory of nitrogenized foods is most essentially affected by the present argument; for should it be shown that nitrogen is absorbed by the lungs, we have then another source for the nitrogen of the tissues ; while, on the other hand, if nitrogen be not absorbed, the tissues can obtain this element from the food only.f { But there is another source of nitrogen which has not been hitherto noticed, I mean the ammonia of the atmosphere. Liebig has demonstrated the existence of this substance in the air, and has assigned strong reasons for believing that plants derive the nitrogen of their nitrogenized principles from it. The ammonia of the inspired air may, therefore, be one of the sources from whence animals derive a part, small though it be, of the nitrogen of their system.} * Liebig, (Animal Chemistry, p.37,) and Dumas, (op. supra cit. p. 42, 85, et seq.) The first of these chem- ists concludes his objections to Despretz's experiments in these words : " We can hardly what value we ought to attach to the conclusions drawn from such experiments as those above described. These experiments, and the conclusions deduced from them, in short, are incapable of furnishing the smallest support to the opinion," &c. &c. t Dr. Prout (On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases, p. xxvi., 3d ed. London, 1840) considers that both sugar and fat are convertible into nitrogenized animal substances. " rhat the oleaginous principle," he observes, " may be converted into most, if not all, the matters necessary for the existence of animal bodies, seems to be proved by the well-known fact, that the life of an animal may be prolonged by the appropriation of the oleaginous and other matters contained within its own body. l:i a foot note (p. xxvii.) he adds, " The azote may, in some instances, be derived from the air, or generated. But my belief is, that, under ordinary cincumstnnces, the azotv is principally funished by a highly azo- tizod subtance (organized urea ?) secreted from the blood, either into the stomach or duodenum, or into both these localities ; and that the portion of the blood thus deprived of its azote is separated from the general mass of blood by the liver, as one of the constituents of the bile, which secretion, as a whole, is remarkably deficient in azote." t Miiller remarks that " a small quantity of nitrogen is absorbed by the blood from the air respired, but it does not appear to perform any office in the system, since its proportion is the same in arterial and ven- ous blood." It may not be amiss to allude, in this connection, to the experiments of M. Collard de Martigny, (Journ. de Physiol. 1830,) who found an increased proportion of nitrogen in air wliich hod been respired, and also an exhalation of nitrogen by the skin. On the ground that nitrogen, like all other gases, is imbibed by moist animal membranes and by the skin, M. Collard assumes that the absorption and exhalation of nitrogen go on at the same time in the lungs, but that the exhalation is the most active. Berzelius, how- ever, regards the idea of a simultaneous exhalation and absorption of nitrogen as absurd. There can be no doubt, that during the respiration of man and the higher animals, nitrogen is, under some circumstances, absorbed, and under others, exhaled ; and it is highly probable that this depends on the nature of the food, ne want of nitrogen in it being supplied to the system through absorption and its superabundance re- moved by exhalation. The discrepancy in the results obtained by different experimenters can hardly be reconciled on any other hypothesis. L. * Liebig has proved that 20,800 cubic feet of air, when saturated witli aqueous vapor, contain onepo ind NITROGEN. 19 2. The second argument ts, that non-nitrogenized foods alone are incapable of supporting animal life. It has been found, by experiments on animals, that gum, sugar, starch, or butter, cannot alone preserve the health and life of animals. Magendie* found that dogs fed exclusively on sugar and water died in from thirty-one to thirty-four days ; and similar results were obtained with butter and with gum. Tiedemann and Gmelinf have confirmed Magendie's statements. They found that geese fed on sugar and water, or gum and water, or starch and water, died in from sixteen to twenty-four days. Magendie also states, in confirmation of the above, that in 1793, five sailors on board the wreck of a vessel from Hamburgh, had subsisted for nine days on sugar and a small quantity of rum, and that they were found by a French vessel in a most debilitated state, (the youngest excepted.) The three oldest died shortly afterwards. He further adds, that an eccentric individual in Paris had subsisted for nearly a month on potatoes} and water. At the end of this time he was extremely feeble, and passed an extraordinary quantity of urine; but by the use of nitrogenized food he recovered in a few weeks. Sir Christopher Wren also states, " that it was of late years found, that the blacks, who feed only on potatoes, were apt to die of the dropsy; and, therefore, the planters had found it necessary to allow them milk and bread, which prevented it." And he further observes, "that in Ireland, where the people feed much on potatoes, they help themselves, by drink- ing milk soured, to make the potatoes digest the better." This second argument has not, however, much weight ; since it is well known that an exclusive diet of nitrogenized alimentary principles (gluten excepted) is also incapable of supporting animal life. Fibrine, albumen, or gelatine, taken separately, does not support life ; even the artificial mixture of these principles is insufficient to preserve life for dogs thus fed, ultimately die with all the signs of complete inanition. While, on the other hand, a diet of muscular flesh, or of raw bones, or of gluten exclusively, is capable of complete and prolonged nutrition.!! IT It has been said, however, that both gum and sugar are capable of maintaining human existence. The asserted power of gum to support life rests principally on a story, told by Hasselquist,** of a caravan of more than one thousand persons, travelling from Abyssinia to Cairo, and whose provision being exhausted, supported themselves for two months on the gum they were carrying as merchandise. But there are no details given to satisfy us of the accuracy of the conclusion which has been drawn from it. Altogether the case is of water, and if this quantity contains but one fourth of a grain of ammonia, then a field of 40,000 square feet would annually receive upwards of 80 Ibs. of ammonia, or 65 Ibs. of nitrogen ; for the annual fall of rain over such a surface, amounts on an average to 2,500,000 Ibs. Now, this quantity of nitrogen is much more than is contained in the form of vegetable albumen and gluten in 2,650 Ibs. of wood, 2,900 Ibs. of hay, or 200 cwt. of beet-root, which are the yearly produce of such a field. As the average amount of air respired by an adult in twenty-four hours is about 1,510 cubic feet, or 57 hogsheads, the respiration of 20,800 cubic feet would require thirteen days and a half, and if a ihe nitrogen contained in it amounted to no more than that assumed by Liebig, it would require fifty-four Jays to obtain from this source a single grain of nitrogen. Whe.: we consider, therefore, the large quantity of urea in urine, and that nearly 45 per cent, of this is ni-ogen, the proportion obtained from inspired air would seem tc be too small to be taken into account. L. * Ann. de Chim. et de Physique, t. iii. p. 66. 1816. t Quoted by Miiller. \ Ten thousand parts of potatoes contain, according to Boussingault, only thirty-seven parts of nitrogen. Birch's History of the Royal Society of London, vol. iv. p. 93. j| See the Report of the Gelatine Committee, in th> Comples Rendus des Seances de V Academic des Sciences, No. V. Aout, 1841. 1 Appendix, C. ** Voyages and Travels in the Levant, p. 298. London, 1766. 20 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. not one to be relied on. Of the use of gum by the Moors, Negroes, and Hottentots, we have but little detailed and satisfactory information. The evidence of the nutritive property of sugar will be hereafter stated ; but I may here mention that 't applies principally to the use of this substance in an impure state, in which it contains nitrogenous matter.* Moreover, it is probable that nitrogenized food is, in gen- eral, used in combination with sugar. 3. The third argument is, that the food of all animals, herbivorous and carnivorous, con- tains nitrogenized matters, identical in composition with the principal constitutes of the blood and organized tissues of the animal body; and, therefore, the carbon of gam, sugar, and starch, and the carbon and hydrogen of {he fats and oils, are not required for the production of blood. One of the most surprising facts for which we are indebted to the school of Gies^Mi is, that vegetables contain organic principles identical in composition with animal fibrine, albumen, and caseine. "They are not merely similar," observes Liebig, "but absolutely identical, not only in having the same proportion of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitro- gen, which the animal principles contain, but also in possessing the same relative amount of sulphur, phosphorus, and phosphate of lime." Fibrine, albumen, and caseine, both animal and vegetable, dissolve in a solution of caustic potash. If, to the resulting liquid, acetic acid be added, the same precipitate is obtained, whichever of the above three principles has been employed. The substan^ thus precipitated has been called, by its discoverer, Mulder, proteine (from wpwrtrfw / hold the first place.) Its formula, according to Liebig, is C n HK N Ou-f Fibrine, albumen, and caseine, are compounds of proteine and sulphur, and, in the case of the two first of these bodies, of phosphorus also. ANIMAL. VI:<;F.TABLE. Fibrine . Proteine -4- S -j- Ph. I Fibrine . =Proteine -4- S -1- Ph Albumen . =Proteine 4- S a -f Ph. Albumen . ^Proteine -f- S 1 -}- Ph. Caseine . Proteine -\- S | Caseine . =Proteine -j- S "Vegetable fibrine and animal fibrine, vegetable albumen and animal albumen, hardly differ," says Liebig, " even in form ; if these principles be wanting in the food, the nu- trition of the animal is arrested; and when they are present, the graminivorous animal obtains in its food the very same principles, on the presence of which the nutrition of the carnivora entirely depends." 4. The fourth argument is, that the quantity of nitrogenized food, which herbiiorous ani- mals consume, is amply sujjicient for the growth and development of their organs and for the supply of waste. We are indebted to Boussingaultf for the demonstration of the truth of this statement, in the case of the cow and the horse. The following table is taken from his memoir : the numbers represent French grammes [1 gramme= 15-434 grs. troy.] * An amusing illustration of this has been furnished by Liebig with respect to the saccharine juice of maple trees, which he found to emit so much ammonia when mixed with lime, that suspicion w:is at first excited that some malicious wag had introduced urine into it , and, accordingly, the vessels, wh.ca hung upon the trees in order to collect the juice, were watched with great attention. t Dumas (Essai de Statique Chimique de^etres organises, p. 56, 2mc ed. 1842,) gives the following as the formula for fibrine. albumen, and caseum : C 48 H 39 N 6 O 15 . This is equal to 48 eq Carbon, 6 eq. Ammo- nium, and 15 eq. Water : he also states that the analyses made in Liebig's laboratory agree best with the following : C< 8 H* N6 O 1 *, which is equal to 48 eq. Carbon, 3 eq. Ammonium, 3 eq. Ammonia, and 15 eq. Water. t Ann. de Chim. et de Physique, t. 1m. NITROGEN. 21 EXCRETIONS OF A HORSE IN TWENTY-FOUR HOURS. fc* 2 3 Is f} a Gi CD *^ 1^ rH lO 1 CD * In Boussingault's table, the quantity of carbon contained in the excrements is stated to be 1364.4. This, however, is an error, (as may be seen by referring to p. 134 of the 71st vol. of the Annales de Chimie el Physique.) Uo rH OS ^ rv| rH CO rH uaSoj)i^ GO CO i^* r^ CO i> rH ua2ojpX[j O GO rH CO rH C5 rH ,0 W i i 1 ' JMJ ^ 1 CO 1 .5 I | CO ID i i rH EXCRETIONS. Urine .... Excrements . . "3 o H FOOD CONSUMED BY A HORSE IN TWENTY-FOUR HOURS. s * t S "* s i GO rH CO rH l^ CO s *- - CO CO ; CO CO ,,^o O CO 1 S CO CD GO uao.ui^ 1^ 6? O5 -^ CO rH rH rH CO ' uaSojpXjj CO CO co cb CO rH ID CO CO r^ r^ C5 ^i i i i CO ; uoqj3 P P r ~ l ^ Oi Oi O Oi 1 I CO rH rH ife 1 f^l CO rH CO GO 00 CO CD : fa ^ rH i> ' GO (70 rH i rH O ! 1 '- ARTICLES OF FOOD. d) > -2 ^ CO Cfl ^. ffi t^ H H Q O o o CO in Qj | 22 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. Now : appears from this table, that after deducting the nitrogen of the urine and ex- crements from that contained in the food, the surplus quantity is 24 grammes, (370 T Vo*o grs. troy ) and if we assume that ordinary blood contains 80 per cent of water, and that the dry residue (20 per cent.) contains 15-07 per cent, of nitrogen, it follows that 370 f Voo grs. troy of nitrogen are sufficient to form 2457 T YoVo gi"s. troy of dried blood, or 122S9 T Y?f 7 o rs - tr y (equal to lib. 12 oz. 40 grs. avoirdupois) of ordinary blood: in other words, about Ifib. avoirdupois of blood may be formed daily from the above quantity of food. Moreover 100 parts of dried blood contain 51*96 of carbon, and, therefore, 2457 T YoVo grs. troy contain about 1277 grs. troy of carbon. If, therefore, we abstract the latter quan- tity from 38046 T 3 ^o 3 o 4 o g rs - tr y (=2465'1 grammes,) the residual carbon in Boussingault's table, we have 36369 yV^o" grs.'troy (5 IDS. 3oz. 56^grs. avoirdupois) of carbon to be thrown out of the system by 'e lungs and skin in the form of carbonic acid. Now Bous- singault calculates that a horse expires daily 28078 grs. troy (about 4 Ibs. avoirdupois) of carbon. I have thus endeavored to lay before my readers the opinions recently advanced with respect to the uses of nitrogenized and non-nitrogenized foods in the animal economy. These opinions may be thus briefly stated : 1. Nitrogenized foods are alone capable of conversion into blood, and of forming organ- ized tissues. 2. Nitrogenized foods which contain proteine, as albumen, fibrine, caseine, and gluten, alone form the albuminous and fibrinous tissues. 3. Gelatine is incapable of conversion into blood ; but it may perhaps serve for the" nu- trition of the gelatinous tissues, (cellular tissue, membrane, and cartilage.) 4. Non-nitrogenized foods support the process of respiration by yielding carbon, and, in some cases, hydrogen, to be burnt in the lungs, and thereby to keep up the animal tem- perature. 5. Some of the non-nitrogenized foods contribute to the formation of fat, the carbon and hydrogen of which are ultimately burnt in the lungs, and thereby develop heat. 6. With the exception of the substance of cellular tissue, of membranes, and of the brain and nerves, all the organic materials of which the animal body is composed are derived from vegetables, which alone possess the property of producing compounds of proteine. The evidence hitherto adduced in favor of these opinions, I have already briefly noticed and criticised. I propose now to state a few circumstances which appear to me to rai.se some difficulties or objections to the unqualified admission of the opinions above refer- red to. 1. When benzoic acid, a non-nitrogenous substance, is taken into the stomach, it ap- pears in the urine it) the form of hippuric acid. For this fact we are indebted to Dr. Alexander Ure. This hippuric acid is probably formed by the elements of the benzoic acid, with the addition of those of lactate of urea. 1 oq. Urea . 1 eq. Lactic Acid 1 eq. Benzoic Acid Total C' N IP 0' C H< C - H 10 O 8 2 eq. crystallized Hippuric Acid c * N , HM o , 9 v It cannot, therefore, be doubted, " that a non-azotized substance, taken in the food, can take a share, by means of its elements, in the act of transformation of the animal ti.- and in the formation of a secretion." Consequently, the possibility of the conversion of NITROGEN. 23 non-nitrogenized foods into nitrogenized constituents of the animal oody does not appear by any means improbable. 2. Lisbig's explanation of the uses of nitrogenized and non- nitrogenized foods does not account for the fact stated by the Commissioners of the French Academy,* that while fibrine, albumen, and gelatine, taken together or separately, are incapable of supporting animal life, gluten from wheat or maize is alone sufficient to satisfy complete and pro- longed nutrition. As fibrine, aloumen, and gluten, are said to be identical in composition, their nutritive powers ought to be equal.f 3. According to Liebig and Dumas, sugar is an element of respiration.' Now as it can on,/ reacii the lungs by means of the blood, traces of it ought to be found in this fluid : yet it does not appear that sugar is a constituent of healthy blood. At least it has not hitherto been found in it, though To-^oTth P a ^t of sugar added to blood can be readily de- tected.J This circumstance, therefore, seems rather to show that sugar undergoes some complete change in its nature previous to its passage into the blood. Several facts favor this opinion. In the first place, of the foods (viz. yolk of eggs, and milk,) supplied by nature for the early stages of animal existence, sugar is found only in that food (milk) which undergoes digestion before its application to the purposes of the economy Sec- ondly, in diabetes, the digestive powers are greatly impaired, and saccharine assimilation is suspended. Sugar is then detected in the blood. Now it cannot be said that its pres- ence is owing to any defect in the respiratory process, since fatty matter appears to suffer the ordinary changes in the pulmonary organs. 4. According to Dr. Prout, the contents of the stomachs of animals fed on vegetable substances, even when fully digested, and about to pass the pylorus, exhibit no traces of an albuminous principle ; while the ch v mous mass of animals fed on animal food contains albumen. COMPOSITION OF THE CHYMOUS MASS FROM THE DUODENUM OF THE DOG. Vegetable Food. Animal Food. Water 86-5 80-0 Chyme, &c 6-0 15-8 Albuminous Matter . 1-3 Biliary Principle Vegetable Gluten ? . . 1-6 5-0 1-7 Saline Matters ... 0-7 0-7 Insoluble Residuum . , 0-2 0-5 100-0 100-0 It would appear, therefore, that albumen is formed subsequently to the passage of the chyme into the duodenum. Now this is in complete contradiction to Liebig's statement, that albumen pre-exists in the vegetable food of the herbivora, and is not formed in the * Camples Rendus, Aout, 1842. t Tiedemann and Gmelin found it impossible to sustain the life of geese by means of boiled white of gg. " This," says Liebig, (Animal Chemistry, p. 106,) " may be easily explained, when we reflect that a graminivorous animal, especially when deprived of free motion, cannot obtain, from the transformation or wav'e of the tissues alone, enough of carbon for the respiratory process. 21bs. [Hessian] of albumen contain only 34 oz. [Hessian] of carbon, of which, among the last products jf transformation, a fourth part is given off in the form of uric acid. t Tromer, (P'inrmat,e tisches Central-Blatt fur 1841, p. 764.) <5 Annuls of Philosophy, vol. xiii. 1819. 124 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. nnimal economy.* Dr. Prout's statement harmonizes well with another fact, well known to physiologists, namely, the non-existence of fibrine in the contents of the duodenum, though, according to Liebig, this principle' also pre-exists in the food of animals, arid is not formed by them. It has even been said that the chyle contains no iibrine until after its passage through the mesenteric glands.f 5. If the nitrogenized substances requisite for the nutrition of the animal body exist ready formed in plants, the necessity of more complex organs of digestion for the herbivora than for the carnivora is not very obvious. LiebigJ thinks that it " is rather owing to the difficulty of rendering soluble and available for the vital processes certain non-azotized compounds (gum ? amylaceous fibre 1) than to any thing in the change or transformation of vegetable fibrine, albumen, and caseine, into blood; since, for this latter purpose, the less complex digestive apparatus of the carnivora is amply sufficient." But this suggestion is not a very satisfactory one. Gummy and amylaceous substances are eaten, and, appa- rently, digested, by some animals which are essentially carnivorous in the structure of their alimentary canal. Moreover, as the leading distinction in the food of the herbivora and carnivora consists in the use, by the former, of substances containing vegetable fibrine, albumen, and caseine, while the latter employ animal fibrine, albumen, and caseine, it appears more natural to connect the peculiarity in the structure of the digestive organs with the nitrogenized, than with the non-nitrogenized food. 6. No plausible explanation has hitherto been offered, by Liebig, or others, of the i sity for the variation of diet, and for the use of succulent vegetables or fruits, which ex- perience has shown to be necessary for the preservation of human health and life. Liebig has shown that food must contain both a plastic element of nutrition and an element of respiration ; but it is well known that a diet (as of salt meat and biscuit) which fulfils both of these conditions, is not always sufficient to preserve health and life. It cannot be a matter of doubt that non-nitrogenized substances are intended by nature to constitute part of the food of man and other animals, but especially of the herbivora, since we find them in the aliments supplied by nature for animals during the first period of their existence. Thus, in the yolk of egg (the food of the embryo chick) we find fixed oil, and in milk we have sugar and butter, both non-nitrogenous principles. If to proofs we further add the fondness of animals for nitrogenized substances, the craving, nay, almost insatiable desire, for them, manifested by individuals who are deprived of th.-m, and the fact before mentioned, that nitrogenized food alone cannot support life, not a doubt can remain in our minds that these principles are essential to health and life. In commencing our inquiry, then, into the particular purpose they serve in the animal economy, I would observe, in the first place, that with the exception of fat, none of them are constituents of the animal system ; nor in a state of health are they found in the blood$ or the excretions. It is obvious, therefore, that they must suffer some change or transformation in the organism. Now they all consist of carbon, hydrogen, and ox In starch, sugar, and gum, the hydrogen and oxygen are exactly in the ratio to form wa- * I have already (p. 18) noticed Dr. Prout's suggestion of the possible secretion of nitrogen!; ed matter by the duodenum, for the purpose of converting non-nitrogenized foods into the nitrogenized constitu- ents of the body. t Gulliver (English Translation of Gerber's Anatomy, p. 94) says he has seen a distinct clot in the chj le of the afferent lacteals. In this case, therefore, fibrin must have been present. t Animal Chemistry, p. 165. $ " Hitherto grape sugar has not been detected in the blood, though y^^^ part of it, added to blood, can he readily detected," (Trommer, Pharmacftidschcs Cinlral-BlaU fur 1841, p. 764.) NITROGEN. 25 ter. Do they, therefore, contribute carbon, and in some cases hydrogen also, to assist in the formation of blood 1 ? Liebig asserts they do not, for he observes that as the nitrogen- ized principles used as food contain exactly the "amount of carbon [and hydrogen] which is required for the production of fibrine and albumen," it follows that th?, carbon of gum, sugar, and starch, and the carbon and hydrogen of butter and other fats, cannot "be em- ployed in the production of blood." If the nitrogenized principles contained less carbon than albumen and fibrine, then starch, sugar, gum, and fat, might give up some carbon to compensate the difference. He, therefore, concludes, that these bodies yield their car- bon, arid, when their hydrogen is in excess to their oxygen, part of their hydrogen also, to form, with atmospheric oxygen, carbonic acid and water, and, therefore, to develop heat. They serve to protect the organism from the action of the oxygen, which, in the a-bsence of food, consumes the tissues. " If," says Liebig, " we observe a man or other animal in sickness, or at any time when the body is not supplied with nourishment to compensate for the continual loss, we find him to become lean ; the fat is the first to dis- appear, it x^anishes through the skin and lungs in the form of carbonic acid and water, as none of it can be found in the faeces or urine : it resists the action of the atmosphere on the body, and is a protection to the organs. But the action of the atmosphere does not end with the loss of fat : every soluble substance of the body enters into combination with the oxygen of the air. The influence of the oxygen of the atmosphere is the cause of death in most chronic diseases ; from want of carbon to resist its action, that of the nerves and brain is used. In a normal state of health and nutrition, the carbon of the carbonic acid must have another source." Thus, then, it would appear that nitrogenized aliments alone are assimilated : the non-nitrogenous ones are burnt in the lungs. But it may be asked, why, if both sugar and fat serve merely for combustion in the lungs, are both of these principles contained in the milk, since, theoretically, one of them would appear to be sufficient 1 Moreover, if sugar be burnt in the lungs, is it not re- markable that, as I have already stated, (p. 24,) it has not, in the healthy system, been detected while in its passage from the digestive organs to the lungs ] Surely some traces of it ought to be recognizable in the blood. Hitherto, however, none have been found. Does not this fact seem to show that it undergoes some transmutation during digestion, differing from that which fatty substances suffer. The yolk of the egg serves directly for* the nourishment of the embryo chick, but it contains one non-nitrogenized organic principle (oil) only. But milk, which also serves for animal food, contains two, (butter and sugar.) Now milk requires to be digested before it can be assimilated : whereas yolk of egg does not, in fact, it serves for food before the digestive organs are devel- oped. This fact, therefore, favors the notion that sugar is in some way connected with the digestive process. Alcohol is classed among the elements of respiration; and it cannot be doubted that it undergoes some change in the animal economy. When taken into the stomach it is absorbed, and gets into the circulating mass. Now, how does it get out of the system ] Certainly not by the bowels, urine, or skin. A portion of it escapes by the lungs, and is recognizable by its odor in the breath ; bu^the quantity in this way thrown out of the system is comparatively small, and is certainly quite disproportionate to that often swal lowed. Moreover, it is principally when the quantity taken is very large that it is most recognizable in the breath ; when, in fact, the function of respiration is very imperfectly performed. What, then, becomes of it ? By itself it cannot form tissues, since it is de- ficient in some of their essential ingredients, namely, nitrogen, suiphur, and phosphorus; and therj is no reason to suppose that it contributes, even in part, to the renovation of 20 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. tissues. Liebig's suggestion, that it is burnt in the lungs, and thereby converted into carbonic acid and water, appears to me a very plausible one. Now, to convert it into these substances, it merely requires oxygen. CONVERSION OF ALCOHOL INTO CARBONIC ACID AND WATER. Alcohol C Oxygen O 12 Carbonic Acid . . . . C 4 O 8 Water . . IP O 8 Total . . CHCM- Total C 1 H 8 O 1 By its oxidation in the lungs it must evolve caloric, and thus, when used in modera- tion, it serves to support the temperature of the body. Alcohol, therefore, is a fuel in the animal economy, by the combustion of which caloric is evolved. Common experience favors this view. Coachmen and others take it in cold weather to keep them warm, and it is familiarly used to prevent what i.s commonly called " catching cold." In cases of extreme suffering and exhaustion from excessive exertion and privation of food, the cautious and moderate dietetical use of spirit has, on many occasions, proved invaluable. In Captain Bligh's account* of the sufferings of himself and companions, in consequence of the mutiny of the crew of the Bounty, he ob- serve?, "The little rum we had was of great service : when our nights were particu- larly distressing, I generally served a tea-spoonful or two to each person: and it was joyful tidings when they heard of my intentions." It is said, that the inhabitants of colder climates take more spirit than others, and with less injury. Liebig accounts for this by saying that they inhale a more condensed air, that is, they take in more oxygen at every inspiration ; combustion is more rapid in them, and thus the elements of the al- cohol are more speedily got rid of. f I trust that in offering these remarks on the effects of alcohol, I may not be mi.-und.T- stood. Though alcohol evolves heat in burning, it is an obnoxious fuel. Its volatility, and the facility with which it permeates membranes and tissues, enable it to be rapidly absorbed ; and when it gets into the blood it exerts a most injurious operation, be: is burnt in the lungs, on the brain and the liver.}: Though by its combustion heat is evolved, yet, under ordinary circumstances, there are other better, safer, and less injuri- ous combustibles to be burned in the vital lamp.} . Some of these non-nitrogenized foods serve another purpose in the animal economy they contribute to the formation offal. Wlu-n the quantity of these foods taken into the stomach is great, that is, out of proportion to the quantity of oxygen absorbed by thu lungs, fat is, under some circumstances, formed. Sugar, starch, and gum, become, by the loss of part of their oxygen, fat ; for the relative proportion of their carbon and hy- drogen is almost identical with that of fat. * Voynge to the South Seas in 1787-9, p. 190. Lond. 1792. t The Highlanders, who it is well known are immoderate drinkers, pretend that spirit does not intoxi- cate in ihe Hills as it would do in the Low Country. (See Letters from a Gentleman in the North oj Scotland to liis Friend n London, vol. ii. p. 161, 5th ed. Lond. 1318.) I Alcohol acts on the stomach belbre it is absorbed. Its operation on the brain and liver are probably referable to its topical action on these organs after it gets into the blood ; for it has been detected both in the brain and liver of those who have died under its influence. (See my Elements of Mutcria .' vol. i. p. 359, 2d edit.) $ Appendix, D. NITROGEN. 27 RELATIVE PROPORTIONS OF CARBON AND HYDROGEN IN SOME NON-NITROGENIZED PRINCIPLES. Starch contains . 79 Carbon to 10-99 Hydrogen Sugar . 79 11-80 Gum . 79 " 11-80 Mutton fat . 79 11-1 Human fat 79 11-4 Hog's lard 79 " 11-7 Some facts adduced by Liebig are almost conclusive that starch and sugar may become ;onverted into fat in the animal economy. A lean goose weighing 41bs. gained, in thirty- six days, during which it was fed with 241bs. of maize, 51bs. in weight, and yielded 3$lbs. of fat. Now this fat could not have been contained in the food ready formed, because maize does not contain the thousandth part of its weight of fat, or of any substances resembling fat. A certain number of bees, the weight of which was exactly known, were fed with pure honey devoid of wax. They yielded one part of wax for every twenty parts of honey consumed, without any change being perceptible in their health or in their weight. I agree with Liebig, that with these facts before us, " it is impossible any longer to entertain doubt as to the formation of fat from sugar in the animal body.* f J Now, alcohol is an element of respiration. Does it form fat 7 I think not. In the first place, its carbon and hydrogen are not in the ratio of those of fat, for it contains 79 parts of carbon to 1974 of hydrogen. Secondly, we do not find that spirit drinkers are fat ; but, on the contrary, emaciated. Hogarth, in his Beer Alley and Gin Lane, has ludicrously though faithfully represented the differences in the appearance of beer topers and spirit tipplers. The first are plump, rubicund, and bloated ; the latter are pale, tot- tering, emaciated, and miserable. But, it may be asked, what is the use of fat in the animal economy 1 It is a reservoir of food. During long fasting and hybernation it is absorbed and consumed. It is the food apparently on which the animal, at these times, exists. Is it then capable of reno- vating the tissues ; and, if so, where does it derive the necessary quantity of nitrogen ? Liebig asserts that it does not renovate. It merely yields, he says, carbon and hydrogen to be burnt in the lungs, by which the animal temperature is supported without the living organs being oxidized and destroyed. Dr. Prout, on the other hand, as I have already stated, (p. 18,) believes that fat may be converted into most, if not all, the matters neces- sary for the existence of animal bodies.^ Nutritive equivalents. Several writers have endeavored to form a scale of nutritive equivalents, the value of which, if accurate, will be universally admitted. Boussingault has suggested one, founded on the quantity of nitrogen contained in foods. BOUSSINGAULTS SCALE OF NUTRITIVE EQUIVALENTS. Substances. Equivts. Wheat-flour .... 100 Wheat 107 Barley-meal ... 119 Barley .... 130 Substances. Equivts. White haricots ... 56 Lentils 57 White garden cabbage . . 810 Ditto, dried at 2 12= . 83 * The mode of promoting obesity, practised in certain parts of the world, lends support to the above statements. If " we can trust to the reports of physicians who have resided in the East," says Liebig, " the Turkish women, in their diet of rice, and in the frequent use of enemata of strong soup, have united^he conditions necessary for the formation both of cellular tissue and fat." M. Caullet de Vau- raoral, quoted by Mrs. Walker, (Female Beauty, p. 171. Lond. 1837,) states that in the Bey's seraglio at Tripoli, women are fattened against a certain day by means of repose and baths, assisted by a diet of Turkish flour, mixed with honey. Fifteen days, he says, were sufficient for the purpose. t See page t Appendix E. Appendix, F. 28 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. Substanc;*- Oats Kve ... Rice Buckwheat; Maize, or Indian corn Horse-beans Peas Equivts. 117 111 177 108 138 41 67 Substances. Potatoes . Ditto, kept 10 months Ditto, dried at 212 Carrot Ditto dried at 212 . Jerusalem artichoke Turnips . Equivta. 613 894 126 757 95 539 1335 It will be observed, that in this table 44 parts of horse-beans, or 67 of peas, are repre- sented as being equal in nutritive power to 100 parts of wheat flour. Surely, this cannot be correct ? Liebig admits, that though lentils, beans, and peas, surpass all other vegeta- ble food in the quantity of nitrogen they contain, yet that they possess but small value as articles of nourishment, because they are deficient in the component parts of the bones, (subphosphate of lime and magnesia ;) they satisfy the appetite without increasing the strength. If this explanation be correct, it suggests the use of bone-ashes with either horse-beans or peas, as constituting a most nutritive and economical food.* It may be objected that all nitrogenized vegetable principles are not nutritive, for the most powerful of the vegetable poisons, as the vegetable alkalies, are nitrogenized ;f and, therefore, the presence of such substances would lower the nutritive equivalent. '> over, rain-water contains ammonia, which being contained in the vegetable juices, would lead to an erroneous estimate of the nutritive value of many plants. Boussingault has met the first of these objections by observing, that these violent poisons are not found in appreciable quantity in alimentary plants ; and, therefore, a vegetable substance which has been accepted as animal nourishment may be inferred to be devoid of any hurtful principle. Bat this assertion must be received with considerable limitation. The solanina of po- tatoes, the svlphosinapisin of white mustard, and the myronic acid of black mustard, are nitrogenized, though not nutritive, principles, which occur in substances used as food, and whose presence must erroneously lower the nutritive equivalent ; that : estimated nutritive value of the substances in which they are respectively contained. And if we were to apply Boussingault's principle to animal substances, we should * The views of Dr. Prout do not seem to differ essentially from those of the Author in relation to the use of fat in the animal economy. Dr. Prout remarks, "that the oleaginous principle may verted into most, if not into all the matters necessary for the existence of animal fto.ii, . -<< m proved by the well-known fact that the life of an animal may be prolonged by the absorption of the oleaginous matter contained within its own body." Dr. Prout does not maintain that fat is capable of renovating the tissues, but only that it may serve to prolong animal life; an opinion entirely coincident with that of Liebig. L. t Liebig asserts that all the [vegetable] poisons contain nitrogen. But anth embryo chick. "One great use of tfu .^olk," says Dr. Prout, "evidently is to fur- nish the phosphorus, entering as phosphoric acid, into the skeleton of the animal." In milk (the aliment of young mammals) it is also a constant ingredient, existing as sub- phosphate of lime. It is a constituent of the blood, the flesh, and the bones of animals employed by man as food. In the bones it exists, as I have just stated, in the form of subphosphate of lime, which salt is also found in the blood and flesh. But fibrine and albumen, both of them constituents of blood and flesh, contain phosphorus. In what state, it may be asked, does it exist in these organic principles ? When separated by an alkali, (potash,) it is found as phosphorus or phosphoric acid. Now it has been supposed that the oxygen of this acid was derived from the potash, the potassium of which combined with the sul- phur found in both fibrine and albumen. But caseine yields equally sulphuret of potas- sium when treated with caustic potash, although it contains no phosphorus to abstract the oxygen. Hence, then, it is not known precisely in what form phosphorus exists in fibrine and albumen. Fishes are especially rich in phosphoric matter ; a fact which ex- * Tli 3 reader is referred to the Comptes Rendus des Seances de TAcadcmie dcs Sciences, Aout, 1841, for the Report made by the Gelatine Committee. This report is the result of ten years' labor. The re- porter (31 Magendie) shows that though raw bones are capable of effecting the complete and prolonged nutrition of dogs, yet that there is no process known for extracting from bones an aliment which, either alone, or mixed with other substances, can be substituted for meat. He also infers that as gelatine, albumen, or fibrine, separately or artificially combined, are incapable of permanently nourishing ; while flesh, which consists of gelatine, albumen, fibrine, fat, salts, &c. combined according to laws of organic nature, suffices, even in small quantity, for complete and prolonged nutrition it is the u organic condi- tion" which forms such an important element in this process. t Ann. de Chim. et de Physique, p. 190. 1834. t Journ. de Chim. Med. t. 1, He Serie, p. 344. 1835. PhU. Trans, for 1822, p. 388-9. 30 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. plains the circumstance related by Dumas,* of the evolution of phosphu retted hydrogen in the purification of spirit which had been used for preserving fish. I have frequently recognised a powerful phosphoric odor in the breath of patients. I have noticed that it occurs after certain kinds of food, as lobster and crab. I have also met with it after the use of some Indian condiments. Phosphorus is a constituent of most vegetable substances, being found in the ashes of plants, principally in the form of an earthy phosphate, (lime or magnesia.) "The soil in which plants grow furnishes them with phosphoric acid, and they in turn yield it to animals, to be used in the formation of their bones, and of those constituents of the brain which contain'phosphoru^. Much more phosphorus is thus afforded to the body than it requires, when flesh, bread, fruit, and husks of grain, are used for food, and this excess is eliminated in the urine and the solid excrements. We may form an idea of the quantity of phosphate of magnesia contained in grain, when we consider that the con- cretions in the caecum of horses consist of phosphate of magnesia and ammonia, which must have been obtained from the hay and oats consumed as food."f The concretions (hippolilki) here referred to sometimes attain the size of a child's head. Several of this magnitude are contained in the Anatomical Museum of the London Hospital. I have one weighing between five and six pounds. Ammoniacal phosphate of magnesia " is an invariable constituent of the seeds of all the grasses. It is contained in the outer horny husk, and i.s introduced into bread along with the flour, and also into beer. The bran of flour contains the greatest quantity of it." " When ammonia is mixed with bt same salt separates as a white precipitate."f "The small quantity of phosphates which the seeds of the lentils, beans, and peas contain, must be the cause of their small value as articles of nourishment, since they surpass all other vegetable food in the quantity of nitrogen vhich enters into their com- position. But as the component parts of the bones (phosphate of lime and magnesia) are absent, they satisfy the appetite without increasing the strength."} Unrefined sugar contains an earthy phosphate ; for the crust which is deposited in the boilers used in the preparation of raw sugar, contains, according to Avequin,|| no less tli an 9243 per cent, of subphosphate of lime. "Phosphate of magnesia and am- monia forms the principal inorganic constituent of the potatoe."1T The following table shows the quantity of phosphorus contained in some alimentary substances : QUANTITY OF PHOSPHORUS IN CERTAIN FOODS. Qiinntity of 1000 Parts, ".rus. Authority.** Fibrine (dried) . . .) 4.3^3.3 ' Mulder.tt Albumen of egt?s (dried) . . . { Albumen of MTiim of blood (dried) Mulder. Vegetable fibrine . . . ) as animal fibrine ) albumen . . . \ and albumen * liaile de Chimie appliquee aux Arts, t. i. p. 266. t Liebisr, Chemistry in its Abdication to Agriculture and Physiology, p 143. t Op. supra cit. p. 02. Ibid. p. 147. || Journal ik Pharmacie, t. ixvii. p. 1">. 1T I.ipVe op. supra cit. p. 205. ** Several of the authorities quoted in this table merely state the quantity of phosphates present ; 1 have, therefore, calculated the quantity of phosphorus present on the assumption that 100 parts of the earthy phosphates are equal to 22 parts of phosphorus. ft Pharmaceutischcs Central Rhitt fur 1S3-*, p. 835. PHOSPHORUS. 1000 Parts. Cerebric acid (in brain) . Oleophosphoric acid (in brain Caseine . Bone, Ilium of Ox Fibia of Sheep .Milk Blood (average) Potatoes (dried) Wheat Rye Barley Oats Rice Garlic Quantity of Phosphorus. 9 12 to 19 9-944 11-4334 0-56 0-143 . 2-5 ( from 0-792 ") > to 1-93 1-32 to 9-196 J- . 0-22 to 1-32 . 0-352 to 1-32J . 0-286 to 0-88 0-242 Authority. Fremy.* Ditto. Berzelius.t Thomson.} Ditto. Berzelius. Denis.^ Einhoft.H Hermbstaedt.H 6. SULPHUR. Sulphur is a constituent of both animals and vegetables. Fibrine and albumen, and all tissues composed of these substances, contain it. A solution of flesh in liquor potassae contains sulphuret of potassium ; and if hydrochloric acid be added to it, sulphuretted hydrogen is evolved, and is detected by its staining paper moistened with a solution of sugar of lead. The discoloration which a silver spoon suffers by being used in eating eggs, depends on the formation of sulphuret of silver. It is probable, therefore, that the sulphur of both fibrine and albumen is uncombined with oxygen. If some white of egg, boiled hard, be decomposed by heat, it evolves hydrosulphuret of ammonia, which discolors paper moistened with sugar of lead. Caseine also contains sulphur, as do likewise hair and bones. The efficacy of a mixture of finely powdered litharge (oxide of lead) and lime (hair dye) in staining the hajr, depends on the forma- tion of the black sulphuret of lead. The lime serves to form, in the first place, a sulphu- ret of calcium with the sulphur of the hair. The lead afterwards unites with the sulphur. Animal charcoal (bone-black) evolves sulphuretted hydrogen, when treated with hydro- chloric acid, showing that sulphur was a constituent of bones. The existence of sulphur in so many animal substances, serves to explain the evolu- tion of sulphuretted hydrogen and hydrosulphuret of ammonia, by putrifying animal substances ; excrement, for example. Indeed, so much sulphur is obtained in this way, that some geologists have considered it to be a source of, at least part of, the native sul- phur of the mineral kingdom.** That sulphuretted hydrogen is evolved in privies is proved by its darkening the white paint, and by its blackening silver articles (watches, coin, spoons, &c.) which have accidentally fallen into the night soil. Game, when very high, will sometimes discolor the silver fork used in eating it. Sulphur is thrown out of the system in various excretions. Thus, the urine contains sulphates, in part formed by the action of the oxygen of the arterial blood on the sulphur * Journal de Pharmacie, t. xxvii. p. 453. 1841. t Traite de Chimie,.t. vil. p. 606. | Cheaditry of Animal Bodies, p. 241,242. 1843. % Essai sur V Application de la Chimie a I 'Etude physiologique du Sang de I'Homme, p. 211244 I Thomson's Chemistry of Organic Bodies Vegetables, p. 840. 1" Anleitung zur chemischen Zcrgliederung der Vegetabilien iiberhaupt und dcr Getreidtarten msbe$onder& I^eipzig, 1831. The nature of the manure modifies the quantity of earthy phosphates found in corn. ** Broc albumen, and Licbig caseine ) caseine. ) Volatile oil of black mustard 204-8 Sulphosinapisine (in white mustard) . . . 96-57 Asafoetida . . . , 20-C Ure.t These are some only of the substances from which the sulphur of our system is de- rived. Others have been already referred to. 7. IRON. Iron is a constituent of most, if not all, organized beings ; and is found in the ashes of both animals and vegetables. The quantity which they contain is, however, small, and has not been accurately ascertained. Moreover, we are unacquainted with the precise state in which it exists in living beings. This metal is an essential constituent of the blood corpuscles, though, according to the recent researches of Scherer, it is neither essential to hffimatosin, nor necessary to the color of the blood. But the well-known beneficial influence of chalybeates in the disease called Anaemia, in which the blood is found to contain a smaller quantity of iron than in a state of health, favors the notion that the proper color of this fluid is in some way con- nected with the amount of iron contained in it; for one of the most characteristic symp- toms of this malady is an absence of the natural vermilion tint of the complexion. According to Denis,J 1000 parts of the blood corpuscles yield 2 parts of per- or ses- quioxide of iron. But as the relative proportions of serum and blood corpuscles are subject to considerable variation, it follows that the quantity of iron contained in a given weight of blood cannot be constant. Moreover, it is probable that the proportion of this metal in the blood corpuscles may not be uniform. The quantity of sesquioxide of iron obtained from 1000 parts of blood, varies, accord- ing to the authority^ just quoted, from 0128 to 0-346 parts. In pale, relaxed individuals, of a lymphatic temperament, in those who have been badly fed, or have been subjected to frequent bleedings, or who are laboring under ansemia, the blood yields the smaller proportion of sesquioxide above referred to. But the blood of strong and vigorous sub- jects, of persons of a sanguine temperament, and of those who. are well fed, furnishes a much greater proportion of iron. LiebigH assumes the existence of a much larger quan- tity of sesquioxide of iron in the blood than is stated by Denis in the work already quoted. TT * According to Mulder, (Pharmaceutisches Central- Blall fur 1838, p. 835,) the formula for fibrine and ovalbumen is C8W Jj&o N Q24C pa 32 ; while that for seralbumen is C Ho Nw O^o ps g^ But Liebig (Animal Chemistry, p. 124) justly observes, that "Every attempt to give the true absolute amount of the atoms in fibrine and albumen in -a rational formula, in which the sulphur and phosphorous are taken, not in fractions, but in entire equivalents, must be fruitless, because we are absolutely unable to determine with perfect accuracy the exceedingly minute quantities of sulphur and phosphorus in such compounds; and because a variation in the sulphur or phosphorus, smaller in extent than the usual limits of errors of observation, will affect the number of atoms of carbon, hydrogen, or oxygen, to the extent of 10 atoms or more." t Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. i. p. 461. t Essai sur T Application de la Chimie a V Elude Physiologique du Sang de VHomme, p. 205. Paris, 1838. Op. supra cit. pp. 211 244. II Animal Chemistry, p. 273. 1T In a work published by Denis in 1830, and entitled Recherches Experimentales sur le Sang Humain, the mean quantity of iron in 1000 parts of blood is said to be 0-9, but in his more recent work, from which the statement in the text has been taken, he states (p. 193) he has substituted Lecanu's method of deter- mining the proportion of iron, as being infinitely more exact than his own. 3 34 ELEMENTS OF FOODS. " According to the researches of Denis, Richardson, an*.' Nasse, (Handworterbuch der Physiologic, vol. i. p. 138,)" says Liebig, "10,000 parts of blood contain 8 parts of peroxide of iron." Now 8 parts of peroxide are equal to 5 r 8 oths parts of the pure metal. Liebig regards the compound of iron in the blood as an oxidized one. In the arterial blood it is saturated with oxygen, (hydrated sesquioxide ;) but during its passage through the capillaries it loses part of its oxygen,* and becomes protoxide of iron, which combines with carbonic acid, one of the products of the oxidation of the metamorphosed tissues, and forms carbonate of the protoxide of iron, which exists in venous blood. This, in the lungs, absorbs the same amount of oxygen it had lost, and gives out its acquired carbonic acid. But the fact, that for every volume of oxygen absorbed by carbonate of the pro- toxide of iron no less than four volumes of carbonic acid are evolved, appears to me to present some difficulties to its admission. QUANTITY OF OXYGEN ABSORBED, AND CARBONIC ACID EVOLVED, BY CARBON- ATE OF THE PROTOXIDE OF IRON. 4 cq. of Carbonate of Protoxide of Iron, . . . 232 1 vol. or 2 eq. of Oxygen absorbed .... 16 248 4 vols. or eq. Carbonic Acid evolved .... 83 4 eq. Sesquioxide of Iron formed 160 Now it has already been stated (pp. 7 and 13) that in the process of respiration, the quantity, by volume, of carbonic acid expired, is not equal to that of the oxygen which has disappeared. If we assume that the venous blood contains protoxide of iron, a portion only of which is in combination with carbonic acid, this difficulty may be obviated. QUANTITY OF OXYGEN ABSORBED, AND CARBONIC ACID EVOLVED. BY PROTOX- IDE AND CARBONATE OF THE PROTOXIDE OF IRON 1 equivalent Carbonate of Protoxide of Iron . 53 3 equivalents of Protoxide of Iron 108 1 vol or 2 equivalents of Oxygen absorbed . 16 1 equivalent or vol. of Carbonic Acid evolved 22 4 equivalents of Sesquioxide of Iron .... 160 182 188 "The frightful effects of sulphuretted hydrogen and of prussic acid, which, when in- spired, put a stop to all the phenomena of motion in a few seconds, are explained in a natural manner by the well-known action of these compounds on those of iron, when alkalies are present ; and free alkali is never absent in the blood," (Liebig.)f Iron is a constituent of the hair. Black hair contains most of this metal ; white hair the least.| Iron has been found by Braconnot in the gastric juice of dogs.} It has likewise been detected in the chyle.|| These facts, then, explain how this metal gets into the blood. * The facility with which, under certain circumstances, the sesquioxide of iron loses part of its oxygen, has been recently applied by Sir J. F. Herschel in the production of photographic pictures, termed Ferrotypes. t The physiological effects of a want of the usual proportion of iron in the blood globules, yet remain to be investigated. If Liebig's hypothesis be correct, then such deficiency must Qause the globules to lose their property of absorbing oxygen, and of afterwards giving up this oxygen and carrying off the resulting carbonic acid, which would doubtless lead to important changes in the temperature and other vital phenomena of the body. The vital motions would go on. but the change of matter would be ar- rested ; no lifeless compounds could consequently be separated, such as bile or urine, and the animal temperature would necessarily sink. The phenomena cctmec ed \vith aggravated cases of anaemia, in leuco-phlegmatic subjects, lend much plausibility to such a doctrine. See further lemarks on this sub- ject, in Appendix, F. L. I Vauquelin, Ann. de Cliim. Iviii. p. 41. $ Ann. ed Alimentary Principles, or Simple Aliments; and, by the combination or mixture of the latter, our ordinary foods, called Compound Aliments, are formed. Some alimentary principles "contain two elements only, as Water. Others contain three, as Sugar and Fat. Proteine is formed of four elements, while Fibrine and Albu- men contain six. Some alimentary principles, as Water and common Salt, are derived from the Mineral Kingdom : others are obtained from the Organized Kingdom. Dr. Prout* arranges alimentary principles in four great classes or groups, viz., the aque- ous, the saccharine, the oleaginous, and the albuminous. The types of these groups are found in milk, the only article of food actually furnished and intended by nature as food for animals. Thus this secretion contains water, sugar, butter, and caseum, (an albumi- nous substance.) This arrangement is a very excellent one ; but several reasons induce me to adopt another. Milk holds in solution saline matter, which is also an essential article of food to the adult animal, and hence I shall admit another class under the name of the saline aliments. Moreover, both chemical and physiological considerations induce me io separate gela- tine from albuminous principles, and, therefore, it will be necessary to have a separate group for gelatinous principles. Furthermore, it appears to me to be desirable to ha ve distinct classes for gum, sugar, starch, vegetable jelly, alcohol, and vegetable acids. Hence I admit the following classes of alimentary principles: CLASSES OF ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 1. The Aqueous. 2. The Munh'.cincms or Gummy. 3. The Sucrharine. 4. The Amylaceous. 5. The Ligneous. 6. The Pectinaceous.t 7. The Acidulous. 8. The Alcoholic. ( J. Tlie Oily or Fatty. I'l. The ProteinaceouH.t 11. The Gelatinous. 12. The Saline. 1. THE AQUEOUS ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. Wat-r is essential to the performance of all vital processes in the higher classes of liv- ing beings ; Mosses, and some of the infusorial animals, may, it is said, be deprived of moisture without having their vitality destroyed.} But with these exceptions moisture seems essential to vital manifestations. This connection between vitality and moisture led the ai dents to suppose that water was the parent of every thing possessed of life.[| )>. tht Nature. 'and Trait mmt of Stomach and Urinary Diseases, p vi. Lond. 1840. t PecttMoeeoits t from/wchn, vegetable jelly. $ Proieinaceous, from proteinc, the organic constituent of fibrine, albumen, and caseine. <5> Needham, Baker, Spallanzani, and Fontana, quoted by Tiederaann in his Traite Ccanplet de Physio- logic de THomme, p. 116. || This notion is said to have been derived from a statement made by Moses, (Genesis, ch. i. ver. 2.) It is> taught in the Koran, (Sale's Koran, vol. ii. p. 155,) and has been embraced by Milton, (Paradise Lost, Book vii. line 234.) i il WATER. 39 A very large proportion of the human body is aqueous. The blood contains about 80 per cent, the ffesh about 74 per cent, of \iater. So that we may safely assume that the entire human machine contains nearly 75 per cent, or three fourths of its weight of water. But as by evaporation, as well as by the processes of secretion and exhalation, as also perhaps by decomposition, part 6f this fluid is wasted or consumed, the necessity of the use of water as a drink becomes obvious. In fact, it is more necessary to our existence than solid food ; and in this point of view it holds an intermediate rank between air and solid food, being less essential than the first, but more so than the last* The water contained in the system is derived from the aqueous drinks which we con- sume, as well as from the moisture contained in most of the solid substances employed as food. " Water," says Dr. Prout,f " enters into the composition of most organized bodies, in two separate forms ; that is, water may constitute an essential element of a sub- stance as of sugar, starch, albumen, &c., in their driest states ; in which case the water cannot be separated, without destroying the hydrated compound. Or water may consti- tute an accidental ingredient of a substance as of sugar, starch, albumen, &c., in their moist states; in which case more or less of the water may frequently be removed without destroying the essential properties of the compound." The following table shows the quantity of accidental water, or that which can be re- moved by drying, without injury to the compound, in various articles of food: QUANTITY OF WATER IN 100 PARTS OF THE FOLLOWING FOODS. Gum Arabic Sugar Candy .... Arrow-root (by drying at '212 Fahr.) Wheat (by drying at 230 Fahr.) Rye (ditto) Oats (ditto) Barley (ditto at 212 Fahr.) Maize (ditto) Peas .... Beans Lentils .... Potatoes (dried at 230 Fahr.) Turnips (ditto) . Carrots (ditto at 212 Fahr.) Beet-root (ditto at 239 Fahr.) Jerusalem Artichoke (ditto) Cabbage, White (ditto at 212 Fahr ) Black Bread Beef Tea . Blood Fresh Meat Muscle of Beef Ditto Ditto of Veal Ditto Ditto Mutton Ditto Pork Ditto Ditto Roe Deer Ditto Chicken Ditto Ditto Pigeon Ditto Cod Ditto Haddock Muscle of Sole Ditto Carp Ditto Trout Water. . 17-6 . 10-53 . 18-2 . 14-5 . 16-6 . 20-8 . 13-2 . 18-0 . 16 14-11 . 15-9 . 75-9 . 92-5 . 87-6 . 87-8 . 79-2 . 92-3 31-4 to 33 . 9843T5 . 80 74-8 to 75 . 74 . 775 . 75 797 to 78-2 . 71 . 76 . 78.3 . 76-9 . 73 . 77-3 . 76 . 79 . 82 . 79 . 80-1 . 80-5 Authority. Guerin. Peligot. Prout. Boussingault. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Playfair Ditto Ditto. Boussingault. Ditto Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Boeckmann. Christison. Liebig. Bceckrnann. Brande. Schlossberger. Brande. Schlossberger. Brande. Ditto. Schlossberger. Ditto. Brande. Schlossberger Ditto. Brande Ditto. Brande. Schlossberger Ditto. * See Appendix, H. t On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases, p. xix. Lond. 1840 r <*u rvjutij.rji> j./\i\ i ^-Evimv^ij. JLjino. Water. Authority. Calf s Sweetbread (Thvrnu*) . . 70 Morin. Ox's Liver (Farench Egg (white of) . Ditto (yolk of) Milk, Cows' yma of) - 6364 85 53.77 87-0-2 T Bnironnot.* (Jmelin. Prout. Asses' Human Cjoats' 91-65 87-9$ I 86-8) O. Henry and Chevallier. Ewes .... 85-62J Water is probably the natural drink of all adults. It serves several important purpos- es in the animal economy : firstly, it repairs the loss of the aqueous part of the blood, caused by evaporation and the action of the secreting and exhaling organs ; secondly, it is a solvent of various alimentary substances, and, therefore, assists the stomach in the act of digestion, though, if taken in very large quantities, it may have an opposite effect, by diluting the gastric juice; thirdly, it is probably a nutritive agent, that is, it a*- the formation of the solid parts of the body. From the latter opinion, which I hold with Count Rumford,* many, however, will be disposed to dissent It has not, indeed, been actually demonstrated that water is decomposed in the animal system, or, in other words, that it yields up its elements to assist in the formation of or- ganized tissues ; yet such an occurrence is by no means improbable. It appears, from Liebig's observations^ that the hydrogen of vegetable tissues is derived from water ; and it is not probable that the higher orders of the organized kingdom should be deficient in a power possessed by the lower orders. Dr. Proutf appears to admit the existence of this power, but thinks that it is rarely exercised by animals. * There is reason to be- lieve," he says, "that the decomposition of water either takes place when in a state of combination with other principles, or during the act of its separation or combination with such principles ; and that water, as water, is rarely decomposed by the animal economy ' The water which constitutes an essential part of the blood and of the living tissues, assists in several ways in carrying on the vital processes. " In the blood," says Dr. Prout, "the solid organized particles are transported from one place to another ; are arranged in the place desired ; and are again finally removed and expelled from the body, chiefly by the agency of the water present" It is from water that the tissues de- rive their properties of extensibility and flexibility. Lastly, this fluid contributes to most of the transformations which occur within the body. As a solvent, it serves not only to aid digestion, as already noticed, but also to effect other changes. Thus, it is probable that the conversion of uric acid into urea, by the action of oxygen, is effected by the agency of water, which holds the acid in solution; for in animals, which drink much water, no uric acid, but urea only, is found in the urine ;|| while in birds, which seldom drink, and in snakes, uric acid predominates. CONVERSION OF URIC ACID INTO UREA. C N H" 1 eq. Uric Acid C" N 4 H O 4 eq. Water - II< O* 6 eq. Oxygen Total C" N H' 0" 2 eq. Urea 6 eq. Carbonic ) c<1 _ Q ia Acid J Total C~ II 8 O" In some cases, water combines chemically with substances to which, therefore, it c< 11- * Essays, vol. i. p. 194, 5th ed. 1800. t Chemistry in its Application to AgricuUurt and Physiology, p. 63, in 2d ed. 1842. t Op. supra cit. p. 8. $ On the Nature nJ Treatment of St(mach and Urinary Dutases o. 7. II Liebig's Animal Ch the addition o' water. So also the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice and the soda of the blood and bile, are derived from common salt (chloride of sodium) by the aid of water. CONVERSION OF CHLORIDE OF SODIUM INTO HYDROCHLORIC ACID AND SODA. 1 eq. Hydrochloric ) rl T r Acid { U1 1 eq. Soda Na O Total Cl Na H O 1 eq. Water HO Total Cl Na H O Water, considered as a dietetical remedy, may be regarded under a twofold point of view ; first, with respect to its quantity ; secondly, in reference to its quality. In some maladies, as fevers and acute inflammatory diseases, an almost unlimited use of aqueous fluids is admitted under the various names of slops, diluents, thin diet, fever diet, broth diet, &c. They quench thirst, lessen the stimulating quality and augment the fluidity of the blood, by increasing the proportion of its aqueous part, and promote the action of the secreting organs. Moreover, it is probable that they may promote the con- version of uric acid into urea, as above referred to. Furthermore, they are sometimes useful by lessening the irritating contents of the alimentary canal. But in some maladies it is necessary to restrict the quantity of fluids taken ; in other words, to employ what is called a dry diet. Thus, we employ this regimen when our object is to keep down the volume of the circulating fluid, (as in valvular diseases of the heart,) or to prevent thinness of the blood, (as in aneurism of any of the great ves- sels, when our only hope of cure depends on the coagulation and deposition of fibnne within the aneurismal sac,) or when we are desirous of repressing excessive secretion, (as of urine, in diabetes.) Attention to the qu^ality as well as to the quantity of the water employed, as a drink, is also important ; not only for the palliation and cure of some maladies, but also as a pro- phylactic means. Now, considered with regard to quality, the waters furnished us by nature are conveniently divisible into three classes ; viz. 1st, Common waters, or those employed as drinks, or for dressing food, or for other purposes of domestic economy. 2dly, Sea wacer, or the water of the ocean. 3dly, Mineral waters, or those waters which belong to neither of the preceding classes, and which possess some peculiar properties derived from the presence of one or more mineral substances. From any of these waters, though usually from those of the first class, we obtain dis- tilled water, which is sometimes used for dietetical and remedial purposes. These dif- ferent kinds of water require separate consideration. 1. COMMON WATERS. Under this head are included the waters commonly known as rain, spring, ricer, well or pump, lake and marsh waters. a. Rain Water. This is the purest of all natural waters. Its purity, however, is sub- ject to some variation. Thus, when collected in large toivns or cities, it is less pure than when obtained in the country : moreover, it is usually loaded with impurities at the com- mencement of a shower, but after some hours of continuous rain it becomes nearly pure ; for the first water which falls brings down the various foreign matters suspended in the atmosphere. Air is a constant constituent of rain water. Carbonate of ammonia is an- othtir ingredient. It is derived from the putrefaction of nitrogenous substances. When several hundred pounds 'f rain water " weie distilled in a copper still, and the first two or three pounds evaporated with the addition of a little muriatic acid, a very distinct 42 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. crystallization of sal-ammoniac was obtained : the crystals had always a brown or yel- low color."* " It is worthy of observation," says Liebig, " that the ammonia contained in rain and snow water possesses an offensive smell of perspiration and animal excre- ments, a fact which leaves no doubt respecting its origin." It is owing to the presence of carbonate of ammonia that rain water owes its softer feel than pure distilled water. According to Liebig, it is the atmospheric ammonia which furnishes the nitrogen of plants. The traces of nitric acid which have been detected in the air are referable to the oxidation of the constituents of ammonia; and not to the direct union of the oxygen and free nitrogen of the atmosphere. A carbonaceous (sooty) substance, and traces of sul- phates, chlorides, and calcareous matter, are the usual impurities of the first rain watrr of a shower. Carbonate of lime, and, according to Bergrnann, chloride of calcium, are constituents of rain water. Zimmermann found oxide of iron and chloride of potassium ; but Kastner could discover no trace of iron in it, though he found in dew, meteoric iron and nickel. Brandes detected various other inorganic substances, viz. chloride of sodium, (in greatest quantity,) chloride of magnesium, sulphate and carbonate of magnesia, and sulphate of lime. He likewise mentions oxide of manganese. The putrefaction to which rain water is subject, shows that some organic matter is present. The term pyrrhin (from Tt-^f, red) has been applied by Zimmeimann to an atmospheric organic substance which reddens solutions of silver. Whenever rain water is collected near large towns, it should be boiled and strained before use. As it contains less saline impregnation than other kinds of natural waters, it is more apt to become contaminated with lead from roofs, gutters, cisterns, and water-pipes. Snow Water is destitute of air and other gaseous matters found in rain ; and hence fish cannot five in it According to Liebig, in contains ammonia. It lias ai g jeer, a popular, but erroneous opinion, that it was injurious to the health, and had a te;i to produce bronchocele. But this malady "occurs at Sumatra, where ice and snow are never seen ; while, on the contrary, the disease is quite unknown in Chili and Thibet, al- though the rivers of these countries are chiefly supplied by the melfing of the snow with which the mountains are covered."f Snow does not quench thirst; on the contrary, it augments it; and the natives of the Arctic regions "prefer enduring the utm< tremity of this feeling, rather than attempt to remove it by eating of snow."| When melted, however, it proves as efficacious as other kinds of water. b. Spring Water. This is rain water, which, having percolated through the earth, re- appears at the surface of some declivity. During its passage, it almost always takes up some soluble matters, which of course vary according to the nature of the soil. Its con- stituents are similar to those of well water, presently to be noticed. c. River Water. This is a mixture of rain and spring water. When deprived of the matters which it frequently holds in suspension, its purity is usually considerable. The following are the solid constituents of the waters of the Thames and Colne, at different localities, according to the analyses of Mr. R. Phillips.} * Organic Chemistry in it Application to Agriculture and Physiology ; edited by Lyon Playfair, Ph D., p. 75. Lond. 1842. t Paris, Pharmacologvi, 6th ed. vol. i. p. 79. ^ Captain Ross's Narrative of a Second Voyage in Search of a Northwest Passage; and of a Reti- dence in ih : Arctic Regions during the years 1829, 1830, 1831, 1832, and 1833, p. 366. Lond. 1S35. Re-jH/rt from the. Select Committee of the House of LordS, appointed to inquire into the Supply of \V Chloride of Sodium . 5 Oxide of Iron . . . ~J Silica / Grs. 16-000 3-400 Very minute portions. Grs. 16900 1-700 V Ditto. Grs. 16-500 2-900 Ditto. Grs. 18-800 2-500 Ditto. Grs. 19-300 2-500 Ditto. Grs. 18-100 3-200 Ditto. Magnesia \ Carbonaceous matter . j Solid matter held in solution Mechanical Impurity . . . 19-400 0-368 18-600 0-368 19-400 0-238 21-300 0-185 21800 0-262 21-300 0-126 Total Solid matter . . . 19-768 18-963 19-638 21-485 22-062 21-426 No notice is taken in these analyses of the gaseous constituents (air and carbonic acid) of river water.* The carbonate of lime is held in solution by carbonic acid, forming bicarbonate of lime. By boiling, this acid is expelled, and the carbonate of lime is precipitated on the sides of the vessel, constituting the fur of the tea-kettle and the crust of boilers. Decomposing organic matter, in suspension or solution, is found in every river water in a greater or less proportion. Ordinarily the quantity is insufficient to act injuriously ; but it cannot be doubted that water, strongly contaminated with it, must be deleterious. Where, however, the quantity present is insufficient to produce any immediately obvious effects, it is by no means easy to procure decisive evidence of its influence on the system. In those cases in which its operation has been unequivocally recognised, it has manifest- ed itself by the production of dysentery.-}- Its influence in a milder form is attended with * Compare with this the composition < f the Croton Water, with which the city of New- York is sup- plied. One Gallon of Croton Water contains, ol Carbonate of Lime Sulphate of Lime . Chloride of Calcium ) Chloride of Magnesium ) Carbonate of Magnesia . Vegetable matter and Iron, a trace 1-52 grs. 44 90 84 Total Solid Matter . . . 4- 16 grs. The Manhattan water in Chambers and Reed streets, contains 125 grs. of solid matter in each gallon ; in Bleecker-street, 20 grs. ; and in 13th-street 14 grs. The city wells in the lower part of the city con- tain 53 grs. of solid matter to the gallon. Boston. This city is supplied almost entirely from the wells, which in 1835 were 2,767 in number. "The water from 2,085 of these is drinkable, though brackish and hard, arid 682 of them are bad and unfit for use." (Baldwin's Report.) Only seven of the city wells yield soft water, occasionally used for washing ; from 33 wells the water was obtained by deep boring, and only two of these furnish soft water. For ft ther remarks on water, see Appendix J. L. t At the Noitingham Assizes in July, 1836, it was proved at a trial (Jackson versus Hall) on which I was a witness, that dysentery, in an aggravated form, was caused in cattle by the use of water con- 44 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. slight relaxation of bowels. "The beneficial effects derived from care as to the qualities of water," says Mr. Chadwick,* " is now proved in the navy, where fatal dysentery for- merly prevailed to an immense extent, in consequence of the impure and putrid state of the supplies ; and care is now generally exercised on the subject by the medical officers >." the army. ' The decomposing organic matter above referred to, consists principally of the exuvite of animal and vegetable substances/}- Tii3 water of some of the wells of the metropolis are occasionally contaminated with the odor and flavor of gas-tar. I have myself found this to be the case in a well water obtained near the London Hospital. laminated with putrescent vegetable matter, produced by the refuse of a starch manufactory. The fish (perch, gui'geon, pike, roach, and dace) and frogs in the pond, through wliich the brook ran, were de- stroyed. All the animals (cows, calves, and horses) which drank of this water, became seriously ill, and in eight years the plaintiff lost 24 cows and ( J calves, all of o disease (dysentery) accompanied by nearly the same symptoms. It was also shovcn that the animals sometimes refused to drink the water ; that the mortality \v;is in proportion to the quantity of starch made at different times ; and that, subsequent- ly, when the putrescent matter was not allowed to pass into the brook, but was conveyed to a river at some distance, the fish and frogs began to return, and the mortality ceased among the cattle. The symp- toms of illness in the cows were as follows : the animals at first got thin, had a rough, staring coat, and gave less milk, (from two to three quarts less every day ;) they then became purged, passed blood with the faeces, and at length died emaciated and exhausted. On a post-mortem examination, the in: canal, throughout its whole length, was found inflamed and ulcerated. The water, which I examined, was loaded with putrescent matter, and contained chloride of calcium, (derived from the chloride of lime employed in bleaching the starch.) Traces of free sulphuric acid were occasionally found by one wit- ness. "Dr. 31. Barry affirms that the troops were frequently liable to dysentery, while tl ( y ircupicd the old barracks at Cork ; but he has heard that it has been of rare occurrence in the new bar. ral years ago, when the disease raged violently in the old barracks, (now the depot for convicts,) the rare of the sick was, in the absence of the regimental surgeon, intrusted to the late .Mr. Hell, juir-ienn. in Cork. At the period in question, the troops were supplied with water from the river Lee. \\hirli. inir throiu'h the city, is rendered unfit for drinking, by the influx of the contents of t .pec.fmg that the water might have caused the dysentery, upon assuming the care of the sick, had a iniiiilxT >( water-carts engaged to bring water for the troops, from a spring called the Lady's Well, at the same time that they were no longer permitted to drink the water from the river. From this simple but judinou* arrangement, the dysentery very shortly disappeared among the troops." (Dr. Cheyne, On Dysentery in flu- Dtitilin llusjiihil RrjMtrlit, vol. iii. p. 11.) * Re/iort to her Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for the Home Drparfnn at, tn>m th< Poor-Lav Commissioners, on tin Inquiry into the Sanatory Condition of the. Laboring Population of tin at llnt'iin p. 78. 184* t " In addition to its saline or natural impurities, the well water of London is sometimes eontaminatec by organic matters, the source of which, especially in the pump-water of churchyards, is sufficient I j obvious; and such is usually the place selected for the parish pump. This disgusting source of uate* should be avoided ; and the disgraceful system of burying the dead in the streets of the metropolis shonU be authoritatively discontinued. Of this nuisance, abundant instances occur to every one who \\aJks about London ; the churchyard of St. Clement's, in the Strand, is a fair specimen, and there -,,r iifinitely worse. In these, the same graves a e repeatedly opened, and the coffin* thrust in one ii|>or) another, according to the most inexplicable system; and it is beneath this superstrati ,n that the water- of the adjacent wells flow, in some instances, perhaps, deep enough to avoid direct contamination, but UMIT free from the suspicion of the oozings of the vicinity." (Brande's Diclion-iry rvwiMir, it is inferior to soft water ; and, for the same reason, it is improper as a drink in dyspeptic affections. Moreover it proves injurious in urinary deposits. The unfavorable effects of hard waters on the animal system are especially manifested in horses. " Hard \vairr, drawn fresh from the well," observes Mr. Youatt,f "will assuredly make the coat of a horse, unaccustomed to it, stare, and it will not unfrequently gripe and otherwise injure him. Instinct, or experience, has made even the horse himself conscious of this ; for he will never drink hard water if he has access to soft : he will leave the most transparent and pure [1] water of the well for a river, although the water may be turbid, and for the muddiest pool."| Mr. Chadwick.J observes that " water containing animal matter,, which is the most * ARTESIAN WELLS are vertical cylindrical borings in the earth, through which water rUes-, by hy- drostatic pressure, either to the surface, (spouting or overflowing wells,) or to a height convenient for the operation of a pump. (For a description of the mode of boring, and of the tools used, see Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Momi^actefW) nnd Mines, p. 57, London, 1S3 ( J. In the Penny Cyclopaedia, art. Artesian UV//.;. is a popular and interesting account of these wells.) They have been denominated Artesian, from a notion that they were first made in the district of Arlois, in France. It is probable, however, that they were known to the ancients, for a nolice of them is said to occur in Olympiodorus, (l'a>- \ -. l>>.-ription Giolo- L^IIHI' dn 1 Vy mrlcm ' nl d<- hi Seine Infcrieure,p. 2 ( J2. Rouen, 1S32.) Proposals have been made for supply- ing London with water by these wells ; which would derive their water from the stratum of sand and plastic, day, placed between the London clay and the chalk basin. But it does not appear that a suffi- cient supply could be obtained in this way. (See an interesting account of Artesian Wells, by Mr. Webster, in the Athenaum for 183J, p. 131. Also, Tran* ictions of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. i ; i. part iii.) t The Horse, p. 339. London, 1831. 4 " Some trainers have so much fear of hard or strange -vater, that they carry with them to the differ- ent COUHCS ihe water that the animal has been accustomed to drink, and that they know agrees with it." $ Report to her Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for the Home Department, from the Poor-Law Commissioners, on an Inquiry into the Sanatory Condition of the laboring Population of Great Britain, p. 77. 1842. WATER. 47 feared, appears to be less frequently injurious than that which is the clearest namely, spring water ; from the latter being oftener impregnated with mineral substances." Satis- factory and unequivocal evidence, however, of the nature of tne injurious action of the saline ingredients of common waters, is not readily obtained, but the most obvious and frequent effect is diarrhoea.* Though the purest waters are the most wholesome, yet very pure water is possessed of one very dangerous quality ; viz. that of rapidly corroding lead, and thereby acquir- ing an impregnation of this metal. Distilled water has no action on lead, provided the air be excluded, but, when this is admitted, a thin white crustf of carbonate and hydrate of the oxide of lead is speedily formed. Now, it is very remarkable that the neutral salts usually found in spring water, impair the corrosive action of water and arr, and thus exercise a protecting influence. To the presence of saline matter, therefore, is to be ascribed the comparative infrequency of the plumbeous impregnation of water kept in leaden cisterns or transmitted through leaden pipes. All salts do not possess an equally protective influence, the carbonates and sulphates being most, the chlorides (muriates) the least, energetic of those saline substances commonly met with in spring waters.} Rain and other pure kinds of water which contain but minute portions of these protect- ing salts, readily acquire an impregnation of lead from roofs, gutters, cisterns, or pipes, made of this metal. " There is another way in which lead is occasionally acted upon by water, and to which attention was first directed by Dr. Paris : it is in consequence of gal- vanic action, and in cases where iron and lead are in metallic contact, as often happens in the employment of iron bars to strengthen and support leaden cisterns, and in the in- troduction of iron pumps under similar circumstances; in these cases, though the lead is -rendered electro-negative, and so far protected from acid reaction, it becomes more susceptible of, and exposed to, the agency of electro-positive elements, among which are a.kalies and alkaline earths, and these exert considerable solvent power over it. So that all such combinations of lead and iron, zinc, &c., should be cautiously avoided. Lastly, there is another source of contamination of water by lead, which is this ; leaden cisterns have often leaden covers, and the water, spontaneously evaporating from the cistern, is * Sulphate of lime or gypsum is the ordinary constituent of hard waters. Dioscorides (lib. v. cnp. 134) describes it as possessing an astringent property, and, when drank, destroying life ; and Pliny (lib. xxxvi. cap. 59) states, that C. Proculeius killed himself by taking it. From the few observations respecting it which have been published, (see Wibmer, Die Wirkung der Arzneimittel und Gifte, vol. ii. p. 11,) it appears that it acts on the system as an astringent, causing constipation and disordered di- gestion. Parent du Chatelet (quoted by Mr. Chadwick) ascribes to it a purgative quality ; and refers the chronic diarrhcea, so often observed in the hospital of Salpetridre and the prison of St. -Lazarus, to the " very great proportion of sulphate of lime and other purgative salts " contained in the water with which both these establishments are supplied. f Dr. Christison (Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xv. part ii. 1842) made three analyses of this crust, and found that it consisted of Oxide of Lead, Carbonic Acid, and Water, in pro- portions which nearly correspond to the formula 3 Pb O -{- 2 CO 2 -j- Aq. ; that is, a compound of three equivalents Oxide of Lead, two of Carbonic Acid, and one of Water; or rather, a compound of two equivalents of Carbonate of Lead in union with one equivalent of Hydrated Oxide of Lead 2 ;Pb O -f- COS ) 4- (Pb O -f- Aq.) J My friend, Professor Daniell, informs me that he has found lead in the well water obtained at Nor.vood. The water is very hard (that is, holds a large quantity of sulphate of lime in solution) and contains much free carbonic acid. It is the latter ingredient, apparently, which holds the lead in solu- tion, for, by boiling, the whole of the lead is precipitated. The water is raised from the well by a leaden pump, to which is attached a few feet of leaden pipe. Professor Daniell's attention wf.s di- rected to the subject in consequence of the occurrence of several cases of lead colic in the neighbor- hood of his residence at Norwood. (See also Pharmaceutical Journal, Nov. 1, 1842.) 48 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. condensed (now in the form of pure or distilled water) upon the lid, upon which it exerts its usual energetic action, and drops back into the body of the cistern, contaminated by lead : so that wood, not leaded, should be used in all cases for covering leaden reser- voirs."* Water impregnated with lead, in the way above alluded to, possesses the following pro- perties : By exposure to the air it becomes covered with a thin white film, and the ves- sel in which it is contained becomes lined with a thin white incrustation of a pearly lus- tre. This crust, dissolved in acetic acid, yields a solution which is rendered blackish brown by sulphuretted hydrogen, and yellow by either iodide of potassium or bichromate of potash. The continued use of water containing lead gives rise to lead or painter's colic, which is accompanied by a narrow leaden blue line on the edges of the gums attached to the necks of two or more (usually incisor) teeth of either jaw, (see p. 32.) If the cause of the malady be not discovered, and the water not discontinued, palsy usually succeeds colic.f J The following conclusions, drawn by Dr. Christison,} as to the employment of lead- pipes for conducting water, are of considerable importance, and therefore deserve espe- cial attention. " 1. Lead-pipes ought not to be used for the purpose, at least where the distance is considerable, without a careful examination of the water to be transmitted. " 2. The risk of a dangerous impregnation with lead is greatest in the instance of the purest waters. " 3. Water, which tarnishes polished lead when left at rest upon it in a glass vessel for a few hours, cannot be safely transmitted through lead-pipes without certain pre- cautions-H " 4. Water, which contains less than about an 8000th of salts in solution, cannot be safely conducted in lead-pipes without certain precautions.il " 5. Even this proportion will prove insufficient to prevent corrosion, unless a con- siderable part of the saline matter consist of carbonates and sulphates, especially the former. " 6. So large a proportion as a 4000th, probably even a considerably larger proportion, will be insufficient, if the salts in solution be in a great measure muriates. * Brande's Dictionary of Materia Medico and Practical Pharmacy, p. 80. Lond. 1839. f See my Elements of Materia Medico, p. 793, vol. i. 2d edit. J Palsy is often met with in this city among grocers and porterhouse keepers, and is doubtless oc- casioned by their drinking beer in the morning which has stood in the lead-pipes over night. L. Trans, of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xv. part ii. p. 271. || " Conversely, it is probable, though not yet proved, that if polished lead remain untarnished, or nearly so, for twenty-four hours in a glass of water, the water may be safely conducted through lead- pipes." 1T The Croton water contains about one 18,000th part of salts in solution, and of course, according to Christison, could not be safely conducted in lead-pipes. Dr. Kane, however, says, that " no danger is to be apprehended from the supply of water to a city being conveyed through leaden pipes, and pre- served in leaden cisterns, for all water of mineral origin dissolves, in filtering through the layers of rocks in its passage to the surface, a sufficiency of saline matters to serve for its protection," (p. 395.) Dr Turner thinks that one 30,000th part of phosphate of soda, or one grain to 51 pints of water, will pre- vent the corrosion of lead; and according to Dr. Pereira this salt exerts a weaker protective influ- ence than either the sulphates or carbonates. Experiment, however, has proved that Croton water acts with great rapidity on lead. The simple experiment of immersing a piece of brightly policed lead in water for a few hours, will show whether it is safe to conduct such water in lead-pipes. If the lead is tarnished, it proves that the water exerts a solvent power over it, and therefore such a practice should be prohib^ed. L. WATER. 49 " 7. It is, I conceive, right to add, that in all cases, even though the composition of the water seems to bring it within the conditions of safety now stated, an attentive exami- nation should be made of the water after it has been running for a few days through the pip3S. For it is not improbable that other circumstances, besides those hitherto ascer- taii.ed, may regulate the preventive influence of the neutrai salts. " 8. When the water is judged to be of a kind which is likely to attack lead-pipes, or when it actually flows through them impregnated with lead, a remedy may be found, either in leaving the pipes full of the water and at rest for three or four months, or by substituting for the water a weak solution of phosphate of soda, in the proportion of about a 25 t OOOth part."* e. Lake Water. This is a collection of rain, spring, and river water, usually contami- nated with putrefying organic matter. /. Marsh Water. This is analogous to lake water, except that it is altogether stag- nant, and is more loaded with putrescent matter. The sulphates in sea and other waters are decomposed by putrefying vegetable matter, with the evolution of sulphuretted hy- drogen ; hence the intolerable stench from marshy and swampy grounds liable to occa- sional inundations from the sea. Tests of the usual Impurities in Common Water. The following are the tests by which the presence of the ordinary constituents or impurities of common waters may be ascer- tained : 1. EBULLITION. By boiling, Air and Carbonic Acid gas are expelled, while Carbonate of Lime (which has been held in solution by the carbonic acid) is deposited. The latter constitutes the fur or crust which lines tea-kettles and boilers. 2. PROTOSULFHATE OF IRON. If a crystal of this salt be introduced into a phial filled with the water to be examined, and the phial be well corked, a yellowish-brown precipitate (sesquioxide of iron) v/i'l be deposited in a few days, if Oxygen gas be contained in the water. 3. LITMUS. Infusion of litmus or syrup of violets is reddened by a free Acid. 4. LIME WATER. This is a test for Carbonic Acid, with which it causes a white precipitate (car- bonate of lime) if employed before the water is boiled. 5. CHLORIDE or BARIUM. A solution of this salt usually yields, with well water, a white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid. This indicates the presence of Sulphuric Acid, (which, in common water, is combined with lime.) 6. OXALATE OF AMMONIA. If this salt yield a white precipitate, it indicates the presence of Lime, (carbonate and sulphate.) 7. NITRATE OF SILVER. If this occasion a precipitate insoluble in nitric acid, the presence of Chlo- rine may be inferred. , 8. PHOSPHATE OF SODA. If the lime contained in common water be removed by ebullition and ox- alic acid, and to the strained and transparent water, Ammonia and Phosphate of Soda be added, any Magnesia present will, in the course of a few hours, be precipitated in the i'crm of the white ammo- niacal phosphate of magnesia. 9. TINCTURE OF GALLS. This is used as a test for Iron, with solutions of which it forms an inky liquor, (tannate and gallate of iron.) If the test produce this eflect on the water before, but not after boiling, the iron is in the state of Carbonate : if after as well as before, in that of Sulphate. Tea may be substituted for galls, to which its effects and indications are similar. Fewocyanide of Potassium yields, with solutions of the sesquisalts of iron, a blue precipitate, and with the protosalts a white pr. cifitaie, which becomes blue by exposure to the air. 10 HYDROSULPHURIC ACID, (Sulphuretted Hydrogen.) This yields a dark (orown or black) precipi late (a metallic sulphuret) with water containing Iron or Lead in solution. * The object of this is to form, while the water is at rest, a fine film of mUed carbonate and phos- phate of lead, which shall adhere so firmly as not to be swept away whe.i the water is allo\\ ed to flow, and which will serve as a lining to prevent the contact of the running water with the metai. 50 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 11. EVAPORATION AND IGNITION. If the water be evaporated to dryness, and ignited in a glass tube, the presence of organic matter may be inferred by the odor and smoke evolved, as well as by the charring. Another mode of detecting organic matter is by adding nitrate (or acetate) of lead to the suspected water, and collecting and igniting the precipitate ; when globules of metallic lead are ob- tained if organic matter be present.* The putrefaction of water is another proof of the presence of this matter. Nitrate of silver has been before mentioned as a test.f Purification of Common Water. ~By\filtration water may be deprived of living beings and of all suspended impurities. But substances in solution are not got rid of by this proceeding. Ebullition destroys the vitality of either animals or vegetables ; expels air or carbonic acid ; and causes the precipitation of carbonate of lime. Subsequent filtra- tion may be advantageously combined. Distillation, when properly conducted, is the most effectual method of purifying water. But distilled water is, in general, contami- nated by traces of organic matter, (see Distilled Water.} The addition of chemical agents to water is another mode which has been proposed and practised for freeing water from some of its impurities. Alum is oftentimes used by common people to cleanse muddy water. Two or three grains are sufficient for a quart of water. The alum decomposes the carbonate of lime : sulphate of lime is formed in solution, and the alumina precipi- tates in flocks, carrying with it mechanical impurities. It is obvious that this agent adds nothing to the chemical purity of the water, but by converting the carbonate into sul- phate of lime augments its hardness. Caustic alkalies added to lime saturate the < of carbonic acid, and throw down the carbonate of lime, having an alkaline carbonate in solution. A patent lias recently been taken out, by Professor Clark,}; of Aberdeen, for the purification of waters. The patent process consists in the addition of lime to the water. The lime unites with the excess of carbonic acid in the water, and forms carbonate of lime, (chalk,) which precipitates along with the carbonate of lime held previously in solu- tion in the water. The effect of this process is similar to that of ebullition.} It has no * See Dr. Lambe's Investigation of the Properties of Tkames IVater, p. 11. 1828. Also Clement, Ann de Chim. et Phy*. t. iv. p. 232. t See p. 42. Also Davy, in Jameson's Journal, Dec. 1828, p. 123 ; and my Element* of Matcria Medica, pp. 257, 258, 259, and 6S9. J See Repertory of Patent Inventions, for October, 1841. Also, A New Procets for Purifying the Waters supplied to the Metropolis by the existing Water Companies : rendering each Water much softer, preventing a fur on boiling, separating vegetating and coloring maltei*, destroying nvmei-ous icater-in.ierts, and icilhdraimng from solution large quantities of solid matter not sparable by mere filtration. By Tho- mas Clark, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Aberdeen, 2d ed. % Lond. 1341. Th p patentee asserts that his process renders water much sorter, and calculates that if his patent were adopted, 63,000 would annually be saved to the metropolis by the diminished consumption of soap and soda Unfortunately for this calculation, it does not appear that the patent process has much, if any, effect in lessening the hardness of water, since the lime used merely acts on the bicarbonate of lime held in solution in the water. Xow this salt, it appears, scarcely affects soap, and, then-lure, does not give to water its property of hardness. Dupasquier (Des Eaux de Source et des Eaux de Ri- viere, p. 105, Paris and Lyons, 1840) observes, that "It is generally. supposed that all calcareous salts equally decompose soap ; but though this is true for the sulphate and other calcareous salts directly soluble in water, us chloride of calcium and nitrate of lime, it does not hold good with regard to the carbonate, which is held in solution by an excess of carbonic acid. Numerous experiments have satisfied me," he adds, " that the latter salt has only a slight action on soap, and cannot, in the pro- portions in which it exists in potable waters, decompose it, by giving rise to the formation of a clotty precipitate, as we observe with sulphate and nitrate of lime and chloride of calcium. If a reason for this interesting fact be required, I should say that the non-decomposition of the soap is owing to the xcesa of carbonic acid, which prevents the reaction of the calcareous carbonate on the oleate and Rtearate of eoda of the soap. This fact completely explains why the waters of the Roye, the llonzier, WATER. 51 effect on the gypsum of common water, and, therefore, can have little or no influence in rendering hard water soft Alkaline carbonates soften water, decompose all the earthy salts, (calcareous and magnesian carbonates, sulphates and chlorides,) and precipitate the earthy matters. They leave, however, in solution, an alkaline salt, but vhich does nrl communicate to water the property of hardness. SEA WATER. Under this head are included the waters of the ocean, and of lakes, called inland seas, which possess a similar composition. The Dead Sea, however, differs exceedingly in its nature from sea water, and may properly be ranked among mineral waters. The quantity of solid matter varies considerably in the waters of different seas, as the following statement from Pfaff* proves : 10,000 parts of Water of Solid Constituents. The Mediterranean Sea ...... . .......... 410 grs. English Channel ............ ...... 330 " At the Island of Fohr . . . . ...... 345 " GermanOcean Baltic Sea I At Ritzebiittel ............. 312 " > At Apenrade, in Sleswick ......... 216 " At Kiel, in Holstein ........... 200 " At Doberan, in Mecklenburg ......... 168 " At Travemunde .............. 167 " At Zoppot, in Mecklenburg ......... 76 " AtCarlshamm .............. 66 " We shall not be far from the truth if we assume that the average quantity of saline matter is 3$ per cent ; and the density about T0274. The composition of sea water varies in different localities, as the following analyses! show : Sea Water. Of the English Channel Mediterranean. (SCHWEITZER.) (L.AURENS ) Grain*. Grains. Water 964-74372 959-26 Chloride of Sodium 27-05943 27-22 " " Potassium 0-76552 0-01 " " Magnesium 3,66658 6-14 Bromide of Magnesium 0-02929 Sulphate of Magnesia 2-29578 7-02 " Lime 1-40662 0-15 Carbonate of Lime 0-03301 and Magnesia 0-20 1000-00000 1000-00 Iodine has been found in the Mediterranean Sea by Balard. Sea water, taken internally, excites thirst, readily nauseates, and, in full doses, occa- sions vomiting and purging. The repeated use of it, in moderate doses, has been found beneficial, on account of its alterative and resolvent operation in scrofulous affections, especially glandular enlargements and mesenteric diseases. Its topical action is more stimulant than common water. It is used as an embrocation in chronic diseases of the joints. Employed as a bath, it more speedily and certainly causes the reaction and glow; and, consequently, the sea- water bath may be used for a longer period, without causing exhaustion, than the common water bath. It is a popular opinion, whicl 's the Fontaine, and the Neuvillc, which, at their source, contain a considerable quantity of carbonate, but extremely little sulphate of lime and chloride of calcium, dissolve soap without curdling it." Du- pasquier then proceeds to detail a series of experiments in support of the above statements. * Schwartz's Allegmeine und spccielle Heilqudlenlehre, 2 te Abt. S. 186. Leipzig, 1839. t jMiid. and Edin. Phil. Mag. vol. xv. p. 51, July, 1839. Also, Graham's Elements of Chermstry, vol. i. p. 266. 52 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. perhaps well founded, that patients are less likely to take cold after the use of salt water, as a bath, than after the employment of common water.* MINERAL WATERS. These are waters which belong to neither of the preceding classes. In consequence of their peculiar, sensible, and chemical properties, they are not applicable as drinks, or for the general purposes of domestic economy. Those mineral waters whose predominating active principle is iron, are called Chalybeate. or Ferruginous. They are of two kinds ; some contain carbonate of the protoxide of iron, and are called Carbonated Chatybeates, as those of Tunbridge Wells ; while others contain sulphate of iron, and are termed Sulphaled Chatybeates ; as the Sand Rock Spring, Isle of Wight. Some mineral waters are impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen, and have, in con- sequence, the odor of rotten eggs. These are called Sulphureous or Hepatic waters. The Harrowgate waters are of this kind. Those mineral waters which are brisk and sparkling, and have an acidulous taste, con- tain carbonic acid, and are called Carbonated or Acidulous waters ; as those of Selters and Pyrmont. The last class of mineral waters is that called Saline. It includes the Purging Saline (as of Cheltenham,) the Brine (as of Cheshire,) the Calcareous (as of Bath and Bristol,) the Alkaline (as of Malvern and Teplitz,) and the Siliceous (as of Geyser, and Reikum in Iceland.) As none of these mineral waters are employed for dietetical purposes, they do not re- quire further notice here.f J DISTILLED WATER. When it has been carefully prepared and preserved, this water is nearly ptuc. Its taste is flat, mawkish, and by no means agreeable, in consequence of the absence of air and carbonic acid. It is unaffected by solutions of acetate of lead, nitrate of silver, oxalate of ammonia, chloride of barium, or soap. It usually contains traces of organic matter. Dr. Wm. HeberdenJ suggests its dietetical employment as a substitute for common water, where this was bad and productive of diseases. But the greatest advocate for its use, in modern times, is Dr. Lambe,|| who, regarding the presence of decomposing organic matter, in common waters, as noxious, and as the prolific source of many constitutional diseases, proposed distillation as the most certain mode of getting rid of it. But while, on the one hand, neither the public nor the profession has adopted his opinion of the injurious qualities of common water, on the other hand, the difficulties and expense of procuring a sufficient supply of distilled water offer a serious, if not fatal impediment to its extended and general use. Moreover, it is well known that distilled water, as ordinarily met with, contains traces of organic matter. In some calculous affections, as the oxalate of lime diathesis, the employment of dis- tilled water is one of the remedial means which have been suggested. * On the medicinal properties of sea water, consult Logan's Observations on the Effects of Sea Water in Scurvy and Scrophula, London, 1770 ; and Dr. R. White, on The Use and Abuse of Sea Water, Lon- don, 1775. t Further details concerning them will be found in my Elements of Materia Medica, vol. i. 2d ed. t Appendix, K. Remarks an the Pump Water of London, in the Medical Transactions published by ike Coltgc of Physicians in London, vol. i. || Reports of the Effects of a peculiar Regimen on Sdtirrous Tumors and Cancerous Ulcers, 1809. Ad- ditional Reports on the Effects of a peculiar Regimen, 1815. GUM. 53 The distillation of Water at sea, for the use of mariners, is an old suggestion. The proposition seems a very feasible one, as it may be effected at a moderate expense, and all danger of distress from want of Water thereby avoided. Coulier* has more recently insisted on the advantages to be obtained by the use of distilled water on ship-board, as well as in other places where serious maladies have been ascribed to the use of impure watnr. 2. THE MUCILAGINOUS OR GUMMY ALIMENTARY" PRINCIPLE. (Muoilaginosa. Gummata.) The organizable principle termed gum exists almost universally in plants, and appears to hold the same position in the vegetable economy that albumen does in the animal. It is found in great abundance in some plants, from which it frequently exudes spontaneously, and concretes on the stem in the form of tears. In this way are obtained Gum Arabic, Gum Senegal, East Indian, Barbary, and Cape Gums, Gum Tragacaiun, the Gum of Cherry and Plum-trees, and Gum Bassora. The following table shows the quantity of gummy matter contained in various vegeta- ble substances used as food : QUANTITY OF GUM CONTAINED IN 100 PARTS OF THE FOLLOWING FOODS. Barley-meal Oatmeal Wheat-flour . Wheat-bread Rye-meal Maize . Rice Peas . Garden Bean (Vina Faba) . Kidney Bean (Pkaseolus vtdgaris) Potatoes Cabbage Sweet Almonds . Green Gage (ripe) Pears (ripe and fresh) Gooseberries (ripe) Cherries (ripe) . Apricot (ripe) Peach (ripe) . Linseed Marshmallow-root Gum. 4-62 2-5 2-8 to 5-8 18-0 11-09 2-283 0-1 to 071 6-37 4-61 19-37 3-3 to 4-1 2-89 3-0 4-85 3-17 0-78 3-23 4-85 5-12 5-2 35-64 Authority. Einhof. Vogel. Vauquelin. Vogel. Einhof. Bizio. Braconnot Einhof. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Schrader. Boullay. Berard. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Meyer. Buchner. The gummy matters of different plants differ one from another in several of their pro- perties. Some are soluble in water, (soluble gum;) others, however, merely swell up, and do not completely dissolve in this liquid, (insoluble gum.) The following table shows the relative proportion of soluble and insoluble gummy matters contained in certain mucilagi- nous alimentary substances: PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF SOME MUCILAGINOUS ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 100 Parts Gnm Arabic, " Senegal . " Cherry-tree " Apricot-tree u Plum-tree . " Peach-tree " Almond-tree " Bassora . " Tragacanth Mucilage of Linseed Soluble Gum. 79-40 81-10 87-30 89-85 82-83 82-60 83-24 11.20 53-30 52-70 Insoluble Gum. 61-31 33-10 29-89 Water. 17-60 16-10' 11-20 6-82 15-15 14-21 13-79 21-89 11-10 10-30 Jiskeg. 30 2-8 1-5 333 2.02 3-19 2-97 5-60 2-50 7.11 Compte* Rendus, 1841, p. 968. 54 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. Gum consists of carbon and the elements of water. COMPOSITION OF GUM. 100 Parts Carbon. Water. J^utkarity. Gum Arabic . . . 36-3 63-7 Prout. Ditto, dried at 212 .... 41-4 58 6 Prout. Ditto, dried in vacua . . . 42-682 50-944 Oxyg. -\- 6-374 Hydr. Berzelins Ditto, dried at 324.5 . . . . 45-10 48-8 " +6-1 " Mulder. The atomic formula which agrees with Berzelius's analysis is C * -f- Aqua" : whereas Mulder's analysis gives C" + Aqua 10 as the formula. Some mucilaginous substances yield nitrogen ; but it is doubtful whether this is con- tained in the mucilage itself or in some foreign matter. From mucilage of linseed, Guerin procured 7'27 per cent, of nitrogen. Gum is usually considered to possess nutritive properties, but to be somewhat difficult of digestion, and, therefore, apt to disagree with dyspeptics. According to Liebig, it is merely an element of respiration. " From the chemical properties and analogies of this principle," says Dr. Prout,* "it is probable that it is neither converted (at least so readily) into sugar nor oxalic acid as farinaceous matters." May it not be advantageously sub- stituted for sugar and amylaceous substances, iii diabetes 1 Gum is sometimes employed, as a dietetical agent, by invalids. It is useful as a de- mulcent or soothing agent in inflammatory affections of the mucous membranes. Gum Arabic is slowly dissolved in the mouth to allay troublesome cough and irritation of the throat. It is also used in irritation of the intestinal canal, and of the urinary organs. It may be taken dissolved in milk. The preparations of gum in use are, Gum Water, Mucilage, Gum Lozenges, and Gum Pastes (Pa/es.) 1. Gum Water. Take of Gum Arabic from half an ounce to an ounce. Wash it in cold water to remove any bitter matter, and then dissolve it, by maceration, in two pints of cold water. When made with either powdered gum or hot water, the flavor of the solution is less agreeable. Gum water is employed as a demulcent drink in colds and coughs, and iii inflammatory affections of the alimentary canal and urinary organs. 2. Mucilage. Take of Gum Arabic nine ounces ; wash it with a little cold water, tie it up in a linen bag, and macerate it in one pint of cold water, occasionally squeezing it gently. Its uses are similar to those of gum water. It is sometimes employed as a vehi- cle for the exhibition of medicinal powders. 3. Gum Arabic Lozenges. Gum Arabic is a constituent of most kinds of lozenge?, but of one kind (gum lozenges) it is the essential ingredient; the other constituents being sugar and starch. These are employed as an agreeable pectoral, to allay the tickling in the throat which provokes coughing. 4. Gum Pastes (P&tes.) These consist essentially of gum and sugar, to which some medicinal substance is sometimes added. They are transparent or opaque. The Pate de Jujubes is a transparent gum paste, colored either pink or yellow. It should be flavor- ed with a decoction of jujubes, (the fruits of Zizyphus -culgaris.) It is a popular remedy to ?Jiay teasing coughs. The Pate de Gomme Arab-ique or Gum Paste, commonly called Pate de Guimauve, or Marshmallow Paste, consists of gum, sugar, and white of eggs, flavored with orange-flower water. Formerly an infusion of marshmallow root was used in its preparation. It is opaque, and is employed as a pectoral. * On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases, p. 299. 1840. SUGAR. 55 3. THE SACCHARINE ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. (Saccharina.) Saccharine natter exists in both vegetables and animals. In the former it is very gen- erally distribin 3d. The following table shows the quantity of it which is contained in various alimentary substances. Sugar. Barley-meal . . 521 Oat-meal (including bitter matter) 8-25 Wheat-flour .... 4-2 to 8-48 Wheat-bread .... 3-6 Rye-meal 3-28 Maize 1'45 Rice 0-05 to 0-29 2-0 6-0 . 62-5 . 11-61 . 12-5 6-45 . 11-52 6-24 . 18-12 . 11-61 . 16-48 1-5 . 93-71 5 to 9 . 5-8 to 10 . 4-771 . 6-03 Woman's Milk 6-50 V Goat's Milk .... ... . 5-23] Ewe's MiU; . 5-OOJ Peas . Sweet Almonds Figs . Green Gage (ripe) ...... Tamarinds Pears (ripe and fresh) Ditto (kept for some time) .... Gooseberries (ripe) Cherries (ripe) Apricot (ripe) Peach (ripe) Melon . Expressed Carrot juice evaporated to dryness Beet-root Ditto . . Cow's Milk Milk Authority. Einhof. Vogel. Vauquelin. Vogel. Einhof. Gorham. Braconnot. Einhof. Boullay. Bley. Berard. Vauquelin. Berard. Ditto. Ditto Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Payen. Wackenroder. Payen. Pelouze. O. Henry and Chevallier The substances to which I apply the term saccharine are not uniform in their proper- ties ; but differ more or less from each other in their susceptibility of undergoing the pro- cess of vinous fermentation, in their crystallizability, solubility, and composition. TABLE OF SACCHARINE MATTERS. Saccliarine Matters suscrptible of Vinous Fermentation, (Sugars properly so called.) 1. CRYSTALLIZABLE. This division includes three kinds of Sugar : a. Common Sugar, comprehending Cane, Maple, and Beet-root Sugar, whose formula is C 12 Aqua 11 . b. Sugar of Milk or Lactine. composed of C 11 Atfuti 13 . c. Granular Sugar or Glucose, including the Su- gar of Fruits (as of Grapes,) and Diabetic Su- gar, whose formula is C lz Aqua?*. 2. UNCRYSTALMZABLE. This division compre- hends the liquid or mucous sugars, as Treacle. Sact-\arine Matters unsusceptible of Vinous Fermenta tion. 1. CRYSTALLIZABLE. This division includes Man- nite (and Canellin ?) whose formula, according to Liebig, is C 8 H T O 8 . 2. UNCRYSTALLIZABLE. This division compre- hends at least two kinds of sugar. a. Glycyrrhizin or Liquorice Sugar. b. Glycerine, Hydrated Oxide of Glycerulc, or Sweet Principle of Oils, whose formula is C II 7 O" + Aqua. The following table shows the relative proportions of carbon an I water (or its e'emer.ts) contained in several varieties of saccharine matters, according to Dr. Prout :* COMPOSITION OF SACCHARINE SUBSTANCES 100 Parts. Carbon. Water Pure Sugar Candy .... 42-85 57-15 Impure ditto 41-5 to 42-5 58 5 to 57-5 East India ditto . ... 41-9 58-1 Englished refined . . . . 41-5 to 42-5 53-5 to 57 5 * Phil. Trans, for 1827, p. 355. Maple . Beet-root East India moist . Diabetic Of .\arhonne Honey Of Starch 56 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 100 Par/5. Carbon. Water. East India refined . . 42-2 57-8 42-1 57-9 42-1 57-9 40-88 59-12 36 to 40 ? 64 to 60 ? 3636 63-63 36-2 63-8 Of Milk ...'.. . 40-0 60-0 Those varieties which contain the smallest quantity of water, Dr. Prout terms strong or high ; while such as contain the largest proportions, he denominates weak or Imc. Thus sugar-candy is a high or strong sugar sugar of starch a weak or low one. Sugar is usually regarded as a nutritious substance, but Lic'big declares that it is mere- ly an element of respiration, as I have already stated. (See pp. 16, 18 foot-note, 19, 20, 23, 25, and 26.) Many insects (especially the Lepidoplera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera) feed on sugar or saccharine liquids. During the sugar season of the West India Islands " every negro on tht plantations, and every animal, *ven the dogs, grow fat."* The in- jurious effects which have been ascribed to sugar are more imaginary than real ; for some individuals have consumed large quantities of it, for a long series of years, without suf- fering any ill consequences therefrom. We are told that Henry, Duke of Beaufort, who died about 1702, ate nearly a pound of sugar daily for 40 years. He died of fever in the 70th year of his age. He was never troubled with cough, his teeth were firm, and all tes viscera were found, after death, quite sound.f The fondness of children for saccharine substances may be regarded as a natural in- stinct ; since nature, by placing it in milk, evidently intended it to form a part of their nourishment during the first period of their existence. Instead, therefore, of repressing this appetite for sugar, it ought rather to be gratified in moderation. The popular notion of its having a tendency to injure the teeth is totally unfounded. " Ithas been alleged," says Dr. Wright, "that the eating of sugar spoils the color of, and corrupts, the teeth: this, however, proves to be a mistake, for no people on the earth have finer teeth than the negroes in Jamaica." It is probable, therefore, that this erroneous notion has been propagated by frugal housewives in order to deter children from indulging in an ( I sive luxury. Sugar is readily digested by the healthy stomach ; though in some dyspeptic individuals, it is apt to give rise to flatulency and preternatural acidity of stomach. In these cases it probably yields lactic acid.| "In certain diseases," says Liebig,} "there are produced * Dr. Wright, Medicinal Plants of Jamaica. t See Dr. Slare's Vindication of Sugar, p. 59. Lond. 171 ii. t Anhydrous lactic acid (in lactate of zinc) consists of C 6 II s s . Hence one equivalent of cry.-tul- lizeii Cane Sugar (C 19 H u O 11 ) contains the elements of two equivalents of lactic acid 2 (C II 5 O" 1 ) plus one equivalent of water. But when lactic acid is formed out of sugar, there are also produced mannite and mucilage, (hence the process is termed the viscous or mucilaginous fermentation,} while gas is evolved. Now, two equivalents of mannite 2 (C fl H 7 O 6 ) are equal to one equivalent of granular sugar (C 12 II 14 O 14 minus two equivalents of oxygun. Consequently one equivalent of lactic acid (C 6 II s O 5 ) and one equivalent of mannite (C II 7 O 8 ) me equal to one equivalent of sugar of milk minus one equivalent of oxygen 1 eq. Lactic Acid . C H B O 1 eq. Mannite . . C 6 H 7 O fi Total C' 2 1IO" 1 eq. Sugar of Milk C" H 12 O Abstract . . O Residue . C 13 H"O Lvvbig suggests that lactic acid anr 1 . mannite may, therefore, be formed by the deoxidation of sugar, part 01 c.ie oxygen of which is consumed in the oxidation of the elements of the nitrogeniied sub- stances prevent in the fermenting liquids. $ Animal Chemistry, pp. 111-ll-j. SUGAR. 57 from the starch, sugar, &c. of the food, lactic acid arid mucilage. These are the very same products which are produced out of sugar by means of membrane in a state of decompo- sition out of the body ; but in a normal state of health, no lactic acid is forn.t, J in the stomach." In diabetes, the power of assimilating saccharine matter is in a great measure, if not wholly, lost ; and hence, therefore, the dietetical employment of sugar and sweet foods, in this malady, is highly improper. In the oxalate of lime diathesis, likewise, these foods are objectionable. " I have seen repeated cases," says Dr. Prout, "in which the too free use, or rather abuse, of sugar, has given occasion to the oxalic acid form of dyspepsia ; and sooner or later, under favorable circumstances, to the formation of an oxalate of lime cal- culus." In the phosphatic diathesis, the copious use of unrefined sugar is objectionable, on account of the lime contained in it. The varieties and preparations of sugar used for dietetical purposes are very numerous. The following are all which it is necessary to notice : 1. Purified or Refined Sugar. This is met with in the shops either in conical loaves, (Loaf Sugar,) or truncated cones called lumps, (Lump Sugar,) of various sizes and degrees of purity. Small lumps are called Tillers. The finest refined sugar is perfectly white, and is termed double refined ; the inferior kind has a slightly yellowish tint, and is called single refmed. Both varieties are compact, porous, friable, and made up of small crystalline grains.* 2. Brown Sugarf occurs in commerce in the form of a coarse powder, composed of shining crystalline grains. It is more or less damp and sticky, and has a peculiar smell and a very sweet taste. Its color is brownish yellow, but varies considerably in intensity. Muscovado or raw sugar, sometimes termed Foot Sugar, has the deepest color, and is in- termixed with lumps. Bastard is a finer kind prepared from molasses, and the green syrups. Raw sugar contains several impurities from which it may be freed by the process of re- fining. Its color is owing to the presence of uncrystallizable sugar, (treacle.) In an aqueous solution of raw sugar lime is detected by oxalic acid. By keeping, it is well known that a strong raw sugar becomes weak, that is, soft, clammy, and gummy. This change Professor Daniellf ascribes to the action of the lime. Subphosphate of lime is another constituent of raw sugar.]: Glutinous and gummy matters, and traces of tannic acid, are also present in raw sugar. The crystal sugar brought from Demerara (and St. Vincent's ?) is the finest and purest kind of the colored sugars which are imported. Its color is pale yellow, and its crystals are larger and more brilliant than the preceding varieties. It is used for sweetening coffee. On account of the before-mentioned impurities, unrefined sugar is an improper article of diet for those afflicted with calculous disorders. 3. Sugar Candy. This is crystallized cane-sugar. It is prepared from concentrated syrup. The crystals deposit themselves, as the liquid cools, on the sides of the vessel and * Appendix, L. Brown sugar is extensively adulterated with sugar prepared from potato starch, as well as with that, made from sago flour. Potato sugar is manufactured at Stratford, in Essex. It is clammy, and wants that sparkling crystalline appearance possessed by West Indian sugar, is much less sweet than the lat- ter, and possesses a bitter somewhat unpleasant taste. Trommer (Pharm. Cenlral-Blatl fur 1841, p. 762 4) and more recently Krantz (Annals of Chemistry, Nov. 11, 1842) have pointed out. the means of de- tecting sugar of str.rch in cane sugar. t Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. vi. p. 33. t Avequin (Journal de Pharmade, torn, xxvii. p. 15) states that the crust, which deposits in the boilers during the manufacture of raw sugar, contains, after it has been calcined to destroy the saccharine and other vegetable matters, in 100 parts, subphoephate of lime 92-43, lime, in part carbonated, T35, silica 4'7, and phosphate of copper 1-41. L oiuer andp 58 % ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. on strings stretched across. The form of the crystals is an oblique rhombic prism. Three kinds of candy are sold the white, the brown, and the pink. Powdered candy is ised to sweeten coffee. 4. Aqueous Solutions of Sugar. Sugar water is frequently used at the table on the continent. Syrup is prepared by dissolving two pounds and a half of sugar in a \vin<>- pint of water, by the aid of a gentle heat. If necessary it may be clarified by white of egg. It is used for sweetening. 5. Boiled Sugars. If a small quantity of water be added to sugar, the mixture heated till the sugar dissolves, and the solution boiled to drive off part of the water, the tendency of the sugar to crystallize is diminished, or, in some cases, totally destroyed. To promote this effect, confectioners sometimes add a small portion of cream of tartar to the solution while boiling. Sugar thus altered by heat, and sometimes variously flavored, constitutes several preparations sold by the confectioner. Barley Sugar and Acidulated Drops are prepared in this way from white sugar ; powdered tartaric acid being added to the sugar while soft, when the drops are prepared. Hardbake and Toffee are made by a similar pro- cess from brown sugar. Toffee differs from Hardbake in containing butter. The orna- mental sugar-pieces or caramel-lops with which pastry-cooks decorate their tarts, &c. are prepared in the same way. If the boiled and yet soft sugar be rapidly and repeatedly ex- tended, and pulled over a hook, it becomes opaque and white, and then constitutes 1' Sugar or Penides. Pulled sugar, variously flavored and colored, is sold in several forms by the preparers of hard confectionery. 6. Molasses and Treacle. The brown, saccharine, viscid fluid, which drains from raw sugar when placed in hogsheads, is called Molasses, and is used in the preparation of brown sugar. It is imported from the West Indies in casks. Closely allied to this is Treacle a viscid, dark-brown, uncrystallizable syrup, which drains from the moul!< in which refined sugar concretes. These liquids result from an alteration effected in crys- tallizable sugar, and do not exist in the sugar cane. Both of them contain free aciil. 7. Burnt Sugar. When sufficiently heated, sugar becomes brown, evolves a remark- able odor, loses its sweet taste, and acquires bitterness : in this state it is called C or Burnt Sugar, and is sold, when dissolved in water, as a coloring matter, under the name of Essentia Bina or Browning. It is used to color soups and sauces. The high- colored brandies and dark brown sherries are said sometimes to owe part of their color to this liquor. The brewer, it is reported, occasionally makes use of it to color his beer. 8. Hard Confectionery. Sugar constitutes the base of an almost innumerable variety of hard confectionery, sold under the names of Lozenges, Brilliants, Pipe, Rock, Cow///*, Nonpareils, &c. Besides sugar, these preparations contain some flavoring ingredient, often flour or gum, to give them cohesiveness, and frequently coloring matter.* Cara- way fruits, almonds, and pine seeds, constitute the nuclei of some of these preparations. 9. Liquorice Sugar. An aqueous extract of the root of liquorice (Glycyrrhiza} is ex- tensively imported under the names of Liquorice J'dce, or, according to the countries from whence it is brought, of Spanish or Italian Juice. Solazzi Juice is most esteemed. The Spanish extract is prepared in Catalonia, from the common liquorice plant, (Glycyr- rhiza glabra,') but the Italian extract, obtained in Calabria, is procured from G. echinata. Extract of liquorice is imported in cylindrical or flattened rolls, of five or six inches long, and about one inch in diameter, enveloped in bay-leaves. Its principal constituent is * Cochineal and indigo, employed to color respectively red and blue, are harmless. But, in order to meet the demands of their customers, confectioners are necessitated to use other coloring ingredients, of a less innocent nature, to give several admired tints (yellow and green) to their goods. STARCH. 59 Glycyrrhizin, or Liquorice Sugar, mixed with some foreign matters. If the foreign ex- tract be dissolved in water, arid the solution filtered and evaporated, we obtain Refined Liquorice ; but the Pipe Refined Liquorice of the shops is a very adulterated article. The Pontefract Lozenges are made of refined liquorice, and are much esteemed. The Liquo- rice Lozenges are officinal in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, and are directed to be pre- pared of extract of liquorice, gum, and sugar. There is also another liquorice lozenge sold in the shops, under the name of Quintessence of Liquorice. Extract of liquorice is used as a flavoring ingredient. Slowly dissolved in the mouth, it is taken to appease tickling cough, and to allay irritation of the fauces. 10. Preserves, <^c. In addition to its dietetical and condimentary uses, sugar is exten- sively employed, in domestic economy, as an antiseptic ; that is, to prevent the decompo- sition or putrefaction of organic substances. A variety of fruits, as well as some roots, stems, and even leaves, are in this way preserved, some in the moist state, (as Fruits in Syrup, and Preserved Ginger,) others in the dry state, (as Candied Angelica, Candied Cit- ron, Orange, and Lemon Peels, and Crystallized Fruits.) In these cases sugar acts by excluding air, or by absorbing moisture, or in both of these ways. In some'instances, per- haps, its efficacy may be of another kind, as when it promotes the solidification of vege- table jelly. (See The Pectinaceous Alimentary Principle.) " Latterly," says Berzelius, (Traite de Chimie, t. v., p. 243,) "sugar has begun to be more generally employed than formerly for the preservation of meat, in consequence of a much smaller quantity of it being required for preventing putrefaction, than of salt, while it renders the meat neither less savory nor less nutritive. Fish, when gutted, may be equally well preserved by spreading powdered sugar inside them." 4. THE AMYLACEOUS ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. (Farinaceous or Starchy Substances.) This principle is peculiar to plants, from which it is obtained under the various names of Amylum,* Starch, Fecula, or Farinaceous Matter. It is very generally distributed in the vegetable kingdom, existing in both cryptogamic and flowering (endogenous and exoge- nous) plants, and being found in thallus, roots, stems, tubercles, fruits, and seeds. The following table gives an approximative idea of the quantity of starch contained in different parts of plants. QUANTITY OF STARCH IN 100 PARTS OF THE FOLLOWING VEGETABLE ORGANS. 1. Thallus Iceland Moss ("Janipha Manihot or Tapioca plant (var. 2 Roots \ P itto (v ^ green) s Ipomaea Batatas . Ditto (var. red) . Potatoe (var. kidney) . Ditto (var. red) . . Ditto (var. Shaw) '. 3. Tubercles. { Ditto (var. Champion) . Ditto (var. Chair rouge) Ditto (var. L'Orpheline Ditto (var. Captain Hart) red) Starch. 44-6t 135 11-5 7-5 133 9-1J 15-0$ 18-811 15-91T 12-2** 24-4tt 15 Authority. Berzelius. De Candolle. Ditto. Ricord. O. Henry. Einhof. Ditto. Vauquelin. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Skrimshire. The Greeks called it >vXov (from a negative, and /nJAof a milh because it was not prepared by grinding in a mill. (See Pliny, Hist. Nat. lib. xviii. cap. 17. ed. Valp.) t Besides 36-2 parts of amylaceous fibre. t In addition to 8-8 parts of amylaceous fibre Also 7-0 parts of amylaceous fibre. II In addition to 5-1 parts of amylaceous fibre T Besides 4-9 parts of amylaceous fibre. ** And 10-2 parts of amylaceous fibre. M Also G-2 parts of amylaceous fibre. 60 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. Starch. Authority. Maranta arundinacea or Arrow-root plant 12-5 De Candolle. Ditto .... . 26-0 Senzon. Canna coccinea . . 12-5 De Candolle. Ditto 4. Rhizomes. Ginger 13-0 Ditto. Ditto 19-75 Bucholz. Turmeric 260 De Candolle. Dioscorea saliva, or the Yam 12-5 Ditto. Ditto . .... 22-66 Siiersen. 5. Pericarps 'Arlocarpus incisa, or Breadfruit integrifolia, or Jak-fruit 32 6-2 De Candolle.* Ditto. 'Barley-meal .... 67-18 Einhof. Oatmeal 5'J-O Vogel. Wheat-flour .... 56-5 to 72 Vauquelin. Wheat-bread .... 535 Vogel. Rye meal 61-07 Einhof. 6. Seeds. Maizet 80-92 Biz.o. Rice (Piedmont) 82-8 Braconnot. Ditto (Carolina) .... 85-07 Ditto. Peas 32-45 Einhof. (anlen Bean (Victa Faba) . 31-17 Ditto. .Kidney Bean (Phaseolus vulgara) 35 A particle seen edgeways. Grains of Portland Arrow- Root. ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. The organic principle of which starch-grair. s are con. posed is called amidon or amylon. This substance consists of carbon and water, (or its elements.) COMPOSITION OF STARCH. Carbon. Water. Authority. Fine Wheat Starch Ditto, dried at 212 .... Ditto, highly dried at 350 . 37-5 42-8 44-0 36-4 625 57-2 56-0 63-6 }Frout. Ditto, dried at 212 .... Ditto, highly dried at 212 . 42-8 44-4 57-2 55-6 The formula which agrees with Prout's third analysis of Arrow-root is C ia -j- Aqua 10 . The starchy matter (called Lichenin or Feculoid) of Iceland Moss consists, according to Guerin-Varry, of f 10 II" O 10 . If the analysis be correct, this variety of starch contains excess of hydrogen. To render amylaceous matter digestible, it requires to be cooked in order to break or split the grains ;* for, of the different lamina? of which each grain consists, the outer ones are the most cohesive, and present the greatest resistance to the digestive power of the stomach, while the internal ones are the least so. Hencr farinaceous substances nrc boiled in milk or water, or they are panified with gluten, by which the grains are com- pletely broken up or they are made into puddings and tarts. When cooked, it is usually regarded as a mild, slightly nutritious, easily digestible arti- cle of food. Directly or indirectly, observes Dr. Prout,f "it forms a constituent of ihe food of most of the higher animals, as well as of man. It differ?, therefore, from gugjr., in being a necessary article of food, without which animals could not exist; whili- suirar is not Hence a much larger quantity of amylaceous matter than of sugar can be taken ; and what is a still more decisive fact, the use of this larger quantity of amylaceous matter may be persisted in for an unlimited period, which, it appears, is not the case with a large portion of sugar." By digestion, starch becomes converted into gum and sugar ; the latter probably be- comes absorbed. This conversion is effected, according to Leuchs, by the action of the saliva.J * " Fecula," says Rar-pail, (Chim. Organique,) " is not actually nutritive to man until it has been boiled [or otherwise cooked]. The heat of the stomach is not sufficient to burst all the grains of the feculent mass which is subjected to ihe rapid action of this organ. The stomach of graminivorous animals and birds seems to possess, in this respect, a particular power ; for they use feculent su! as food in a raw state. Nevertheless, recent experiments prove the advantage that result* from boil- ing the potatoes and partially fermenting the farina which are given them for food. At all events, it is certain, that bruised grain is much more nutritive for thorn than that which is entire ; for a large pro- portion of the latter passes through the intestines perfectly unaflected as when it was swallou Braconnot (Journ. de Chim. Med. t. iii. 2* Ser. p. (28 130) found unbroken starch grains in the excrement of a slug : the temperature of this cold-blooded mollusk being insufficient to, crack the grains. Unbroken grains, he states, are also found r the excrements of hot-blooded animals fed on raw potatoes. Hence, he adds, the potatoes employed for feeding cattle should be boiled ; s-ir.ce, inde- pendently of the accidents which may arise from the use of them in the raw slate, a considerable quan ity of alimentary matter is lost by the employment of these tubercles in the jmboiled state. t On the Nature a-xl Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases, p. 10. Lond. 1840. t Muller's Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p 548. STARCH. 63 The exterior laminse of the starch-grain are thicker, more cohesive, and less readily digested, than the inner ones. Leeuwenhoek* observed that the excrements of birds fed on the cereal grains contained a considerable quantity of these exterior laminte, but with- out the interior matter ; and from this he inferred that the latter only was the nutritive p>rtion of starch. According to Liebig, (see ante, p. 16,) starch being a non-nitrogenized food,t is an ele ment of respiration, and is incapable of transformation into blood or organized tissues He, therefore, regards it as an element of respiration, and as contributing to the formation of fat, (see ante, p. 26.) "Children fed upon arrow-root, salep, or indeed any kind of amylaceous food, which does not contain ingredients fitted for the formation of bones and muscles, become fat, and acquire much embonpoint ; their limbs appear full, but they dr not acquire strength, nor are their organs properly developed."! The times required for the digestion of some amylaceous matters, are, according to Dr. Beaumont, as follows : DIGESTIBILITY OF AMYLACEOUS MATTER, Time required for Stomachal Digestion. Sago boiled 1 hour. Tapioca boiled 2 hours. It is doubtful whether tapioca is uniformly more difficult of digestion than sago. Farinaceous food is, perhaps, the least irritating of all kinds of aliments. It is, there- fore, well adapted for the use of persons affected with morbidly sensible conditions of the primae vise. It will sometimes remain on the stomach when every other kind of nutri- ment is immediately rejected. Being totally devoid of all stimulating properties, it is a useful and valuable article of food in febrile and inflammatory diseases. The following are the varieties of amylaceous matter in common use for dietetical pur- poses : 1. Sago. This is obtained from the interior tissue (commonly termed medulla or pith) of the stems of various species of palms, especially those of the genera Sagus and Saguerus. It is manufactured in the Moluccas, and is imported into this country from Singapore. Three ki ids of it are met with namely, Sago-meal, Pearl Sago, and Common Sago. Sago- meal (called also Sago-flour or Sago-powder) is a whitish powder, which is now, or very recently was, extensively used in the manufacture of a saccharine substance, called Sago- sugar, (see p. 57.) Pearl-sago consists of small pinkish or yellowish grains, about the si Mulder. Dittc in pectinate of lead 45 608 5 370 49 022) Ditto in ditto ' . 43'5 5'2 51 4 Frerny. Fremy gives as the formula for pectine C ai H 17 O 82 . Both Fretny and Mulder agree that pectine and pectic acid are identical in composition : the latter chemist gives C la H 8 O 19 as the formula for pectic acid ; while RegnaultJ; gives C 11 H 7 O 10 . According to Fremy the saturating power of pectic acid is double that of pectine : pectic acid combining with two atoms, pectine with one atom of a base. By boiling with an acid solution (as of malic acid) both pectine and pectic acid are converted into rnetapectic acid, which is very soluble in water. According to Fremy, unripe fruits contain a very small portion only of pectine ; but when the fruit becomes ripe, pectine is formed by the action of the vegetable acids of the fruit on a pulpy matter. These acids are contained in cells, from which they do not escape until the period of ripening, when the cells are transparent, distended, and per- meable. By subjecting fruit to heat the cells burst and allow the acid to escape, and in this way .he formation of pectine is promoted. The same chemist has also shown that under the influence of vegetable albumen con- tained in fruits, pectine is convertible into pectic acid. This fact explains why an impure aqueous so'ution of pectine gelatinizes by keeping : the pectine is changed by vegetable albumen into pectic acid. It explains also why the juice of a fruit by prolonged ebullition * Fhannaceutisches Central- Blatt fur 1838, p. 337. f J \urnal dt. Pharmacie, t. xxvi. p. 368. 1840. I Ibid, t xxiv. p. 201. 1838. (! _ 70 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. often loses its power of gelatinizing ; since the matter destined to form the jellyhas been coagulated or destroyed. Moreover, under the influence of heat, the malic or other vege- table acid of the juice may convert the pectine or pectic acid into metapectic acid, which is very soluble in water, and does not possess the property of gelatinizing. Sugar promotes the solidification of both pectine and pectic acid. If sugar be dis- solved in a solution of pectine, an imperfect jelly is formed, which finally may be drawn out in threads. It also promotes the gelatinization of pectic acid, a property which the confectioner takes advantage of, in the preparation of the jellies of currants, apples, cher- ries, gooseberries, &c. The dietetical properties of vegetable jelly have been but imperfectly examined. We believe it to be slightly nutritive, and readily digestible. Analogy leads us to suppose that its alimentary properties are similar to those of gum ; from which, however, it dif- fers somewhat in composition : gum being composed of carbon and water, (or ii merits,) while both pectine and pectic acid consist of carbon and water, (or its elements,) plus oxygen, (see p. 13.) Both of these vegeto-gelatinous principles being deficient in nitrogen, are considered by Liebig (see ante, p. 16) to be mere elements of respiration. But on account of the excess (in relation to the hydrogen) of oxygen which they contain, it is possible that their copious use would diminish the activity of the function of m-pi- ration, (see ante, p. 14.) Most fruits have more or less tendency to promote alvine evacu- ations: whether or not this is ascribable to the vegeto-gelatinous principles which they contain, or to some other constituent, has not been ascertained. Braconnot* h;i gested the preparation of jellies with pectic acid, to which various flavoring ingredients may be added. "I dissolved," says he, "in warm water, one part of pectate of potash prepared from turnips, and then added sugar to the solution. On the addition of an infinitely small quantity of acid, the whole became, in a few minutes, a mass of trembling jelly, weighing 1300 parts." Such a jelly, however, must contain so small a quantity of solid matter, that, instead of nourishing, its great value would be in deceiving morbid a pi 1. Fruit Jellies. A variety of vegetable jellies are prepared by the confectioner. Those in greatest request are Currant, (red and black,) Apple, Strawberry, and Rhrrrij . To some jellies the term Marmalade is applied. Thus Quince Marnuihnlc, (tunner tained in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia,) prepared with strained quince-juice and is in fact a jelly. Fruit jellies owe part of whatever nutritive properties they possess, to sugar, and fre- quently to animal gelatine. The sugar used in their preparation promotes the solidifi- cation of, and likewise preserves, the vegetable jelly, which, though apt to become mouldy, does not become sour. Ising-glass is frequently added to communicate firmness or still- ness. Fruit jellies fortn very agreeable cooling articles of food in febrile and inflam- matory complaints. They are frequently used by invalids to moisten the mouth and fauces, and to allay thirst. They are esteemed antiscorbutic. When dissolved in water they form an agreeable drink. An extemporaneous Rasp- berry Vinegar is made by dissolving half a pint of raspberry jelly in a pint of vinegar. This, when diluted with water, (forming Raspberry- Vinegar Water,') affords a peasant cooling beverage for allaying thirst in fevers, colds, and inflaTimatory maladies 2. Jams, 4-c. These being mixtures of vegetable pulps w^th sugar, are in fan $erve.s. Those in most demand are Raspberry, Strawberry, Currant, (red and black,) A Green Gage, Gooseberry, and Pine Apple Jams. Closely allied to these are the Fruil- Cheeses, as Damson Cheese, Green Gage Cheese, Bullace Cheese, * (.llnc.ial or Crystallizable Acetic Acid, the strongest procurable, contains one equivalent of water. Its formula is C 4 H 8 O s . -f- Aqua. Pyroligneous Acid, called also Wood Vinegar, or White Vinegar, is obtained by the dis- tillation of wood. When pure it consists of acetic acid and water only. The Common Vinegar of the shops is procured by subjecting an infusion of malt, or of a mixture of malt and raw barley, to the acetous fermentation-^ Hence it is com- monly termed Malt Vinegar. It has a yellowish red color and an agreeable acid taste, which i{ owes principally to acetic acid, but in part also to sulphuric acid, and a peculiar refreshing, pleasant odor, which it derives from acetic acid and acetic ether. The makers of it sell four vinegars, of different degrees of strength, which they distinguish as Nos. 18, 20, 22, and 24. The vinegar distinguished as No. 24, or Proof Vinegar, is the strongest that is made. It is almost too strong for ordinary use at the table, but is employed for pickling and preserving meat, fish, and game ; whence it has received its name of Strongest Pickling Vinegar. The vinegar known as No. 22 is adapted for the table, and for pickling most vegetables, whence it is frequently called Best Pickling Vinegar. Malt vinegar has the following composition : COMPOSITION OF MALT VINEGAR. Acetic Acid. Alcohol (a small portion.) Acetic Ether. Sulphuric Acid (1-1000 part.) Coloring Matter. Water. _ Peculiar Mucilaginous Matter. 3Ialt Vinegar.^ * See my Elements of Materia Medico, vol. i. p. 109, 2d ed. t Appendix, O. { Appendix, P. t Vinegar is very liable to undergo decomposition : it becomes turbid, loses its acidity, acquires an unpleasant odor, and deposilos a .-lippery siolatinifonn substance. The mucilaginous coat or skin which forivs on the surface of vinegar, and is called the Mother of Vinegar, consists of myriads of exceedingly ACIDS. 73 Vinegar-makers are allowed by law to add the above-mentioned quantity of sulphuric acid. - Wine Vinegar, also called French Vinegar, is obtained from wines of inferior quality. It is of two kinds, white and red. While Wine Vinegar is usually preferred, as it keeps better. That which is made at Orleans is considered to be the best. The constituents -of wine vinegar are very similar to ihose of malt vinegar. It contains a small quantity of bitartrate and sulphate of potash. Wine vinegar may be distinguished from malt vinegar by ammonia, which occasions in the former a purplish precipitate, but not in the latter. Distilled Vinegar is usually imitated in the shops by diluted pyroligneous acid ; but this imitation has not so fragrant an odor as the genuine article. The following table shows the proportion ofcacetic acid in the preceding prepara- tions : TABLE SHOWING THE QUANTITY OF ACETIC ACID IN SEVERAL ACETOUS COMPOUNDS. 100 Parts. Anhydrous Acid. Pyroligneous Acid (Acetic Acid of the London Pharmacopoeia) 30-8 Malt Vinegar (No. 24, or Proof Vinegar) 4-6 Wine Vinegar 5-36 Distilled Vinegar of the London Pharmacopeia .... 3-07 Vinegar is used at the table as a condiment, on account of its agreeable flavor and refreshing odor. It is employed either alone or with pickles. When taken in small quantities it is quite wholesome, allaying thirst and checking preternatural heat. Small quantities do not appear to act injuriously on the stomach ; nay, a considerable quantity has been taken at one time with impunity. Dr. Christison knew a case in which eight ounces were swallowed without injury. But the habitual use of it is injurious, and, by disturbing the function of the stomach, may give rise to wasting.* " Every one knows " says Giacomini, " that when habitually taken, it produces leanness, from a sort of lan- guor of the digestive process." 2. Citric Acid; Concrete Acid of Lemons. This acid, in the free state and combined with little or no malic acid, is a constituent of the juice of the Lemon, the Orange* {"hitter and sweet,) the Lime, the Citron, the Shaddock, and other fruits of the genus Citrus, all of which owe their sourness to this acid. The Cranberry and the fruit of the Dog-rose likewise contain it. Mixed with an equal quantity of malic acid, it is found in the Goose- berry, the Red Currant, the Strawberry, the Raspberry, the Cherry, and the Bilberry. Mixed with both malic and tartaric acids, it exists in the pulp of the Tamarind. The composition of citric acid is as follows : FORMULAE OF CITRIC ACID. Hypothetical or dry Citric Ar-id as it exists in some citrates C 12 H 5 O u Citric Acid crystallized by cooling a solution saturated at 212 C 12 H 5 O 11 -j- Aqua* Commercial crystals of Citric Acid C 12 H 5 O u -[- Aqua 5 Citric acid is employed as a substitute for lemon and lime juice in the preparation of refreshing and cooling beverages. minute vegetab'es having a spheroidal form. The surface of vinegar is frequently covered by mouldi- ness, which, when examined by the microscope, i same v, soda powders, except that five grains of powdered ginger and a drachm of white sugar are mixed with the bicarbonate of soda. All these preparations furnish us with ;, temporaneous Effervescing Saline Draught, containing tartrate of sodq, and the flavor of which is? much improved by adding to the water, before dissolving the acid or mixed powder, two or three drachms of syrup and half a drachm of tincture of orange peel. a complexion blooming with roses and lilies. She began to look upon her plumpness with suspicion ; for her mother was very fat, and she was afraid of becoming like her. Accordingly, she con.Milted a woman, who advised her to drink a small glass of vinegar daily : the youni: lady followed hor ad\ ire, and her plumpness diminished. She was delighted with the success of the remedy, and continued it for more than a month. Hie began to have a cough ; but it was dry at its commencement, and w:; sidered as a slight cold, which would sjo off. Meantime, from dry it became moist : a slow lever <-aine on, and a difficulty of breathing; her body became lean, and wasted away ; night sweats, swelling of the feet and of the legs, succeeded, and a diarrhoea terminated her life. On examination, all the lobes of the lungs were found filled with tubercles, and somewhat resembling a bunch of grapes." * Of this solution, or of lemon juice, which is of equal strength, a scruple of bicarbonate of P< saturates three lluid drachms and a half; a scruple of carbonate of Potassa, four fluid drachms : and a cruple of carbonate of Ammonia, six fluid drachms. Haifa fluid ounce of lemon juice, or of an rqr.al olution of citric acid, when saturated, is considered as a dose. A pleasant drink may be prepared by dissolving a scruple of the citric acid in a pint of water, and sweetening to the taste with sugar which has been rubbed on fresh lemon-peel. L. ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 75 Seidlitz Powders consists of two drachms of tartarized soda and two scruples of bicar- bonate of soda, contained in a blue paper, and a half a drachm of powdered tartarac acid in a white paper. These are to be taken, dissolved in half a pint of water, while the liquid is in a state of effervescence. They form an agreeable and mild aperient* Cream of tartar is frequently substituted for tartaric acid, in the preparation of cooling drinks. The liquid called Imperial is of this kind. It is formed by dissolving one drachm or a drachm and a half of cream of tartar in a pint of boiling water, and flavoring wiih lemon-peel and sugar. When cold, the solution may be taken ad libitum, as a refrige/ant beverage in febrile complaints, especially where it is desirable to promote the secretion of urine. All the above effervescing compounds, as well as imperial, are injurious to patients troubled with white sand (phosphatic deposits) in the urine ; in consequence of the alka- line tartrate being converted into an alkaline carbonate, (see p. 15,) which passes out of the system in the urine, and promotes the deposition of the earthy phosphates. Acidulated Drops or Lozenges, consist of barley-sugar sharpened with tartaric acid, as I have before stated, (see p. 58.) They are useful in coughs and sore-throats, but are com- monly taken, on account of their agreeable flavor, as articles of confectionery. 4. Malic Acid or Acid of Apples. This acid is very extensively distributed in the vege- table kingdom. It exists in the free state in Apples, Pears, Quinces, Plums, Apricots, Peaches, Cherries, Gooseberries, Currants, Strawberries, Raspberries, Blackberries, Pine- apples, Barberries, Elderberries, Grapes, Love-apples, Tamarinds, and several other fruits. It is usually accompanied by citric acid. Wine, Cider, and Perry, likewise contain it. The formula for the hydrated acid is C 8 H 4 O 3 + Aqua" 1 . Its dietetical properties are ana- logous to citric acid ; but it is not employed in the separate state. 5. Oxalic Acid. This exists in a considerable number of plants. Those which it is necessary here to refer to, as being employed at the table, are the Garden Rhubarb, whose leafstalks are used in tarts and puddings; Common Sorrel, which is sometimes taken as a potherb and salad ; and Common Woodsorrel, which is occasionally eaten as an anti- scorbutic. The crystallized acid of the shops is obtained by the action of nitric acid on sugar, or molassos.f Its formula is C a O 9 -f- Aqua 3 . In large doses and in a concentrated form, it is an energetic poison ; but in small quantities and largely diluted, it may be used .without injury. In this country it is never taken internally. In France, however, it is sometimes employed in the preparation of acidulous drinks, (called lemonades,) in the pro- portion of twelve or fifteen grains of acid to a quart of water; but it is much safer to use tartaric acid. Lozenges containing this acid have been prepared under the name of Tablettes d'Acide Oxalique, or Pastilles pour la soif; but they present no advantage over the ordinary acidulated drops.J Quadroxalate of Potash, sold in the shops as Salt of Sorrel, has also been employed in ' the preparation of refrigerant drinks and lozenges. 6. Lactic Acid, or Milk Acid. This acid exists in sour milk. It is also formed when * Seidlitz Powders, in ti*> country, are usually prepared by mixing two drachms of Tartrate of Potassa and Soda, (Rochelle Salt,) and two scruples of bicarbonate of Soda, put up in a white paper, and thirty -five grains of Tartaric Acid contained in a blue one. This excess of acid renders it more pleasant, without injuring its aperient quality. L. t Many substances besides sugar yield oxalic acid, by the action of nitric acid, such a? starch, gum, wool, hair, silk, and many vegetable acids. Organic substances also yield oxalic acid when heated with potassa, such us wood-shavings, &c. L. ^ Oxalic acid has frequently destroyed life, from its having been mistaken for Epsom sa\ts, which it closely resembles. They are however readily distinguished by tasting; the first being very sour, and the latter bitter. Epsom salts should never be swallowed without previously testing them by the taste. L. ! 70 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. various vegetable substances become sour a water. Its composition and formation out of 56.) "This acid," says Dr. Prout, "like th cnmstances, capable of becoming an alimer even developed in the stomach, and, indeed, probably less digestible, and, therefore, less a Under the erroneous idea that lactic acid w dissolved in fye stomach, lactic acid lemonade, in dyspepsia arising from simple debility of t 7. Tannic Acid. This, though a constitue Tea, can scarcely be considered alimentary. 8. THE ALCOHOLIC AL The reasons for believing that under some ciple, have been already stated, (see pp. 25, ' The formula for pure or anhydrous alco Spirit of Wine consists of alcohol and wate 840) contains about 90 per cent, of alcohol. Alcohol is a product of the vinous fermenta Cider, Perry, and Malt liquors, (Beer, Ale, ai distillation from vinous liquids. The followi various Wines, Spirits, and Malt Liquors, ac TABLE of the proportion of ALCOHOL (sp. gr 100 parts of Wine, Sp Brande. Others. 1 Lissa A 25-41 15-90 P s when oatmeal is left in a large quantity of sugar have betn already adverted to, (see p. e acetic acid, is probably, under certain cir- t ; but as it is often found unchanged and in almost all parts of the animal system, it is dapted as an aliment, than the acetic acid." is one of the agents by which aliments are and lactic acid lozenges, have been employed he digestive organs, nt of some articles employed at the table, as [MENTARY PRINCIPLE* circumstances alcohol is an alimentary prin- 26, and 27.) hoi (sp. gr. 0-7947 at 60 F.) is C 4 H" O. r. Rectified spirit of wine (sp. gr. 0835 to lion. It is, therefore, a constituent of Wines, id Porter,) and of Ardent Spirits obtained by ig are the quantities of alcohol contained in cording to the best authorities, 0*825, at 6 F.) by measure, contained in >//>-, MtiU Liquors, cf-c.f Brande. Others. 33. Burgundy . . . A. 1457 12-16 P. :U Hock A 12O8 2 Raisin . A 2V 12 :5 "Uar-ala . . A. 25-09. 18-40 P 35 Nice 1 1 '< 1. I'ort A. 22-'J(> 2"T>1 P. S.Madeira. . . . A. 22-27 21-21) P. (6 Currant 20-55 36. Barsac 37 Tent 1330 38, ( l.a.nnagne . . A. 12-rtl 12-20 F. . 39. Red Hermitage . J". Via de Grave . 13 9 J 11. Krontigriac (Rivesalle) !2-7. te Rotie . . 43. Gooseberry . . A. 1 1 -s 1 44. Orange IK'fi 7. Sherry .... A. 19-17 2380 P. 8. Teneriffe .... 19-79 '.' Colari's . . 19'75 10. Lachryma Christi . 19-70 11. Coustaiitia, white . 19-75 > ,<.-,/> 12. Constantia, red 1892 l 13 Lisbon . . 18-94 45 Tokay 9-88 14. Malaga 18-94 46. Elder 8-79 15. Bucellas . . . IS- 19 Hi. K.-.l Madeira . A. 20- 3 J 17. Cape Muschat 18-25 H. Cape .Madeira A. 20-.M 19. Grapr \\ine . . 18'11 20. Calcavella . . A. 18-65 21 Vidonia 19-25 47. Cider, highest average 9-87 Ditto, lowest ditto . 5-21 48. Perry, average of four ample* . . . 7-26 49. Mead .... 7-32 50. Ale (Burton) . . 8'88 London (Edinburgh 6-20 Ditto (Dorche^^r/ ' 5-56 Average 6-87 51. Brown Stout . . 6-80 52. London Porter (ave 420 rage) 22. Alba Flora . . 17-26 23. Malaga . . . 17-26 24. White Hermitage 17-43 25 Rousillon . . A. 18-13 26 Claiet . . A 15-10 27 Zante . 17-05 2S Malmsey-Madeira 16-40 29 Lunel 15-52 1801 F. 30. Sheraaz . . . . 15-52 53. Ditto Small Beer . 1-28 54 Brandy 5,2-39 35 Rum 53-68 56. Gin 57 60 57. Scotch Whiskey 5132 58. Irish ditto . . . 53-90 verage, F. Julia-Fontenelfe P. Prout 1 31. Syracuse . . . 15'2S 30-00 P. i 32. Siuterne .... 14-22 * Appendix, Q. t A. means a ALCOHOL. 77 According to the more recent experiments of Dr. Chnstison, the quantity of alcohol wines has been somewhat overrated. The following are his results : Alcohol (0-7939) Proof Spirit per cent, by per cent, by weight. volume. {Weakest 14-97 30-56 Mean of 7 wines 16-20 33-91 Strongest 17 10 37-27 White .... 14-97 31-31 ("Weakest ... 13-98 30-84 1 Mean of 13 wines, excluding those very long kept in cask 15-37 33-59 Sherry 4 Strongest 16-17 35-12 Mean of 9 wines very long kept in cask in the East Indies 14-72 32-30 ^Madre da Xeres 16-90 37-06 Madeira, all long in cask in ( Strongest ' East Indies . . ( Weakest 16-90 14-09 36-81 30-86 TenerifFe, long in cask at Calcutta 13-84 30-21 Cercial .... 15-45 33-65 Dry Lisbon ..... 16-14 34-71 Shiraz . 1295 28-30 Amontillado .... 12-63 27-60 Claret, a first growth of 1811 Chateau-Latour, first growth 1825 7-72 7-78 16-95 17-06 Rosan, second growth 1825 7-61 16-74 Ordinary Claret, a superior "vin ordinaire" 8-99 18-96 Rivesaltes* ... 9-31 22-35 Malmsey 12-86 28-37 Rudesheimer, superior quality 8-40 18-44 Ditto inferior quality 6-90 15-19 Hambacher, superior quality 7-35 16-15 Edinburgh Ale, unbottled . 7-35 16-15 Same Ale, 2 years bottled 5-70 12-60 London Porter, 4 months in bottles 5-36 11-91 Dr. Christison states that by keeping wines, as Sherry and Madeira, in casks, for a mod- erate term of years, the quantity of alcohol increases ; but after a certain time it decreases ; and it is probable that at the period when wines begin to lose alcohol they cease to im- prove in flavor. The value of ardent spirits is, of course, proportionate to the quantity of alcohol con- tained therein ; and, therefore, a ready mode of estimating this is most desirable. The alcoholometrical method usually adopted consists in determining the sp. gr. of the liquid by an instrument called the hydrorneter, (from {5<5th nitrogenous substances, these results do not invalidate the general etateni nt made in the text, and which is founded on the results obtained by feeding animals on pure fat. J Connies Rendus, Oct. 24, 1842. Also, Annals of Chymistry, Nov. 11, 1842 Chemists have detected in the blood the following fatty substances : Cholesterine, Oleic and Maf- ifaric Acidj, Serolin, and Cerebrate, (Cen.br Acid.) || Dr. Prout, op. supra cit. p. 43, foot-note. 86 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. the produce of Aix, (Huile d'Aix en Provence,) is one of the most esteemed kinds. Florence Oil is a fine kind of olive oil imported from Leghorn in flasks surrounded by a kind of network, formed by the leaves of a monocotyledonous plant. These are the kinds of ot'.ve oil in most frequent use at the table for salads, (hence they are called Salad Oils.) Lucca Oil is imported in jars holding nineteen gallons each. Gcnra Oil is a fine kind. Gallipoli Oil is imported in casks : it constitutes the largest po.-tion of the olive 01. brought to England. Sicily Oil is of inferior quality. Spanish Oil is the worst. The foot deposited by olive oil is ussd for oiling machinery, urrler the naive of Droppings of Sweet Oil. Olive Oil consists of Oleine and Margarine. Ir. cold weather, the latter constituent congeals in the form of white or yellowish globules. The following table shows the rela- tive proportion of oleine and margarine in olite and almond oils : Oleine. Margarine. Olive Oil 72 28 Almond Oil 76 24 As olive oil contains somewhat more margarine than almond oil does, it is more apt to congeal in cold weather. In England, the dietetical uses of olive oil are comparatively limited ; being principally confined to its mixture with salads. It is also employed in fring fish. In Spain, and some other countries, it is frequently employed as a substitute for butter. Taken in large quantities, it acts as a mild laxative. The difficult digestibility of oil has been already adverted to, (see p. 82.) Some writers on dietetics are of opinion that, taken as a condiment, with salad, it promotes the digestibility of the latter. But I do not coincide with them. The statement is, a priori, improbable, while the facts adduced in support of it are insufficient to prove it Raw oil, as taken with salad, is less likely to disturb the stomach than the same or other oily or fatty substances when cooked; for while, on the one hand, the freshest and sweetest oil is generally selected for employment at the table in the raw state, so on the other, oil which has been subjected to heat, as in various culinary operations, is rendered more difficult of digestion, (see p. 83.) Fresh olive oil I believe to be less obnoxious to the stomach than some other oily or fatty substances, and which I ascribe to its not contain- ing any free volatile acid, (see p. 83.)* 2. Butter. As usually met with, this substance contains about one-sixth of its \vduht of butter-milk.f Cow's butter, according to' Bromeis,J has the following composition : COMPOSITION OF BUTTER. M:\rganUe of glycerine [Margarine] 68 Butyroleateoi glycerine [Oleine] 30 Butyrate [lluiyrine,] caproate [Coproinc,] and caprate of glycerine [Caprine} . 2 Butter 100 The s?.mo authority gives the following as the formulas for the fatty acids of but- ter : * Olive oil is employed extensively in the manufacture of soaps, uijguents, and plasters ; also for lubri- cating machinery, as well as for culinary purposes. In 1832, 5,000 tuns of olive oil were imported into Great Britain ; and in 1830, 8,524 tuns the tun being 4 hogsheads, or 252 wine gallons. The importation into the United States, in 1840, was estimated at 96,000. L. t Thomson's Chemistry of Animal Bodies, p. 430. 1843. t Journal de Pharmacie, 3 Ser. t. ii. Aoiit, 1842. FIXED OILS OR FATS. 87 COMPOSITION OF THE FATTY ACIDS OF BUTTER. . C H33 O= . C34 R30 O< C H6 O 3 Q2 H 9 O* . CIS Hi* Q3 MargaricAcid Butyroleic Acid Butyric Acid . Caproic Acid . CapricAcid . The acid called by Bromeis butyroleic acid was obtained from the oil (pleine of Chevreul) which he had extracted from butter by pressure. Butter is employed rather as a condiment than as a direct alimentary matter. Its dietetical properties I have already noticed; (pp. 83 and 84.) Its odor depends on the volatile fatty acids : to the facility with which these are set free, I have before ascribed its greater tendency to disorder the stomach than some other fats. When rendered rancid by keeping, or empyreumatic by heat, it is exceedingly injurious to the dyspeptic, (pp. 83-84) In the Report of the Gelatine Commission of the French Academy of Sciences, it is stated that a dog, fed on fresh butter only, continued to eat it irregularly for 68 days. " He died subsequently of inanition, although in a remarkable state of embonpoint. Dur- ing the whole of the experiment he exhaled a strong odor of butyric acid, his hair felt greasy, and his skin was unctuous and covered with a fatty layer. At the autopsy all the tissues and organs were found infiltrated with fat. The liver was in the state called, in pathological anatomy, fatly. By analysis, a very large -quantity of stearine [margarine ]] but little or no joleine, was found in it. Into this organ, therefore, there had been a kind of infiltration of fat."* 3. Marrow. This is the fatty matter contained in the interior of the cylindrical bones. Berzelius analyzed beef marrow, and found its constituents to be as follows : COMPOSITION OF BEEF MARROW. Medullary fat ......... 96 Skins and blood-vessels . .... 1 Watery liquids contained in these bodies ... 3 Beef marrow 100 " The constituent parts of these liquids do not differ from the matters which cold water extracts from beef." Marrow is deprived of the skins, vessels, &c., by melting it, and straining through a linen cloth. "The marrow of large bones," says Berzelius, " is absolutely of the same nature as the other fat of the same animal. The difference of flavor which exists between the marrow of boiled bones and ordinary melted fat depends on foreign matters derived from the liquids which circulate in the cellular tissue by which the fat is surrounded, and espe- cially by an extractiform substance which is insoluble in alcohol." The proportions of solid and liquid fats contained in marrow are, according to Bra- connot, as follows : Solid Fat. L quid Fat (Stearine.) .Oleine.) Beef marrow . 76 24 Mutton marrow . 26 74 In its dietetical properties, marrow agrees with other oily or fatty substances. Beef marrow is the only variety used at the table. It is never eaten raw- It is frequently employed as a substitute for suet in the making of puddings. 4. Animal Fats. Under this head are included the oils or fats contained in the adipose * Appendix, T. ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. tissue of animals : when separated from vessels and skins by melting and straining, they are said to be rendered down. By subjecting animal fats to pressure, Braconnot procured the following proportions of stearine and oleine from them : Solid Fat. J.iguid Fat. 100 Parts, (Siearine, &c.) (Oleine.) Kog s lara 39 62 Goose fat .... 32 58 Duck fat 28 72 Turkey fat 26 74 Hog's lard contains, besides Stearine and Oleine, some Margarine, (see p. 83, where also is stated the composition of rancid lard.) Mutton Suet consists of Stearine, Margarine, Oleine, Hircine, and Hircic Acid, (see p. 83.) Whale oil, obtained, by boil- ing, from the blubber of whales, consists principally of Oleine with some Phocenine, and usually a little Phocenic acid, to which it owes its odor. It also contains a solid crystallizable fat. The digestibility of animal fats has already been adverted to, (see p. 82,) as well as the injurious influence of heat on them, (see p. 83.) I have likewise noticed the fact that some kinds of cured fats (as salt-pork and bacon) are less indigestible, by some stomachs, than other forms of fat, (see p. 84.) The incapability of pure animal fats to effect prolonged nutrition has likewise been stated, (see pp. 19 and 84.) Magendie* reportsthat many animals which at first ate lard with pleasure, subsequently refused to touch it After a shorter or longer use of it they all died. The autopsy of one of these animals showed, as in the case of the animal who died when kept exclusively on a diet of butter, "a general atrophy of the organs, but a great abundance of fat, particularly under the skin, where it formed a layer of more than one centimetre [0-39371 of an English inch] in thickness." "We tried," continues Magendie, "whether, by mixing a certain portion of bread with the lard, we could ameliorate its effects. We made a paste composed of Lard 120 Grammes. White bread 250 Ditto. But the animal who was submitted to this nourishment refused it after a few days' use of it." Six dogs were fed exclusively on the fat which surrounds the heart of the ox. This fat contained some nitrogenous matter in the form of cellular tissue, and some small parcels of muscular fibres. Four of the animals refused to eat of it after using it for seven days, and died in from 19 to 35 days. The two other animals continued to take it, and were nourished by it, as I have already stated, (see p. 85 foot-note.) The animal fats are sometimes used by the cook, as preservative agents for various foods. Thus plums and damson.s when boiled, are covered with suet, in order to pre- serve them ; potted meats with butter ; &c. The antiseptic virtue depends, in these cases, on the exclusion of atmospheric air ; the oxygen of which is a powerful accelera- tor of fermentation and putrefaction. 2. OF THE VOLATILE OR ESSENTIAL OILS. As volatile oil is a constituent of several substances employed at the table, either as aliments or condiments, I have thought it ad- visable to notice it here ; the more especially as Dr. Prout includes it among oleaginous aliments. The labiate plants used in cookery, under the name of sweet or savory herbs, such as Mint, Marjoram, Savgry Sage, ar.d Thyme, owe their peculiar odor and flavor to volatile * Comptes Rendus, Aout, 1841. VOLATILE OILS PROTIENE. 89 I _ ___ _ ! oil lodged in small receptacles contained in the leaves. The fruits and leaves of several umbilleferous plants employed for flavoring, as Caraway, Anise, Fennel, and Parsley, like- [l wise contain volatile oil, to which they owe their agreeable flavor. In the case of the umbelliferous fruits, the oil is contained in tubes or vessels, called vitt&, situated in the jl pericarpial coat of the fruit. The cruciferous or siliquose condiments, such as Mustar^i, Horse-radish, and Water Cresses, yield an acrid volatile oil, to which they owe their pun- gency, The alliaceous condiments, such as Garlic, Onions, Eschalots, and Leeks, like- i wise owe their peculiar flavor to volatile oil. The spices, as Cinnamon, Nutmeg, Mace. Cloves, Allspice, Pepper, and Ginger, owe their strong but grateful odor and taste to vola- tile oil. Lastly, the bitter-almond flavor, obtained, not only from Bitter-Almonds, but also from the leaves of the Peach and the Cherry-Laurel, resides in a volatile oil. The volatile oils of many of the preceding substances are prepared and sold. But in flavor and odor they are generally inferior to the substances from which they are obtain- ed ; as the act of distillation, by which they are procured, usually diminishes more or less their agreeable qualities. Dissolved in rectified spirit of wine, in the proportion of one 'part of oil to eight pats of spirit, they form the liquids commonly sold as Essences for flavoring, &c. The relish for flavoring or seasoning ingredients, manifested, in a greater or less de- gree, by almost every person, would lead us to suppose that these substances serve some useful purpose in the animal er-onomy, boycnd that of merely gratifying the palate. * At present, however, we have no evidence to prove that they do. They stimulate, but do not seem to nourish. The volatile oil wh'ich they contain is absorbed, but is subsequently thrown out of the system, still possessing its characteristic odor. A portion of it may, perhaps, under some circumstances, be bu.*nt in the lungs, and in this way produce heat* 10. THE PROTEINACEOUS AIIMENTAKY PRINCIPLE. (Albuminous Substn/3sO Several organic principles, both animal and vegetable, which are employed as aliments, contain as their basis, or at least yield, the substance called by Mulder Proteine, snd which I have before noticed, (see p. 20.) They may, therefore, be regarded as modifier tions of one another, or of proteine, and I have accordingly included them in one group under the name of the proteinaceous alimentary principle. This graup corresponds very nearly with that called by Dr. Prout the Albumi.ioru Alimentary Principle. It differs, however, in not comprehending gelatinous substaLccs,, which, for reasons hereafter to be stated, I have thought it advisable to ibrrxi into i .dis- tinct group. Proteine has been analyzed by its discoverer, Mulder, and also by Scherer. ANALYSES OF PROTEINE MULDER. Carbon Hydrogen . Nitrogen Oxygen From Fibrine. From Ovalbumen. 55-44 55-30 6-95 6-94 16-05 16-02 21-56 21-74 Frn Vegetable Albumen. 54-99 6-87 15-66 22-48 Proteine 100-00 100-00 100-00 * Appendix, U. ' 90 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. SCHERER. From Fibrin* From Albumen. From Crystalline Ltnt Carbon . . 54-848 55-160 55-300 Hydrogen . . 6-959 7-055 6-940 Nitrogen . . 15-847 15-966 16-216 Oxygen . . 22-346 21-819 ' 21-544 Proteine ! ! 100-000 100-000 100-000 Mulder and Liebig have deduced the following formulae for the representation of the composition of proteine : MULDER. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Carbon . 40 240 54-93 Hydrogen .... 31 31 7-09 Nitrogen ... 5 70 16-02 Oxygen ... 12 96 21-96 Proteine 1 437 100-00 LIEBIG. Atoms. E U t( f) " Sheep . 0-37V . 0-3 > . . . s .a and Delafond. Beef (muscle of) . 20-0 in eluding albumen Brande. Veal (ditto) . 19-0 ditto Ditto. Mutton (ditto) . 22 ditto Ditto. Pork (ditto) . 19 ditto Ditto. Chicken (ditto) . 20 ditto Ditto. Cod (ditto) . 14 ditto Ditto. Haddock (ditto) . 13 ditto Ditto. Sole (ditto) . 15 ditto Ditto. Calf s Sweetbread > s ivr * (Thymus) 5 ' ... onn. Fibrine (as beefsteak, &c.) is readily soluble in the artificial digestive liquid already described, (see p. 35, foot-note.) It is also speedily dissolved in the living stomach; and is generally considered, even by dyspeptics, as being easy of digestion. It is an important element of nutrition, and yields fibrine, albumen, and caseine, as well as the tissues composed of these substances. Alone, however, it is incapable of support- ing life, except for a very limited period. MagendieJ mentions, as a most singular and surprising circumstance, that animals who took regularly for two months from 500 grammes [1 Ib. 4 oz. 37 grs. troy] to 1000 grammes [2 Ibs. 8 oz. 74grs. troy] of fibrine daily, died of inanition ; and on a post-mortem examination, it was found that the blood had almost entirely disappeared. " Notwithstanding," says JUagendie, " the care we took to collect it, [the blood,] a few minutes after death, scarcely a gramme [15-444 grs. tiayj of fihrine could be obtained." b. Albumen; Animal Albumen. This substance constitutes the most important part of * Turner's Chemistry, 7th ed. p. 1185. 1842 t Ibid, p. 1197. J Comptes Rendus, Aout, 1841. ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. animal foods. The albumen, both of the egg (ovalbumeri) and of the serum of the blood, (ser albumen,*) is liquid. But the albumei of flesh, glands, and viscera of animals, is solid. The quantity of albumen contained in several aliments is as follows : QUANTITY OF ALBUMEN IN ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. 100 Parts. Blood of the Ox ... " Hog (English Breed,) " Goat . " " Sheep (Merino) . " " Ditto (Uishley breed) East India Isinglass Egg, white of " yolk of ... Liver of Ox, parenchyma of . Sweeibread (lliymus) of Calf Caviare, frosh unpressed Muscle of Beef Veal Pork . Roe Deer " Pigeon " Chicken ' Carp " Trout Albumen. 18-6 18-58 19-28 18-35 18-74 7 2 to 135 155 17-47 20-19 14-00 3100 2-2 32 to 2-6 2-6 2-3 4-5 3-0 5-2 4-4 Authority. IMean quantity of blood r-irptiscles and solid contents of the serum, ac- cording to MM. Andral. Gavarret, J and Del a fond. I'. Solly, jun. BoMoek. Prout Braconnot. Morin. John. ! Soluble Albumen and IlttMnuto.Mtie, according to Schlossberger. I have included the blood corpuscles among the albuminous constituents of some of the preceding alimentary substances, since albumen is their principal constituent* Albumen is highly nutritious, and, when either raw or lightly boiled, is easy of diges- tion ; but when boiled hard, or especially when fried, its digestibility is considerably im- paired, (see Eggs.) The gastric juice has the property of coagulating liquid albumen, and afterwards of dissolving the coagufa which are formed. The influence of an artifi- cial gastric juice on cubes of coagulated albumen, (white of egg,) I have abcady men-. tioned, (see p. 35, foot-note.) " Albumen," says Liebig,f " must be considered as the true starting point of id the ani- mal tissues; and all nitrogenized articles of food, whether derived from the animal or vege- table kingdom, are converted intc albumen befere they can take part in the process of nutrition. This appears from the phenomena of incubation, where all tli ;re de- rived from the albumen of the white and of the yolk, which contain albumen also, with the aid only of the air, of the oily matter of the yolk, and t>f a certain proportion of iron, also found in the yolk." Out of this albumen, therefore, must be formed flesh, blood, membrane and cellular tissue, blood-vessels, feathers, claws, &c. Notwithstanding this, however, animals cannot subsist solely on albumen, (see \>. '2'}, foot-note.) After a few days' use of it they refuse to take it, preferring to suffer the most violent pangs of hunger rather than eat it ; and ultimately they die of inanition-t It has * According to Denis, (Essaisur VApplr-tion de la Chimieb T Elude Physiologique du Sang de rH p. 205, 1333,) the blood corpuscles have the following composition -. { Coloring matters (Haematosine) 1-8 ) Peroxide of Iron 02 Envelopes Central nucleus (albuminous matters) 93-0 Blood Corpuscles 100-0 t Turner's Chemistry, 7lh ed. p. 1 187. t The reason why graminiferoin animals cannot subsl-t on albumen alone, according to the theory of Licbig, is that when deprived of free motion, they cannot obtain from the waste, or transformation of the ti sue-, a sufficient quantity of carbon for the respiratory process. For example, 2 lb;. of albumen con- tain only 3i oz. of carbon, of which, among the last products of transformation, a fourth part is given off in the form of uric acid L CASEINE. 93 been justly observed by Magendie,* that white of eggs combines a number of conditions favorable to digestion. "It is alkaline, contains saline matters, and especially common salt in very large proportion : the animal matter which it contains is the same as that found in the chyle and in the blood : it is liquid, but is coagulated by the acids of the stomach, forming flocculi having but little cohesion. Lastly, white of egg contains some organized membranes, which may perform, in digestion, some useful and perhaps indis- pensable function. But notwithstanding all these good reasons, albumen is refused by animals." Albumen (as the white or glaire of eggs) is used by the cook and confectioner as a clar- ifying or clearing agent for syrups, jellies, &c. Its efficacy depends on its coagulation, by which it entangles in its meshes the impurities, with which it either rises to the surface or precipitates. When the liquid to be clarified does not spontaneously coagulate the albu- men, it is necessary to apply heat. c. Animal Caseine; Caseum ; Lactalbumen ; Curd. This is the coagulable matter of milk, and its only nitrogenized constituent, and is closely allied to albumen, of which it may be regarded as a modification. Liquid caseine, unlike liquid allumen, does not coagulate by heat, though when milk is heated in an open vessel an insoluble pellicle forms on it, owing to the action of the atmospheric oxygen. " The ashes of soluble caseine," says Liebig,f " are very strongly alkaline ; and there is reason to believe that the potash found in the ashes had served, by combining with the caseine, to render it soluble." The quantity of caseine contained in different kinds of milk is as follows : QUANTITY OF CASEINE IN MILK. 100 Parts. Caseine. Authority. Cow's milk 4'48 O. Henry and Chevallier. Ditto fed on hay 3'0 "1 Ditto turnips 3-0 | Ditto clover 4-0 |Boussingault and Le Bel. Ditto potatoes and hay 15'1 Ditto ditto 3-3 J Ewe's milk 4'50 O. Henry and Chevallier. Goat's milk 4-02 Ditto. Asses' milk 1-82 Ditto. Woman's milk 1-52 Ditto. Mulder;}: has shown that caseine, like albumen and fibrine, is a proteinaceous substance. It differs, however, from the two last-mentioned principles, in containing no phosphorus, (see p. 20 and 90.) When coagulated by rennet and afterwards burnt, it yields 6 per cent, of phosphate of lime and a half per cent, of caustic lime. Coagulated caseine, deprived of whey by pressure, and usually mixed with more or less of butter, constitutes cheese; the richness of which is in proportion to the quantity of butter present. Rich cheese, when toasted, undergoes a kind of semifusion, and becomes soft and viscid. The poorer cheeses, or those which contain very little butter, are better adapted for keeping. When toasted they shrivel like horn. Stillon Cheese is prepared from milk to which cream is added. Cheshire and the best Gloucester Cheeses are made from unskimmed milk. Suffolk and Parmesan Cheeses are prepared from skim-milk.H An- notta is often employed, as a coloring agent, in the preparation of cheese. Salt is used to preserve it, as well as to improve the flavor and add to the weight. * Comptes Rendus, Aout, 1841. J Pharmaceutvsches Cmtral-BlaUfilr 1839, p. 244. t Turner's Chemistry, 7th ed. p. 1190. Berzelius, Traite de Chimie, t. vii. p. 603. II Gruy^re cheeses are made of skimmed milk and flavored with herbs. The most celebrated cheese, as well as butter of this country, is that made in Goshen, Orange county, New fork. L. 94 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. When long kept, cheese undergoes a series of peculiar changes. According to Chev- reul,* its odor depends on the development of the fatty acids of butter ; and, when the fermentation is prolonged, to tht alteration of the capric acid. Roquefort Cheese owes its odor to the latter circumstance. By the decomposition of moist cheese, there is developed a solid substance, which Braconnotf called aposepedin, (from *<>, from* and jirreJd*, putre- faction, because it is the produce of putrefaction,) but which Proust} had previously de- nominated caseic oxide. This last-mentioned chemist also mentions caseic acid as a con- stituent of cheese ; but Braconnot states that the substance to which Proust gave tjiis name is a compound or mixture of no !ess than nine substances, viz. free acetic acid, aposepedine, animal matter soluble in water and insoluble in rectified spirit, (osmazome,) animal matter soluble in water and alcohol, yellow acrid oil, brown slightly sapid oil, ace- late of potash, chloride of potassium, and traces of acetate of ammonia. From 750 parts of cheese, Braconnot obtained 36 parts of fatty matter, composed of margarate of lime 1492, margaric acid 2-57, oleic acid retaining margaric acid and a brown animal matter 18-51. The piquant flavor of old cheese depends on oleic acid and an acrid oily m Cheese is subject to the attacks of both animals and vegetables. The Fly called Mu*ca (Tephrilis') pittris deposits its leaping larvre or magots (called hoppers or jumpers} on cheese. The Cheese-mite (Acarus domeslicus) is another animal of frequent occurrence. The Mould of cheese is composed of minute fungi. Blue Mould is the A^rgiHus glaucns of Berkeley ;|| while Red Cheese-mould is the Sporcndonema Casei of the same authority. Liquid caseine, as it exists in milk, is coagulated in the stomach by the gastric secretion,1T and the coagula thus formed are subsequently redissolved.** In this form, caseiuc : of digestion. Cheese, however, is digested with difficulty, especially by .; If In the toasted state it is still more obnoxious to the stomach.}}: * Ann. de Chvn. et de Phys. x.\iii. p. 29. J Ann. de Chim. etde Phyx. x. p. 39. + Ibid, xxxvi. p. 159. Appendix, V. || Smith's English Flora, Vol. v. Part H. Fungi, by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley. Lond. 1836. IT " The action of the digestive principle on caseine deserves a more particular consideration. Ber- zelius had already pointed out that the rennet of the calf has the property of coagulating milk after all traces of acidity have been removed by washing. It is known, too, that the cr> the caseine produced by rennet is peculiar ; inasmuch as the curds are insoluble in water and in an addi- tional quantity of acid. Now Schwann has shown that this property of coagulating the caseine is possessed by the artificial digestive fluid, even when neutralized. On the addition of a very quantity of the acid fluid to milk, and the application of heat, the coapulated caseine soon sep of the neutral fluid, more than 0'42 per cent, are necessary ; 0'83 is sufficient. The power of the arti- ficial digestive fluid to coagulate milk is destroyed by the boiling temperature ; it cannot, therefore, !>e the saline ingredients which produce the coagulation. This peculiar action of the digestive principle on milk renders the latter fluid a test for its presence. Schwann has in this way proved that the digestive principle which we are here considering, really exists in the stomach. He divided the stomach of a rabbit, which had died immediately after birth, into two portions ; boiled one, and then added to each some milk. On the application of a gentle heat, the milk coagulated in the portion which had not been boiled, while in the other it remained unchanged," (Miiller's Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p. 547.) ** According to Schwann, caseine dissolves in the acid of the gastric juice ; whereas albumen requires the presence of pepsine to eflect its solution. tt " By many," says Dr. DungUson. (Elements of Hygicnf, p. 278, Philadelphia, 1835,) " cheese is supposed to be an excellent condiment, and, accordingly, it is often systematically taken at the end of dinner as a digestive, ir. accordance with the old proverb : 'Cheese is a surly elf, Digesting all things but itself.' " tt "With respect to cheeso," says Dr. Cullen, (A/u/tv/a Malica, p. 331.) "there is yet one particular to be mentioned, and which is to remark, that it is often ate after having been toasted that is, heated over CASEINE. 95 The time required for the chymification of cheese is, according to Dr. Beaumont's ex- periments, as follows : ARTICLES OF DIET. MEAN TIME OF THE CHYMIFICATION. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. H. M. Cheese, old, strong, . it U " new, mild . Raw 3 30 Masticated Entire piece Divided 7 15 18 8 30 Caseine is highly nutritious, constituting a plastic element of nutrition, (see p. 16,) by which, in the young mammal, the development of the tissues is effected. "The young animal," says Liebig,* "receives, in the form of caseine, which is distin- guished from fibrine and albumen by its great solubility, and by not coagulating when heated, the chief constituent of the mother's blood. To convert caseine into blood no foreign substance is required, and in the conversion of the mother's blood into caseine, no elements of the constituents of the blood have been separated. When chemically examined, caseine is found to contain a much larger proportion of the earth of bones than blood does, and that in a very soluble form, capable of reaching every part of the body. Thus, even in the earliest period of its life, the development of the organs, in which vital- ity resides, is, in the carnivorous animal, dependent on the supply of a substance, identi- cal in organic composition with the chief constituents of its blood." 2. VEGETABLE PROTEIN ACEOUS PRINCIPLES. According to Liebig, vegetables contain proximate principles, which are not only similar to, but absolutely identical with, the fibrine, albumen, and caseine of animals ; and he, therefore, denominates them respect- ively vegetable fibrine, vegetable albumen, and vegetable caseine. There is also a fourth proteinaceous vegetable principle called glutine, or pure gluten. The composition of these substances may be assumed identical, for their analyses do not differ more than two analyses of the same substances differ from each other. COMPOSITION OF VEGETABLE FIBRINE. Obtained from Wheat- Gluten. From Rye Meal Carbon . Hydrogen Nitrogen . Oxygen . Sulphur . Phosphorus Scherer. 53-064 7-132 15-359 24-445 Scherer. 54-603 7-302 15-810 22-285 Jones. 53-83 7-02 15-58 23-56 Scherer 54-617 7-491 15-809 22-083 100-000 100-000 100-00 100-000 tho fi -e to a considerable degree ; whereby a portion of its oil is separated, while the other .parts are united more closely together. 1 know many persons who seem to digest this food pretty well : but it is certainly not easily digested by weak stomachs ; and for those who can be hurt by indigestion, or heated by a heavy supper, it is a very improper diet." * Ammal Chemistry, p. 52. 96 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. COMPOSITION OF VEGETABLE ALBUMEN, CASEINE, AND GLUTEN. Vegetable Albumen from Rye. Vegetable Cuscine. Pure Gluten. (Jones.) (Sckcrer.) (Jones.} Carbon 5474 54-138 55-22 Hydrognn 7-77 7-156 7-42 Nitrogen 15-85 15 672 15-98 Oxygen. &c 21-64 23-034 21-33 100-00 100-000 100-00 No experiment have been made on the nutritive powers of these principles in the separate state ; hut they are doubtless equal to those of the same principles procured from animals, (sre p. 20.) "How beautifully and admirably simple," says Liebig, "appears the process of nutri- tion in animals, the formation of their organs in which vitality chiefly resides! Those vegetable princij-les which, in animals, are used to form blood, contain the chief constitu- ents of blood, filorine, and albumen, ready formed, as far as regards their composition. All plants, besides, contain a certain quantity of iron, which reappears in the coloring matter of the blood. Vegetable fibrine and animal fibrine, vegetable albumen and animal albumen, hardly differ, even in form; if these principles be wanting in the food, the nu- trition of the animal is arrested ; and when they are present, the graminivorous animal obtains in its food the very same principles on the presence of which the nutrition of the carnivora entirely depends. Vegetables produce in their organism the blood of all ani- mals, for the carnivora, in consuming the blood and flesh of the graminivora, consume, j strictly speaking, only the vegetable principles which have served for the nutrition of the | latter. Vegetable fibrine and albumen take the same form in the stomach of the gram- inivorous animal as animal fibrine and albumen do in that of the carnivorous animal." a. Vegetable Fibrine. This principle is most abundant in the seeds of the cereal grasses, as Wheat,* Rye, Barley, Oats, Maize, and Rice. It exists also in Buckwheat. The Juice of Grapes is especially rich in it It is also found in the newly-expressed juices of mobt vegetables, as of Carrots, Turnips, and Reet-root, from which it coagulates' spon- taneously on standing. It is a constituent of the raw gluten obtained from the dough of \vheaten flour. From both vegetable albumen and vegetable caseine, it differs in being insoluble in water. Moreover, it does not dissolve in ammonia. b. Vegetable Albumen. This, like vegetable fibrine, is a constituent of the seeds of the Cereal Grasses, as of Wheat. In the preparation of raw gluten from wheaten doutili, it is washed away along with the starch. It is found in great abundance in the Oily Seeds, as Almonds, Nuts, &c. Most Vegetable Juices contain a considerable quantity of it Thus the juices of Carrots, Turnips, Cabbages, Cauliflowers, Asparagus, and other cul- tivated nutritious vegetables, after being separated from the coagulum of fibrine, which spontaneously forms in them, yield by boiling a second coagulum of vegetable albumen. This principle differs from vegetable fibrine in being soluble in water, and from vegeta- ble caseine in coagulating when heated. c. Vegetable Caseuie. This is chiefly found in Leguminous Seeds, as Beans, Peas, Lentils ; and ha. c , in consequence, been termed Legumine. The oily seeds, such as Al- monds, Nuts, &c., also contain it along with albumen. It exists, perhaps, in solution in grape juice, ai.d in other vegetable juices which yield very little vegetable albumen on being heated. It differs from vegetable fibrine in being soluble in water : and from vege- table albumen in not coagulating when its aqueous solution is heated. d. Pure Gluten. By washing wheaten dough with a stream of water, the gum, sugai * The vegetable fibrine of wheat is identical with the zymome of Taddei, and with the vegetable alb* men of Berzelius. GLUTEN. starch, and vegetable albumen, are removed ; while a ductile, tenacious, elastic, gray mass is left, which is usually denominated gluten. I shall distinguish it as raw, impure, or common gluten. It is sometimes called Beccaria's gluten. It is a mixture of several organic principles. When raw gluten is boiled in alcohol, it is resolved into two portions, one soluble, the other insoluble in this liquid. The insoluble portion is Liebig's vegetable fhrine. It is identical with what Taddei called zymome, (from ^>/, ferment,} and which Berzelius de- scribes as vegetable albumen. The soluble portion is that which Jones (quoted by Liebig) analyzed as pure gluten, and which Taddei called gliadine, (from y\t a , glue.) It probably consists of at least two substances ; one which deposits as the hot alcoholic solution cools, and which has been termed mucine; the other remains in solution in the cold liquor, and has been called glutine. The quantity of pure gluten (glutine and mucine) contained in different alimentary substances, has not been accurately determined. According to Saussure,* raw gluten has the following composition : .COMPOSITION OF RAW GLUTEN. Glutine Vegetable albumen [vegetable fibrine of Liebig] Mucine .... ... Oily matter Starch (accidental) 20 72 4 3-7 small quantity Raw Gluten 99-7 The quantity of raw gluten contained in various alimentary substances is as follows: QUANTITY OF GLUTINOUS MATTER CONTAINED IN SEVERAL ALIMENTARY SUB- STANCES. 100 Parts. Wheat, Middlesex (average crop) Spring . . . . Mildewed of 1806 Blighted of 1804 Thick- skinned Sicilian of 1810 Thin-skinned Sicilian of 1810 from Poland .... North American of the neighborhood of Paris . cultivated in soil manured with ox blood with human faeces with sheep's dung with goat's dung with human urine with horse-dung with pigeon's dung with cow-dung with vegetable humus Ditto " Ditto " 41 Ditto " Ditto " " Ditto " " Ditto " " Ditto " " Ditto " Ditto, not manured Wheat " Bavarian . . Barley, Norfolk " grown in soil manured with horse-dung Oats from Scotland ..... " grown in toil manured with horse dung Rye from Yorkshire " grown in soil manured with horse-dung Rice, Carolina Glutinous Matter. 19-0 24-0 3-2 13-0 23-0 23-9 20-0 22-5 9-2t 34-24 33-94 32-9 32'83 35-1 13-68 12-2 11-96 9-6 9-2 12-5 24-0 6-0 5-7 8-7 4-0 10-9 7-98 360 Authority Davy. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Boussingault Hermbstaedt Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Proust. Vogel. Davy. Hermbstaedt. Davy. Hermbstaedt. Davy. Hermbstaedt. Braconnot. * BiUiothlque Universelle. Sciences et Arts, t. liii. p. 260. 1833. t Mechanical analysis gave Boussingault only 9-2 per cent, of raw gluten ; but the quantity of nitrogen contained in the same wheat indicated 14-4 per cent, of raw gluten. The difference (5-2 per cent.) he ascribes to the vegetable albumen and gluten carried away by washing in the mechanical analysis, (Ann. de Ckim. et de Phys. t. Ixv. p. 308-9.) ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 100 Parts. Glutinous Matter. Authority. Rice, Piedmont 3-60 Braconnot. Maize (zeln*) 3-0 Gorham. (dtik 5-753 Bizio. Beans, common Peas, dry Potatoes Beet, Red Turnips, comm m Cabbage 103 Davy. 3-5 Davy 4 to 3 Davy. 1-3 Davy. 0-1 Davy. 0-8 Davy. From Schwann's experiments it appears that gluten dissolves in the acid of the gastric secretion ; for when it was digested separately with dilute acid and dilute digestive fluid, no difference could be perceived in the change which it underwent in the two fluids. Tincture of iodine threw down a precipitate in the solution of gluten in the dilute acid, but produced no change of color.* Gluten is easy of digestion ; at least substances (as the preparations of wheat) which contain it in the largest quantity, are readily digested even by invalids and dyspeptics. Gluten is highly nutritious, and alone is capable of the prolonged nutrition of animals. " Gluten," says Magendie,f " obtained either from wheat or maize, presented a phenomenon which we had not observed in our experiments with organic immediate principles, which, in every instance, excited greater or less aversion in the animals obliged to subsist on it solely. " Gluten, notwithstanding that its odor is savorless, and sometimes somewhat nause- ous, while its taste has nothing agreeable, was taken without difficulty from the first day, and the animals continued to use it without distaste for three months uninterruptedly. The dose was 120 to 150 grammes [1852 > 2315 grs. troy] daily, and the animals pre- served all the characters of excellent health. This fact appeared the more remarkable to us, as it was in opposition to the law which seemed to result from very numerous facts before stated, namely, that an alimentary substance, especially if it were an isolated im- mediate principle, is riot fitted for supporting life beyond a very limited period. " Here, however, is a substance heretofore considered as an immediate azotized principle, which, without any preparation or seasoning, excited neither repugnance nor disgust, and which alone nourished completely and for a long period." Magendie subsequently observes that gluten ought not to be considered as an imme- diate principle. " That which we employed," he adds, " undoubtedly contained some traces of fecula. Exclusive of this, we know that it may be resolved into two distinct substances ; one of an albuminous nature, the other called glaiadine. This latter is like- wise separable into gluten properly so called, gum, and mucilage." " Our dogs, therefore," he continues, " eat much gluten, combined with a little albumen, gum, mucilage, fecula, and even sugar arising from the fecula. This aliment, simple in appearance, was then, in reality, very compounded." " It is the presence of gluten in wheaten flour that renders it pre-eminently nutritious, and its viscidity or tenacity confers upon that species of flour its peculiar excellence for the manufacture of macaroni, vermicelli, and similar pastes, which are made by a kind of wire-drawing, and for which the wheat of the south of Europe (more abundant in gluten than our own) is particularly, adapted. The superiority of wheaten over other bread depends upon the greater tenacity of its dough, which, in panary fermentation, is puffed * Muller's Physiology, Baly & Translation, vol. i. p. 547. t Rappcrt fait a I Acadtmie des Sciences au norm de la Commission dile dt la Gtlatinc. Comptes Rendux, Aout, 1841. GELATINE. 99 100 Parts. Gelatine. Isinglass (East Indian) 86-5 to 92-8 (good quality) . 70-0 6-0 6-0 7-0 5-0 7-0 7-0 5-0 6-0 0-5 Sweetbread (Thymus) of Calf . 6-0 Antlers of Stag (Hartshorn) . 27-0 Bones, spongy portions ... 39 Bones of Sheep (lleurn) . 43 3 to 47-2 ' ofOx(Ileura) .... 48-5 " of Haddock (Vertebrae) 39.49 Muscle of Beef Veal " Mutton . Pork . Chicken Cod Haddock Sole Caviare, fresh unpressed (Cartilage) (ditto) Authority. E. Solly, jun. John. Brande. John. Morin. Merat-Guillot. D'Arcet. Dr. T. Thomson. Under the name of gelatine are included several substances which differ more or less from each other, but which agree in most of their principal characters. Two of these have been distinguished by distinct names, viz., Collinor Colla and Chondrin. a. Collin, Thomson; Colla, Miiller ; Common Gelatine. This is obtained from Isin- glass, Skins, Tendons, Cartilage of bone after ossification has taken place, Cellular Tis- sue, and the Serous Membranes. It is distinguished from chondrin by not being precipi- * Brande's Manual of Chemistry p. 1091, 5th ed. 1841. t See the article Bread. | Cn the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases, pp. xii. and xiii. 3d ed. up by the evolved carbonic acid, and retained in its vesicular texture, so as to form a very light loaf"* Gluten being nutritious and unobjectionable as an article of food in diabetes, has been recently used in the preparation of what has been called gluten bread, for 'he use of dia- | ! betic patients, f ' 11. THE GELATINOUS ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. Dr. ProitJ comprehends gelatine among albuminous aliments. He considers it to be a modification of albumen, or " as the least perfect kind of albuminous matter existing in animal bodies." But gelatine and albumen, and the proteinaceous and albuminous tissues respectively differ in their chemical properties and composition. And though it is probable that, in the animal system, gelatinous tissues are formed out of proteine compounds, chemists have hitherto totally felled to convert albumen into gelatine, or, vice versa, to change gelatine into albumen. Moreover, as the composition of proteine compounds is identical with that of the flesh and blood of animals, while that of the gelatinous tissues is not, it follows that the nutritive qualities of the proteinaceous and gelatinous tissues cannot be identical. For these reasons I have thought it desirable to separate gelatinous aliments from albu- minous ones. Albuminous or proteinaceous tissues are insoluble in water, and by boiling become hard. Gelatinous tissues, on the other hand, yield, by boiling, a substance called gelatine, which is soluble, and forms with water a tremulous mass, termed jelly, (animal jelly.) The quantity of gelatinous matter obtained from different alimentary substances is as fol- lows : QUANTITY OF GELATINOUS MATTER OBTAINED FROM ALIMENTARY SUBSTANCES. 1840. 100 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. tated from its aqueous solution by muriatic acid, acetic acid, acetate of lead, alum, sul- phate of alumina, or sulphate of the sesquioxide of iron. Glue, Site, and Isinglass Jetty, are examples of collin. p. Chondrin, Miiller. This is obtained from the Cornea, the Spongy Cartilages, the Permanent Cartilages, Cartilage of bone before ossification, the Unossified Cartilages of the Cartilaginous fishes, and the Bony Crusts of the Armadillo. It is distinguished froin collin by being precipitated from its aqueous solution by muriatic acid, acetic acid, acetate of lead, alum, sulphate of alumina, and sulphate of the sesquioxide of iron. y. Gelatine from Elastic Tissues. The gelatine obtained from the Elastic Tissues, as the Inner Arterial Coat, the Ligaments of the Larynx, &c., is identical with neither collin nor chondrine, though it approximates nearer to the latter. Its aqueous solution is ren- dered turbid by acetic acid and acetate of lead, and is precipitated by alum and sulphate of alumina, but does not form a precipitate with sulphate of the sesquioxide of iron. *. Gelatine altered by heat. When gelatine is submitted to prolonged ebullition, or to a temperature exceeding 220 F., it undergoes important changes. It evolves ammonia, becomes syrupy, loses its characteristic property of forming with water a jelly, and very speedily undergoes putrefaction. Thus altered, it has a disagreeable flavor. Its nutritive properties are greatly deteriorated, if not altogether destroyed. It is less digestible, and readily deranges the functions of the digestive organs. The ultimate composition of gelatinous substances is as follows : COMPOSITION OF GELATINOUS SUBSTANCES. Carbon . . , Hydrogen . . Nitrogen . . Oxygen . Tissues yielding Collin. Collin. Tissues yielding Ckondrin. Tendons of Isinglass. Caffs Foot. (Scherer.) (Scherer.) 50-557 50-960 6-903 7-188 18-790 18-320 23-750 23-532 Hartshorn jelly. (Mulder.) 50-048 6-643 18-988 24-921 Cartilages of Calfs Jiibs. [Sclterer.] 50-895 6-962 14-908 27-235 100000 100-000 100-000 100000 From the researches of Mulder and Scherer, Liebig has deduced the following empiri- cal formulae of the composition of various organic substances. COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC TISSUES. Albumen Fibrine Caseine Gelatinous tissues, tendons Chondrine Hair, horn Arterial membrane C N H O -f P + S* CN 8 H* O" + P -j- 2 S N H O' 8 N 8 H M O CN 8 " The composition of these formulae shows that when proteine passes into chondrine, (the substance of the cartilages of the ribs,) the elements of water, with oxygen, have been added to it ; while in the formation of the serous membranes, nitrogen also has en- tered into combination. "If we lepresent the formulae of proteine C 48 N'H 38 O 14 by Pr, then nitrogen, h}tlro- gen, and oxygen, have been added to it in the form of known compounds, and in the fol- lowing proportions, in forming the gelatinous tissues, hair, horn, arterial membrane, &c." * "The quantities of sulphur and phosphorus here expressed by S and P are not equivalents, but only give the relative proportions of these two elements to each other, as found by analysis." GELATINE. 101 Proteine. Ammonia. Water. Oxygen. Pibnne Pr . Albumen Pr . -f- 2 HO ... Chondrine Pr . -f- 4 HO , . 2 O Hair, horn Pr -f NHs . . . . -j- 3 O Gelatinous tissues . 2 Pr -f- 3 NH^ -f- . HO -f- 7 O According to Schwann, the artificial digestive liquor (described at p. 35, foot-note,) pro- duced no other change upon gelatine than what simple acidified water equally produced. His statements are confirmed by Dr. Beaumont's experiments.* The digestibility of the different varieties and forms of gelatinous matter is not uniform. Calfs-fooljellij, when fresh prepared, I believe to be readily digested even by invalids and dyspeptics, with whom I have rarely found it disagree. I am confirmed in this opinion by the experiments of Dr. Beaumont.f Isinglass jelly, when fresh prepared from isinglass of good quality, and also Hartshorn jelly, are probably equally easy of digestion.! But other forms of gelatinous matter are more difficult of digestion, and some are very apt to derange the functions of the digestive organs. Thus very hard gelatinous tissues, as tendons, require a larger quantity of gastric juice and a longer time for their complete digestion.^ Gelatinous liquids, when very weak, or which are obtained by means of a high temperature or prolonged ebullition, or which are procured from tissues containing fat or other matters apt to become rancid, readily disturb the functions of the stomach and intestines. The injurious effects of gelatine which has been altered by heat, I have already had occasion to mention, (see p. 100.) Soups, hashes, and stews, all of which con- tain gelatine, are obnoxious to the digestive organs of dyspeptics and invalids, partly perhaps on account of the changes effected in the gelatinous matter by heat, but principally from the presence of fatty and other substances difficult of digestion, (see p. 84.) It is customary with writers on dietetics to declare all gelatinous substances difficult of digestion : but such assertions are, in my opinion, far too sweeping. They can apply only to certain kinds of gelatinous foods ; and not to some of the simplest and purest forms of gelatine, such as plain calf s-foot jelly. The times required for the digestion of various substances, as ascertained by Dr. Beau- mont, are as s follows : * Op. supra, cit. pp. 237-233. t The experiments of Dr. Beaumont, above referred to, were made on the Canadian whose case I have already noticed, (see p. 82.) The following are the notes of one experiment : 41 EXPERIMENT 41. At 1 o'clock, P.M., he ate eight ounces of Calf s-foot jelly, and nothing else. " In twenty minutes, examined stomach, and took out a portion of its contents, consisting of gastric juice, combined with the jelly, nearly all of it in a fluid form ; a few particles only of entire jelly, sus- pended in the fluids, with a few small yellowish-white coagula floating near the surface, could be per- ceived. "At 2 o'clock examined again, extracted a little fluid, but found no appearance of jelly. " Remarks. The operation of gastric juice on gelatine is very difficult to be detected. Unlike albu- men, it is unsusceptible of coagulation ; and it is probable that the gastric juice acts upon it in its soft solid state. This was disposed of in a short period. It was, however, but a small quantity, and was much sooner digested than a full meal would have been. From various trials, I am disposed to think that gelatine, if not in too concrete a state, is a very digestible article of diet." t We have found Isinglass jelly a better article of nourishment, in cases of cholera infantum in children, than farinaceous substances. L. Beaumont, op. supra, cit. p. 194-5. ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. DIGESTION OF GELATINOUS SUBSTANCES. Articles of Diet Mean time of Chymification. In Stomach. In Phials. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. ' H. M.^ Calf's-foot Jelly (Exp. 41) Isinglass Jelly (Exp. 64) Gelatine Boiled Boiled Boiled Boiled Boiled Boiled 1 1 2 33 3 4 15 5 30 Boiled Boiled Divided Masticated Entire piece Entire piece Entire piece 4 45 6 31) 12 12 45 24 8tf 80 Aponeurosis .... Cartilage Cartilage Tendon Tendon of young beef Bone, beef, solid . . . " hog's, solid . . A gelatinous substance, though possessing some degree of nutritive power, cannot alone sustain animal life ; but, when taken in conjunction with other alimentary sub- stances, takes part in the nutrition of the body. Different gelatinous substances, how- ever, are unequally nutritive. Thus gelatine is less nutritive than the bone which yields it. The French Gelatine Commission found that dogs fed solely on raw bones and water for three months, continued in perfect health, and lost none of their weight by the use of this kind of food. Now as by boiling in water the cartilaginous tissue of bone is resolved into gelatine principally, it follows that a gelatinous tissue (that is, a tissue which by boiling is resolved into gelatine) contributes to the nutrition of the body ; though it cannot be said to be the exclusive agent in this process, since bones contain other alimentary principles (such as fatty and albuminous matters) besides the earthy salts and the substance which is resolvable into gelatine. The same experimenters found that the nutritive quality of bones is deteriorated, or even destroyed, by boiling them, by digesting them in hydrochloric acid, and especially by resolving their cartilaginous tissue into gelatine. Thus the very same kind of bones which in the raw state effected nutrition, failed to support animal life after they had been boiled ; for dogs which had been fed on them died at the end of two months, with all the signs of inanition, and with a considerable diminution of their weight An exclusive diet of beef tendon and water is incapable of effecting perfect nutrition. A dog ate the tendons for eighteen days, and then manifested dislike to them ; but he continued to take them for five days longer, when he refused them. He had now lost considerably in weight, and manifested other signs of inanition. Gelatine extracted from bones was refused by dogs, by some from the first, by others after once or twice using it. They preferred enduring the pangs of hunger to eating it ; though it was tried in various forms, namely, both in the dry and humid states, and as a tremulous jelly. Seasoned gelatine prepared for the use of man, and which had a very agreeable flavor, was eaten for a few days, and then refused ; tt e animals dying of star- vation on the twentieth day. These experiments, therefore, are. tolerably conclusive that animals cannot be nourished on gelatine exclusively. M. Donne tried its effects on him- self. He took daily from 20 to 50 grammes [from 308$ grs. to 771| grs. tioy] of dry gelatine (in the farm of a sugared and aromatized jelly, with either lemon or some ppiri:,) and from 85 to 100 grammes [from 1312 grs. troy to 1543$ grs. troy] of bread. At the expiration of six days he had lost two pounds in weight, and (Turing the whole time was tormented with hunger, and suffered with extreme faintness, which was only alleviated after dining in his usual way. ISINGLASS. 103 These experiments do not, however, go the length of proving that gelatine, taken in conjunction with other alimentary substances, does not assist in nutrition. The every-day experience of the physician would negative such an inference. Moreover, the investiga- tions of M. Edwards and Balzac favor the notion that gelatine taken with other kinds of food assists the nutrition of the body. Liebig has recently suggested that the nourishing powers of gelatine are confined to the gelatinous tissues : for, as proteine cannot be obtained from gelatine, the latter can serve neither for the formation of blood nor for the reproduction and growth of albuminous and fibrinous tissues. It is, therefore, probable, he thinks, "that gelatine, when taken in the dissolved state, is again converted, in the body, into cellular tissue, membrane, and cartilage. And when the powers of nutrition in the whole body are affected by a change of the health, th^n, even should the power of forming blood remain the same, thfe organic force by which the constituents of the blood are transformed into cellular tissue and mem- branes must necessarily be enfeebled by sickness. In the sick man, the intensity of the vital force, its powers to produce metamorphoses, must be diminished as well in the stomach as in all other parts of the body. In this condition, the uniform experience of practical physicians shows that gelatinous matters in a dissolved state exercise a most decided influence on the state of the health. Given in a form adapted for assimilation, they serve to husband the vital force, just as may be done, in the case of the stomach, by due preparation of the food in general." These opinions, however ingenious and plausible, require to be confirmed by facts ; for at present they are rather to be regarded as unsupported hypotheses. Even should they be eventually admitted as true, they offer no explanation of many of the curious and inter- esting circumstances respecting the alimentary properties of gelatinous substances, which have been recently reported by the French Gelatine Commission. As gelatine is convertible into a kind of sugar (gelatine sugar or glycicoll C 8 H 7 N 2 O 5 -f- 2 HO) by a process similar to that by which starch may be so converted, it is probably a less appropriate alimentary principle for diabetic patients than proteinaceous (albumin- ous) substances. Besides its use as an alimentary substance, gelatine (in the form of isinglass princi- pally) is employed as a clarifying, clearing, or fining agent, for coffee, wines, beer, &c. Some of the constituents of these liquors unite with the gelatine and form insoluble compounds, which precipitate and carry with them the matters which rendered the liquor turbid. A few only of the gelatinous substances in use as food will require separate notice. 1. Isinglass. This is procured from the air-bag or swimming-bladder, sometimes termed the sound, of various fishes. The finest kinds are procured from differant species of Aci- penser, (Sturgeons,') and are imported from Russia and Siberia. But other genera of fishes, as Silurus, Morrhua, Gadus, Ololithus, Lota, and Polynemus, also yield it. Some- times the bag is dried unopened, as in the case of the purse, pipe, and lump isinglasses of the shops. At other times it is laid open, and submitted to some preparation ; being either dried unfolded, as in the leaf and lioneycomb isinglasses ; or folded, as in the staple (long and short} and book isinglasses ; or rolled out, as in the ribbon isinglass. When it arrives in this country it is picked or cut. Formerly it was picked into shreds by women and children, but is now usually cut by machines worked by steam. .The Russian and Sibe- rian isinglasses, (the kinds which from their purity and ready solubility are best adapted for domestic use,) are carefully prepared by washing them with warm water to remove any adhering blood, cut open longitudinally, exposed to the air, with the inner, delicate, 104 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. silvery membrane upwards. When dried, this fine membrane* is removed by beating and rubbing, and the swimming bladder is then made into various forms. For the following table of the varieties of isinglass at the present time known in the London markets, I am indebted to Mr. James Metcalfe, wholesale dealer in isinglass?, ol No. 2ft Artillery Place, Finsbury Square, London. I have thought it desirable to have the prices annexed in order to show the relative commercial value of the different kinds. VARIETIES OF ISINGLASS. COUNTRY. PLACE OF PRO- DUCE. PLACE OF EX- FORT. NA.MI-: AND CHAR- ACTER. PRICES PER LB. ENGLISH. REMARKS.* Russian Empire. ' Nor^th America. South ) America. $ East Indies Philippine > Islands $ The Oural (Ural) The Irtysch and Obi St. Petersburg (i Odessa. . . . Taganrog . .. M M St. Petersburg Hudson's Bay New York. . I Maranham -i miluiiiisi to Samnvey. Oural and tribu- taries .... Astrakhan . . . The Volga and tributaries . . Tributaries of Black Sea . . Tcherkaskoy . The Don and tri- butaries . . . Ditto BOOK THIN LEAF 1st & J.I BELUGA 1st & 2d Cut by machine or hand .... Pickings (the brown ends) . SISANE LEAF . . KROSKI or KROS- KY SAMOVEY LEAF 1st and 2d . . . Ditto BOOK 1st & 2tl The Irtysch and Obi . Ditto SHORT STA- PLE SIUKRIAN PURSE PURSE [ludson's Bay and rivers . . United States . The Brazils . Bay of Bengal . Manilla RIRBON f PIPE BRAZIL . LUMP ditto HONEYCOMH . 4 ditto CUT BRAZIL . ( PURSE } LEAF ( PICKED MANILLA THIN > CAKE $ I * It is usually stated that the innermost membrane of the swimming bladder is that which yields gela- tine by boiling but I have elsewhere shown this to be an error, (see my Elements of Maleria Medico, ISL\ GLASS. 105 Isinglass has been analyzed by both John and Mr. E. Solly, jun. Their results are sub- joined : COMPOSITION OF ISINGLASS. John. Gelatine ..... 70-0 Osmazome [?] ... 16-0 Membrane insoluble in boil- ing water - ) . \ Free acids and salts . . 4-0 Water 7-5 Isinglass of good quality . . 100-0 Mr. E. Solly, jun. Gelatine. Albumen. Saline and earthy substances (small quantity.) Osmazome. Odorous oil (a minute trace.) East Indian Isinglass The relative proportions of gelatine and albumen in three specimens of East Indian isinglass were, according to Mr. E. Solly, jun., as follows: Isinglass. Soluble Gelatine. Insoluble. Mbumen. 100 . . . . 86-5 . . . . . . 13-5 100 . . . .90-9 9-1 100 . . . . 92-8 ' . 7-2 When isinglass is reduced to small shreds (picked or cut isinglass) it is scarcely possible to distinguish, by the age, some of the inferior from the finer kinds. The best criteria are its whiteness, freedom from unpleasant odor, and its complete solubility in water. Isinglass Is a very pure form of gelatine, and is employed in the preparation of jellies, blanc-mange, &c. It is frequently added to fruit jellies, (see p. 70,) to give them firmness or stiffness. Dissolved in milk, and flavored with sugar, lemon, and some aromatic, it is frequently taken in the liquid state by convalescents with advantage, when recovering from the effects of extreme debility, (as that brought on by hemorrhage ;) but this form of exhibition does not suit all stomachs. Isinglass is also used in domestic economy as a clarifying, clearing, or fining agent for coffee, wine, beer, &c. For this purpose it is extensively used by brewers,* who employ principally the Brazilian variety. 2. Cod Sounds. These are analogous to isinglass, being prepared from the swimming pp. 1859 and 1861, vol. ii. ed. 2d, 1842.) The innermost membrane of cod sounds and of the Hudson's Bay and East Indian isinglasses, is insoluble in water. If the Siberian purse isinglass be carefully ex- amined, the bag will be found to have been deprived of its innermost lining. * Mr. Metcalfe, who supplied me with the table of isinglass already given, (p. 104,) has kindly furnish- ed me with the following information as to the mode of preparing apd using isinglass for beer-finings. " I herewith beg to hand you such particulars as have come under my own observation as to the method generally adopted by brewers in their mode of preparing isinglass for beer-finings, and the way in which it is customarily applied. Firstly, with regard to the more insoluble sorts, such as the Lump Brazilian and common Book Glasses, as much should be put in a cask as il. is likely will be required for three months' consumption; to this should be added just sufficient of strong sours to cover the isinglass, and as it swells above the liquor iresh sours of the first strength should be added daily, covering the isinglass to the depth of about 3 inches in the liquor after it, has done swelling. It is a practice with some brewers to add a small quantity of pyroligneous acid to cut or dissolve it the more quickly, though if the first sours are good, and care is taken that the fresh, added from time to time during the process of swelling, is of equal strength, the pyroligneous acid may be advantageously dispensed with : care should be taken not to add more sours than is just necessary. In this state they should be well stirred up fre- quently with a stiff birch-broom, or some similar instrument, which materially assists the cutting or dis- Bolving. The liquor should be used in a cold state, or at a very moderate heat, as by using it hot it would form a jelly, and be perfectly useless as finings. It having become thoroughly dissolved or cut by the cold sours, it may be kept for any length of time by being frequently well stirred up as above described. In applying it for use, a proportionate quantity should be taken to the beer requiring fining, and press- ed through a horse-hair sieve into as much mild beer as will reduce it to the consistency of thin treacle ; ol'this about one pint is enough to fine a barrel, (3fi gals.,) unless the beer is what is termed stubborn, when it will take sometimes double the quantity. One pound of good Brazilian isinglsss, if treated in th 106 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. bladder of the Common Cod, (Morrlma vtigaris.) In the dried state they are brought from Scotland, and are used as a substitute for isinglass. They are, however, usually preserved soft by salting, and dressed for the table. The glue obtained by boiling the cod sounds does not gelatinize, but dries into a hard brown substance, which may be em- ployed to glue pieces of wooa together.* 3. Dry and Hard Gelatine. This is a pure kind of glue prepared for dietetical use. Nelson's Patent Opaque Gelatine (called, in the specification of the patent,f gelatine of the first quality) is prepared, by preference, from " the cuttings of the hides of beasts or of the skins of calves," " freed from hair, flesh, and fat." It is sold in the form of cuttings. I have been furnished with a similar kind of gelatine, prepared by another maker, under the name of Pale Gelatine English Machine cut. A third kind of gelatine is met with in the shops, under the name of French Gelatine or Grenetine.\ It occurs in sheets, or thin plates or cakes, marked by the nets in which it has been dried. White grenetine of the first quality is transparent, inodorous, tasteless, arid almost colorless. Colored grenetine is rose-red, yellow, blue, or green. Grenetine is extracted from bones, either by the pro- longed action of boiling water under pressure, or by first digesting the bones in dilute hydrochloric acid, arid afterwards submitting them to the action of boiling water.} These different kinds of gelatine are employed in the preparation of jellies, blanc- manges, soups, gravies, &c., as substitutes for isinglass and calves' feet, to which I con- sider them inferior in nutritive power and digestibility. For it is well known that gela- tinous substances, when subjected to the prolonged action of water and heat, suffer changes in their chemical properties ; and the French Ge:atine Commission has shown that the nutritive qualities of at least one gelatinous tissue (bone) are diminished or even destroyed by submitting it either to decoction in water or to the action of hydrochloric acid; or by resolving it into gelatine. It is not, therefore, too much to assume that the different operations to which the gelatinous tissues, used in the preparation of gelatine, are subjected, must deteriorate the dietetical qualities of the product More' knowledge of the substances from which commercial gelatine is procured, is not calcula- ted to create an appetite for foods obtained from such sources. 4. Hartshorn. Shavings or raspings of the antlers of the stag, commonly called harts- horn shavings, are employed in the preparation of jellies and gelatinous solutions. Their composition is as follows : COMPOSITION OF HARTSHORN. Soluble cartilage 27-0 Siihphosphate of lime 57-5 Carbonate oflime 1-0 Water and loss . 14-5 Total 1WM manner, will make 15 gallons of strong fminga The liquid finings having been thus prepared, about one pint should be whisked up with about a gallon of the beer from each barrel intended to fine, and then poured in through the bung-hole >^. 1 St. tJbe's 23^3 ] St. Martin's .... *- ^ ( Oleron . 1)60 959* 964* 935* 971 D37 988 983* 986 983* 982* trace do. do. 0-1-16 'i o4 3 3* 2 28 11* 11 5 0-3-16 9-t 3 3* 2 23 11* 11 5 o-i 1 19 15 12 15 1 6* 111 14* 15* 4* 6 4* 17* 4* 35 5 I 28 25 231 32* 16* 50 6 6* :u 14* 15* 9 12 10 4 2 1 10 1 1 10 40* 35* 61* 63 12 16f 13* 16* 17 i ^ B f Scotch (common) . . "a z J Scotch (Sunday) . . . ; Lymington (common) n 1 Ditto (cat) . f Crushed rock . JE -* J Fishery v. "3 J * louoi y . 03 J ( ommon y l^Stoved .... * Appendix, W. r CHLORIDE OF SODIUM. 109 Besides its use at the table as a flavoring or seasoning agent, salt is extensively em- ployed in the preservation and curing of alimentary substances. Its antiseptic power is by no means well understood. It is usual to ascribe it to the desiccating influence of the salt, but the explanation is not a satisfactory one. A dry bladder,, says Liebig, remains more or less dry in a saturated solution of common salt. The solution runs off its surface in the same manner that water runs from a plate of glass besmeared with tallow. "'Fresh flesh, over which salt has been strewed, is found, after 24 hours, swimming in brine, although not a drop of water has been added. The water has been yielded by muscular fibre itself, and having dissolved the salt in immedi- ate contact with it, and thereby lost the power of penetrating animal substances, it has on this account separated from the flesh. The wate4* still retained by the flesh contains a proportionally small quantity of salt, having that degree of dilution at which a saline fluid is capable of penetrating animal substances. This property of animal tissues is taken advantage of in domestic economy for the purpose of removing so much water from meat that a sufficient quantity is not left to enable it to enter into putrefaction."* But the fact, that a dilute aqueous solution of salt possesses antiseptic properties, appears to me to render Liebig's explanation inadmissible ; and we are compelled, therefore, to admit that the preservative power depends either on the chemical combination of the salt with the organic tissues,f or on occult causes more or less analogous to those which pre- vent the development of the volatile oils of black mustard and bitter almonds, when in contact with mineral acids and salts. 2. Earthy Phosphates. These are almost universal constituents of the ashes of animal tissues. From their constant presence, we cannot suppose them to be accidental : we have a right to infer that they are in some way necessary to vitality. Phosphoric acid and lime combine together in several proportions. Of these combina- tions two have been found in the human solids and fluids. The bone subphosphate of lime (8 Ca O H- 6 PO 1 ' 5 ) is by far the most frequently met with calcareous phosphate. It constitutes the principal part of the earthy matter of bones, and is probably the calcareous phosphate usually found in the ashes of animal tissues. According to Dr. Wollaston,| it exists in ossifications of arteries, veins, valves of the heart, bronchise, and tendinous portion of the diaphragm, as well as in the tartar of the teeth. According to the same authority, the neutral phosphate of lime (Ca O + PO 2 ' 5 ) exists in the urine, from which it is sometimes deposited in a pulverulent form. The phosphate of lime calculus, prostatic calculi, and pineal concretions, also contain the neutral phosphate. Phosphate of magnesia, though of very frequent occurrence, is formed in the animal solids and fluids in very small quantities only. Sometimes it exists in combination with ammonia, (ammoniacal phosphate of magnesia.} The system obtains its supply of earthy phosphates from both vegetable and animal foods, (see pp. 29-31, and 36.) Corn, potatoes, milk, and the flesh and blood of animals, * Liebig, Chemistry inits Application to Agriculture and Physiology, 2d ed. 35-67. 1842. t The conservative efficacy of bichloride of mercury, sulphate of copper, and some other metallic salts, depends on the union of these substances with the animal matter; and the formation of compounds which are not subject to the putrefactive process. Chemists, however, have hitherto refused to admit that common salt, nitrate of potash, and some alkaline salts, owe their antiseptic efficacy to the exercise of a chemical influence. But an argument in favor of this view may be derived from the well-known reddening effect produced by saltpetre (nitrate of potash) on beef, during the process of curing. More- over, the augmented firmness or hardness of fibre, possessed by old salted meats, is, I suspect, an evi- dence of chemical action. t Phil Trans, ior 1797. 110 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. furnish us with more than the wants of the system require, and the excess is eliminated in the secretions. QUANTITY OF EARTHY PHOSPHATES IN FOODS. JW Parts. Earthy Phosphates. Authority. Wheat from 0-36 to 0-9 ~) Rye . . 06 to 4-18 Barley . 0-1 tc 0-6 Oats . 16 tc 0-6 Rice . . 04 Garlic . . . H Caseine . . 6-0 Milk . . 0-1975 Blood . . 0-03 Bones (ile'im) of sheep 50-58 (ileum; of or . 45-2 " (vertebrae) of haddoc 56-03 Muscular flesh of ox . traces calf . 0-1 " " roe . " " chicken " " trout . Braconnot. Cadet. Berzelius. Schwartz. Denis. Thomson. 0-6 2-2 The amount of earthy phosphates in several foods which contain these salts, has not been ascertained. 3. Potash Salts. Minute quantities of potash salts exist in the ashes of blood an eral of the animal tissues. They are derived from both animal and vegetable food, (see pp. 37 and 93.) 4. Ferruginous Compounds, The existence of iron in the animal system, and the sources of it, have been already noticed, (see pp. 33-35.) The precise state in which this metal exists in, and is introduced into, the system, has not been made out. In some cases it is supposed to be in the form of a phosphate. CHAP. III. Of Compound Aliments. THE foods which consist of two or more alimentary principles, may be conveniently termed Compound Aliments. These it is customary to divide into Solid Foods or Aliments Proper, Liquid Foods or Drinks, and Seasoning Agents or Condiments. This division, though by no means accurate, is both familiar and convenient; and I shall, therefore, adopt it. 1. SOLID ALIMENTS, OR ALIMENTS PROPER. Man obtains his food from both the animal and vegetable kingdoms. This is almost universally the case, and is a strong confirmation of the correctness of the inference drawn by the anatomist from the structure of the entire human digestive apparatus, that man is omnivorous. "It is quite certain," says Dr. Carpenter,* "that the most perfect physical development, and the greatest intellectual vigor, are to be found among those races in which this [a mixed] diet is the prevalent habit." Yet a modern writer,f who eloquently and ably advocates the exclusive use of vegetable food, declares that " the ad- herence to the use of animal food is no more than a persistence in the gross customs of * Principles of Human Physiology, p. 349. 1842. t Dr. Lomhe, Additional Reports on the Effects of a Peculiar Regimen, p. 243. 1915. ANIMAL FOODS. Ill savage life ; and evinces an insensibility to the progress of reason, and to the operation of intellectual improvement" ! !* SECT. 1. ANIMAL FOODS. Exclusive of water and saline matters, we obtain, from animal foods. Proteinaceous, Gelatinous, and Fatty alimentary principles ; to which must be added, in the case of milk, Sugar. These are derived from flesh, blood, viscera, bones, cartilages, ligaments, cellular tissue, the milk of the mammals, and the eggs of some of the oviparous animals. The proximate composition of the muscular flesh of different animals has been ex- amined by Mr. Brandef and more recently by Schlossberger :| their results are as fol- lows : COMPOSITION OF MUSCLE, ACCORDING TO MR. BRANDE. 100 Parts Muscle of Beef Veal Mutton Pork Chicken Cod Haddock Sole Water. 74 75 71 76 73 79 82 79 A'bumen or Fibrine. 20 19 22 19 20 14 13 15 Gelatine. 6 6 7 5 7 7 5 Total of Nutri- tive Matter. 26 25 29 24 27 21 18 21 COMPOSITION OF MUSCULAR FLESH, ACCORDING TO SCHLOSSBERGER. Ox. Calf. Pig. Roe. Pigeon. Chicken. Carp. Trout. Flesh, Vessels, nerves, ) and cellular tissue . $ 17-5 1516-2 16-8 18-0 17-0 16-5 12-0 11-1 Soluble albumen and he- ) 2-2 3-2 2-6 2-4 2-3 4-5 3-0 5-2 4-4 Alcoholic, extract with salts 1-5 11 1-4 1-7 J O-4. 1-0 1-4 1-0 1-6 Watery extract with salts . 13 1-0 1-6 0-8 J 1-5 1-2 1-7 0-2 Phosphate of lime contain- ) ing albumen . . . $ traces 0-1 traces traces 0-4 0-6 2-2 Water and loss .... 77-5 79-7 78-2 78-3 76-9 76-0 77-3 80-1 80-5 100-0 100-0 JOO-0 100-0 100-0 100-0 100-0 100-0 100-0 A very large number of animals is used, in different parts of the world, as food. In this work, however, I purpose speaking of those only which are employed in Eng- CLASS I. MAMMALIA -MAMMALS. In England, the mammals, employed by man as food, are, the Ox, the Sheep, the Hog, the Deer, the Rabbit, and the Hare. These animals furnish their Bones, Cartilages, Tendons, Aponeuroses, Ligaments, Cellular Tissue, Fat, Muscles or Flesh, Viscera, Blood, and Milk, as alimentary sub- stances. 1. Bones. The bones of the ox and sheep are those principally which sen ? for aliment- ary purposes. Their composition, exclusive of the marrow (see p. 87) whi h they con- tain, is as follows : * Appends , X. t Manual of Chwmstry. t Fharmaccutisches Central~Blalt, 1842, p. 41. $ For an account of other animals used as food, the reader is referred to the article Aliment, in the Encyclopaedia MetropolUana, and Lardner's Cabinet Clyclopxdia, Domestic Economy, vol. ii , by Mr. Donovan. 112 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. COMPOSITION OF BONE, (THOMSON.) Ox. Sheep. Ilium or Haunch-bone. Ilium. Tibia. Cartilage Phosphate of lime Carbonate of lirne Magnesia Soda Potash 48-5 45-2 6-1 0-24 0-20 0-11 43-30_ 47-20 50-58 46-35 4-49 4-88 0-86 064 0-31 2-09 0-19 0-25 51-97 40-42 7-03 0-22 0-19 traces i 100-35 99-73 101-41 / .i_ 99-83 By digesting bones in hydrochloric acid they are deprived of part of their earthy salts. They are then semi-transparent, flexible, and elastic ; and have a fatty smell and an acid taste. In this state they are known in France under the name of Alimentary gelatine. Their composition is as follows : COMPOSITION OF BONES WHICH HAVE BEEN DIGESTED IN HYDROCHLORIC HAVE BEEN ACID. Water Fat Sli rep's feet bones. 5-55 Matter which may be transformed into) 1 oo OQO ( parts of carbon . . \ Z * 292 Fat, cellular tissue, &c ........ ... 14-300 Ordinary Butcher's meat '. '. '. ! '. '. '. '. 100-000 * Journal de Chimie Med. t. viii. p. 548. t Animal Chemistry, p. 286. COMPOUND ALIMENTS. The following are analyses of the muscular flesh of the ox : COMPOSITION OF BEEF FLESH. Muscular fibre, vessels, and nerves 15-8 ' Cellular tissue convertible into gela- tine by boiling . . . 1-9 _ Soluble albumen and coloring matter Phosphate of lime and albumen Alcoholic extract with salts (osmazome) . Aqueous extract with salts Lactate and phosphate of potash, and com- , mon salt ......< Water Lean of Beef. (Berzelius.) Heart of .in Ox. (Braconnot.) 17-70 18-196 2-20 ) 0-03 ( 1-80 1-05 2-733 1-566 . 0-465 77-17 77-036 100-00 100-000 The analyses of Brande and Schlossberger have been already given, (p. 111.) The fibrine of the muscular flesh of different animals is very uniform in its chemical properties, and appears to be identical in its composition. The flesh of the mammalia of the chase is of a darker color, and is sometimes called black meat ; while that of the rab- bit, after boiling, is pale, and may be termed while meat. The quantity of blood in the flesh of animals augments with their age. Schlossberger found it to be inversely to that of the water, but directly to that of the fibrine. To augment the whiteness of veal, it is said that butchers sometimes repeatedly bleed calves, by which an anaemic state is in- duced. Young meats yield, hy boiling, a larger amount of gelatine than old meats. Every one is probably familiar with the fact that the gravy of lamb more readily gelatin- izes when cold than that of mutton. The osmazome augments with the age of the ani- mal. The flesh of wild animals, as the stag and the roe, contains a very small quantity of /a/, compared with that of the well-fed domesticated animals, as the sheep and hog. The ultimate composition of flesh is identical with that of blood. " The analyses of Playfair and Boeckmann," says Liebig, " give for flesh (fibrine, albumen, cellular tissue, and nerves) and for blood, as the most exact expression for their numerical results, one and the same formula, namely, C 48 N 6 H 39 O". This may be called the empirical formula of blood. Moreover, it appears that roasting and boiling alter in no way the composition of animal food. ULTIMATE COMPOSITION OF FLESH AND BLOOD. Roosted Flesh. Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Ashes The tenderness of flesh is influenced by a variety of circumstances ; as age, sex, .ean- ness or fetness, mode of slaughtering, and incipient decomposition. Thus the flesh of young animals is more tender than that of old ones. That of the entire male adult is coarser and tougher than that of the female. The meat of the bull and of the cow are familiar illustrations of this. The flesh of castrated animals is not only more delicate, Ox Blood. Dry Beef Muscle. Beef. Veal. Roe Deer. (Playfair.) (Playfair.) (Playfair. (Playfair.) (Boeckmann.) 51-95 51.83 52-590 5252 52-60 7-17 7-57 7-888 7-87 7-15 15-07 15-01 15-214 14-70 1523 21-39 4-42 21-37 ) 4-23 \ 24-310 21-91 24-72 luo-uo 100-00 100-000 100-00 100-00 FLESH. 115 more tender, and finer grained, but has a more agreeable odor and flavor than that of the uncastrated animal ; and a similar improvement in the flesh of the female is effected by the operation of spaying. The flesh of lean animals is generally firmer than that of plump ones, in which the fibres are penetrated with fat. The mode of preparation for slaughter affects the tenderness of the meat. Hunting, baiting, fighting, and whipping animals just before death, augments the tenderness of their flesh. With the exception of the first one, these barbarous and cruel practices are now justly exploded in the most civilized countries of the world. Another circumstance which promotes the tenderness of meat is incipient decomposition ; hence the flesh of most animals is kept for sorrie time after death. With regard to digestibility, Dr. Beaumont* found that digestion is facilitated by minute- ness of division and tenderness of fibre ; and retarded by opposite qualities. " Chyrnifi- cation," he observes, "is most readily effected on solid food, or rather on a soft solid, which is easily divisible into shreds or small particles. Such is particularly the character of venison, which is ascertained to be one of the most digestible substances. The qual- ities of looseness of texture and susceptibility of division belong to most of those wild meats and game which are generally acknowledged to be easy of digestion. Beef and mutton, of a certain age, possess similar- qualities." As young meats are more tender than old meats, and as tenderness of fibre facilitates digestion, it might be expected that the flesh of young animals would be more digestible than that of old ones ; and this inference is favored by the experiments of Dr. Beaumont, who found that roasted sucking-pig was more speedily digested than broiled pork-steak, and boiled fresh lamb sooner than boiled fresh mutton ; though, on the other hand veal proved less digestible than beef. DIGESTIBILITY OF MEATS. MEAN TIME OF CHYMIFICATION. ARTICLES OF DIET. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. H. M Venison steak Broiled 1 35 Pig, sucking . . . . Roasted 2 30 Lamb, fresh .... Broiled 2 30 Beef, with salt only ' fresh, lean, raw . Boiled Roasted 2 45 3 Roasted 9 30 " steak .... Broiled 3 Masticated 8 15 1 Pork, recently salted . Raw 3 Raw 8 30 1 U It 11 Stewed 3 Mutton, fresh Broiled 3 Masticated 6 45 U U tl Boiled 3 Pork, recently salted . Broiled 3 15 Pork-steak .... Broiled 3 15 Mutton, fresh Roasted 3 15 Beef, fresh, lean, diy . Roasted 3 30 Roasted 7 45 " with mustard, &c. Boiled 3 30 U it U Fried 4 12 30 Veal, fresh . . . . Broiled 4 Beef, old, hard, salted . Boiled 4 15 Pork, recently salted . Fried 4 15 Veal, fresh .... Fried 4 30 Pork, fat and lean Roasted 5 15 * Op. ante cit. pp. 36 and 142. 116 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Notwithstanding the preceding 'acts, experience seems to show that young meats fre- quently prove less digestible than old ones. Dr. Cullen,* after stating that young meat is universally more soluble than old, ad'ds: "There is, however, a difficulty which occurs here. Although from their texture young meats are more soluble than old, and appear to be so in decoctions with water, yet in some stomachs the young meats are more slowly digested than old ; and thus in some persons veal is more slowly digested than beef, and lamb than mutton. Animal flesh is a plastic element of nutrition, (see p. 16.) Being identical, in composi- tion, with our own flesh and blood, it requires neither addition nor subtraction to render it nourishing ; but in order that it may reach the different organs, it is necessary that it should be reduced to a liquid form, (blood.) "Muscular flesh," says Magendie,f "in which gelatine, albumen, and fibrine, are com- bined according to the laws of organic nature, and where they are associated with other matters, such as fats, salts, &c., suffices, even in very small quantity, for complete and prolonged nutrition." Dogs fed solely for 120 days on raw meat from sheep's heads pre- served their health and weight during this period ; the daily consumption never exceed- ing 300 grammes, [ = 4630$ grs. troy,] and often being less than this quantity. But 1000 grammes [=15434 grs. troy] of isolated fibrine, with the addition of some hundreds of grammes of gelatine and albumen, were insufficient to support life. "What, then," ex- claims Magendie, "is the peculiar principle which renders meat so perfect an aliment? Is it the odorous and sapid matter, which has this function, as seems probable ? Do the salts, the trace of iron, the fatty matters, and the lactic acid, contribute to the nutritive ef- fect, notwithstanding that they constitute so minute a portion of meat!" The meats of different species of mammals are unequally digestible and nutritive : but the digestibility of the same kind of meat is by no means uniform in different individuals. Venison, as I have already stated, is easy of digestion ; but it is generally considered to be more stimulating than other meats, (e. g. mutton ;) and, therefore, less fitted for con- valescents. Occasionally mutton disagrees with certain individuals.^ I know a gentle- man who has repeatedly had an attack of indigestion after the use of roast mutton ; but I have reason to suppose that it was caused by the mutton fat, and probably, therefore, depended on the hircic acid, (see p. 83.) 4. Viscera. The brain, the tongue, the heart, the thymus, the liver, the kidneys, and the alimentary canal of quadrupeds, are employed as food. The following are the mean times of chymification of some of these, according to Dr. Beaumont's experiments : * A Treatise on the Materia Medica, vol. i. p. 358. t Rapport fait a TAcadtmie des Sciences au nom de la Commission dite de la Gelatine. Comptes Rendus, Aout, 1841. \ Dr. Prout (On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Disease, p. xxx. 3d ed.) knew an individual on whom mutton acted as a poison. He " could not eat mutton in any form. The peculiarity was supposed to be owing to caprice, and the mutton was repeatedly disguised and given unknown to the individual ; but uniformly with the same result of producing violent vomiting and diarrho3a. And from the severity of the effects, which were, in fact, those of a virulent poison, there can be little doubt tha* if the use o mutton had been persisted in, it would soon have destroyed the life cf the individ- ual." VISCERA OF QUADRUPEDS. 117 ARTICLES OF DIET. MEAN TIME OF CHYMIFICATION. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. H. M. Boiled Boiled Broiled Boiled Fried 1 1 45 2 2 40 4 Boiled Cut fine Boiled Entire piece 4 30 6 30 5 25 13 30 Brains, ox's Liver, ox's, fresh ... Spinal marrow, ox's . Heart, animal a. The brain contains about 80 per cent. of. water, and fatly matters. The principal fat is cerebric acid, and phosphate of lime. COMPOSITION OF CEREBRIC ACID. Carbon . . . 66-7 Hydrogen Nitrogen . Phosphorus Oxygen . Its other constituents are aibumen It exists free or combined with soda 10-6 2-3 0-9 19-5 100-0 It differs, therefore, from ordinary fats in containing nitrogen and phosphorus. From the proteine compounds it differs in containing so small a proportion of nitrogen, (see p. 91.) The other cerebral fats are oleophosphoric acid, (which contains about 2 per cent, of phosphorus, and probably consists of oleine and phosphorus,) oleine, margarine, small quantities of oleic and margaric acids, and cholesterine. In composition, then, brain may be regarded as intermediate between ordinary fat and the proteinaceous substances. It appears, from Dr. Beaumont's experiments, (see p. 116,) to be somewhat more digestible than common fat b. and c. The tongue and heart of mammals are muscular organs, (see p. 114,) for the composition of the heart of the ox,) and in their dietetical properties agree with the flesh of these animals. d. The thymus of the calf is employed as food, under the name of sweetbread. Its com- position, according to Morin,* is as follows : COMPOSITION OF CALF'S SWEETBREAD. Albumen 14-00 Osmazome 1'65 Gelatine 6-00 Peculiar animal fat 0-30 Margaric acid 0-05 Fibrine Water 8-00 70-00 Thymus or Sweetbread 100-00 A fresh sweetbread, when plainly cooked (by boiling) and moderately seasoned, forms a very agreeable and suitable dish for the convalescent ; but when highly dressed, is im- propei both for dyspeptics and invalids. e. The liver of the ox has been analyzed by Braconnot,f who found its composition to ue as follows : * Journ de Ckim. Med. t. ih. p. 450. t Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, t. x. p. 18 1 J. 118 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. COMPOSITION OF THE LIVER OF THE OX. Vascular and cutaneous tissues . * !!8-94 Parenchyma (t. e. soluble parts) . . . 81-06 Liver 100-00 The parenchyma consisted of the following substances : Brown oil, containing phosphorus . . . 3-89 White fatty flocculi .... Nitrogenous matter . . . . . . 6'07 Albumen . . 20-19 Blood ...... . ? Salts ... 1-21 Water 68-64 Parenchyma of the liver 100-00 On account of the oily matter which it contains, the liver of quadrupeds is not an ap- propriate food for invalids, or for those whose stomachs are weak. Moreover, the ordin- ary mode of cooking it, (frying,) renders it still more inappropriate. /. The kidneys. From Berzelius's experiments it appears that the solid part of the kidney is neither fibrine nor cellular tissue, but approaches nearer to the substance of which the fibrous coat of the arteries consists, (see p. 101.) The liquid portion of the kidney contains albumen and lactic acid. Berzelius could detect no urea in it But the urinous odor which a cooked kidney presents is a sufficient evidence that it contains some of the essential constituents of this secretion. Dr. T. Thomson* states that ur-a has been detected in the kidney. g. Alimentary Canal. The stomachs of ruminants wherv prepared as food constitute tripe. Its principal organic constituents are albumen and fibrine. " Few things," says Dr. A. T. Thomson,f " are more readily digested than tripe, when it is properly cooked. After partially boiling, in the usual manner, and also some onions, in two waters, both should be slowly boiled together, until the tripe is very soft and tender. A sufficient quantity of salt, and a pinch or a few grains of cayenne pepper, may be added." Dr. Beaumont's experiment, before quoted, (see p. 117,) also shows the ready digestibility of tripe. 5. Blood. Blood forms a greater or less constituent of the flesh and viscera of quadru- peds, notwithstanding that in the ordinary mode of slaughtering these animals they are deprived of the greater part of their circulating fluid.J Among civilized nations, the pig is the only animal whose blood furnishes a distinct article of food. Mixed with fat and aromatics, and enclosed in the prepared intestines, the blood of this animal constitutes the sausages gold in the shops under the name of black puddings. The following table shows the mean composition of the blood of several animals em- ployed as food, according to the analyses of MM. Andral, Gavarret, and Delafond.J * Animal Chemistry, p. 330. h The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room, p. 433. J Some animals are bled to death ; others, &fter being knocked down, have the vessels of their necK divided. By the Mosaic law the Jews are expressly forbidden to eat the blood of any beast or bird, or to partake of the flesh of any beast or bird, whose throat has not been cut in order to drain off ite blood. They are not to eat of any creature that dies of itself, (Leviticus, chapters 7, 1 1, and 17.) " Previously to boiling any meat, the) are required to let it lie half an hour in water and an hour in salt, ;md then to rinse off the salt with clean water. This is designed to draw out any remaining blood." (Allen, Modern Judaism, p. 420-21, 2d. ed. 1830.) Anrtales de Chimie et de Physique, 3 e aerie, t. v. MILK. 119 MEAN COMPOSITION OF THE BLOOD OF THE OX, THE SHEEP, AND THE PIG. Constituents. Oxen. Sheep. Pig* of from 2 to 6 months old, English Breed. Merino. Dishley Breed. Fibrine 3-7 99-7 863 810-3 3-0 101-1 82-4 8135 2-6 95-0 92-4 810-0 4-6 105-7 80-1 809-6 Solid matters of the serum .... \y a ter 1000-0 1000-0 1000-0 1000-0 The composition and alimentary properties of fibrine have already been stated, (see pp. 90-91.) I have also given the composition of the blood corpuscles according to Denis, (see p. 92, foot-note.) Their alimentary properties are similar to those of albumen and other proteinaceous substances. The solid matters of the serum of the blood consist of albumen, (see pp. CO-93,) which constitutes more than 1-10 of their weight, of fatty matters, (see p. 85, foot-note,) of, ac- cording to Denis, two coloring matters, (yellow biliary matter and traces of a blue sub- stance,) and, lastly, various salts, (viz. alkaline chlorides, alkaline carbonate, phosphate, and sulphate, carbonates of lime and magr.ssia, and phosphates of lime and magnesia.) The nutritive quality of blood is equal to that of flesh, with which it is identical in com- position, (see p. 114.) 6. Milk. On account of its liquidity rank ought, perhaps, to be placed among Drinks ; but inasmuch as it contains, in solution and suspension, a large quantity of alimentary matter ; as it constitutes the sole food of mammals during a certain period of their life, after birth ; and, lastly, as it yields some sMid alimentary substances, (butter, cheese, and sugar of milk,) it will be, on the whole, most convenient to notice it here. Milk, or, to be more precise in our description, Cow's Milk, is an opaque, white emulsive liquid, with a bland, sweetish taste, a faint peculiar odor, and a specific gravity of about 1-030 : the latter property, however, is subject to considerable variation. When recently drawn from the animal it is slightly alkaline, (see p. 93.) Subjected to a mi- croscopical examination, it is observed to consist of myriads of excessively minute globular particles floating in a serous liquid. These particles are butter. They instantly disappear, by solution, on the addition of a drop of caustic alkali ; and they may be sepa- rated by nitration, the filtered liquor being transparent. Being specifically lighter than the liquor in which they are suspended, they readily separate by standing. They rise to the surface, carrying with them some caseine, and retaining some of the serum, thus forming cream. The milk from which the cream is separated is termed skimmed milk. Milk has been the subject of repeated chemical investigation. The following is the composition of several kinds of milk, according to the very elaborate experiments of MM. O. Henri and Chevallier,* published in 1839. Milk of the Constituents. Caseine Butter Sugar of Milk Various Salts Water Cow. 4-48 3-13 4.77 0-60 87-02 Ass. 1-82 0-11 6-08 0-34 91-65 Woman. 1-52 355 6-50 0-45 87-98 Goat. 4-02 3-32 5-28 0-53 86-80 Ewe. 4-50 4-20 5-00 0-68 85-62 Total Solid substances lUU'OJ 12-98 iOo-00 8-00 100-00 . 13-00* 100-00 13-20 100-00 14-38 * Journal de Fliarmacie, t. xxv. p. 340. t According to the precf dir.g data the quantity of solid substances in woman's milk is 12-02 ; but 13-00 is given in the memoir quoted, and I have no means of discovering where the error exists. 120 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. But the relative proportions of the constituents of milk va-y with the quality of the food, the age of the animal, and the period after parturition. The following table, taken from the memoir of the last-mentioned chemists, shows the influence of fo?d. COMPOSITION OF COW'S MILK. Caserne Kind of Food. Carrots. Beets. 4-20 . 375 Butter . 3-08 2-75 Sugar of Milk 5-30 5-95 Salts . . 0-75 0-68 Water 86-67 86-87 Total 100-00 100-00 Solid substances 1333 13-13 MM. Boussingault and Le Bel* have also made a series of experiments to determine the effect of various kinds of food upon the quantity and quality of the milk given by cows. Some of their results have been before noticed, (see ante, p. 93.) I have already considered the composition and alimentary qualities of butter, (pp. 81- 87,) and of caseine, (pp. 90-91, 93-95.) Sugar of Milk, in its nutritive qualities, is similar to saccharine substances in general, and which have been already stated, (see pp. 55-59.) In its chemical properties it is allied to gum. Its alimentary uses are precisely similar to those of whey. Dissolved in skimmed cow's milk, I have occasionally employed it in consumptive cases, where un- skimmed milk disagreed with the stomach. The homceopathists use it as the vehicle (excipiens vel conslituens) for the exhibition, in a pilular (globular) form, of small doses of their remedies ; as they object to the use of common sugar, for this purpose, on ac- count of the lime which it contains. The saline constituents of milk have been slightly alluded to, (see p. 93.) According to Schwartzf the following is the composition of the ashes of cow's milk. COMPOSITION OF THE ASHES OF 100 PARTS OF COW'S MILK. Soda (in milk combined with lactic acid) Chloride of potassium Phosphate of soda Phosphate of lime Phosphate of magnesia Phosphate of iron 0-3697 But according to Berzelius the lactic acid is combined with potash. Cream of cow's milk has a variable specific gravity : perhaps the average is 1-Jdll. According to the analysis of Berzelius, it has the following composition: COMPOSITION OF CREAM OF COW'S MILK. Butter 4-5 Caseine or curd 3-5 Whey . . . .... 92-0 100-0 The upper stratum of cream is richer in butter, the lowest in case tie. By agitatipn, as in the process called churning, the fatty globu'.3S unite to form buttei the residue, called butter-milk, consists of caseine, serum, (whey,) and a little butter. Skimmed milk, like cream, has a va-iable specific gravity: perhaps the average is 1-0348. If left to itsdf, i 4 readily acquires acid properties ; white coagula, commonly * Ann. ae Chim. et de Physique, t. Ixxi. p. 65. t Gmelin, Handbuch der theoretischen Chemic, vol. 2, p. 1404. MILK. 121 called curds, separate from it. If an acid or rennet (the infusion of the fourth or true stomach of the calf) be added to skimmed milk, this change is immediately produced. The curd separated by rennet is the caseine. But after rennet has ceased to produce any | more coagula, acetic acid will cause a further quantity to be formed. The curd thus sub- sequently separated by the acid is known by the various names of zieger, serai, ricotta, and bracotte. It is probably nothing else than uncoagulated caseine united to acetic acid. The whey left after the separation of the caseine and zieger, yields, on evaporation, sugar of milk, one or more nitrogenous substances, (osmazome,) lactic acid, and salts. The following table shows the composition of several domestic preparations of milk : CONSTITUENTS. I solid fat . .1. Margarine. f Butter f 2. Butyroleine. ( liquid fat .1 3. Butyrine. f Cream ( | 4. Caproine. D ** -ii ^ caseum. I 5. Caprine. Butter-milk serum or whey . . byre,, . 6Ca Sei ne. ( [ M g a S, e C a - , by 'renne,, but by acetic Skimmed J milk f saccharine matter . . 8. Sugar of Milk. \ , X7 , azotized matter ... 9. Osmazome. f soluble in alcohol. . 10. Alkaline and earthy lactates rum ' ' and phosphates. (^ salts < soluble in water, not 11. Alkaline sulphate and phos- in alcohol . . phates. [ insoluble in water . 12. Earthy and ferruginous phosphates. The morbid changes produced in the quality of the milk by diseased conditions of the cows, have recently attracted considerable attention in Paris, owing to the prevalence of a malady, called the cocote, among the cows in that capital.* Those which have been recognised are want of homogeneousness, imperfect mobility or liquidity, capability of becoming thick or viscid on the addition of ammonia, and the presentation of, when ex- amined by the microscope, certain globues (agglutinated, tuberculated or mulberry-like, mucous or pus globules) not found in healthy milk.f LabillardiereJ states that the milk of a cow, affected with a kind of turbercular phthisis (pommeliere) contained seven times more phosphate of lime than usual ; and Dupuy also speaks of the large quantity of calcareous matter in the milk of cows, in whose lungs abundant deposits of the same sub- stance were found. H Good milk is quite liquid and homogeneous ; not viscid ; and, when examined by the microscope, is found to contain only spherical transparent globules, soluble in alkalies and ether. Moreover, good milk yields a flocculent precipitate with acetic acid, but is not coagulated by heat. The relative quantity of cream, which it affords, is estimated by a glass tube divided into 100 parts. Such an instrument is called a lactometer. The thick- ness of the layer of cream which, in a few hours, forms at the top of the milk, may be easily led off. I have repeatedly submitted the milk supplied to me by a respectable dealer in London, to examination by the lactometer, but the results have been very unsatisfac- * See Journal de Pharmacie, vol. xxv. p. 301-318. t Recherches micros copiques sur divers laits obtenus de vaches plus ou moins affectees de la Maladle qui a regnd pendant THiver de 1823 d 1839, et designee vulgairement sous la denomination de Cocote, par M Turpin, in the Mtmoires de TAcad6mie Royale des Sciences de Vlnstitut, t. xvii. Paris, 1840. } Diet. Mat. Med. iv. 23. $ Quoted by Andral, Treat, on Path. Anatomy, Engl. Transl. vol. i. p. 675. II Appendix, Y. 122 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. tory, as the quantity of cream which I procured varied from 5 to 23 per cent by measure. I subjoin a few results obtained in November, 1840 : QUANTITY OF CREAM IN COW'S MILK. 100 Parts by measure Quantity of Crea of Milk. by measuie. 1840, November 6, Morning . ... Ill Afternoon ... 5 " 7, Morning ... 10 " Afternoon ... 161 100 Parts by measure of Milk. 1840, November 8, Afternoon "10, . . . , "17 18, .. . . . Quantity of Cream by measure. . 10* . . 8 . . 23 . 23 The milk yielded by an Alderney cow, belonging to a gentleman in the neighborhood of Whitechapel, yielded 17 per cent, (by measure) of cream. The following table of the quantity of cream contained in the milk supplied by con- tract to the London Hospital, has been kindly furnished me by Mr. Macmeikan, the apoth- ecary to that establishment. The specific gravity was, for convenience, taken by the urinometer. SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND PROPORTION OF CREAM ON 3IILK SUPPLIED TO THE LONDON HOSPITAL. DATE. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. CREAM. TKMPERA- T 1 ' K v. . 1842. Sept 12 1-023 1030 9 5 14 1-026 5 15 1-025 5 16 1-030 5 n 17 1-026 4ft 09 18 1-030 5k 19 1-027 5k 63 20 1-026 5k 61 21 1-026 5 60 22 1-026 5 62 23 1-027 5k G2 24 1026 5 25 1-027 4k 26 1-025 4k 64 27 1-028 4k M 28 1-028 5 __ 29 1-027 5 _ Oct. 1 1-030 5 2 1-027 7 3 1-028 6 4 1-027 7 _ 5 1-030 7 6 1-0-27 7 7 1-029 7k 8 1-028 7 26 days. Average) , ft . 77 7 sp. gr. $ 1 U ~'2T Average ) )Q quantity > '- ) 5J2' of cream ) Donne* says ordinary cow's milk should furnish 12 to 15 percent, of cream, woman's milk, of good quality, 3 per cent., and ass's milk frcm 1 to 2 per cent. The influence which many medicines, taken by the parent, have over the offspring, is a circumstance known to every nurse, though Cullen denies it. We can modify the eolor of the milk by mixing saffron or madder with the food ; the odor may be affected by various cruciferous and alliaceous plants ; the taste may be altered by the use of bitters, as wormwood ; and lastly, the medicinal effect may be also influenced. Children may be * Conseils aux Mires sur la Mantire d'Elever lev Enfans nouveau-nds. 1842. MILK. 123 salivated by sucking nurses under the influence of mercury, or purged by the exhibition of drastics, or narcotized by the administration of opiates to the nurse. These facts are so familiar to every one, that further evidence of them is scarcely requisite. Mental emotions also affect the quality of the milk. Thus the actior of the bowels of the child is frequently disordered in consequence ov* some sudden emotion on the part of the mother. The quality of the milk is also affected by the state of health of the female supplying it. I have already mentioned the effect of tubercular disease of the lungs in increasing the quantity of phosphate of lime in the milk, (see p. 121.) This subject is one of the greatest moment, not only in reference to the frequency of disease in cows, and, there- fore, to the possible morbific character of their milk, but also in reference to the milk of the human subject. I think, with these facts before us, it would be highly improper to allow a female, with any trace or suspicion of tuberculous disease, to suckle. Not that a few grains, more or less, of phosphate of lime in the milk, can probably do any injury to the child ; but the fact once established, that the milk may be thus altered by disease, leads to the suspicion that some other substances, not yet recognised by their physical or chemical characters, may be in the milk of diseased nurses, and which may have an injurious influence on the child ; and the suspicion does not confine itself to those affect- ed with tuberculous diseases : other hereditary or constitutional affections may also be attended with altered conditions of the milk. This suspicion is strengthened by the com- mon observation that the milk of different nurses does not equally suit the same child ; nor that of the same nurse, different children. Milk being furnished by nature as the only food for the young mammal, during a cer- > tain period of his existence, contains all the elements necessary for the nutrition and growth of the body. Out of the caseine of milk are formed the albumen and fibrine of the blood, arid the proteinaceous and gelatinous tissues. The butter serves for the formation of fat, and contributes, with the sugar, to support the animal heat by yielding carbon and hydrogen to be burnt in the lungs. The earthy salts are necessary for the development of the osseous system ; the iron is required for the blood corpuscles and the hair ; while the alkaline .chloride furnishes the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice. Milk is in general readily digested by children, unless it contain too large a quantity of nutritious matter,* when it is apt to induce various disorders of the digestive organs, (vomiting, griping, &c.) It frequently disagrees with adults. With some it proves heavy and difficult of digestion, owing to its oily constituent, (butter.) With such, ass's milk, (which contains very little butter,) or skimmed cow's milk, usually agrees. The follow- ing table of the digestibility of milk, &c., is taken from Dr. Beaumont's work : ARTICLES OF DIET. MEAN TIME OF CHYMIFICATION. IN8TOM4CH IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. H. M. Milk Milk .... Butter .... Cream .... Boiled Raw Melted 2 2 15 3 30 Boiled Raw Raw 4 15 4 45 25 30 * See Payen, Journ. ds Chim. Med. t. iv. p. 1 18. Also Donne, Conseils aux Mires sur la Mantire d'Elever les Enfans nouveau-nes. 1842. 124 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Pure milk injected into the veins exerts no deleterious effects, except in the horse.* Milk is a very useful and valuable article of- food as well for the adult as for the chiid, and for healthy individuals as for invalids and convalescents. The principal drawback to its employment, in many cases, is the difficult digestibility of its fatty constituent, (butter.) Under the name of Milk Diet it is extensively employed, in conjunction with farinaceous substances and light puddings, with great benefit in many maladies. (See the article MHk Dirt, in a subsequent part of this work.) Wln-y is an excellent diluent and nutritive. It may be used in febrile and inflamma- tory complaints. It is usually prepared by means of rennet ;f and when thus procured may be denominated Rennet Whey, in order to distinguish it from whey prepared by other methods. While Wine Whey, taken warm and combined with a sudorific regimen, acts powerfully on the skin, and is a valuable domestic remedy in slight colds and febrile dis- orders. Cream of Tartar \\'hcy is prepared by adding a quarter of an ounce of cream of tartar (bitartrate of potash) to a pint of milk. It may be diluted with water, and taken in febrile and dropsical complaints. It is refrigerant and diuretic. Alum Whey is made by boiling a quarter of an ounce of powdered alum with a pint of milk ; then straining. It may be flavored with sugar and nutmeg. This is a pleasant mode of exhibiting alum, and may be beneficially resorted to in disorders requiring the use of this astringent, as in li-ad colic, hemorrhages, and colliquative sweating. The dose is a v. -'nl. Tama- rind Whey is prepared by boiling an ounce of tamarind pulp with a pint of milk, and then straining. It is refrigerant, slightly laxative, and nutritive, and may be exhibited in febrile disorders. Mitft-ird Wh'-y is prepared by boiling together half an ounce of bruised mustard seeds and one pint of milk, until the milk is curdled : then strain, to separate the whey. "This whey has been found to be a useful drink in dropsy : it stimula: kidneys ; and, consequently augments the urinary secretion. It may be taken in cupful at a time."$ Milk and lime-water forms a very useful remedy in some irritable conditions of stomach arising from uterine and other maladies. It oftentimes proves a most effectual r for obstinate vomiting. I have likewise found it highly serviceable in the climacteric disease, or, what is technically known as " a breaking up of the constitution." It nourishes, while it checks sickness and relaxation of bowels. One part of linv - may be taken with one, two, or three parts of milk, according to circt: The milk completely covers the offensive taste of the lime-water. Whey possesses slightly nutritive qualities : these it derives from th milk which it contains. It is devoid of all stimulating properties with reference either to tl cular or nervous systems. It, therefore, forms a very agreeable and excellent diluent and slight nutrient in febrile and inflammatory complaints; and is well a catarrhal and pulmonary affections, especially incipient phthisis, hemoptysis, atrophy," scrofula, and chixniic disorders of the liver, and other digestive organs. It very gently A * Donne, Complex Rendms, 1841. t The term lit-nntt, or Runnel, is applied to the stomach of a sucking animal (as of the calf, pro by means of salt. These terms are also applied to the liquid obtained by macerating this stomach in Vrater. It is the izastrie juice which is the effective agent in coagulating or curdling milk, (see pp. 35, and !M According to Deschamps, (Joiirn. de Pharm. vol. xxvi. p. 412,) liquid rennet contains hydnx-hloric acid, (in great quantity.) buti/ric, c iproic, ca; //<-, and lactic acids, sal ammoniac, chloride of soil him. jmie- pendt fitly of that which has been added.) maynefia, (not as ammoniaoal phosphate,) soda, (probably with the magnesia, as lactate,) traces of a. sulphate, phosphate of lime , and a peculiar matter which he call* chymofin" 'from w^s, chyme, xfyuffij, chymification.) I Dr. A. T. Thompson, The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room, p. 420. MILK. 125 promotes the action of the secreting organs, and in this way may prove useful in con- gestion of the liver and of other abdominal* viscera. In various parts of Switzerland and Germany there are special establishments for the cure of chronic disorders by the use of pure or aromatized whey, (JMolkencuren ; Cures de Petit Lait.~) The whey is obtained from the milk of the cow, the goat, or the ass : and is used as a drink, as a lavement, or as a bath. Its use is often associated with that of mineral waters ; as at Salzbrunn, Reinerz, Kreuth, Gaiss, Weissbad, and many other continental watering placet-. Butter-milk, when made from whole milk, differs from this in the absence of butter. As it contains the caseine, the sugar, and the salts of milk, it must possess nutritive qualities. It is extensively used as an article of food by the lower classes in Ireland. It forms a very agreeable cooling beverage in febrile and inflammatory cases. As " it can- not be procured at all times in large towns, and not always in the country, the method of making it in small quantities, daily, should be understood. It is readily pre- pared by putting a quart of new milk into a bottle which will hold a gallon, corking the bottle, and covering it with a towel in such a manner, that by drawing alternately each end of the towel, the bottle can be rolled upon a table. This movement should be con- tinued until such time as all the butter is separated, which is known by its appearing in clots or masses swimming in the milk. During the rolling, it is necessary to open the bottle occasionally to admit fresh air into it ; as that is essential for the formation of butter. When the process is finished, all the butter should be carefully separated from the but- ter-milk."* This may be drank ad libitum. The preparations of milk known as Corstorphin Cream, Devonshire Cream, or Clotted Cream, consist of cream and the coagulated curd. They are nutritive and delicious substances, but apt to disagree with dyspeptics on account of the butter which' Ihey con- tain. Having noticed the leading alimentary properties of milk, and its most frequently used p eparations, it may be proper now to say a few words on the distinctive properties of the different milks in most frequent use. It will be seen by reference to p. 119, Ewes' milk contains the largest amount of nutri- tive matter, (caseine and butter;) but on this account is less easy of digestion, and, there- fore, unfitted for dyspeptics. Next to this is Goals' milk, concerning which the same remarks may be made. It is said to be useful in checking obstinate diarrhoea. Ass's milk is the least nutritive, but the most easy of digestion. With the exception of woman's milk, it is the richest in sugar of milk. In the convalescence from acute maladies, in consumptive cases, and chronic diseases of the digestive organs, it is a most valuable 'aliment. Its medicinal value seems to depend on the small quantity of butter and large quantity of sugar of milk which it contains. An artificial ass's milk may be prepared by dissolving a couple of ounces of sugar of milk in a pint of skimmed cow's milk. Coio's milk is intermediate, in nutritive and digestible properties, between goat's milk and ass's milk. Donnef says that it is the only milk which is either very feebly alkaline often neutral, and sometimes slightly acid. The milk of the ass and the woman are always very obviously alkaline. He thinks that the cause of this peculiarity of cow's milk is referable to the fact that this milk is, to a certain extent, an artificial production : that is, it is furnished by the animal long after the time of suckling its offspring, and it is well known that the milk varies in its qualities at different periods after the parturition of the animal. * Dr. A. T. Thomson, The Domestic Management of the Swk-Room. t Comptes Rendus, 1841, p. 1064 ; also Conseils aux Meres, 1842. 126 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. CLASS II. AVES.-BIRDS. This class of animals, like the preceding one, furnishes a very safe aliment to man, for none of the species are poisonous ; and, accordingly, a very large number are em- ployed as food. My remarks, however, will be directed to those in most frequent use in England ; principally to the Common Fowl, the Pheasant, the Partridge, the Pigeon, the Duck, and the Goose. The flesh, viscera, and eggs of birds, are used as food. 1. Flesh. The composition of the muscular flesh of birds, according to the analyses of Mr. Brande and Schlossberger, has been already stated, (see p. 111.) "The flesh of birds," says the late Dr. Duncan, jun.,* " differs very much in its sensible properties, not only in different kinds, but even in the different muscles of the same bird. The pectoral muscles which move the wings are drier and more tender than those which move the legs. The tendons of the legs are also very strong, and at a certain age become bony ; but the flesh of the legs, when sufficiently tender, either from the bird being young, or from long keeping, or sufficient cookery, is more juicy and savory than that Of the wiiiirs. Of a few birds, especially the woodcock and snipe, the legs are at all times preferred to the breast. In the black-cock, the outer layer of the pectoral muscle is of a dark-brown color, while the inner is white. A similar difference is observed in many other birds, and perhaps it is general in a slight degree. The muscular organs of birds differ from those of quadrupeds in their flesh never being marbled, or having fat mixed with the muscular fibres." The muscles of those parts of the body most frequently exercised become firmer, harder, and tougher than tiiose which are more rarely used. " That exercise produces strength and firmness of fibre," says Dr. Kitchener, f "is excellently well exemplified in the wood- cock and partridge. Th-j former flies most the latter walks ; the wing of the woodcock is always very, tough, of the partridge very tender: hence tfre old doggerel distich, 1 If the Partridge had hut the Woodcock's thigh, He'd be the best bird that e'er doth fly.' The breast of all birds is the most juicy and nutritious part." Castration improves the flesh of birds for the table, rendering*it more tender and sa- vory. Of this we have an illustration in the capon, (the castrated cock.) Spaying exer- cises a similar influence over the female bird ; as in the poulard, (the spayed hen.) The flesh of the older and larger birds is in general coarser than that of the younger and smaller animals. Though great diversity exists in the flesh of different orders of birds, yet no accurate distribution of those animals, founded on the kind of fle"sh, can be made, because though the extremes are well marked, they run insensibly into each other. The usual division is into four classes, as follows : a. The W hite-Jleshed, as the common fowl and the ;urkey. The meat of these animals is white, contains but little osmazome, when good is generally liked, and when young is exceedingly tender. Chicken flesh is, in general, easily digested. Dr. Beaumont* states that it is more difficult of digestion than beef. He says, that the texture of the chicken being closer than that of beef, the gastric juice does not insinuate itself into the insterstices of the muscular fibre so readily as into bee but operates entirely upon th'? outer surface, which it dissolves, as a piece of gum arabic is dissolved in the mouth, until the last particle is dissolved. * Supplement to th? Encyclopedia Brilannica^ art. Food. t Cook's Oracle. J Op. supra at. p 122 . FLESH OF BIRDS. 127 Chicken flesh is nutritious, and is, perhaps, the least stimulating of animal foods. It is often retained on the stomach of invarf&s when other meats would be immediately re- jected. Chicken broth is well adapted for irritable stomachs.. b. The Dark-Fleshed Game, as the grouse, and the black-cock. The flesh of the wild gallinaceous birds is darker-colored, firmer, richer in osmazome, somewhat less digestible, and more stimulating, than that of the chicken. When sufficiently kept it acquires a pe- culiar odor, called fumet, and an aromatic bitter taste, most sensible in the back. In this condition it is said to be ripe or high, and is much esteemed as a luxury. c. The Aquatic, (including swimmers and waders,) as the goose and the duck. The flesh of water fowl is mostly firm, penetrated with fat. (which often acquires a rancid and fishy taste,) and is more difficult of digestion. It forms, therefore, a less appropriate ali- ment for invalids. d. The Rapacious, as the hawk and the owl. None of these are eaten, partly, perhaps, from prejudice, and partly because those which touch carrion acquire a cadaverous smell. The following table contains Dr. Beaumont's results respecting the digestibility of the flesh of birds. DIGESTIBILITY OF THE FLESH OF BIRDS. ARTICLES OF DIET. MEAN TIME OF CHYMIFICATION. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. H. M. Turkey, wild . " domestic Goose, wild Chicken, full grown Fowls, domestic " " . /. Ducks, domestic Roasted Boiled Roasted Roasted Fricasseed Boiled Roasted Roasted Roasted 2 18 2 25 2 30 2 30 2 45 4 4 4 4 30 Masticated I 6 30 2. Viscera. Some of the viscera of birds are employed as aliment. They constitute part of what is called, in the case of the goose and duck, giblets. a. The brains of birds are eaten at the table. In their chemical properties they resem- ble calves' brains. John says the cerebrum contains a larger quantity of fat (part of which is crystallizable) than tha brain of the calf; the cerebellum of birds contains less water and no crystallizable fat. b. Gizzard. This is the muscular or pyloric portion of the stomach. It consists of a very dense and firm muscular or fleshy texture, lined by a thick, hard, fibrous, or ten- dinous membrane. On account of its density and hardness of texture, it is very slowly digested ; and hence is not adapted for persons with weak stomachs. Dr. Beaumont found that the gizzard of a chicken, introduced into the stomach of the Canadian, was not completely dissolved at the end of five hours, the residuum, consisting principally of tendinous fascia, weighed seven and a half grains. c. Intestine. In the woodcock, the intestine (called the trail) is, by epicures, considered a bonne bouche. d. Liver. The liver of most birds is a favorite morsel. Its peculiar flavor it owes to the bile which it contains. Its oily constituent would seem to render it difficult of diges- 128 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. tion ; but Dr. Beaumont found that it was almost as completely dissolved in the same time as the breast of a fricasseed chicken. I have already (p. 11) referred to the morbidly enlarged liver of the goose,* employed in the preparation of the celebrated Pates de Foies gras de Strasbourg. The principal agents in inducing it are external heat, obscurity, inactivity, and cramming the animals with food.f At Alsace, a trough in front of the animal is always kept "full of water, in which some pieces of wood charcoalj are left to steep," (Sonnini.) In this way the liver becomes enormously enlarged, and oftentimes weighs one or two pounds ; while the ani- mal is excellent for the table, and furnishes, during roasting, from three to five pounds of fat. The change thus induced in the liver is that known to pathologists by the name of fully degeneration,!} in which the liver is very rich in a phosphoric oil. It is obvious, therefore, that these diseased livers must be difficult of digestion, and unfit for persons with delicate stomachs. Dr. Prout|| has endeavored to deter indolent and dyspeptic in- dividuals from partaking of them, by suggesting that they "cannot be supposed, in all instances, to assimilate them ; and consequently run considerable risk in inoculating and converting their own livers, or other organs, into a similar mass of disease." 3. Fat. The composition of the fat of the goose, the duck, and the turkey, has been already stated, (see p. 88.) Goose grease, when spoiled (by keeping 1) has produced symptoms of poisoning. IT 4. Eggs. Both the white or glaire, and the yolk of eggs, are employed as foo'd. a. White or Glaire of Eggs. This is also termed the Albumen of Eggs, or Ovalbumen. Its composition, according to Dr. Bostock, is as follows : COMPOSITION OF WHITE OF EGG. Water 80-0 Albumen 15-5 , Uncoagulable matter [mucus] 4-5 100-0 Couerbe has extracted from the white of egg a peculiar non-nitfogenous principle, which he first called albuminin, but afterwards, oonin. * * These livers were highly esteemed by the Romans, who effected their enlargement by cramming the animals as in modern times. Pliny (Hist. Nat. lib. x. cap. 27, ed. Valp.) tells us, that the honor of the discovery \v;is contested for by Sripio Metellus and M. Seius. t The ordinary method of producing the disease at Strasburgh, I have before noticed, (p. 11.) For further details, the reader is referred to Sonnini, (Nouv. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. art. Oie,) and to the article Food, in the Supplement to the Encyclopedia Britannica. t Liebig (Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology, p. 133, 2d ed. 1842) observes, that " it is well known that charcoal powder produces such an excessive growth of the liver of a goose as at length causes die death of the animal." But there is no valid reason for .supposing that charcoal has any thing to do with the effect in question : indeed it does not appear that this substance is used at Strasburgh; for Tiedemann, (UntersuchumrVz$-nHlurfniss, den Nahrungs-Trieb und die Niihrunirs-.MHtfl di* Mmm-hcn, p. 127, 1836,) after describing the mode adopted in that city, adds, " In other places charcoal powder is mixed with the drink." $ Cruveilhier, Diet, de Med. et de Chir., prat, t. viii. p. 326. An analysis of a fatty liver has been pub- lished by Vauquelin (quoted by Mr. W. J. E. Wilson, in the Cyclopadia of Anatomy, art Liver,) " from which the quantity of oily matter present may be fairly estimated thus : in 100 parts he found Oil 45 Parenchyma . . . .19 Water 36 100." U On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases, p. 244. 1840. IT Christison, Treatise on Poisons, p. 593, 3d ed. EGGS. 129 The composition and dietetical uses of the white of egg have been previously stated, (see pp. 89-93.) b. The Yolk of Egg is a kind of yellow emulsion, consisting of oil suspended in water by means of albumen, and enclosed in a sac called the yolk bag. Its composition, ac- cording to Dr. Prout, is as follows : COMPOSITION OF YOLK OF EGG. Water . . . .... 53-78 Albumen 17-47 Yellow oil . . . 23-75 100-00 Liebig According to Planche, the oil of yolk of eggs consists of stearine 10, oleine 90. states that cholesterine arid iron may be detected in the yellow oil of the yolk. The albumen of the yolk is identical in its nature with that of the white. Dr. Prout ascertained by combustion the relative proportions of the fixed constituents of the vhite and yolk of three eggs. Assuming the weight of each egg to be 1000 grs. the proportions of the mineral substances were as follows : FIXED CONSTITUENTS OF EGGS. WHITE OF EGG. YOLK OF EGG. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. I. No. 2. No. 3. Sulphuric acid Phosphoric acid Chlorine 0-29 0-45 0-94 0-15 0-4fi 093 0-18 0-43 0-87 0-21 3-56 0-39 0-06 3-50 0-28 0-19 4-00 0-44 Potash, soda, and their carbonates 2-92 2-93 2-72 0-50 0-27 0-51 Lime, magnesia, and their carbonates 0-30 0-25 0-32 0-63 0-61 0-67 4-90 4-72 4-57 5-31 4-72 1 5-81 Dr. Prout's observations on the supposed production of lime during the incubation of the egg have been before noticed, (see p. 3, foot-note.) Fresh or newly laid eggs, when lightly cooked, as when poached or very slightly boiled, are nutritive, and moderately easy of digestion. Dr. Pearson* has justly observed that, in general, the lightest as well as the simplest mode of preparing eggs for the tale is to boil them only as long as is necessary to coagulate slightly the greater part of the white, without depriving the yolk of its fluidity. Raw eggs are said to be gently laxative, and were formerly in repute in cases of jaundice and obstructed liver. When boiled hard, and especially when fried in butter, oil, or fat, they are less readily soluble in the gastric juice, and are commonly very difficult of digestion. Cooked in this way they prove in- jurious to persons whose stomachs are delicate, giving rise to various disorders of the digestive organs. These observations also apply to omelettes, pancakes, fritters, and other dishes made with eggs and cooked by frying. Yet there are " instances of laboring people, and persons who use violent exercise, with whom eggs, hardened by boiling or frying, agree better than in the soft or liquid state," (Pearson.) These, however, are exceptions to the general rule. The following are the mean times of the digestion of eggs, as observed by Dr. Beau- mont : * A Practical Synopsis of the Materia Ahmentaria 1808. 130 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. DIGESTIBILITY OF EGGS. ARTICLES OF DIET. MEAN TIME OF CHYMIFICATION. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M Preparation. //. M. ~~4 0~~ 4 15 6 30 8 Eggs, whipped fresh , I eat.} Herodotus;}; says that there were three tribes of Babylonians whose food was fish. They prepared it thus : having dried it in the sun, they beat it very small in a mortar, and afterwards sifted it through a piece of fine cloth ; they then formed it into cakes, or baked it as bread. The same mode of preparing fish is practised at this day, among the Esquimaux, and north- ern Indians of the American continent. In another place, Herodotus^ states that with a considerable part of the Egyptians, fish constituted the principal article of food ; they dried it in the sun, and ate it without any other preparation. Some of the smaller and more delicate fishes are eaten whole, as the White Bait.|| * The Civil and Natural History of Jamaica. t Appendix, 1. $ Clio, cc. $ Euterpe, xcii. II White Bait, formerly supposed to be the fry of some other fish, as the Shad, but now universally ad- mitted to be a distinct species, (Clapea albaj is found in immense shoals, during -the summer season, in the Thames, in the neighborhood of Blackwall and Greenwich, to which places the London admirers of this delicacy repair to enjoy their favorite dish ; the fish-dinners of these places being proverbially ex- cellent Having had an opportunity of seeing the mode of cooking this fish, as practised at Lovegrove's at Blackwall, the following notice of the process may not, perhaps, be uninteresting : I was informed that the fish should be cookev. within an hour after being caught, or they are apt to cling together. Those which I saw cooked were contained in water in a pan, from which they were from time to time renr )ved, as required, by a skimmer. They were then thrown on a stratum of flour contained 132 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Some are eaten whole, with the exception of the head. The skin, the flesh, and the viscera only, of others, ere eaten. l x Integument. The corium or true skin of fishes, as of many higher animals, is a gelatinous tissue, (see p. 100 ;) but varies considerably in thickness in different species. On account of their gelatinous nature, the skins of some fishes are used as food, and em- ployed for various purposes in the arts. Thus, by boiling, the skin of the Turbot and Ling becomes pulpy and gelatinous, and forms a rich and favorite nutriment ; and vari- ous parts about the jowl of the Cod are much esteemed by epicures, on account of their gelatinous quality. Sole skins, when clean, sweet, and well prepared, are used as a sub- stitute for isinglass in fining, (see pp. 103, 105.) Dr. Fleming says that the skin of the Cod is employed for the same purpose. Eel skins are used in the preparation of size. 2. Flesh. The great bulk of the soft parts of fishes consists of voluntary muscles form- ing the jlesh, which are disposed upon the sides of the spinal column, in four series on either side. They are soft, pellucid, and but little permeated with blood. The composition of the flesh of the Cod, Haddock, Sole, Carp, and Trout, has already been stated, (see p. 111.) It will be seen, by reference to the analyses of Brande and Schlossberger, that fish-flesh contains more water than the flesh of either quadrupeds or birds. In many fishes the flesh is mixed with, or covered by, oily or fatty matter, as in the Salmon, the Herring, the Pilchard, the Sprat, and the Eel. This is more abundant in the thinner or abdominal parts than in the thicker or dorsal portions. Hence the thin- nest part of salmon is preferred by epicures. After spawning, the quantity of this oil is greatly diminished. But in the Cod, the fish of the Ray kind, and some others, the liver is the only organ which contains fat ; the flesh being quite devoid of it The flesh of the Smelt has been analyzed by Morin,* who found its composition to be as follows : COMPOSITION OF THE FLESH OF THE SMELT. V r ellpw phosphoric oil. Fibrine. Albumen. Gelatine. Osmazome. Mucus. Salts viz. sal ammoniac, phates of potash, lime, iron, and magnesia ; chlo- ride of potassium, carbo- nate of lime, and lactate of soda. Water. In the Cod and many other fishes, the muscles are arranged in more or less wedge- shaped masses, called flakes, which, after cooking, readily separate from each other, owing partly to the contraction of the muscular fibre, and partly to the solution of the in- terposed ligamentous or tendinous matter. The white curdy matter observed between the flakes of boiled fresh fish is a film of albumen produced by the coagulation of the serous juices intervening between the muscular layers. In the flat or eel-shaped fishes, the flesh has rather a fibrous than a flaky arrange- ment. The flesh of the Whiting, the Cod, the Haddock, the Sole, the Plaice, the Flounder, in a large napkin, in which they were shaken until completely enveloped with flour. In this state they were placed in a cullender, and all the superfluous flour removed by sifting. They were now thrown into hat melted lard, contained in a copper caldron or stew-vessel placed over a charcoal fire. A kind of ebullition immediately commenced, and in about two minutes they were removed by a tin skimmer, thrown into a cullender to drain, and served up by placing them on a fish-drainer in a dish. At table they are flavored with cayenne and lemon juice, and eaten with brown-bread and butter ; iced punch being the favorite accompanying beverage. * Journal de Pharmacie, t. viii. p. 61. FISH. 133 the Turbo t* and many other species, is white : hence they are termed White-fish. The flesh of these fishes, when in season, becomes white and opaque by boiling ; but, when the animal is out of condition) it remains semi-transparent and bluish after being suffi- ciently cooked* The flesh of some species is colored : thus that of the Salmon is pale-red. The higher the color* the more highly the flesh of these fishes is esteemed. The flesh of the male fish, called the melter or sofl-roed, is in general considered to be superior to that of the female* called the hard^roed-: at least this is certainly the case with the Salmon and the Herring, The flesh of fish is in the greatest perfection for food at the period of the ripening of the milt and the roe. It is then said to be in season. At this time> the flesh-, especially of the thinner or abdominal park of many fishes, as of the Salmon and Herring, abounds in oily matter, and possesses, in the highest degree, flavor and richness. But after the fish has deposited its spawn, the flesh becomes soft, flabby, and inferior in flavor* owing to the disappearance of the oil or fat which has been consumed in the function of repro- duction. " The superiority of deep-sea herrings over those caught near the shore and in bays, arises," says Dr. Fleming,* "from this circumstance. The former are fat, while the latter have either recently spawned, or are nearly ready for spawning, and consequently lean." The digestibility of fish varies considerably in different species. The oily fishes are always more difficult of digestion ; and, in consequence, are unfit for the use of invalids. Melted butter, lobster-sauce, shrimp-sauce, and egg-sauce, are very indigestible additions to fish : they are exceedingly obnoxious to the stomach, and should be excluded from the table of the invalid, (see p. 84.) The digestibility of fish is also injured by frying them, (see p. 83.) The following are the mean times of digestion of several kinds of fish, according to Dr. Beaumont's experiments : DIGESTIBILITY OF FISH. ARTICLES OF DIET. MEAN TIME OF CHYMIFICATION. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. H. M. Trout, Salmon, fresh u u u ("V elfish, cured dry Flounder, fresh . . Catfish, fresh . . . Salmon, salted . . Boiled Fried Boiled Fried Fried Boiled 1 30 1 30 2 3 30 3 30 4 Boiled Boiled Boiled 3 30 5~~ 7 45 The Whiting, the Haddock, the Sole, the Plaice, the Flounder, the Cod, and the Tur- bot, are devoid of oil or fat, (except in their livers ;) and, therefore, belong to the more easily digestible fish. They are also less stimulating to the system. On these accounts they are preferred to other species for the use of invalids. The Whiting and the Had- dock are the most delicate and tender ; the Turbot and Cod the least so. The Whiting, sometimes called ''the chicken of the sea," stands pre-eminent among them for its ten- derness, delicacy, easy digestibility, and purity of flavor. The Haddock is very similar * Philosophy of Zoology, vol. ii. p. 373. 134 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. to the whiting, but has a firmer texture, and is inferior in flavor and digestibility. The Cod, when in good condition, yields an excellent food, but it is denser, less delicate, and probably somewhat less easy of digestion, than either the whiting or haddock. Crimped Cod is firmer, keeps longer, and has a better flavor, than that which is not crimped. The Dogger-Bank Cod is more flaky than the Scotch Cod, which is stringy or woolly.* Among flat fish, the Sole is distinguished for its tenderness, delicacy, and easy digestibility. The Flounderf and the Plaice, especially when small, are tender and delicate. The Turbot for flavor is justly regarded as ** the prince of flat fish," but is richer and less digestible than the flat fish just mentioned. The gelatinous skin is especially unfit for delicate stomachs. The Brill, though an excellent fish, is inferior in flavor to the turbo t, for which, hov, it is sometimes substituted.} Salmon, Eels, Herrings, Pilchards, and Sprats,^ abound in oil, and are, in consequence, difficult of digestion, very apt to disturb the stomach, and exceedingly injurious to the dyspeptic. Moreover, they prove stimulant to the general system. The thirst, and un- easy feeling at the stomach, frequently experienced after the use of the richer species of fish, have led to the employment of spirit to this kind of food. Hence the vulgar proverb that " Brandy is Latin for Fish." The flesh of fish is less satisfying to the appetite than the flesh of either quadrupeds or birds. As it contains a larger proportion of water, (see p. Ill,) it is obviously less nourishing.il A fish diet, therefore, is less substantial than either butcher's meat or poul- try. Medicinally, we employ it, when the digestive powers are unable to assimilate stronger kinds of aliments, or when it is considered desirable to avoid the stimulus which * There ore two well-marked varieties of the Cod, which are known respectively as Dogg(r-l{ gives, under the head of "Cookery for the Convalescent," the following directions for the preparation of Water-Souclii/. - TaUe two small Thames flounders, boil them in a quart of water to one-third, long enough to reduce the ii.-h almost lo n pulp. Strain tin* liquor through a sieve, and, having cut the fins off four other small floun- ders, put them into the above-mentioned liquor, with a sufficient quantity of salt, a few Bruins oi < -avenue pepper, and a small quantity of chopped parsley ; and boil just long enough to render tin- fi.-.h proper to be eaten. The fish and the sauce should be eaten together. If flounders are not in season, soles or whitings, or small haddocks, may be prepared in the same manner. 1 know few dishes which much relished as this by convalescents from lever. 1 have heard invalids ask for it daily for ten or more days. In advanced convalescence, the yolk of one or two egiis may be beaten up with a little soft water, and added to the strained liquor before ihe fi.-h is put into it." J Appendix. 2. $ In the Standard of Ft h '.'. 1 -i \'2, is a notice of an inquest held on the body of a person whose death was caused by the use of sprats. II Haller (Klnn. I'// y$.. xix.) found himself weakened by a fish diet; and he states that persons are generally debilitated by Lent diet. Pechlin ( Observat. phync o-medicce. Hamburgi, 1691, p. 513) also states that a mechanic nourished merely by fish had less muscular power than one who lived on the flesh of warm-blooded animals. Dr. Cullen, (Ma/. Mcd. vol. i. p. 390,) however, maintained that the nu- tritive powers of fish are nearly, if not quite, equal to those of meat; and in support of his opinion he states that ho has known "several instances of persons who felt no w< ekness from a Lnt diet, when a great deal of fish was taken ;" and he further observes that there are 'several instance* of villa.. hab'ted almost only by fishers, and who, therefore, live very much upon tais sort of aliment, but in whom no diminution of health or vigor appear-." His evidence, however, is by no means satisfactory. But to avoid the fallacies attendant on appeals io experience, 1 have relied, in the text, on the chemical composition of fish, as an c\idence oi' the r ii lerior nutritive power. j; FISH. 135 ' butcher's meat communicates to the system. " The jockeys who waste tfiemselves at Newmarket, in order to reduce their weight, are never allowed meat, when fish can be ob- tained."* It is an ancient and popular notion that the frequent employment o' fish is favorable to the powers of generation ; and that those who live principally on this kind of food are unusually prolific.! These effects have been ascribed to the oil contained in fishes, the phosphorus of which possesses aphrodisiac properties. That the frequent use of those fish which abound in phosphoric oil may have an exciting effect on persons previously unaccustomed to this kind of diet, I am neither prepared to admit nor to deny. But there is, I think, sufficient evidence to prove that the ichthyophagous people are not more prolific than others. " In Greenland, and among the Esquimaux," says Foster,! " where the natives live chiefly upon fish, seals, and oily animal substances, the women seldom bear children often er than three or four times : five or six births are reckoned a very extraordinary instance. The Pesserais, whom we saw, had not above two or three children belonging'to each family, though their common food consisted of muscles, fish, and seal flesh. The New Zealanders absolutely feed on fish, and yet no more than three or four children were found in the most prolific families ; which seems strongly to indi- cate that feeding on fish by no means contributes to the increase of numbers in a na- tion." An ill effect ascribed to fish diet is the production or augmentation of skin diseases, es- pecially leprosy and elephantiasis. This notion is a very ancient one, and probably has some foundation in fact. It is not improbable that it was, in part at least, the origin of the prohibition from eating fish, under which the Egyptians labored ; as well as of the Mosaic law, that fish without fins and scales must not be eaten.|j Some species of fish, especially in tropical climates, possess poisonous properties, either at all times or at certain seasons ; or to all persons or only to particular individuals. The subject, however, is veiled in great obscurity. Sbmetimes the symptoms are allied to those of cholera. An. eruption, (often resembling nettle-rash,) and various nervous symp- toms, (as trembling or convulsive twitches of the limbs, paralysis, and stupor,) are occa- sionally observed. These poisonous effects have been variously ascribed to the aliment on which the fish have fed, to disease in the fish, to the putrefaction of the fish, and to the idiosyncrasy of the patient : but none of these hypotheses are satisfactory. " For dietetical uses, fishe^ have frequently to undergo some sort of preparation, vary- ing according to the situation, the necessities, or the taste of the consumers. When cir- cumstances permit, they are in general used in a fresh state ; and in large cities, where the supply must be brought from a distance, various expedients are resorted to, to pre- vent the progress of putrefaction. By far the best contrivance for this purpose is the well-boat, in which fish may be brought to the place of sale even in a living state. Placing the fish in boxes, and packing with ice, is another method, and has been extensively em- ployed, particularly in the supply of the capital with salmon. "In many maritime districts, where fish can be got in abundance, a species of refine- ment in taste, or at least a departure from the simplicity of nature, prevails, to gratify * A Treatise on Diet, p. 210-211, 5th ed. 1837. t Montesquieu (OBuvres Completes, t. 51-2, 1767) mentions, as instances in point, the Japanese and Chinese. t Observations made during a Voyage Round the World, p. 315. Lond. 17" S. $ Herodotus, (Euterpe, xxxvii.) Perhaps the supposed aphrodisiac effec of fi&h may have been one of the causes of the prohibition. || Leviticus, ch. xi. verse ix xii. 133 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. which, the fish are kept for some days, until they begin to putrefy. When used in this state they are far from disagreeable, unless to the organs of smell. Such fish are termed by the Zetlanders blawn-fish. " Where fish are to be procured only at certain seasons of the year, various methods have been devised to preserve them during the periods of scarcity. The simplest of these processes is to d~y them n the sun. They are then used either raw or boiled, and and not unfrequently, in some of the poorer districts of the north of Europe, they are ground into powder, to be afterwards formed into bread. "But by far the most successful method of preserving fish, and the one in daily use, is by means of salt. For this purpose they are packed with salt in barrels, as soon after being taken as possible. In this mariner are herrings, pilchards, cod, and salmon pre- served, as well as many other kinds of esculent fish. " The fish, in many instances, after having been salted in vessels constructed for the purpose, are exposed to the air on a gravelly beach, or in a house, and dried. Cod, ling, and tusk, so prepared, are termed in Scotland, salt-fish. Salmon in this state is called kipper; and haddocks are usually denominated by the name of the place where they have been cured. "After being steeped in salt, herrings are, in many places, hung up in houses made for the purpose, and dried with the smoke of wood. In this state they are sent to market, under the name of red-herrings. "Although salt is generally employed in the preservation of fish, whether intended to be kept moist or to be dried, vinegar in certain cases is added. It is used, in this coun- try at least, chiefly for the salmon sent from the remote districts to the London market. It can only, however, be employed in the preservation of those fish to which this acid is served as a sauce."* By drying, salting, smoking, and pickling, the digestibility of fish is greatly impaired ; though, in some cases, their savory, stimulating, and even nutritive qualities, may be aug- mented. Dried, sailed, smoked, and pickled fish, therefore, are totally unfit for dyspeptics and invalids. By drying, part of the water is got rid of, and thereby the relative propor- tion of solid or nutritive matter is augmented : but the fish is more difficult of digr.-tion. Salt-fish excites thirst and feverish symptoms. Smoked-fish, as smoked sprats, some- times prove injurious. "Putrid pickled salmonf has occasioned death in this country ; arid I may mention," says Dr. Christison,} "that I have known most violent diarrhoea occasioned in two instances by a very small portion of the oiTy matter about the fins of Kipper or smoked salmon, so that I have no doubt a moderate quantity would produce very serious effects." 3. Viscera. Several of the viscera of fishes are used as aliments ; as the Liver, the Swimming Bladder, the Roe or Ovary, and the Milt or Testicle. a. The Liter. The livers of fishes always abound iii oil. In the Cod, the Whiting, the flat fish, and some others, this is the only organ which contains oil. Though the livers of some fishes, as the Cod and Barbot, are much admired as articles of food, yet they are not adapted for invalids and dyspeptics, on account of their fatty nature. The oil obtained from the liver of the Cod (Cod oil} is celebrated in obstinate rheumatic, gouty, * Fleming's Philosophy of Zoology, vol. ii. p. 371-2. t "The three indispensable marks of the goodness of Pickled Salmon are, 1st, The brightness of the scales, and their sticking fast to the skin ; 2dly, The firmness of the flesh ; and, 2dly, Its fine pale- red rose color : without these it is not fit to eat, and wa stale either before it was pickled, or has been kept too long after," (Dr. Kitchener, Cook's Oracle.) t Treatise on Poisons, p. 5'J3. 3d ed. FISH. 137 and scrofulous maladies, as well as in chronic skin diseases. Dr. Ure* has suggested the adoption of cod livers as a diet for patients who are recommended to take the oil, which, on account of its nauseous flavor, is very objectionable. In order to prevent the loss of oil during the process of cooking, "he recommends the livers to be immersed entire in boiling water, to which a sufficient quantity of salt has been added, to raise the boiling point about 220 F. The sudden application of this high temperature coagulates the al- bumen of the liver, and prevents the escape of the oil. When the liver is cut, the oil exudes, and mashed potato may be used as a vehicle." The constituents of cod-liver oil are stated to be as follows COMPOSITION OF COD-LIVER OIL Chlorides of calcium and sodium. Sulphate of potash. Iodide of copper. Brouiide of potassium. Fatty matter (oleio and margaric acids com- bined with glycerine.) Resin. Gelatine. Coloring matter. The two last ingredients were detected by Herberger ; but Dr. Ure has recently statedf that he could not detect iodine in the cod-liver oil sold in London. b. The Swimming Bladder. This organ is a gelatinous tissue, and has already been considered, (see pp. 103-106.) It constitutes the well-known Isinglass and Sound. c. The Roe or Ovary, commonly called the Hard Roe, of many fishes is eaten. That of the Carp, Pike, Perch, Salmon, Trout, and many other fishes, furnishes a much es- teemed and nourishing aliment. The roe of the Barbel, and of some others, has at limes proved injurious ; giving rise to nausea, vomiting, and purging. The roe has been analyzed by several chemists ; that of the Pike by Vauquelin,| of the Trout and Carp by Morin, and of the Barbel by Dulong d'Astafort.|| Their results show that the roes of different fishes have a similar composition and bear a striking analogy to the eggs of birds. COMPOSITION OF THE ROE OF FISHES. Carp. Barbel. t Pike. Tro Albumen + -1 Osmazome Gelatine Oil Phosphorus Sal-Ammoniac Chloride of Sodium C Chloride of Potassium H Phosphate of Potash of Lime : " of Magnesia t Sulphate of Potash C Carbonate of Soda (L -I " of Potash " of Lime H An organic salt with base of potash C t t The purgative property, said to be possessed by the roe both of the Pike and the Bar- bel, is ascribed to the oil, which possesses acrid properties. The substance called Caviare^ is the roe of several species of Acipenser, (Sturgeons,) preserved by salting. The best is that prepared on the shores of the Caspian. The fol- lowing is the composition of Caviare : * Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. ii. p. 361. t Ibid p. 459. t Journal de Pharmacie t. iii. p. 385. $ Ibid. t. ix. p. 203. II Ibid. t. xiii. p. 521. If Several kinds of Caviare are met with in Russia. The worst sort is the common pressed caviare, (pajusnaja ikra.) A better sort is that called grained caviare, (sernislaia ikra.) The cleanest and best 138 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. COMPOSITION OF CAVIARE. Yellow odorous fatty oil Soluble albumen . Insoluble albumen Gelatine, with some salts Water 43 6-2 24-8 Chloride of sodium and sulphate of soda . 6'7 0-5 57-5 Fresh unpressed Caviare . 100 Caviare is difficult of digestion, and apt to excite nausea. Very little of it is used in England ; but considerable quantities of it are exported from Russia to Italy. It is extensively employed in Russia and other places on fast-days ; and i? eaten raw with toasted bread, or with vinegar and oil, or with lemon juice. 4. Milt or Testicle. This is usually called the Soft Roe. Messrs. Fourcroy and Yau- quelin analyzed the milt of the Carp ; and John, that of the Tench. The milt of the Carp consisted of 75 parts water and 25*parts of dry residuum. COMPOSITION OF THE MILT OF THE TENCH. White fat. Phosphates of ammonia, lime, magnesia, Osmazome. and potash or soda. Animal Jelly. Water. Insoluble albumen. It appears from Fourcroy and Vauquelin's experiments that phosphorus (not as phos- phoric acid) exists in the milt The milt of the Cod is used as a garnish, and is eaten at the table ; but, on account of its fatty constituent, is not adapted for delicate stomachs. That of the Herring i employed as food. The latter (lestes harengi) has been recommended by Ritter, Neumann, Frank, Siemerling, and Hufeland, as a remedy for obstinate cough, hoarseness, and phthisis laryngea. It is to be taken in the morning fasting. 'Its efficacy (?) has been ascribed to the common salt which it contains. CLASS V. CRUSTACEA. CRUSTACEANS. Many of the species of this class are esculent; and some of them form highly ^s ed articles of food. Those in use in this country are the Common Lobster, ( \ ni/irinus,) the Thorny Lobster, better known as the Common Sea Crawfish, (Palinuriix vulgaris,') the River Crawfish, (Astacus jluviatilis,} the Large Edible or B!ack-cla\\.>d Crab, (Cancer Pagurus,) the Common or Small Edible Crab, (Cancer Manas,) the Prawn, (Palccmon serra/us,) and the Shrimp, (Crangon vulgaris.) These Crustaceans have " a white firm flesh, which contains much gelatine. In the membrane, which encloses the calcareous shell, is found a resinous substance, which, in the living animals, is of a brownish-green color, but becomes red by boiling. From this matter proceeds the peculiar odor and taste of these animals. The flesh is difficult of diges- tion ; the broth is stimulant. In febrile and inflammatory complaint?, their use is injurious."* The coloring matter of the shells of the crustaceans, above referred to, has been termed Cancrin. Its composition is as follows : COMPOSITION OF CANCRIN OR COLORING MATTER OF CRUSTACEANS 16 atoms of Carbon . 96 or per cent . . . 68-08 - 13 atoms of Hydrogen 13 .... 9-,-J 4 atoms of Oxygen . . . 32 22-70 1 atom of Cancrin '. '. 141 .... lOO^OO sort bag-pressed caviare, (Meschechaja Utra.) In some parts of Russia a reddish kind of caviare (Krafnnja ikra) is prepared from the roes of the white salmon and pike. For further information consult Brandt and Ratzeburg's Medicinische Zoologie ; and Tooke's View uj the Russian Empire, vol. iii., p. 467-469.) * Tiedemann, UntersuchungenuberNahrungs-Bedurfniss,&c MOLLUSKS. 139 Both the Crab and the Lobster excite, in some constitutions, Urticaria or nettle-rash, and even colic. Neither of them are easily digestible ; so that, though they form very agree- ble and moderately nutritive articles of food, they are not appropriate substances for dys- peptics or invalids. Ths parts of Crustaceans employed as food are the muscles and some of the viscera. The branchiae or gills are commonly known under the name of dead men 1 s fingers. The muscles (flesli) of the lobster and crab are principally confined to the parts moving the tail and limbs. Their alimentary properties are very similar to those of fishes. Both lobsters and crabs are apt to disagree with some persons ; and to give rise to a sensation of heaviness at the epigastrium, nausea, depression, giddiness, and nettle-rash. Cullen mentions violent colic as also having been produced in several instances. These effects appear to depend on some peculiar susceptibility (idiosyncrasy) of particular per- sons. Tn some parts of the world poisonous crustaceans are found. The Lobster is found in considerable abundance on the rocky coasts of various parts of England and Scotland. The males are preferred, especially in winter, for eating : they are distinguished by the narrowness of their tails, and by " their having a strong spine upon the centre of each of the transverse processes beneath the tail, which support the four middle plates of their tails." The females (called hen-lobsters) are preferred for making sauce on account of the coral (ovary") and spawn, (ova or eggs ;) the former, when boiled, is bright red, and is useful for garnishing ; the latter serves to communicate both color and flavor. They are known by their broader tail and smaller claws. The muscles (flesli or meat} of the lobster reside principally in the tail and claws : those of the claws being more tender, delicate, and easily digestible. It is a popular notion that a part of the body of the lobster, called " the old lady in her arm-chair" proves injurious when eaten. This part is the bony teeth of the stomach, and, being indigestible, should not be eaten. The bag, in which " the old lady " is contained, is the stomach. The flavor of the lobster is generally considered to be superior in both purity and delicacy to that of the other crustaceans. But, on account of its difficult digestibility, as well as of its occasional ill effects, before referred to, it does not form a fit aliment for invalids and dyspeptics. "As found in the London market," says Dr. Paris, lobsters "are generally under boiled, with a view to their better keeping ; and in that case they are highly indigestible." The injurious effects of lobster sauce have been already alluded to, (see p. 133.) The Sea Crawfish is frequently used as a substitute for the lobster, with which it agrees in its general alimentry properties. But it is usually thought to be inferior in delicacy of flavor and tenderness. Of the Crab the same remarks may be made. The muscles or Jlesh (contained in the claws) is much less apt to disturb the stomach than the viscera (liver, testicles, ovaries, &c.,) which constitute the soft contents of the shell. Prawns and Shrimps are almost universal favorites on account of their delicious flavor. They are generally and correctly regarded as being easier of digestion than the preceding crustaceans.* CLASS VI. MOLLUSCA. MULLUSKS. In England a few species only of this class are fised as food. Among the bivalves, the principal are the Oyster, the Mussel, the Cockle, and the Scallop: among univalves, we have the Periwinkle, the Limpet, and the Whelk. To these, as well as to the Crustaceans, (Lobsters, Crabs, &c.,) the term Shell Fish is usually applied. * Appendix, 3. 140 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Some of the edible mollusks are principally and extensively used by the poor ; but the Oyster constitutes a favorite article of food to all classes. Molluscous foods are not without danger ; since Mussels, and even Oysters, occasion- ally give rise to deleterious effects. The Oyster holds the most distinguished place among the foods of this class. It was greatly admired by the luxurious Romans, who highly esteemed the Oysters of Britain. They are found on various parts of our coast, and are caught by dredging. But, in order to improve their flavor and size, or, as it is termed, to fatten them, they are not immedi- ately consumed, but are laid in beds in creeks along shore, where they rapidly improve. Colchester and other places of Essex are the nurseries or feeding grounds for the me- tropolis. . The flesh, and the liquor or water, of the oyster have been analyzed by Pasquier.* Fibrine Albumen Gelatine Osmazome Mucus Water , COMPOSITION OF THE OYSTER. Flesh. 12-6 87-4 Liquor or Water. Osmazome. Albumen. Chloride of sodium. Sulphate of lime. Sulphate of magnesia. Chloride of magnesium. Water. 100-0 By incineration the organic m.itu-rs yielded 1-84 of a white ash, contain- ing phosphate of lime and the same salts as the liquor contained. The oyster furnishes a delicious and favorite article of food. It is more digestible in the raw state than when cooked, (by roasting, scolloping, or stewing ;) for the heat em- ployed coagulates and hardens the albumen, and corrugates the fibrine, which are then less easily soluble in the gastric juice ; and the heated butter, generally used as an ac- companiment, adds still more to the indigestibility of the oyster. The following are the mean times of digestion of oysters, according to the experiments of Dr. Beaumont : DIGESTIBILITY OF OYSTERS. ARTICLES OF DIET. MEAN TLME OF CHYMIFICATIO.Y IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. If. M. Raw Roasted Stewed 2 55 3 15 3 30 Raw, entire Stewed 1 30 8 25 U II As far as my own personal observation extends, the finest raw oysters of the London market, usually called natives, rarely disagree even with convalescents and dyspeptics ; and Dr. Cullen declares oysters to be easy of digestion. But the experience of some other physicians is very different to this. In the raw state, says Dr. Pearson,f " they agree very well with strong stomachs, but by no means so with persons who are subject to indigestion ; and dyspeptic and gouty persons, who have ventured to swallow them in this state, have often been violently disordered by them. Such person? if they eat them * Merat and De Lens, Dict.de Mat. Med. t. v. ; and Gmelin, Handb.d. Chemic, vol. ii. p. 1478. t A Practical Synopsis oftheMateria Alimentaria and Materia Medico, p. 55. 1808. MOLLUSKS. 141 at all, should have them well stewed and seasoned with some aromatic. But even in that state they should be eaten rather sparingly in the instances above mentioned." Dr. Paris* also observes, that " when eaten cold, they are frequently distressing to weak stomachs, and require the aid of pepper as a stimulant ; and since they are usually swal- lowed without mastication, the stomach has an additional labor to perform, in order to reduce them into chyme." In reply to this last statement, however, it may be observed, that Dr. Beaumont found that an entire raw oyster was chymified, in a phial, in 7i hours, while masticated beefsteak required 8i hours. It cannot be doubted that oysters disagree with some constitutions; and that occa- sionally they have appeared to possess noxious properties. But considering the enor- mous consumption of these animals, their supposed deleterious effects are exceedingly rare.f The late Dr. Clarke]: has related some remarkable cases, in which convulsions, followed in two cases by death, occurred in women who had taken oysters soon after their delivery. But we are not authorized in adopting his conclusion, that fresh healthy oysters are apt to occasion apoplexy and convulsions in puerperal women. The fact that the symptoms did not come on until the day after the oysters were taken, is against such an assumption. The green color, which certain parts of the oyster sometimes assume, has been as- cribed by some to marine Ulvae, on which the animal has fed, by others, to the absorp- tion of a green-colored microscopical animalcule, (called Vibrio ostrearius.') Very recently, Valenciennes^ has shown that the green coloring matter is a peculiar organic substance, derived perhaps from a peculiar state of the bile of the animal. The popular notion that the color is produced by coppery beds, on which the animal is supposed to have laid, is totally unfounded.|| It is a popular notion that the oyster possesses aphrodisiac properties, derived from the phosphorus which it contains ; but it has not yet been shown that oysters contain more phosphorus than the flesh of other animals. As 100 parts of the flesh of the oyster contain only about 12 - 6 parts of solid matter, while 100 parts of butchers' meat contain, on an average, about 25 parts, it is obvious that oysters must be less nutritive than butchers' meat. When eaten raw it is customary to swallow the oyster entire ; but for stewing or making sauce they are deprived of the beard, (the branchiee or gills.) IF The indigestible nature of oyster sauce has been alluded to. * Treatise on Diet. t Some cases of supposed deleterious properties acquired by oysters are referred to by Dr. Christison, (Treatise on Poisons,) as having occurred in the years 1816-19 at Havre and Dunkirk. But it is by no means clear that the diseases which prevailed at these places originated from the use of oysters. MM. Vauquelin and Chaussier, who were appointed to inquire into these cases, denied that they were caused by oysters, since many persons were attacked who had not eaten them. (See Merat and De Lens, Diet, de Mat. Med. vol. v. p. 123.) I Transactions of the London College of Physicians, vol. v. p. 109. Comptes Rendus, t. xii. p. 315. Fevrier, 1841. I! " I am acquainted with a lady," says Dr. Paris, (Treatise on Diet, p. 8, 5th ed.,) " who is constantly made sick by eating a green oyster ; the cause of which may be traced to an erroneous impression she received with respect to the coloring matter being cupreous." IT " We cannot walk the streets without noticing that, in the fish-shops, the oysters are laid with their flat sides uppermost ; they would die were it otherwise. The animal breathes and feeds by opening its shell, and thereby receiving anew portion of water into the concavity of its under shell ; and if it did not thus open its shell, the water would neither be propelled through its branchiae or respiratory appara- tus, nor sifted for its food. It is in this manner that they lie in their native beds : were they on their flat 142 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Oysters have been employed as medicinal agents in phthisis, (in which disease they have been vauntt d as a specific,) in chronic affections of the digestive organs, in scrofula, and several other complaints. They are useful as nutrients in the stage of convalescence of many disorders, but I am unacquainted with any evidence of their curative powers bsyond this. The Mussel is used as food by the lower classes principally. Its flesh is yellowish and difficult of digestion. Dr. Paris* states that the common people, in eating mi: take out a dark part, (the heart,) which is erroneously supposed to be poisonous. Under some circumstances mussels acquire deleterious qualities, and occasionally prove fatal. The symptoms which they give rise to, however, are by no means uniform. At one time they are those of irritation of the alimentary canal ; but " much more commonly the local effects have been trifling, and the prominent symptoms have been almost entirely indirect, and chiefly nervous. Two affections of this kind have been noticed. One is an eruptive disease, resembling nettle-rash, and accompanied with violent asthma ; the other, a comatose or paralytic disorder of a very peculiar description."! The presence of cop- per, a putrid condition of the mussels, idiosyncrasy on the part of the sufferers, a mor- bid condition of the mussels, and the poisonous quality of their food, (medusa? or starfish,) have, at different times, been supposed to be the source of the deleterious effects ; but at present the cause is involved in considerable obscurity.J Cockles, Scallops, Periwinkles, Limpets, and Whelks, are of inferior moment as aliments. They are principally used by the poorer inhabitants on the coast, and are not adapted for persons of delicate stomachs. Snails are employed in some countries as food. In England the Great or Vineyard Snail (Helix pomatia) is a popular remedy for emacia- tion with hectic fever and phthisis, on account of its nourishing qualities. FiguierJ says its medicinal property resides in an oil, which he calls Helicine.\\ DISEASED AND DECAYED ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. On several occasions (pp. 121. l'J-'l U-\ and 135-141) I have incidentally alluded to the deleterious qualities sometimes acquired by certain animal foods. It deserves, however, to be specially noticed, with re*;; animal foods in general, that when obtained from animals affected with dis.e. the time of their death, they are always dangerous, and have in some cases proved fatal.! Moreover, Animal foods, even if procured from perfectly healthy individual?, some- times suffer a peculiar kind of decay or putrefaction, by which they acquire poisonous properties. ' Thus, Sanies made of the flesh, viscera, or blood of animals, and cured by smoking, have sometimes acquired, by keeping, highly deleterious qualities, which in surface, no food could bo gathered, as it were, in their cup ; and if exposed by the retreating tide, the opening of the &h -11 would allow the water to escape, and leave them dry thus depriving them of res- piration as well as food." (Sir Charles Bell's notes to Paley's Natural Tluotn^u, vol. ii p. -J'JO-l.) The same author also observes, that " in confirmation of these remarks, the geologist, when he sees those shells in beds of diluvium, can determine whether the oysters were overwhelmed in their native beds, or were rolled away and scattered as shells merely." * Tmtlise on Diet. t Dr. Christison, Treatise ci Poisons. { It is a very common thing, for persons to he p'>iMi;uvl in this city by eating mussels, produced from our adjacent waters. In one instance a whole family were made dangerously ill by them, with symptoms of Cholera Morbus, of the most malignant kind, of which the lather of the family died.- We coukl not ascertain that the mussels were putrid, or affected by disease, though we have noticed that they are nore apt to produce deleterious effects in the hottest season of the year. L. $ Journal dc Pharmacic, t. xxvi. p 113. II Appendix, 4. IT Tiedemann, Unterauchungen ilber das Nahrungs-Bediirfniss. &c. pp. 119-120; alscv /xma. Mcd. Gazette, Oct. 81, 181-2. VEGETABLE FOODS. 143 many cases, has been attended with fatal results. Buchner ascribes the effects to the presence of a peculiar fatty acid, which has been termed botulinic acid, (Wurst-fett-saure.} Bacon, probably other kinds of cured meat, Ham-pie, Cheese, Milk, Goose-grease, (see p. 128,) Smoked Sprats, Pickled Salmon, Kipper or Smoked Salmon, see p. 136,) and the de- cayed flesh of quadrupeds (as veal and beef) have also at times produced effects analogous to those caused by the sausages above alluded to.* The cause of the poisonous quality of those animal foods is involved in complete ob- scurity. Liebigf has offered an ingenious but gratuitous hypothesis concerning it. The sausages, he says, are in a peculiar state of putrefaction ; and in this condition " exercise an action upon the organism, in consequence of the stomach, and other parts with which they come in contact, not having the power to arrest their decomposition ; and entering the blood in some way or other, while still possessing their whole power, they impart their peculiar action to the constituents of that fluid. "J The subject of fisli-poison\ has been already noticed, (see pp. 135, 136, 139, 141, and 142.) SECT. II. VEGETABLE FOODS. The aliments obtained from the Vegetable kingdom greatly exceed in number and va- riety those procured from Animals ; and it is not very easy to adopt a classification which shall be at the same time accurate and practical. * For further details consult Dr. Christison's Treatise on Poisons ; Tiedemann, op. at. ; and Buchner's Tokicologie. t Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology, pp 368-369. 2d edit. 1842. 1 Appendix, 5. In connection with the above subject, I subjoin the following table, taken from the Times newspaper of April 14, 1842 : Annual Return of Fish seized at Billingsgate, (being unfit to be used as human food,) from the 1st of January, 1841, to the 1st of January, 1842. Salmon Turbot ' . Cod . Haddocks . Scale Gurnets 136 185 . 1,295 . 23,611 237 . 5,700 Salt-fish Smelts Mullets Hallibuts Trout . Lings . 86 . 1,100 61 24 . 224 14 Mackerel . Soles . 39,520 . 9790 Dories Dried Haddock 13 324 . 7 372 Roach and Dace 300 Plaice Herrings . Whitings . 50,085 . 27,720 1 706 Tench Pickled Herrings 82 . 2,800 Brills '. 222 1 72,621* 5,028 172,629 Sprats . Pickled Salmon Eels . Winkles Whelks Mussels 36 bushels 3 kits. 1,232 Ibs. 50 bushels. 38 bushels. 22 bushels. Total Oysters Shrimps Lobsters Crabs . Crawfish . 177,657 51 bushels. 12 bushels. 2,819 2,332 122 Total number of Fish seized and condemned: In tale . . . 177,657 Sprats . . 36 bushels. Pickled Salmon 3 kits. Eels . . 1,232 Ibs. Shell-fish in tale . . 5,774 Shell-fish . . 173 bushels. 144 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. The Natural-history method which I have elsewhere* adopted for the Vegetable and Animal Materia Medica, and which I have followed to a certain extent in the present work, in noticing animal aliments, does not appear to me to be sufficiently practical, for my present purpose, to be exclusively adopted. Nor can we adopt a chemical classifica- tion, since most of the substances which we have to notice owe their dietetical properties to more than one proximate principle, and oftentimes to several. On the whole, then, I believe the arrangement of Tiedemannf to be the most appro- priate for my present purpose, and I shall therefore adopt it It is founded partly on Natural History, partly on the Vegetable organs which are used as food. The following table presents a general view of the classes and orders : CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLE ALIMENTS. I. Aliments derived from Flowering Plants. 5. Leaves, Leaf-stalks, and Flowers. 6. Receptacles and Bracts. 7. Stems. 1. Seeds. 2. Fleshy Fruits. 3. Roots, Subterraneous Stems, and Tubers. 4. Buds and Young Shoots. II. Aliments derived from Flowerkss Plants. 1. Ferns. I 3. Algse, or Sea-weeds. 2. Lichens. | 4. Fungi, or ."Mushrooms. CLASS I. ALIMENTS DERIVED FROM FLOWERING PLANTS. The Flowering Plants are also called by botanists Phenogamous or Vascular plants. They are Phanerogamia, the Cotyledonecc, or Embryonattc of some authors. ORDER I. SEMINA OR SEEDS. The seeds employed as food are of two kinds, farinaceous and oleaginous. 1. MEALY OR FARINACEOUS Seeds. This division includes the alimentary seeds of the Cerealia, Polygonaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Leguminosae, and Cupuliferce. a. Cereal Grains or Corn. These are the seeds of certain grasses, which, on account of their comparatively much larger size, are preferred, for dietetical purposes, to other grass seeds. Those commonly employed are Wheat, Oats, Barley, Rye, Rice, Maize or Indian Corn, Millet, and Sorghum, Durra or Guinea Corn. The fruit of the grasses is one-seeded, arid is called a caryopsis. Its endocarpium ad- heres inseparably to the integuments of the seed. The seed, exclusive of its coo/s, con- sists of a farinaceous albumen, on the outer side and at the base of which lies the embryo. In a dietetical point of view the albumen is the most important part of the seed. The proximate constituents of the Cereal grains are as follows : PROXIMATE PRINCIPLES OF CORN. Starch. Vegetable albumen. Vegetable Fibrine. } Glutine. f Raw or Mucine. i Ordinary Gluten. Oily Matter. Sugar. Gum. Earthy Phosphates. Ligneous Matter, (bran, husk, &c.) Water Elements of Materta Medica t Untersucnungen uoer das Nahrungs-Bedurfniss, den Nahrungs-Trieb und die Nahrungs-MiUel. 1836. WHEAT. 145 A bitter principle and resin have been found in some kinds of corn. The dietetical properties, and the proportions, of the alimentary principles found in corn have been already stated. The ultimate composition of several kinds of corn is, according to Boussingault,* as follows : ULTIMATE COMPOSITION OF CORN DRIED AT 230 F. Wheat. Rye. Oats. Carbon 46-1 46-2 50-7 Hydrogen ..." Oxygen 58 43-4 5-6 44-2 64 36-7 Nitrogen 2-3 1-7 2-2 Ashes .... 2-4 2.3 4-0 Total . 100-0 100-0 100-0 The Cereal grains and the farinaceous foods obtained therefrom, are, when sufficiently and plainly cooked, nutritive, and readily digestible. Their nitrogenized constituents, or, in the language of Liebig, their plastic elements of nutrition, are vegetable albumen, vege- table fibrine, glutine, and mucine ; while their non-nitrogenized constituents, or the elements of respiration, are starch, (principally,) sugar, and gum. The following table, drawn up from Dr. Beaumont's work, shows the mean time of chymification of several kinds of foods, composed wholly, or partially, of the cereal grains : DIGESTIBILITY OF THE CEREAL GRAINS. ARTICLES OF DIET. MEAN TIME OF CHYMIFICATION. IN ST*MACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. H. M. Rice Barley Soup Barley Cake, Sponge Custard . Dumpling, App e Cake, Corn Bread, Corn Bread, Wheat, fresh Boiled Boiled Boiled Baked Baked Boiled Baked Baked Baked 1 1 30 2 2 30 2 45 3 3 3 15 3 30 Broken Baked Masticated 1 i 6 15 6 30 4 30 1. ~\^lieat. The grains of several species of Triticum are employed as food under the name of wheat ; viz., Triticum vulgare, turgidum, polonicum, Spelta, and monococcum. In this country, the first species is that which is principally cultivated. The flour obtained from Lammas Wheat (Triticum vulgare, variety Tiylernum) has the following compo- sition : * Memoires de P Academic Royale des Sciences de TInstitut de France, t. xviii. p. 345. 1842. 10 146 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. COMPOSITION OF WHEATEN FLOUR. French Wheat. asr Wheat. Odessa Soft Wheat. Ditto. Ditto. Flour of Paris bakers. Ditto, of ^ood QUA. ity used in public establishments. Ditto inferior kind. Starch . Gluten . SniMr . . Gum . . Bran . . Wat.-r .. 71-49 10-96 472 332 10-00 56-5 14-55 8-48 4-90 2-30 12-00 62-00 12-00 7-56 5-80 1-20 10-00 70-84 12-10 4-90 4-60 800 72-00 7-30 5-42 330 12-00 72-8 10-2 4-2 2-8 100 71-2 10-3 4-8 ' 36 8-0 67-78 9-02 4-80 4-60 2-00 12-00 100-49 98-73 93-56 100-44 100-02 100-0 97-9 100-20 The quantity of gluten contained in wheat is subject to very considerable variation, as will be obvious by reference to the table at p. 97. "In general," says Sir H. Davy,* " the wheat of warm climates abounds more in gluten and in insoluble parts ; and it is of greater specific gravity, harder, and more difficult to grind. The wheat of the South of Europe, in consequence of the larger quantity of gluten it contains, is peculiarly fitted for making macaroni, and other preparations of flour, in which a glutinous quality is considered as an excellence." "In the South of Europe," the same authority adds, "hard or thin-skinned wheat is in higher estimation than soft or thick-skinned wheat; the reason of which is obvious, from the larger quantity of gluten and nutritive matter it contains."! I am informed oy Mr. Hards, miller, of Dartford, that the following are the products obtained by grinding one quarter or eight bushels of wheat : PRODUCE OF ONE QUARTER OF WHEAT WEIGHING 504 POUNDS. Flour .... Biscuit or fine middlings Toppings or specks Best pollard, Turkey pollard, or twenty-penny Fine pollard Bran and coarse pollard Loss, sustained by evaporation, and waste in grinding, dreusing, ttec. ~504lbs. Owing to the larger quantity of gluten which it contains, (see p. 139,) wheat is more nutritive than the other cereal grains; and its nutritive equivalent, founded on the quantity of its nitrogen, is, therefore, less than these, (see p. 27.) It yields the finest, whitest, lightest, and most digestible kind of bread ; the greater lightness of which de- pends on the toughness of its dough, which, retaining the evolved carbonic acid, swells up during fermentation, and thus acquires a vesicular or cellular character. This light- ness or sponginess contributes to the digestibility of bread ; since the gastric juice more easily permeates and acts on it when it has this loose texture.J Semolina, Soujee, and Mannacroup, are granular preparations of wheat, deprived of bran. A manufacturer^ of these substances informs me that they are prepared from the best Kentish wheat. They possess all the nutritive qualities of wheat, and are very agreeable, light, nutritive articles of food, well fitted for invalids and children. Macaroni, Vermicelli, and Cagliari Paste, are prepared from wheat. They are im- ported from Genoa and Naples, and are manufactured in London by Mr. Walte/Levy, who prepares them from a paste made from semolina. Macaroni and vermicelli have * Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, pp. 130-131. 4th ed. 1827 t Ibid. pp. 138-9. J Appendix. 6. Mr. Walter Levy, of No. 2, White's Row, Spitalields, London FERMENTED BREAD. 147 their well-known forms given to them by forcing the tenacious paste through a number of holes in a metallic plate. Three varieties of macaroni are kept in the shops, the pipe, the cekry, and the ribbon macaroni. The Cagliari paste is sold in the form of stars, rings, fleurs de lis, Maltese crosses, &c The nutritive qualities of all these preparations are identical with those of wheat ; and when plainly cooked, as by boiling, they are easily digestible. Boiled in beef-tea, they form a nutritious kind of soup (Macaroni or Vermi- celli Soup) for invalids. Or they may be made into puddings. Dr. A. T. Thomson* gives the following directions for the preparation of Macaroni or Vermicelli Pudding : " Take two ounces of macaroni or vermicelli, a pint of milk, and two fluid ounces (four table-spoonfuls) of cinnamon water ; simmer until the macaroni or vermicelli is tender. Next, beat up three yolks of eggs and the white of one egg, one ounce of sugar, one drop of the oil of bitter almonds, and a glass of raisin wine, in half a pint of milk ; and add the mixture to the macaroni or vermicelli. Bake in a slow oven." Some of the powders sold under the name of Farinaceous Foods for infantsf consist wholly or partially of wheaten flour, with which, therefore, they agree in nutritive qual- ities. Hards's Farinaceous Food is prepared, as Mr. Hards positively assures me, from the finest wheat only. Judging from its color, smell, and microscopic ?t)pearance, it must have been submitted to some heating process (baking]) by which i,te properties are modified. It is a deserredly esteemed aliment for infants. Denshani's Farinaceous Food is a mixture of three parts wheat-flour anH one part barley-meal.}: It is an excellent preparation, Bread is the most important article of food prepared from the flour or meal of wheat. It is of two kinds; fermented or leavened, a^d unfermented or unleavened. a. Fermented or Leavened Wheat-Bread. This is the ordinary Loaf Bread. Wheaten flour, salt, water, and either yeast$ or leaven (old dough already in a state of fermenta- tion) are the ingredients from which it is prepared. Bakers generally employ, in addition, potatoes and alum. The yeast or leaven causes the sugar of the flour to undergo the vinous fermentation, by which carbonic acid gas and alcohol|| are formed. It is not im- * The Domestic Management of the Sick-Room. t Bright's Nutritious Farina is Potato-starch, (see Potatoes.) \ Mr. Hooper, chemist, of Pall Mall, who prepares Densham's farinaceous food, has kindly furnished me with the method of preparing it : Three parts of the best wheat-flour and one part of the best barley- meal are intimately mixed, and the mixture being placed in tins lined with paper, is submitted to a heat of about 200 F. in a baker's oven, for three hours. The time generally chosen is between ten o'clock A. M. and two o'clock P. M., when the oven has cooled considerably. The mixture should not be browned by the process, as it then acquires a pea-flavor. It acquires by heating an improved flavor. In this state it keeps well, without becoming sour or musty, and makes excellent puddings. The barley used in preparing this food is intended to prevent the supposed constipating effects of the wheat. Ale and table-beer yeast answer perfectly well. An artificial yeast, prepared by fermenting a wort made of malt, is sometimes employed. Lately, German yeast has been extensively used. It is a friable soft solid, which, when examined by the microscope, appears to consist wholly of yeast globules, (Torula Cerevisia:.) [A good solid yeast may be made by boiling three ounces of hops in two gallons of water down to a quart ; strain it, and stir in a quart of rye-meal while boiling hot cool it, and add half a pint of good yeast ; after it has risen a few hours, thicken it with Indian meal stiff enough to roll out into cakes, half an inch thick, upon a board ; put them in the sun and air for a few days to dry turn- ing them frequently. A piece of this cake two inches square, dissolved in warm water, and thickened with a little flour, will make a large loaf of bread. These cakes, if rightly made, and preserved in coarse cotton bags, in a cool dry place, will keep a year, and are very convenient when fresh yeast is not to be obtained. L.] || The alcohol is dissipated by the heat of the oven. A few years ago a patent was taken out by Mr. Hicks for collecting the alcohol during the baking process ; and above 20,000 were expended in the 148 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. probable that the fermentation is promoted by the starch, a proportion of which may, perhaps, yield an additional quantity of sugar. The carbonic acid is prevented from escaping by the tenacity of the dough, which, becoming distended with gas, swells up and acquires a vesicular texture, forming a kind of spongy mass.* In this way, therefore, are produced the vesicles or eyes which give to ordinary loaf-bread its well-known light- ness and elasticity. In well-baked bread these vesicles are stratified in layers which are perpendicular to the crust; forming thus what bakers termed piled or flaky bread. The tenacity of the dough, on which the vesicular structure of the bread depends, is owing to the gluten. If the vinous fermentation be not checked in due time by baking, the dough becomes sour, owing, probably, to the formation of both acetic and lactic acids. On weighing bread, when taken from the oven, it is found to be from 28 to 34 per cent, heavier than the flour used in its preparation. "In the formation of wheaten bread," says Sir H. Davy,f " more than one-quarter of the elements of water combine with the flour ; more water is consolidated in the formation of bread from barley, and still more in that from oats; but the gluten in wheat being in much larger quantity than in other grain, seems to form a combination with the starch and water, which renders wheaten bread more digestible than other species of bread." The common salt used in bread-making serves principally to flavor ; but it also im- proves the color of, and gives stiffness to, th8 dough. Notwithstanding that the law prohibits, under a penalty, the use of alum by bakers, it is very frequently employed under the name of "stuff." It augments the whiteness and firmness of bread made from inferior kinds j>f flour, and, by the latter effect, renders the bread less liable to crumble when cut, while it enables the baker to separate the loaves more readily after their removal from the oven. Whatever doubts may be entertained as to the ill effects of alum on the healthy stomach, none can exist as to its injurious influ- ence in cases of dyspepsia. Bread which contains alum is objectionable, not merely on account of its containing this salt, but because it is generally made from inferior flour, which, when mixed with yeast and water, and formed into dough, quickly passes through the stage of vinous fermentation, and becomes acid.J Potatoes die very commonly used in bread-making. They assist fermentation in the establishment of a manufactory for bread and spirit ; but, as a commercial speculation, the scheme failed. The bread prepared under the patent was baked in pans, and was generally considered to be less agreeable than the ordinary loaf-bread. [Mr. Hicks, who is a very scientific man, and excellent surgeon, informed the Editor that his plan of collecting the spirit from bread, during the process of baking, succeeded perfectly ; but that the other London bakers circulated so many false reports re- specting his bread, that the people could not be persuaded to purchase it. One was, that Mr. Ilicks extracted all the spirit from his bread by a patent process ; whereas, theirs contained the whole, and of course was far more nourishing and wholesome ! "This it was," said Mr. H., " that blew off the cap of my still, and caused the whole concern to explode." L.] * In the ordinary mode of bread-making, the baker mixes together water, a little flour, yeast, and potatoes, and sets the mixture aside for six or eight hours, to undergo fermentation. The fermented mixture is, "in the language of the bakehouse, the sponge; its formation and abandonment to spon- taneous decomposition is termed setting the sponge ; and according to the relation which the amount of water in the sponge bears to the whole quantity to be used in the dough, it is called quarter, half, or rvhole sponge." (Dr. Colquhoun, Annals of Philosophy, N. S. vol. xii. p. 165. 1826.) t Elements of Agi-icultural Chemistry, 4th ed. p. 127. 1827. j Alum is used to some extent by bakers in this country, but not generally, we believe. Mr. Allison states (On Culinary Poisons, p. 132) that without the addition of alum, it does not appear possible to make white, light, and porous bread, such as is used in London, unless the flour be of the very best quality. When bread contains alum, it may be detected as follows: mix the crumbs of stale bread in water, FERMENTED BREAD. 149 manufacture of bread, and render the product lighter. As they contain less gluten, they are, of course, less nutritive than wheat flour; but in other respects their use is unobjec- tionable., and the law imposes no penalty on the baker for employing them. The following is Vogel's analysis of wheaten bread : COMPOSITION OF 100 PARTS OF WHEATEN BREAD, (MADE WITH WHEAT-FLOUR, DISTILLED WATER, AND YEAST, BUT WITHOUT SALT.) Starch . 53 5 Torre lied or gummy starch .... 18'0 Sugar 3'6 Gluten combined with a little starch . . 2075 9585 Exclusive of carbonic acid, chloride of calcium, and chloride of magnesium. From this it appears that a portion of the starch is gummified (converted into dextrine) by the process of panification. Moreover, as the quantity of sugar in the baked loaf is nearly equal to that of the flour, it is probable that a certain portion of saccharine matter is formed at the expense of the starch. The gluten does not appear to have suffered much change in its amount ; but in some of its qualities (tenacity and elasticity) it has undergone considerable alteration. If a piece of bread be " placed in a lukewarm decoc- tion of malt, the starch and the substance called dextrine are seen to dissolve like sugar in water, and, at last, nothing remains exce.pt the gluten, in the form of a spongy mass, the minute pores of which can be seen only by a microscope."* Liebigf states that 100 parts of fresh bread contain, on an average, 30-15 parts of car- bon : and though this statement is meant to apply to rye-bread, (Schivartzbrod or black bread,) it is probably equally applicable to wheaten bread. Notwithstanding that bread is denominated the staff of life, alone it does not appear to be capable of supporting prolonged human existence. BoussingaultJ came to this con- clusion from observing the small quantity of nitrogen which it contains ; and the Reports of the Inspectors of Prisons, on the effects of a diet of bread and water, favor this notion. The fine bread prepared from flour only is the most nutritive and digestible. Brown bread, made from wheaten meal, which contains bran, is laxative, as I have already stated, (see p. 68,) and is used by persons troubled with habitual constipation, as well as by those laboring under diabetes.^ Hot rolls are indigestible, and unfit for dyspeptics and invalids. Indeed, all kinds of new bread are injurious. Rolls, both English and French, are made squeeze the pasty mass through a piece of cloth, and then pass the liquor through a filter paper; the limpid infusion resulting, will, if it contain alum, exhibit a white cloud, more or less dense, on adding to it a dilute solution of the muriate ofbarytes (Ure.) L. * Liebig's Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology, 2d ed. pp. 38, 39. 1842. t Animal Chemistry, p. 237. t Arm. de Chim. et. Phys. t. Ixviii. $ Brown or Dyspepsia bread, erroneously called Graham bread, is highly useful ;n cases of habitual cosiiveness, and for most persons of sedentary habits. It may be used in every family with advantage, but never to the exclusion of fine bread. Much of the bread sold as dyspepsia bread in our cities, is made of the Iran or middlings from which the fine flour has been separated ; it is a popular notion that aw- dusl is sometimes mixed with the meal. The coarse and harsh particles should be previously sepsuatea by puling the flour through a common hair sieve. Good bread may be made by taking six quarts of this wheat meal thus prepared, one tea-cup of yeast, and half a tea-cup of molasses ; mix these with a pint of milk- warm water and a tea-spoonful of pearl- ash or pal seratus; make a hole in the flour, and stir this mixture in the middle of the meal till it is like batter ; make the dough, when sufficiently fermented, into four loaves, which will weigh two pound* per loaf when baked. It requires a hotter oven than fine flour bread, and must bake about an hour and a half L. 150 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. with a much larger proportion of yeast than is employed for ordinary bread. The dif- ferent kinds of fancy breads are less adapted for the use of invalids and of those who suf- fer with a tender stomach, than the common loaf-bread. Bread which has been submit- ted to compression by the hydraulic press becomes dry and hard, and may be kept for an almost indefinite period. When used, this compressed bread requires to be granulated like semolina.* Very recently, Bourchardatf has suggested the use of what he calls gluten bread, by diabetic patients. It is bread made of wheat dough deprived of the chief portion of its starch. It is impossible to eat bread made of gluten only, on account of its hardness and toughness. Hence one fifth of the normal quantity of starch is allowed to remain in ; and in this form the bread is tolerably light, edible, and moderately agreeable.J But though the substitution of this bread for ordinary loaf-bread is attended with a diminu- tion of the quantity of sugar contained in the urine, yet the remedy is a mere palliative, and has no curative tendency. I have tried it in one case only, and that for about ten days, when the patient (a medical man) finding himself not improved by it, ceased its u.-e. In a case related by Dr. Budd,$ the general symptoms of diabetes appeared to be relieved by its use.|| Rusks and Tops and Bottoms belong to the class of fermented breads. Both are made with wheat flour, butter, sugar, milk, and a considerable quantity of yeast, to give them lightness. Notwithstanding that they are frequently employed as infants' food, it is ob- vious that they are objectionable, on the double ground of containing butter and of being fermented. ft. Unfermented or unleavened bread. There are two principal kinds of unfermented bread, the one heavy and compact, the other light and elastic. Of the heavy and compact unfermented bread we have an excellent example in the com- mon sea-biscuit, called ship-bread, which is hard, compact, heavy, and difficult either to cut or chew. That made at the Government Victualling Establishment at Weevil, near Portsmouth, is composed of wheaten meal (containing a certain portion of bran) and water only. It must be very obvious that this very cohesive, firm, and compact bread, must be slowly digested, as the gastric juice cannot so speedily and readily permeate it as the light and elastic kinds of bread. It requires, therefore, a very perfect mastication and insalivation. Notwithstanding this objection, biscuit sometimes agrees better with the dyspeptic than fermented bread. In such cases the biscuits prepared by Mr. Dodson, on the patent un- fermented principle, deserve a trial. Biscuit powder is frequently used for infants' food, and is, of course, free from the objection raised to the whole biscuit ; the cohesiveness of which has been overcome by grinding. It is generally prepared for use by the aid of hot water, which likewise tends to obviate the foregoing objec\ on. It is greatly superk r to rusks and to tops and bottoms. The Captains' biscuits sold in the shops are professedly unfermented, and made of wheaten flour and water, with a small portion of butter. Milk is sometimes used instead of water. It is reported that some biscuit-bakers employ a little yeast, to render the pro- duct somewhat less dense. The meal biscuit is prepared with wheaten meal, which con- * See Laignel, Camples Rendus, 1841, l* r Sem. p. 25. t Camples Rendus, Nov. 1841, p. 942. t Gluten bread is prepared and sold by Mr. Bullock, chemist, of Conduit-street, London. Lond. Medical Gazette, April 22, 1842. II See Appendix, 7. UNFERMENTED BREAD. 151 tains a portion of bran. The common buttered biscuit is rendered somewhat light by a little yeast ; and contains a? i ffi! name indicates, butter. Abernethy's biscuits are variously made by different bakers : yeast is generally used in their preparation. They contain caraway-seeds. The small square York biscuit is prepared with wheaten flour, butter, milk, and sugar, but without yeast. Of course those biscuits which contain butter* are more objectionable for dyspeptics than plain biscuits. Of the light and elastic (spongy) unfermented breads, there are several kinds. They owe their lightness to a cellular or vesicular texture (similar to that of ordinary fermented bread) produced by a gaseous or volatile body, not developed by fermentation, but other- wise set free in the dough, and, being expanded by the heat of the oven, distends the dough. The Patent Unfermented Bread obtains its lightness from carbonic acid developed within the dough by the action of hydrochloric (muriatic) acid, sometimes called spirits of salts, on the sesquicarbonate of soda. Gingerbread is also rendered light by carbonic acid gas ; but the latter is obtained by the mutual action which takes place between car- bonate of potash and treacle.f I have tasted some excellent Gingerbread and Ginger- bread Nuts made by Mr. Dodson, by the patent unfermented process, without either alum or potashes. Several kinds of light biscuits owe their lightness to sesquicarbonate of am- monia (volatile or smelling salts) which is dissolved in the water used in the formation of the dough. In the oven, the heat converts the ammoniacal salt into vapor, which dis- tends the dough. When the whole salt has been nearly evaporated, the texture of the dough has become sufficiently stiff and dry to prevent the mass shrinking to its former dimensions. Biscuits thus prepared are porous, but have not the piled texture of ordi- nary fermented bread. As examples of unfermented biscuits, in the manufacture of which sesquicarbonate of ammonia is used, I may mention Cracknells, and the Victoria and Clarence Biscuits. Cracknells are prepared with wheaten flour, a small quantity of sugar, a little milk, butter, eggs, and the sesquicarbonate of ammonia. The curl of the oak-leaved cracknells is produced by the latter salt. The Victoria Biscuit contains, be- sides the smelling salt, flour, eggs, sugar, milk, and buiter. The Clarence Biscuit con- tains some eggs, and a few caraway seeds. The Patent Unfermented Bread deserves a more extended notice. Many years since it was stated in the Supplement to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, (art. Baking,) that if, in- stead of the ordinary dose of common salt being mixed with the dough in the usual way, we substitute carbonate of soda and muriatic acid in due proportion, and knead them as rapidly as possible with the dough, it will rise immediately, fully as much, if not more, * The difficult digestibility of butter, and its injurious effects on dyspeptics, have been alretdy al- luded to, (see pp. 83-83.) T The ingredients used in the manufacture of gingerbread are flour, treacle, butter, common potashes, and alum. " After the butter is melted, and the potashes and alum are dissolved in a little warm water, these three ingredients, along with the treacle, are poured among the flour which is to form the basis of the bread. The whole is then thoroughly incorporated together, by mixture and kneading, into a stiff dough." This dough, " however thoroughly kneaded, almost invariably requires to stand over for the space of from three or four to eight or ten days, before it arrives at that state which is be.~t adapted for its rising to the fullest extent, and becoming duly gasified in the oven." The alum is the least essential ingredient; "although it is useful in having a decided tendency to make the bread lignter and crisper, and in accelerating the tardy period at which the dongh is in the most advantageous condition for being baked." (Dr. Colquhoun, Annals of Philosophy, N. S. vol. xii. p. 271. 1826.) Treacle contains free glucic and melassic acids, which, by their action on the carbonate of potash, set carbonic acfdfree. It is not improbable that, during the rising of the gingerbread dough, more glucic acid may be formed by the action of the potashes on the saccharine matter. 152 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. than dough mixed with yeast, and, when baked, will constitute a very light and excellent bf ?ad. By the mutual action of the muriatic acid and carbonate of soda we obtain common salt, (chloride of sodium,) water, and carbonic acid gas. The latter ingredient being set free distends the dough and gives it a vesicular character. In this way the bread is ren- dered light without the destruction of any of the nutritive ingredients of the flour ; and without the risk of the production of acetous fermentation, or of the decomposition of the gluten. Dr. Colquhoun tried this plan ; and though he used an unnecessarily large quantity of the carbonate and acid, the bread which he obtained proved, as he "doughy and sad, possessed but a few diminutive vesicles, and was never piled." Hi.s failure arose, I suspect, from setting aside the dough for twenty minutes before putting it in the oven ; whereas it cannot be too quickly heated. In 1836, Dr. Whiting* took out a patent for rendering bread, cakes, light biscuits, and such like farinaceous foods, cellular, light (spongy,) without the aid of fermentation. His process is essentially that just described. The proportions of the ingredients which he directs to be used are as follows : Wheaten Flour .... 7 Ibs. Carbonate of soda ... 350 grs. to 500 gre. Water 21 pints. Muriatic acid . . . from 420 to 560, or a much as may be sufficient. Mr. Dodson, of 93 Blackman-street, Southwark, London, having purchased the patent of Dr. Whiting, prepares bread, (white and brown,) biscuits, biscuit-powder, and cakes, according to the unfermented process. The bread appears to me to be made of excellent flour, and though it is scarcely so light as the ordinary loaf-bread, its flavor is very agree- able. It resembles home-made bread rather than bakers* bread, and keeps well without becoming sour or mouldy. I greatly prefer the brown to the white unfermented bread. A most delicious unfermented bread, equal in lightness to any bread prepared by the fermented process, was made, in my presence, by the cook of Mr. John Savory, of New Bond-street, London, according to the following formula:! Flour, 1 Ib. Sesquicarbonate of soda, 40 grains. Cold \\:iic r, half a pint, or as much as may be sufficient Muriatic acid of the shops, 50 minims [drops.] Powdered white sugar, a tea-spoonlul. Intimately mix the sesquicarbonate of soda and the sugar with the flour, in a large basin, by means of a wooden spoon. Then gradually add the water, with which the acid has been previously mixed, stirring constantly, so as to form an intimate mixture very speedily. Divide into two loaves, and put into a quick oven immediately. If any soda should escape the action of the acid it causes a yellow spot, which, however, is more un- sightly than detrimental. The sugar can be omitted if thought desirable. The unfermented bread possesses several advantages, besides those already speci- fied, over the ordinary fermented bread. In its manufacture both time and trouble are saved ; and all risk of vitiating the bread by the use of inferior yeast, or by carrying the fermentation too far, is thereby avoided. It is well adapted for the use of invalids and dyspeptics, with whom the ordinary fermented bread disagrees. In urinary maladies, likewise, it deserves a trial. In its porosity and lightness it is superior to bis- cuits, (see p. 150,) since it is more speedily permeated, and more if idily acted on, by the gastric juice. * Repertory of Patent Inventions, N. S. vol. vii. p. 267. 1837. t This formula differs somewhat from that published by Mr. Deane, (Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. i. p. 492,) for making what he terms " Pharmaceutical Bread." UNFERMENTED BREAD. 153 Mouldy bread, (that is, bread covered with Mucor Mucedo, and other allied fungi,) has on several occasions proved injurious.* Colic, headache, great thirst, dry tongue, fre- quent pulse, and stupor, have been induced by it. Wheat is liable to several disorders,! produced by the attack of certain fungi and animals, and probably in these states is more or less deleterious to health, independent of losing, partially or entirely, its nutritive qualities. Cakes, of which the Plum-cake may be taken as the type, may be regarded as a rich variety of bread ; though in common parlance they are considered distinct from this. They are composed of wheaten flour, butter or lard, eggs, sugar, raisins, (the larger kind as well as the small Corinthian raisin, popularly called the currant,,) frequently almonds, &c. They form a most indigestible kind of food, totally unfit for children, invalids, and dyspeptics. Their indigestible quality is principally derived from the butter or lard which they contain, (see p. 84.) Mr. Dodson prepares cakes, (plain, currant, sultana, or fig,) by the unfermented patent process, without butter. They are. therefore, free from the objections raised to ordinary cakes. The action of heat on the butter or lard used in the manufacture of pastry, (baked paste,) renders this compound highly injurious to the dyspeptic, who should, therefore, most carefully avoid its use. " All pastry is an abomination," justly observes Dr. Paris.J " I verily believe," he adds, "that one half, at least, of the cases of indigestion which occur, after dinner-parties, may be traced to this cause." I have already (p. 83-84) pointed out the injurious influence of heat on oily and fatty substances, especially butter. The same authority correctly adds, that " the most digestible pudding is that made with bread, or biscuit and boiled flour : batter pudding is not so easily digested ; and suet pud- ding is to be considered as the most mischievous to invalids in the whole catalogue. Pancake is objectionable, on account of the process of frying imparting a greasiness, to which the dyspeptic stomach is not often reconciled."^ * See Chevallier's paper in the Journ. de Chim. M&d. t. vii. p. 122. 1831. The author refers to Bar- rurel's observations, and also quotes some cases published by Westerhoff in 1826. t The Rev. Professor Henslow, in his Report on the Diseases of Wheat, (published in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, vol. ii..) states that he has examined wheat infested by five species of parasitic fungi; by the Ergot; by the little animalcule, (Vibrio Tritici,) which produces the Earcockle, Purple?, or Peppercorn ; and the fly called the Wheat Midge, (Cecidomyia Tritici.) The five fungi referred to are : 1st. The Bunt, Smut-balls, or Pepperbrand, (Uredo Canes, De Cand. ; Uredo foetida, Bauer.) 2d. The Smut or Dust Brand, (Uredo Segetum.) 3dly and 4thly. The Rust, Red-rag. Red-robin, or Red-gum, (Uredo rubigo and Uredo linearis.) 5thly. The Mildew, (Puccinia graminis.) Mr. Quekett and others have, I think, satisfactorily shown the Ergot to be a disease induced by the attack of a fungus, which Mr. Quekett has denominated the Ergotcetia abortifaciens . (See Trans, of the Linn. Society, vol. xviii. ; also my Elements of Materia Medico, vol. ii. p. 913, 2d ed.) t Treatise on Diet, 5th ed $ Paste Puddings or Dumplings are often brought on our tables, but they are extremely indigestible, and should therefore never be eaten by invalids. It is doubtful whether there is any way of boiling wheat dough so as to render it fit for food ; it will always be crude and heavy, and impermeable to the ! gastric juice. Our best puddings are those made of rice, bread, sago, or Indian meal, baked. Boiled Indian puddings are not very indigestble, and are far preferable to those of wheat. In preparing pud- | dings, the eggs should be beat very light the yolks and whites apart; the flour should be dried and sifted ; if currants are used, they must be carefully washed and dried, and dusted with flour before being put into the batter; raisins must be stoned ; sugar dried and pounded ; spices finely ground ; and all the ingredients thoroughly mixed. It is better to mix the pudding an hour or two before it is to be baked or boiled. L. 154 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. The following is a formula for a boiled bread-pudding, adapted for the convalescent:* "(Jrate half a pound of stale bread, pour over it a pint of hot milk, and leave the mixture to soak for an hour in a covered basin ; then beat it up with the contents of two eggs. Put the whole into a covered basin, just large enough to hold it, which must be tied in a cloth, and placed in boiling water for half an hour. It may be eaten with salt or with sugar; and, if wine be allowed, it may be flavored with sherry." Panada is prepared as follows : Place some very thin slices of crumb bread in a sauce- pan, and add rather more water than will cover them. Boil until the bread becomes pulpy, then strain off the superfluous water, and beat up the bread until it becomes of the consistence of gruel ; then add white sugar, and, when permitted, a little sherry wine. This forms a very agreeable aliment for the sick. 2. Oats. The Oat cultivated in England is the Arena sativa or Common Oat. When the grains are deprived of their integuments they are called groats or grits; and these, when crushed, are denominated Embden groats, and when ground into flour, prepared groats. Oatmeal is prepared by grinding the kiln-dried seeds, deprived of their husk and outer skin. It is not so white as wheaten flour, and has a somewhat bitterish taste. The following is the composition of oats, according to Vogel : COMPOSITJON OF OATS. The Entire Seeds. Meal Husk 34 100 Dried Oatmeal. Starch . Bitter matter and sugar Gray albuminous matter Fatty oil ... Gum .... Husk, mixture, and loss 59-00 825 430 2-00 10000 But oatmeal yielded Dr. Christison the following results : COMPOSITION OF OATMEAL. Starch Saccharo-mucilaginous extract Albumen Oleo-resinous matter Lignin (bran) .... Moisture 72-8 5-8 3-2 0-3 11-3 6-6 100-0 Oats are generally considered somewhat less nutritive than wheat. But from gault's ultimate analysis, already referred to, (see p. 145,) the quantity of nitrogen yielded by them is nearly equal to that obtained from wheat ; and, accordingly, the nutritive equivalent for oats, according to this chemist, differs but little from that of wheat, (see p. 28.) Oat- meal, says Dr. Cullen,f " is especially the food of the people of Scotland, and was formerly that of the northern parts of England; counties which have always produced as healthy and as vigorous a race of men as any other in Europe." Oats are apt to disagree with some dyspeptics; or, in popular language, they are liable to become acescent on the stomach. Unfermented oaf-bread, in those unaccustomed to it, is apt to occasion dyspepsia, with heartburn, and was formerly thought to have a tendency to produce skin diseases, but without just grounds. Gruel is a mild, nutritious, and, in most cases, an easily digested article of food, in chronic diseases, and in the convalescence from acute maladies. In some irritable conditions of the stomach it is occasionally retained when many other foods * See Dr. A. T. Thomson's Domestic Management of the Sick-Room. f Maleria Medico, vol. i., p. 278. OATS. 155 are rejected. Yet it is less demulcent than barley-water. " Unless gruel be very thin," says Dr. A. T. Thomson, " it can scarcely be regarded as a diluent ; and when thick, it is too heating an aliment for patients laboring under febrile symptoms." On account of the nitrogenous principle which it contains, it is of course more nourishing than the starchy preparations (arrow-root, tapioca, sago, &c.) frequently employed in the sick- chamber. It is prepared from either groats or oatmeat" It may be sweetened, acidulated with a little lemon-juice, or aromatized with a very small portion of some spice. Butter, which is frequently added, is objectionable in dyspeptic and other cases where the stom- ach is tender.* Oatmeal Porridge or Stir-about is a moderately consistent mixture, composed of oat- meal and water, and prepared by boiling. It is sometimes eaten with milk as a moder- ately nutritive diet. When mixed with the thin liquor of boiled meat, or the water in which cabbage or kale has been boiled, it is called beef-brose or kale-brose. The husk and some adhering starch separated from oats in the manufacture of oat- meal are sold in Scotland "under the inconsistent name of Seeds." 'f These, "if infused in hot water, and allowed to become sourish in this state, yield, on expression, a muci- laginous liquid, which, on being sufficiently concentrated, forms a firm jelly, known by the name of Sowins." Dr. A. T. Thomson}: gives the following directions for the preparation of " Flummery or Sowans :" " Take a quart or any quantity of groats, or of oatmeal ; rub the groats or the meal for a considerable time with two quarts of hot water, and leave the mixture for several days at rest, until it becomes sour ; then add another quart of hot water, and strain through a hair sieve. Leave the strained fluid at rest until it deposits a white sediment, which is the starch of the oats ; lastly, pour off the supernatant water, and wash the sediment with cold water. The washed sediment may be either boiled with fresh water, stirring the whole time it is boiling, until it forms a mucilage or jelly, or it may be dried, and after- wards prepared in the same manner as arrow-root mucilage.^ Flummery is light, mod- erately nutritious, and very digestible ; it is, consequently, well adapted for early conva- lescence. It may be eaten with milk or wine, or lemon-juice and sugar." " A diet of oats," says Dr. Christison, " has the credit of tending to keep the bowels open ; and I have seen it apparently have this effect in several instances of habitual con- stipation, when taken at breakfast in the form of porridge. In cases of dyspepsia, associ- ated with acidity of stomach, it is on the contrary in general a noxious article of food ; and some dyspeptics among the working classes recover entirely on abandoning it for a time. A curious, though now rare, consequence of its long habitual use as food, is the formation of intestinal concretions composed of phosphate of lime, agglutinating animal matter, and the small, stiff, silky-like bristles which may be seen at one end of the inner integument of the oat-seed. This affection must have been common in Scotland during the last century, as Dr. Monro Secundus collected forty-one specimens, still in the ana- tomical museum of this University. But it is now far less frequent, probably in conse- * Oatmeal gruel is not much used in this country, Indian being substituted in its place. "Water gruel is prepared by first mixing well two table-spoonfuls of oatmeal with six of cold water in a basin, and then addirfg this gradually to a quart of boiling water, constantly stirring until it is sufficiently boiled, which will be in about ten minutes. It is then to be strained, and, if it is desirable to have it clear, it may be decanted when cold. Sugar, acids, or aromatics may be employed for flavoring. When it is desired to have it more nutritive, a pint of boiling milk may be addec to a pint o>f water in which the oatmeal has been previously well mixed, then proceed as before L. f Dr. Christison, Dispensatory. $ Domestic Management of the Sick- Room. " Flummery should not be made in a metallic vessel." 156 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. quence of the oats being more thoroughly cleared of their investing iren'branes before being ground into meal. I have had occasion to examine one specimen only, which was removed from the rectum by Mr. Liston in a case of recto- vesical fistula."* 3. Barley. Several species of Barley are cultivated in England, viz. Hordeum dis. tichan, the Common Long-eared Barley ; Hordeum xulgare, the Spring Barley ; Hordeum hsxasluhon. Winter Barley ; and Ttlordeum Zeocitron, Sprat or Battledore Barley. The grains, when deprived of their husk by a mill, form Scotch, hulled, or pot barley. When all the integuments of the grains are removed, and the seeds are rounded and polished, they constitute pearl barley. The farina obtained by grinding pearl barley to powder is called patc.it barley. The following is the composition of barley according to Einhof : COMPOSITION OF BARLEY. The Ripe Seeds. Meal Husk Moistu. t 70-05 18-75 11-20 100-00 Barley-meal. Starch .... Fibrous matter (gluten, starch, > and lignin) ) Gum Sugar Gluten Albumen Phosphate of lime with albumen Moisture Loss 67-18 7-29 462 5-21 352 1-15 024 937 1-42 100-00 The husk of barley is slightly acrid. Deprived of this, as in Scotch and pearl barley the seeds are highly nutritious. They are considered to be more laxative than the. other cereal grains. The quantity of gluten which they yield, is, however, considerably l*ss than that obtained from wheat, (see p. 97,) and as they contain less nitrogen, their nutri- tive equivalent is less than that of wheat, (see p. 27.) Count Rumford,f however, regarded barley-meal, when used for soup, as three or four times as nutritious as vvheaten flour. It is a constituent of Densham' s farinaceous food, (see p. 147,) being used, on account of its laxative operation, to counteract the supposed constipating effect of wheat Barley bread Is somewhat more difficult of digestion than wheaten bread. Barley icater is a light, mild, emollient demulcent liquid, which is slightly nutritive, and very easy of dig It forms an excellent diluent beverage in febrile and inflammatory cases, especially mala- dies of the chest, bowels, and urinary organs. It is prepared as follows : Tak' two ounces and a half of pearl barley ; first wash away, with water, the foreign matters ad- hering to the seeds ; then add half a pint of water, and boil for a little while. This liquid being then thrown away, pour on them four pints (imperial) of boiling water ; boil * It has been computed that there are 623,000 persons, consumers of oats in England and \Va|.s. The export of oats from Ireland, chiefly for the English market, was, in 1825, 12,025,632 bushels, and in the state of meal, 1,636,936 bushels. In France about 90,000,000 of bushels are produced annually, of which 25,000,000 of bushels are used by the inhabitants for food, chiefly in the southern part of the kingdom. Oats yield, on an average, eight pounds of meal for fourteen pounds of the grain, Oats have been used to some extent for the purpose of making malt, and oat ale is commended by -Mr Mowbray as a pleasant summer drink. In former days, a drink called mum was manufactured for sale, in the preparation of which oatmeal was employed. English Geneva, or gin, is made of spirit obtained from oats and barley or malt, rectified or distilled, with the addition of juniper berries, oil of turpen- tine, &c. One hundred pounds of oatmeal will yield by distillation thirty-six pounds of spirits. One hundred millions of bushels of oats were grown in the United States in 1810, of which New York produced upwards of twenty millions, and Pennsylvania the same quantity L. t Essay on Ftcding the Poor. RYE. 157 down to two pints, and strain. It is frequently flavored with sugar, and sometimes with slices of lemon-peel. Compound barley tvater is prepared by boiling together two piuts of barley water, a pint of water, two ounces and a half of sliced figs, half an ounce of liquor- ice root, sliced and bruised, and two ounces and a half of raisins. They are boiled down to two pint?, and strained. This decoction is emollient, demulcent, and slightly aperient. Malt. This is barley which has been made to germinate by moisture and warmth, and afterwards dried, by which the vitality of the seed is destroyed. By this process a pecu- liar nitrogenous principle, called diastase, is produced. This, though it does not constitute more than l-500th part of the malt, serves to effect the conversion of the starch of the seed into dextrine and grape sugar, preliminary to the operation of brewing. The color of the malt varies according to the heat employed in drying it : pale or amber malt yields a fermentable infusion : brown or blown malt is not fermentable, but is used to communi- cate flavor ; while roasted or high-dried malt, which has been scorched, is employed for coloring. The infusion or decoction of malt, (called sweet-wort,') contains saccharine mat- ter, starch, glutinous matter, and mucilage. It is nutritious and laxative, and has been used as an antiscorbutic and tonic. Macbride recommended it in scurvy, but it is apt to increase the diarrhoea. As a tonic, it has been used in scrofulous affections, purulent discharges, as from the kidneys, lungs, &c., and in pulmonary consumption. The de- coction is prepared by boiling three ounces of malt in a quart of water. This quantity may be taken daily. 4. Rye, The cultivated or common rye is the Secale cereale of botanists. Though in com- mon use among the northern inhabitants of Europe, it is rarely employed as food in England. COMPOSITION OF RYE. The Entire Seeds. Husk . Pure Meal Moisture 24-2 65-6 10-2 100-0 Rye-Meal Starch Gum . Gluten Albumen Saccharine matter Husk Undetermined acid and loss 61-07 11-09 9-48 3-28 3-28 6-38 5-42 100-0 [t contains less gluten than wheat, (see p. 97,) and yields less nitrogen, (see pp. 145 and 28 :) hence it is inferior in nutritive properties to the latter. Rye-bread, called in Germany Sckwartzbrot, or Black Bread, has, according to Bceck- mann, the following composition : COMPOSITION OF RYE BREAD. 1 2 Water . Dry matter 33 - 31-418 67 - 68-592 100 - 100-000 2 Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Ashes 45.09 - 45-41 6-5i - 6-45 45. 12 - 44.89 3.25 - 3.25 Dry matter . . 100-00 100-00 From these analyses Liebig calculates that 100 parts of fresh bread contain on an aver- age 30-15 parts of carbon. In those unaccustomed to it, rye bread is apt to occasion diarrhoea, which Dr. Cullen ascribes to its readily becoming acescent. Rye-pottage is said to be a useful article of diet in consumptive cases.* * Rye bread has one advantage, in its retaining its humidity at the same time that it preserves its fljtvor. Dr. Bell of Philadelphia remarks, (on " Regimen," &c., p. 144,) " When made of flour not too Rye is exceedingly subject to the attack of the Ergot ; and to the use of ergotized rye a disease termed Ergotism has been ascribed. It assumes two forms, one called convul- sive, the other, gangrenous ergotism. In the former, convulsion, in the latter, gangrene of the extremities, constitutes the most marked character, f [Buckwheat is a native of Asia, but somewhat extensively cultivated in many parts of the U. States for cakes. It is sometimes used for bread, but not often. In Germany, it forms a common ingredient in pottage and puddings; and in some countries, the poor mix buck- wheat meal with a small proportion of wheat flour, and make a kind of bread of the com- pound. Those who keep bees, frequently sow buckwheat in the vicinity, under a belief that these insects are partial to the flowers, arid derive more materials for their honey from this than any other plant. Buckwheat may be converted into malt, and subsequently into beer and ardent spirit. In 1840, the quantity of buckwheat grown in Pennsylvania, amounted to 2,113,742 bushels; in New York, to 2,287,885; in Virginia, to 683,130; and in Ohio, to 681,'Jir>. The produce of the whole U. States was about eight millions and a half of bu^h^ls. In France there is annually raised about 25 millions of bushels of buckwheat, it being very extensively employed among the people as an aliment For making buckwheat cakes, take one quart of buckwheat meal, a handful of Indian ni<-al, and a lea-spoonful of salt; mix them with two large spoonfuls of yeast, and suffi- cient cold water to make a thick batter. Put it in a warm place to rise, which will take 3 or 4 hours ; or, if mixed at night, let it stand where it is rather cool. Bake on a grid- die, or in a pan.] L. 5. Rice. This is the well-knowu grain of Oryza saliva. While in the hu-k it is called P'td'li/ (padi or paddie) by the Malays, bras when deprived of the husk, and nasi after it lias been boiled. It is extensively raised in India, China, and most other Eastern coun- tries ; in the West Indies, Central America, and the United States ; and in some of the southern countries of Europe. The kinds most esteemed in England are the Caroli- na and Patna ricp. The composition of Carolina and Piedmont rice is, according to Braconnot, as follows : COMPOSITION OF RICE. Carolina Rice. Piedmont Rice. Starch .... 85-07 8380 Parenchyma (woody fibre) 4-80 4-80 Glutiooui matter 360 3-60 Rancid, colorless, tallowy oil 013 025 I nrrystallizuble sugar 0-29 0-05 (nun ..... 0-71 010 Phosphate of lime 0-40 o-io Wat,-,- .... 5-00 700 Acetic acid, phosphate of potash, ) chloride of pMt:isHiini, and vege- > traces traces table salts of potash and lime . } 100-00 100-00 fini ly bolted, rye bread is suited to certain forms of dyspepsii with costivenese, and the subjects of which are of a sanguine temperament." Spiced rye cakes were for a long period greatly in vogue in Europe from the time of the Romans to that of Louis XIV. Rye meal boiled in water, (rye mush,) is very useful in cases of habitual costh eness, taken with molasses ; or in cases less obstinate it may be eaten to advantage with milk. L. t For further detail--, as well as for references, respecting ergot of rye, see my Elements of Materta Medica. RICE. 159 In the manufacture of rice starch by Mr. Orlando Jones's patent process, Patna rice is digested in a weak solution of caustic alkali, (soda,) by which the gluten, as it is techni- cally called, is dissolved and removed. The insoluble matter consists of starch, and a white substance termed by Mr. Jones, fibre. The last mentioned substance appears, when examined by the microscope, to consist chiefly of starch grains, but in drying it does not split into prismatic columnar masses, in the language of the starch-maker, it does not race, and, therefore, is not fit for commerce. Mr. Jones informs me that in manufactur- ing rice starch on the large scale, Patna rice, dried at from 160 to 180 F., for several days, yields 80 per cent, of marketable starch,* and 8'2 per cent, of fibre; the remaining 11-8 per cent, being made up of gluten, gruff or bran, and a small quantity of light starch, carried off in suspension by the alkaline solution.f If the alkaline solution of glutinous matter be carefully neutralized by an acid, the gluten is precipitated. I have received from Mr. Jones a quantity of this precipitate. It had a creamy consistence, an agreeable smell, and a bland taste, somewhat like pap. When heated it separates into two parts, a coagulum or curd, and a serous or aqueous substance. By keeping it curdled, and subsequently underwent a peculiar kind of fer- mentation, evolving a smell somewhat like sour yeast. When fresh, it appeared to me well adapted for use as food ; and I have a diabetic patient, in the London Hospital, now trying its effects. He uses it in the form of a baked pudding containing eggs. The only other vegetable food which he is permitted to take is cabbage. He has, however, a plen- tiful allowance of meat, cheese, milk, &c. On this regimen the quantity of urine passed in twenty-four hours has been reduced, in about ten days, from 11 pints, to 3$. Its sp. gr., however, is but little changed. The granule of rice starch is excessively small. According to Vauquelin this starch begins to dissolve in water when this liquid has attained a temperature of from 1*22 F. to 132 F. The same authority states that an infusion of rice contains a little phosphate of lime, which is held in solution by the starch. Vogel obtained T05 per cent, of oil from dried rice. "Rice," says Marsden,^ "is the grand material of food on which a hundred millions of the inhabitants of the earth subsist, a^jd although chiefly confined by nature to the re- gions included between, and bordering on the tropics, its cultivation is probably more ex- tensive than that of wheat, which the Europeans are wont to consider as the universal staff of life." Rice, though nutritious, is less so than wheat : this is proved by chemical analysis, which shows the much smaller proportion of glutinous or nitrogenous matter founl in the former than in the latter grain. "Rice," says Boussingault, "is held up as a most nutritive food. But though I have lived long in countries which produce it, I am far from considering it as a substantial nourishment. I have always seen it, in ordinary use, replace bread ; and when it has not been associated with meat, it has been employed with milk." * According to Vogel, a dried rice yielded him 96 per cent, of starch. t Vuuquelin (Mcmoires du Museum (THistoire Naturelle, t. iii. p. 229. 1817) says that rice contains scarcely an appreciable quantity of gluten. Braconnot, however, in his analyses, obtained 3 6 per cent, of gluten. It is probable that the 11-8 per cent, loss of weight, experienced by digesting rice in a weak alkaline solution, is ascribable, not merely to gluten, and the other substances named in the text, but also to gum, sugar, and water, contained in the grain. But even assuming this to be the case, 1 suspect that both Vauquelin and Braconnot have underrated the glutinous or nitrogenous matter contained in rice. My suspicion does not rest merely on Mr. Jones's results, but also on Boussingault's statement of the quantity of nitrogen contained in rice. t History of Sumatra, p. 65, 3d ed. 1811. $ Ann. Chim. et Phys Ixvii. p. 413. 160 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Rice is less laxative than the other cereal grains. Indeed, it is generally believed to possess a binding or constipating quality ; and, in consequence, is frequently prescribed by medical men as a light, digestible, uninjurious article of food in diarrhoea and dysentery.* Various ill effects, such as disordered vision, &c., have been ascribed to its use ;f but, as I believe, unjustly so. Neither dees there appear to me to be any real foundation for the assertions of Dr. Tytler,} that malignant cholera (which he calls the morbus oryzeus, or rice disease) is induced by it. Rice is employed as a nutriment in a variety of forms. Mucilage of Rice, obtained by boiling well-washed rice in water, contains both starch and phosphate of lime in solution. It is used as a demulcent in diarrhoea. Rice-milk, rice-pudding, &c., are other prepara- tions of rice employed by invalids. Rice-cakes contain, besides flour, eggs, and sugar, about one third of their weight of rice.} [Wild Rice, (Zizania Aqualica, Faluns Avena,) called by the Indians menomeme, is found in great abundance on the marshy margins of the northern "lakes and waters of the upper branches of the Mississippi : it grows also as far south as Natchitoches, below lat. a^'. The grain lias a long slender hull, much resembling that of oats, except that it is larger and darker. On it the migratory water-fowls fatten, before they wing their autumnal flight to the south. It furnishes the northern savages and the Canadian traders and hunters with their annual supplies of grain. But for this annual resource they could hardly exist. The wild rice is a tall, tubular, reedy, aquatic plant, not unlike the bas- tard cane of the southern countries. It springs up from waters of six or seven feet in depth, where the bottom is soft and muddy ; and it rises nearly to the same distance above the water. The grain, when detached from its chaff, is as white as the common rice. Puddings made of it, tasted to us like those made of Sago. Bell an " Regimen," <5fC., and Flint on the History and Geography of the Mississippi Valley.] L. 6. Maize or Indian Corn. This is the produce of the plant called by botanists the Zea Mays. Its composition, according to the analyses of Dr. Gorham and Bizio, is as fol- lows : COMPOSITION OF MAIZE O^ INDIAN CORN. 1. Dr. Gorham's Analysis. Common State. Dried. StarchU 7TO . . . W'599 Zeine 3'0 ... 3'296 Albumen 2'5 . 2 747 Gummy matter 1'75 . . . H>2 Saccharine matter 1*45 . . . 1-593 * We regard rice as one of the most valuable of all the articles of food, in cases of derangement of the di- gestive organs. It nourishes, while it soothes the irritable mucous membrane, and while it supports the strength, it never seems to aggravate the existing disease. For acute or chronic affections of the alimen- tary canal, rice-water for drink, and rice-jelly for food, seem peculiarly well adapted, and in many cases appear almost to exert a specific influence in bringing about a recovery. The jelly may be prepared by boiling two ( unces of the flour, and three ounces of loaf-sugar in a pint of water, until it becomes thick and transparent, flavoring with rose, or orange flower water. It may also be made by slow and careful boiling the whole rice, in a small quantity of water, until it assume the appearance and consistence of cream, when, on cooling, it assumes the form of a jelly. The same preparation is invaluable in convalescence from acute febrile and other maladies, and in the summer complaints of children. L. t Bontius, Account of the Diseases, Natural History, fyc., of the East Indies, translated ii>o English, 1769. Also, Bricheteau, in Tortuelle's EUm. d 1 Hygiene, 4 me 6d. \ Lancet, 1833-31, vol. i. $ Appendix, 8. || The substance sold under the name of Indian Corn Starch, in the London shops, is Potato Starch. LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. 161 ^onamon State. Dried. Extractive matter ... . . 0.8 . 0-&79 Cuticle and ligneous fibre ... Phosphate, carbonate, and sulphate of lime, and loss 3-0 . 1-5 . . 3296 . 1-643 Water . .... 9-0 . 100-0 99 98 2. Bizio't Analysis. Starch . . . 80-920 ( Fatty oil 1-152 Zei'ne . . Gliadine . . ..... 2-499 ( Zimome 2-107 Zimome 0'945 Fatty oil ........ . 0-323 Extractive matter and sugar 1-987 Gum . 2-283 Hordein 7710 Acetic acid, salts, and loss ... .... 0-074 100-000 MM. Dumas and Payen procured 9 per cent, of yellow oil from maize ;* but Liebigf wasable to obtain only 4-25 per cent. This oil consists, according to Fresenius, of carbon 79-68, hydrogen 11-53, an>l oxygen 8-79. In America, Asia, and some parts of Europe, maize is extensively used for human ex- istence. "Like the farina of the wheat," says Dr. DunglisonJ, "it is formed into bread, alone or with various additions, as milk, eggs, &c. It is a wholesome and nutritious aliment, but with those who are unaccustomed to its use it is apt to produce diarrhoea ; in consequence, probably, of the presence of the husk, with which it is always more or less mixed, in the state in which it is brought to market. It is on this account that it has been regarded as a bread but little adapted for those liable to, or laboring under, bowel affections, or in times when a choleric predisposition exists. The same author further adds, that "the young grains, constituting the 'roasting ears,' make a delicious vegeta- ble, ready for the table, too, after the season for green peas has gone by. When very young, corn in this state is in its most digestible condition, the husk being comparatively tender; but when old, a considerable part of the grain withstands the digestive operation, and passes through the bowels unchanged. It need hardly, therefore, be added, that where bowel affections are rife, this vegetable ought to be used with caufion. Corn meal, mixed with cheese, and baked into a kind of pudding, forms the dish which the Italians call P olenta."\\ IT b. Leguminous Seeds, Of the Leguminous Seeds the best known in England are Peas and Beans ; but on the continent, and in eastern countries, Lentils are in common use. Their composition, as determined by Einhof, is as follows : * See ante, p. 85. t Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, Bd. xlv. S. 126. 1843. J Elements of Hygiene, p. 289. 1835. Ibid. p. 294. || The substance sold in the London shops under the name of Polenta is the meal oi'Indian corn. IF Indian corn and potatoes, indigenous to our country, have contributed much to promote the health and longevity of mankind in both hemispheres. As they are among the cheapest, so also are they among the most wholesome of all articles of food employed by man. Good corn weighs about 60 Ibs. to the bushel, and costs at present 56 cents per bushel, or nearly one cent per pound. Now a pound of corn, when cooked, make,s from two and a half to three and a half pounds of food, and this will suihce lor the daily support of a laboring man. II' an individual could be supported on this alone, his annual expense for food would be but $3 65, or say $15 to a family of live. The average cost of po- tatoes may be put at about half a cent a pound, and allowing live pounds per day to an adult individual, tne expense will be about $9 a year ; or for a family of five, (reckoning them at three and a half adults,) about $30. When we consider that it is not unusual for land to yield 100 bushels of corn to the acre, and 30 tons, or 67,200 pounds of potatoes to the acre, we may form some estimate of the population which this country is capable of supporting from the produce of the soil. L 11 162 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. COMPOSITION OF LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. Peas (Fisum gativum.) Starch . . . 32-45 Amylaceous fibre . 21'88 Legumine (Caseine) . 14-56 Gum . . 6-37 Albumen . . 1'72 Sweet Extractive matter 2-11 Membrane . . Water . . . 14-06 Salts . . 6-56 Loss . . 0-29 Garden Bean* (Vicia Faba.) 34-17 15-89 10-86 461 0-81 3-54 10-05 15-63 3-46 0-98 Kidney Beanf (Pliaseqlug vuJgaris.) . 3594 1107 20-81 19-37 1-35 3-41 7-50 (dried) 055 Lentils i Lena.} (Enrum 32.81 1875 37-32 5-99 1-15 3-12 0-57 0-29 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 Peas, Beans, and Lentils, have been submitted to ultimate analysis by Boussingaultf and by Playfair. ULTIMATE COMPOSITION OF LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. Peas. Peat. Beans. lentils. Mricd in racuo Playfair. at '230 F ) Bouwingault. Plnyfair. Playfair. Carbon . . 35-743 46' ~) .38-24 37-38 Hydrogen . 6-401 6-2 554 5-54 Nitrogen . ) oa.qra Oxygen . 5 * Ashes . . 3-440 40-0 4-2 31 | 38.10 3-71 37-98 Water . . 16-000 00 1411 1590 100-000 100-0 100-00 100-00 Liebig assumes, that the average amount of carbon in peas, beans, and lentils, in the state in which they are used, is 37 per cent.; an assumption sufficiently near the truth for all practical purposes. The quantity of nitrogen contained in these leguminous seeds is larger than that found in the cereal grains ; so that if the nutritive quality of vegetables was in proportion to the nitrogen which they contain, these seeds would be more nutritive than wheat ; and, accordingly, in Boussingault's scale of nutritive equivalents, their nutritive equivalent is lower, or in other word?, their nutritive quality is assumed to be higher than that of wheat, (see ante, pp. 27-28.) For 44 parts of horse bean?, or ~) 56 parts of white haricots, or I are said to be ) 1An r u 57 parts of lentils, or ' equivalent to \ 10 P arts of wheat flour ' 67 parts of peas, Experience, however, by no means confirms these theoretical conclusions ; and Liebig, therefore, offers the following explanation of the want of relation between their nutritive quality and the proportion of nitrogen which they contain. " The small quantity of phos- phates which the seeds of the lentils, beans, and peas contain," says Liebig,!! "must be the cause of their small value he articles of nourishment, since they surpass all other vegetable food in the quantity of nitrogen which enters into their composition. But a * This species is commonly known as broad bean, or Windfor bean. t The common dwarf kidney bean, the haricot of the French, is commonly termed Fiench t a distinct species from the fcarlet bean, (Phaseolus multiflorus.) $ Memoires de r Academic Royale dfs Sciences, t. xviii. p. 345. 1824 Liebig's Animal Chemistry. || Chemistry in its Application to Apncidture and Physiology, \.. 147, 3d ed. OILY SEEDS. 163 the component parts of the bones (phosphate of lime and magnesia) are absent, they satisfy the appetite without increasing the strength." I have already (see p. 28) remarked, that were this hypothesis correct, the addition of aone-ashes (earthy phosphates) ought to add greatly to the nutritive powers of the leguminous seeds, and would, in fact, render them much more nutritious than the cereal grains. Peas and beans are very apt to occasion flatulence, and even colic ; and their difficult digestibility augments with their age ; for when very young they are sweet, and more di- gestible, but less nourishing. They are usually regarded as being stimulating or heating,* and, on that account, unfit for feorile and inflammatory cases. c. Seeds of Cupulifercc. The principal cupuliferous seeds used in this country as food is the Chestnut, ( Castanea vesca.) It possesses considerable nutritive power, and in Lom- bardy is used as food by the lower classes. Its sweetness, especially when roasted, indi- cates the presence of sugar. No oil can be obtained from it by pressure. In the raw state, it is very difficult of digestion : it requires to be cooked (roasted) to split the starch grains which it contains, and thereby to render them readily digestible. Dyspeptics should carefully avoid chestnuts, even in the cooked state. 2. OILY SEEDS. To this division belong the Almond, the Walnut, the Hazel-nut, the Butter-nut, the Filbert, the Cashew-nut, the Pistachio-nut, the Stone-Pine-nut, (Pignoli- Pine,) and the Cocoa-nut. These contain vegetable albumen and caseine, on' which their nutritive qualities principally depend. They also contain a quantity of fixed oil, which renders them very difficult of digestion ; and unfit for dyspeptics and others who have a delicate stomach. The Almond (both sweet and bitter) is the produce of the Amygdalus communis. BOULLAY AND VOGEL'S ANALYSES OF SWEET AND BITTER ALMONDS. Boullay's Analysis. VogeFs Analysis. Fixed oil . Emulsin 54-0 240 Volatile oil and hy- > Quantity un- drocyanic acid s determined. Liquid sugar 6-0 Fixed oil 28-0 Gum 3-0 Emulsin. 30-0 Seed-coats . Woody fibre 5-0 4-0 Liquid sugar Gum 65 3-0 Water 3-5 Seed-coats . 8-5 Acetic acid and loss 0-5 Woody fibre 50 Loss 19-0 Sweet almonds . . 100-0 Bitter almonds . . 100-0 Sweet almonds are nutritive and emollient, but, on account of their fixed oil, difficult of digestion, at least when taken in large quantities, or by persons whose .digestive powers are weak. When rancid they are still more apt to disorder the stomach. The husk or pellicle of the almond has been known to occasion nausea, uneasiness in the stomach arid bowels, increased heat, cedematous swelling of the face, followed by nettle-rash. Dr. Winterbottomf suffered twice in this way from the use of unblanched sweet almonds ; but blanched almonds caused him no inconvenience. Almonds are employed as a des- sert, and in puddings, cakes, &c. For table use they should always be blanched, on ac- count of the injurious qualities of the husk. Bitter almonds are more or less poisonous to all classes of animals. They contain neither volatile oil nor prussic acid,{ though they yield both these substances when suh- * Beans are believed, by veterinarians, to possess a stimulating influence over the horse, t Medical Facts and Observations, vol. v. p. 60. \ For the facts in proof of the accuracy of this statement, see my Elements of Materia Medico, vol. li. p. 1535. 164 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. mitted to distillation with water; but they contain a peculiar crystallizable principle, called AmygdaHn, whose composition is C w H r NO 2 *. Now, when bitter almond cake is sub- mitted to distillation, with water, the amygdalin suffers decomposition by the united agencies of the emulsin (of the seed) and the water, and yields hydrocyanic acid, volatile oil of bitter almonds, sugar, formic acid, and water. PRODUCTS OF THE DECOMPOSITION OF AMYGDALIN BY EMULSIN. Atoms of 1 atom of Hydrocyanic Acid 2 atoms VoJatile Oil of Bitter Almonds Carbon 8 28 Hydrogen 12 Nitrogen Oxygen 4 1 atom of Sugar ..... 6 5 5 2 atoms of Formic Acid 4 2 6 7 atoms of Water . . . ' . 7 7 1 atom of Amygdalin . 40 27 1 22 When bitter almonds are chewed, the moisture of the mouth and the emulsin of the seeds effect the decomposition of the amygdalin, and the formation of prussic acid and volatile oil ; and the poisonous operation of the seeds depends on the prussic acid. The smaller animal?, as dogs, pigeons, &c., are readily destroyed by them. One drachm has killed a pigeon, and twenty seeds have destroyed a dog. "On man they frequently prove injurious even in small doses, while, in large ones, they are highly deleterious. In some persons', nausea, vomiting, and purging, are readily caused by them. On the late Dr. Gregory* they produced first sickness, generally tremors, then vomiting, next a hot fit, with an eruption of nettle-rash, particularly on the upper part of the body. At the same time the face and head swelled very much, and there was a general feeling like in- toxication. The symptoms lasted only a few hours. The rash did not alternately appear and disappear, as in common nettle-rash. When eaten in large quantities, bitter almonds have caused serious and even fatal con- sequences. Pierer states that three children, having taken some of these seeds, were at- tacked in a few minutes with nausea, vomiting, loss of consciousness and of speech, and convulsions; and Mr. Kennedy has noticed the case of a stout laborer who died after the use of a large quantity of them. These, and other observations referred to by Wibmer, Cullen, and others, prove that the poisonous effects of the bitter almond are similar to those of prussic acid, on the development of which, in fact, their activity depends. Macaroons and Ratafia cakes, as well as Noyeau, which owe their peculiar flavor to these seeds, likewise prove injurious when taken in large quantities. The volatile oil of bitter almonds (frequently sold in the shops as essence of bitter almonds') is a most potent poison, being in general four times as powerful as the prussic acid kept in chemists' shops. A single drop of it will kill a cat in a few minutes. Sir Benjamin Brodie happening to touch his tongue with a probe which had been dipped in it, suffered, almost instantaneously, an indescribable sensation at the pit of the stomach, feebleness of the limbs, and loss of power over the muscles. These effects were, however, quite transient. A few years ago, a lady, in Aldersgate-street, London, was accidentally killed by it. She sent to a chemist's shop for beech nut oil, to destroy worms, and the person in the shop, mistaking the inquiry for peach nut oil, served her with oil of bitter almonds, of which she took half an ounce, by which she lost her life. An hypochondriacal gentleman, 48 years old, swallowed about two tea-spoonfuls of the oil, and in, a few minutes after was found by his servant lying in bed, with his features spasmodically contracted, his * Dr. Christison's Preatise on Poisons. DRUPACEOUS FRUITS. 165 eyes fixed* staring, and turned upwards, and his chest heaving convulsively and hur- riedly. A physician, who entered the room twenty minutes after the draught had been taken, found him quite insensible, the pupils immoveable* the breathing stertorous and slow, the pulse feeble, and only thirty in a minute, and the breath exhaling strongly the odor of bitter almonds. Death ensued ten minutes afterwards. With these facts be fort? us, it is, I conceive, highly improper for ignorant persons to employ it; yet it is extensively used by cooks and confectioners for flavoring !* ORDER II. FLfcStlY FRUITS. A very considerable number of fleshy of succulent fruits are employed as food. Of these, however, it is intended to notice only such as are in most frequent use in this country. 1. DRUPACEOUS oil STONE FRUITS. These are called by botanists firtipes. They con- tain one or two seeds (popularly termed the kernels) contained in a bony endocarp, com- monly called the stone, on the outside of which' is a soft fleshy mesocarp or sarcocarp, (usually known as the pulp ot Jiesh of the fruit,) which is covered by the membranous' epicarp, (generally denominated the skin.) From the Almond tribe are obtained several drupes in common use in England. Such are the Peach, the Nectarine, the Apricot, the Plum, and the Cherry. They are usually regarded as difficult of digestion ; and the popular opinion is probably the correct one, for Dr. Beaumont found that from six to ten hours were required for the artificial diges- tion of peaches. They are sometimes eaten with the view to open the bowels. When taken too freely they are apt to disorder the digestive organs, and to occasion griping and relaxation. The following is the composition of several of these fruits, according to Berard.f COMPOSITION OF DRUPACEOUS FRUITS OF THE ALMOND TRIBE. Nitrogenous matter . Coloring matter . . . T>i< r nine - APRICOT. GREEN GAGE (RETNE CLAUDE.) PEACH (D'ETE.) CHERRIES (ROYALFS.) Unripe. Ripe. Unripe. Ripe. Unripe. Ripe. Unripe. Ripe. 0-76 0-04 3-61 4-10 traces 2.70 very em all quantity 89-39 0-17 (HO 1-86 , 5-12 16-48 1-80 very small quantity 74-87 0-45 0-03 1-26 5-53 17-71 0-45 traces 74-57 0-28 0-08 I'll 2-06 24-81 0-56 traces 71-10 0-41 0-27 8*01 4-22 0-63 1-07 0-08 90-31 0-93 1-21 4-85 11-61 1-10 0-06 80-24 0-21 0-05 2-44 6-01 1-12 1-75 0-14 88-23 0-57 1-12 3-23 18-12 2-01 o-io 74-85 Gum ...... Malic acid .... Lime . . , . Water . : 100-60 1CO-40 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 * The Bitter Almond forms the basis cf the delicious cordial called Creme de Noyeau. The following embrace the principal > arieties of the Almond which are now cultivated : Sweet Soft-shelled Almond, (Amand -. Sultan a Coque Tendre ;) Amande Princesse, ou des Dames ; Amande Sultan, Amande Pistache; Bitter Alrmn'l, (Amande Amere;} Bitter Soft-shelled Almond, (Amande Amere a Coque Tendre ;') Bitter Hard-shclkd Almond, (Amande Amere a Coque Dure ;) Peach Almond, (Amande Pecher;) Great Flowering Almond ; Dwarf Double Flowering Almond. The varieties of Almond are propagated by inoculation either on the native stocks of the common Almond, or on stocks of the peach or plum. They are equally as hardy as the peach, and flourish equally as well in this country. L. t Ann. de Chirnte et de Physique. 1821. 166 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. In these analyses, however, no mention i& made of vegetable jelly, (pectine or pectic acid,) which, as I have before stated, (see p. 09,) is always a constituent of these fruits ; but it is probable that, in the above table, it is included under the denomination of gum. The highly palatable flesh of the Peach is slightly nutritious from the nitrogenous mat- ter, sugar, gum, and pectine, which it contains, while the malic acid renders it cooling. Both in the fresh and preserved state it is employed as a delicious dessert. Its use is objectionable in gouty persons, and in those whose bowels are easily disordered. When stewed with sugar it may be given as a mild laxative to convalescents.* The Nectarine differs from the Peach in having a smooth skin. This trivial distinction has led many botanists to regard it as a distinct species. Gardeners cultivate several hundred sorts of the Plum, (Prunus damestica.) De Can- dolle admits the following as distinct varieties :f o, Armenioitdes, including the Mirabdle Plum. 0. Claudiana, including the Green Gage. y. Myrobalana, including the Mijrobalan Plum. 0. Damascena, including the Damask Plum, t. T\tronen-iis, including the Orleans Plum. 5- Juliuna, including the Officinal Prune. 17. Cnllinriiii-ii, incluaing the St. CaUiarine Plum. 8. Aubertiana, including the Magnun Bonum, or Mogul Plum. 1. Prunealina, including the Damson. Dried plums, called prunes, are prepared in warm countries by drying the plums on hurdles by solar heat ; but in colder climates artificial heat is employed. In France both methods are adopted ; the fruit being exposed to the heat of an oven, and to that of the sun, on alternate days. Table prunes are prepared from the larger kinds of plum as the Saint Catharine and the Reine-Claude, (Green Gage :) Medicinal Prunes from the St Julien. The former has an agreeable, very sweet taste ; the latter are somewhat austere. They, are principally imported from Bordeaux. The edible part is the pulp. Fresh ripe plums, taken in moderate quantity, are wholesome and nutritive ; but wh-n eaten freely are apt to disorder the bowels ; an effect more readily excited by the unripe fruit.! The medicinal prune is slightly laxative. The finer kinds of plums are em i at the table as a delicious dessert: the inferior qualities are used in pie's, tarts, conserves, and sweetmeats. The larger prunes are eaten at table as a dessert. The medicinal prunes form an agreeable and mild laxative for children, and during convalescence from frebrile and inflammatory disorders. The Cherry possesses dietetical properties similar to those of the plum. In the unripe stati> it readily disorders the bowels. The stones of all these drupaceous fruits should not be swallowed, as they are apt to * Appendix, 9. f K'-nrick, in his " New American Orchardist," enumerates about seventy varieties of plum, which are cultivated in Europe and this country, of which fifty-two are produced here. Though the plum is generally considered a native of Asia, it is yet indigenous to North America, and is found from Canada to Mexico. The one best known, perhaps, is the Red or Yellow Plum, (Prunus Americana,) of a reddi.-h- orange when ripe, with a juicy yellow pulp, and a thick tough skin, of from half an inch to an inch in diameter. The Chickasau? Plum is the domesticated fruit of the Prunus Chicasa, (va. Normalis of Michaux,) a native of the country west of the Mississippi, but extensively cultivated in the southwest- ern states and Arkansas, and sometimes in the northern states. The fruit is half an inch or more in diameter, with a thin skin and a tender pulp, and pleasant to the faste. The Beach Plum is the fruit of the Prunus Marilima, (fVang,)\s about half an inch in diameter, and often pretty wtll flavored, but only arrives to perfection on a warm sandy beach. [Torrey & Gray's Flora.] L. * Unripe plums are probably more unwholesome than any. other kind of unripe fru'u, often causing bowel complaint?, dysentery, &c. In our cities they occasion much sickness, especially among chil- dren, in the summer and autumnal months. L. POMACEOUS FRUITS. 167 cause intestinal obstruction. I have known fatal enteritic inflammation produced by the accumulation of cherry-stones in the appendix caeci. The kernels or seeds yield, like the almond, prussic acid.* The Glue is a drupaceous fruit, which, when ripe, is remarkable for its sarcocarp abounding in a bland fixed cil, (see Olive Oil, p. 85-86.) Olives farcies d I'huile are some- times imported. The preserved or pickled oliv?s, admired by most persons as a dessert, are the green unripe fruit, deprived of part of their bitterness by soaking them in water, and then preserved in an aromatized solution of salt. Several varieties are met with in commerce, but the most common is the small French olive and the large Spajiish olive. Olives d la picholine have been soaked in a solution of lime or alkali. Pickled olives are employed at the table to excite the appetite for, as well as to improve the flavor of, wine. They are also used in some sauces. The Dale is a drupaceous fruit, of vast importance in the East, for a considerable por- tion of the inhabitants of Egypt, Arabia, and Persia, subsist in great part on it. It is the produce of the date palm, or Ph&Jiix dactylifera of botanists. Dates have been recently analyzed by Reinsch,f who gives the following as their constituents : COMPOSITION OF DATES. Kernel Flesh. Uncryetallizable sugar . . . 58*0 Pectin 8-9 Pectinaceous gum . . . . 3-4 Bassorine 41 Fatty oil 0-2 Wax 01 Fibre, with traces of coloring matter) 9 . and tannic acid . . . . \ Water 24-0 101-0 Fibre Gummy matter , Gum and mucus Epidermis (albumen) An astringent acid (catechuic 1) Stearine Oleine Water 25 0-6 7-1 0-5 0-3 13-0 100.0 It is obvious from this analysis that sugar is the leading alimentary constituent of this fruit. In this country dates are used principally as condiments. 2. POMACEOUS FRUITS OR APPLES. These are the produce of the sub-order Pomecc of Rosaceous plants. The edible or pulpy portion of the fruit is the sarcocarp or fleshy mesocarp, which is covered on the outside by a membranous epicarp, (commonly called the peel or skin,} and lined on the inner side by a cartilaginous endocarp (the core) en- closing the seed. Apples, Pears, and Quinces, are familiar examples of this division of fruits. The following are the results of Berard's analysis of the Jargonelle pear: COMPOSITION OF JARGONELLE, (CUISSE-MADAME.) UNRIPE. RIPE. ROTTEN. Nitrogenous matter Coloring matter .... Lignine Gum 0-03 0-08 3-80 3-17 6-45 0-21 o-oi 2-19 2-07 11-52 0-301 resin solo uble in > 0-058 alcohol ) 2-534 3-400 11*417 0*11 0-08 0-786 Lime Water . . . 0-03 86-28 0-04 8388 traces 81500 100-00 100-00 99-99 * The principal cherries indigenous to our country are the Sand Cherry, (Cerasus pumila,) Wild Red Cherry, or Bird Cherry, (Cerams Pennsylvania,) Choke Cherry, (Cerasus Virginiana,) Wild Cherry, Black Cherry, (C. serolina.) Besides these, there is the fruit of the C. ilidfolius, C. demissa, C. emar- ginata, C. umbellaia, and probably a few others. L. f Pharmaceutischfs CentraLBlatt fiir 1840, p. 400. 1G8 COMPOUND ALIMENTS.. No mention is here made of vegetable jelly, (pectina or pectic acid,) which the author included, I presume, under the head of gum. Apples and Pears are very agreeable fruits, but they are not in general regarded as easy of digestion ; and apples, being of a much firmer textu :e, are believed to be more slowly digested than pears. "In the case of a dyspeptic stomach," says Dr. Cullen, "I have known apples, a long time after they had been taken down, brought up again by eructa- tion in the same masses they had been swallowed, and that even after two days." Dr. Beaumont's experiment?, however, by no means confirm ordinary experience, for they appear to show that apples, even when raw, are readily digestible. DIGESTIBILITY OF APPLES. ARTICLES OF DIET. MEAN TIME OF CHYMIFICATION. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. II. M. Preparation. H. M. Apples, sweet, mellow " sour, mellow " sour, hard . Apple dumpling. . Rnw Boiled 1 30 2 2 50 3 Masticated Masticated Entire pieces 6 45 s :<(, 18 Both apples and pears are occasionally eaten to move the bowels. Roasted apples are much easier of digestion than raw apples. They gently promote relaxation of bowels ; and are, therefore, used by persons troubled with habitual constipation.* The Quince is not eatable in its raw state ; but stewed in pies or tarts, along with ap- ples, it is much esteemed. The expressed juice is cooling and astringent^ An excellent marmalade (see p. 70) and syrup are prepared from the quince by the confectioner. Quince seeds abound in mucilage. 3. BACCATE OR BER.RIED FRUITS. Berries. To this division belong the Currant, the Gooseberry, the Whortleberry, the Cranberry, the Elderberry, and the Grape ; the eatable part of which is the pulp. The epicarp, (commonly called skin or husk,) and the seeds * The apple is also a native of the East, but to such perfection has its cultivation been brought in the United States, that American apples are considered among the finest in the world. Those, however, from New York and New Jersey are the most prized, and among the last the Newtown Pippin is much esteemed. The annual export of apples from the United Stales, as estimated from an avenge of four years, ending in 1837, was 19.462 barrels, valued at 35,8Sf> dollars. Of this quantity. .'i.-J.TT barrels were shipped for England ; 6,782 were sent to the British North American colonies ; and 4,280 to the island of Cuba. The value of the products of the orchard (including peaches) in the United States, in Hl<^ was about. 8,000,000 of dollars. Although apples are very generally used in a raw state, yet we have much d^ubt as to their being easily d^ested, especially by persons of weak digestion. Dr. Bell remarks that "the apple containing both malic and acetic acids, with some sugar, has a pleasant and refreshing flavor, and to persons in health constitutes a useful addition to bread or other farinaceous food. It is inimical to the dyspeptic^ the rheumatic, the gouty, and those troubled with renal and cutaneous disorders ; it is often a source of serious, sometimes fatal, disease in children who have not masticated the fruit. suffii-icntly, but swallowed it in pieces of some size. Subjected to various changes by roasting, baking, and stowing, and the addition of sugar, apples acquire more nutritive value, and when eaten, as they often are, with milk or cream and bread, may be regarded as furnishing a meal equal to the subsequent requirements of active exer- cise, if not of labor. Duduit tells us that "one third part of boiled apple pulp, baked with two thirds of flour, and properly fermented with yeast for twelve hours', makes a very good bread, full (if eyes, and quite palatable and light."- L. GRAPES. 169 are indigestible, and should not be swallowed. The pulp, when freely eaten, s.ightly re- laxes the bowels. In the unripe state these fruits readily disorder the alimentary canal, and occasion griping. The juice of Red Currants has, according to Proust, the following composition : COMPOSITION OF RED CURRANT JUICE. Citric Acid, Malic Acid, Sugar, Vegetable Jelly, Gum, Extractive. A These fruits are very agreeable and cooling, and are eaten both raw and in tarts, jelly and a jam are prepared from them, (see p. 70-71.) The constituents of Black Currants are similar to those of red currants, with the ad- dition of a peculiar volatile principle and a violet coloring matter. A jelly, (see p. 70,) a jam, (see p. 71,) a paste, and ^ruil lozenges, are made from them. These, different pre- parations are employed in febrile and inflammatory cases, and are in particular request in hoarseness and affections of the throat. Gooseberries have been analyzed by Berard. Their composition is as follows : COMPOSITION OF GOOSEBERRIES. UNRIPE. RIPE. Nitrogenous mattei Coloring matter Lignine and seeds 1-07 0-03 8-45 0-86 u 8-01 Gum 1-36 0-78 Sugar . 0-52 6-24 Malic acid 1-80 2-41 Citric acid 0-12 0-31 Lime 0-24 0-29 Water . 86-41 81-10 100-00 100-00 In their general properties they agree with currants. Their husks are indigestible, and should not be swallowed. In the unripe state, gooseberries are apt to gripe, and other- wise disturb the bowels. The Cranberry is usually eaten when baked ; and in this way proves an agreeable, and, in general, harmless fruit. The juice of the Elderberry contains malic acid, a little citric acid, sugar, pectin, and coloring matter. The inspissated juice, (elder rob,} diluted with water, forms a cooling beverage in febrile and inflammatory disorders. The berries are principally employed in the preparation of elder wine. The Grape is one of the most valuable and esteemed of fruits. Considered with regard to shape and color, the different varieties may be thus arranged : 1. Round, dark-red, purple, or black grapes. This division includes a considerable num- ber of sorts. The grapes from which port wine* is procured belong to this division. The black Muscardine, common on dwelling-houses about London, come under this head. The most remarkable variety of this division is the black Corinthian grape, which, when dried, constitutes the currant of the grocer. This was formerly produced at Corinth, (whence its name,) but it is now grown at Zante, Cephalonia, Patras, &c. At Zante the grapes are gathered in August, disposed in couches on the ground to dry, cleaned, and laid up in magazines, (called seraglios,} where they eventually adhere so firmly as to * In September, 1842, my friend Mr. Gassiot, of the firm of Martinez, Gassiot & Co., of Mark lane, London, showed me sixteen sorts of grapes which had been sent by their agent at Oporto as the grapes yielding port wine. They were all round, dark, and rather small. Those numbered "2" and " 16" 170 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. require digging out. They require eight, ten or fourteen days for drying. For exporta- tion they are trod in barrels. They form one of the constituents of the well-known English dish, plum Bidding. 2. Oval, dark-red, purple, or black grapes. To this division belong the black and purple Hamburgh grapes. 3. Round and white grapes. Of this there are several sorts. 4. Oval and while grapes. The Portugal grape comes under this division. It is im- ported, packed in saw-dust, and contained in earthen jars, from Portugal and Spain The berries are large, fleshy, sweet, and slightly acidulous. They keep a long time after they have ripened. 5. Red, rose-colored, grayish, or striped grapes. Of this there are several sorts The juice of both unripe and ripe grapes has been examined by several chemists. The following are the most important results : COMPOSITION OF GRAPE JUICE. JUICE OF THE UNRIPE GRAPE. JUICE OF THE RIPE GRAPE. Proust. Extractive. Malic acid, a little. Citric acid, much. Bitortrate of potash. Sulphate of potash. Sulphate of lime. 1. /)//*/'/ from the juice. 2. Filtered , juice. Gdger. 'Wax. Chlorophylle. Tannin. (ilutmous matter. Tannin. Extractive. Sugar (uncrystallizable.) Gallic acid. Tartaric acid (free) about 1 12 per cent .Mali.- arid (free) about 2-19 per cent. Hitartrale of potash. Malate, phosphate, sulph- ate, and muriate of lime. Proust. Extractive. Sugar (granular and uiK-rvstallizable.) Cum. Glutinous matter. .Malic acid, a little. Citric acid, a little, (tartaric, Bracon- not.) liitart rate of potash. Berard. Odorous matter. Suirar. Gum. Glutinous matter. Malic acid. Malate of lime. Bitartratf of potash. Supertnrtrate of lime. Unripe Grape juice. Ripe Grape juice. Ripe Grape juice. Juice of White Grape of good quality. The composition of grape sugar (called also granular sugar or glucose) has 'been already stated, (see p. 55.) The bitartrate of potash contained in grape juice deposits, along with coloring and other matters, from wine, and forms what are termed crude tartar or argot, were the largest berries, and also formed the largest bunches; while "7" and " 14" were the smallest. I subjoin the list of grapes, with the names and remarks, as sent by Messrs. Martinez & Gassiot's Oporto agent : "LIST OF THE GRAPES, AS SHIPPED. . Dark colored wine. . Full bodied. . Good. No. 1. Tintii Fnmcisca 2. Tonriga . 3. Tinta amarclla ) 7. " Cdo . . ) 4. " grossa 5. Bastardo . 6. Alvardhao . 8. 9. 10. 11. Souzdo Gives the darkest colored, but in general ba( wine 12. Donzdinho do Castdlo .... Very little color, and not the best wine. 13. Tinta da Lameira ..... Color and flavor. 14. Bastardeira Good wine. 15. Mort'tfo 16. Noveira Gives abundance of wine, but of the worst quality has the name of the ' Poor Man's Wine.' " ). Mourisco preto ). Castittoa. Give abundance, but not of the best. Rich. Good flavor, but little cck;r. Body and flavor. GRAPES. 171 and the crust of wine. Crude tartar, when purified and deprived of coloring matter, constitutes cream of tartar, from which tarlaric acid is obtained, (see p. 74.) Grapes when dried are called Raisins. In Granada the finest kinds of raisins, viz. the Muscatels and the Blooms, are sun-dried ; while the Lexias (so called from the liquor in which they are immersed,) are dipped in a mixture of water, ashes, and oil, nd after- wards sun-dried. By this treatment the juice exudes arid candies on the fruit. The raisins of Valentia are prepared by steeping them in boiling water, to which a lye of vine stems has been added. The alkaline solution serves to remove the waxy coat which checks the drying of the berry. The varieties of raisins known in the market are dis- tinguished partly from their place of growth, as Valentias and Smyrnas ; partly from the variety of grape from which they are prepared, as Sultanas, Blooms, and Muscatels ; and partly from the mode of curing them, as Raisins of the Sun. Muscatels are the finest : Sultanas are stoneless. The raisins of Malaga are of three kinds : 1st, Muscatels ; 2dly, Sun or Bloom Raisins; and 3dly, Lexia Raisins. The small or Corinthian raisins, (called, by grocers, currants,) have been already no- ticed, (see p. 169.) Fresh grapes, when ripe, are wholesome, nutritious, refrigerant, and, when taken freely, diuretic and laxative ; but the skin and the seeds are indigestible, and should be rejected. In the alvine discharges of children who have eaten plum pudding, the currants (black Corinthian raisin) will be found almost entirely undigested. "I think we may assert," says Dr. Cullen, "that grapes which contain a large quantity of sugar, are, if taken with- out their husks, the safest and most nutritive of summer fruits." They are used at table as a dessert, and in febrile and inflammatory complaints as a very agreeable fruit, which allays thirst, and checks febrile heat. In the inflammatory form of dyspepsia, (called by Sir James Clark and others gastritic dyspepsia,) and in pulmonary affections, ripe grapes are eaten in considerable quantities, in Switzerland and other parts of the continent, occa- sionally with considerable benefit, and forming what is called the " Cure de Raisins." It deserves consideration how far the bitartrate of potash, contained in grapes, may con- tribute to the beneficial effect. For this salt, like the other vegetable alkaline salts, is con- verted, in the system, into an alkaline carbonate at the expense of atmospheric oxygen, (see p. 15.) In tubercular phthisis the system manifests no want, but rather redundancy, of oxygen. May not the bitartrate, in such cases, prove useful by appropriating to itself a portion of oxygen ] If so, in bronchitis with a purple tint the same treatment would prove injurious, as there is a manifest deficiency of oxygen in the system.* Raisins are somewhat more nutritive and less refrigerant than fresh grapes ; for they abound more in sugar and less in acid. If eaten freely they are apt to disorder the di- gestive organs and cause flatulence. They are employed at the table as a dessert, and are used in various articles of pastry.f 4. THE ORANGE OR AURANTIACEOUS FRUITS. These fruits, called by botanists the Hesperidium or Aurantium, are the produce of the genus Citrus: they are the Orange, the Lemon, the Litne, the Citron, and the Shaddock. Their rind is leathery or spongy : the external portion, ca.\\edjlavedo or zeste, is yellow, and contains a volatile oil lodged in rounded or vesicular receptacles. The acid juice of the fruit is lodged in small pulpy bags, which are readily separated from each other. * Appendix, 10. t Raisins may be prepared in the following manner Dip the ripe clusters of grapes, without separa- ting them from the branches, in a lye of wood-ashes, containing a small portion of sweet oil, and dry bv exposure to the sun. L. 172 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Lemons, are imported from Spain, Portugal, Italy, and the Azores. Their rind contains a volatile oil, (essence of lemons,) a bitter principle, (auranliin,') and a peculiar crystalline substance, (hesperidin.) It is a grateful aromatic and stomachic, and is used as a flavor- ing substance. Candied lemon peel is an agreeable stomachic, and is employed as a des- sert, and in confectionery. Lemon Juice is a slightly turbid, very sour liquid, with a grate- ful flavor. Owing to the mucilaginous matter which it contains, it readily becomes mouldy and suffers decomposition. Its constituents, according to Proust, are as follows : COMPOSITION OF LEMON JUICE. Citric acid. Malic acid. Bitter extractive. Water. Gum. The relative proportions of these ingredients vary somewhat according to the degree of ripeness of the fruit. One fluid ounce (two table-spoonfuls) of good juice is equal to thirty-two grains of crystallized citric acid, and saturates about 45$ grs. of bicarbonate of potash. Lemon juice furnishes a most agreeable and refreshing beverage, and proves refrigerant and anti-scorbutic. It may be either added to barley water, or mixed with sugar and water to form Lemonade.* The latter may be extemporaneously made, by adding two lemons sliced, and two ounces of sugar, to two pints of boiling water, and digesting until cold. A somewhat similar beverage has been denominated King's Cup. These acidulated drinks are exceedingly useful for allaying thirst, and as refrigerant* in febrile and inflammatory complaints, and in hemorrhages. In the latter maladies iced lemonade is to be preferred. When there is nausea or a tendency to sickness, effervescent lemonade is useful. Lemon juice has long been justly regarded as a valuable anti-scorbutic ; but on account of the difficulty of preserving it, a solution of crystallized citric acid is often substituted. Experience, however, has proved that it is inferior to the recent juice. Kveii the con- centrated juice is not equal to the fresh fruit. Hence Sir Gilbert Blane suggested that the juice should be preserved by the addition of a little spirit, without the employment of heat ; and this plan is usually followed. Lemon juice is not an infallible specific for scurvy, as Sir Gilbert Blane and some others have supposed; for occasionally the malady rages despite of the copious use of it.f * " Lemonade, as a beverage in putrid diseases, was first introduced by the French physicians in the beginning of the seventeenth century ; and about the year 1660, an Italian, from Florence, having learnt the process of freezing confectionery, conceived the happy idea of converting such b< into ice. This found a ready sale, and was the occasion of so great an increase in the number of sellers of lemonade, that in the year 1676 the Limonadiers of Paris were formed into a company, and received a patent from government." (Dr. Paris, Pharmacologia.) t The following extract from Dr. Johnson's Medico-Chirurgical Review, for 1824, serves to illustrate the statement in the text : " Lemon Juice in Scurvy. It has long been known to many intelligent observers that salt provisions are not the only cause of scurvy, and that lemon juice is by no means an infallible cure for the d however induced, notwithstanding the evidence of Sir Gilbert Blane, so positively advance d to the contrary. In support of our position, we shall here bring forward an abstract from an official docu- ment of unquestionable authenticity and recent occurrence In the year 1822, his majesty's ship Leander sailed from Trincomalee for the Cape of Good Hope, taking on board the mechanics of the Dock Yard establishment, then reduced on the island. There were also embarked twenty-six invalids, and all the sick that could be removed from the hospital. Tlu-.-r invalids and sick were principally affected witn chronic hepatitis, dysentery, and phihi^i? pnl- monalis^ all of which (even some who were expectorating large quantities of purulent matter) recov- ered on the passage to the Cape. This good fortune was counterbalanced by scurvy, which broke out among the crew, and in spite of large quantities of lemon-juice plentifully administered, in conjunction CUCURBITACEOUS FRUITS. 173 The properties and the uses of the Lime are similar to those of the Lemon. Lime juice contains the same ingredients as lemon juice, but in somewhat different proportions. The Common or Sweet Orange is a most delicious fruit. Its juice has the following composition : COMPOSITION OF ORANGE JUICE. Citric Acid. Malic Acid. Mucilage. Albumen. 4 Sugar. Citrate of Lime. Water. The proportions, however, vary with the degree of ripeness of the fruit. The juice of the ripe orange is a refreshing and grateful beverage, and is extensively used at the table. In febrile and inflammatory complaints it is a valuable refrigerant; allaying thirst and di- minishing preternatural heat. The orange, when unripe, is very apt to cause griping ; but when quite ripe, is rarely inadmissible : the seeds (called pips) and rind, however, should be rejected. Orange peel is used as a flavoring agent. It is an agreeable sto machic. The Citron is seldom brought to the table in the raw state, but it yields some excellent preserves and sweetmeats. The juice is employed to flavor punch and negus. It forms, with sugar and water, a refreshing refrigerant beverage. Candied Citron peel is a favor- ite condiment and sweetmeat. The Seville Orange has a rough, sour, and somewhat bitter juice, which is used by the cook to flavor jellies, and for other purposes. The peel of the Seville orange, and also the small dried green fruits (Orangetles or Curagoa Oranges) of both the Seville and Sweet oranges, are employed for flavoring the liqueur termed Curagoa (p. 80) and other sub- stances. Candied orange peel is used as a condiment 5. CUCURBITACEOUS FRUITS ; PEPONES ; GOURDS. Those cucurbitaceous fruits which are employed for alimentary purposes contain a pulpy, aqueous, sweet or somewhat acidulous, refreshing flesh, which, though agreeable to the palate, is difficult of digestion, and when eaten freely, relaxes the bowels, and sometimes occasions griping pain. It yields but little nutritive matter, and readily disagrees with the dyspeptic. Pepper is eaten with several of them with the view of assisting their digestion, and preventing any injurious effect on the stomach. The Cucumber is the most commonly employed, and, therefore, the best known fruit of this order. Its constituents, according to John, are as follows : with every other antiscorbutic which the ship could produce, spread to an alarming extent, and in one case proved fatal. Had they not reached the Cape at the time they did, the Leander would have pre- sented as deplorable a spectacle as the Anson [Centurion,] at Juan Fernandez, notwithstanding the supposed infallible specific, lemon juice, which, in no instance, on board the Leander, had the slightest effect in even checking the ravages of the scurvy. Immediately the ship reached the Cap>?, and the crew got plenty of animal food in conjunction with vegetables, they rapidly recovered, (see Mr. Bamp- field's remarks on the subject, in his valuable work on Tropical Dysentery.) Specimens of the lemon juice used were transmitted to the Victualling Board, and carefully analyzed in London. It was found to be perfectly good." [Scurvy is generally caused by a close humid atmosphere, in connection \vi h faulty vegetable aliment. If a ship is kept dry and well ventilated, and furnished with good wa- tei, a diet consisting chiefly of salt provisions will not produce scurvy, especially if the crew be sup- plied with good biscuit, and a small allowance of peas and beans, with molasses and vinegar. It is a mistaken notion that vegetable acids will cure or even prevent scurvy, if the above precautions are neglected.] L. 174 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. COMPOSITION OF THE GREEN CUCUMBER. The Peeled Fruit. Sugar and extractive . . . Chlorophylle Odorous matter Fungus-like membrane } (hgnin ?) with phos- > phate of lime . . ) Soluble albumen . . Mucus wilh free phos-'j plioric acid, an arnmo- niacal salt, malate, phosphate, sulphate, and muriate of potash, and phosphate of lime and iron . . Water .... 1-66 0-04 J 0-53 0-13 0.50 97-14 100-00 The Fresh Peel. Solid matters (similar those of the peeled fruit, but containing much fun- gus-like matter) Water .... 15 85 100 In its raw state the cucumber is slowly, and with difficulty, digested, and is usually eaten with condiments (pepper, vinegar, and oil) as a salad ; but its employment should be carefully avoided by dyspeptics. When stewed it forms a light and wholesome food. Young cucumbers, (called gherkins,) as well as the full-grown fruits, are eaten as condi- ments, when pickled. The Melon, when in perfection, is a very delicious fruit The Cantaloupe variety was examined by Payen,* who obtained the following results : COMPOSITION OF THE CANTALOUPE MELON. Flesh of the Melon. Crystallizable sugar 1-5 Peclic acid . . . traces Uncrystallizable su- " gar Vegetable albumen (Flesh f Juice . . . 1 Do. in the pulp alp, w 4629 JOO parts of Melon. ; f Fibrous pulp, washed and dried 0-57 Internal portion [ Rind {Juice around the seeds 6-97 Fresh seeds 1-54 Fibres 0-19 . 44-44 100-00 Mucilage Free acid Saponifiable fat Nitrogenous matter Culorin.tr matter Aromatic matter Starch Lignin Salts Water 100-0 The melon, like other cucurbitaceous fruits, is very apt to disagree with delicate sto- machs, and, to obviate this, is usually eaten with salt and pepper, and sometimes with sugar. The Water Melon possesses similar properties to tne melon. The Vegetable Marrow, when cooked by boiling, forms a very agreeable and wholesome article of food. The Pumpkin (Pompiori) agrees with the other cucurbitaceous fruits in its alimentary qualities. G. LEGUMINOUS FRUITS; Legumes or Pods. The pulpy mesocarp orsarcocarp of the Tamarind possesses alimentary properties. Its composition, according to Vauquelin, is as follows : COMPOSITION OF TAMARINDS. Citric acid Tartaric acid . Malic acid Bitartrate of potash Sugar 9-40 1-55 0-45 325 12-5 * Journal d>. Chimie Mid. t. iii. p. 15. 1827. FIGS MULBERRIES. 175 Gum 4-7 Vegetable jelly (pectine) 6-25 Parenchyma (lignine) 34-35 Water 27-55 100-00 Tamarind pulp is slightly nutritive. It allays thirst, diminishes febrile heat, and when eaten freely proves laxative. It is adapted for febrile and inflammatory cases ; and is sometimes employed to form whey, (see Tamarind Whey, p. 124.) The East Indian '' tamarind has a much longer pod than the West Indian fruit. The unripe pods of Pfiaseolus vulgaris, (Kidney bean or Haricot,) commonly called French beans, form, when boiled, a favorite dish ; though their nutritive properties are but slight. They are also eaten as a pickle. Scarlet beans, (the unripe pods of Phaseolus multiftorus,) when boiled, are also brought to table, and greatly resemble the French bean, to which they are preferred by many. 7. SYCONUS. The Fig is a familiar illustration of the collective fruit called by botanists the Syconus. It consists of a pulpy or fleshy pear-shaped receptacle, within which are many seed-like bodies, which are the fruits (achenia) properly so called. In the green or unripe state figs contain an acrid bitter juice ; but as they ripen, this disappears, and is replaced by sugar ; and in this state they form an agreeable and wholesome food. The figs, which are imported, have been dried in the sun or in ovens, are compressed, covered with a whitish saccharine efflorescence, and have an agreeable though peculiar odor, and sweet taste. In this state if freely eaten they are apt to produce disorder of the stomach and bowels, and occasion flatulence, griping, and slight relaxation of bowels, especially in children. Their composition is as follows : COMPOSITION OF FIGS. Granular sugar (glucose) Fatty matter Extractive with chloride of calcium Gurn with phosphoric acid Woody fibre and achenia 62-5 0-9 0-4 5-2 Water . . . . ....... 16-0 100-0 In eastern countries figs are eaten as food ; but here they are taken as a dessert princi- pally. A roasted or boiled fig is a popular poultice for gum-boils. 8. SOROSIS. The Mulberry belongs to this order of fruits. It consists of the female flowers, become fleshy and grown together, and enclosing a dry membranous pericarp. Its constituents are as follows : CONSTITUENTS OF MULBERRIES. Coloring matter. Pectine. Bitartrate of Potash. Sugar. Woody fibre. Water. Mulberries possess very slightly nutritive qualities. They check thirst, relieve febrile heat, and, when eaten freely, gently relax the bowels. The Pine-apple, the most delicious of fruits, is, like the mulberry, composed of ova- ria and floral envelopes, which have become fleshy and grown together. It is a native of South America and of some of the West India Islands, and is now naturalized m several of the hotter parts of Asia and Africa. Its juice was examined by Adet, who states its constituents to be as follows : 176 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. CONSTITUENTS OF THE JUICE OF THE PINE-APPLE. Peculiar Aroma. Sugar. Gum. Malic Acid. Citric and Tartaric Acids. Water. "Ripe pine-apples," says Dr. Wright,* "are amongst the finest of our fruits in the West Indies, and are relished by all ranks of people, especially sick of acute diseases, dysenteries?, &c. They have a detersive quality, and are better fitted to cleanse the mouth and gums than any gargle whatever. Besides being eaten raw, they are often candied with sugar, and sent home as presents." The same authority adds that they are made into tarts and pickles. I have before stated (see p. 79) that they are used for flavoring rum. 9. ET./ERIO. To this order of fruits belong the Strawberry, the Raspberry, and the Blackberry. In the Strawberry, the seed-like pericatps are dry, but are placed upon a fleshy or pulpy receptacle, which forms the juicy or succulent part of the fruit. The strawberry consti- tutes one of the most delicious of our summer fruits. The following are the constituents of it : CONSTITUENTS OF THE STAWBERRY. Peculiar volatile Aroma Sugar. Mucilage. Pectine. 2S *u ( *>'"'* Woody fibre. Pericarps. Water. Strawberries contain a very small portion only of nutritive matter. They are employed as a very admired dessert, and also in the preparation of jellies and jams, (se? p 70.) The grains or seed-like pericarps are not digestible, and, it is stated, are apt to excite intestinal irritation. The late Dr. Armstrong entertained a very strong opinion of the injurious effects of these grains, and, on one occasion, in which I met him in consulta- tion, lie directed the patient to suck strawberries through muslin, in order to prevent the grains being swallowed. The credm frequently taken with strawberries is objectionable for dyspeptics. The Raspberry differs in several respects from the strawberry. The pericarps (some- times called drupes') are succulent instead of dry ; while the receptacle, which in the strawberry is juicy, is in the raspberry dry and spongy. In 1838 this fruit was analyzed by Bley, who found its constituents to be as follows : CONSTITUENTS OF THE RASPBERRY. Volatile oil Citric acid. Malic acid. Red coloring matter. Mucus. Woody fibre. Crystallizable, fermentable sugar. It is obvious, however, that he has omitted pectine, which is a well-known constituent of raspberries. The ashes contained carbonate, phosphate, and muriate of potash, car- bonate and phosphate of lime and magnesia, silica, and oxide of iron. The raspberry is an agreeable acidulous fruit, containing very little nourishment, but rarely disturbing the stomach. If eaten freely it promotes the action of the bowels. Be- sides being used at the table as a dessert, it is employed in the preparation of jellies, jams, raspberry vinegar, (see p. 70,) and creams. The latter preparation is an objec- tionable one for dyspeptics. * Medicinal Plant* of Jamaica. TURNIPS. 177 ORDER III. ROOTS, SUBTERRANEOUS STEMS, AND TUBERS. This order includes the Turnip, the Carrot, the Parsnip, the Beet, the Potato, and uve Jerusalem Artichoke. Before proceeding to notice them individually, it may be advantageous to give a tabu- lar view of their relative digestibility, according to Dr. Beaumont's experiments : RELATIVE DIGESTIBILITY OF TURNIPS, PARSNIPS, POTATOES, CARROTS, AND BEETS. MEAN TIME OF CHYMIFICATION. ARTICLES OF DIET. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. H. M. Parsnips Boiled 2 30 Mashed 6 45 Potatoes, Irish Roasted 2 30 u it Baked 2 30 Carrot, orange Boiled 3 15 Mashed 6 15 Turnips, flat Boiled 3 30 Potatoes, Irish Boiled 3 30 Mashed 8 30 Beets . Boiled 3 45 Parsnips Parsnips Carrot, orange Boiled Raw Entire piece Entire piece Entire piece 13 15 18 12 30 a u Raw Entire piece 17 15 Potatoes, Irish Entire piece 14 The Cruciferous or Siliquose root called the Turnip, is, on account of the large propor- tion of water of which it is made up, but slightly nutritive. By drying it in vacua, at 230 F., Boussingault* found the relative proportion of solid and liquid matters which it con- tains to be as follows : QUANTITY OF SOLID MATTER IN TURNIPS. Water Solid matter 92-5 7-5 Turnips 1000 The same chemist submitted the solid or dried matter of turnips to ultimate analysis, and obtained the following results : ULTIMATE COMPOSITION OF THE DRIED TURNIP. Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen . Ashes Dried Turnip 42C 55 423 17 7-6 100-0 The juice of the turnip contains two nitrogenous constituents, viz. vegetable fibrine and vegetable albumen. The first coagulates spontaneously on standing, the second is after- wards coagulated by heat. The turnip, though very slightly nutritive, is in general easily digested ; and though by some it is reputed flatulent, I have never seen it prove so when it has been well boiled. The Carrot and Parsnip are umbelliferous roots in common use. They contain vege- ble fibrine, vegetable albumen, sugar, and volatile oil. The following are the constituents of the expressed and dried juice of the carrot : * Memoires de I' Academic Royale des Sciences, t. xviii. 1842. 12 178 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. EXPRESSED AND DRIED JUICE OF THE CARROT. Fixed oil, with some volatile oil .TO Red crystalline neutral substanct (carotin) 0'34 Uncrystallizable sugar, with som . starch and malic acid . 9371 Albumen ... 435 Ashes (alumina, lime, and iron) . . 0'6U 10000 Both the carrot and the parsnip are highly nutritive ; but the volatile oil which they contain renders their flavor unpleasant to many, and causes them to be apt to disagree with some dyspeptics. The Beet-root is the product? of a Chenepodiaceous plant, and is used both as a garnish and a salad. The Jerusalem Artichoke is the tuber of *he Helianthu? tuoerosus. It is in use, on the continent, as a substitute for the potato, fe which it is inferior in nutritive power as well as in flavor. In taste it somewhat resembles the bottom of the Garden Artichoke, (Cynara Scolymus.) The Potato,* (Solanum tuberosum,) next to the Cerealia, is the most important and val- uable of the esculent vegetables. For its introduction into England, from America, we are indebted to Sir Walter Raleigh. The part of the plant which is used as food is the tuber attached to the subterranean stem, of which, in fact, it may be regarded as a part in a state of excessive development. It is provided with a number of buds, commonly called eyes, which, with contiguous por- tions of the potatoes, are used, under the name of sets, for multiplying the ppe> When examined by the microscope the tissue of the potato is found to consist of a mass of cells, between and within which is an albuminous liquor. Each cell also contains about ten or twelve starch grains. Potatoes have been repeatedly subjected to chemical examination; but the most im- portant investigations are those of Einhof, Lampadius, Vauquelin, Otto, Baup, Michaelis, and Boussingault. The last-mentioned chemist submitted the potato to ultimate analysis,! and obtained the following results : ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF THE POTATO. Water Solid matter dried at 230 F. in vacuo . Carbon . Hydrogen Oxygen . Nitrogen Ashes . 440 5-8 447 15 40 Solid matter dried at 230 F. in vacuo 100 So that 100 parts of the Potato, in its ordinary state, contain the following substances : Water .... .759 Carbon ..... 10 604 at w F - 241 Ashes ..... 09WOJ - 1000 * This plant is sometimes confounded by writers with the Batatas edulis, the Convolvulus Batafns of most botanists, whose tuberous roots are called Sweet Potatoes, Spanish Potatoes, or Batatas. Th? latter constitute the Potatoes of Shakespeare, as well as of some other authors. When boiled or based they form a wholesome farinaceous food, which, however, is slightly laxative, and according to many writers, aphrodisiac. t Memoires de rAcademie des Sciences dc rinstitut de France, t. xviii. 1&42, p. 345. POTATOES. 179 From this analysis we learn that the proportion of nitrogen contained in the potato is very small ; but it is still smaller in potatoes that have been kept for some time. 100 parts of Moisture. Nitrogen in dried substance. Nitrogen in un- dried substance. Potato, fresh Ditto, kept 10 months 79-4 76'8 1 80 1 18 037 028 From these statements it follows, that if nitrogenized principles alone contribute to the n itritton of the body, the nutritive power of the' potato must be very low ; or, in other words, its nutritive equivalent must be very high, (see p. 28 ;) and accordingly both Bous- singault and Liebig have endeavored to show that this is really the case. Two milch cows, says Boussingault,* were fed with a quantity of potatoes according to my equiva- lents. They always consumed their rations, and had they been fed with less would have been insufficiently nourished. A horse may be kept alive by feeding it with potatoes, ob- serves Liebig,f but life thus supported is a gradual starvation ; the animal increases nei- ther in size nor strength, and sinks under every exertion. If we assume that all the nitrogenized principles of the potato are alimentary, it fol- lows that butcher's meat is about 104 times as nutritive as the potato. But solanine, and probably other constituents of the potato, are nitrogenized though not alimentary principles ; and we may, therefore, estimate 1 Ib. of butcher's meat as being equal, in nu- tritive power, to 10i Ibs. of potatoes. In the year 1840 some experiments were made on the effects of different diets,' on the prisoners confined in the Glasgow Bridewell ; and the following extract from the report^ of the inspectors of prisons, deserves to be noticed here in connection with the preceding observations on the nutritive powers of potatoes. " Eighth Diet. Cost, including cooking, Ifd. Breakfast. 2 Ibs. of potatoes boiled. Dinner. 3 Ibs. of potatoes boiled. Supper. 1 Ib. of potatoes boiled. A class of ten young men and boys was put on this diet. All had been in confinement for short periods only, and all were employed at light work, teazing hair. At the beginning of the experiment eight were in good health, and two in indifferent health ; at the end, the eighth continued in good health, and the two who had been in indifferent health had improved. There was on an average, a gain in weight of nearly 85 Ibs. per prisoner, the greatest gain being 8? Ibs., by a young man, whose health had been indifferent at the beginning of the experiment. Only two prisoners lost at all in weight, and the quantity in each case wa trifling. The prisoners all expressed themselves quite satisfied with this diet, and regretted the change back again to the ordinary diet," Now the quantity of nitrogen, contained in the six pounds of potato allowed to each of these prisoners, was equal to that contained in somewhat more than nine ounces of butcher's meat. The proximate principles of the potato are water, starchy matter, (starch grains and amylaceous fibre,) ligneous matter, proteinaceous principles, (vegetable fibrine, vegetable al- bumen, and gluten,) fat, gum, asparagine, extractive, vegetable acids, salts, and occasionally solanina. The following is a recent analysis, by Michaelis, of a red variety of potato, which was suspected to possess injurious properties. * Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. t. 67, p. 410, et eq. t Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology, p. 82, 2d ed. 18-12. \ Fifth Report of the Inspectors of Prisons. IV. Scotland, Northumberland, and Durham, pp. viii. xi. 180 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF THE POTATO. Water . ......... 66-875 Starch and amylaceous fibre ...... 30-469 Albumen . . ....... 0'503 Gluten . . ....... 0055 Fat ... . . 0-056 Asparagm .......... Extractive .......... 0-921 Chloride of potassium ........ 0-1/6 Silicate, phosphate, and citrate of iron, manganese, alumina, ) soda, potash, and lime, (of these, potaah and citric acid are > 0-815 the prevailing ingredients) ....'.) Free citric acid ... ...... OP*? 100-000 I have already given some account of Potato Starch* (see p. 65,) as well as figures i ^presenting its microscopic appearance, (see p. 61.) The quantity obtained from potatoes is subject to considerable diversity, (see p. 59;) and varies not only with the sort of po- tato used but also with the season. QUANTITY OF STARCH YIELDED BY lOOlbs.OF POTATOES AT DIFFERENT SEASONS. In August, about . . 10 Ibs. In September 14i In October . . . . 14* In November ... 17 In March . . . . 17 Ibt. In April .... 131 In May . . 10 From this it will be seen that the quantity of starch is at its maximum in the winter reason. In the spring vegetation becomes active, and the buds begin to grow at the ex- pense of the starch contained in the tuber. Hence at this season potatoes are less mealy, and, in consequence, less esteemed for the table. Potato starch agrees with the other amylaceous substances in its alimentary and dieteti- cal properties, (see pp. 62 and 65.) Being devoid of nitrogen it is of course inferior in the nutritive power to the flour or meal of the cereal grains, which contain vegetable fibrine, vegetable albumen, and gluten. But being readily soluble in boiling water, it yields several agreeable articles of food. It is sold in the shops under the name of Potato Flour or English Arrow-root. Bright 1 s Nutritious Farina, sold for invalids ami infants, is a carefully prepared potato starch slightly scented. The substance sold as Indian Corn Starch is potato starch colored blue. Bright 1 s Universal Sanative Breakfast Beverage appears to be a mixture of potato starch and chocolate. The presence of Citric acid in the potato deserves to be especially noticed, since on it probably depends, in a great measure, the antiscorbutic property of this tuber. Baup* says that the potato yields sufficient citric acid to admit of its being employed for the preparation of this acid,, for commercial purposes. Solariina, a vegetable alkali possessing powerfully narcotic properties, has been de- tected by Otto .in the buds and underground shoots of the potato. "If potatoes are grown where they are not supplied with earth, the magazine of inorganic bases, (in cel- lars, for example,) a true alkali, called solanin, of very poisonous nature, is formed in the sprouts which extend towards the light, while not the smallest trace of such a sub- stance can be discovered in the roots, herbs, blossoms, or fruits of potatoes grown in the field."f The most delicate test of solanina is, according to Otto, iodine. If small pieces of this be added to a weak solution of solanina, (as the sulphate,) they become surround- ed by a brown syrupy fluid. A watery solution of iodine also forms, with a very weak * Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatl fur 1836, p. 47. t Otto, quoted by Liebig, Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture, p. 100. 2d edit. POTATOES. 181 solution of solanina, a brownish color.* Michaelis,-f however, declares that the color thus produced depends not on the solanina, but on the fatty acid of an alkaline [basic] cal- careous soap contained in the potato. Solanina or other noxious principle, if present at all, must be contained in extremely small quantity in the potato, or must be destroyed or removed bv cooling, since notwithstanding the universal employment of this vegetable, poisonous effects from it are never heard of; or if they occur must be exceedingly rare. Nauche asserts that the infusion or decoction of potatoes promotes the renal and biliary secretions, and slightly affects the nervous system. If the observation be correct, it would follow that the water, in which potatoes are boiled, extracts or destroys some noxious matter; and as both baked and roasted potatoes are likewise wholesome, it follows that heat alone is capable of destroying the noxious principle of the potato. When potatoes are boiled in water the albumen of the liquor contained in the cells and intercellular spaces is coagulated, and the starch grains absorb the watery portion of it, swell up, and distend the cells in which they are contained. The coagulated albumen forms irregular fibres between the starch grains, and probably, also, covers them with a thin film of albumen. Lastly, the cells, in which the starch grain are contained* separate from each other. Potatoes in which these changes are complete are called mealy, while those in which they are only partially effected are called watery, doughy, or waxy. Pota- toes, unlike potato starch, do not yield, by boiling, a mucilage or jelly. This arises pro- bably from the starch grains being enveloped by a coating of coagulated albumen, as well as by the membrane of the cell in which the grains are contained. Potatoes, when in good condition and cooked by boiling, form a nutritious and easily digestible article of food. From an experiment made on the prisoners in the Glasgow Bridewell, it would appear that baked potatoes are less nourishing than boiled ones. The following is an extract, from the report of the Inspectors, bearing on the point \\ "First Diet. Cost, including cooking, 2?d. Breakfast. 8 ozs. oatmeal, made into porridge, with a pint of Buttermilk. Dinner. 3 Ibs. of boiled potatoes with salt. Su]qjer.5 ozs. of oatmeal made into porridge, with half a pint of buttermilk. Ten prisoners were put on this diet, (five men and five boys,) all under sentences of confinement for two month*, and all employed at light work, (picking hair and cotton.) At the beginning of the experi- ment eight were in good health and two in indifferent health ; at the end all were in good health, and they had on an average gained more than 4 Ibs. each in weight, only one prisoner, (a man,) having lost in weight The greatest gain was 9 Ibs. 4 ozs., and was made by one of the men. The prisoner who was reduced in weight had lost 5 Ibs. 2 ozs." The second diet was similar to the first, except, that a third of a pint of skimmed milk was substituted at breakfast for a pint of buttermilk. Five young men and five women, some of whom had been in prison for several months, were put. on this diet. All were in good health at the beginning of the expe- riment, and all in good health at the end. On an average each prisoner had gained rather more than 4 Ibs. in weight. " Third diet. Cost, including cooking, 23d. This diet was the same as the first, except that the pota- toes were baked instead of boiled. Three young men, two boys, and five young women, were put upon this diet. Most of them had been in confinement about five months. The men and boys and two of the women were employed in weaving, and the other three women in winding and twisting. All were in good health, both at the beginning and at the end of the experiment. There was. nowever, an average loiss of li Ib. in weight, the greatest loss being 10 Ibs., (by a man,) who had been in prison nearly five months, and the greatest gain 6? Ibs. by a woman, who had been in prison about eight weeks. The prisoners all disliked the baked potatoes " * Otto, Pharmaceulisches Central Blattfiir 1834, pp. 458-459. t Imd.yr 1833, p. 379. 1 Fifth Report of the Inspectors of Prisons. IV. Scotland, Northumberland, and Durham, pp. viii. - xi. 182 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. In order to render potatoes more palatable they are usually boiled only so far as to make them soft without affecting their shape ; and probably in this state they contain a larger amount of nutritive matter than if longer boiled. It can scarcely, however, be doubted that they must be more readily permeated by the gastric juice, and, therefore, more easily digested, if boiled until they begin to oreak down, or are so softened as to be readily mashed. Hard and waxy potatoes must, for the same reason, be less digestible than mealy ones ; and new potatoes being less mealy are less easily digested than old ones. The influence of a freezing temperature on the potato is remarkable. The effect is mechanical ; the watery juice contained in the cells and intercellular spaces, expands in the act of freezing, and by this means ruptures and isolates the cells, and destroys the organization of the tuber. It does not appear, however, that any chemical change is produced in the first instance either on the starch or the other constituents, for Girardin* obtained the same proportions of water, fecula, woody fibre, albumen, sugar, and saline matteps, from frosted, as from unfrosted potatoes. But it is obvious that when the organ- ization and life of the potato is destroyed, decomposition must soon sdfcceed ; though even then the fecula or starch seems but little altered. I have already slightly alluded to the antiscorbutic property of the potato, and which I have in part ascribed to the contained citric acid. The importance of the subject de- mands a more specific reference to it. Sir Gilbert Blanef mentions that ra\v potatoes sliced, with vinegar, had been found beneficial in scurvy. Much more recently, M. Julia FontanelleJ gave a brief sketch of its antiscorbutic effects on sailors, many of whom, he states, declared themselves to have been cured of the scurvy by long-continued use of potatoes very slightly baked under the ashes, and eaten without salt. NaucheJ also tes- tifies to the antiscorbutic properties of this vegetable ; which he used in the form of a de- coction. Mr. Daltonil and Mr. BerncastlelT have recommended the use of potato* preventive of scurvy in ships making long voyages. Dr. Baly,** Physician to the Gi'in-ral Penitentiary at Milbank, has published some interesting observations on the antiscorbutic quality of the potato; and he declares that its efficacy is not, as some had supposed, im- paired by a boiling heat, but "as ordinarily cooked, it is an admirable preservative against the scurvy." In 1840 he found that scurvy was a disease of rather fivqiicnt occurrence among the military prisoners, while among the convicts it was never seen. Tin- t-.vmp- tion of the latter he found could only be attributed to their weekly diet containing five Ibs. of potatoes and an onion. The military prisoners, therefore, were allowed two Ibs. of pota- toes weekly during the first three months of their imprisonment, three Ibs. during the second three months, and four Ibs. after the expiration of six months. ** This addition to the dietary of the military prisoners was made in January, 1842, and not a single case of scurvy has since occurred." Dr. Baly has also shown, from the Reports of the Inspec- tors of Prisons, that in those prisons where scurvy has prevailed, tl e diet of the prisoners, though often abundant in other respects, has contained no potatoes, or only a very small quantity ; and that in several prisons the appearance of the disease has wholly ceased on the addition of a few pounds of potatoes being made to the weekly dietary. These facts, then, are of high importance, inasmuch as the potato is a cheap and rea- dily accessible preventive of scurvy a disease which the excellent reports of the prison insuestors have shown to be of frequent occurrence in Great Britain.ft * Journal de Pharmacie, t. xxiv. p. 301. 1833. t Diseases of the Fleet. 1781. t Journal de Chimie Medicale, t. ii. p. 129. 1826. $ Ibid. t. vii. p. 374. || Lancet, Sept. 4, 1842. T Ibid. Sept. 23, 1842. ** London Medical Gazette, Feb. 10, 1843. tt Appendix, I. LEAVES AND LEAFSTALKS. 183 ORDER IV. BUDS AND YOUNG SHOOTS. Onions, Leeks, Garlic, and Shallots, though usually ranked among roots (bulbous roots,) are in reality buds, formed at or beneath the ground, and whose scales are thick and fleshy. They owe their peculiar odor and flavor, as well as their pungent and stimula- ting qualities, to an acrid volatile oil which contains sulphur. This oil becomes absorbed, quickens the circulation, and occasions thirst. Passing out of the system by the different excreting organs it communicates its peculiar smell to the secretions. Hence the well- known odor of the breath after eating onions or garlic. The following are the constitu- ents of onions, according to Fourcroy and Vauquelin : COMPOSITION OF THE ONION. Acrid volatile oil. Uncrystallizable sugar. Gum. Vegetable albumen. Woody fibre. Acetic and phosphoric acids. Phosphate and carbonate of lime. Water. Garlic, Leeks, and Shallots, have a similar composition. If the volatile oil be dissipated by boiling, these bulbs no longer possess any acrid or stimulating qualities. They then form mild and easily digestible aliments : whereas in the raw state, that is, with the oil, they are pungent, acrid, difficultly digestible, stimulating substances. The young shoots of Asparagus officinale form a delicious article of food, known at ta- ble as Asparagus. Their constituents are as follows : COMPOSITION OF ASPARAGUS. Asparagine (Asparamide.) Gum. Uncrystallizable sugar. Vegetable albumen. Woody fibre. Acetate, malale, phosphate, and muri- Iron. ate of potash and lime. Resin. Asparagine is a crystalline substance whose formula is C 8 H 8 N 2 O fi -f Aq 2 . Liebig re- gards it as a nutritive agent, (see Theine.) Asparagus is a wholesome? very agreeable, light kind of aliment, which acts as a mild diuretic, and communicates a peculiar and unpleasant odor to the urine. It was former- ly charged with causing bloody urine and accelerating the fits of the gout, but there does not appear to be any ground for such an accusation. It is usually brought to table with toasted bread and melted butter, and is sometimes eaten in soup. ORDER V. LEAVES AND LEAFSTALKS. The green color of foliaceous parts depends on the presence of green globules contain- ed in the cells of the leaf. These globules consist of a substance called chlorophylle, which, in its properties, is intermediate between resin and fat. It does not appear to pos- sess any alimentary properties. "The green matter of plants," says Dr. Prout,* "is in general little acted on by the stomachs of the higher animals; and hence may, in most cases, safely form the portion of the food of diabetic individuals, as first, I believe, recommended by Dr. B. G. Babing- ton : though on very different principles. In many cases of common dyspepsia, also, more especially connected with derangements of the lower intestines, and with irritable states of the mucous membrane, the green matter of plants contributes, as above men- tioned, to the action of the bowels by its excremental properties. In dyspeptic affections, however, more immediately connected with the stomach, it is apt to disagree, by produ- cing acidity and flatulence, and their consequences ; and as such forms of dyspepsia are by far the most common, herbaceous vegetable matters in general are much .ess suited for dyspeptic individuals than farinaceous." * On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases, p. 300, 3d ed. 1840. 184 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. The CabbageTribe includes the Cabbage, (both white and red,) the Savoy, Greens, the Cauliflower, and Broccoli. The parts used are the leaves, and, in the case of the two last-mentioned substances, the young and compact flowering heads. These vegetables by drying >se more than 90 per cent of water. The dried residue is remarkably rich in nitrogen as well as in sulphur. 100 parts of Water lost by drying at 21-2 F. Nitrogen in the dried residue. Nitrogen in the tfbdned plant. Cabbage . . . . 92-3 3, 0-28 According to Boussingault,* from whom these data are taken, 810 parts of fresh cab- bage, or 83 parts of dried cabbage, are equal, in nutritive power, to 100 parts of wheat, (see p. 27.) The following are the results of Dr. Beaumont's experiments on the digestibility of the cabbage : DIGESTIBILITY OF CABBAGE. ARTICLES OF DIET. MEAN TIME OF CHYMIFICATION. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. //. M. Preparation. H. 17 Cabbage with vinegar . . . Cabbage head Raw Raw Boiled 2 2 20 4 30 Shaved Masticated Boiled 10 12 20 15 30 Cabbage The Cabbage has been analyzed by Schrader ;f the Cauliflower by Trommsdorff.J 234 2'89 005 0'29 Cabbage. Extractive ... Gummy extractive Resin . . Vegetable albumen . Green fecula ...... 0'63 Water with acetic acid, sulphate and) nitrate of potash, chloride of potassi- I um, malate and plwsphate of lime, i-93'80 phosphate of magnesia, iron and man- ganese . . . . J 100-00 ^ Cauliflower Coloring matter. Mucilage. Resin. Vc^-table albumen, (about 0'5 per cent.) Chlorophylle. Falty matter. Pectic acid, (a product?) Woody fibre, (about 1-8 per cent.) Silica. Water, (rather more than 90 per cent.) Malate of ammonia, malate of lime, free malic acid, acetate of potash, pho^phau- of lime, chloride of calcium, and sulphate of pota.-h. Sourkrout or Sauerkraut. Sauerkraut is prepared by the fermentation of cabbage. The plants are collected from the fields in autumn, divided, the stalks removed, and the leaves cut by machine or hand into slices, a layer of which is placed into a vat, alter- nating with a layer of salt, until the vessel is filled, when it is subjected to the prossuro of heavy weights placed on the whole. At the end of six weeks, (more or less, accord- ing to the temperature,) when the acetous fermentation is completed, it is considered fit for use. The method of cooking it in Germany is to stew it simply in its own liquor, with bacon, pork, or other fat meat. Dill, caraway seeds, and other carrrinatives, are sometimes added. * Ann. de Chim. et Phys. t Schweigger's Journ.fiir Chem. Bd. v. S. 19. 1812. I Pharmaceutisches Cent ral-Blatt fiir 1832, p. 97. J RECEPTACLES AND BRACTS. STEMS. 185 Sauerkraut is not fitted for persons troubled with acidity of stomach. It has a slightly relaxing effect on the bowels. As an antiscorbutic it has long been celebrated, and was highly spoken of by Capt. Cook. Turnip tops are frequently boiled and used as greens, but they are apt to disorder the bowels. The same remarks likewise apply to Spinnge. The herbaceous part of the Water Cress, the seed leaves of While Mustard and of Common Cress, and the leaves of Lettuce and Endive, are eaten raw, under the name of Salads, (Acetaria,~) with the addition of vinegar, oil, salt, and sometimes mustard. They of course yield very little nourishment. The three first-named plants probably owe their pungency to a minute portion of sulphurated volatile oil, analogous to that found in horse-radish. Lettuce leaves are used at table as a salad. They usually abound in a cooling, bland, pellucid juice ; but the more advanced plant contains a bitter, milky juice, which ha.s a slight tendency to promote sleep. Hence lettuce leaves are eaten at supper by those troubled with watchfulness. Galen, in his old age, obtained relief in this way. It is pru- dent, however, to avoid the use of this salad when any tendency to apoplexy manifests itself. The inspissated milky juice of the lettuce is called Lactucarium, or Let'uce Opiu?n, and is employed medicinally as an anodyne, sedative, and soporific. Mr. Loudon enu- merates no less than fourteen varieties of^the lettuce, which are cultivated by gardeners for the table. Of these, seven are Cabbage lettuces, and seven Cos lettuces. The stalks of Rhubarb leaves are used, when peeled, for making pies, tarts, and pud- dings, in the manner of apples and gooseberries. Most species of Rheum may serve for this purpose ; but Rheum Rhaponticum and Rheum hybridum are the kinds usually cul- tivated. Rheum palmatum and Rheum Emodi yield excellent tart rhubarb. Lassaigne found in the stalks of Rheum Rhaponticum oxalic and malic acids. The presence of oxalates makes this food highly objectionable where there is a tendency to oxalate of lime calculi. " I have seen," observes Dr. Prout, " well-marked instances in which an oxalate of lime nephritic attack has followed the free use of rhubarb, (in the shape of tarts, &c.,) particularly when the patient has been in the habit, at the same time, of drinking hard water."* ORDER VI. RECEPTACLES AND BRACTS. Of this order it will be necessary to notice one vegetable only, namely, the Garden Artichoke, (Cynara Scolymus,) whose flower-heads are used before the "expansion of the flowers. The parts of these heads which are eaten, are, 1st, the fleshy receptacle, usu- ally called the bottom, deprived of the thistles and seed down, vulgarly termed the choke ; and, 2dly, the talus, or base of the involucral scales. These contain a sweet saccharine and mucilaginous juice with starchy matter, and they form a bland readily digestible arti- cle of food ; but the melted butter, with which they are usually eaten, renders them objectionable for dyspeptics and others with delicate stomachs. ORDER VII. STEMS. From the stems of several Cycadacese, as well as from some Palms, is obtained a fari- naceous substance, which is employed, in the East, as an article of food. Sago (see p. 63) is procured from this source. * Rhubarb tarts and pies are made of the young green stalks of the plant called m England " Spring Fruit." After peeling oft" the skin, cut the stalks into small pieces, and put them in a saucepan with plenty, of brown sugar. Cover it, and let it stew slowly in its own juice, till soft enough to make a marmalade, then set away to cook. For pies, the rhubarb should be cut very small, and a great deal of sugar mixed with it. Bake about three quarters of an hour. L. 186 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. CLASS II. ALIMENTS DERIVED FROM FLOWERLESS PLANTS. ORDER I. FERNS. From the tuberous rhizomes of ferns is obtained, in some of the Polynesian islands, as we 1 ! as in some other parts of the world, a farinaceous or ligneous matter, which is em- ployed by the natives as a nutritive substance. The rhizomes are cooked by baking or roasting. In general, however, they are only resorted to in ti'.nes of scarcity, when other and more palatable food cannot be obtained.* ORDER II.- LICHENS. Many lichens contain a starchy or amylaceous matter, analogous to gelatine, called lichenin or feculoid, (see p. 66,) to which they owe their alimentary qualities. But it is usually accompanied with a bitter principle, which gives them an unpleasant flavor, and renders them apt to disorder the bowels. To separate the latter substance they require to be soaked in a cold weak alkaline solution, and then washed with cold water. Several species of Gyrophora, as G. proboscidea, . arctica, G. hyperborea, G. Pennsyl- vanica, and G. Muhlcnbergii, are employed by the hunters of t!he Arctic regions of A as articles of food, under the name of Tripe de Roche,^ All four species were eaten b\ Franklin and his companions, in 1821, when suffering great privations in America ; and to its use may their preservation be in part ascribed.f But not having the means of extracting the bitter principle, these lichens proved noxious to several of the party, producing bowel complaints. Iceland Moss (Cetroria Islandica) is extensively used in England, but principally as a medicine.} Its composition, according to Berzelius, is as follows : COMPOSITION OF ICELAND MOSS. Starchy matter (lichenin) Bitter principle (cetrarin) Uncrystallizable sugar Chlofophylle Extractive matter Gum Bilichenates of potash and lime with phosphate of lime Amylaceous fibre . . 1016 Like the other lichens, it must be deprived of its bitter matter before it i- One part of subcarbonate of potash (salt of tartar) dissolved in water, and rei. * Ellis, Polynesian Researches, vol. i., p. 363; Bennett, Narrative of a Whaling Voyage, vol. ii , p. 394. 1840. Dieflenbach (Travels in New Zealand, vol. ii., 1843) says, that the " korati or nt'/jn, pulpous stem of a tree-fern, (Cyathea medullans,) is an excellent vegetable ;" and In- ;uhK M il pared by being cooked a whole night in a native oven." [Besides these, the roots of Niphrodin lentum are eaten in Nipal, according to Dr. Buchanan. Those ofAagiopUris evecta are u.-ccl ; in the Sandwich Islands, under the name of Nehai. Diplazium ctculentum, Pttris escuknta, ;\\ chenia dichotoma, are also occasionally employed for food in different countries. Pttris ai'ttili. Aspidiam filic mas have been used in the manufacture of beer, and Aspidium fragans as a sulxiuue for tea.] L. t Gyrophora MuJilenbergii is employed by the North American Indians, boiled with fish-roe or other animal matter, and is agreeable and nutritious. The G. probosctdea is found abundantly on our highest mountains, and is an extremely pleasant article of food, and of a sweetish taste. L. ^ Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea. 1823. The Cetraria nivalis is also found in abundance on our high mountains, and might tie subftltnted, with advantage, for the C. Islandica. The Raindeer Moss, which forms the winter food of that ani- mal, is the Cenomyce rangiferina. L. SEA WEEDS. 187 caustic by an equal weight of lime, is sufficient to extract the bitter principle out of twenty parts of Iceland moss ; but for this purpose the plant must be soaked in the solution for ten or fourteen days. Thus deprived of its bitterness, -Iceland moss may be used as food by boiling it in water or milk, and flavoring with sugar, lemon, wine, or spices. A con- centrated decoction gelatinizes on cooling. A decoction of Iceland moss, made with the unprepared plant, and therefore containing the bitter principle, is used as a demulcent tonic in consumptive cases. It is prepared by boiling down five drachms of the moss and a pint and a half of water to one pint. The dose is from two table-spoonfuls to a wine-glassful. ORDER HI. ALGJE OR SEA WEEDS. Seveial species of the inarticulated Algae are occasionally employed in some parts of the British islands as articles of food. Some of them abound in a mucilaginous or vegeto- gelatinous substance, to which they in part owe their dietetical uses. Starch, arid in some cases sugar, are also alimentary principles of some of the Algae. Laver (Porphyra laciniata and vulgaris) is sold in the London shops. When boiled or stewed for several hours, until reduced to a pulpy substance, it is brought to table as a luxury, under the name of Marine Sauce, Sloke, or Slouk* In its absence, Green Laver (Uha latissima) is sometimes substituted for it. Carrageen or Irish Moss, called also Pearl Moss, (Chondrus crispus,) is extensively used, partly as a domestic remedy and partly as a nutritive substance. Its composition is as follows : COMPOSITION OF CARRAGEENIN. Vegetable jelly (Carrageenin) 79-1 Mucus 9-5 Resin 0-7 Fat and free acid traces Water > 10 . 7 Salts ... 5 100-0 The salts contain chlorine, iodine, bromine, sodium, magnesium, potassium, and calcium. The substance which I have elsewheref denominated Carrageenin (see p. 70,) ap- proximates to the mucilage of quince seed in composition. Mulder! found it to consist of carbon 45 - 17, hydrogen 4'88, and oxygen 49 95. Carrageenin possesses slight nutritive qualities. In the form of decoction, it is em- ployed as a popular remedy for consumption, scrofula, &c. A very concentrated decoc- tion gelatinizes on cooling, and the jelly thus prepared is used, by careful housekeepers, in the preparation of Blanc-mange, jellies, white soup, &c. ; but it is a wretched substi- tute for gelatine, (isinglass or calves' feet.) It has a fishy or sea-weed flavor, especially when it has been kept for some days. Ceylon or Jafna Moss (Gracilaria lichenoides) is a whitish filamentous sea weed brought from India. Its composition is as follows : COMPOSITION OF CEYLON MOSS. Vegetable jelly 54-5 True Starch . 15'G Ligneous fibre 18-0 * The Hon. W. H. Harvey's Manual of the British Atece. 1841. t See my Elements of Materia Medica, vol. ii. p. 87 ., A ed. ' t Phnrmaceulisches Central-Blallfur 1838. 188 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Gum ... 4-0 Sulphate and muriate of soda 6-5 Sulphate and phosphate of lime Wax, iron, and loss, . 1*0 100.0 By boiling in water it yields a liquid which gelatinizes on cooling. The decoction or jolly forms an agreeable, light, nourishing article of food for invalids and children.* ORDER IV. FUNGI OR MUSHROOMS. Though a considerable number of species of fungi are edible in fact, several form deli- cious articles of food a small number only are in common use in England. This has arisen, in great measure, from the difficulty experienced by the public in discriminating wholesome from poisonous species. Nay, it would appear that the same species is under some circumstances edible, under others deleterious. This, if true, is a very proper ground for distrust. " So strongly did the late Professor L. C. Richard feel the prudence of this-, that although no one was better acquainted with the distinctions of fungi, he wouKl eat any, except such as had been raised in gardens in mushroom beds."f The edible species in most common use in England are 1st. Agaricus campestris t (Common 1 Cultivated Mushroom,} which, in the adult state, is employed in the preparation of ketchup, and is eaten fresh, either stewed or broiled : the young or button mushroom is pickled. 2dly. Morchella esculenta, (Common Morel,) employed to flavor gravies, ragouts, &c. 3dly. Tuber cibarium, (Common Trvffle,} a subterraneous fungus, used for seasoning. No less than thirty-three species of fungi are eaten in Russia4 The supposed alimentary principle of mushrooms is fungin, already described, ( 68,) to which must, in some cases, be added mannile. But it appears to me by no means clearly made out that these vegetables possess much nutritive power.} They are cer- * Besides the Algce above mentioned, we may, on the authority of Lindley, add the Rhodomdu fmhrintn, the duhe of the Scots, dittesk of the Irish, and saccharine Fucus of the Icelander-, which is consumed in large quantities throughout the maritime countries of the north of Europe, and in the Grecian Archipel- ago ; the Jridce,a cduUn, employed in Scotland and the southwest of KiiL'land : the /.'/(/-. pressa, used hy the Sandwich Islanders as an r>cnlent, and found on our shori-s : tin / rinnnli- fida (Pepper-dulse) and Ltimimiria digitntu, (Taripli,} bot'h e-.itcn in Scotland, and hawked ;ihout \\\- of Edinburgh with the cry, "buy dulse and tangle :" the Alnrni <*< nlmln. which forms part of the simple fare of the poorer classes of Ireland, Scotland, Iceland, Denmark, and the Faroe Islands. Tin- hun'mui'm potafontm furnishes the aborigines of Australia with a large proportion of their food, \ e.-sels.and in>tn:nients : the Diimttta utilis constitutes an equally important resource to the poor on the v. : South America. In Asia several species of gclidium are made use of to render more palatable the hot and hit- ing condiments of the East. Some undetermined species of their gums furnish the materials of which the edible swallow's-nests are composed. T.amouroux remarks that three s-pecies of bwallow construct edible nests, two of which build at a distance from the sea coast, and use the sea weed only as a for other matters. The nests of the third are consequently most esteemed, and sold for nearly their weight in gold. Gracilaria Hthinoid:*, mentioned by our author, is highly valued for food in Ceylon and other parts of the east; and G. compressa, found in Great Britain and this country, is scarcely in- ferior to it. To the lower animals sea weeds also furnish invaluable resources in time's of scarcity of other food. In the north of Europe the Rhodomela palma/a is a favorite article with sheep and goats : in some of the Scottish islands horses, cattle, and sheep feed chiefly upon Fucus vesiculosus during the winter -nonths, and in Gothland it is commonly given to pigs. Fucus serralus and Chorda flum constitute a part of the fodder upon which the cattle are supported in Norway. L. t Lindley, Natural System of Botany, 2d ed. p. 442 t Dr. (now Sir G.) Lefevre, London Medical Gazette, vol. xxiii. p. 414. " We do not believe," says the eccentric Dr. Kitchener in his Cook's Oracle, " that mushrooms are nutritive." TEA. . 89 tainly difficult of digestion, and on certain constitutions act very injuriously. Invalids, dyspeptics, and others with delicate stomachs, will act prudently in avoiding the use of this doubtful order of foods.* 2. LIQUID ALIMENTS OR DRINKS. The basis of all drinks is water, which I have already considered among alimentary principles. I have now to notice the compounded liquid aliments, or those composed of water combined with some other substance. These I shall arrange in six orders, as follows : 1. Mucilaginous, farinaceous, or saccharine drinks. 2. Aromatic or astringent drinks. 3. Acidulous drinks. 4. Animal broths, or drinks containing gelatine and osmazome. 5. Emulsive or milky drinks. 6. Alcoholic and other intoxicating drinks. ORDER I. MUCILAGINOUS, FARINACEOUS, OR SACCHARINE DRINKS. These drinks differ but little from common water. They are very slightly nutritive, and are employed as demulcents and diluents. They include the liquids popularly known in the sick-chamber as slops, and which on the continent are called tisans. They are well adapted for febrile and inflammatory maladies, especially when combined with an affection of the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal. One of the simplest of the drinks of this order is Toast Water, which is prepared by in- fusing toasted bread or biscuit in water. By this means the water is rendered much more palatable and agreeable, by the empyreumatic or aromatic and gummy or starchy matter which the toast communicates to it. It is a very wholesome and useful drink. Theother drinks of this order have been already considered. (See Gum Wat&. p. 54, Siigar Water, p. 58, Sago Gruel, p. 64, Tdpioca Gruel, p. 64, Arrow-root Gruel, p. 65, Common or Oat Gruel, p. 154, Barley Water, p. 156, Compound Barley Water, p. 157, and Mucilage of Rice, p. 160.) ORDER II. AROMATIC OR ASTRINGENT DRINKS. Under this order are included Tea, Coffee, Chicory, Chocolate, and Cocoa. 1. TEA. The shrub or shrubs from which Tea is procured are closely allied to the well-known Camelia Japonica. Two kinds, known respectively as the Thea -viridis and Thea Bohea, are cultivated in the botanical gardens of England ; the first is commonly said to yield Green Tea, the latter Black Tea. Though their general characters and ap- pearance give the idea of their being distinct species, yet by some botanists they are con- sidered to be mere varieties. Thus De Candolle refers them to one species, under the name of Thea Chinensis. Great discrepancy of opinion exists amongst writers as to whether the green and black teas of commerce are the produce of one or of two species. Some writers contend for one species ; " the green and black, with all the diversities of each, being mere varieties produced by a difference in the culture, qualities of soil, age of the crop when taken up, and the modes of preparation for the market "f Others, however, assert the existence of * Repeated instances of poisoning from the use of mushrooms have occurred in the United Skies witlun a few years past. There is no doubt that climate, as well as the mode of cooking, modifies, ;n an im portant manner, the qualities of these fungi ; and there is some reason to believe that poisonous and wholesome species are sometimes confounded under the same name. The plan which we adopt, and which we can recommend as perfectly safe, is never to eat them at all. L. t Robinson's Descriptive Account of Asam. 1841. 19 o COMPOUND ALIMENTS. two distinct species. Thus Mr. Reeves,* whose opinions are entitled to great weight, ex- presses his surprise "that any person who has been in China, or, indeed, any one who has seen the difference in the color of the infusions of black and green tea, could sup- pose for a moment that they were the produce of the same plant, differing only in the mode of curing; particularly as they do not grow in the neighborhood of each other." The principal varieties of Black Teas are, Bohea, Congou, Campoi, Souchong, Caper, and Pekoe. The last-mentioned one is the best It is prepared from the unexpanded leaf-bud. Bohea is the lower grade of black tea. To the Green Teas belong Twankay, Hyson-skin, Hyson, Imperial, and Gunpowder. "The gunpowder here stands in the place of the pekoe, being composed of the unopened buds of the spring crop. Imperial, hyson, and young hyson, consist of the second and third crops. The light and inferior feaves, separated from the hyson by a winnowing machine, constitute hyson-skin."f The latest analysis of tea is that qf Mulder.}: COMPOSITION OF TEA. Hyson. Congou. Hyson. Congou. Volatile oil 0-79 - 0-60 -- 0-98 (MM Chlorophylle 2'^ - 1-84 - 3-21 l-2-< Wax 0-2S - 0-00 - 0-32 - <><><> Resin . ' . 2-22 - *M - l'<~.l - -J H Gum Tannin . Theine . Extractive . Apotheme K\t. obtained by hydrochlor c acid Albumen Fibrous matter 8-56 - 7-28 - 12-20 - 11-ciS - 1288 - 17-56 - 14-80 013 _ CMC, _ o-fio _ or,;. 2280 - 19-88 - 21-6-i - 23-GO - I'M -2 - 20-36 - I "21 3-00 - 2-80 - 3-f.l - 1-28 17-08 - 28-32 - ls-20 - - 98-30 -100-42 - Salts included in the above . . . 5-56 - 5-24 - 4-76 - 5-36 According to this analysis, green tea contains more tannin than black tea. This accords with every-day experience, as well as with the experiments of Mr. Brando ;} but it i- op- posed to the results obtained by Sir II. Davyll and Frank, IF both of whom state that black tea is the most astringent. It is probable, therefore, that the amount of tannin in differ- ent teas is subject to variation. The substance called Theine, or Theina, is a crystalline salifiable base, discovered some years since by Oudry,} and since found to be identical with caffeine, obtained from coffee. Its formula is C 8 II s N 2 O 2 . It exists in tea, in combination with tannic acid. Hot extracts the tannate of theina as well as free tannic acid; but by cooling, both of substances almost entirely precipitate. According Mulder, theina is not to be regarded as the principle which confers on tea its peculiar or characteristic properties. Its action on the system is not very obvious. He gave half a grain to a rabbit; the animal ate but lit- tle the next day, and abDrted the day after. Liebigff has suggested that it may contribute to the formation of bile. " Without entering minutely into the medicinal action of caf- feine, (theine,)" he observes, "it will surely appear a most striking fact, even if wn were I to deny its influence on the process of secretion, that this substance, with the addition of * London's Gardener's Maga~r\?, vol. ix. p. 713. t M'Culloch's Dictionary of Commerce. \ Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt filr 1838, p. 403. Quarterly Journal, vol xii. p. 201. || Philosophical Transactions for 1803, p. 268. 1! Gmelin, Handbuch dcr Chemk, vol. ii. p. 1252. ** Thomson, Organic Chemistry, p. 295. tt Animal Clumistry, p. 179, et seq. TEA. 191 oxygen and the elements of water, can yield taurine, the nitrogenized compound peculiar to bile : 1 atom Caffeine or Theine . = C 8 N 2 H O 2 9 atoms Water ... . = H 9 O^ 9 atoms Oxygen = O 3 C 8 N 2 H>< O 2( > = 2 atoms Taurme . ... 2 (C 4 N H' O)" The same authority adds, that "2 T 8 ths grains of caffeine [theine] can give to an ounce of bile the nitrogen it contains in the form of taurine. If an infusion of tea con- tain no more than the J-th of a grain of caffeine, [theine,] still, if it contribute in point of fact to the formation of bile, the action even of such a quantity cannot be looked upon as a nullity. Neither can it be denied that, in the case of an excess of non-azotized food and a deficiency of motion, which is required to cause the change of matter in the tis- sues, and thus to yield the nitrogenized product which enters into the composition of bile, that in such a condition the health may be benefited by the use of compounds which are capable of supplying the place of the nitrogenized product produced in the healthy state of the body, and essential to the production of an important element of respiration. In a chemical sense and it is this alone which the preceding remarks are intended to show caffeine or theine, asparagine, and theobromine, are, in virtue of their composition, better adapted to this purpose than all other nitrogeni^ed vegetable products. The ac- tion of these substances, in ordinary circumstances, is not obvious, but it unquestion- ably exists." These views, though quite hypothetical, are highly ingenious and interest- ing. The peculiar flavor of tea depends on the volatile oil, which is lighter than water, a-nd has a lemon yellow color, and the taste and smell of tea. Alone it acts as a narcotic, but in combination with tannin, as a diuretic and diaphoretic. It is extracted from tea by hot water, in which, however, it is not always equally soluble, its solubility being modified by the other constituents. The following is the composition of the ashes of black tea : ASHES OF CONGO TEA. Chinese. Javanese. Potash, sulphate, phosphate, and muriate of potash . . 2*84 3-40 Oxide of iron, carbonate, sulphate, and phosphate of lime, ) ,o 1.^4 and carbonate of magnesia $ Hypermangauate of potash traces Silica 0-68 0-32 5-24 536 Notwithstanding the extensive employment of tea in this country, it is no easy matter to ascertain its precise effects on the constitution. Its astringency, proved 'by its chemi- cal properties, depends on the presence of tannin. Of this quality we may beneficially avail ourselves in some sases of poisoning, as by poisonous mushrooms, by opium or laudanum, or by any other vegetable substance containing a vegetable alkali, with which tannin combines. Schvvann* found that tannin throws down a precipitate from the arti- ficial digestive liquids, and renders this fluid inert. Does the copious use of strong tea, therefore, immediately after a meal, impede the process of digestion ? T)..e peculiar influence of tea, especially of the green variety, over the nervous system, depends on the volatile oil above referred to. This .influence is analogous, in some re- spects to that of foxglove ; for both green tea arid foxglove occasion watchfulness, and * Quoted by Muller, in his Elements of Physiology : see Baly's translation, p. 5-16. COMPOUND ALIMENTS. act as sedatives on the heart and blood-vessels. These effects of tea are familiar to most persons. It is a common practice with those who desire nocturnal study to use tea; and on the same principle it may be employed as an antisoporific to counteract the effects of opium and intoxicating liquors, and to relieve the stupor of fever. As a diluent and se- dative it is well adapted for febrile and inflammatory disorders, and most persons can bear testimony to its good effects in these cases. To its sedative influence also should be ascribed the relief of headache sometimes experienced by the use of strong tea. In colds, catarrhs, and slight rheumatic cases, warm tea is used as a diluent, diaphoretic, and diuretic. Strong green tea produces on some constitutions, usually those popularly known as nervous, very severe effects. It gives rise to tremor, anxiety, sleeplessness, and most distressing feelings. On others, however, none of these symptoms are manifested. Part of the ill effects sometimes ascribed to tea may be owing to the use of so much aqueous liquid, to the temperature of the liquid, to milk and sugar used with it, or to the action of the tannin on the digestive liquid. But independently of these, tea pos- sesses a specific and marked influence over the functions of the brain not referrible to any of the circumstances just alluded to. Weak tea rarely disagrees with the invalid, and is admissible in a variety of maladies, in most of which it proves refreshing and agreeable. It is well adapted for febrile and inflammatory complaints ; and is particularly valuable when we are desirous of checking sleep. Moreover, if the suggestions of Liebig, before -noticed, be correct, tea is by no means to be considered as a mere diluent, but as possessing nutritive powers of no mean kind* 2. COFFEE. The Coffee plant ( Coffea arabica) is a native of Arabia Felix and Ethiopia, but is extensively cultivated in Asia and America. It is an evergreen shrub, from fifteen to twenty feet high, and bears an oval, succulent, blackish red or purplish two-seeded berry. The seeds are enclosed in a membranous coat, (endocarp,) called by some bota- nists a parchment-like putamen. Occasionally they are imported with this coat remaining on them, and in this state they form, what is called in commerce coffee, in the husk. In general, however, they are met with without this coat, and in this state are called simply coffee, or raw coffee. They then consist of a horny, yellow, bluish or greenish albumen, which is convex on one side, but flat on the other side, with a longitudinal furrow. At one end of the seed is the embryo, with its cordiform cotyledons. The varieties of coffee are distinguished in commerce according to their places of growth; but considered with reference to their physical properties, they are characterized by color (yellow, bluish, or greenish) and size, (the smallest seeds being about three lines long and two broad, the largest five lines long and two lines and a half broad.) Arabian or Mocha Coffee is small and dark yellow. Java and East India (Malabar) kinds are larger and paler yellow. The Ceylon is more analogous to the West India kinds, (Jamai- ca, Berbice, Demerara, Dominica, Barbadoes, &c.,) which, as well as the Brazilian, have a bluish or greenish gray tint. Roasted Coffee is, when ground, extensively adulterated with chicory. To detect the adulteration, shake the suspected coffee with cold water in a wineglass : if it be pure coffee, it will swim, and scarcely communicate any color to the fluid. Chicory, on the other hand, sinks, and communicates a deep red tint to the water. The microscope serves also to detect the adulteration ; fragments of dotted ducts being found when chicory is present, but not when the coffee is pure. The presence of roasted corn may * Appendix, 12. COFFEE. ins be detected by the blue color produced on the addition of a solution of iodine to the cold decoction. Coffee has been the subject of repeated chemical investigation ; but a good analysis ol it is still a desideratum. The following probably are the constituents of raw coffee : COMPOSITION OF RAW COFFEE. Caffeic acid. Tanno-caffeic acid (Gallic acid of some ?) Caffeine. Wax. Fixed oil. Resin. Gum. Extractive. Albumen. " lin. Sulphur (Robiquet.) Lime J ' Iron. Ligni Sulpt Lime and Magnesia. Caffeic acid is a white powder insoluble in alcohol, but soluble in water. Its charac- teristic property is, that when heated it emits an odor precisely similar to that of roasted coffee ; so that the aroma of roasted coffee must depend on the decomposition by heat of this acid.* Zenneck,f it is true, denies this, and asserts that the aromatic principle is neither acid nor alkaline ; but he admits that alkalies render it odorless, while the subse- quent addition of an acid causes the smell to reappear; a fact strongly confirmatory of its acid nature. Pfaff J analyzed this acid, and found it to consist of carbon 29-1, hydrogen 6'9, and oxygen 6 - 4. Tanno-caffeic acid is a dark brown extractiform substance, whose solution yields a green color with the salts of the peroxide of iron, but no precipitate with a solution of isinglass. ' In these properties it resembles catechine, (catechuic acid.) Caffeine is identical with Theine, already described, (see p. 190.) By roasting, coffee suffers some remarkable and well-known changes in its sensible pro- perties ; but, in a chemical point of view, the precise nature of these changes is by no means well determined. The aroma is, as I have already stated, ascribed by Pfaff to the effect of heat on the caffeic acid. The infusion or decoction of coffee forms a well-known favorite beverage. Like tea, it diminishes the disposition to sleep, and hence is often resorted to by those who desire nocturnal study. It may also be used to counteract the stupor induced by opium, alco- holic liquors, and other narcotics. In some constitutions it acts on the bowels as a mild laxative. I have known several persons on whom it had this effect ; yet it is usually de- scribed as producing constipation. Employed moderately, I believe it to be a wholesome and slightly nutritive beverage. I have already (see p. 190 et seq.~) explained Liebig's hypothesis of the nutritive agency of caffeine, (theine.) The immoderate use of coffee is said to produce various nervous disorders, such as anxiety, tremor, disordered vision, palpitation, and feverishness Coffee is occasionally useful in the sick-chamber. It relieves some forms of headache, espesially those denominated nervous, and which are unaccompanied with sanguineous congestion. It likewise proves beneficial in some cases of spasmodic asthma. Dunn's Essence of Coffee is prepared by subjecting moistened roasted coffee to pres- sure, 3. CHICORY OR SUCCORY. The substance sold in the shops under the name of chicory is the roasted root of the Cichorium Inlybus, (Wild Succory, or Wild Endive,) an indi- * Pfaff, Pharmaceutisches Central-jBlatt, fur 1831, }p. 423 & 441. t Ibid. p. 444. J Ibid. p. 443. Coffee is one of the most valuable cordials and restoratives after exhaust: on and creat fatigue, and in cases of -sudden withdrawal of alcoholic liquors : See Appendix,. 13. L. It 13 194 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. genous syngenesious plant, extensively cultivated in Holland, Belgium, and Germany, from whence it is largely imported. Ths root is cut, dried, roasted like coffee in heated iron cylinders which are kept revolving, and then ground in mills. The powder is em- ployed by grocers and others to adulterate coffee, (see p. 192.) Its infusion or decoction forms a perfectly wholesome beverage, but which wants the fine flavor for which genuine coffee is renowned. I have been informed, however, that some persons prefer the flavor of a mixture of coffee and chicory to that of unmixed coffee. Chicory is frequently adul- tersied. A grinder of the article tells me that roasted peas and beans, damaged corn, and coffee husks, are used as sophistications, and that Venetian red or Armenian bole is em- ployed as a coloring agent.* 4. CHOCOLATE. This is prepared from the seeds of the Theobroma Cacao, a native of tho West Indies and of Continental America. The kernels of the seeds have, according to Lampadius,f the following composition : COMPOSITION OF THE KERNELS OF CACAO SEEDS. Fat or oil (butter of cacao) 5310 Albuminous brown substance 16 70 Starch 1091 Mucilage or gum 775 lied coloring matter .......... 2 - 01 Lianine . . JK) Water . 6'20 Loss (from adhesion of mucilage to the filter) 343 10000 The fat or oil, called butter of cacao, is, therefore, the principal ingredient of the seeds. { is a white solid substance, has a chocolate flavor, and is chiefly composed of oleine and stearine ; but, unlike most other fats, is not apt to become rancid. More recently, a nitrogenized crystalline principle, called theobromine, has been discov- ered in these seeds. Its formula is C 9 H 5 N* O', or C 18 H M N O 4 . It is very similar to caffeine. The husks consist principally of lignine, but they yield by boiling a brownis[i mucilagi- nous extract. Chocolate is prepared by roasting the seeds, and depriving them of their husks, which constitute about 23 per cent, of the whole. The kernels of the roasted seeds constitute what is called Nib Cocoa. They are ground in a mill, whose sole rests on a heated iron plate, by which they are made into a brown pasty mass, which, when sweetened with Borne saccharine matter, flavored with either vanilla or cinnamon, and placed in proper moulds, constitutes Chocolate. In a large manufactory of this substance in London, honey is employed as a sweetener, and a portion of starchy matter (sago flour or potato starch) i? added, in order to give the chocolate a thickening quality. Most of the chocolate made at this establishment consists merely of the decorticated roasted seeds, sago flour, and honey, without any other flavoring ingredient.}: ChocoU'3 furnishes a moderately nourishing and very agreeable beverage. On hypo- T'otical grounds, Liebig has suggested that the theobromine. may contribute to the forma- tion of the nitrogenized principle of the bile and urine ; for with the addition of the ele- * We Lave used a decoction of chicory with great benefit in congestions and torpor of the liver and other forms of hepatic disease. With 'equal parts of dried Dandelion root, it forms a not unit! beverage, and may be employed as a substitute for coffee in such cases. L. Quoted in l)ulk's Preussische Fharmakopoe. j A similar manufactory has lately been established in this city, (N. York,) and the process of grind- ing may he seen at almost any hour, especially in the evening, in a certain window in Broadway. L. ACIDULOUS DRINKS. 195 merits of water and of a certain quantity of oxygen, it yields the elements of taurine and 1 at. theobromine, J5 18 N H 10 O* 22 at. water . . H 2 * O 22 16 at. oxygen . . O 16 4 at. taurine . . C 18 N* H* 3 O 1 at. urea . . C a N 2 H* O 3 C 18 N 6 H 32 O 42 J Chocolate, though devoid of the disagreeable qualities frequently evinced by tea and coffee, of disturbing the nervous functions, yet is difficult of digestion, on account of the large quantity of oil which it contains, and is, therefore, very apt to disturb the stomach of dyspeptics and of others troubled with a delicate stomach. 5. COCOA. Under this name is sold in the shops another preparation of the seeds of the Theobroma Cacao. It is prepared by grinding the entire roasted seeds, (kernels and husks,) sometimes mixed with sago meal or potato starch. I suspect that, besides the entire seeds, the husks separated in the manufacture of chocolate are also intermixed. It is somewhat less oily than chocolate, and being rather astringent, is adapted for persons with relaxed bowels. ORDER III.-ACIDULOUS DRINKS. These drinks consist of water, as their basis, and an acid, which is usually a vegetable one. a . A considerable number of acidulous drinks are prepared with the juices of fruits. Of these Lemonade, already noticed, (see p. 172,) is the most familiar example. ft t Acidulous drinks are also prepared by dissolving vegetable acids or acidulous salts in water, and variously flavoring the liquid. Raspberry-vinegar water (see p. 70) and Imperial (see p. 75) are drinks of this kind. The genera] effects of these acidulous drinks have been already explained, (see p. 72.) They allay thirst, both as well by the acid as the water which they contain. They form cooling, refreshing, antiscorbutic drinks, and are well adapted for hot seasons and for febrile and inflammatory cases. Y t Decoctions of fruits likewise form acidulous drinks. They promote the secretions of the alimentary canal, and act as laxatives. Apple Tea is prepared by boiling an apple in half a pint of water, and adding sugar to the decanted liquor. 3 The caroonated or effervescent drinks belong to this order. They owe their brisk- ness and sparkling quality to carbonic acid gas, which has been either forced into the liquid by pressure, or developed in it after the corking of the bottle. . The Bottle Soda Water of the shops is, in general, merely a solution of carbonic acid gas in water ; and might, therefore, be more properly denominated Carbonic acid Wafer. Webb's Soda Water is an exception to this statement, as, in the preparation of it, 15 grains of crystallized carbonate of soda are added to every 10 fluid ounces of water ; &ud, in con- sequence, it effervesces on the addition of an acid, after the, escape of the free jarbonic acid. The quantity of gas contained in these effervescing waters depends on the pressure employed in their preparation. At the ordinary temperature and pressure of the atmo- sphere, water absorbs its own volume of carbonic acid gas, and acquires a specific gravity of 1'OOIS. By doubling the pressure, it takes up two volumes of gas ; by trebling it, three volumes; and so on. Mr. Webb informs me that a pressure of eleven atmospheres is used in the preparation of his soda water.* Water thus charged with carbonic acid * "Hudson's Soda Water," which is in very general use in New York, is prepared under an equal degree of pressure. More than one fatal accident has occurred from the explosion of the fountains in which it is confined. L. 196 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. forms a refreshing cooling beverage. It acts both as a diaphoretic and diuretic, and is a most valuable agent for checking nausea and vomiting. When it contains bicarbonate of soda in solution, it proves antacid, and is a most valuable beverage for persons afflicted with calculi in the bladder. The facts adduced by M. Chevallier* appear to me to be conclusive that bicarbonate of soda promotes the solution of uric acid in the bladder, and that it assists in breaking up and dividing other calculi, (the phosphates.) Ginger Beer is a well-known popular and agreeable beverage. A very superior pre- paration of this kind is made as follows : Take of White Sugar 20 Ibs., Lemon or Lime Juice 18 oz., Honey 1 lb., Ginger, bruised, 22 oz., Water 18 gallons. Boil the ginger in three gallons of water for half an hour ; then add the sugar, the juice, and the honey, with the remainder of the water, and strain through a cloth. When cold, add the White of one Egg and half an ounce of Essence of Lemons. After it has stood for four days, let it be bottled. This preparation will keep for many months. Several other effervescing or carbonated drinks have already been noticed (see Lemon and Kali, p. 74 ; Concrete Acidulated Alkali, p. 74 ; Soda Powders, p. 74 ; Ginger Beer Powders, p. 75; Effervescing Saline Draught, p. 75; and Seidlitz Powders, p. 75.) They are prepared with a vegetable acid (citric or tartaric) and an alkaline carbonate. Hence there is formed, in their manufacture, a vegetable alkaline salt, (citrate or tartrate,) the general effects of which on the system have been already noticed, (see p. 15.) ORDER IV. DRINKS CONTAINING GELATINE AND OZMAZOME. (Broths and Soups.) These -are essentially decoctions of animal flesh, (meat;) though frequently vegetables are also used in their preparation. The composition of the flesh of various species of animals has been already stated, (see pp. Ill, 113, and 114;) but the changes which it suffers in the operation of boiling are by no means well ascertained. The fibrine of the meat is rendered harder, but being insoluble in water, contributes nothing to this liquid. The albumen of meat is partly solid, partly liquid ; the latter is coagulated by the boiling water. By the united agency of water and heat, a portion of albumen or at least a nitrogenous matter is rendered soluble, and therefore is contained in the broth. The hematosin, (see pp. 92 and 119,) or coloring matter of the blood, dissolves in, and communicates a red color to, cold water: but, as soon as the water becomes sufficiently heated, the hematosin coagulates, and forms brown flocculi, which float on the top of the liquor, and constitute part of what is called the scum. The cellular tissue, the bones, the aponeuroses, and the tendons, yield, by boiling in vater, gelatine. The fatty matters melt, and, except when they are contained in closed cells, escaping from the meat, float on the top of the broth, The nervous or cerebral fatty matter, !see p. 117,) which principally constitutes the pulp of the nerves, is softened by the heat, md is in part carried off during the process. The odor which it evolves when heated is ecognised both in the broth and the boiled meat. During the ebullition there are obtained, by unknown reactions, other products ; viz. Istly, creatine, (see p. 113,) 2dly, osmazome, (see p. 113,) or the extractive matter on which the odor and flavor of broth principally depend ; 3dly, ammonia ; 4thly, a sulphureted compound, (sulphureted hydrogen ?) which blackens paper moistened with a solution of acetate of lead ; 5thly, a volatile acid, analogous to acetic acid ; Gthly, an odorous volatile acid, similar to butyric acid. The three last-mentioned substances are partially or wholly volatilized. * London Medical Gazette, vol. xx. p. 542. BROTHS AND SOUPS. 197 Thus, then, the following are the constituents of broth and boiled meat : Broth. Gelatine. Albuminous matter. Creatme. Extractive matters (Osmazorfie.) La flic acid. Salts. A little fatly matter. yact-liarine matter. Water. Bailed Meat. Fibrine. Albumen (coagulated.) Gelatinous cellular tissue. Fat. Nervous matter. Water. Besides moat, it is customary to employ vegetables, (as turnips, carrots, onions, &c.) in the preparation of broths. These communicate coloring and mucilaginous matters, sugar, nitrogenized matter, A y o!atile oils and salts. All the cruciferous plants, as turnips and cab- bages, yield a sulphureted and nitrogenized principle. Onions and leeks furnish an acrid volatile oil : the sweet herbs an aromatic oil. The following table, drawn up from Chevreul's results, shows the quantity of aliment- ary matter contained in broth : Substances used in the preparation of broth. Beef 1-433 Bone 0-430 Common salt . . . 0'040 Water .... 5000-000 Turnips Carrots . . . \ 0-331 Onio'ns (burnt) . Products. Broth Boiled meat Bone Vegetables 0-858 0-392 0'340 The specific gravity of the broth was 1-0136. One litre ( = tained wine pints) con- Water . . Organic matters Salts 'soluble insoluble f Potash I Soda < Chlorine j Phosphoric acid (^Sulphuric acid ( Phosphate magnesia lime ( Oxide copper 985-600 16-917 10-721 8-539 1013-6 Magendie* states that 1 litre (= ^yYo'V w " ie pints) of the broth, whiah is very care- fully prepared by the " Compagnie^hollandaise" in Paris, contains from 24 to 25 grammes ( 370'416 to 385-85 troy grains) of dry matter, of which from 8 to 10 grammes (=123 '472 to 154'34 troy grains) are saline substances. It is obvious from these state- ments that the actual amount of nutritive matter in broths is very small. Beef Tea, Mutton, Veal, and Chicken Broths, are the lightest forms of animal food, and are employed by invalids and convalescents. Beef Tea is a light and pleasant arti- cle of diet. Mutton Broth is apt to disagree with persons having delicate stomachs, es- pecially if the fat be not skimmed from it. It is frequently given to promote the opera- tion of purgative medicine. Chicken Broth, of all the animal decoctions, is the least dis- posed to disturb the stomach. It is especially adapted for invalids with great irritability of stomach. Veal Broth is less frequently used. When prepared from a knuckle of veal, and sufficiently concentrated, it gelatinizes on cooling. ORDER V. EMULSIVE OR MILKY DRINKS. These liquids hold in suspension an oily or fatty substance in a finely divided state. Comptes Rendus, 1841, t. xiii. 198 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Animal Milk, the principal and most important drink of this order, has been already fully considered, (see p. 119, el seq.} Almond Milk is an emulsive liquid used as a drink. It is prepared as follows : Take of Sweet Almonds, blanched, half an ounce, Powdered Gum Arabic a drachm, White Sugar two drachms, and Water six ounces and a half. Beat the almonds with the sugar and water, and then gradually add the water. Almond milk agrees with animal milk in many of its properties. It contains in solution caseine, sugar, and gum, and retains in suspension a fixed oil. It forms a very agreeable demulcent drink in colds, coughs, and inflammatory affections of the bowels and urinary organs. Orgeat, Syrup of Orgeat, or Syrup of Almonds, is thus prepared : Take of Sweet Almonds a pound ; Bitter Almonds four ounces ; Water three wine pints ; and Sugar six pounds. Blanch the almonds, and beat them in a mortar to a fine paste, adding three fluid ounces of the water and a pound of the sugar. Mix the paste thoroughly with the remainder of the water, strain with strong expression, add the remainder of the sugar to the strained liquor, and dissolve it with the aid of a gentle heat Strain the syrup through the linen, and, having allowed it to cool, put it into bottles, which must be well stopped, and kept in a cool place. In most recipes for it, about an ounce of Powdered Gum is directed to be used, and about half a pint of Orange Flower Water : but the latter, as found in the shops, is frequently contaminated with lead. Orgeat is demulcent and slightly narcotic, owing to the presence of prussic acid, (derived from the bitter almonds.) It is used to flavor drinks for invalids, and to allay troublesome coughs. .The dose of it is from one to two table-spoonfuls. The Milk of the Cocoa Nut is an albuminous liquid, closely allied to vegetable emul- sions, though it is devoid of oily matter. It holds in solution a proteine compound, (vege- table caseine ?) sugar, gum, and some salts. It is, therefore, slightly nutritive. ORDER VI. ALCOHOLIC AND OTHER INTOXICATING DRINKS. I have already fully considered the dietetical properties of Alcohol and of the different kinds of Ardent Spirit in ordinary use in England, (see pp. 25 to 27, and 76 to 80.] Of alcoholic drinks, therefore, Malt Liquor and Wine alone remain for consideration. 1. MALT LIQUOR OR BEER. Under this head are included Afe, Stout, Porter, and the weaker kinds of beer commonly known as Table or Small Beer. All these are ferment- ed infusions of malt flavored with hops. The densities of different kinds of beer are, according to Mr. Richardson, as follows I- DENSITY OF BEER. Kinds of Beer. Excess in pounds p(r bamel over a ba -j el of water. Specific Gravity. Burton Ale, 1st sort . . . " 2dsort ... " 3d sort ... Common Ale 40 to 43 35 to 40 28 to 33 25 to 57 1-111 to 1120 1097tollU 1 077 to 1-002 1 (WO to T073 21 0GB Porter, common sort ... double brown stout ... " best brown stout . . Common table beer Good table beer 18 20 23 26 6 12 to 14 050 055 064 072 1014 1 033 fn 1-039 The following are the principal constituents of beer : BEER. 199 Alcohol. Starch sugar. Dextrine, (starch gum.) Extractive and bitter matter. Fatty matters. Aromatic matters. COMPOSITION OF BEER. Glutinous matters. Lactic acid. Carbonic acid. Salts. Water. 1. Alcohol The quantity of spirit contained in different kinds of beer, according to the experiments of Brande and Christison, has been already stated, (see p. 77.) We may safely assume, with Dr. Ure,* that the amount of spirit, " in common strong ale or beer, is about 4 per cent, or four measures of spirits, specific gravity 0-825, in 100 measures of the liquor. The best brown stout porter contains 6 per cent., the strongest ale even 8 per cent. ; but common beer only one."f 2. Carbonic Acid. The quantity of free carbonic acid in beer is subject to considerable variation, as the following table, taken from Dumas, shows : QUANTITY OF CARBONIC ACID IN BEER. Carbonic Acid per cent. in volumes. 2 3 Not frothy Beading, not frothy Yielding a little scum, not Very shsht froth ight frothy 4 8 11 15 20 to 22 25 to 26 Slight froth Moderate froth Rather strong froth Strong froth, much scum 3. Extract. By evaporation we obtain the soluble but fixed and nutritive constituents of beer, in the form of an extract, which consists of starch-sugar, dextrine, lactic acid, different salts, the extractive and aromatic parts of the hop, gluten, and fatty matters. The quantity of extract yielded by beer is subject to considerable variation. It depends not only on the strength of the wort, but on the length of the fermentation and the age of the beer. An imperial pint of good porter yields in general about one ounce and a half of extract. The following is the composition of six varieties of beer, according to Wackenroder :| COMPOSITION OF BEER. % c . i oioi ' t% cC i^ "is i ^ rtSS p t, .1 -0 CONSTITUENTS. ' S'w 4) &PH 1 '5J tj, Q^ l; r ~ l Jei 92299 89753 90793 90-787 90-097 90739 Acetic acid 3 Total .... 100-000 100 000 100-000 1 loo ooo 100-000 100000 Soluble salts ; viz., phosphate of potash, more or less chloride of potassium and sulphate of potash, with some intermixed phosphates of lime id magnesia 0078 0107 0118 0101 0107 0085 Insoluble substances; viz., phosphates of lime and magnesia, with some silica . 0162 0104 0071 0076 01% 0103 * Dictionary of Arts, p. 105. For further information respecting the quantity of alcohol in beer, the reader is referred to Accum's Treatise on Adulterations of Food, and to the writings of Leo. (Pharma- ceutisches Central-Slatt fur 1833, p. 413,) Schrader, Wackenroder. and Lampadius, (Ibid, fur 1834, p. 96, et seq.) f Appendix, 14. ^ Traite de Chimie, t. vi. 1843. Pharmaceutisches Central-Slatt fiir 1834, p. 100. 200 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Considered dietetically, beer possesses a three-fold property: it quenches thirst; 'it stimulates, cheers, and, if takeiv in sufficient quantity, intoxicates; and, lastly, it nour- ishes, or strengthens. Its power of appeasing thirst depends on the aqueous ingredient which it contains, assisted somewhat by its acidulous constituent. Its stimulating, cheer- ing, or intoxicating power, is derived either wholly, or principally, from the alcohol which it contains." Lastly, its nutritive or strengthening quality is derived from the sugar, dex- trine, and other substances contained in the extract Moreover, the bitter -principle of hops confers on beer tonic properties. From these combined qualities beer proves a refreshing and salubrious drink, (always presuming that it is used in moderation,) and an agreeable and valuable stimuli! support to those who have to undergo much bodily fatigue. When Dr. Frankli- sorted that a penny loaf and a pint of water yielded more nourishment than a pint of it is obvious that he regarded beer merely as a nutrient, and overlooked its stimulating and cheering qualities, of which bread and water are totally devoid. It is a popular notion, which has, perhaps, some foundation in fact, that beer has a tendency to promote corpulency. This cannot be the effect of the alcohol which it con- tains, since it is well known that confirmed spirit-drinkers are usually slender, or even emaciated, (see p. 27.) Considered dietetically, beer differs from wine, in containing less alcohol, but more nu- tritive matter ; and, in addition, a bitter tonic extractive derived from the hop. The practice of taking a moderate quantity of mild malt liquor, of sound quality, at dinner, is in general not only unobjectionable, but beneficial. It is especially suited for those who lead an active life, and are engaged in laborious pursuits. For the sedentary and inactive it is less fitted. In the convalescence after lingering diseases, it often proves a most valuable restorative ; but in delicate conditions of the stomach, and in relaxation of the bowels, its use should be prohibited. With bilious and dyspeptic individuals it frequently disagrees, and by such, therefore, should be avoided. In plethoric constitu- tions, especially when there is a tendency to apoplexy, it is objectionable. In some per- sons it is apt to produce headache, and by such it should be either used sparingly, or totally abstained from.f There are considerable differences in the dietetical properties of different kinds of malt liquors, to which it is necessary to make allusion. Ale is prepared with pale malt, and on this account is much lighter colored than Porter and Stout. The strongest kinds of ale are richer in alcohol, sugar, and gum, than any other kind of malt liquor : but though they thus contain a larger amount of nutritive mat- ter, they are not fitted for ordinary use, on account of their intoxicating and stupefying qualities, and are especially to be avoided in diabetic and dyspeptic cases. On some per- sons they act as purgatives. The Pale Ale prepared for the India market, and, there- fore, commonly known as the Indian Pale Ale,\ is free from these objections. It is care- fully fermented, so as to be devoid of all sweetness, or, in other words, to be dry ; and it contains double the usual quantity of hops : it forms, therefore, a most valuable r< tive beverage for invalids and convalescents. It is taken with benefit by many persons on whom other kinds of ale act injuriously. For ordinary use at table, the weaker kinds of ale, popularly known as Table Ale, are to be preferred. Porter is prepared from a mixture of pale and high-dried or charred malts; the pale t Sekct Works, by W. T. Franklin, vol. i., p. 36 Lond., 1818. * Appendix, 15. \ " The beer which the English send to the Indies," says Dumas, " is vnore highly chxrged with the essential oil [of hops.]" WINE. 201 kind being used to give body or strength the dark kind to communicate color.* More- over, a larger amount of hops is used in the preparation of porter than of the ordinary kinds of beer. Porter is much better adapted for table use than strong ale. It agrees with many individuals on whom the latter liquid acts injuriously. Whn new, as gene- rally prepared at the present day, it is called mild; by keeping, a portion of acid is devel- oped in it, and it is then denominated hard. Formerly, when hard porter was in request, publicans were in the habit of rendering new beer hard, or, as it was called, of bringing it forward, by the addition of sulphuric acid. To render old beer mild, carbonate of lime, or of soda, or of potash, is used to neutralize the acid. Beer, especially Porter, is very extensively adulterated.! Coculus indicus is used to augment its intoxicating quality ; and some of the popular treatises on brewing give di- rections for employing it. Thus Morrice directs three Ibs. of Coculus to be used for every ten quarters of malt. " It gives," says he, " an inebriating quality which passes for strength of liquor;" and he adds, that it prevents second fermentation in bottled beer, and consequently the bursting of the bottles in warm climates." This sophistication is a highly dangerous one, coculus indicus being a very poisonous fruit, as well for man as for the inferior animals ; and the legislature has, therefore, very properly imposed a penalty of 200 upon the brewer, and 500 upon the seller of the drug. In order to avoid detection, brewers' druggists are in the habit of preparing a watery extract of the fruit, which is sold as black extract or hard multum.\ Quassia is used as a substitute for hops, to communicate a bitter taste. Grains of Paradise and Cayenne give pungency ; though it is a common but erroneous opinion, that grains of paradise have an intoxicating or narcotic property. Coriander, Caraway, &c., are used to communicate flavor; Liquor- ice, Treacle, and Honey, give color and consistence. A mixture called Beer-heading, composed of green vitriol, (sulphate of iron,) alum, and common salt, is used to give a fine frothy or cauliflower head to beer. 2. WINE. By the term wine is usually meant a drink or liquid prepared by the vinous fermentation of must, (i. e. the juice of the grape ;) but sometimes it is made to include the fermented juices of fruits generally, as of elderberries, currants, gooseberries, &c. ; and, in a more general sense, it comprehends all saccharine liquids which have been subjected to the vinous fermentation. The liquid called ginger wine is an instance of this more ex- tended use of the word wine. In a dietetical point of view it will be necessary to notice those wines only which are obtained from the grape ; and to these, therefore, the following remarks are intended to apply. Must the expressed juice of the grape whose composition I have already noticed, (see p. 170,) readily undergoes fermentation when subjected to a temperature of between 0(. F. and 80 F. ; while in the grape itself the juice does not ferment, owing, as Gay- * The high temperature employed in preparing the brown or black malls greatly alters or actually de- composes the saccharine matter, the diastase and other constituents of the grain, and gives rise to the for- mation of a coloring matter analogous to caramel. t In the Sunday Times of March 13, 1842, is the report of the conviction of a druggist for selling, and of a brewer for buying, various drugs to adulterate beer. Each was fined 200. The drugs were Cocu- lus indicus, Grains of Paradise, Liquorice, Linseed, Caraway, and Cayenne Pepper. | In addition to this. Opium, Extract of Poppies, St. Ignatius' Bean, Nux Vomtca, Tobacco, Bohemian Rosemary and Henbane are used to augment the intoxicating quality of malt liquors ; Aloes, Gentian, Wormwooa, Horehound, and Bitter Orange, as a substitute for hops, and a vast variety of articles to give flavor, color, consistency, &c. The " Domestic Chemist" enumerates forty-six different articles which are used for the manufacture of seer and porter. L. 202 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Lussac has shown, to the exclusion of atmospheric air, the presence of which, therefore, is in some way necessary to set up the process of fermentation.* The peculiar qualities of the different kinds of wine depend on several circumstances ; such as the variety and place of growth of the vine from which the wine is prepared the time of year when the vintage is collected the preparation of the grapes previously to tneir being trodden and pressed and the various manipulations and processes adopted in their fermentation. The wines of different countries are distinguished in commerce by various names. The following is a list of the wines most commonly met with, arranged according to the coun- tries producing them : 1. FRENCH WINES. Champagne, (of which we have the still, creaming, or slightly ^Mirkling, l\\e full- frothing, the white, and the pink ; Burgundy, (red and while ;) Hermitage ; Cutie Rutie ; Rousillon ; Fron- tignac ; Claret, (the most esteemed being the produce of Ijafitle, Latour, Chateau Margaux, and Haul- Brion;} Vinde Grave; Sauterne ; and Bar sac. 2. SPANISH WINES. Sherry, (Xeres ;) Tent, (Rota;) Mountain, (Malaga :) Benicarlo, (Alicant.) 3. PORTUGAL WINES. Port, red and white, (Oporto;) Bucellas, Lisbon, Calcavalla, and Colares, (Lis- bon.) An inferior description of Red Port Wine is shipped at Figuera and Aveiro. 4. GERMAN WINES. Rhine and Moselle Wines. The term Hock, (a corruption of Hochheimer,} is usually applied to the first growths of the Rhine. The term Rhenish commonly indicates an inferior Rhine wine. 5. HUNGARIAN WINES. Tokity. 6. ITALIAN AND SICILIAN WINES. Lachryma Christi ; Marsala ; Syracuse ; I^issa. 7. GRECIAN AND IONIAN WINES. Candian and Cyprus wines. 8. WINES OF MADEIRA AND THE CANARY ISLANDS. Madeira and Canary, (Teneritfr .) 8. WINES OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. Cape Madeira, Pontac, Constantia red and white, (a sweet, luscious wine, much esteemed.) 10. PERSIAN WINES. Shiraz. 11. ENGLISH OR HOME-MADE WINES. Grope, Raisin, Currant, Gooseberry, &c. The composition of wine is subject to considerable variation ; but, in a general way, the following may be said to be its constituents : CONSTITUENTS OF WINE. Water. Alcohol. Bouquet (volatile oil ? an ether T) Sugar. Gum. Kxtractive matter. Gluten (except when tannin is present.) Acetic acid. 1'ttartratc of potash. Tart rate of potash and :\;mina (in German unnett.) Sulphate of potash. Chlorides ot potassium and sodium. Core-Ting matter of the husk \ <' n red toin "- ) Carbonic acid (in Champagne and other effervescing urines.) 1. Doiiquel of Wine. Every wine has a peculiar odor, called its perfume or bouquet, and which must depend on the presence of some volatile principle generated duri 1 process of vinous fermentation. In some cases, if not in all, it appears to bo an ether formed by the action of an organic (fatty ?) acid on the alcohol. Thus by submitting wine lees to distillation, Liebig and Pelouze procured an oily liquor, having a v'jnous odor, consisting of cenanthic ether (C 18 H" O 3 ) mixed with cenanthic acid (C u H 1S O'.) * Must may be preserved for any length of time by carefully excluding the air, although the tempera- ture be above 60 F. L. WINE. 203 " The wines of warm climates," says Liebig, " possess no smell ; wines grown in France have it in a marked degree ; but in the wines from the Rhine the perfume is most intense. The kinds of grapes grown on the Rhine, which ripen very late, and scarcely ever com- pletely, such as the Riessling and Orleans, have the strongest perfume or bouquet and contain, proportionally, a larger quantity of tartaric acid. The earlier grapes, such as the Rulander and others, contain a large proportion of alcohol, and are similar to Spanish wines in their flavor, but they possess no bouquet. The grapes grown at the Cape, from Riesslings transplanted from the Rhine, produce an excellent wine, which does not. how- ever, possess the aroma which distinguishes Rhenish wine. It is evident from these facts, that the acid of wines, and their characteristic perfumes, have some connection, for they are always found together; and it can scarcely be doubted that the presence of the former exercises a certain influence on the formation of the latter."* 2. Alcohol The quantity of alcohol in different wines has been already stated, (see p. 76-77.) Wines which contain a comparatively small quantity of it are denominated light wines ; as Claret, Sauterne, Hock, and Moselle ; while those which are rich in it are termed strong or generous wines; as Lissa, Port, Marsala, Madeira, and Sherry. By keeping them in casks or bottles the quantity of alcohol in them is modified. Madeira and Sherry kept for a moderate term of years become somewhat stronger; the sugar which they contained becoming slowly converted into alcohol, while tartar is deposited. After a time, that is, when all the sugar has disappeared, the formation of alcohol ceases, and from this period the strength of the wine diminishes, partly by the evaporation of the spirit through the sides of the cask, and partly by its conversion into other substances, as acetic acid. 3. Sugar. This is a constituent of many wines. Those in which it is very abundant are called sweet or luscious wines. Tokay, Tent, Frontignac, Lunel, Rivesalte, Constantia, and Malmsey, are examples. In these the process of fermentation has been arrested be- fore all the sugar was decomposed. Those wines, on the other hand, in which all the saccharine matter has disappeared, are called dry. Examples of this are frequently found in Sherry. 4. Acids. All wines are more or less acidulous, as determined by litmus. This has been in general attributed to malic acid; but Dumas thinks that the presence of this acid in wine is very doubtful. In old and spoiled wines, as well as in the wines of the more northern countries, acetic acid is often found. The brisk, frothing, sparkling or effervescent wines, as Champagne, which have been bottled before fermentation is complete, though without its being arrested, owe their peculiar properties to carbonic acid retained in solu- tion under pressure. Some wines, as Port, contain tannic acid, to which they owe their roughness and astringency. They derive this from the husk, and perhaps in part from the seeds, of the grape. The acidity of some wine depends on bitartrate of potash. 5. Coloring matter. All wines contain more or less coloring matter ; but those which * The origin of the odoriferous substances obtained in the fermentation of must, may be illustrated by some familiar examples. During the fermentation of the Lesser Centaury plant, which possesses no smell, a true etherial oil is generated, having an agreeable penetrating odor, exciting a pricking sensa- tion in the eyes, and a flow of tears. The leaves of the tobacco plant possess little or no smell when fresh ; but as soon as fermentation commences, they emit the characteristic smell of prepared tobacco and snuff. Nicotine, which possesses all the properties of a base, was not present before the fermen- tation, but generated during the process. Arsenic and Arsenious add are entirely inodorous in their natural state, but emit the odor of garlic during their oxidation. The oil of the be ries of the elder- tree, many kinds of oil of turpentine, and oil of lemons, possess a smell only during theif oxidation or de- cay. The same is the case with many blossoms ; and the smell of musk, Geiger states, is due to its gradual putrefaction. - L. 204 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. are prepared without the husk of the grape are pale, and are denominated while icines, as Sherry, Madeira, and Bucellas. But if the husk of the dark-colored grapes be pr during fermentation, the wine acquires a deep color, and is called red wine. By exposure to the sun, as well as by age, the color diminishes. 6. Tarirales. The most important saline constituent of wine is Tartar, (Bitartrate of Potash,) which deposits, along with coloring and extractive matters, both in the cork and bottle, constituting argol, the crusl, the bees' wing, &c. The deposition augments with the formation of alcohol. Tarlrate of Lime is usually found along with tartar in wine; and in the German wines, Berzelius mentions that there exists the Tarlrate of Alumina and Potash, Wine, when used in moderate quantities, as to the extent of two or three glasses daily, proves a very grateful, and to those who have been accustomed to it, an almost indispen- sable stimulant. It quickens the action of the heart and blood-vessels, diffuses an agreea- ble warmth through the system, promotes the different secretions, augments the muscular force and activity, excites the mental powers, and banishes unpleasant ideas and reflections. Many persons, who have during a considerable period of their lives accustomed ilu-m- selves to the daily but moderate use of wine, have attained a good old age ; and it cannot, therefore, be denied, that the most perfect health is quite compatible with the moderate enjoyment of wine. It must be admitted, I think, that wiiie proves a most valuable restorative when the powers of the body and mind have been enfeebled by fatigue. Its daily use, therefore, is more adapted for those who lead a life of great activity, or whose occupatin: laborious, than for the indolent and sedentary. To the former it proves a very agreeable stimulus. Taken after tie fatigues of the day are over, it assists in recruiting i hausted energies. But, on the other hand, it cannot be denied that the most perfect health is compatible with total abstinence from wine ; and that the habitual employment of it, especially by the indolent and sedentary, is calculated, in many instances, to prove injurious. To a \ in perfect health, and who has been unaccustomed to it, no possible ben. lit c;uj accrue from commencing its use. The preternatural excitement which, in these cases, it would occasion, must be followed by a corresponding degree of depression. Even though no sensible injury may result therefrom, no benefit can be expected to result. The habit of using this stimulus creates a want for it; and thus it often happens, that those who have accustomed themselves to the temperate use of wine, suffer when they are deprive. 1 of it. The "artificial states of the constitution," says Dr. Christison, "produced by the h;r civilized life, are supposed to render it, for some people, a necessary stimulant, especially during exposure to unusual fatigue. So far-do some carry this notion in the upper ranks of society, as to follow the strange practice of allowing wine daily, and in conn .'. quantity, even to young healthy children. Very few constitutions of this kind really ex- ist among those who are willing to think they themselves possess it." Dr. Paris asserts that " there exists no evidence to prove that a temperate use of good wine, when taken at seasonable hours, has ever proved injurious to healthy adu' am by no means disposed to question the accuracy of this statement, since he lias so qualified it, that in almost any case where ill effects result from the use of wine, they may be ascribed to the non-fulfilment of some of he conditions here mentioned : viz. the temperate use of the wine, the goodness of the liquor, the seasonable time of taking it, or the health of the individual. All I would assert is, that, for healthy individuals, wine is an unnecessary article of diet. The actual arruunt of injury which may be inflicted on the system by the use of wine ) WINE. 205 f] depends on the quality and quantity of the liquid used, and on the greater or less predis- position to disease which may exist in the system. Disorders of the digestive organs a.id of the brain, gout, gravel, and dropsy, are the maladies most likely to be induced o. ag- gravated by the use of wine. Intoxication, in its varied forms, is the effect of the excess- ive use of it. Though the effects of wines depend, in the main, on the alcohol which these liquids contain, yet they differ from those of ardent spirit in several respects. In the first place, wine possesses a tonic influence not observed after the use of spirit. Common experience proves to every one that the stimulant influence of wine is slower in its production and subsidence than that of spirit. On this accoutf wine is Employed as a tonic or corrobo- rant in the convalescence after lingering diseases. Secondly, the diseases induced by the excessive indulgence in wine are somewhat different from those caused by alcohol. De- lirium tremens, and diseased liver, are the common maladies of spirit-drinkers ; whereas these affections rarely, if indeed they ever, follow the use of wine merely. But, on the other hand, gravel and gout are frequent consequences of habitual over-indulgence in wine, while they much less frequently result from the use of spirit. Thirdly, while wine- drinkers are frequently fat, lusty, and plethoric, spirit-drinkers are generally thin and emaciated, (see p. 27.) Lastly, the intoxicating influence of wine is not equal to that of mixtures of ardent spirit and water of corresponding strengths, nor proportionate, in dif- ferent wines, to the relative quantities of alcohol which they contain. This will be ob- vious from the following table, drawn up from Mr. Brande's results, before quoted, (see p. 76, et seq. :) AVERAGE QUANTITIES OF ARDENT SPIRIT AND OF WINE, CONTAINING FOUR FLUID OUNCES OF ALCOHOL, (sp. gr. 0-825 at 60 F.) Brandy, about .... 8 fluid ounces. I Claret 26* fluid ounces. Tort Wine 18s- ditto. | Champagne 32 ditto. Now it appears from this table, that if the intoxicating power of vinous liquids were in proportion to the spirit contained in them, that a pint of Port wine would be almost equal to half a pint of brandy, and that Claret would exceed Champagne in its influence over the nervous system : all of which we know not to be the case. It is, therefore, obvious, that the action of the alcohol on the animal economy is modified in the wine by the water and vegetable matters with which it is either combined or mixed. Some doubt on this point has been recently expressed by Dr. Christison, who observes, that " wine is generally considered less inebriating than its equivalent alcohol, in any other shape. And this fact has been vaguely referred to its alcohol being in a peculiar state of combination, so as to be more easiiy,digestible. Notwithstanding," he adds, "the general admission of this peculiarity, in the effects of wine, doubts may be entertained of the doctrine being so unequivocal, or so generally applicable, as late authors on wine have maintained ; and I suspect it is founded, in part, on the mistaken notions that have prevailed as to the alcoholic strength of wines, which has been overrated by analysts, and partly on a disregard of the influence of habit, which seems to render one species of alcoholic fluid more digestible, or in some other way less stimulating, than another." I am inclined to agree with Dr. Chrisfison in the belief that the alcoholic strength of wines has been overrated by analysts. But I believe that the same has been done with regard to the strength of ardent spirits, as ordinarily found in the shops ; both brandy and gin, but especially the latter, being usually sold considerably below the strength stated by Mr. Brande. So that though the actual quantity of alcohol in both wines and spirits n ay be overrated, yet the relative proportions are probably correct, or nearly so; 206 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. and the inferences which have been drawn as to the comparative effects oi the alcohol contained in these liquids, are, perhaps, not far from the truth. It appears to me, there- , fore, that the evidence of the modifying influence exercised by the other ingredients of wine on the alcohol contained therein, is greater than Dr. Ghristison is disposed to admit. Old wines, it is well known, are less intoxicating than new ones. This is usually as- cribed to th? chemical union which is ultimately effected between the alcohol and the water, by which the inebriating power of the spirit is lessened. But it is probably due, fjr the most part, to the diminished alcoholic strength of the old wine ; for Dr. Christi- son's experiments have shown that the ata)holic strength of wines does not increase with age, as many persons have supposed. The precise changes which the alcohol undergoes in wine are at present but imper- fectly known. Dumas says that it doubtless passes gradually into the state of ether by combining with the different acids contained or produced in wine, and by which its ine- briating power must be diminished, or perhaps otherwise modified. He also suggests that there may be different kinds of alcohol, having a similar relation to each other that phos- phoric acid bears to pyrophosphoric acid ; and that thus the alcohol of old wines may be possessed of somewhat different properties to that of new wines. It is obvious, therefore, that there is not a priori any thing improbable in the opinion commonly entertained by connoisseurs in wine, that a brandied wine (i. e. wine to which brandy has been added) is more intoxicating than a non-brandied wine of equal strength. The wine-growers of Bourgogne have long acted on this principle. In cold or rail sons, when the grape is deficient in sugar, and in consequence yields a poor wine, they prefe.' adding sugar to the must, instead of adding alcohol to the wine. " Formerly." .-ays Dumas, " it was supposed that when wine was deficient in alcohol, this ingredient, in proper quantity, might be added to it to give the proper quality. Now, however, who- ever considers the phenomena of fermentation, will not hesitate to admit that the addition of sugar to the must is a very different thing to the addition of spirit to the wine: for sugar, in fermenting, produces a chemical movement in which all .the dilf-p-nt mat of the must concur."* In forming an opinion as to the kind of wine best fitted for dietetical use, we must con- sider the color, the alcoholic strength and intoxicating property, the - . the nature and quantity of acid which it contains, and the age of the wine. Red wines contain more extractive and coloring matters, (derived from the husk of the grape,) which are apt to disagree with some dyspeptics. Strong wines are more likely to prove injurious that: ones. But the inebriating quality of wine is not proportional to the quantity of contained alcohol. Sweet wines are objectionable in dyspeptic and some urinary ti te dia- betes. Acid wines are improper for rheumatic and gouty subjects. Old wiius are, in * It is very possible that the othei ingredients contained in wine may modify, in some degree, tlir of the alcohol; but we helievc that the difference in the intoxicating power of wine and ttv.it of the ordi- na*y mixtures of water with the same proportion of alcohol, if such difference really cxi>:s. U owing more to the ultimate combination of the alcohol with the water in the former, than to any peculiar effect of the oilier vegetable matters contained in it. 3Iu. Brande states that when brandy and water are mixed and allowed to remain in combination for some time, the intoxicating power is not greater than that of wine containing an equivalent of brandy. We know that a given quantity of brandy and water re- cently mixed, exerts a more intoxicating elfect than if allowed to stand for some time. It is pronably ow- ing to the same fact that newly fermented win's. as above staled, are more powerfully intoxicating than old, alternation evidently, in both cases, causing the difference between them. After all, we 1 lieve the difference is more apparent than real L. WINE. 207 general, to be preferred to new ones ; for, in the first place, their alcoholic strength is somewhat less ; and, secondly, by keeping, wines deposit bitartrate of potash, and color- ing and extractive matters, which are apt to disagree with some constitutions. Liebig says, that minute crystals of uric acid are deposited from the urine after the use of those wines in which the alkali necessary to retain the uric acid in solution is wanting ; but that this is never observed from the use of Rhenish wines, which contain so much tartar. On the whole, I am inclined to think, that, of the stronger wines employed in England good dry Sherry is best fitted for dietetical use. It is devoid of the extractive and color- ing matters found in red wine, and is free both from acid and sugar. In general, how- ever, I think the lighter or weaker wines preferable ; and of those commonly used in England Claret appears to me the best* 1. Sherry. This is made in Spain, near Xeres, and is exported from Cadiz. " From the gradual mixture of wines of various ages," says Mr. Busby ,f "no wine can be further from what may be called a natural wine than sherry." Boiled must, (of the consistence of treacle, and having a similar flavor, but with a strong empyreumatic taste,) is employed to deepen its color. Amontillado, or Montillado, (a very dry kind of sherry,) is added to sherries which are deficient in the nutty flavor. Being very light in color, it is also used to reduce the color of sherries which are too high. Brandy is added to sherry before it is shipped, but never in greater quantities than four or five per cent. Sherry varies considerably in the depth of its color ; and London wholesale dealers dis- tinguish five kinds, called respectively, very pale, pale, golden, brown, and very brown; and occasionally an extra very pale, and an extra very brown, are met with. Some years since fashion ran on pale sherries, and to meet the demand the wine-growers made their wines from the grapes before they were quite ripe, and the consequence was, an inferior class of wines was exported ; and had the fashion continued, the characters of sherries would have been greatly altered. But the inferior quality of the pale sherries, thus produced, led to a change in the fashion, and now dark or brown sherries (colored as before stated) are run after. It should, however, be remembered, that color is no crite- rion of the goodness of sherry. I have already stated that of the stronger wines sherry is preferable for ordinary use, on account of its great freedom from acid, sugar, coloring, and extractive matters. It is, therefore, the least injurious of the strong wines for gouty persons, as well as for those troubled with acidity of stomach, and for the lithic acid diathesis. 2. Port-Wine. This is manufactured on the banks of the Douro, and is exported fiom Oporto. It is made from round black grapes, (see pp. 169-170,) and owes its color and astringency, when pure, to the husks and stalks of the grapes which are contained in the fermenting juice. To augment the strength of this wine brandy is added to it. In Portugal the juice of the elderberry has been employed to augment the color. To such an extent was this at one time practised, that the wine company of Portugal rooted out the elder-trees, and prohibited their growth in the wine district. Kino, it is said, is used to give roughness or astringency to Port-wine. Old Port-wine has a duller, browner, and paler tint than new wine, which has a more purplish, red or ruby tint, and a brighter though deeper color. To detect the shades of color, dealers use small silver dishes, called tasters, having raised bottoms, by the reflect- ed light from which, the color of the wine is readily perceived. In order to imitate age, * Appendix 16. t Visit to the Vineyards of Spain and France. Lond. 1834. 208 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. dealers sometimes add white Port-wine to the red kind ; but I am informed that the crust which is deposited is never good and firm. Port-wine belongs to the class of stronger wines. It more frequently disagrees with in- dividuals than sherry ; but to this statement many exceptions occur. It is more apt to disorder the head and the stomach, and to constipate the bowels, than sherry. It is popu- larly supposed to be more strengthening than the other kinds of wines ; and, according- ly, is more frequently resorted to as a medicine. On account of its astringency it is particularly adapted for those cases which are attended with a relaxed condition of the bowels. 3. Madeira. This wine, the produce of the island whose name it bears, is in general somewhat stronger and more acid than sherry. Before it is shipped, brandy is usually added to it. In order to improve its quality it is frequently sent a voyage to the East Indies. Heat and agitation are probably the effective agents in this improvement. Ma- deira is well adapted for old persons and debilitated constitutions, where its slight acidity is not objectionable. It is an excellent wine for invalids ; but its acidity sometimes causes it to disagree. 4. CJiampagne. This wine is called after the province of France of which it is the pro- duce. It is usually procured from a black grape. The Champagne wines are generally divided into the white, and the red or pink ; and each of these again into the still and the sparkling. Of the still Champagne that called Sillery is generally admitted to be th- in England, however, the sparkling Champagne is usually preferred; and of Mils the wine of Ay is considered the best; that which merely creams on the surface /r;/ii- mousseux') being more esteemed than the full-frothing, (grand-mousseux.) The sparklinir, creaming, or frothing of these wines depends on the evolution of carbonic ac.d gas. If carbonic acid gas be condensed into ordinary white wine, it usually renders the lat- ter turbid, owing to the precipitation of gliadine contained in the wine. But by the pre- vious addition of tannin (which precipitates the gliadine) this may be prevented. Champagne is an exhilarating wine, which speedily produces intoxication; it also acts as a diuretic. It excites lively and agreeable feelings, and is, in consequence, adap hypochondriacal cases ; it is very apt, however, to occasion headache. On account of its effervescing property it is occasionally useful in allaying sickness and vomiting. It is ob- jectionable in gouty subjects. 5. German Wines. These are produced principally on the banks of the Rhine and the Mobile. They are light wines, and remarkable, as I have already stated, for their very powerful bouquet, (see p. 203,) as well as for containing tartrate of alumina and potash, (see p. 204.) " A notion prevails that they are naturally acid ; and the inferior kinds, no doubt, are so : but this is not the constant character of the Rhine wines, which in good years have no perceptible acidky to the taste, at least not more than is common to them with the growths of warmer regions. Their chief distinction is their extreme dura- bility." The Johannisberger stands at the head of the Rhine wines. It has a very choice flavor and perfume, and is characterized by an almost total want of acidity. Steinberger ranks next ; and after this follow Rudcsheimer, Hochheimer, &c. In England the term Hock, (a corruption of Hochheimer) is usually applied to the first growths of the Rhine ; while the inferior Rhine wines are simply called Rhenish wines. Of the Moselle wines the Schartzberger is deservedly esteemed. The German wines of good quality, are, in general, light and wholesome ; though they are occasionally objectionable on account of their acidulous character. They prove diuretic and slightly aperient. Liebig asserts that crystals of uric acid are never de* WINE. 209 posited from the urine under their use, on account of the tartar which they hold in solu- tion. 6. Claret Wines. Under this name are generally included the red wines of France, which are produced in the districts adjoining Bourdeaux. The most esteemed are, Lafilie, Latour, Chateau-Margaux, and Haut-Brion. They are light and wholesome wines, and well adapted for the table ; though in gouty and rheumatic subjects, and in sonip cases of dyspepsia, they prove injurious by their acidity. 7. Burgundy. This wine enjoys the highest reputation on the continent. It is stimu- lant and somewhat astringent. It is apt to occasion headache or indigestion.* Other intoxicating drinks. Among European nations alcohol is the basis of the ine- briating drinks in ordinary use. But by the Mahometan, and other oriental nations, Opium and Hemp are employed for producing intoxication. The consideration of these, however, scarcely falls within the scope of the present work ; and I must, therefore, re- fer the reader to my Elements of Materia Medica for full details respecting the effects and uses of these and other narcotic substances, (Tobacco for example,) which are used as inebriants. 3. CONDIMENTS, OR SEASONING AGENTS. The namo of Condiment is usually given to those substances which are taken with foods for the immediate purpose of improving their flavor. But most, of them serve other, and much more important, purposes in the animal economy, than that of merely gratify- ing the palate. Most of them are, in fact, alimentary substances as Sugar, Oil or Fat, and Vegetable Acids. Common Salt, which by most dietetical writers is spoken of as if it were a mere luxury, as if its use were to gratify the palate merely, is essential to health and life, and is as much an aliment or food as either bread or flesh. " Without salt, or some other mineral substance which can be substituted for it, as chloride of potas- sium, no solid substance could be taken into the system ; nor, if it could be taken into the blood, could the albumen there be retained iti solution; nor could the changes which are requisite for life take place in the tissues; nor could any bile be formed. As hy- drochloric acid is found in the stomach, and soda in the bile and blood, it must be sup- posed that there exists some power in the body by which the chloride of sodium is de- composed."! But all the substances employed as condiments are not necessary to our existence; and accordingly they are not assimilated. This is the case with the aromatic and pun- gent condiments, the volatile oil of which is, in many cases, thrown out of the system un- changed ; as in the case of Onions. The purpose which these substances serve in the animal economy is not very obvious ; but it is probable that they promote the activity of the assimilating organs, by acting as stimuli ; and in some cases, perhaps, they may serve to correct the injurious qualities of the foods with which they are taken. The following are the orders of condiments usually admitted. It will be seen that they have been already noticed in other parts of this work: 1. Saline Condiments, (see Common Salt, p. 107.) 2. Acidulous Condiments, {see Acetic Acid, p. 72; Citric Acid, p. 73; and Lemon Juice, p. 72.) 3. Oily Condiments, (see the Fixed Oils, p. 80.) 4. Saccharine Condiments, (see The Saccharine Alimentary Principle, p. 55.) 5. Aromatic and Pungent Condiments, (see The Volatile or Essential Oils, p. 88.) * Appendix, 17. t On Gravel, Calculus, and Gout, by H. Bence Jones M. A., p. 46. Lond. 1842. 14 r~ 210 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Under the name of Sauces are used, at the table, mixtures of various condimentary and alimentary substances. Salt and spices are essential ingredients of them, and vinegar enters into the composition of several. Ketchup, (made either from Mushrooms or Wal- nuts,) (Soy, and Essence of Anchovies, are the sauces in most frequent use. These sub- stances are seldom employed in sufficient quantity to prove injurious by themselves ; though by provoking the appetite, and thereby promoting the use of indigestible sub- stances, they frequently prove indirectly injurious. By invalids and convalescents they should, therefore, be carefully avoided. "Condiments," says Dr. Beaumont,* "particularly those of the spicy kind, are non- essential to the process of digestion, in a healthy state of the system. They afford no nutrition. Though they may assist the action of a debilitated stomach for a time, their continual use never fails to produce an indirect debility of that organ. They affect it as alcohol or other stimulants do the present relief afforded is at the expense of future suffer- ing. Salt and Vinegar are exceptions, and are not noxious to this charge, when used in moderation. They both assist in digestion, vinegar, by rendering muscular fibre more tender and both together by producing a fluid having some analogy to the gastric juice." t Expcrimentt ana Observations on the Gastric Juict and the Physiology of Digestion, u. 40 Edinb. 1838. PART IL OF DIET. IN this part of my work I propose to consider briefly the adaptation of aliment to the dif- ferent wants and conditions of human existence. But as it involves the consideration of the digestibility and nutritious quality of foods, as well as of the times best fitted for eating, I propose to offer a few remarks on these subjects, before proceeding to the examination of dietaries and the dietetical treatment of diseases. CHAP. I. Of the Digestibility of Food. The term assimilation, as used in its most general sense, by Dr. Prout, has been applied ti to those processes by which alimentary substances are converted into the organized tissues | of the body : primary u$imilation comprising those concerned in the conversion of food into blood ; secondary assimilation, those by which organized or living textures are formed from the blood, and afterwards redissolved and removed from the system. I need hardly explain that digestion is one of the primary assimilating processes. It comprehends those changes effected on the food in the stomach and intestines ; and is partly a mechanical, but principally a chemical process. Dr. Prout speaks of it as being 'likewise a vitalizing process. Most of the welUascertained changes effected in the food in the stomach can be produ- ced out of the body. By digestion starch is converted into gum and sugar : oily or fatty bodies are minutely divided, (not dissolved,) and formed into a kind of emulsion : protei- naceous substances (fibrine, albumen, caseine, and gluten) are dissolved or liquefied in the stomach, and afterwards precipitated in the duodenum. Now all these processes can be imitated out of the body. Thus fibrine or coagulated albumen can be dissolved either in the gastric juice withdrawn from the stomach, or in an artificial digestive liquor prepared by macerating the dried lining membrane of the fourth stomach of the calf in water acidulated with hydrochloric acid, (see p. 35.) The saccharine matter, the emulsified oily or fatty substxnces, and the finely divided or redissolved proteinaceous matters are absorbed, and pass into the chyle. The formation or secretion of the matters necessary to produce the requisite chemical changes in the food, is, as far as we at present know, a vital act. To dissolve the pro- teinaceous compounds two substances are required, an acid (hydrochloric) and a matter called pepsine or chymosine. According to Dumas, the first softens these bodies and causes them to swell up, the second determines their liquefaction. Without adopting the fermentation hypothesis of digestion, to which I have already (see p. 35) offered some objections, the necessity of certain agents in the stomach to effect the solution or liquefaction of the food is obvious; aul if we admit that these are formed by the vital powers, we can readily comprehend how, in certain morbid condi- tions of the organism, the digestive agents are altered in their nature, and the natural and healthy process of digestion thereby deranged. 212 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. The digestibility of food is affected by two classes of circumstances ; the one relating to the foods themselves, the other to those of the individual or the organism. 1. Digestibility of food affected by circumstances relating to the foods themselves. A variety of circumstances affect the facility with which different kinds of foods undergo digestion. Some foods ^re naturally more difficult of digestion than others. This is especially the case with th<3 oily or fatty substances. I have, however, already fully considered the subject, and I, therefore, beg to refer my readers to the opinions before expressed, (see pp. 80-85.) " Vegetables," says Dr. Beaumont, M are generally slower of digestion than meats and farinaceous substances, tho'.gh they sometimes pass out of the stomach before them, in an undigested state. Crudt vegetables, by some law of the animal economy not well un- derstood, are allowed, even when the stomach is in a healthy state, sometimes to pass the pyloric orifice, while other food is retained there to receive the solvent action of the gastric juice. This may depend upon their comparative indigestibility - r for it is well known that cathartic medicines, various fruits, seeds, &c. t which operate as laxatives, aro not digested; are incapable of being retained in the stomach; and pass rapidly through the intestinal tube." In digestion, as in all chemical processes, cohesion is a force which is opposed to molecular changes ; and the efficacy of various means of augmenting the digestibility of foods is ascribable to their influence in lessening this force. The more easy digestibility of whipped or lightly-boiled eggs than in the same bodies when fried or hard-boiled plicable in this way, (see pp.129 and 130.) Tenderness of fibre facilitates the digestive process; and therefore, all those circum- stances (see pp. 114-116) .which affect the texture of flesh, have an influence o\ digestibility. Violent muscular exertion immediately previous to the death of an an it mil renders its flesh more tender ; and thus the meat of hunted animals is more digestible than it would otherwise have been. It is not improbable that the still more cruel prac- tices of bull-baiting and whipping pigs to death, had their origin in some object of this kind, (see p. 115.) Incipient decomposition promotes the tenderness and digestibility of food. Most per- sons are aware that fresh-killed meat is tougher than that which has been kept for some time, (see p. 115.) To these observations some apparent objections exist. The flesh of young animals, as I have already stated, (see pp. 115-116,) is more tender and soluble than that of the adult animal ; yet the latter is the more digestible. Moreover, it might be supposed that liquid foods, on account of their lesser cohesion, would be more digestible than solid foods: yet such does not appear to be the case. "Solid food," says Dr. Beaumont, "is sooner disposed of by the stomach than fluid, and its nutritive principles are sooner carried into the circulation. It has been observed, however, that the exhaustion from abstinence is quicker removed by liquid than by solid aliment." Minuteness of division of solids is an important aid to digestion.. Thus potatoes, when so far cooked as to be easily mashed, are more easily digestible than when cooked for a sborter period of time, so as to retain their form ; and for the same reason mealy potatoes are more digestible than waxy ones, (see pp. 181 and 182.) It is obvious, also, that per- fect mastication, by effecting the minute division of food, must be an important aid to di- gestion ; and this fact cannot be too strongly urged on dyspeptics : for if the food be im- perfectly chewed and hastily swallowed, greater difficulty is experienced in the subse- quent operation of digestion. To the toothless, therefore, artificial teeth are important adjuvants to the gastric operations. DIGESTIBILITY OF FOOD. 213 Nor is the process of insalivation, as affecting the digestibility of the food, to be over- looked. When food has been thoroughly intermixed with the saliva and mucus of the mouth, it is more readily and speedily permeated and acted on by the gastric juice. We may draw an illustration of the use of the saliva from the preparatory proceeding of the operation of displacement by percolation. In order to prepare a tincture of any medicinal substance by percolation, the solid material, first reduced to a moderately fine powder, is moistened with a sufficiency of the solvent to form a thick pulp. This preliminary ope- ration which is analogous to insalivation facilitates the percolation of the remainder of the liquid, while it also assists its solvent action on the solid material. If dry food be hastily swallowed without being duly admixed with the saliva and mucus of the mouth, we instinctively desire drink to moisten the alimentary mass ; so that in this dry state it does not appear to be so readily converted into chyme; and it is probable that chylifica- tion, as well as chymification, is checked by imperfect insalivation. The cookery of foods has for its immediate object the gratification of the palate ; but it can scarcely be doubted that its more remote end is the promotion of digestion. The reader will scarcely fail to observe that nearly every substance possessing an organized texture, is, by civilized man, submitted to some cooking process before it is employed as food. One point, therefore, attained by cooking, is the more or less complete destruction of organization. Its effect, as I have before remarked, (see p. 114,) is not always to pro- duce a chemical change in the ultimate constitution of food, for it does not appear that roasting affects the ultimate composition of meat. Boiling, however, produces some changes in the proximate composition of it, (see p. 196,) and, in the case of the farinaceous substances, serves to break or split the starch grains, (see p. 62.) Frying, of all culinary operations, is the most obnoxious to the digestive function, for reasons which I have before explained, (see p. 83-84.) 2. Digestibility of foods affected by circumstances relating to the individual or organism. The state of body and mind, idiosyncrasy or constitutional peculiarity, habit, the interval that has elapsed since the preceding meal, the keenness of the appetite, the amount of exercise taken either immediately before or after eating, and the quantity of food swal- lowed at one meal, are some of the circumstances relating to the individual, which affect digestion. Violent anger, for example, disturbs this process, and, according to Dr. Beau- mont, gives rise to the appearance of bile in the stomach. In febrile diathesis, with dry- ness of mouth, thirst, accelerated pulse, &c., very little or no gastric juice is secreted. Under such circumstances, therefore, the propriety of withholding food is very obvious : if we permit its use no nourishment can be obtained from it, while its presence in the stomach is a source of irritation. The idiosyncrasy of some constitutions with regard to mutton has been alluded to, (see p. 116.) Considerable discrepancy of opinion has existed with regard to the influence of repose after eating. By one class of writers on dietetics exercise is said to promote, by another to retard, digestion ; and 'both parties appeal to experience for evidence in proof of their position. "From numerous trials, I am persuaded," says Dr. Beaumont, "that moder- ate exercise conduces considerably to healthy and rapid digestion. The discovery was the result of accident, and contrary to preconceived opinions." Dr. Combe, on the other hand, observes, "that active exercise immediately after a full meal, such as is generally taken for dinner, is prejudicial to its digestion, seems to me to be proved by daily and unequivocal experience, and I have often seen patients laboring under indigestion bene- fited by refraining from it." * It will, I think, be generally admitted, that after a full meal the functions of the body are more or less impaired, sluggishness is induced, and a tendency to repose experienced. 214 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. These effects are almost universal in the animal kingdom. We experience them in our own persons, and we witness them not only on our fellow-men, but on the : nferior ani- mals. The dog, when allowed to indulge his natural instinct, lies down and sleeps after he has satisfied his appetite ; and tru Python or Indian Boa, we are told, lies in a torpid state for three or four weeks after go ging itself with a goat. These and many other analogous facts are satisfactory to my mind that repose is nat- ural to animals after a hearty meal ; and that the practice of taking the siesta, or after- dinner sleep, is not injurious, if moc.erately indulged in. It should, however, b^ followed by moderate exercise. But there are exceptions to these statements, and I have met with some few persons who have asserted that they find advantage in using exercise im- mediately after dinner; but these form exceptions to the general rule. After the earlier and lighter meals of the day, breakfast or luncheon, quietude or repose is neither desired nor required. I shall close these observations on the digestibility of foods by subjoining Dr. Beaumont's table, showing the mean time of digestion of various articles of food, as ascertained by experiments on the Canadian, whose case I have already had occasion to refer in, p. 82.) I may premise, however, that his statements are by no means to be implicitly adopted. "The rapidity of digestion, as the author himself shows, varies greatly accord- ing to the quantity eaten, the amount and nature of the previous exercise, the interval of the preceding meal, the state of health and of the weather, and also the state of the mind. But in scarcely any of the experiments have these conditions been carefully noted* * Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice and tht Physiology of Digestion, by W. Beau- mont, M. D., Edinb., 1838. Foot note, p. 37, by Dr. Combe. 215 TABLE She wing the Mean Time of Digestion of the different Articles of Diet, naturally, in the Stcmach, and artificially in Phials, on a Bath. The proportion of eastri: . aice to aliment, in artificial digestion, was generally calculated at one ounce of the former to one drachu of the latter, the bath being kept as near as practicable at the natural tem- perature, 100 Fahrenheit, with frequent agitation. MEAN TIME OF CHYMIFICATION. ARTICLES OF DIET. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. i i i Preparation. H. M. Preparation. H. M. i Rice - Boiled 1 Pigs' feet, soused Boiled 1 Tripe, soused - Boiled i Eggs, whipped - Raw 30 Whipped 4 Trout, salmon, fresh - Boiled 30 Boiled 3 30 Trout, salmon, fresh - Fried 30 Soup, barley - Boiled 30 Apples, sweet, mellow Raw 30 Masticated 6 45 Venison steak - Broiled 35 Brains, animal - Boiled 45 Boiled 4 30 Sago ----- Boiled 45 Boiled 3 15 Tapioca - Boiled 2 Boiled 3 20 Barley - Boiled 2 Milk Boiled 2 Boiled 4 15 Liver, beef's, fresh Broiled 2 Cut fine 6 30 Eggs, fresh Raw 2 Raw 4 15 Codfish, cured dry Apples, sour, mellow - Boiled Raw 2 2 Boiled Masticated 5 8 30 Cabbage, with vinegar Raw 2 Shaved 10 15 Milk ----- Raw 2 15 Raw 4 45 Eggs, fresh Roasted 2 15 Turkey, wild - Roasted 2 18 Turkey, domestic Boiled 2 25 Gelatine - Boiled 2 30 Boiled 4 45 Turkey, domestic Roasted 2 30 Goose, wild Roasted 2 30 Pig, sucking - Roasted 2 30 Lamb, fresh - Broiled 2 30 Hash, meat and vegetables - Warmed 2 30 Beans, pod Boiled 2 30 Cake, sponge - Baked 2 30 Broken 6 16 Parsnips - - - - Boiled 2 30 Mashed 6 45 Potatoes, Irish - Roasted 2 30 Potatoes, Irish - Baked 2 30 Cabbage, head - Raw 2 30 Masticated 12 30 Spinal marrow, animal Boiled 3 40 Boiled 5 25 Chicken, full grown Fricasseed 2 45 Custard - Baked 2 45 Eaked 6 30 Beef, with salt only Boiled 2 45 9 30 Apples, sour, hard Raw 2 50 Entire pieces 18 Oysters, fresh - Raw 2 55 Raw, entire 7 30 Eggs, fresh Soft boiled 3 Soft boiled 6 30 Bass, striped, fresh Broiled 3 Beef, fresh, lean, rare - Roasted 3 Roasted 216 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. i MEAN TIME OF CHYMIFICATION. ARTICLES OF DIET. IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation. H. M. Preparation. //. M. Beefsteak .... Broiled 3 Masticated 8 15 Pork, recently salted - Raw 3 Raw 8 30 Pork, recently salted - Stewed 3 Mutton, fresh ... Broiled 3 Masticated 6 45 Mutton, fresh - Boiled 3 Soup, bean - ... Boiled 3 Chicken soup - Boiled 3 Aponeurosis Boiled 3 Boiled 6 30 Dumpling, apple - - - Boiled 3 Cake, corn Baked 3 Oysters, fresh ... Roasted ! 3 15 Pork, recently salted - Broiled 3 15 Porksteak - - - - Broiled 3 15 Mutton, fresh ... Roasted 3 15 Bread, corn ... Baked 3 15 I Carrot, orange - Boiled 3 15 Mashed 6 15 Sausage, fresh - Broiled 3 20 Flounder, fresh - Fried 3 30 Catfish, fresh Fried 3 30 Oysters, fresh ... Stewed 3 30 Stewed 8 25 Beef, fresh, lean, dry - Roasted 3 30 Roasted 7 45 Beef, with mustard, &c. Boiled 3 30 Butter Melted 3 30 Cheese, old, strong Raw- 3 30 Masticated 7 15 Soup, mutton Boiled 3 30 Oyster soup ... Boiled 3 30 Bread, wheat, fresh Baked 3 30 Masticated 4 30 Turnips, flat Boiled 3 30 Potatoes, Irish ... Boiled 3 30 Mashed 8 30 Eggs, fresh ... Hard Boiled 3 30 Hard boiled 8 Eggs, fresh Fried 3 30 Green corn and beans - Boiled 3 45 Beets .... Boiled 3 45 Salmons, salted ... Boiled 4 Boiled 7 45 Beef Fried 4 12 30 Veal, fresh .... Broiled 4 Fowls, domestic ... Boiled 4 Masticated 30 Fowls, domestic - - - Roasted 4 Ducks, domestic ... Roasted 4 Soup, beef, vegetables, and ) 11 f Boiled 4 bread J Heart, animal ... Fried 4 Entire piece 13 30 Beef, old, hard, salted - Boiled 4 15 Pork, recently salted - Fried 4 15 Soup, marrow bones Boiled 4 15 ' Cartilage .... Boiled 4 15 Masticated 10 Pork, recently salted - Boiled 4 30 Masticated 6 30 Veal, fresh -" Fried 4 30 Ducks, wild ... Roasted 4 30 Suet, mutton - Boiled 4 30 Divided 10 Pork, fa*, and lean Roasted 5 15 Tendon - Boiled 5 30 Masticated 12 45 Suet, beef, fresh - Boiled 5 30 Entire piece 19 NUTRITIVE QUALITIES OF FOOD. 217 MEAN TIME OF CHYMIFICATION. ARTICLES OF DIET, IN STOMACH. IN PHIALS. Preparation, H. M. Preparation, H M. Beefsteak - Broiled Cut fine 8 Beefsteak - Raw Cut fine 8 15 Beef Boiled Entire piece 9 Mutton, fresh ... Broiled Unmasticated 8 30 Cream - - Raw 25 30 Cheese, old, strong Entire piece 18 Cheese, new, mild Divided 8 30 Oil, olive . ... Raw 60 Tendon .... Entire piece 24 Cartilage - Divided 12 Bone, beef's, solid Entire piece 80 Bone, hog's, solid Entire piece 80 Parsnips - Boiled Entire piece 13 15 Parsnips - Raw Entire piece 18 Carrot, orange - Entire piece 12 30 Carrot, orange - Raw Raw piece 17 15 Potatoes, Irish - Entire piece 14 Cabbage - Boiled 4 30 Boiled 20 Peach, mellow - Cut small 10 iPeach, mellow - Mashed 6 CHAP. II. Of the Nutritive Qualities of Foods. In order to arrive at any accurate conclusions with respect to the relative nutritive powers of different kinds of foods, it is necessary, in the first place, to ascertain the amount of water these substances respectively contain ; for it will be found that in this respect the difference between different kinds of food is enormous. Thus Turnips and Cabbages contain somewhat more than 92 per cent, of water, or not quite 8 per cent, of anhydrous or dry solid matter ; while the Fixed Oils or Fats are anhydrous, or nearly so. But of the anhydrous or dry matter of foods the whole is not necessarily nutritive. I have already stated (p. 68) that the ligneous or woody tissue of vegetable foods is indi- gestible, and is evacuated with the faeces. Moreover, the green resinous matter of plants, called chlorophylle, does not possess alimentary properties, as I have before remarked, (see p. 183.) So that from the amount of anhydrous, or dry solid matter of ordinary vegetable foods, we must deduct woody tissue and the coloring matter. Furthermore, it is doubtful whether some of the substances which enter into the com- position of animal foods are nutritive, at least under ordinary circumstances ; such as pack-wax, (see p. 113,) and some of the membranous tissues which approximate to horny matter in composition. Of the positively digestible and nutritive matter of foods we must distinguish those principles which are nitrogenized from such as are not. For whether the views of Liebig, as to the exclusively nutritive quality of nitrogenized foods, be or be not correct, it cannot be doubted that the mode of nutrition of substances which are devoid of nitrogen must 218 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. be different from that of bodies which contain it, and whose ultimate composition is iden- tical with tha* of the living tissues. The value of non-nitrogenized substances as aliments is probably in proportion to the quantity of carbon which they contain. In this point of view the oils and fats exceed all other foods of this class. Of the nitrogenized aliments, those which contain the largest amount of proteinaceous principles (which are identical in ultimate composition -with our own flesh and blood) ex- ceed all other foods in nutritive poM T. I have already (p. 27) mentioned Boussingault's opinion, that the nutritive value of nitrogenized foods is in proportion to the quantity of nitrogen entering into their composition ; and I have pointed out some objections to this notion, (see pp. 28 and 162.) I may further add, that if it were. true, the gelatinous ali- mentary principles must exceed the proteinaceous ones in nutritive power ; a conclusion not borne out by experience. In the following table, which I have drawn up from the best accessible sources, will be found the per centage quantities of water, anhydrous or dry matter, carbon, and nitrogen, contained in foods as we usually meet with them in commerce. The numbers contained in the table are not always the actual ones given by the authorities quoted ; but have in most cases been obtained by calculation from data furnished by the authors respectively quoted. TABLE Representing the Average Quantities of Dry Matter, Moisture, Carbon, and Nitrogen, In various Alimentary Substances of commerce. 100 PARTS. Solid or Dry Mrttar, Water or Moix- tnrr. C/Qroon. Nitrogen. Authority. Gum Arabic 87-6 12-4 36-3 Prout. Ditto 82-4 17-6 34-78 0-14 Guerin.* Sugar Candy 89-47 10-53 42-09 42-85 Peligot. Prout. English refined sugar . S 41-5 to I 42-5 I" Prout. Maple sugar -1-2-1 Prout Breiroot sugar 42-1 Prout. East India moist su^ar 40-88 Prout. Sugar of Narbonne honey . 3636 I'rout. Siir ; , r from starch [Potato sugar 7 ] 36-2 Prout. Sugar of milk 40-0 Prout. Ditto (crystallized) . Manna sugar (Munnitr) 87-5 12-5 40-46 33-7 Liebig. Prout. Ditto .... 39-85 Liebig. Potato starch (commercially dried) Fine Wheat starch 82 85-2 18 14-8 3644 37-5 Dumas. Prout. Arrow root 81-8 18-2 36-4 Prout. Almond oil 100 77-403 0.288 Saussure. Olive oil 100 77-50 S;ui^sure. LJuttert 100 65-6 Berard. Hog's lard 100 79-098 ( 'lievreul. Mutton met 100* 78-996 ( hevreul. Wheat 11-5 39-415 l-%6 Bou.-Mimault. Rye . 83-4 16-6 3S-530 1417 h'ous.-iugault. (Oats . 7M 20-8 40-154 1-742 HmisHiiirault. Oatmeal 93-4 6-6 Christbon. Bread (Rye) average 67-79 32-21 30-674 Bceckinann. Ditto ditto . 30.15 Liebig. Leguminous seeds ditto . 37-00 Liebig. * Guerin's analysis is that of what he calls Arabin. t Butter usually contains about one sixth of its weight of buttermilk. NUTRITIVE QUALITIES OF FOOD. 219 Solid or Water 100 PARTS. Dry or Mois- Carbon. Nitrogen. Authority. Matter. ture. Peas .... 84-0 16-0 35-743 "Mavfair. ' Ditto (Poisjaunes) . Ditto ... 91-4 85 '94 8-6 14-06 42-4 3-838 Boussingault. Sinhof. Beans 85-89 14-11 38-24 Playfair. Ditto (Broad or Windsor Bean} 84-37 1563 EinHof. Lentils 84-1 15-9 37-33 Playfair. Potatoes ... Ditto (fresh) . Ditto (fresh) . 24-1 20-6 75-9 79-4 10-604 12-2 0-3615 0-37 Boussingault. Boussingault. Liebig. Ditto (kept 10 months) Cabbage ... Turnips ... Carrots ... Jerusalem Artichoke . Apricot (ripe) . . . 23-2 7-7 7-5 12-4 20-8 25-13 76-8 92-3 92-5 87-6 79-2 74-87 3-2175 9-0 0-28 0-28 0-1275 0-30 0-3328 Boussingault. Boussingault. Boussingault. Boussingault. Boussingault. Berard. Greengage (ripe) 28-90 71-10 Berard. Peach (ripe) 19-76 80-24 Berard. Cherries (ripe) 25-15 74-85 Berard. Pear (ripe Jargonelle) . 16-12 83-88 Berard. Gooseberries (ripe) 18-90 81-10 Berard. [Smyrna Figs Cucumber (peeled) felood . . . 84-00 2-86 20-00 16-00 97-14 80-00 10-392 . 3-014 Bley. John. Liebig. Milk, Cow's 12-93 87-02 1 " Ass's . . 8-35 91-65 O. Henri " Woman's .... 12-02 87-98 .. I and " Goat's .... 13-20 86-80 ( .. f Uhevallier. n Ewe's .... 14-38 85-62 t J Butcher's meat, devoid of fat 26 74 13-6 Liebig. " with l-7th fat and cellular tissue 21-75 Liebig. " including bones, as purchased Fresh beef flesh .... 29 25 71 75 12-957 3-752 Liebig. BoBckmann. Muscular flesh of Ox . 22-5 77-5 Schlossberger. " " Calf t 20-3 to ) 21-8 79-7 to 78-2 . I Schlossberger. " " Pigeon . 24-0 76-0 Schlossberger. Chicken . 22-7 77-3 Schlossberger. " Carp and Trout (average) 197 80-3 Schlossberger. " Cod, Haddock, & Sole (average) 20-0 80-0 Brande. Egg, white of .... 20-0 80-0 Bostock. " yolk of .... 4623 53-77 Prout. " dried and purified albumen of 5500 . 15-681 Scherer. Calf's swee (bread 30-0 70-0 Morin. Oysters 12-6 87-4 Pasquier. I>inglass ..... 92-5 7-5 John. Beef Tea 1-5625 98-4375 Christison. Soup of the House of Arrest at Giessen .... C-75 Liebig. In several parts of this work (see pp. 84, 87, 88, 91, 93, 102, 112, and 116) 1 have refer- red to the statements contained in the Report made to the Academy of Sciences in Paris, by the Gelatine Commission ; and I, therefore, think it advisable to subjoin the conclusions wnich Magendie. in the name of the Commission, lias drawn from the facts detailed: 1 We cannot, by any known proceeding, extract from bones an aliment which, either alone or mixed with other substances, can be substituted for meat. 2. Gelath e, albumen, and fibrine, taken separately, nourish animals fora very limited period only, and in ai: incomplete manner. In general they soon excite such an insurmountable disgust, that ani- mals die rather than partake of them. 3 The same immediate principles artificially reunited, and rendered agreeably sapid by seasoning, are eaten more readily, and for a longer period, than the same substances singly, but their ultimate 220 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. influence on nutrition is not better; for animals who take them, even in considerable quantities, die ultimately with all the symptoms of complete inanition. 1. Muscular flesh, in which gelatine, albumen, and fibrine are united according to the laws of organic nature, and where they are associated with other matters, as fat, salts, &c., suffices, even in very small quantity, for complete a id prolonged nutrition. 5 Raw bones have the same effect, but the quantity consumed in twenty-four hours ought not to be much greater than in the case of meat. 6. Every kind of preparation, such as decoction with water, the action of hydrochloric acid, and espe- cially the transformation into gelatine, diminishes, and, in some cases, seems even to destroy the nutritive quality of bones. 7 The Commission, however, does not wish at present to offer an opinion on the employment of gela- tine, associated with other aliment*, in the nourishment of man. It believes that direct experi- ment can alone illustrate this subject in a definite manner. It has been actively occupit-d with this subject, and the results will be published in the second and last part of this Report. 8. Gluten, from wlieat or maize, alone satisfies complete and prolonged nutrition. 9. Fat, taken alone, sustains life during some time, but the nutrition is imperfect and disordered. It accumulates in all the tissues, sometimes in the state of elaine (oleine) and of stearine, sometimes in the state of almost pure stearine. CHAP. III. Of the Times of Eating. An able writer (Dr. Combe) on Digestion and Dietetics, has very justly observed, that " the grand rule in fixing the number and periods of our meals, is, to proportion them to the real wants of the system as modified by age, sea:, health, and manner of life, and as indica- ted by the true returns of appetite." The time required for the digestion of the food, by the healthy stomach, varies from one to three or four hours ; but hunger, or the desire to take more food, is not usually expe- rienced until some time after this viscus has disposed of its contents. If fresh food be introduced into the stomach before that of the previous meal has been digested, the pro- cess of digestion is disturbed. The solution which Dr. Beaumont offers of this generally admitted fact is, that more food is received into the stomach, in the aggregate, than the guatric juice can dissolve. But this explanation is by no means a satisfactory one. It leads to the conclusion, that eating a little and often is not injurious, provided the total amount of food taken does not exceed that capable of being dissolved by the gastric juice. General expe- rience, however, is opposed to this practice ; and it can scarcely be doubted that, in the healthy state of the system, the custom of eating moderately at more prolonged intervals is most natural to man. A variety of circumstances affect the length of the interval between each meal. On account of the greater activity of the organs of respiration, children require to be more frequently fed than adults,- and they bear hunger less easily. For the same reason, also, persons who take much exercise, or labor hard, require more frequent and copious meals than the indolent and sedertary. In the former the number of respirations is greater than in the latter; and, therefo.e, a more frequent supply of food is required to supply the necessary quantity of carbon and hydrogen to be consumed in the lungs. * A bird de- prived of food," says Liebig, "dies on the third day, while a serpent, with its sluggish re- spiration, can live without food three months or longer." From experiments* made a few years ago at the Zoological Gardens, it appears that * See the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, No. xviii. p. 49. TIME OF EATING. 221 carnivorous mammalia require one meal in twenty-four hours only, and that if fed more frequently their health suffers. It was found that when Leopards and Hyeenas were fed with two meals daily they did not continue in equally good condition with those which had the same quantity of flesh daily in one meal only. It further appears, that in one instance (that of the Leopard) the temper changed for the worse ; and in another in- stance the habits were altered as regarded exercise, a diminution of which, in confined animals, must be injurious to health. It cannot be doubted that the practice of having fixed periods for eating is more condu- cive to health than eating at irregular intervals. But it will be obvious, from the forego- ing observations, that the periods should vary for different classes of individuals. "So strong is the tendency to periodicity in the system," says Dr. Cornbe, "that the appetite returns at the accustomed hour, even after the mode of life, and consequently the wants of the system, have undergone a change ; and if not gratified, it again subsides. Ulti- mately, however, its calls become too urgent to admit of being a second time disregarded." The number of meals per day, and the intervals between them, must vary according to several circumstances ; but for adults it may be admitted, as a general rule, that three rneals at least are essential to health, though five are in frequent use ; viz. breakfast, luncheon, dinner, tea, and supper. In public pauper establishments three only are per- mitted ; viz. breakfast, dinner, and supper. 1. Breakfast. The system is more susceptible of the influence of morbific causes before breakfast than at any other period of the day. "It is well known," observes Dr.. Combe r "that the system is more susceptible of infection, and of the influence of cold, miasma, and other morbid causes, in the morning before eating than at any other time ; and hence it has become a point of duty with all naval and military commanders,, especially in bad climates, always to give their men breakfast before exposing them to morning dews and other noxious influences. Sir George Ballingall even mentions a regiment quartered at Newcastle, in which typhus fever was very prevalent, and in which, of all the means used to check its progress, nothing proved so successful as an early breakfast of warm coffee. In aguish countries, also, experience has shown that the proportion of sick among those who are exposed to the open air before getting any thing to eat, is infinitely greater than among those who have been fortified by a comfortable breakfast." In some constitutions, especially those denominated delicate,- much exercise, either of body or mind, before breakfast, operates injuriously ;, producing exhaustion, languor, and unfitness for the ordinary occupations of the day. These facts -show the importance of breakfasting soon after rising and dressing; at least in many cases. I am fully aware that there are numerous exceptions to this. Some persons not only suffer no injury from, but actually appear to be benefited by, active exer- cise taken before breakfast ; its effect being with them to create or augment the appetite. But in others the effects are those which I have already stated. I am satisfied, from re- peated observation, that in children disposed to spasmodic and other brain diseases, the practice of making them attend school for two hours before breakfast is injurious; and. I fully agree, therefore, with Dr. Combe, that in "boarding-schools for the young and grow- ing, who require plenty of sustenance, and are often obliged to rise early, an early break- fast is almost an indispensable condition of health." Epileptics, especially those disposed to morning attacks, should invariably breakfast soon after rising. I think I have seen the fits brought on by neglecting this precaution. For travellers a light breakfast before start- ing is a great protection " against colds and subsequent fatigue or exhaustion." Medical men and others should not, if possible, expose themselves to the influence of infectious or contagious disorders, as fevers, &c., before breakfast, as the danger of infection then is 222 COMPOUND ALIMENTS greatly enhanced. For the same reason the practice of -making post-mortem examina- tions and dissections before breakfast is to be condemned. 2. Luncheon. This meal is admissible only when either the interval between the break- fast and dinner is very prolonged, or when the quantity of food taken at breakfast is very small. The lower classes, as well as the children of the higher classes, dine early, and thus with them luncheon is unnecessary, and accordingly is not usually taken. Not so, however, with adults of the middling and higher classes. With them, either from busi- ness or other causes, the practice of dining late has become general ; and with such lun- cheon becomes a necessary meal. It should be taken about five hours after breakfast, and though called by another name, it may be considered as a light dinner, taken to allay the cravings of nature, but not entirely to destroy the appetite. 3. Dinner. "Supposing nine o'clock to be the hour of breakfast," observes Dr. Combe, " the natural dinner-hour would be two o'clock ; and such, accordingly, is that sanction- ed by the most extended experience, and which ought to be adhered to by all whose oc- cupations will admit of its observance, and who wish to enjoy the highest health of which they are susceptible." This rule is a very good general one for adults, to which, how- ever, exceptions oftentimes occur. Digestion is a process which is not effected in the same period of time in different individuals, in some it is slow, in others rapid. In the former a longer interval between breakfast and dinner is necessary than in the latter. A variety of other circumstances, such as the quantity of food taken at breakfast, the occupation of the individual, &c. &C., also affect the length of the interval. Business and the customs of society have led to the practice of dining latr, which, as I have already stated, involves the propriety of taking the intermediate meal caljbd luncheon. 4. Tea. The moderate use of tea or coffee, two or three hours after dinner, forms a very agreeable and refreshing meal. 5. Supper. General experience is unfavorable to the use of much food at supper. To those who dine late, supper is an unnecessary meal ; whereas to those who dine early, and who take much active exercise, or are employed in laborious work after dinner, it is by no means an unnecessary or unwholesome meal. An empty stomach, under such cir- cumstances, will sometimes prove a most disagreeable preventive of sleep.* CHAP. IV. On Dietaries. IT will, I think, be generally admitted, that an accurate acquaintance with the quantity and quality of food necessary to the maintenance of human health and life, under dif- ferent circumstances, is a matter of great interest to every one ; but it is more especially so to statesmen, magistrates, naval and military officers, physicians and surgeons,govern- ors of hospitals and other public institutions, and the guardians of the poor. To them are intrusted the care and supervision of the inhabitants of prisons, ships, garrisons, armies, asylums, hospitals, and poor-houses; and on their knowledge or igr;orance de- pends the health or disease the life or the death of a considerable portion of the com- munity. The Reports of the Inspectors of Prisons have furnished abundant evidence of the errors committed by magistrates in the dieting of criminals. Debility, diarrhoea, scurvy, * Appendix, 18. DIETARIES. 2:23 and other evils known to be consequences of defective nutriment, have prevailed in many of the prisons of this country to a serious and alarming extent. I am fully aware of the difficulty, in many cases, of determining the cause or causes of these evils, and I arn willing to admit that, possibly, in some of the instances in which defective nutriment has alone been charged with the production of diseases of an epidemic character, that other morbific causes, either alone or concurrently with defective nutriment, may have con- tributed to the result. But in some cases the cause of the evil is too clear and unequivo- cal to admit of any doubt. Take the case of the Lewes House of Correction. The Inspec- tors of Prisons* inform us, that " Scurvy at one time prevailed in the prison : by an increase of the diet it disappeared. The diet was again diminished, and the scurvy again appeared. The diet was then permanently increased ; the scurvy again disappeared, and has not since occurred." The actual quantity of food required for the support of human health and life is sub- ject to considerable modification by a variety of circumstances; and, therefore, it is quite impossible to lay down a fixed rule, or to adopt any standard: for the quantity of food which may be suited to the wants of one individual may be insufffcient for another, or too much for a third. Age, sex, the amount and kind of exercise and labor, the con- stitution, the state of health, and the condition of life, are some of the modifying circum- stances ; the agency of several of which is too obvious to require comment. Captain Parry,! in his Account of one of the Polar Expeditions, states, that experience satisfied him that the following daily allowance was quite enough to support his crew on ship-boird ; that is, while performing the ordinary or regular ship duties : Biscuit 10 ounces. Beef Pemmicant 9 ounces. Sweetened Cocoa Powder .... 1 ounce. Rum ... .... 1 gill. Tobacco ....... 3 ounces per week. But this quantity was found to be by no means sufficient to support the strength of the men during their harassing journey across the ice, living constantly in the open air, ex- posed to the wet and cold for twelve hours a day, seldom enjoying the luxury of a warm meal, and having to perform very severe labor. Their strength became considerably im- paired, owing to want of sufficient sustenance ; and both Captain Parry and ,Mr. Bever- ley, the surgeon, were of opinion, that in order to maintain the strength of the men thus employed for several weeks together, an addition would be requisite, of at least one third more, to the provisions daily issued.^ * Third Report of the Inspectors of Prisons. Supplement to Part I. Home District, p. 94. 1838. t Narrative of an Attempt to reach the North Pole in boats jilted for the purpose, and attached to his ma- jesty's ship Hecla, in the year 1827. London, 1828. t Pemmican is prepared by drying large thin slices of the lean of the meat over the smoke of wood fires, then pounding it, and, lastly, mixing it with about an equal weight of its own fat. In this state it is ready for use without further cooking. $ May not the loss of strength have been partly owing to the habitual use of rum and tobacco ? Sir John Ross states, that when on the same expedition to the North Pole, he, with his crew, abandoned the use of spirituous liquors " with the most gratifying results." The result of his experimenUfhe gives as follows : " When men under hard and steady labor are given their usual allowance, a draught of grog, or a j dram, they become languid and faint, losing their strength in reality, while they attribute that to the ] continuance of their fatiguing exertions. Pie who will make the corresponding experiments on two j equal boats' crews, rowing in a heavy sea, will soon be convinced that the water-drinkers will far out- || do the others " (Sir John Ross's " Arctic Expedition.") There can be no doubt, however, that the allowance of food was much too small to support the strength. -L 224 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. In framing prison dietaries, an important element for consideration is the amount and nature of the laboi to which the prisoners are subjected ; those who are put to hard labor requiring a greater quantity of food to enable them to support the augmented expenditure of power. Accordingly, in the dietaries framed by the Inspectors of Prisons, and adopted by Sir James Graham, her majesty's Secretary of State for the Home Department, this element has been kept in view. An opinion has of late prevailed that the condition of life, as regards liberty or imprison- ment, is a circumstance which modifies the quantity of food necessary for the mainte- nance of health. On this point I shall quote the opinion of one of the Inspectors of Prisons, in his own words: "In the construction of a dietary for a House of Correction, it is not unfrequently assumed that something less than what is the customary food of ihe laboring population of the vicinity should be sufficient for those in the degraded condition of criminals. Accordingly, in those agricultural districts where meat forms but a very small proportion of the ordinary food, less lias been accorded, and in some instances none, without consideration being given to the wide distinction between the condition of the freeman and the prisoner : the one enjoying purity of air, active bodily and healthful mental exercise, social intercourse, choice and diversity of diet It is under such cir- cumstances that the smallest modicum of animal food proves sufficient for the preserva- tion even of the most robust health. But reverse the situation : place the individual, as an offender against the law, in a small, cold, ill- ventilated cell ; a prey to his own reflec- tions, or, what is worse, with his mind almost a vacuum, cut off from all real social inter- course, subjected to the irksome, uninteresting labor of treading a wheel or picking oak- um ; it is in this condition, I contend, that the stimulus of animal food becomes indispen- sable for his support against the inroads of low and debilitating diseases. I scarcely re- collect an instance of scurvy being prevalent in a prison but where it might be distinctly traced to a want of variety in the diet, and its deficiency in nutritive qualities."* That deprivation of liberty, with all its accompanying restrictions, exercises a depress- ing influence on the mind, and through this on the body, cannot be for a moment doubted. In this indirect way it becomes a means of affecting the organic functions ; and thus it happens that an amount of nutriment, which, under the most cheering circumstances, is barely sufficient to sustain health, may prove, when conjoined with depressing mental in- fluences, totally insufficient for the maintenance of health, and may be followed by scurvy and other diseases known to be common consequences of defective sustenance. And here I may be permitted to remind my reader, that scurvy has ever been a dis- ease remarkable for the influence exercised over it by passions of the mind. In Lord Anson's Voyage, we are told, "that whatever discouraged the seamen, or at any time damped their hopes, never failed to add new vigor to the distemper; for it usually killed those who were in the last stages of it, and confined those to their hammocks who were before capable of some kind of duty. So^ that it seemed as though alacrity of mind and sanguine thoughts were no contemptible preservatives from its fatal malignity." Mr. Ives, in his Journal, also gives an excellent illustration of the beneficial influence of men- tal exhilaration on this disease ; for he states, "Upon the British fleet coming into the Bay ofHiere?, ((February, 1744,) our men understood that the enemy's fleet and ours wrrt' soon to engage. There appeared not only in the healthy, but also in the sick, the highest marks of satisfaction and pleasure, and these last mended surprisingly daily, insomuch that on the llth of February, the day we engaged the combined fleets of France and Spain, we had not above four or five but what were at their fighting quarters." Dr. * Seventh Report of the Inspectors of Prisons. II. Northern and Eastern District, p. iii. London, 1842. DIETARIES. Lind* relates a still more striking exemplification of the position here contended for, as having occurred at the siege of Breda in 1625. In the Dietaries for Prisons recently adopted by the Secretary of State, the length of imprisonment has, very properly as I conceive, been taken into consideration. For if it be admitted that imprisonment has an injurious influence over the nutrition of the body, it is obvious that the longer the period the more marked will be the effect. Those, therefore, who have to suffer prolonged terms of imprisonment require to be better nourished than those who are sentenced for shorter periods, in order to enable them the better to resist the depressing influences to which they are, for a more lengthened term, to be subjected ; and the consequences of which (viz. loss of health and strength) constitute "a punish- ment not contemplated by law, and which it is unjust and cruel to inflict."f Observation and experiment have fully proved the absolute necessity of considerable variety of food for the preservation of health and life ; and there is nothing surprising in this. The body is made up of many principles, differing the one from the other in com- position and chemical properties ; and we might d priori have presumed, that textures 'V.'iich are chemically different would require different aliments for their nourishment. Tlie living body, as I have already stated (see p. 3, et seq.,) has no power of creating (v.mentary substances ; and it is obvious, therefore, that the system must be supplied wkh foods containing all the elements which enter into its composition. Moreover, it is no' sufficient to present animals with these elements in their raw or uncombined state ; for rhe animal system has no power of forming its organic constituents out of simple or eitMjentary bodies. It is capable of effecting a considerable number of combinations and decompositions ; but there is a limit to its chemical powers. It cannot form the organic co'v ituents of the tissues out of any substances which may happen to contain the same 1 ci'3."^nts, but only out of those substances whose composition and properties are analo- goj>o to, or identical with, those of the principles of which the tissues are composed. With the exception of cellular tissue and of membranes, of the brain and nerves, which vegetables cannot produce, Liebig denies that the animal organism has the power of creating any of the organic principles which compose the animal tissues. Kitrogenized foods are necessary for the formation of tissues into the composition of which nitrogen enters. Thus proteinaceous substances (fibrine, albumen,. caseine,-and gluten) serve for the formation of muscle and of the albuminous tissues, and, in. the case of infants nourished by milk alone, they must also become food for the gelatinous tissues (cartilage, cellular tissue, membrane, the true skin, &c.) But as the foods on which the adult animal feeds, contain, or are capable of yielding, gelatine, it is probable that the gelatinous tissues are, in this case, wholly or partially nourished from this source. Noo-nitrogenized foods serve several important purposes in the animal economy; though perhaps their ultimate use is to act as fuel to be burnt in the lungs, and thereby to develop sufficient heat to support the high temperature necessary for the manifestation of vital power. Oily or fatty substances, sugar, and the starchy or amylaceous substances, serve this purpose. They save the injurious and excessive action of oxygen on the tis- sues of the body. "By diminishing the amount of alkali in the blood, and by giving non- nitrogenous food, the scurvy is cured, or prevented, in consequence of such substances being acted on instead of the tissues of the body. No other explanation can be given of the benefit which arises from vegetable acids, from fiesh vegetables, from sugar, wine, * Treatise on the Scurvy. t Sir J. R. G. Graham, in a Circular Letter to the Chairmen of Quarter Sessions, dated Jan. 27, 1843. 15 2*26 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. beer, wort, treacle, potatoes, &c., all of which have been used with the best effects."* Oily or fatty substances are absorbed, and afterwards either laid up in cells, to be consumed at some future time, or 'mmediately burnt in the lungs to furnish heat. According to Liebig, saccharine and farinaceous substances also contribute to the formation* of fat, though, as I have before stated, Dumas denies this. J. DIETARIES FOR CHILDREN. In children the function of nutrition is more active than in adults. They have not merely to repair the daily waste, that is, to renovate their tissues, but to grow. Their functions of circulation and respiration are, therefore, more active than in after life ; and they require food; that is, substances to support the process of respiration, to be admin- istered at shorter intervals. There is also another reason why in children the elements of respiration (non-nitroge- nous foods) are more necessary than in adults. In the former the transformation or me- tamorphosis of the existing tissues is less intense than in the latter. In an adult, who neither gains nor loses in weight perceptibly from day to day, the nourishment and waste of organized tissue are equally balanced ; but in the young the weight augments daily, and, consequently, the nourishment must exceed the waste. In order that this may take place, the child must be supplied with a sufficient quantity of non-nitrogenous food, which, by yielding carbon and hydrogen to be burnt in the lungs, protects the organized tissues from the transformations consequent on the injurious action of oxygen. "What is wanting for these purposes an infinite wisdom has supplied to the young animal in its natural food. The carbon and hydrogen of butter, and the carbon of the sugar of milk, no part of either of which can yield blood, fibrine, or albumen, are destined for the support of the respiratory process, at an age when a greater resistance is opposed to the meta- morphosis of existing organisms ; or, in other words, to the production of compounds which in the adult state are produced in quantity amply sufficient for the purpose of respiration. The young animal receives the constituents of its blood in the caseine of the milk. A metamorphosis of existing organs goes on, for bile and urine are secreted ; the matter of the metamorphosed parts is given off in the form of urine, of carbonic acid, and of water; but the butter and sugar of milk also disappear; they cannot be detected in the faeces. The butter and sugar are given out in the form of carbonic acid and water, and their conversion into oxidized products furnishes the clearest proof that far more oxyir^n is absorbed than is required to convert the carbon and hydrogen of the metamorphosed tissues into carbonic acid and water. The change and metamorphosis of organized tis- m going on in the vital process in the young animal, consequently yield, in a given time, much less carbon and hydrogen, in the form adapted for the respiratory process, ttfcan corresponds to the oxygen taken up in the lungs. The substance of its organized ftfirts would undergo a more rapid consumption, and would necessarily yield to the action f oxygen, were not the deficiency of carbon and hydrogen supplied from another source. "f Children, for the most part, evince an almost instinctive fondness for sugar, which is supplied to them in their mother's milk. This perhaps is to be explained by the fact that at 'is an element of respiration, and, therefore, is more necessary for them than adults, on accaunt of the greater activity of their function of respiration. But this fondness for sugar is by no means universal among children. In very cold countries, substances ricuu. in carbon and hydrogen, and, therefore, yielding more heat by combustion, are pre- ferred. *iu one of those late extravagant voyages to discover a northwest passage," * Mr..Beaee Jones, On Gravel, Calculus, and Gout, p. 48. Lond. 1S42. t Liebig's Animal Chemistry, pp. 68 and 69. DIETARIES FOR CHILDREN. 227 says Sir Anthony Carlisle,* "the most northern race of mankind were found to be unac- quainted with the taste of sweets, and their infants made very wry faces, and sputtered ^out sugar with disgust ; but the little urchins ginned with ecstasy at the sight of a bit of whale's blubber." The natural appetite I believe to be an index jf the wants of the system ; and ought, therefore, to be consulted, to a certain extent, in the dieting of children ; and T believe that parents commit a gross error who totally disregard it. I have seen children refused vegetable food, though they ardently desired it, because they would not eat what their nurses supposed to be the proper proportion of animal food ; and, on the other hand, I have known children denied animal food, on the mistaken notion that it would be inju- rious to them, though the digestive functions were active, and the appetite for meat most keen. Arrow-root, tapioca, sago, potato-starch, tous-ks-mois, sugar, butter, and other fatty bodies, are elements of respiration, and if used in greater quantity than is necessary for combustion in the lungs, they contribute to the increase of fat; but they do not contain the necessary ingredients for the growth of bone, cartilage, ligament, muscle, membrane, and cellular tissue. For the latter purpose, nitrogenized food is necessary. The caseine or curd of milk is an aliment of this kind, supplied by nature, for the use of mammals. It is a proteinaceous substa-nce., adapted for the growth of the organized tissues ; and is accompanied by phosphate of lime, which is necessary for the solidification of bone. The cereal grains (as wheat, barley, oats) also yield most valuable nitrogenized foods for chil- dren ; and of these, Hard's Farinaceous Food, Semolina, Groats, Oatmeal, &c., have been already noticed. The uses of aniiiitu foods (meats) have been so fully described, that any further refer- ence to them is unnecessary here. Children may be over fed or under fed. Instances of the former, however, are com- paratively rare. Of the ill consequences of defective nutriment we have, unfortunately, too many instances continually presented to our notice. Irritable bowels or diarrhoea, tumid abdomen, mesenteric disease, wasting, and fever, are the ordinary and obvious effects-! They frequently follow the continued use of pea-soup and potato stews, dishes which are in common use at poor-houses and other establishments for pauper children. Scrofulous and strumous diseases, marasmus, rickets, distortions, and pot bellies, so com- monly met with among children of the poor, are referrihje, in part at least, to food defec- tive either in quantity or quality, or perhaps in both. I think it will be found that more than two thirds of pauper children are strumous. They derive this condition in part, perhaps, from hereditary tendency ; but partly also, as I believe, from defective nutriment- To the same cause also is ascribable their inferior development. If the children in poor- houses be examined, they will be found, for the most part, smaller and shorter for their age, more frequently distorted, and more readily fatigued, than the children of the mid- dling and higher classes. Subjoined are the dietaries of several of the principal metropolitan establishments for children : * Practical Observations on ike Preservation of Health, p. 73. London, 1838. f To this may be added Ophthalmia, formerly a very prevalent disease in the Almshouse and Orphan Asylums of this city. L. COMPOUND ALIMENTS. 1. FOUNDLING HOSPITAL. Breakfast Dinner . Supper . Breakfast Dinner . Supper , I. DIET FOR CHILDREN UNDER NINE WJread, 4 oz. Milk, half pint, boiled with an equal quantity of water. Monday . . . 4 oz. uncooked Mutton for roasting : 6 oz. Potatoes ; 2 oz. of Bread. Tuesday . . . 4 oz. of unrooke/1 Beef to be boiled into soup, with II oz. of Rice ; 4 oz. of Bread. Wednesday Same as Monday. Thursday . . Same as Tuesday. Same as Monday. Rice Pudding (viz. milk I pint, rice 3 oz., treacle i oz.) and Suet Pudding (viz. flour 7i oz. suet H oz. milk I of a pint) alternately. 4 oz. of uncooked Beef for roasting (cold ;) 6 oz. of Potatoes ; 2 oz. of Bread. Friday . Saturday . Sunday. Bread, 4 oz. ; i of a pint of Milk. 2. DIET FOR CHILDREN AT AND ABOVE NINE. Bread 6 oz., Milk i pint, boiled with an equal quantity of water. Monday . . . 7 oz. of uncooked Mutton, for roasting ; K) oz. of Potatoes. Tin >dny ... 7 oz. of uncooked Beef, to be boiled into soup ; 4 oz. of Bread. Wednesday Same as Monday. Thursday . . Same as Tuesday. Friday .... Same as Monday. Saturday . . . Rice Pudding, with Suet Pudding alternately. Sunday .... 7 oz. of uncooked Beef for roasting (cold ;) with 10 oz. of Potatoes. Bread, 6 oz.; Butter, I oz. ; Treacle alternate nights. 2. ROYAL MILITARY ASYLUM, CHELSEA. (Boys of from 5 to 14 Years of Age.) Breakfast Dinner Supper Milk Pottage. Milk, l-6th of a quart; Oatmeal, l-16th of a Ib. ; Bread, l-20th of a quartern loaf. Sunday . . . . ^ Meat, 8 oz. ; Potatoes, 12 oz. ; Bread, l-20th qu. loaf. and stewed Tuesday . . . SV 1 [On Sunday the meat is roast beef; on Tuesday Thursday... , . ' [ Thursday, stewed beef; and on Saturday, st Saturday .'. .J * ) mutton.] Monday . . . . ) Pudding, Suet H oz. ; Flour, 6 oz. ; Potatoes, 8 oz. ; Beer, half a Friday ..... $ pint. .Wednesday . . Pea Soup, 1 gill ; Potatoes, 12 oz.; Bread, .-20th of a quartern loaf; Beer, half a pint. Daily ....... Bread, l-20th of a quartern loaf. Sunday . . . . " i f Chee86 ' " Z ' ? Saturday . . .J Monday ---- ) Wednesday . f Milk, half a pint. t Friday ..... } N. B. The Meat is estimated as taken from the butcher, fncludrcg bone. A proport on of the very small children on 6 oz. of Meat. i DIETARIES FOR CHILDREN. 229 i 1 1 3. NAVAL ASYLUM, GREENWICH. Breakfast .... Dinner .....< 1 pint Cocoa (i oz. cocoa, i 02. sugar, 1 gill milk ;) 5 oz. Bread. Snml f Roast Beef, 9 oz. 'l,S y :::k oz - Wy-.tej}^,. Monday . . . . > <, p,,^; 1 ** oz - Suet > Friday \ ^ dln S \ 6 oz. Flour-Bread and Beer as above. Wednesday 1 Pea S Up (1 gil1 f Peas -) ' ^ > Potatoes, 8 oz. Bread and Beer as above. = Saturday . . . j Mutton,^ boiled j Irish Stew-Bread and Beer . Half pint Milk, and 5 oz. of Bread. 4. INFANT ORPHAN ASYLUM, DALSTON. Breakfast .... Dinner . . . . . < Bread and Milk daily. Monday . . . Meat, or boiled Beef-steak Pudding. Tuesday . . Mutton, (not over boiled,) Potatoes, and boiled Rice. Wednesday Cold Mutton, and Family Pudding. Thursday . Roasted Legs of Mutton and Potatoes. Friday . . . Cold Mutton, and Family Pudding. Saturday . . Roasted Beef, Potatoes, and Suet Pudding. _ Sunday . . . Cold roasted Beef, and mashed Potatoes. Beverage Toast- water. Bread and Butter, with Milk and Water. 3e years of age to have Beef Tea, or Mutton Broth, besides cold Meat, on Sundays, officers prescribe, Beer is substituted at dinner for Toast-water. ) consist of dried Raisins, Apples, Rhubarb, &c. according to the season, are occasionally introduced; as circumstances require. : the best quality, and two days old before cut. st of top sides of rounds of the best Ox Beef, weighing about 28 Ibs., and legs of the weighing about 10 Ibs. each. As much as they like to eat, within moderation. Supper Children under thr Where the medica Family Puddings tc Green Vegetables The Bread to be <> The joints to consi best Wether Mutton, 5. MR. AUBIN'S ESTABLISHMENT AT NORWOOD, SURREY. i Breakfast .... Dinner Milk Porridge, with Bread in it. ' Sunday .... 1 Tuesday . . . > Baked or Boiled Mutton or Beef, with Vegetables and Broth. Thursday . . . ) Monday . . . . ) goup with Brea(] Jn u | sltu d rd7y ay { Baked or Boiled Rice Puddin S> with Milk and Su 8 ar ' Supper Bread and Butter, with Milk and Water. Children under 8 years not restricted to quantity, : those from 8 to 14 or 15 are allowed U pints Por- ridge, 4 oz Bread, 5 oz. Meat, 1 Ib. Potatoes, * pint Broth, H pints Soup, 16 oz. boiled Rice, 6 or 8 oz. of Bread and Butter. Those under 7 years of age to be allowed Sago, Arrow-root, Milk, or any other nourishment their tender age may require. Children, when ill, to be dieted by the medical attendant. Roast Veal or Pork to be allowed on Easter and Whit-Sundays, ahd Roast Beef and Plum Pudding on Christmas day. L . 230 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. 6. DIETARY FOR FOUNDLINGS AND ORPHANS OF THE HOSPICE DES ENFANS TROUVES, AND THE LUNATIC AND INFIRM CHILDREN OF THE HOSPICES DES INCURABLES,* IN PARIS. DIVISION QUANTITY ALLOWED. OF THE KIND OF FOOD. DAY. Unprepared. Prepared. CLASS I. Infants less than a Month old. Milk . . 30 cent. : Daily Vermicelli, Semolina,' Wheaten or Rice Flour 1 decag. Sugar ........... ? m 3 decag. CLASS II. Infants from One to Twelve Months old, or until weaning. f Milk . 50 cent. 1 Daily < White Bread Vermicelli, Semolina, Wheaten or Rice Flour 5 di 3 decag. I Sufjtir 5 decag. CLASS III. Children from One to Two Years old Daily White Bread _ 30 decag. Breakfast . . Soup or Milk Porridge .Meat Broth for Soup, or Vegetable Broth for Soup ant 'JO cent. Meat . ......... 10 decag. 5 cent. 7 drcag. 10 cent. or Dry Legumes (Haricots, Split-peas, Lentils) . . Dinmr or Fresh Vegetables (Cabbage, Turnips, Carrots) . 18 decag. 12 cent. or Potatoes 18 decag. 18 cent. or liice . * 3 decag. 15 cent op E ff gs ..... ... 1 No. Dry Legumes 5 cent. 10 cent. 18 decag. 1'J cent or Potatoes 18 decag. 3 decac 1" cent. 16 ClMit Prunes ... 5 decag. 7 cent. or Currant Jelly 2 d- 1 .__ 3 d- / U' L CLASS IV. Children from Two to Six Years old. f White Bread for Soup, for Boys and Girls . 10 (i Daily . . . J Middling Bread jg$ g 8 ; ; ; ; ; ; Wine for Boys and Girls d 2f, .! 10 cent. Jours Gras, (Sundays, Mondays, Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays.) Oradtfu, . . Vegetable Broth (Bouillon maigre) for Soup 3 QJ^ 30 ce;?.t. 2n rent. Dinner . . .-i Meat Broth (Boullion gras) for Soup j * ,V^ 15 d- 30 cent. 20 cent. 7 decag. ( ( Girls 12 d> G decag. c >ry Legumes 6 cent. 12 cent. >r Froth Vegetables 24 decag. 16 cent. >r Potatoes 24 decag. 24 cent. Sitjpr . ^ >r Rice 4 decag. 20 cent. Cheese ... 4 decag. or Prunes ... 8 decag. 12 cent. i >r Kaixinc (Thick confection of Grapes) 5 decag. Jour* Maigres (Fridays and Saturdays.) Breakfast . . Vegetable Broth for Soup j %?$* .... - 30 cent. 20 eenf. * From the Reglement sur le Rt'gimr Alimcnfaire dss Hopitaux et Hospices civils de la Ville Pa'is, ap- prouie par I M nr Fresh Vegetables .... or Potatoes or Eggs ......... __^ 2 No. 10 cent 20 cent. or Fresh Vegetables 36 decag. nt or Potatoes ... . . 36 decag. :#> cf-nt. Supper or Rice . ... . 6 decag. 30 cent. Cheese 6 d.-cag. or Prune/ 12 decag. 18 cent. ior Raisine ...... 7 decag. V The abbreviation cent, means centilitre. Thus, 50 centilitres are equal to i of a lilrr. A centilitre is equal to 2y"V fluid drachms (Apothecaries' measure;) while a litre is equal to 2j- 1 <5'Vo' pints (Apothecaries' measure.) The abbreviation decag. means decagrammes or 10 grammes, equal to 154yVo tr y groins. 7. MERCHANTS' SEAMEN'S ORPHAN ASYLUM. (Ages of Children from 7 to 15 Years.) Breakfast . . . . i Ib. Bread, i pint Milk. f Sunday . . . } j Tuesday . . . 1 Wednesday >i Ib. Meat, 6 oz. Potatoes, 4f oz. Flour. Dinner . . . j Thursday . 1 Friday J. Monday . . . [_ Saturday . . ( 17 Ibs. Rice, boiled and divided among 90 children. ' j i Ib. Bread. ' ( 10 Ibs. Peas in Soup, divided among 90 children. Supper . i Ib. Bread, 1 oz. Cheese. 2. DIETARY FOR THE NAVAL SERVICE * "The victualling of the Navy," says Dr. John Wilson,f "is as nearly as possible uni- form throughout the service as circumstances will permit; at sea it is almost entirely so ; in harbor it varies more or less, according to the supplies of fresh provisions procurable in different places." In the "Regulations for His Majesty's Service at Sea," established -v the King in Council, Jan. 1st, 1833, is contained the following scale of diet used in the Navy : * Appendix, 19. t Statistical Reports of the HtaOh of the Navy, for the Years 1830-1836. South American, West Indian and North American, Mediterranean and Peninsular Commands. Ordered by the House of Commons to be printed, March 24, 1840. NAVAL DIETARY. 233 " There shall be allowed to every person serving in His Majesty's ships the following quantities of' provisions : viz : ; RrpnH ] Ib. Fresh Meat .... 1 Ib ) Beer .... 1 gallon. and (~^nrnn 1 n-7 Vpo-Pth1p alternately \ and 1 Plnur * Ih \ 1 Pfias . . . 1 pint. " And weekly, whether Fresh or Salt Meat be issued r DiltlTlCl. il i pint Vinegar i pint. * The following Scheme shows the proportion of Provisions with Salt Meat for each man for!4 days : DAYS OF THE WEEK. Bread Beer Sugar Cocoa Tea Beef Pork Flour Peas Oat -, Vfhe - meal gar. Ib. gall. oz. oz. oz. Ib. Ib. Ib. pint Sunday 1 1 li i * - * Monday 1 1 1* i * - * 4 - M Tuesday 1 1 1ft i * - * - Wednesday 1 1 It * . - 4 - ftl Thursday 1 1 It i * - * -f i i Friday 1 1 It i - * * Saturday 1 1 It i * - * -J Sunday 1 li i - * i Monday 1 It t 4 - 4 Tuesday 1 It i - 4 - i Wednesday 1 It i * - * t t Thursday 1 It i - * - ft Friday 1 It i * - * Saturday 1 It i - 4 * Proportion ) for 14 days $ 14 14 21 14 3t 5t 5ft 5t 3i 1 1 " On the days on which Flour is ordered to be issued, Suet and Raisins or Currants may be substituted for a portion of Flour. 1 Ib. of Raisins being considered equal to 1 Ib. of Flour i Ib. of Currants i Ib. of Suet . . ' ' 5 ditto ditto " In case it should be found necessary to alter any of the above species of Provisions, and to issue others as their substitutes, it is to be observed that H Ib. of Soft Bread ^ or 1 Ib.of Rice . to be considered equal to 1 Ib. of Biscuit. or 1 Ib.of Flour . 1 pint of Wine or > is to be considered equal to 1 gallon of Beer.* i pint of Spirits . . ) 1 oz. of Coffee . . ) or > is to be considered equal to 1 oz. of Cocoa. i oz. of Tea . . . ) 1 Ib.of Rice . or 1 pint of Calavancest ^ is to be considered equal to 1 pint of Peas. or 1 pint of DhollJ . . J i 2 Ib. of Butter . . is to be considered equal to 1 Ib. of Cocoa. Ibs. of Cheese . . are to be considered equal to 1 Ib of Cocoa. i Ib. of onions or is to be considered equal to 1 Ib. of other Vegetables." $ Ib.of Leeks * Half a pint of spirits is not equal to one gallon of beer, nor to one spoonful. It contains no nutri- ment, as we have shown elsewhere, but is a pure stimulant. L. t Calavances, a kind of pulse. According to Sir H. Sloane it is the Phaseolus sphcerospe'mus. t Dholl or Dal is the split peas of India. That which is obtained from Phaseolus radialus is reckoned the best kind. J 234 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. "After fourteen days' use of salt food, lemon juice, with an additional allowance of sugar, is issued as an antiscorbutic."* From these statements it is obvious that the quantity of food supplied to the Navy is most ample, though not excessive. The total weekly allowance, when either fresh or salt meat is issued, is as follows : Fresh Meat Diet. Salt Meat Diet. Bread .... 112 oz. 112oz. Meat .... 112 oz. 84 oz. Vegetables 56 oz. Flour 42 oz. Peas .... Oatmeal [i pint say] [11 pinl 5 oz. & say] 29* oz 5oz. Sugar .... loi- ez. lOioz Cocoa .... 7 oz. . 7oz. Total . . . 302i . . . 290* Beer ..... 7 gallons . . 7 gallons Vinegar .... i pint . . i pint Tea . . H oz. II oz. The substitution of one kind of provision for another is an excellent arrangement, by which considerable variety of food, so necessary for the preservation of health, is ob- tained. A reasonable complaint, however, may be made with regard to the scale of equi- valents adopted. It will be perceived that 8 oz. of fresh vegetables are considered equal to 12 oz. of flour, or to half a pint of peas: whereas in reality at least 86 oz. of riv-h vegetables are required to be equal to 12 oz. of wheat flour.f Dr. Wilson declares the naval rations to be both abundant in quantity and excellent in quality ; and he adds that they contribute largely to the high degree of health now enjoyed in the Royal Navy. The water employed in the navy was formerly carried to sea in casks, and soon be- came putrid and offensive owing to the vegetable admixture. The substitution of iron tanks for casks has remedied this evil ; and the water can now be kept for any length of time without becoming offensive either to the palate or nose. The metal becom- dized, and the oxide of iron thus formed mixes with the water; but, by its weight and insolubility, it soon falls, at least for the most part, to the bottom ; and should a small portion remain suspended and be drank, it can have no injurious effect, but may possibly prove beneficial. * Dr. J. Wilson's Statistic! Reports. t In making the above calculation, I have assumed that 100 parts of wheat flour contain 83 parts of dry nutritive mutter, and that 100 parts of fresh vegetables (potatoes, cabbage, carrots, and turnips) con- tain, on the average, only 12-15 parts of dry nutritive matter. For 100 parts of potatoes contain about . . 21 parts dry matter -nl.!. " ... 7-7 " turnips " ... 7-5 " cnrrnts " ... 12-4 " Average ..... 12-15 If we calculate according to Boussingault's nitrogen scale of nutritive equivalents, (see p. 27-23,) about 105i parts of fresh vegetables, (potatoes, cabbage, carrot, and turnips,) are equivalent to 12 parts of wheat flour. DIETARY FOR TROOPS TO INDIA. 235 Subjoined are the Scale of Victualling for Troops from England to I-idia, as fixed by the East India Company ; and the Dietary for Emigrants, as fixed by Her Majesty's t unday . . . i i i 2 H i i 1 3 N x londay . . . \ t i T i 3 3 V V o 1 ^uesday . . 1 i i 2 H i i * 3 is i Vednesday . i i i * t 3 c a 8 Thursday . . 1 * i 2 li J i i 3 a s Viday . . . I _ i ft i i i 3 3 * 7* Saturday . . 1 * i 2 11 i 3 * The Biscuit must not be of a more inferior description than the second quality of that article. t Prime new Irish East India Beef, and prime mess Pork. t During the first month li Ibs. of potatoes may be substituted for i Ib. of Rice. Women and Children of 14 years and upwards, to receive the same rations as Men ; Children from 7 to 14 to receive two thirds, and Children from 1 to 7 years of age to receive one half, of the above quantities. The Children between 1 and 7 shall, three times a week, receive 4 oz. of Rice, or 3 oz. of Sago, each, in lieu of their salt Meat. Children under twelve months receive no rations. One pound of fresh Meat and one pound of soft Bread per adult, to be issued, with a suita- -5 the Downs, and whenever opportunity of the Flour, Suet and Raisins, Rice and ble quantity of Vegetables, until one day after passing the Downs, and whenever opportunity shall oiler, in lieu of the salt and preservad Meat, and ofth Peas. 3. ARMY RATIONS.* The daily allowance to the Soldier in Great Britain is 1 Ib. of Bread, and 3 Ib. of Meat, making together 196 oz. of solid food weekly. For this he pays a fixed sum daily, viz. 6d. whatever may be the market price ; any excess being paid for by Government. He furnishes himself with other provisions. 4. DIETARIES FOR PAUPERS. It hr 5 been very properly stated by the Poor Law Commissioners, that in the dieting of the inmates of workhouses, the object is to give them an adequate supply of wholesome food, not superior in quantity or quality to that which the laboring classes in the respective neighborhoods provide for themselves. To effect so desirable an object, the Commissioners, in their Second Annual Report (1836) have adopted six dietaries (numbered from 1 to 6) for use in poorhouses ; and we are told that all of them have been employed in different parts of England, and have been proved to be sufficient in quantity, and perfectly unexceptionable as to the nature of the provisions specified in each. * The U. States ARMY RATION, is, for each man, daily, 18 ounces of bread, and either 20 ounces of beef, or three fourths of a pound of pork, but no vegetabl sa. This amounts to 266 oz. of solid food weekly, when beef is allowed, or 210 oz. when pork is allowed. L. DIETARIES FOR. PAUPERS. 237 DIETARY FOR ABLE-BODIED MEN AND WOMEN. BREAKFAST. DINNER. SUPPER. Bread. Gruel. Cooked Pota- Soup. Suet or Rice Bread. Cheese. Broth. Meat. toes. Pudd.ng. Sunday . . ( Men . . . 02. 6 pints. It 02. 5 tts. ft pints. 02. 02. 6 O2. pinf-f. H Tuesday . . Thursday . ( Women . . 5 it 5 ft 5 H Monday . . C Men . . . 6 H H 6 2 Wednesday . < Women . . 5 It _ 1ft 5 2 Saturday . . ( Frida J Men . . 6 It 14 6 2 _ I Women . 5 I* 12 5 2 Old people of 60 years of age and upwards, may be allowed 1 oz.of tea, 5 oz. of butter, and 7 oz. of sugar, per week, in lieu of gruel for breakfast, if deemed expedient to make this change. Children under 9 years of age to be dieted at discretion ; above 9, to be allowed the same quantities as women. 2. GENERAL DIETARY FOR THE ABLE-BODIED. BREAKFAST. DINNER. SUPPER. Bread. Cheese. Butter. Meat Pud- ding with Vegetables.* iii ill Bread. Cheese. Bread. Cheese. Butter. a-"** ' \wLen Monday . CMen . Wednesday Thursday . ) Women Saturday . ^ Tuesday . $ Men . Friday . . \ Women 02. 6 5 6 5 6 5 02;. 1 1 1 OZ. 1 02. 16 10 02. 16 10 OZ. 7 7 OZ. 1 1 OZ. 6 5 6 5 6 5 02. 1 1 1 02. ft 1 i Old people, being all 60 years of age and upwards : The weekly addition of 1 oz. of tea, and milk or sugar ; also an additional meat pudding dinner on Thursday in each week, in lieu of bread and cheese, to those for whose age and infirmities it may be deemed requisite. Children under 9 years of age : Bread and milk for their breakfast and supper, or gruel when milk cannot be obtained ; also such proportions of the dinner diet as may be requisite for their re- spective ages. * The vegetables are extra, and not included in the weight specified. 238 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. 3. DIETARY FOR ABLE-BODIED PAUPERS. BREAKFAST. DINNER. SUPPER. Bread. Gruel. Cooked Meal. Potatoes or c'.her ^bfe*! 1 " Soup. Bread. Cheese. Bread. Cheese. OZ. pints. OZ. Ib. pints. OZ. OZ. OZ. OZ, Mond? [Men .... 8 li 7 2 6 . li Wednesday | r:r r n i 1 \V OITlCfl . . L< rid ay ^ 6 li - 6 li 5 li Tuesday [f^^ ', \ ] 8 6 li li 8 6 * 6 5 li li Thursday {^^ | ; ' 8 6 8 6 li li li li Bacon. 5 4 1 li li 6 5 6 5 6 5 li li li li Old people of 60 years of age and upwards may be allowed 1 oz. of tea, 5 oz. of butter, and 7 oz. of sugar, per week, in lieu of gruel for breakfast, if deemed expedient to make this change. Children under 9 years of age to be dieted at discretion ; above 9, to be allowed the same quantities as women. 4. DIETARY FOR ABLE-BODIED PAUPERS OF BOTH SEXES. BREAKFAST. DINNER. i KR. Pickled Pork or Mr*t Pu<|. Rice or Bread. Gruel. Bacou wrh Soup. Bread. Bread. Cheese. vege'bla. " i YejreuUlM. OZ. pints OZ. pints OZ. OS. OZ. OZ. OZ. Sunday $ jV/ m 8 li 2 6 6 2 Friday f Women . . . 6 li li 5 5 li Monday ( I\Fen *. . . . 8 li 12 6 2 Thursday \ Women . . . 6 li 10 5 li Wednesday | ffi" mcn ' ' ' 8 6 li li 6 5 ~ _ 6 5 2 li Saturday j ^y^men ' ' ' 8 6 li li - 12 10 6 5 2 li The vegetables are not included in the weight specified, which is for the meat when cooked If it be thought desirable, i an ounce of butter may be given to the women, in lieu of cheese for supper. Old people of 60 years of age and upwards may be allowed 1 oz. of tea, 5 oz. of butter, and 7 oz. of sugar, per week, in lieu of gruel for breakfast, if deemed expedient to make this change. Children under 9 years of age to be dieted at discretion: above 9, to be allowed t e a\me quantities a? women. 1 DIETARIES FOR PAUPERS. 239 5. DIETARY FOR ABLE-BODIED MEN AND WOMEN. BREAKFAST. DINNER. SUPPER. Bread. Gruel or Porridg Cooked Meat. Vereta- bles. Soup Boiled (Rice or Suet Bread Cheese Brea d. Potatoe a Cheese. Pudding OZ. pints. OZ. * pts OZ. OZ. OZ. OZ. lb OZ. Sunday 5 Men . Thursday \ JVomen 7 6 li 5 5 7 6 It Monday < Men . 7 li _ H 7 _ _ 2 Friday \ Women . . 6 U li - 6 $ _ Tuesday s Vir M ' J (_ Women 7 6 H li - 14 12 ~ 7 6 - Ik H Wednesday 5 Men . Saturday \ IVomen 7 6 H - 7 6 3 2 i - Old people of 60 years of age and upwards may oz. of sugar, per week, in lieu of gruel for breakfast be allowed 1 oz. of tea, 5 oz. of butter, and 7 , if deemed expedient to make this change. Children under 9 years of age to be dieted at discretion ; above 9, to be allowed the same quan- tity as women. 4 6. DIETARY FOR ABLE-BODIED PAUPERS. BREAKFAST. DINNER. SUPPER. Bread. Cheese. Butter. Boiled Meat. Pota- toes. Yeast Dump* Suet Dump- ling. Bread. Cheese. Bread. Cheese. B utter. Broth OZ. OZ. OZ. OZ. oz. OZ. OZ. OZ. OZ. OZ. OZ. oz. pts. S c\ 5 Men . 6 1 16 _ 6 1 _ _ I Women 5 ft - 12 -. - 5 i Monday C Mm 6 1 _ _ . 6 1 6 1 _ _ Saturday* c Women 5 i 6 1 5 i - Tuesday $ Men . 6 1 _ 4 12 6 t _ _ 6 "I Thursday ( Women 5 4 12 5 .v - - 5 - J 5 Men 6 1 _ _ 11 ' fi 1 " dy < Women 5 i 11 5 J_ Old people, being all 60 years of age and upwards : The weekly addition of 1 milk or sugar, to those, for whose age and infirmities it may be deemed requisite. oz. of tea, and Children under 9 years of age : Bread and milk milk cannot be obtained ; also' such prooortions of for the their breakfast and supper, or gruel when dinner diet as may be requisite for their respective ages. [* 1 oz. butter ordered on Wednesdays for men. Is it a typographical error 1J From these six dietaries each Board of Guardians of the Poor is required to select one most suitable to the circumstances of each Union. It will be perceived that beer is not permitted unless specially ordered by the surgeon, and that the use of lea is confined to the aged and infirm. In all cases the sick to be dieted as directed by +he medical officer. * Besides vegetables. 179 ounces, and for women abo it 152 ounces. Dietary No. 1. No. 2. " No. 3. " No. 4. " No. 5. POUND ALIMENTS. )arative view of these dietaries : DIETARY No. 2. DIETARY No. 3. DIETARY No. 4 DIETARY No. 5. DIETARY No. 6 1 Women. 1 Children above 9. | a V 732 8 24 181 5 s* =^z m a V s Women. Children above 9. 1 Women. Children above 9. c 5 g| 112 32* 18 16 98 20* 4 10 7 106 6 24 16* 4 116 24* 14 12 6 92 20* 10* 10 5 98 10 48 14 Si 84 10 48 12 8* 102 8 24 16 15 1 22 88 8 24 12 3 6 22 - - - - 24 24 178 t 139 i 1871 101 li 1564 10* 1* 172 10* 6 t 137* 10* 4* 2 >_>! 10* 3 186* 101 3 188 2 163 2 , and are not included in the weights specified. s olid food L52 ounce . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 2 supplied by these dietaries is for 3. 45 oz 129 oz 78 . 139 87* . 156* 72 . 137* S02t . 1861 88 . 163 men nearly . 1 1073 91H . 1785-6 152 (about.) No. 6. Average Now according to the result of the Commissioners of Inquiry,* agricultural laborers are unable to procure for themselves and families an average allowance of more than 122 oz. of solid food (principally bread) weekly ; and if we assume that the man consumes 140 ounces (say 134 bread and 6 meat) as his share, it is evident that his allowance would not be equal to that of the above dietaries. The dietary marked No. 2 is that of twenty-six Unions of the county of Kent ; and, at a meeting of the chairmen and vice-chairmen of all the twelve East Kent Unions, it was unanimously declared that this dietary had answered well, and that no alteration in it was desirable.f I have inquired at several workhouses the composition of the suet-pudding, the soup, and the gruel, used in these establishments. Subjoined are some of the answers which I have received. 1. SOUP, (in use at the Wapping Workhouse.^) Liquor in which 119 Ibs. of meat have * See Mr. Tuffnell's report, in the Second Annual Report of the Poor Law Commissioner*. t See Mr. Tuflhell's report, before cited. J For the above and some of the subsequent information respecting the Wapping Workhouse, I am indebted to Mrs. Megson, the very intelligent matror cf that establishment. DIETARIES FOR PAUPERS. 241 been boiled, Legs and Shins of Beef 42 Ibs., Residual Cuttings of Meat 9 Ibs, Split-peas 40 Ibs., Onions and Carrots 16 Ibs., Oatmeal 6 Ibs., Dripping 6 Ibs., Pepper 3 oz., Salt 1 lb., and Crumbs of Bread 5 Ibs. This quantity is for 240 females, each having 1 pint, (weighing about 1$ lb.) A pint and a half of the soup prepared at the poorhouse of St. George's, Middlesex, contains 6 ounces of meat and bone, (equal to about 4 ounces solid meat,) l-7th of a pint of Peas, l-3d of an ounce of Groats, l-120th of an ounce of Pepper l-15th of an ounce of Salt, and l-25th of a pennyworth of Vegetables. 2. GRUEL, (in use at the Wapping Workhouse.) Each pint of gruel contains 1^ oz. of the best Berwick Oatmeal. 3. SUET PUDDINGS, (in use at the Wapping Workhouse.') Flour 1 lb., Suet i lb., Water 13 oz. These quantities yield, when boiled, full 2 Ibs. of pudding. Mr. Gray, of the Stepney Union, informs me that, Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. oz. Ibs. oz 10 Flour with 2i Suet and 11 Water lost in cooking 2 1 and yielded 21 7 10 " 2i . " 8 "04 20 12 10 " 2t " G "1 13 " 20 5 pudding. So that by making the puddings over stiff, that is, with 6 oz. of water, 1 lb. 2 oz. more were lost (equal to about 5 per cent.) than when made with 11 Ibs. of water." Mr. Gray has also furnished me with the following curious information respecting the loss sustained in cooking and serving in pauper establishments.* I A Table of the Consumption of Beef and Mutton in certain Metropolitan Workhouses, snowing the " Number of Boilings," the " Average Weight of each Ration," and the " Total Loss" sustained in cooking and serving the same. Number of Workhouses, and state of Cooking Apparatus. Period of time over which the Con- sumption extends. Number of boilinps. Average weight of each Ration. Total consump- tion of beef and mutton (inclu- ding loss.) Total Loss or waste in cook- ing- and serv- ing. Centesimal pro- portion of loss and waste to to- tal consumpt'n. Ibs. Ibs. Ibj. 1 good 15 months 195 7 ounces 38554 12015 31-16 1 good 15 months 195 7 ounces 34134 10523 30-83 1 very good 15 months 195 7 ounces 34550 10840 3133 1 good 15 months 195 5 ounces 24488 7956 32-48 2 good 3 months 78 7 ounces 12689 3909 3081 1 good 3 months 39 5 ounces 8238 2504 3039 1 very good 3 months 39 5i ounces 7341 2024 27-57 2 good 3 months 78 7 ounces 12181 381 1 31-28 1 good 3 months 39 5 ounces 8384 2371 2697 1 very good 3 months 39 5? ounces 6743 1952 289 4 good 3 months 156 5* ounces 24671 7643 3098 4 good 3 months 156 5 ounces 27883 8214 .. 2946 1 very good 2 years. 312 6 ounces 58134 16672 2868 1716 297990* 90484 3006 The Ox-Beef was without bone, and consisted of Flanks, Leg of Mutton Pieces, Clods, and Briskets. The Mutton consisted of the Fore Quarters, weighing above 40 Ibs. The loss sustained in preparing and serving cooked meat, in large Public Institutions, is very great, and may appear to the unpractised observer extraordinary ; but there are so many sources from which loss accrues, that the surprise would be soon removed by an attentive consideration of the subject. 1st, The Cooking. The quality of the meat will cause a'difference of from 7 to 8 per cent. The want of skill, inattention, or inadvertence, on the part of the Cook, will at times increase the loss very greatly ; for, in cooking large quantities, great and undivided attention is necessary to produce the article properly cooked! 2d, The Serving. Great dispatch is necessary in the serving. Two persons, one to cut, the other to weigh, will, on the average, nave to serve 14 rations in two minutes. So much to be done, and, from necessity, in so short a period of time, requires some skill, and not a little practice, on the part of Carver and Weigher, to keep within a moderate loss. The following are among the principal sources of loss : * Appendix, 20. 16 242 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. the bone and fat of mutton the outside and coarser parts of the beef the evaporation and the running off of the juices during carving. To these must be added the drafts in weighing. The annexed Table shows the Consumption and Amount of Loss in several large Establishments, and I am of opinion, may be considered as something more than an approximation to the truth. extends over a sufficient period of time " to take in Meat of all the Seasons," It was cooked in differ- ent apparatus, and served in the separate houses by careful and intelligent individuals. The quantity cooked, and the rations served at each house, was sufficient to have formed a good average ; but taken in the aggregate, they give data for calculation seldom to be met with. 32 Boilings of Mutton. The parts cooked were the Fore Quarters, w^ghing 40 Ibs. the pair; the contract price 7s. 5d. per stone, 14 Ibs. Total quantity Cooked 3209 Ibs. Loss sustained in Boiling . Centesimal Proportion of Loss to whole Quantity Croked Maximum Loss Minimum Loss 563 Ibs. 17r>444lbs. 19-7 Ibs. 14-3 Ibs. 64 Boilings of Beef. Parts: Brisket, thick and thin Flanks, Leg of Mutton Pieces, and Clod?, the whole free from bone ; contract price 7s. Sd^per stone, 14 Ibs. Total Quantity Cooked 5772 Ibs. Loss sustained; in Boiling . . 1018 lb?. Centesimal Proportion of Loss to the whole Quantity Cooked 637 Ibs Maximum Loss .......... 21 Ibs. Minimum Loss 13 S Ib.s. 5. DIETARIES FOR PRISONERS. I have already, (see p. 222, el seq.J offered some remarks on the peculiar circumstances affecting the diet of persons confined in prisons. In January, 1843, the Inspectors of Prisons made a Report to the Secretary of Slate relative to the system of Prison Discipline, &c.", in which they state that, with respect to Dietaries, they have arrived at the following conclusions : "L We have framed a series of tables, according to the length of the imprisonment, the additional punishment of hard labor, and the sex of the prisoners; and, as for as practicable, with regard also to the kind and degree of discipline enforced other than hard labor. 2. These dietaries are given as the minimum of what we recommend for each without reference to the local situations of the prisons, or to any peculiar circum- stances which may render an increase necessary. Such peculiarities ma render it expedient, in certain cases, to substitute other kinds of food, (of an equivalent amount of nutriment,) for some of those included in the scale of dirt. 3. The principle which we are of opinion ought to be acted on in framing a scale of prison diet, and that which we have endeavored to carry into effect, as far as pos- sible, in the annexed scale, is, that that quantity of food should be given in all cases which is sufficient, and not more than sufficient, to maintain health and strength, at the least possible cost ; and that while due care shojild be exercised to prevent extravagance or luxury in a prison, the diet ought. not to be made an instrument of punishment. 4. In endeavoring to ascertain the precise quantities of food which ought to be allowed to different classes of prisoners, in accordance with the foregoing principle, we have been guided by our own experience, by the opinions of several prison medical offi- cers of long standing, and by the dietaries in use. |j 5. We are of opinion that there ought always to be three meals each day in prisons, and that at least two of the three should be hot. 6. That there should be variety in the kinds of food forming the diet, with occasional changes ; and that a considerable portion of the food should be solid. 7. That in the selection of the kinds of food, it is essential, for the maintenance of health, to include substances which are necessary for the support of the various f parts of the body. - 8. That it is very important to ascertain that the water is pure and wholesome, and that there is an abundant supply. I 9. That prisoners should not be set to work immediately after any meal. ,, 10. That animal food is!j<,uM form part of the diet of prisoners employed at hard labor. DIETARIES FOR PRISONERS. 243 11. That the attention of the medical officer should be directed to the scale of diet on which each prisoner is placed, and that he should have a discretionary power to increase or diminish the quantity of food with reference to the constitution and state of health of the particular prisoner. 12. That with regard to age, it is only in the extremes of youth and old age that any distinction of diet is advisable, and that the discretion of the medical officer shoiHd extend to these cases." It will be perceived that the conclusions which the Inspectors have arrived at accord with the principles which I have advocated in this work. The scale of diet which they recom- mend, and .which has been adopted by the Secretary of State, is subjoined. It appears, however, that the Inspectors were not unanimous as to the dietaries ; and it is but fair, therefore, that the reader should be put in possession of the following Reasons of Dissent as to the Scales of Diet assigned by Mr. F. Hill, one of the Inspectors : " 1. There is at present a great want of information on the subject of diet generally, both as respects the real quantity of nutriment required for health under various circumstances, and the best form in which that nutriment can be given, as regards bulk, solidity, quantity of animal matter, and the necessary variety to supply all the wants of the frame for renewing bone, muscle, &c. There is but little certain knowledge also respecting the comparative quantity of nutriment contained in substances of different kinds, such as wheaten bread, meat, and potatoes. 2. Owing to the many circumstances which affect the natural demand for food, such as age, sex, constitution, state of health, kind and quantity of work, it is difficult, under any arrangement, to determine what quantity of food any prisoner ought to have; and it is impossible, in my opinion, to classify prisoners for this purpose with any degree of accuracy otherwise than by considering the case of each pris- oner separately, which may be done by laying down a few scales of diet, and then empowering those who must be best acquainted with the case of each prisoner, viz. the Governor and Surgeon, to settle from time to time, subject to the control of the visiting justices, on what scale each prisoner shall be placed. If a classification be made according to any one or two only of the disturbing causes, the rate of diet, if suited to the wants of a portion of the class, will, in my opinion, be found insufficient for some and too much for others, producing injury to health in both cases, and in one waste and extravagance also. 3. While it is right to give prisoners such a quantity of food as will keep up robust health, it is important to allow nothing beyond what is really necessary ; both be- cause excess of food is injurious to health as well as deficiency, and because the motives to honest industry will be weakened if any thing like luxury be admitted into prisons. 4. It having been declared as a principle that the allowance of food ought not to be made an instrument of punishment, and that that quantity of food should be given which is sufficient, and not more than sufficient, to maintain health and strength, I cannot see any ground for giving less food to a prisoner who is employed at the same kind of labor as another prisoner, and otherwise similarly circumstanced with him, except that he is to leave the prison sooner, unless, as has been alleged, the expectation of a long imprisonment has a depressing effect on the mind, and that effect can be counteracted, in its influence on the health, by a greater quantity of food. Without inquiring into the accuracy of the fact, as a general rule, I cannot agree to the inference from it. I believe, on the contrary, that a depressed state ot the mind weakens the digestive powers, and makes them incapable of receiving even so much food as when the mind is cheerful." Sir James Graham, Her Majesty's Secretary of State for the Home Department, in a letter to the Chairman of Quarter Sessions, dated 27th January, 1843, adopts the recom- mendations of the Inspectors with regard to dietaries, and offers the following \?ry proper observations : " I desire to call the especial attention of the magistracy to those rules which relate to the Diet of Prisoners. On the proper adjustment of this particular their 244 COMPOUND ALIMENTS, health mainly depends ; and I am convinced that the adoption of the proposed scales will prevent the recurrence of those complaints which have frequently been preferred, and in some instances justly preferred, against the prison authorities. It is by no means intended that the precise articles of food specified in the dietaries should be strictly adhered to in the table which you may adopt ; other kinds of food, containing an equivalent amount of nutriment, may, with advantage, be substi- tuted, when those articles which have been named are either difficult to be obtained in your neighborhood, or are considered not suited to the customs and habits of the prisoners ; but that quantity of food must, in all cases, be given which ig suffi- cient, though not more than sufficient, to maintain health and strength at a mode- rate cost ; and, while due care should be exercised to prevent any approach to luxurious living in a prison, the diet ought on no account to be made 'an instru- ment of punishment. I have consulted not only the Prison Inspectors, but medi- cal men of the greatest eminence, possessing the advantage of long experience ; I have carefully revised the dietaries now in use ; and I have come to the conclusion Istly, That animal food should in all cases form part of the diet of prisoners employed at hard labor. 2dly, That a considerable portion of the food of every prisoner should be solid ; and, 3dly, That there should be variety in the kinds of food forming the diet, and , that occasional changes are necessary. The dietaries which I now offer for your adoption are framed on these principles, and are upheld by medical science, and by the recommendation of persons on whose authority and knowledge reliance may be placed, but they hare been framed without reference to the local situations of particular prisons,or to any peculiar circumstances which may render an increase necessary ; they are therefore proposed as the mini- mum amount which can safely be afforded to prisoners without the risk of inflicting a punishment not contemplated by law, and which it is unjust and cruel to inflict, namely, loss of health and strength through the inadequacy of the food supplied." DIETARIES FOR PRISONS IN ENGLAND AND WALES, Recommended by the Prison Inspectors, and ordered by her Majesty's Secretary of State for the Home Department. CLASS I. Prisoners confined for any term not exceeding three days : Males. Females. Breakfast . . 1 pint of Oatmeal gruel .... 1 pint of Oatmeal gruel. Dinner . . . 1 ft. of Bread . 1 Ib. of Bread. Supper ... 1 pint of Oatmeal gruel .... 1 pint of Oatmeal gruel. CLASS II. Convicted prisoners for any term exceeding three days, and not exceeding fourteen days : Males. Females. Breakfast $ 1 P int of Oatmea l gruel; 6 oz. of > 1 pint of Oatmeal gruel; 6 ox. of ' ( Bread { Bread. Dinner . . .12 oz. of Bread . . . . 6 oz. of Bread. Surmer $ 1 P int of Oa tme l gruel? 6 oz. of > 1 pint of Oatmeal gruel; 6 oz. of ' I Bread $ Bread. Prisoners of this class, employed at hard labor, to have, in addition, 1 pint of Soup per week. CLASS III. Prisoners employed at hard labor for terms exceeding fourteen days, but not more than six . Males. Females. Breakfast. I pint of Oatmeal gruel ; ) 1 pint of Oatmeal gruel ; 6 oz. of 8 oz. of Bread . f Bread. Sunday and 4 Dinner. 1 pint of Soup; 8 oz. of > , . . fc Thursday . . . \ Bread . . . 1 pint of Soup ; 6 oz. of Bread. Tuesday and < 3 oz. of cooked Meat, without bone; J 3 oz. of cooked Meat without bone ; rda y ( 8 oz. of Bread ; i Ib. of Potatoes, $ 6 oz. of Bread ; I Ib. of Potatoes. Monday t 8 oz. of Bread ; 1 Ib. of Potatoes, or ) 6 oz. of Bread ; 1 Ib. of Potatoes, or Wednesday, and 1 p i nt o f Gruel, when Potatoes [ 1 pint of Gruel when Potatoes lda y . . . . ( cannot be obtained . . . ) cannot be obtained Supper. Same as breakfast . Same as breakfast. DIETARIES FOR PRISONERS. 245 CLASS IV. Prisoners employed at ^ard labor for terms exceeding six weeks, but not more than three months : Males. Females. Breakfast. 1 pint of Oatmeal gruel ; > 1 pint of Oatmeal gruel ; 6 oz. of 8 oz. of Bread .... 5 Bread. f Dinner. 3 oz. of cooked Meat, with- 2 out bone ; 5 Ib. of Potatoes : 8 oz. of Bread . Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday, Saturday, . .. Monday, Wednesday, and Friday . . . 3 oz. of cooked Meat, without bone ; i Ib. of Potatoes ; 6 oz. of Bread. 1 pint, of Soup ; 8 oz. of Bread Xu;>/wr. Same as breakfast . 1 pint of Soup ; 6 oz. of Bread. Same as breakfast. CLASS V, Prisoners employed at hard labor for terms exceeding three months : Males. Females. Breakfast, 1 pint of Oatmeal gruel ; ) 1 pint of Oatmeal gruel ; 6 oz. of 6 oz. of Bread . . . . \ Bread, Dinner. 4 oz. of cooked Meat, with- Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday, Saturday 3 oz. of cooked Meat, without bone ; Monday, Wednesday. Friday, . . s Ib. of Potatoes ; 6 oz. of Bread. pint of Cocoa, made of $ oz. of flaked cocoa or cocoa-nibs, sweet- ened with I oz. of molasses or sugar ; 6 oz. of Bread. pint of Soup ; i Ib. of Potatoes ; 6 oz. of Bread. 1 pint of Oatmeal gruel ; 6 oz. of Bread. [ Dinner. 3 oz. of cooked Meat, with- ) { out bone ; i Ib. of Potatoes ; 8 oz. > of Bread ) } 1 pint of Soup ; 8 oz. of Bread r , , , f cooked Meat, without bone ; Ib. Potatoes ; 6 oz. of Bread. 1 pint of Soup ; 6 oz. of Bread. Same as breakfast. out bone ; 1 Ib. of Potatoes ; 6 oz. of Bread . . . ' . Breakfast. 1 pint of Cocoa, made oH I oz. of flaked cocoa or cocoa- ) nibs, sweetened with I oz. of mo- j lasses or sugar ; 6 oz. of Bread, J Dinner. I pint of Soup ; 1 Ib. of Po- ; tatoes ; 6 oz. of Bread . . \ S&pper, the seven days. 1 pint of Oatmeal gruel ; 6 oz. of Bread, CLASS VI. Convicted prisoners not employed at hard labor for periods exceeding fourteen days : Males. Females. Breakfast. 1 pint of Oatmeal gruel; ) I pint of Oatmeal gruel ; 6 oz. of 8 oz. of Bread . \ Bread. Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday, Saturday Monday, Wednesday, Friday . . Supper. Same as breakfast CLASS VIL Prisoners sentenced by Court to solitary confinement : Males. Females. The same as Class VI. . The same as Class VI. CLASS VIII. Prisoners for examination, before trial, and misdemeanants of the first division, who do not main- tain themselves : Males. Females. The same as Class IV. The same as Class IV. CLASS IX. DESTITUTE DEBTORS. Males. Females. The same as Class IV. The same as Class IV. CLASS X. Prisoners under punishment for prison offences for terms not exceeding three days 1 Ib. of Bread per diem. Prisoners in close confinement for prison offences under the provisions of the 42d section of the Jail Act : Males. Females. Breakfast . . 1 pint of Gruel ; 8 oz. of Bread . . 1 pint of (Jruel ; 6 oz. of Bread. Dinner ... 8 oz. of Bread 6 oz. of Bread. Supper . . . 1 pint of Gruel ; 8 oz. of Bread . . 1 pint of Gruel ; 6 oz. of Bread. NOTE. The Soup to contain, per pint, 3 oz. of cooked meat, without bone, 3 oz. of potatoes, 1 oz. of barley, rice, or oatmeal, and 1 oz. of onions or leeks, with pepper and salt. The Gruel, when made in quantities exceeding 50 pints, to contain H oz. of oatmeal per pint, and 2 oz. per pint when made in less quantities. The Gruel on alternate days to be sweetened with f oz. of molasses or sugar, and seasoned with salt. 246 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. 1 ( i The following table gives a comparative view of the weekly quantity of food allowed to arisoners confined for terms exceeding three days : CLASS 2. CLASS 3. CLASS 4. CLASS 8. CLASS 9. CLASS 5. CLASS 6. CLASS 7. Bread .... 02. Cooked meat, oz. Potatoes ... 02. .Men. 168 Women. 126 Men. 168 6 64 Women. 126 6 64 Men. 163 12 32 Women. 126 12 32 Men. 126 16 112 Women. 126 12 56 Men. 168 12 32 Women. 126 12 32 Total solid food 168 126 238 196 212 170 254 194 212 170 Gruel . . . pints Soup . . . pints Cocoa . . . pints 14 14 14 2 14 2 14 3 14 3 11 3 3 11 3 3 14 3 14 3 These dietaries appear to me well calculated to carry into effect the principles laid down by the Prison Inspectors, that the quantity of food supplied to prisoners should in all cases be sufficient, and not more than sufficient, to maintain health and strength. They have, however, been objected to, on the ground that the amount of food which they supply is greater than the hard-working, sober, and honest laborer can in general obtain for himself and family ; and, therefore, that they hold out rather a temptation than a discouragement to crime. Should such be their effect, it is greatly to be regretted ; but it cannot form a valid ground for altering them. For the question is, not what the honest laborer can obtain, but what is necessary for the prisoner ; and under this point of view it appears to me that there exists no just ground of objection to these rates of diet The dietary for the fifth class, wh'.'h has been especially objected'to, as being indulgent if not luxurious, allows an ample, but by no means an excessive, amount of food, when we take into consideration the hard labor to which the prisoners of this class are subjected, as well as their term of imprisonment, (see p. 224, et seq.)* 6. DIETARIES FOR THE SICK. In the treatment of many diseases, attention to diet is a point of considerable impor- tance ; and in none is it more necessary than in non-febrile disorders of the digestive and urinary organs. For in acute maladies, in which abstinence or low diet is requisite, there is usually no disposition to take food : on the contrary, solids of all kinds are generally loathed ; and in such cases, therefore, there is little or no chance of any error of diet being committed. Dietetical regimen is more important in chronic diseases of the assimilating organs, in which the appetite is unimpaired, or even increased, since in such the patient is more apt to overstep the bounds of prudence by the employment of a diet improper, either from the quantity or quality of the food used. In chronic local diseases, when the constitution is unimpaired, and the appetite for foo'd remains natural, I would, by no means, advocate the adoption of a spare or low diet ; since I believe that in such cases the indulgence of a moderate appetite for plain food is attended with beneficial results. From this statement, however, maladies affecting the organs of assimilation must be fre- quently excepted. "Natural instincts," justly observes Dr. Billing,* "are too often thwarted : it is much too common to put patients e npirically on low diet ; and patients of the higher classes the better educated very often put themselves on low diet un- necessarily. So far as we may take natural instinct for a guide," he further obs- Appendix, 21. t First Principles of Medicine. DIETARIES FOR THE SICK. 247 " we may assert, that when a patient can eat, he may be allowed to do so ; for if ;ie has even a slight degree of fever, he cannot eat." Several diets, or kinds of dietetical regimen, are employed in the treatment of diseases. The most important of these are the following : 1. FULL, COMMON, OR MEAT DIET. On many occasions where it is desirable to restore or support the powers of the system, patients are permitted to satisfy their appetite for plain vegetable and animal food. In many indolent diseases, in scrofula, in some affec- tions of the nervous system, (as chorea and eprepsy,) and in the stage of convalescence after acute maladies, &c., this kind of diet is frequently directed. In these cases beer and, sometimes, wine are permitted ; and spirit is occasionally required. In some dis- eases of, and in accidents occurring in, confirmed drunkards, it is frequently found inju- rious to withhold the stimulus to which the patient's system has been long accustomed ; and thus wine, brandy, rum, or gin, is ordered, according to circumstances. 2. ANIMAL DIET. This^term is applied to a diet composed of animal food, either ex- clusively or principally. The only disease, in which a diet exclusively of animal food is ' recommended, is diabetes. In this malady, strict abstinence from vegetable substances is attended with the diminution of both the quantity, and the saccharine condition, of the urine. But it deserves especial notice that the amount, as well as the nature, of the food taken in this disease, requires carefully attending to, as the craving for food is sometimes apt to induce the patient to indulge to an injurious extent. A considerable variety of food is necessary for patients limited to the exclusive use of animal diet, on account of the loathing of the same substance if frequently repeated. Butcher's meat, bacon, poultry, game, fish, shell-fish, cheese, eggs, sausages, and brawn, are allowed in private practice. For common drink, water, beef-tea, or mutton broth, may be sparingly used. Milk is generally permitted, but as it contains sugar, its use is not unob- jectionable. By the use of animal food exclusively, the quantity of sugar in the urine of diabetic pa- tients is greatly reduced ; but I have never seen this secretion entirely lose its saccha- rine condition by even the most rigorous adoption of animal diet. In one case, recently under my care in the London Hospital, the quantity of urine passed in twenty-four hours was reduced from about eleven, to three or four pints in the twenty-four hours ; but its specific gravity (1040 to 1045) and saccharine quality remained unaltered. From whence, it may be asked, in such cases, is the sugar derived ] Where the use of milk is permitted, this perhaps is in part the source of it. I have, however, found it, where neither milk nor vegetable food was employed ; and in such cases the substances which were used as food, and from which sweet or saccharine matter is known to be obtainable, were gelatine and oil or fat. But neither the sugar of gelatine (glycicoll) nor the sweet principle of oils and fats (glycerine) is identical with the diabetic sugar, (glucose;) arid we are unacquainted with any means of converting the two former into the latter substance. Patients, we are told, sometimes evince such an inordinate craving for vegetable food, that it is difficult, if not impossible, to pei&evere for any considerable length of time on an exclusively animal diet. In the cases which have fallen under my observation this has not been the case. I have several times met with patients who have objected to persevere with this diet, not on the above ground, but simply beca ee they became satis- fied of its ineffico.cy ; the diminution in the quantity of urine not being attei.ded with a corresponding relief of the constitutional symptoms. In those diabetic cases in which it is thought advisable to permit a limited quantity of vegetable food, in conjunction with animal diet, those vegetables should be selected which are most highly ru'trogenized, and which are freest fioni sugar or substances capable of Hi 248 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. being converted int ) saccharine matter, as the starchy bodies. These conditions are best fulfilled by the cruciferous plants, as cabbage, greens, cauliflower, broccoli, watercress, and mustard and cress. Sauerkraut, or fermented cabbage, (see p. 184,) is sometimes per- mitted. The aromatic condiments (as sage, mint, marjoram, fennel, parsley, caraway, cin- namon, nutmegs, allspice, pepper, mustard, &c.) are, of course, unobjectionable, as far as sugar is concerned. Fruits, especially apples and pears, are highly objectionable, on ac- count of the saccharine and amylaceous matters which they usually contain. For drink, Dr. Prout recommends sound porter in Deference to wine or spirits. Some practitioners, among whom Dr.Trout deserves to be especially mentioned, object to the exclusive use of animal food in diabetes ; " but consider a certain proportion of farinaceous matters proper. The recommendation of th|? admixture of farinaceous mat- ters is founded upon a fact already alluded to, and apparently well established, viz. that the assimilation of the saccharine principle is one of the last functions that becomes ex- tinct in animals. The proportions of these two forms of aliment must be varie'd accord- ing to the circumstances of the patient ; and particularly according to the degree in which he is able to assimilate albuminous, in preference to farinaceous, matters ; a point not difficult to be determined by a little attention. Of farinaceous matters, the high or strong, as the farina of wheat in the shape of bread, &c., seem to be most easily assimilated. The low kinds of farinaceous matters, as arrow-root, potatoes, &c., (with the exception perhaps of rice,) seem to be reduced to a species of sugar, more difficult of assimilation than the sugar from wheat-flour, &c., and in general, therefore, should be avoided."* Gluten is a nutritious vegetable principle, to the employment of which in diabet- objection can be raised ; and I have already (see p. 150) had occasion to notice gluten bread, which has been made for the use of diabetic patients. 3. VEGETABLE DIET. The exclusive employment of vegetable food, in conjunction with the use of distilled water, has been recommended, by Dr. Lamb^f as a remedy for cancer, scrofula, consumption, asthma, and other chronic diseases ; but he has, I suspect, gained few, if any, proselytes to his opinions and practice. 4. SPARE OR ABSTEMIOUS DIET. The term spare or abstentions diet is sometimes used to indicate the employment of vegetable substances principally, (not exclusively.) It gen- erally includes the use of the white-fish, (the flesh of which is less nourishing and stim- ulating than butchers' meat, see p. 134,) sometimes alternating with a limited quantity of poultry or butchers' meat. In plethoric habits, where the appetite is unimpaired, this diet is ordered in cases of threatened apoplexy, gout, &c. By its adoption we diminish the quantity of nutritive matter supplied to the system, while we keep the digestive organs actively employed. 5. FEVER DIET, (Thin Diet; Spoon Diet; Slops.') " In febrile diathesis," says Dr. Beaumont,* "very little or no gastric juice is secreted. Hence the importance of with- holding food from the stomach in febrile complaints. It can afford no nourishment, but is actually a source of irritation to that organ ; and, consequently to the whole system." In another placef the same author observes, "that drinks received are immediately ab- sorbed, or otherwise disposed of, none remaining in the stomach ten minutes after being swallowed Food taken in this condition of the stomach remains undigested for twenty- * Oi, the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Unnary Diseases, p. 41. London, 1840. t Reports of the Effects of a Peculiar Regimen on Scirrhous Tumours and Cancerous Ulcers. Lond. 1809. Additional Reports on the Effects of a Peculiar Regimen in cases of Cancer. Scrofula, Consumption, Asthmi, and other Chronic Diseases. Lond. 1815. t Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice, &c., p. 132. Op. supra cit. p. 99. DIETARIES FOR THE SICK. 249 four or fo.ty-eight hours, or more, increasing the derangement of the whole alimentary canal, and aggravating the general symptoms of disease." These observations suggest the appropriate diet for febrile states of the system. Foods which require digestion are to be withheld : indeed, they are generally loathed, want oi appetite being one of the early symptoms of fever. Aqueous drinks, (commonly called diluents or slops,) however, are rapidly absorbed without undergoing digestion. Tea, toast- w r ater, and barley-water, therefore, may be taken ad libitum. Of the foods which are most admissible when the patient feels capable of taking them, the saccharine and the amylaceous are the lightest and most appropriate. Acidulous fruits and drinks some- times prove most refreshing. Saccharine substances are absorbed and pass into the chyle, and subsequently support the process of respiration, while amylaceous substances yield sugar in the stomach independently of the gastric juice, and probably by the aid of the saliva merely, (see p. 62.) 6. Low DIET. In acute inflammation of important organs, and after serious accidents, surgical operations, and parturition, patients in general are directed to adopt a low diet, consisting principally of liquid foods, as gruel, broth, milk, tea, and barley-water, and a moderate allowance of bread or biscuit, and light farinaceous puddings. The effect of low diet on the blood is similar to that of loss of blood ; namely, a diminution of the number of the blood disks.* 7. MILK DIET. Besides cow's milk, which constitutes the principal article of food, this diet includes the use of farinaceous substances, (such as arrow-root, sago, and tapioca,) bread, and light puddings, (of rice, bread, or batter.) Milk is ordered when we are desirous of affording support to the system with the least possible stimulus or excitement. It is well adapted for inflammatory diseases of the chest, (phthisis especially,) of the alimentary canal, and of the bladder, when it is considered expedient to employ a nutritious but not stimulating diet. After hemorrhages, when the powers of the system have^been greatly exhausted, a milk diet is frequently beneficial. It has also been considered one of the best means of preventing and of curing the gout. It is a good diet also for many of the diseases of children, especially those of a strumous or scrofulous nature. In some of the above-mentioned maladies, where the stomach is weak and irritable, cow's milk is apt to occasion vomiting and other unpleasant effects, in consequence of the butter which it contains. In such cases, skim-milk or ass's milk may be^advantageously substituted. 8. DRY DIET. In several maladies it becomes necessary to restrict the quantity of liquids used: as in valvular disease of the heart, aortic aneurism, diabetes, and diuresis with either excess or deficiency of urea. The first of these diseases is incu-rable, and, therefore, our object is its palliation. One mode of attempting this is, to relieve the ob- structed circulation by lessening the volume of blood ; and which may be in some degree effected by limiting the amount of drink. In aneurism of the aorta we endeavor to lessen the tension of, and to promote the deposition of fibrine within, the sac. The indications are in part fulfilled by a dry diet, by which fulness of vessels and thinness of the blood are lessened. In diabetes-, and also in diuresis, with either excess or deficiency of urea, a most important part of the treatment is to diminish, as much as possible, the quantity of fluids taken. I have said nothing of the nature of the solid food which is used by those who adopt a dry diet ; because it is subject to considerable variation. In some cases a generous, in others a spare, diet should accompany it. * See Andral and Gavarret's Recherches sur les Modifications de Proportion de quelques Principes du Sang. Paris, 1842. 250 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. Subjoined are the diet-tables of the Metropolitan Hospitals for . he Sick,* of Ue Royal Ordnance Hospitals, and of the Royal Navy Hospitals and Marine Infirmaries: 1. LONDON HOSPITAL. COMMON DIET. MIDDLE DIET. LOW DIET. MILK DIET. Per Day . . . . j Breakfast 12 oz. Bread. 1 pint Porter, Men. 5 pint do. Women. Gruel 8 oz. Bread. Gruel. 12 oz. Bread. Gruel. Dinner 8 oz. Beef, with Potatoes, thrice, a week. 8 oz. Mutton, with Potatoes, twice a week. 8 oz. Potatoes, and Soup, with Vege- tables, twice a week. 1 pint of Broth. The same, except that 4oz. of Meat shall be given in- stead of 8 oz. Broth. Gruel or Broth. 1 pint Milk. 1 pint Milk 2. ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL. COMMON DIET. BROTH DIET. THIN OR FEVER DIET. .MILK IUKT. * Daily Milk Porridge. 12 oz. Bread. 6 oz. Mutt" or Beef 1 pt. Broth [with Peas or Potatoes, Milk Porridge. 12 o/. Bread. Milk Porridge. 12 oz. Bread. 1 pint of Milk, with Tapioca, Arrow- root. Sajro, or Milk Porridge. . 1-Joz. 1 2 pt Milk, with Ta- pior;i. 4 times a week.] '2 p:s. Bcrr. M n. 1 pint, Women. 1 oz. Butter, twice a week. '2 pints Broth. 1 pint Beer. 1 oz. Butter. Rice, as may be prescribed. Barley water. maybe pro.-cribrd. Burlt y 1 OZ. Blltt'T. llnul Pudding, 3 units :i v, when ordrrcil. 3. GUY'S HOSPITAL. D tity . \ FULL DIET. MIDDLE DIET. Low DIET. MII K DIET. FEVER DIET. 14 oz. Br^ .ul. li OZ. Bil'i-T 1 quart Table . Beer. 8oz. Meat when dressed. For 12 oz. Bread. H oz. Butter. 1 pt. Table Beer. 4 oz. Meat, when dressed, and i pint Broth. each diet, Gruel or 12 oz. Bread. 1 oz. Butter. Tea and Sugar. Half a pound o root or Sag( Barley-water, as i 12 oz. Bread. 1 07. Butter. 2 pints milk. f Beef, (for Beef >, when ordered, equired. 6 oz. Bread. 1 oz. Butler. Tea. -tea,) or Arrow- * Inadditi n to the substances specified in the following JDiet Tables <>f the 31etropolitan Hospitals, other articles (as chops, steaks, fish, wine, spirit, porter, &c.) are permitted; when special V ordered by the medical officers. These are denominated extras. DIETARIES FOR THE SICK. 251 4. ST. THOMAS'S HOSPITAL. FULL DIET. MILK DIET. DRY DIET. FEVER DIET. Daily . . . . | Breakfast . . . 2 pints of Beer; 14 oz. of Bread. Water Gruel. 12 oz. of Bread." 1 pint of Milk. 14 oz. of Bread 2 pints of Beer. Water Gruel. 12 oz. of Bread ; 2 pints of Beer. Water Gruel. k lb. of Beef, when dress- 1 pint of milk 4 oz. of Butter, t of a lb. of Beef ed, twice a week ; 4 four times a four times a for tea. oz. of Butter, or 6 oz. week. week ; Rice of Cheese thrice a week; i lb. of Mut- Rice Pudding thrice a week. Pudding and 4 oz. of Butter, ton, when boiled, three times a thrice a week. week. i Suppw . . . ? 1 pint Broth, four times a week. 1 pint of Milk. 5. ST. GEORGE'S HOSPITAL. ORD1NARY EXTRA DIET. DIET. FISH DIET. FEVER DIET. BROTH DIET. MILK DIET. 12 oz. Bread. 12 oz. Bread. 12 oz. Bread. 12 oz. Bread. 12 oz. Bread. 12 oz. Bread. Men. 1 pint Beer. Barley Wa- Daily . . 2 pints Beer. ter Women . ad libitum. H pts. Beer. Breakfast 1 pint Tea., i pint Milk. 12 oz. Meat, 1 pint Tea. i pint Milk. 1 pint Tea. i pint Milk. 1 pint Tea. i pint Milk. 1 pint Tea. i pint Milk. 1 pint Tea. i pint Milk. r oasted 'Dinner . - Cweighed with the bone before it is dressed) four days, boiled three One half the meat allow- ed for extra diet. * lb. Potatoes 4 oz. of plain boiled white fish (as Whi- ting, Plaice, Flounders, or Haddock.) Arrow-root, &c., must be specially di- rected. 1 pt. Broth. 6 oz. light Pudding. 11 pints Rice Milk four days. lb. Bread or Rice Pud- ding three days. tlb. days. Po tatoes. Supper . < 1 pint Gruel, i pint Milk. 1 pint Gmel. i pint Milk. 1 pint Gruel. i pint Milk. 1 pint Tea. i pint Milk. 1 pint Gruel, i pint Milk. i pint Milk. 6. WESTMINSTER HOSPITAL. FULL DIET. MIDDLE DIET. LOW DIET. SPOON, OR INCURABLES' FEVER DIET. DIET. Fixed. Casual. Daily . . . 14 oz. Bread. 10 oz. Bread. t lb. Bread. i lb. Bread. * lb. Bread. * lb. Meat. ilb. Potatoes. i pint Milk. Breakfast 1 pint Milk Porridge, or Rice Gruel. 1 pint Milk Porridge, or thin Gruel. 1 pint Tea, with Sugar and Milk. 1 pint Tea, with Sugar and Milk. 1 pintPcrter. i lb. Meat i lb. Meat No fixed Diet 1 pint of Barley Wa- roasted, roasted, for Sinner. Broth, or i te boiled, or boiled, or lb. of Bread, chops. chops. or Rice Pud- lib of Pota- lib. of Pota- ding, or 1 toes. toes. pint Beef Tea, or a Chop, or Fish. Supper . < 1 pint Milk Porridge, or Rice Gruel. 1 pint Milk Porridge, or thin Gruel. 1 pint Tea, with Sugar and Milk. 1 pint Tea, with Sugar and Milk. 252 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. 7. MIDDLESEX HOSPITAL. Dl^TA CARNIS, DI-fiTA JUSCULI DI.STA LACTIS DI^ETA SIMPIEX OR OR OR OR CANCER DIET. MEAT DIET. SOUP DIET. MILK DIET. SIMPLE DIET. 1 Daily . . 12 oz. Bread. 12 oz. Bread. 12 oz. Bread. 6 oz. Bread. Bread. 1 11). V 5 Ib. Potatoes. 1 pint Milk. 'Breakfast 1 pint Milk. 1 pint Milk. 1 pint Milk. 1 pint Barley- water. Physicians' Patients. t Ib. Potatoes, 4 oz. dressed meat (beef or mutton,) roast and boiled alter- nately, 4 days. 4 oz. Meat in Soup, 1 pint Soup, made with 4 oz. Beef, alter- nately with 1 pint of Broth with Barley. i pint Milk with Rice Pudding. 4 days, and with Batter PuddingS days. 1 pint Gruel. Dinner . 3 days. Surgeons' Patients. 1 Ib. Potatoes, 4 oz. dressed meat (beef or mutton,) roast and boiled alter- nately. Supper . 1 pint Gruel alter- nately, with 1 pint 1 pint Gruel. i pint Milk, or 1 pint of Gruel. 1 pint of Gruel or Bade v- wa- of Barley-water. ter. 8. KING'S COLLEGE HOSPITAL. FULL DIET. MIDDLE DIET. MILK DIET. LOW DIET. 1 DIET. Daily . . 1 pint Beer, or 1 pint Porter. 14 oz. Bread. 1 Ib. Bread. 8 oz. Bread. } 14 oz. Bread, Breakfast . . . $ 1 pint Milk Porridge. 1 pint Milk Porridge. 1 pint Milk. 1 pint Gruel. 1 pint ' Dinner . . . . < i Ib. Meat, i Ib. Potatoes. i Ib. Meat. i Ib. Potatoes. 1 pint Milk. 1 pint Broth. 2 pint* BurN'v \V.,t,T. ' Supper .... | 1 pint Milk Porridge. Ipint Milk Porridge. 1 pint Gruel. 1 pint Milk Porridge. Ipint Milk Pun , 9. DREADNOUGHT HOSPITAL SHIP. FULL DIET. ORDINARY DIET. LOW DIET. MILK DIET. FEVER DIKT. Breakfast . . j 1 pint Tea. 1 ib. Bread. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. i Ib. Bread. Ditto. 1 Ib. Bread. Ditto. r * Ib. Meat. * Ib. Meat. Dinner . . . . ! I 1 Ib. Potatoes. 2 pints Beer, (if ordered.) tlb. Potatoes. 1 pint Beer, (if ordered.) 1 pint of Beef Tea. 1 pint Milk. Gruel. Supper ... ^ 1 pint Broth. 1 pint Broth or Gruel. 1 pint Gruel .or Milk, (if ordered.) 1 pint Milk. Gruel or Bar- >trr. DIETARIES FOR THE SICK. 253 10. NORTH LONDON HOSPITAL. FULL DIET. MIDDLE DIET. LOW DIET. MILK DIET. Daily . drachms nf rabbii':' 1 . fr evry pinf of lnoili : the discretion of the medical officers, 8 drachms of carrots, and 8 drachms of turnips, in lieu of the cabbage, which will make a smlicient quantity of good broth to allow a pint to each on full and half diet, and half a pint to each on low diet: Rice Pudding. Each to contain Flour Pudding. Each to contain Rice . 3 oz. Flour . Sugar 1 oz. Suirar 1 07. Milk $ pint Miik I D Eggs INo. 1 Cinnamon 1 blade. Ginger a : 12. ROYAL ORDNANCE HOSPITALS. ESTABLISHED DIET TABLE. MEALS. FEVER. LOW. HALF. FULL. COMMON DRINKS. Breakfast . . . $ 1 pint of Tea. 1 pint of Tea. 1 pint of Milk Porridge. 1 pint of Milk Porridge. Toast and Water. Dinner . . . . -| I 1 pint of Water Gruel. Bread i Ib. Broth or > , Beef tea $ l P L Bread i Ib. Meat * Ib. (to make broth) Potatoes s Ib. Meat * Ib. Bread * Ib. Broth 1 pint. Potatoes 1 Ib. Meat 1 Ib. Bread 1 Ib. Broth 1 pint. Potatoes I Ib. Beer 1 pint. Acidulated drink or Cream of Tartar and Water. Supper . . . . j 1 pint of tea. 1 pint of Rice Gruel. 1 pint of Rice Gruel. 1 pint of Rice Gruel. Barley > Wa- or Rice $ tor. =H DIETARIES FOR THE INSANE. 255 "ROYAL ORDNANCE HOSPITALS Continued. I The Fever Diet is adapted to such cases as will not allow of any excitement from animal food, in the shape of Broth or otherwise : extras, therefore, to this rate of Diet, are to be given with the *ame ?iew, except in cases of early convalescence from Febrile Diseases, and of such as are attended with great debility. The Bread is for Panado or Toast and Water. It is to be considered a General Rule that extras are to be ordered in addition to the Fever Diet. In particular cases, however, Rice or Bread Pudding^ Sago, an increased quantity of Bread, or other similar articles, may be added to the low diet. Milk Diet is to be formed by the substitution of one pint of Milk for Tea, either in the Fever or Low Diet, for Breakfast or Supper, or both, at the discretion of the prescribing Medical Officer. The Meat mentioned in the three first classes of Diet is to be Beef and Mutton alternately ; and the best pieces for making Broth are to be selected. In particular cases Coffee may be ordered instead of Tea. As the Diet Table provides liberally for almost every case of Disease that can occur in Hospital Practice, Medical Officers are .strictly to adhere to it, unless very peculiar circumstances render a deviation unavoidable. The Diet ordered for Convalescents should always be increased gradually, and with discrimination. The following proportions of Articles are to be allowed for those parts of the above-mentioned Diet to which they belong: Tea for one meal Tea 1-6 ounce, Sugar I ounce, Milk i gill. Coffee Milk Porridge Rice Gruel Water Gruel Broth Coffee i ounce, Sugar $ ounce, Milk 1 gill. Oatmeal 1 ounce, Milk 1 gill, Salt 1-8 ounce. Rice li ounce, Sugar i ounce, Milk 1 gill. Oatmeal H ounce, Sugar i ounce. Oatmeal $ ounce, Barley ounce, Salt -i- ounce. e c f H S Sago 1 ounce, Sugar i ounce, Water $ pint. Wine may be added Sago for one allowance . J the discre ' tior f ol - lhe Med ' ical O ffi ce r P Rice Pudding \ ^ ce ^ ounces > Egg 1, Sugar 1 ounce, Milk i pint, Cinnamon 1 ( Bread (from the Man's alknvance) 2 ounces, Milk H gill, Egg 1, a Bread Pudding little Salt, and a few grains of Ginger, Butter i ounce, to smear r the inside of the basin. 7. DIETARIES FOR THE INSANE. I have selected the diet tables of Hanwell Lunatic Asylum, Bethlem Hospital, and St. Luke's Hospital, as examples of the dietaries of public establishments for the reception of the insane. It has been remarked by Dr. Conolly* that in all Lunatic Asylums " there are patients who require food in much greater proportion than others ; there are also some whose restlessness at night seems to be allayed by food, although they do not complain of hunger. The capriciousness of some patients respecting taking food is only to be over- come by temporary indulgence and little extra allowances. Without this consideration a great amount of discontent will occasionally prevail in the wards, particularly among the female patients ; and attention to this point is to them more important than the applica- tion of medicine." The same writer in another placet observes that the cases of refusal of food by insane patients are chiefly of two kinds: "one, in which food is refused in consequence of some delusion, or some vow, or from mere obstinacy ; the patient being in tolerable bodi- ly health, or certainly not incapable of digesting food ; another, in which it is utterly re- pugnant to a stomach in a high state of disorder." In the first description of cases, if all other means (such as varying the food, persuasion, &c.,) "tried with the utmost patience, fail, it is justifiable and even necessary to introduce food into the stomach by artificial means." This is usually effected by the stomach pump. " In the second, the condition of the patient is entirely different. The tongue is red, or thickly coated ; the bo\vels are disordered ; there is present a low kind of fever ; * The Report of the Residejit Physician of the Hanwell Lunatic Asylum, presented to the Court of Quarter Sessions for Middlesex, at the Michaelmas Sessions, 1840. t The Third Report of the Resident Physician of the County of Middlesex Pauper Lunatic Asylum at Hanwell, Oct. 1st, 1841. 256 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. the brain is highly excited, and the patient almost too feeble to stand or walk except by sudden and frantic efforts. His face is pale, the eyes are sunk, and wild in their ex- pression ; and the whole frame is emaciated to an extreme degree. AH these are so many sure signs of death ensuing on long-continued disease of the brain, with all its complications. Nowhere except in a Lunatic Asylum would such signs of sinking life be recorded as the result of food being refused. The aversion to take food, arises, in such cases, as in cases of fever, from the general and terrible disorder of the system ; from a diseased condition of the stomach itself, among other organs, associated with a brain disturbed to excess. To force food into the enfeebled and dying stomach of such patients would not be sanctioned by any well-regulated hospital, or by any, competent ] physician ; and their distinction ought not to be overlooked because they occur in an lospital for the insane." 1. THE HANWELL LUNATIC ASYLUM. Breakfast .... Mates. Milk thickened with Oatmeal and Flour, 1 pint ; Bread, 6 ounces. Females. Bread, 5 ounces ; Butter, half an ounce ; Sugar, 4 ounces per week ; Tea, 1 pint. r Sunday . . . fMeat, 5 ounces, cooked. Tuesday . . 1 Yeast Dumpling, 4 ounces. Wednesday 1 Beer, half a pint. Friday .... I Vegetables. g" very slightly nutritive qualities. Moreover, by the prolonged roasting, the water of the riice is evaporated, the nutritive matter almost entirely remaini ng in the cooked meat ; TIMES OF EATING. 259 the composition of the solid or dry matter of which is, as I have already stated, identical with that of raw meat. So that well-done meat, probably, differs essentially from meat under-dressed, in having a little less both of water and fat, while it has the additional ad- vantage of being more digestible. By roasting, the gelatine is not extracted, as in the operation of boiling. Broiling effects the same changes in meat as those produced by roasting, but more rapidly ; so that while the outside is scorched, the inside retains its juiciness. Broiled meat, like roasted meat, is more savory, though somewhat less fitted for very delicate stomachs, than boiled meat. A well-broiled mutton chop, however, is, for the most part, an unobjectionable dish for the dyspeptic. Baking is a more objectionable process than any of Lie preceding. Though the gene- ral effects produced by it are analogous to those of roasting and boiling, yet meat so cooked is less fitted for delicate stomachs in consequence of being more impregnated with empyreumatic oil. From an experiment already related, (see p. 181,) it appears that baked potatoes are less nutritive than boiled ones. The dyspeptic will act wisely in avoiding the use of all baked foods, except, perhaps, baked amylaceous puddings, as puddings made with sago, tapioca, arrow-root, rice, &c. Frying is of all culinary operations the most objectionable ; fried foods being more ob- noxious to the digestive organs than foods prepared by any other methods. The reason of this I have already explained, (see p. 83.) Invalids, convalescents, and dyspeptics, will, therefore, do well to eschew this method of cookery; and abstain from the use of eggs, omelettes, pancakes, fritters, fish, livers, and other dishes cooked by frying. 2. Times of Eating. I have already fully discussed this topic, (see p. 220.) It is to be remembered that the practice of eating a little and often is, for the most part, injuri- ous ; and that the adoption of fixed periods for taking food is much more conducive to health than eating at irregular times. The length of the interval between the meals must, however, be regulated by circumstances ; such as the rapidity of digestion, the age, the amount of fatigue or labor, &c. In some persons, (as those of sluggish temperament,) digestion is much slower than in others ; and in such the intervals between the meals ought to be more prolonged, in order that fresh food may not be introduced into the stomach before that of the previous meal has been disposed of. Children, old persons, and those who are engaged in laborious occupations, require food at shorter intervals. Breakfast should in general be taken soon after rising, for reasons already assigned, (see p. 221.) Dinner should follow at an interval of about five hours, more or less, ac- cording to circumstances. The practice of dining late is objectionable for the dyspeptic ; the most natural and healthy dinner-time being about the middle of the day. Luncheon is admissible only where dinner is unavoidably late, or where fatigue has been endured. Tea or a liquid meal may succeed dinner at an interval of three or four hours. Supper for those who dine late is unnecessary. 3. Quantity of Food taken at one Meal The quantity of food proper to be taken at one meal can only be determined by the feelings of the patient, as it varies in different indi- vidual?, and under different circumstances. It is impossible, therefore, to affix a stan- dard of weights or measures by which this can be ascertained. On this point I cannot do better than quote the following observations of Dr. Beaumont: "There appears to be a sense of perfect intelligence conveyed from the stomach to the encephalic centre, which, in health, invariably dictates what quantity of aliment (responding to the sense of hunger and its due satisfaction) is naturally required for the purposes of life; and which, if no- ticed and properly attended to, would prove the most salutary monitor of health, and ef- fectual "eventive of, and restorative from, disease. It is not the sense of satiely, for this 260 COMPOUND ALIMENTS. is beyond the point of healthful indulgence, and is Nature's earliest indication of an abuse and overburden of her powers to replenish the system. It occurs immediately previous to this, and may be known by the pleasurable sensation of perfect satisfaction, ease, and qui- escence of body and mind. It is when the stomach says enougli, and is distinguished from satiety by the difference of the sensations the former feeling enough the latter loo much. The first is produced by the timely reception into the stomach of proper aliment, in exact proportion to the requirements of nature, for the perfect digestion ot which a definite quantity of gastric juice is furnished by the proper gastric apparatus. But to effect this most agreeable of all sensations and conditions the real Elysian satisfaction of the rea- sonable epicure timely attention must be paid to the preliminary processes, such as thorough mastication, and moderate or slow deglutition. These are indispensable to the due and natural supply of the stomach at the stated periods of alimentation ; for if food be swallowed too fast, and pass into the stomach imperfectly masticated, too much is re- ceived in a short time, arid in too imperfect, a state of preparation, to be disposed of by the gastric juice." 4. Conduct before, at, and after eating. Excessive fatigue, whether mental or bodily, im- mediately before a meal, disturbs the digestive function. The stomach participates with the other parts of the system in the exhaustion, and its function is thereby impaired. A little rest before eating is, therefore, under such circumstances, desirable. Hence the wis- dom and advantage "of appropriating half an hour to* any light occupation, such as dressing, before sitting down to dinner."* While at meals eat slowly, masticate thoroughly, and cease as soon as a feeling of sat- isfaction is perceived Indulgence in the use of a variety of food at one meal leads to the overburdening of the stomach by provoking the appetite beyond its natural extent. This the dyspeptic should carefully avoid. I have already expressed my opinion of the propriety of repose after dinner, (see p. 213 and 214.) The Inspectors of Prisons seem to have been influenced by a similar opinion when they came to the conclusion " that prisoners should not be set to work immedi- ately after any meal," (see p. 242.) But the after-dinner repose should be followed by moderate exercise. i 5. Nature and Qualify of the Food eaten. I have already remarked, (see p. 110,) that man is an omnivorous animal ; that is, he requires both animal and vegetable food. Several alimentary principles, (fibrine, albumen, caseine, oil, and sugar,) are found in both animal and vegetable foods. But the nutritive principles of animal foods, are inter- mixed with a much smaller proportion of non-nutritive substances than those of vegetable foods. Hence animal diet yields a much larger amount of nourishment than vegetable diet Vegetable food requires for its digestion more time, and probably greater power of the gastric organs, than animal food. Moreover, it is more apt to create flatulency and aces- cency than the latter. "Its digestibility is, however, dependent upon the same law* as those that govern the solution of animal food ; and it is facilitated by division and ten- derness.''! " Bulk is, perhaps, nearly as necessary to the articles of diet as the nutrient principle. They should be so managed that one shall be in proportion to the other. Too highly nu- tritive diet is, probably, as fatal to the prolongation of life and health as that which con- tains an insufficient quantity of nutriment. It has been ascertained that carnivorous ani- mals will not live on highly concentrated food alone."J (See p. 219.) * Dr. Combe, The Physiology of Digestion. P. 260, 4th ed. t Dr. Beaumont, Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice, p. 27. Edinb. ed. 1838. I Ibid. p. 31. NATURE AND QUALITY OF FOOD. 261 According to Dr. Beaumont's observations, solid food is sooner digested than liquid food. Fluids holding proteinaceous substances (albumen or caseine) in solution, as milk or raw egg, are coagulated in the stomacl before they suffer the action of the gastric juice, Mhich subsequently redissolves them. Solutions of gelatine, (as strong broths and soups,) being unsusceptible of coagulation, are not digested until they have acquired a more solid consistence by the absorption of their more watery part. These observations, therefore, suggest some useful practical applications. Persons with weak stomachs should not indulge in the copious use of liquid food. Acidity of stomach arises from the presence of acids derived, either from the gastric vessels or from the food. The latter is the only source of acidity which it will be requi- site for me to notice, and that so far only as may be necessary to explain the nature of alimentary substances which develop acid. Lactic acid, (see pp. 56 and 76,) is one of the substances derived, in part at least, from the food. The alimentary principles which yield it are sugar, dextrine, (starch gum,) and gum :* those which furnish ft with the most facility are sugar of milk and dextrine. The acidity of stomach which is produced in some dyspeptics by saccharine substances, arises from the development of lactic acid. Milk also is apt to disagree with such individuals, not only in consequence. of the difficult digestibility of its fatty constituent, (the butter,) but also on account of the conversion of its sugar into lactic acid. Both bread and beer contain dextrine, and are the occasional sources of this acid. The tendency which some farinaceous substances as oatmeal, (see pp. 76 and 155,) and potato starch, (p. 65) have to cause acidity of stomach, is owing, probably, to the formation first of dextrine, and afterwards of lactic acid. Some of the fatty acids are also produced in the stomach from the food. The volatile ones, (as butyric acid from butter,) are exceedingly obnoxious to this organ. The disa- greeable sour and rancid eructations which.sometimes follow the use of fatty foods, es- pecially of melted butter, are due to the development of these acids. The difficult digestion of oils and fats I have on several occasions noticed, (see p. 84 :) and to the remarks already offered on this subject I must refer my reader for further information. I have expressed an opinion, (see p. 83,) that in cases where these sub- stances prove obnoxious to the stomach, it is in consequence of the evolution of the* oily or fatty acids. In connection with this opinion I may refer to some recent observa- tions of Dumas,f who has suggested that the separation of the neutral fats into an acid and a base is probably effected by ,a kind of fermentation, (which he denominates the fatty fermentation,} set up by an albuminous substance, aided by the presence of air, water, and * The organic principles capable of yielding lactic acid have a composition analogous to that of the acid itself: that is, they consist of carbon and water, (or its elements.) Aloms. Atoms. Lactic acid . ,12 carbon 4- 10 water. Starch Dextrine Cane sugar Gum . Sugar of mifa Grape sugar 12 carbon 4- 10 water. 12 carbon 4- 10 water. 12 carbon 4- 11 water. 12 carbon 4- 11 water. 12 carbon 4- 12 water. -f- 12 + 14 12 carbon 4- 14 water. But in order to convert them into this acid, or, in other words, to etlect what has been termed the lactic fermentation, the presence of an organic nitrogenized substance, which has been modified by exposure to the air, is necessary. Its influence is that of a kind of ferment. Diastase, caseine, and animal mem- brane, (as that of the stomach,) when they have been exposed to the air, act as ferments. Acccording to Boulron and Fremy, (Journ. de Pharm. t. xxvii. 1841,) mannite and viscid matter are not always simul- taneously d3veloped with lactic acid, as stated by some other chemists, (see ante, p. 56.) t Trca.i le Chimie appliqut aux Arts, t. vi. 1843, ( 26? COMPOUND ALIMENTS. a certain temperature. Thus the facility with which butter becomes rancid depends on the presence of caseine ; from which it is necessary to separate it in order to its p.eser- vation. This is usually effected by fusion. The acid properties which the fats some- times acquire in the stomach may arise from their having undergone some analogous change ; and Dumas suggests that the influence of pepsine on the fats should be ex- amined. New bread, rolls, fancy bread, cakes, (especially rich plum-cakes,) and hot buttered toast, should be carefully avoided by the dyspeptic. Good loaf bread, when a day old, is in general unobjectionable : it may be taken either in the form of dry toast, or, in cases, thinly covered with butter. When the ordinary loaf bread disagrees with th<> pa- tient, Dodson's unfermented bread, (see p. 152,) may be tried. Biscuits, on account of their compactness, are slow of digestion, though they sometimes suit dyspeptics than fermented bread. Pastry, suet, and yeast pudding, and pancake, are totally unfit for those troubled with a delicate stomach, (see p. 153.) Of butcher's meat, mutton and beef are best fitted for the dyspeptic. They should be cooked by boiling, roasting, or broiling ; and moderately well dressed. With some per- sons, however, mutton is apt to disagree, (see p. 116 ;) with others I have occasionally found beef to disagree. The young meats (lamb and veal) are less adapted for p- troubled with indigestion, being both less indigestible and nutritive than the older i. Veal is further objectionable on account of the melted butter and stuffing usually with it Pork should be avoided by dyspeptics ; but pickled pork and bacon are, in gen- eral, less objectionable than fresh pork, (see p. 84.) Venison is one of the most digestible of meats, (see p. 115 ;) but it is too savory and stimulating for convalescents. The flesh of the rabbit is light, and easy of digestion. Of birds, the white-fleshed, as the common fowl, are best fitted for dyspeptics arid in- valids, on account of their meat being rea*dily digestible, moderately nutritious, and not too stimulating. They are best cooked by boiling, and should be eaten without melted butter. Game, as the pheasant and partridge, is richer and more stimulating. Th aquatic birds, as the duck and goose, are more difficult of digestion on account of their flesh being permeated with fat ; and they are, therefore, unfit for weak stomachs. " The white fish (as the sole and whiting) form Jght and easily digestible articles of food, and are well adapted for the N use of dyspeptics, invalids, and convalescents. Th-y should be cooked by boiling,' and eaten without melted butter. Salmon, eels, herrings, and sprats abound in oil, and on that account are objectionable. Cured fish of all kinds are unfit f >r persons with a delicate stomach. Shell-fish, with the exception of the oyster, are difficult of digestion, and should be avoided by the dyspeptic. Mealy potatoes, when well boiled, are readily digestible ; and, in general, are an unob- jectionable article of food. The cabbage tribe is somewhat uncertain : when sufficiently cooked it is frequently taken by dyspeptics without any inconvenience ; but at other times it proves indigestible, and occasions flatulence. Peas and beans, especially when old, are difficult of digestion, and apt to cause flatulence. The oily seeds, as the walnut, the filbert, and the almond, are highly indigestible foods. Of the fleshy fruits, the grape is the safest. Apples and pears should be roasted before use. Oranges, when quite ripe, seldom prove injurious ; unripe ones, however, are apt to gripe. For drink, simple water or toast water is unobjectionable. In many cases the limited use of weak table ale is unattended with ill effects, (see p. 200.) Malt liquor of all kinds, NATURE .AND QUALITY OF FOOD. in some instance^ proves injurious, creating flatulence and acidity, and otherwise dis- turbing the digestive functions. In such cases a small quantity of sherry wine may be substituted. Dr. Paris states, that, in some cases of dyspepsia, wine and beer equally dis- agree with the stomach, producing acidity and other distressing symptoms ; and in such, he observes, " very weak spirit may, perhaps, be taken with advantage." To the accu- racy of this observation I can bear testimony, having repeatedly found the substitution of a weak spirit preferable to fermented liquids. A weak infusion of black tea rarely proves injurious, (see p. 192 et. seq.) Coffee, em- ployed moderately, is, in general, a wholesome beverage, (see p. 193 et. seq.) Chocolate and cocoa are objectionable in some cases, on account of their oily ingredient, (see pp. 194 and 195.) But to all these statements exceptions occasionally are met with. I have already stated, (see p. 209,) that many of the substances called condiments are, in fact, aliments ; and as such their dietetical properties have already been alluded to. But the hot and pungent condiments, such as pepper, cayenne, mustard, &c., as well as the ingredients of some of the sauces, cannot be regarded as alimentary. They act as stimulants to the stomach, and though, when used very moderately, they may not prove injurious, it can scarcely be doubted that their free employment must be hurtful to the dyspeptic, not only by provoking the appetite beyond its natural limit, but also by exciting the stomach itself. On this subject, however^ I have already offered some remarks, to which the reader is referred, (see p. 210.) I do not think it necessary to enter further into the digestible properties of aliments, and their suitability to the dyspeptic, as these subjects have been already fully c'scussed in previous parts of this work. APPENDIX. (A.) Page 10. ALIMENTIVENESS THE best-it] formed physiologists of the present day admit, with our author, the exist- ence of an organ of Alimenliueness, or Organ of the Appetite for Food, though they are not exactly agreed as to its precise location. The far-reaching sagacity of Gall perceived that the appetite for food is an instinct, not referrible to any of the recognised principles of mind-, and therefore must be a primitive power, and, like the other faculties and instincts, must owe its existence and exercise to some definite portion of cerebral matter. Dr. Hoppe of Copenhagen followed up the suggestion of Gall, and showed very conclusively, that, besides the nerves of the stomach and palate, an affection of which gives rise to the sensations of hunger and thirst, there must also be an organ in the brains of animals for the instinct of. nutrition, (taking nourishment for the preservation of life,) which incites them to the sensual enjoyments of the palate, and the activity of which is independent of hunger and thirst. "How," says he, "should the mere sense- of hunger, more than any other disagreeable or painful sensation, make the animal desire food, the necessity of such not being known to him by experience ? This could only be effected by instinct, because, either an instinct, i. e. the immediate impulse of an organ, or else experience and reflec- tion, are the causes of all actions." Hunger and thirst are, therefore, to be discriminated from the desire of food called appetite; the former being an affection of the nerves of the stomach and palate, caused by deficiency of necessary supply ; but appetite is an ac- tivity of a fundamental instinct, which has in the brain an organ analogous to those of the other faculties and instincts. Mr. George Combe, during his late visit to the United States, spoke as follows, in one of. his lectures, in relation to this subject: " Observations made by various individuals have proved that there is in man an organ of appetite for food, situated in the zygomatic fossa. The stomach is to this organ what the eye is to the sense of seeing. Cut off the communication between it and ths brain, and the appetite will be lost. A dog was kept without food till he was ravenoirs with hun- ger ; the pneumogastric nerve was then divided, and the sensation left him at once. A number of cases have occurred in which a gluttonous appetite existed during life, and these convolutions were found, after death, ulcerated. Dr. Caldwell thinks the burning desire of the drunkard to arise from disease of this organ, and recommends it to be treated with bleeding, cold water, quiet, and attention to diet. " That this is the organ of alimentiveness has been confirmed by Vimont, and since com- ing to this country I have seen two strong proofs of it in the collection of Dr. Morton, of Philadelphia ; one, the skull of a Dutch admiral who died at Java in consequence of ex- cessive eating, in which the organ is very much developed ; but it is still larger in the skull of a convict of New South Wales, who inveigled seven people into the woods at various times, murdered and ate them." Mr. Combe gives many examples of enormous eating, and refers them all to an inordi- nate development of the organ of " Alimentiveness," which he considers as fully estab- lished. 266 APPENDIX. (B.) Page 11. EFFECT OF CARBONACEOUS FOOD IN WARM CLIMATES. Dr. Pereira truly remarks, that the "frequent occurrence of disease among Europeans, who reside in tropical countries, is probably in part owing to their continued employment of a dietetical system fitted for colder climates." It is one of the functions of the liver to eliminate carbon and hydrogen from the blood, in the form of cholesterine and resin of the bile, and we know that carbon is also separated from the blood in the lungs, and by the skin. It is given off by respiration combined with oxygen, but when separated by the liver, it is still in the oxydizable state. Tiedemann and Gmelin, as well as Autenreith and other physiologists, have directed attention to a vicarious action in the functions of the lungs and liver, respecting which Muller remarks, that " although it does not appear that the size of the liver is, throughout the animal kingdom, in the inverse ratio of the size of the respiratory organs, yet pathological observations are certainly in favor of the ence of such a relation." Carbonic acid is also separated in connection with lactic acid, lactate of ammonia, and muriate of ammonia, from the skin. Dr. Crawford proved by experiment, that less carbonic acid was evolved in proportion to the height of the temperature ; and it is fully established that the function of the lungs is rendered inefficient by the rarefaction of the air by the heat. Supposing the function of the skin tq remain the same, it is 'evident that there must be an increased excretion ot carbon from the liver, to preserve the blood in that state of purity which is compatible with the due preservation of health. Accordingly Tiedemann and Gmelin maintain that the increased secretion of 'bile in tropical countries is required to compensate for the di- minished purification of blood in the lungs. Dr. Edwards also found that less carbonic acid was evolved in summer than in winter ; and Dr. Prout and Dr. Fyfe found that the quantity of the same was diminished by vege- table diet. These, however, are but part of the facts connected with this subject. The state of the dew-point, or the hygrometric condition of the air, has an immense influence upon the quantity of carbonic acid eliminated both from the skin and lungs. From some experi- ments which we instituted several months since, we satisfied ourselves that this condition of the atmosphere has far more to do in effecting changes in the relative proportions of the various constituents of the blood, and hence in the promotion of health, or the c tion of disease, than the temperature, to which so much has been attributed. When the air is nearly saturated with moisture, causing that kind of weather called close or sultry, there is*a languor of the mind, a debility of the muscular system, together with a duski- ness of the skin, which proves that the blood is not properly decarbonized and oxygenated. These effects may be illustrated by the influence of the Sirocco, which is an excessively damp wind, or in other words, a wind with a high dew-point.* * It required but a single step to connect these facts with the production of disease in tropical climates, especially affections of the liver and abdon.jnal organs. That there \v;is something more than high temperature, or what is vaguely termed malaria, involved in their causation, was very evident ; for in addition to a multitude of other facts which rniztfit be mentioned, Mr. Stevens states that in the West' Indies the inhabitants of the smallest islands, -.which are the driest and hottest, are not subject to diseases of the liver and in- creased secretion of bile. Mr. Hopkins has endeavored to identify malaria with a high dew-point, but they are essentially distinct. No one can doubt the existence in some lo- calities of a poisonous iniasm in the atmosphere, which gives rise to disease. A high * London and Edinburgh Phil. Mag., Feb., 1839. APPENDIX. 267 dew-point, or an atmosphere saturated with moisture, doubtless gives e fficiency to this agent by checking its elimination from the system, but it acts chiefly by preventing the separation of carbon by cutaneous and pulmonary transpiration, tlius throwing double duty upon the liver, and often greater than it can duly discharge. Hence arise conges- tions of this organ, and of the abdominal viscera, whose venous blood it receives; and hence follow dysenteries, cholera-morbus, fevers, and a long catalogue of tropical diseases. We now see the importance, in tropical climates, of cutting 'off animal food, which abounds in carbon, and living upon a moderate allowance of mild vegetable diet. We know several persons who have resided for many years, on the most sickly portions of the African coast, in the enjoyment of perfect health, by confining themselves to vegeta- ble food, chiefly rice, and avoiding alcoholic liquors. Gen. Sheldon, of Massachusetts, a vegetable-eater, lived several years in the most sickly parts of the Southern United States, with an entire immunity from disease, and he states, that in his opinion, man may enjoy perfect health in any locality, provided his dietetic and other habits are correct. (C.) Page 19. ANIMAL FOOD. Many facts could be adduced to prove that an exclusive diet of animal flesh is am- ply sufficient for healthy nutrition. Sir Francis Head relates some interesting particulars respecting the Gauchos, inhabitants of the Pampas, in South America, which have an im- portant bearing on this question. After stating that they often Continue on horseback day after day, galloping over their boundless plains, under a burning su-n, and performing labors almost of an incredible description, he remarks : " As the constant food of the Gau- chos is beef and water, his constitution is so strong, that he is able to endure great fatigue, and the distances he will ride, and the number of hours he will remain on horseback, would hardly be credited." Sir Francis Head also brings his own personal experience in proof of the correctness of the above statement. " When I first crossed the Pampas," he remarks, " I went with a carriage, and although I had been accustomed to riding all my life, I could not at all ride with the Peons, (drivers of the carriage,) and after galloping five or six hours, was obliged to get into the carriage ; but after I had been riding for three or four months, and had lived upon beef and water, I found myself in a certain condition, which I can only describe by saying that I felt no exertion could kill me. For a week I could daily be upon my horse before sunrise, could ride till two or three hours after sunset, and have really tired out ten or twelve horses. This will explain the immense distances which people in South America are said to ride, which I am confident could only be done on beef and water." (Rough Notes, <$fc., by Sir Francis Head, p. 29.) There are numerous facts of a similar kind which might be quoted, but the fact that an exclusive diet of animal food is fully sufficient to sustain the physical nowers, 's too well established to need further proof. (D.) Page 26. ALCOHOL AS ^ SOURCE OF ANIMAL HEAT. It is a matter of common observation, that alcohol escapes from the lungs in considera- ble quantity in expiration, soon after it has been taken into the stomach, and we may be permitted to doubt whether the negative experiments \i hich have hitherto been perform- ed to ascertain its existence in the perspiration, urine, and intestinal secretions, are suffi- 268 APPENDIX. cient to justify the conclusion of its absence from these fluids. From the strong attrac- tion which alcohol has for water, there can be no doubt that it combines with this fluid in the substance of all the tissues which it penetrates, circulating as it does through every part of the system, and penetrating to every fibre. Dr. John Percy, a late graduate of the University of Edinburgh, states, in his Prize Essay, (London, 1839,) that after poisoning dogs with alcohol, he has obtained it from distilling portions of the brain, urine, bile, and liver. There are numerous cases on record, where alcohol has been detected in the ven- tricles of the brain, as proved by inflammability as well as by the sense of smell. (See Hare on the Stomach, 6fc., pp. 293, 169, 170; Edin. Med. Journal, vol. xi. p. 293; Bacchus, p. 303, &c.) Magendie detected spirit in the blood. In the experiments above alluded to, of Dr. Percy, a greater amount of alcohol was obtained from portions of the brain, than from an equal weight of lung, liver, or any other organ. The Reviewer of Liebig's Animal Chem- istry (British and Foreign Medical Review, No. 28, 1842) seems to think that this fact may possibly explain the specific action of alcohol on the nervous system. Moreover, Millet, (Mem. Acad. Science, pour 1777, pp. 221, 360,) Trousset, Jurine, and others, have shown, by their experiments, that carbonic acid is given off by the skin, and oxygen absorbed, as in the lungs. Jurine not only established the general fact, but he examined the quantity of effect which is produced under the various circumstances to which the body is exposed, either as influenced by external agents, or as connected with the different states of the constitution ; and he seemed to have proved that the amount of carbonic acid was in exact proportion to the activity of the circulation, and the other functions depending oh it. In confirmation of this doctrine, it is admitted on all hands, that in cold-blooded animals the skin possesses the power of acting upon the air. In some of the lower tribes the lungs are entirely wanting, yet they generate carbonic acid, and consume oxygen, like the most perfect animals; and Bostock remarks that in ovipa- rous quadrupeds, which are furnisned with lungs, the effect produced upon the air by the external surface of the body, is nearly equal to that of the pulmonary cavities. (Phys. p. 190, vol. 2.) If carbonic acid, then, be given off by the skin, which is now generally admitted, then we may with equal probability suppose that the oxygen of the air, combining with the elements of alcohol in the extreme capillaries, has produced it ; and hence it follows, that we have equal evidence that the elements of alcohol, in the form of carbonic acid, escape from the skin, as that they are eliminated through the lungs. If it be objected that carbonic acid is given off from the skin as a secretion, it may be replied, that there is no satisfactory proof that such is not the case in the lungs also. The fact is, that both the skin and lungs give out water, carbonic acid, and saline and animal substances, through the operation of physico-vital laws, and there can be no question that alcohol is triven olF in like manner. But if we suppose, with Liebig, that the elements of alcohol combine with oxygen, throughout the various textures of the body, we are not then obliged to prove the absorption of oxygen from the skin, and we may assume that the carbonic acid and hydrogen, which escape from the cutaneous surface, owe their origin to similar causes as when given off from the lungs. The suggestion, therefore, that alcohol is burnt in the lungs, giving off carbonic acid and water, and serving to support the temperature of the body, must be regarded as imperfectly established, if not contrary to positive observations Moreover, the opinion is advanced by Liebig, in his Agricultural Chemistry, (Am. ed., p. 113,) that "alcohol, and the volatile oils which are incapable of being assimilated, are exhaled through the lungs, and not through the skin." But admitting that Liebig's present hypothesis is true, does the moderate use of alcohol serve to protect the system against the effects of cold, and is such use therefore to be APPENDIX. 269 recommended 1 Liebig assumes that the oxygen of the arterial blood has a stronger attrac- tion for the elements of alcohol than for the matter of the tissues, and hence that the use of alcohol puts a speedy limit to the change of matter throughout certain parts of the body, the arterial blood becoming venous, without the substance of the muscles taking any share in the transformation. " Now we observe," he remarks, "that the develop- ment of heat in the body, after the use of wine, increases rather than diminishes, without the manifestation of a corresponding amount of mechanical force. A moderate quantity of wine, in women and children unaccustomed to its use, produces a diminution of the force necessary for voluntary motions. Weariness, feebleness in the limbs, and drowsiness, plainly show that the force available for mechanical purposes, in other words, the change of matter, has been diminished." If this suggestion be w r ell founded, then certainly we may conclude, that a slight in- crease of animal temperature would be dearly purchased at the expense of weariness, muscular weakness, and drowsiness, which must necessarily follow the use of alcoholic drinks, on Liebig's hypothesis. Indeed, his own views and reasonings inevitably lead to the conclusion, that animal heat and strength will be best supported by such articles of food as those which, by the conversion of their elements into the matter of the tissues, supply the loss occasioned by molecular changes, while at the same time they preserve the usual degree of animal temperature. Alcohol is not one of these ; but they belong to that "class of highly nitrogenized compounds, which are fully described in the present work. The opinion, that alcohol is useful in northern climates as a preservative against the effects of exposure to cold and fatigue, we hold to be a popular error, and contrary to ex- perience. This agent excites the circulation temporarily, but this is quickly succeeded by a f. table kingdom. These distinguished chemists, however, agree in relation to the sub- stances which serve for the formation of blood. "In regard to the principle of M. Dumas," says Liebig, "that the organism of an ani- mal is not able to produce any substance serving as food, it is equivalent to saying that the organism produces nothing, but transforms it ; that no combination takes place in its body, when the materials are not present by means of which the metamorphosis originates. Thus the formation of sugar of milk in the bodies of carnivorous animals cannot take place, for dog's milk, according to Simon, contains no sugar of milk. Thus also fat can- not be produced in their organism, because, besides fat, they do not consume any non- nitrogenous food. But starch, gum, and sugar contain, even with their large quantity of oxygen, all the ingredients of fatty bodies; and the formation of butter in tho body of the cow, and of wax in that of the bee, leave hardly any doubt that sugar, starch, gum, or pectine, furnish the carbon for the formation of the butter or of the wax. " It is further certain that the brain, the nerves, the blood, the faeces, and the yellow of the egg contain a substance in considerable quantity, with a far smaller proportion of oxygen than the known fatty acids, a substance which has not hitherto been found in the food of graminivorous animals. The formation of cholesterine from fat cannot be sup- posed without a separation of oxygen or of carbonic acid and water ; it must be d< from a substance far richer in oxygen, in consequence of a process of decomposition or metamorphosis, which, applied to the case of starch or sugar, explains their conversion into fat in the simplest manner." (Ed. and Lond. Phil Mag., July, 1843, p. 25-6.) (F.) Page 28. USES OF FAT IN THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. The hypothesis of Liebig, that fat does not serve for the renovation of any of the animal tissues, requires further proof. , Muller states that the use of the fat consists part- ly in contributing to preserve the proportions of the external form, and partly in protect- APPENDIX. 275 ing the internal parts by virtue of its being a bad conductor of caloric ; but that it also serves as a deposit of nutriment, which, during fasting, and also during wasting of the body, is again easily dissolved by being united with other animal matters, or by being con- verted into a saponaceous state, and having thus again entered the circulation, is applied to the formation of o'Jier organic compounds. When food is withheld, as in the case of hybernating animals, fat is absorbed and carried into the blood, where it exists in a free state, and we have detected it under these circumstances in considerable quantity ; in one instance it abounded to that extent, as to give the blood the appearance of milk, on stand- ing a few minutes. We also have observed the same phenomenon in a patient laboring under violent hepatic disease. In a few cases we have found fat in a fluid state effused into the abdominal cavity; also into the intestinal canal, where death had been occasioned by inflammation of some of the abdominal viscera. The experiments of Dumas seem to prove that fat exists to some extent ready formed in the food, that it is absorbed by the chy- liferous vessels and carried into the blood, and thence deposited in the cellular tissue, as well as in every part of the animal economy, in small quantity. But all blood contains more or less fat ; generally about 5 per cent. Prout has described oil or fat as one of the three great staminal principles from which all organized bodies are essentially constituted, and states that it exists, under an infinite variety of forms, both in vegetables and animals. Elliotson also remarks, that "vegetables contain fatty substances, volatile as well as fixed." (Physiology, p. 302, vol. 1.) The same author remarks, that "fat nourishes the body, when food cannot be procured or cannot be assimilated." Although it may not be capa- ble of demonstration, we have no doubt of the correctness of Prout's assertion, that fat may be converted into most, if not all, of the matters necessary for the existence of ani- mal bodies. Though it contains no nitrogen, is it not possible that this may be obtained from the decomposition of the tissues, and thus, by recombining with the elements of fat, form not only the excretory matters, but also the substance of the solid tissues ] There are some facts which render it probable that alcohol, under some circumstances, forms fat. Spirit drinkers, it is well known, are no f invariably lean; some of them, though un- able to take or retain but very small quantities of food, being exceedingly fat and cor- pulent. We lately noticed this, particularly in the case of a notorious gin-drunkard, whose appetite and digestive powers had long since failed him ; but in whose cellular membrane we found, on post-mortem examination, a deposit of fat nearly two inches in thickness. When we consider that the composition of human fat is, Carb. . . 79 Hyd. . . 11 Oxygen . . 9 per cent, and of Alcohol " . . 52 " . . 13 " . . 34 " it may be difficult, perhaps, to conceive how such a transformation of elements takes place ; but yet, if we adopt the opinion that fat is ever formed in the system, out of the elementary principles contained in different articles of food, it is as easy to conceive how it may be produced from alcohol, as from other substances, whose chemical composition bears no closer resemblance to fat than that of alcohol does. We have no doubt that, by the present researches of Liebig and his followers, this and other kindred subjects will soon be better understood. . (F 2.) Page 34. IRON IN THE BLOOD. The remark of Scherer, quoted by our author, that the presence of iron is rot necessary to the color of the blood, is undoubtedly erroneous. Berzelius found that the ashes of 276 APPENDIX. the coloring matter amount to 1^-or 1$ per cent, of the weight of the dried coloring matter, and, in the blood of the calf, to 2-2 per cent. For example, from 400 grains of dried coloring /natter, he obtained five grains of ashes, which were composed of Oxide of iron 50-0 Sulphate of iron Subphosphate of lime 6-0 Pure lime 20-0 Carbonic acid and loss . .... 16-5 100-0 . The average result of Berzelius's experiments is, that the coloring matter contains rather more than one half per cent, of its weight of metallic iron. According to Lecannu, however, the ashes of the red pure coloring matter obtained by his new process from human blood contain 10 per cent, of oxide of iron. Now Engelhardt has shown that a solution of the coloring matter of the blood in water, when impregnated with sulphureted hydrogen, after a time loses its color, becoming first violet, then green. This is exactly the effect which the same gas has on iron, and the experiment, therefore, seems to prove that this metal contributes to the production of the red color. (Muller.) As iron is not extracted from the blood by muriatic and other acids, which have a great affinity for metallic oxides, but none for the metals themselves, Ber- zelius considers it probable that the iron exists in the blood in the metallic state, and not in the state of an oxide, although, as Muller remarks, there is no analogous instance known of a quinary combination of a metal with nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Mr. Rose, however, agrees with Liebig in opinion, that the iron exists in the blood as an oxide, combined with animal matter, and has detailed a series of experiments (/Vr- gendorfs Ann. vii. 81) to prove that such is the fact. Chemists are, therefore, divided in opinion on this point: as facts appear to be equally balanced on either side, further researches are perhaps needed before the question can be considered as fully settled. Gmelino pposes the view that the red color of the blood is principally owing to iron, but admits that it exists in the metallic state, combined with nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen in the coloring matter. (G.) Page 36. SALT AS A CONSTITUENT OF THE BLOOD. Liebig has well remarked, that the presence of free muriatic acid in the stomach, and that of soda in the blood, prove, beyond all doubt, the necessity of common salt for the organic processes ; but the quantities of soda required by animals of different classes to support the vital processes are very unequal. " If we suppose," he adds, " that a given amount of blood, considered as a compound of soda, passes in the body of a carnivorous animal, in consequence of the change of mat- ter, into a new compound of soda, namely, the bile, we must assume, that in the normal condition of health, the proportion of soda in the blood is amply sufficient to form bile with the products of transformation. The soda which has been used in the vital pro- cesses, and any excess of soda, must be expelled in the form of a salt, after being sepa- rated from the blood by the kidneys. " Now if it be true that, in the body of an herbivorous animal, a much larger quantity of bile is produced than corresponds to the amount of blood formed or transformed in the vital processes if the greater part of the bile in this case proceeds from the non-azotized APPENDIX. 277 constituents of the food, then the soda of the blood, which has been formed into organized tissue, (assimilated or metamorphosed,) cannot possibly suffice for the supply of the daily secretion of bile. The soda, therefore, of the bile of the herbivora must be supplied di- rectly in the food : their organism must possess the power of applying directly to the for- mation of bile all the compounds of soda present in the food, and decomposable by the organic process. All the soda of the animal body evidently proceeds from the food, but the food of the carnivora contains, at most, only the amount of soda necessary to the formation of blood ; and in most cases, among animals of this class, we may assume that only as much soda as corresponds to the proportion employed to form the blood, is expelled in the urine. When the carnivora obtain in their food as much soda as suffices for the production of their blood, an equal amount is excreted in their urine ; when the food contains less, a part of that which would otherwise be excreted is retained by the organism. All these statements are unequivocally confirmed by the composition of the urine in these different classes of animals." (See Liebig's Organic Chemistry, pp. 163, 4, 5.) (H.) Page 39. WATER AS AN ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. It has been abundantly shown by Liebig, that water contributes to the greater part of the transformations in the body. For different " Formulas," showing this, the reader may consult the American Edition, (pp. 136, 140, 141, 142, 148, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 159, 180, 181, &c.) The spirit of dietetical reform has, however, been carried so far of late, that some devotees, if not martyrs of abstinence, have questioned whether even water was necessary to man, and have accordingly set to work to settle it by experiments in their own persons. Mr. Alcott states that he has succeeded in abstaining entirely from drink for more than a year, and during the whole period has not experienced the sensa- tion of thirst more than two or three times, and then after copious perspiration from working in hot weather. But during this whole period his diet consisted wholly of vege- tables, chiefly of a succulent kind, and it is probable that he swallowed as much fluid in this form as he would have done had he lived as people generally do. Others have tried the same experiment, and found that with food of the above description they seldom felt thirst. These facts coincide with the statement of Blumenbach, that "although thirst is a violent desire, drink appears not very necessary to life and health; for many warm- blooded animals mice, quails, parrots, &c. do not drink at all ; and some individuals of the human species have lived in perfect health and strength without tasting liquids." Sauvages mentions a member of the Academy of Toulose who never thirsted, and passed whole months of the hottest summer without drinking; and a woman who passed 40 days without liquids or thirst. The average amount of solid and fluid aliment taken into the system in 24 hours by a healthy adult, is about 6 pounds; but as it appears by ana- lyses in another part of this work that vegetable food contains, on an average, about 5-6ths of water, the vegetable-eater swallows five pounds of fluid daily, which is sufficient for all the demands of the system. That fluid must be taken in considerable quantity in some form, will not be doubted when we reflect that the average amount of water given off from the skin and lungs in 24 hours is about 40 ounces, and that this contains foreign matters which cannot be re- tained in the blood without injury to the health. Were no-t this loss regularly supplied by the ingestion of liquid, either as food or drink, the blood would speedily become so 278 APPENDIX. thick as to be unfit for circulation, as in Asiatic cholera. The absence of thirst shows conclusively that the amount of fluid circulating in the vessels is sufficient for the wants of the economy ; for Dupuytren found by his experiments that thirst could be allayed by injecting milk, whey, water, and other fluids into the veins. But though the desire for liquids is in general an indication of their propriety, yet care should be taken not to drink largely during or immediately after eating, as thereby the gastric juice becomes too much diluted, and the process of digestion materially disturbed. By the same cause, the mu- cous membrane becomes too much relaxed, its secretions changed, and the stomach too much distended to act upon the food with advantage. "Experience," says l)r. Combe, "proves that a moderate quantity of liquid during a meal is beneficial ; and if we drink little at a time, the risk of exceeding the proper limit will be very small. Dyspeptics, however, ought to be on their guard against taking too much, as they are apt to be misled by uneasy sensations in the region of the stomach, which are relieved for the moment, but afterwards aggravated, by the free dilution of the food. Those, also, who li\ - and are in the habit of taking wine daily, whether the system requires it or not, often fall into the error of excessive indulgence in liquids, to mitigate the thirst and irritability which the unnecessary use of stimulus never fails to induce, especially at night The continual dilution, however, adds to the mischief, by increasing the debility of the stomach, and, as pointed out in the chapter on Thirst, the only effectual remedy is to adapt the diet and regimen to the real wants of the constitution. Except in disease, a continually recurring thirst must proceed from mismanagement, and it is to be satisfied by an improved and rational regimen, and not by oceans of fluid, which only weaken the stomach still more, and aggravate the craving they are meant to cure." (I.) page 49. IMPURE WATER AS A SOURCE OF DISEASE. We are satisfied that impure water is more frequently a cause of disease than is gene- rally supposed. It has been thought that decaying vegetable matter, when received into the stomach, was entirely innoxious, the antiseptic properties of the gastric fluid cor- recting all its injurious properties, and making that bland and innocent, which, if intro- duced into the system in any other manner, would be productive of disease and death. But this opinion is evidently erroneous, for, in addition to the. cases mentioned by cur author, an immense number of facts could be adduced to show that this is the frequent cause of disease. The British Army "Medical Reports" abound with such instances, and our Medical Journals contain many facts of a similar kind. The fever which carried off so many of the United States mounted dragoons, a few years since, while on a vi.-it to tl>3 Pawnee settlements, was believed to have been occasioned chiefly by drinking stagnant water, filled with decaying vegetable and animal matter. Dr. Paris states that "it would be highly dangerous to deny the morbid tendency of water that holds putres- cent animal or vegetable matter in solution, or which abounds in mineral impregnation." We know that calculous affections are most frequent in countries in which the water abounds in lime, and the same author infoims us that "hard water has a tendency to produce disease in the spleen of certain anir.ials, especially the sheep." Galen a> the Elephantiasis of Egypt to the impure water of the Nile ; an opinion which has been adopted by Lucretius " Est elephas morbus, qui propter flumina Nili, Gignitur ^^Egypto in Medio." APPENDIX. 279 (K.)-Page 52. MINERAL WATERS OF THE UNITED STATES. No country in the world abounds in a greater variety of mineral waters than the United States ; and as they are now resorted to by all classes, not only for medicinal but dietetical purposes, it is proper to notice them somewhat in detail. The most celebrated mineral waters in our country are those of Saratoga, and of these, the Congress water maintains the pre-eminence. There are other waters whose medicinal properties equal, if they do not surpass, those of this famous spring: but there are certainly none which combine, with these, so many properties of a delightful beverage, causing them to be sought after and drunk by all classes of people, for no other purpose than simply to gratify the palate or to allay the thirst. It is somewhat remarkable that, although this water possesses ac- tive medicinal qualities, yet that, except in diseases attended with inflammatory action, it seldom, if ever, occasions any unpleasant consequences. When drunk, however, in very large quantities, as it often is by persons who are in the habit of visiting the Springs, even to the extent of 30 or 40 tumblers before breakfast, it often causes serious if not dangerous effects, and in no case can such immense quantities of fluid be imbibed with- out doing more or less injury. Even five or six tumblers, which is the minimum quan- tity drunk before breakfast, is too much for invalids generally to use, or for people in health, though many seem to drink a much larger quantity with impunity. Dr. Steel re- marks, that " from one to three pints of the water, taken in the morning before eating, usually operates freely as a cathartic, and at the same time has a most powerful effect in increasing the ordinary secretions of the kidneys; but its operation, like that of all other medicines, is much influenced by the condition of the stomach and bowels at the time of receiving it, as well as by the state of the system generally. "It is a cathartic possessing evidently interesting and important qualities, and as such, it is recommended and used in all those chronic diseases where cathartics and gentle aperients are indicated ; and such are its peculiar effects, when judiciously administered, that it may be persevered in for almost any length of time, and a daily increased evacuation from the bowels produced, without debilitating the alimentary canal, or in any way impairing the digestive powers of the stomach; but, on the contrary, the spirits, appetite, and general health will be improved and invigorated." Dr. Steel recommends that about three pints should be taken an hour or two before breakfast in the morning, and followed by a proper share of exercise, in order to produce a cathartic effect ; but where it would require more, he advises to add a tea-spoonful or two of Epsom salts to the first tumbler. It should not be drunk at all during the remain- der of the day by those who wish to experience the full benefit of its use ; and the same writer, who, from a long residence at the Springs, had abundant experience on the sub- ject, remarks, that " it would be much better for those whose complaints rer :ler them fit subjects for its administration, if the fountain should be locked up and no or-) suffered to approach it after the hour of nine or ten in the morning." One gallon of this water, according to the same writer, contains as follows Chloride of sodium Hydriodate of soda Bi-carbonate of soda . Bi-carbonate of magnesia Carbonate of iron Silex .... Hydro-bromate of potash, a trace 335-0 grains. 3'5 grains. 8-982 grains. 95-778 grains. 5-075 grains. 1-5 grains. 597-943 280 APPENDIX. Carbonic acid gas 311 cubic inches. Atmospheric air 7 cubic inches. Gaseous contents 318 cubic inches. IODINE SPRING, SARATOGA. One gallon of the water contains Chloride of soda . Carbonate of magnesia Carbonate of lime Carbonate of soda Carbonate of iron 187 grain*. 75 grains. 26 grain*. 2 grains. 1 grain. Iodine 3-5 grains. 294-5 solid 1 contents. Carbonic acid gas . 336 cubic inches. Atmospheric air . . 4 cubic inches. 340 gaseous contents. (A SANS SOUCI SPRING, BALLSTON SPA A wine gallon contains of Chloride of sodium 143-7 grain*. Bi-carbonate of soda 12-6 grains. Carbonate of lime 43-4 grains. Carbonate of iron 5-95 grains. Hydriodate of soda l - 3 grain. Silica 1 grains. Total 247- 15 grains (Sled.) The Salt Sulphur Springs of Virginia contain sulphate of lime, sulphate of magnesia, sulphate of soda, carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, chloride of sodium, chloride of magnesium, chloride of calcium, iodine, sulpho-hydrate of sodium and magnesium, sulphur in combination with a peculiar organic matter, per-oxide of iron, sulphi hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, carbonic acid, &c. The White Sulphur Water of Greenbriar county, Va., contains in one quart Carbonate of lime 12 grains. Sulphate of magnesia 5 grains. Sulphate of lime . t 2 grcins. Muriate of lime H grains. Iron 1 grain. Sulphur (precipitated) i grain. Sulphureted hydrogen Carbonic acid 211 grains. For further information on the mineral waters of the United States, see Bell "On Baths and Mineral Waters." (L.)-p. 57. PURIFICATION OF SUGAR. It is a well-known fact, that many vegetable substances undergo important alterations in their chemical constitution and medicinal properties, if they be exposed for a long lime to a heat of 212 ; and hence, in the preparation of extracts and inspissated juices of plants, forms of apparatus are sometimes employed in which the evaporation is carried on in close vessels connected with an air-pump, and in which a partial vacuum, measured APPENDIX. 281 by a barometer-gauge, may be established. This principle of evaporation at low tem- peratures, by removal of the atmospheric pressure, was formerly introduced with much advantage into the manufacture of sugar, as the true crystallizable sugar is converted into the uncrystallizable sugar (treacle) with great rapidity at the temperature of tailing sirup, and is hence, to a great extent, lost to the manufacturer. By later improvements, however, in the mode of applying heat, the necessity of evaporating the sirup in vacuo has been completely obviated. To refine sugar, it is redissolved, and the liquor, having been cautiously evaporated to the necessary degree, is poured into cones of unglazed earthenware, which are placed on their summits, the orifice in which is stopped by a plug. When, by cooling, the sirup has crystallized, during which the mass is contin- ually stirred about to render the crystals very minute and close, the plug below is re- moved, and the colored liquid drains out ; the last portions of it being removed by laying a sponge moistened with some spirit, or with a clear sirup, on the sugar at the base of the cone, and allowing the pure liquid to filter through. If a strong sirup be laid aside in a warm place, it crystallizes in very beautiful oblique rhombs, which constitute the sugar- candy of commerce. (M.) p. 66. FARINACEOUS FOOD IN DISEASE. Most of the farinaceous articles enumerated under the head of" The Amylaceous Ali- mentary Principle" are composed in a great degree of starch, which, we are told, is con- verted, by digestion, into gum and sugar, the latter being probably absorbed. Though we have been in the habit, for many years, of using these articles in our practice, in most cases of disease, and especially in derangement of the digestive organs, we have latterly seen much reason to doubt whether they are as well adapted for the treatment of many cases in which they are usually prescribed, as a preparation of animal food. In cases of Chokra Infantum, for example, a jelly prepared from the sounds of the cod, or from Russia isinglass, or calves' feet, answers far better than any kind of farinaceous food, which passes the ali- mentary canal, apparently, entirely undigested. The same is true in some forms of dyspepsia. This, however, is in accordance with the well-known fact, that animal food is of easier digestion than vegetable, as it requires less change to assimilate it to the wants of the system. (N.) p. 68. STARCH IN WOOD AND BARK. In times of great scarcity, and where famine threatens, it is well to know how to pre- pare a nutritious substance, which may go under the name of bread, from the beech and other woods destitute of turpentine. According to Prof. Autenreith, every thing soluble in water is first removed by frequent maceration and boiling ; the wood is then to be reduced to a minute state of division, not merely into fine fibres, but actual powder; and after being repeatedly subjected to heat in an oven, is ground in the usual manner of corn. Wood thus prepared acquires the smell and taste of corn-flour. It is, however, never quite white. It agrees with corn-flour in not fermenting without the addition of leaven, and in this case some leaven of corn-flour is found to answer best. With this it forms a perfectly uniform and spongy bread ; and when thoroughly baked, and has much crust, it is by no means unpalatable. Wood flour, also, boiled in water, forms a thick, tough, trembling jelly, which is very nutritious, (Bell.) Dr. Turner states that fungin is nutritious in a high degree, and yields nitrogen gas when digested in dilute nitric acid. Its composition would seem to be very analogous to animal substances. 282 APPENDIX. (O.) Page 72. THE ACIDULOUS ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. The propriety of admitting the existence of an acidulous alimentary principle may perhaps admit of doubt. If it be said that vegetable acid is contained in our food, it may be replied that lime, potash, and other inorganic elements, are likewise contained in it, and, as far as we can judge, are as essential to the maintenance of health. That it has al- ways been used by man, and is contained in many of the fruits employed by him as food, is not conclusive, because the first may be said of narcotic substances, and the latter of organic principles, not alimentary. We speak now of pure acetic acid. Vw-^ar, as it exists in the shops, contains gum, starch, sugar, gluten, &c., and therefore is strict titled to rank among alimentary substances. Chloride of soda, in the form of common salt, appears to be as necessary for the preservation of health as vegetable acid, which in the northern latitudes cannot be obtained, at least during a greater portion of the year. Indeed, it may well be doubted whether there are any facts which would warrant the be- lief that in cold climates acids are necessary to health; while in tropical countri abundant supply which nature has furnished in the fruits and vegetables, seems to justify the belief that under such circumstances they perform an important office in the animal economy, perhaps as condiments. The fact, moreover, that pure vegetable aci.N "MihW no chemical change in the system, except combining with a base," would seem to weigh against the opinion that they are alimentary principles. The absence of acids in our food will not necessarily produce scurvy, provided the other conditions of health are present, especially pure air, and a due proportion of vegetable and animal food. (P.) Page 72. VINEGAR. In the United States, vinegar is chiefly made from cider. In families it is made from cider which has become too sour, and from the daily remains of the family consumption. These are put into a barrel, standing in a warm place, along with some good vinegar, or with what is called the mother of vinegar, and which seems to act as a ferment. It re- quires generally several weeks to form strong vinegar. When made on a large scale from cider, the liquor is placed in barrels, with their bung-holes open, which an- rxpo.-t.'J dur- ing the summer to the heat of the sun. Perfect acetification requires about Uvo years. The progress of the fermentation, however, must be watched, and, as soon as perfect vinegar has formed, it should be racked off into clean barrels. Without this precaution, the acetous fermentation would be followed by the putrefactive, and the vinegar be spoiled. Early cider is not so good for conversion into vinegar as the late, in consequence of the abun- dance of malic acid which the former contains ; for, as is well known, the malic acid is not the subject-matter of the acetous fermentation, but the alcohol which it contain.- vinous liquor. Vinegar may be clarified, without injuring its aroma, by throwing about a tumbler-full of boiled milk into from 50 to 60 wine gallons of the liquid, and stirring the mixture. This operation has the effect, at the same time, of rendering red vinegaj pale. Vinegar is also sometimes made in New England from the sap of the sugar maple. Chaptal states, that if two pints of brandy be carefully mixed with about four drachms of yeast and a little starch, there will be produced an extremely strong vinegar, which will begin to form about the fifteenth day. Vinegar may also be made by means of the starch r - : APPENDIX. 283 and ferment, without the alcoholic liquor ; but in this case the process will be longer, and the product much weaker. The acetous fermentation is not always necessary for the production of acetic acid. Sugar, for example, mixed with water in which the gluten of wheat has fermented, will be converted into vinegar without access of air, and without any appearance of fermen- tation. Beer and cider, if long kept, become sour, although the air be carefully excluded, and an infusion of malt becomes acid in a few days under the same circumstances, (Bache.) Vinegar is sometimes adulterated with sulphuric, muriatic, or nitric acid. Sul- phuric acid may be detected by acetate of baryta, which throws down sulphate of baryta, distinguishable from the malate and tartrate of the same base by its insolubility in nitric acid. Muriatic acid is shown by a precipitate being formed by nitrate of silver, insoluble in nitric acid, but perfectly soluble in water of ammonia. To detect nitric acid, add a little common salt, saturate by adding carbonate of potassa, and evaporate to dry ness. Upon the dry residue pour equal parts of sulphuric acid and water, through which some gold- leaf has been diffused, and boil the mixture. If nitric acid be present, nitro-muriatic acid will be generated, in consequence of the decomposition of the common salt, and the gold- leaf will be dissolved. (Q.) p. 76. THE ALCOHOLIC ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLE. It may be doubted whether any substance can properly be called an alimentary prin- ciple, which, if introduced into the system, is not capable in some degree of nourishing it, and repairing its losses. Liebig remarks, that " if we hold that increase of mass in the animal body, the develop- ment of its organs, and the supply of waste, that all this is dependent on the blood, that is, on the ingredients of the blood, then only those substances can properly be called nu- tritious, or considered as food, which are capable of conversion into blood." If we follow this definition, then it is pretty evident that alcohol cannot be admitted to be an alimentary principle ; for most certain is it that it contains nothing adapted to the formation of blood, or which is essential to the constitution of the organized tissues. But then its chemical composition resembles that of other iion-nitrogenized substances which are recognised as food, as fat, starch, gum, and sugar ; may it not then serve, like them, as an element of respiration, according to Liebig's hypothesis] It may not be an easy matter to prove that it does not, and yet we are inclined to believe that the statement of Liebig, that it is not given off by any of the secretions or excretions, remains yet to be proved. More- over, the doctrine that the non-nitrogenized substances serve only as elements of respiration, can, as yet, be regarded in no other light than that of an hypothesis. In Liebig's " Organic Chemistry of Agriculture," p. 290, we are told that " the direct formation of carbonic acid is the last stage of its oxidation, and that it is preceded by a series of changes, the last of which is a complete combustion of the hydrogen. Aldehyde, acetic acid, formic' acid, oxalic acid, and carbonic acid form a connected chain of products, arising from the oxidation of alcoho] ; and the successive changes which this fluid expe- riences from the action of oxygen may be readily traced in them." If this be so, then it would appear that all these substances must, after alcohol is drunk, be found in the system ; a supposition which is far from being probable. We believe that facts will hardly sustain these views, which seem to have been lately adopted in order to support a new hypothesis. Dr. Percy, of -Edinburgh (see Appen- dix, D.,) has detected alcohol in the blood, the urine, the bile, and in the substance of 284 APPENDIX. most of the organs : Magendie has also detected it in the blood. From the strong odor of alcohol in the breath after this substance has been drunk, there can be little doubt that a very large proportion of it is given off by pulmonary exhalation, though under some circumstances, as we have suggested in another place, a part of it may, perhaps, be converted into fat. That animal heat is promoted to any extent by the combustion of alcohol in the lungs we think still more questionable, for experience has proved that, other things being equal, a person will perish sooner when exposed to severe cold, if he uses alcoholic drinks, than if he entirely abstains from them. For proof of this, we refer to facts contained in the 16th chapter of 44 Bacchus," some of which will be found in another part of this Ap- pendix, (D.) There is, it is true, a popular delusion on this subject, for if "coachmen and others take alcoholic drinks in cold weather to keep them warm," they also take them in hot weather to keep them cool ; but in neither case can the custom be quoted as an argument in favor of such use, or of the justness of the views on which such u?e is founded. (R.) p. 78. CONSUMPTION OF ALCOHOL IN THE UNITED STATES. A great change has taken place within a few years past in relation to the drinking habits of the people of the United States; and if the signs of the times are not entirely deceptive, we may venture the belief that the period is not far remote when the common use of intoxicating drinks as a beverage, will be entirely unknown. The need of such a reform will be perceived from the statemei > of a few facts. In 1830, there were over 72,000,000 gallons of ardent spirits consumed in the United States, by a population of not quite 13,000,000, which would give five and a half gallons for each individual, with- out taking into the account wine, beer, or cider. The quantity of wine consumed during the same year was about 3,000,000 gallons. In 1840, the amount of home-spirits con- sumed was about 36,343,000 gallons ; of foreign spirits, 2,500,000 and of wines, 4,000,000 gallons; making a total of 42,843,000 gallons, which is a reduction in ten years of <>\vr 57 per cent Within the last three years the reduction has gone on witli still greater rapidity. (S.) Page 80. AMERICAN LIQUEURS. A great variety of Liqueurs is manufactured in this city from rectified whiskey, sugar, and essential oils, and drunk in confectionery shops and other similar establishments. The greatest proportion of these fascinating liquors is consumed by females, who would think it highly ungenteel, if not decidedly vulgar, to be seen drinking gin or brandy ; and yet the effects of the former are quite as pernicious. Some of the flavoring ingredients are also poisonous, as the oil of bitter almonds, &c. ; and we have known many instances where the health was entirely ruined by their use, and the foundation laid for fatal diseases. (T.) Page 87- BUTTER. Dr. Bell states, (on "Regimen," cf*c., p. 286,) that during a period of four years, up- wards of 600,000 pounds of butter have been, on an average, expc'ted annually from the APPENDIX. 285 United States to the West Indies and South America. For exportation to hot climates, it should be clarified before being salted. For this purpose it is put into a lipped vessel and placed in another of water, which is to be gradually heated till the butter is melted. It is to be kept melted for some time, to allow its albuminous or caseous particles to settle ; the clear melted butter is then to be poured off from the dregs, and when suffi- ciently cooled it is salted. This clarified butter is paler than the fresh, and it acquires nearly the consistence of tallow. The best butter in the New York market is made at Goshen, in the state of New York. The average produce per cow of the butter dairies is estimated at 168 pounds a year. To preserve butter, it should be packed close in a clean scalded firkin, and covered over with strong brine, in which a small quantity of saltpetre is dissolved. (U.) Page 89. ADULTERATION OF VOLATILE OILS. The volatile oils are often adulterated with fixed oils, resinous substances, or alcohol. The fixed oils may be discovered by the permanent stain which they leave on paper when exposed to heat, while that from volatile oil is entirely dissipated. Fixed oils and resins may be detected by distillation, which leaves them behind. If alcohol be present, the oil becomes milky when agitated with water, and after the separation of the liquids, the wa- ter occupies more space, and the oil less, than before. Sometimes oils of little value are mixed with those more costly. In this case, the taste and smell are the best means of detecting the fraud. ( Wood <$> Bache.') (V.) Page 94. POISONOUS CHEESE. In several instances we have known cheese, sold by our grocers, produce poisonous effects, without any peculiarity in its appearance, taste, or smell, to indicate such a prop- erty. The symptoms produced by it were those which attend a violent attack of cholera morbus, indicating severe gastro-enteritic irritation. In one case, several families who purchased portions of the same cheese were attacked during the same night, after eating small quantities of it with their supper, and in some of them the effects lasted for some days. They all, however, eventually recovered. Dr. Christison, who has thoroughly investigated this subject, remarks, that in some of the poisonous cheeses noticed, " the curd, before being salted, is left for some time in a heap to ferment, in consequence of which it becomes sour, and afterwards ripens faster. But if the milk has been curdled with vinegar if the acid liquor formed while it ferments is not carefully drained off if the fermentation is allowed to go too far if too little salt was used to preserve the curd, or if flour has been mixed with the curd, the subsequent ripening or decaying of the cheese follows a peculiar course, and a considerable excess of caseic acid is formed, as well as some sebacic acid." (Christison on Poisons.) 286 APPENDIX. (W.) Page 108. SALT MANUFACTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. Table showing the relative strength of the different brines from which salt is manufactured in the United States. At Nanfm-ket, 350 gallons of pea-water give a bushel of salt Boon's Lick, (Missouri,) 450 gallons brine give do. Conemaugh, (Perm.,) 300 do. do. Shawneetown, (Illinois,) '2-) do. do. Jargon, (Ohio.) 213 do. do. Lp.-kh:irf>. Miss.,) do. do. Slmui town, (BtUBofiiM,) 123 do. do. St. Catherine's, (CJ. C.) 120 do. do. Zanesville, (Ohio,) i)5 do. do. Ki'iiawha, (Va.,) 75 do. do. Grand River, (Arkansas,) 80 do. do. Illinois River, (do.,) 80 do. do. Miiskiiitriim, (Ohio,) 50 do. do. Onondaga, (N. V.,) 41 lo 45 do. do. The quantity of salt manufactured in the United States in 1829 was 3,804,229 busho',--, of which the Onondaga springs furiiislinl 1,201,220 bushels. In 1835 the amount of salt made from these springs was 2.'J2'J. r > ( .M 'nu-li- !.-. The amount of brine raised from the Saline wells at Syracuse, Salina, Liverpool, and Geddes is 44,760 gallons in an hour, or 1,074,240 gallons in 24 hours. This would give a total of 322,272,000 gallons of brine annually, and allowing fifty gallons of brine to a bushel of salt, would yield 6,445,400 Imshels. Upwards of 7,000,000 bushels of salt are annually manufactured in the United States ; 2,000,000 of these at the Kenawha springs. The quantity of salt annually consumed by each individual in France has been esti- mated at 19i pounds, and in England 22 pounds, which would require a total of 101,000 tons. The United States import salt to the amount of about 1,000,000 dollars annually. From the increasing demand for American salted provisions abroad, there is no doubt that a much larger amount will hereafter be required. IS MAN OMNIVOROUS? The physical organization of man proves that he is destined for a mixed kind of aliment. His organs of mastication hold an intermediate place between those of the car- nivorous and herbivorous animal ; twelve of the teeth, namely, the canine and lesser mala- res, corresponding to those of the former, a:iu twenty, the incisors and larger molares, to those.of the latter. If we regard the organs of digestion, we also find that he holds a medium place between the carnivorous and herbivorous tribes, though more closely ap- proximating the latter. In the former, we find the intestinal canal very short, in the latter very long ; with a large caecum, and pouched colon. If, however, we consider the length of the canal, in reference to that of the body* excluding the limbs, we shall find that it bears, in man, the proportion of 12 to 1 ; which is somewhat greater than exists in the xinii:- or ape tribe; but then if we regard its capacity, we shall find that it is much less in the former. This organization was doubtless designed by infinite wisdom, to enable man to inhabit every part of our globe; which he evidently could not have done, had lie been created to subsist on animal or vegetable food alone. In the following very judicious remarks of Dr. Dunglison, we fully coincide: " Although man is so organized as to be adapted for living on both animal and vegeta- APPENDIX. 287 ble substances, it is not indispensable that he should be enabled to obtain both. In the frozen regions of the north, vegetable food fails him ; whilst in the torrid regions, animal food, if it can be obtained in due quantity, is not relished. Accordingly, we find nations and tribes which subsist on animal food almost exclusively, and others by which an animal diet is rarely, if at all, employed. "It is in temperate climes that man is truly omnivorous. The products of both animal and vegetable life are there in due abundance, and equally laid under contribution. But even in these climes, the young of the human family are, in the earliest period of their existence, wholly carnivorous, that is, so long as they are restricted to the breast ; and there is no doubt whatever, that if from infancy man. inthe temperate regions, were con- fined to an animal banquet, it would be entirely in accordance with his nature, and would probably develop his mental and corporeal energies to as great a degree as the mixed nutriment on which he usually subsists. The same may be said of an exclusively vege- table diet, which some, indeed, suppose to have been his original food, and., as we have seen, to be most in accbrdance with his nature. " These remarks, however, apply only to the case in which the animal or the vegeta- ble substance has been employed exclusively from birth, or until the system has become habituated to it. It is far otherwise if we lay aside our mixed nutriment, and restrict ourselves wholly to the products of the one or the other kingdom. Scurvy supervenes, whether, the restriction be to the vegetable or to the animal certain experiments instituted by Magendie show clearly that omnivorous man, omnivorous, that is, from nature and habit requires variety of articles of diet. This he lays down as an important hygienic precept, but it is of course inapplicable to those tribes that have been accustomed from birth to supply the wants of the body by a diet exclusively animal or vegetable." (Hu- man Physiology, vol. 1, p. 213.) (Y.) Page 121. MILK AS AFFECTED BY THE DIET AND REGIMEN OF COWS. A greater portion of the milk with which the inhabitants of New York have been sup- plied for many years past, has been obtained from cows fed on distillery slops, and crowded together in large numbers in filthy pens, without any regard to ventilation or cleanliness. Thus shut up, without proper exercise or pure air, the milk is necessarily diseased, and ij is the cause of extensive mortality among young children and infants. Besides these un- healthy slops, decayed vegetables, and the sour and putrid offals and remnants of kitchens, are gathered up for the food of these animals; the consequence of which is, that they become diseased, and the lactescent secretion partakes of the same impure and unhealthy character. A very valuable work on milk, by R. M. Hartley, Esq., of New York, was published in 1842, in which this subject is treated in a very masterly and scientific man- ner. To this, the reader is referred for a vast fund of information, not elsewhere to be found. From this work we gather that when public attention was first called to this ji subject, about the year 1830, there were 500 dairies in the vicinity of the cities of New York and Brooklyn, averaging about 20 cows each, and the whole number, excepting five or six, that were supplied with brewers' grains, were fed on distillery slops. Some cf these distilleries convert from 700 to 1,000 bushels of grain into whiskey daily, and sup- ply slop for at least 2,000 cows, besides fattening some hundreds of swine on the premises. The cows are kept upon this refuse fluid, called slop, because it yields more milk at a cheaper rate than any other kind of food. When the cows become so much diseased as 288 APPENDIX. to be no longer profitable for the dairy, they are sent to the cattle market, and their place supplied by fresh stock. Although the physicians of New York have testified, in a body to the extreme unhealthiness of such milk to young children, and although the newspa- pers have teemed with articles, calling public attention to the subject, people, generally, are very indifferent to what kind of milk they use in their families; and the public au- thorities have not deemed the matter of sufficient consequence to give it the slightest notice. We have inspectors of flour, of leather, of tobacco, of meat, fresh and salted, of fish, and almost every other article of merchandise, but for MILK, which is the chief article of sustenance to the young, no inspection is provided ; and to judge front the apathy hitherto displayed in relation to it, we have no good reason to expect such a salutary regulation. The following Tables show the Specific Gravity, Characteristics, and per centage of Cream and Curd, by measure, contained in different Samples of Milk. TABLE I. MILK OF COUNTRY DAIRIES. SAMPLES OF MILK. SPE. GRAY. CHARACTERISTICS. PER CENT. PER CENT. OF CREAM OF CURD. Number 1 1-098 Alkaline 10 12 2 1-089 10 11 3 1 02s " 9 9 ' 4 1026 8 9 5 1101 it 8 10 6 1026 Acid 7 9 1 TABLE II. MILK OF DISTILLERY-SLOP DAIRIES. SAMPLES OF MILK. SPE. GRAY. CHARACTERISTICS. PER CENT. OF CREAM PER CENT. OF CURD. Number 7 1018 Acid 3i 4 8 ma 3* 5 9 1015 1 4 4 10 1016 ( 5 5 11 1016 4* 5 12 1024 6 8 REMARKS. These results show, that while country milk is alkaline, slop-milk is acid, and contains, moreover* less than half the nourishment of that which is produced from grasses and other natural food. Again, the nutrient properties of milk consist chiefly of oil and albumen; but so deficient is slop-milk of these essential elements, that it is incapable of producing butter or cheese. Mr. Hartley remarks, that "a coagulum of sufficient consistence and collusiveness for cheese-making cannot be obtained from it; and while the milk of one good cow, properly managed, will afford one pound of butter daily, the milk of the largest dairy that is fed on slop alone will not, by the ordinary process of churning, yield one ounce. It is true, that when the milk is set to cream, a thin white pellicle or scum rises to the surface; but when churned it does not collect and coalesce so as to compose butter, but, by the agitation, is diffused through the liquid in the form of froth. If then it were pure, and possessed no deleterious properties, it does not afford the nourishment that is APPENDIX. 289 requisite for the growth and sustenance of a child." In addition to this, the slop-milk is often drugged, and always diluted. In 1838, it was computed that 750,000 quarts per day, or 27,375,000 quarts of milk per annum, were consumed in the cities of New York and Brooklyn, with a daily deficiency of 10,000 quarts, which could not be supplied, even with the aid of water; as the dilution was ulready carried as far as the mixture, if it bare the appellation of milk, would warrant. At that time, the price averaged about six cents per quart, which would produce the an- nual sum of $1,642,250 for milk for these cities. It has also been estimated that the price of batter, which was then 25 cts. per lb., did not yield the farmers of Dutchess and Put- nam If cts. per quart for their milk, with the loss of their labor to make it and send it to market, which may be reckoned at 2 cts. per lb. There is now supplied to the city of New York, by the New York and Erie Railroad alone, which is extended to Middletown, 25,000 quarts of pure milk daily, besides cream in considerable quantities, butter, cheese, &c. ; but the supply is far from being equal to the demand. As milk does not now yield the farmer one cent per quart, when made into butter at present prices, there can be no doubt that when the facilities for transporting it to ihe city are increased, it will be furnished pure at 2 or 3 cents per quart to our citi- zens. About i of one per cent will be a remuneration to the railway to carry it from 74 to 100 miles. At one cent per quart, good lands situated near a railroad, within 100 railed of the city, will be worth 100 dollars per acre to furnish milk to this city. (l.)-p. 131. EDIBLE TURTLE IN THE UNITED STATES. V\ u shall notice a few of the edible Turtle in the United States, with some particulars relative to each species. 1. The salt water Terrapin (Emys palustris) is much prized by epicures, and is found exclusively in salt or brackish streams near the sea-shore. They bury themselves in the mud during the winter, from which they are taken in great numbers, and are then very fat. This is a small turtle, about 5 inches in length, and is found along the whole Atlan- tic coast. 2. The Painted Tortoise (Emys pictd) is found in every part of this state, and occa- sionally eaten, although not much esteemed. 3. The Broad Terrapin, (Emys insculpla,} and, 4. The Red-bellied Terrapin, (Emys rubriventris,') are eaten to some extent, especially the 1 utter, which are' brought to our markets from New Jersey, where they abound in running streams. 5. The Geographic Tortoise (Emys geographical is occasionally used as food,' and its flesh is represented as very palatable. 6. The Snapping Turtle (Chelonura Serpenlind) is one of our largest turtles, (about 12 inches in length,) arid common to every part of the state ; its eggs and flesh are equally prized for food, and are considered very nutritious and savory. The larger and older animals have a strong, musky flavor, which renders them unpalatable. This species sometimes goes under the name of Loggerhead, Alligator Turtle, and Couta. Its food is frogs, fishes, snakes, &c. 7. The Soft- Shelled Turtle (Tridnyx ferox) is found in some parts of this state, and is held in high esteem as a wholesome and nutritious article of food. They feed on fish and the smaller aquatic reptiles. 8. The Green Turtle (Chelonia Mydas) is well known to the epicure for its delicious steaks, and the savory soup which it affords. This species abounds on the coast of Florida, where it deposits eggs in the sand, which are hatched I 19 290 APPENDIX. by the heat of the sun in the course of two or three weeks. It occasionally, 'e met with on the shores of Long Island. (Dekay,) and not unfrequently off Sandy Hook, and near Conej Island. They are generally brought to our Atlantic cities from the Gallipagos, and other Islands in the Gulf of Mexico. (2.) Page 134. EDIBLE FISH IN THE UNITED STATES. There is perhaps no country on the globe which abounds with a greater variety of edible fish of excellent quality than the United States. The most important oF these are, the American Cod, (Morrhua Americana,) Mackerel, (Scomber vernalis,) Kliad, (Alosa pra stability Salmon, Salm n Trout, (Salmo conjinisj Brook Trout, Her,' hg, Black Bass, Striped Bass, Halibu Perch, Dace, Pike, Porgee, Black Fish, cf-c. Dr. Dekay, in his late most excellent wt/k on the "Fishes of New York," enumerates 440 species of fishes, comprised under 156 genera, and 32 families, of which 294 specie rj belong to the State of New York. The mackerel is a very valuable fish, appearing on our coast in the months of May and June. On the coast of Massachusetts, where the fishery is most productive, more than 200 vessels are sometimes engaged in this business ; and according to Dr. Storcr, in 1837, 234,059 barrels were taken, equal in value to 1,639,042 dollars. The extent of 1 the Cod fishery in the U. States may be learned from the following facts. In the yeav 1836, 561 vessels were employed from towns along the coast of Massachusetts, hn ring crews ampuntingte 3,816 men. In the following season, 510,554 quintals* were taken producing the eum of $1,569,517. In the year 1840, the tonnage of all tjie vessels engaged in the Cod fisheries in the U. States amounted to 76,025 tons,f which, at the usnnl rate of 6 men to 25 tons, would give a total of more than 18,000 men and boys emplovcd. This fishery is generally carried on in small open boats and schooners ; the fish generally bring about 4 -cents a pound. From the liver of this species, as well as from shark ^, mackerel, and other species, an oil is obtained by exposing it to putrefaction in the sun, which is consumed in the manufacture of leather. The cod-liver is now coming into pretty ex- tensive use as a medicine. The American Shad, which is different from the Shad of Europe, is a hig y valuable fish, which visits the coasts and rivers of tnelJ. States annually appearing at Charleston, S C., in January, later at Norfolk, in the Hudson river in April, and in Connecticut river in May. Those which ascend the Connecticut are more cylindrical in shape than those taken in the Hudson, and are covered with mucus, giving them a slimy foel. They are considered superior in quality to all other shad. They ascend th.e Hudson 150 miles to spawn, and return poor and unfit to eat, the latter part of May. They a^e sold from 8 to 15 dollars per thousand, according to their abundance. Dr. Dekay states, lhat "from information derived from various sources, he has no doubt, that along the course of the Hudson river, there is a capital invested, in the shad fishery alone, of nearly rr.uf a million of dollars." The Lake Trout, Lake Salmon, or Salmon Trout, is a much esteemed fish, occurring in the northern lakes of this state. Its average weight is from 8 to 10 pound ^, but some weigli 30 or more They frequent the deepest water, and are taken with the hook ; 5 cwt. being sometimes caught in the course of a few days. Its price, wh..n salted, is * 100 quintals are computed to contain 3,500 fish. 1 Tha tonnage engaged in the mackerel fishery was 23,267 tons, and in the whale fishery 136,926 APPENDIX. 291 about ten cents per pound ; but when fresh, it sells from twelve to 14 cents, and when transported to our principal cities, at 20 or 25 cents a pound. This fish constitutes a favorite dish at the tables of our large hotels ; but Dr. Dekay says, "it appears to him to have all the coarseness of the halibut, without its flavor." The American Smelt is a very beautiful and savory little fish, named from its peculiar smell, which resembles that of cucumbers. It comes to us from the North, in November and December, abounding in our salt-water streams, and is sold by measure in our markets. They are derived chiefly from the small streams emptying into Long Island Sound, and from the Hackensack and Passaic rivers, in New Jersey. It varies from the European species, but is probably not inferior in quality. There are many other species which well deserve notice, but our limits forbid. (3.) Page 139. CRUSTACEANS FOR FOOD. The crustaceans belong chiefly to the Cancer or Crab family, and those most generally eaten are the lobster, shrimp, and prawn. Crabs and lobsters abound in our markets, and are considered by many as delicious aliments ; they are, however, of difficult digestion, and often occasion violent attacks of cholera morbus. " Lobsters," says Dr. Paris, " are certainly nutritive, but are extremely indigestible ; and such has been their effect upon certain stomachs, as to have excited a suspicion of their containing some poisonous principle ; they have been known to occasion pain in the throat, and besides eruptions on the skin, to extend their morbid influence to the pro- duction of pains in the stomach, and affections of the joints. As'found in the London market, they are generally underboiled, with a view to their better keeping ; and in that case they are highly indigestible. The same observations apply to the crab. Shrimps are a species of sea-crab, which vary in their color and size, and are considered easier of digestion than the preceding articles." (Paris on Diet, p. 112.) In the truth of these remarks we fully coincide. (4.) Page 142. ON MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS FOR FOOD. Of these, the oyster and the different varieties of the clam are the principal. The green color of the oyster is generally occasioned by vegetating germs of marine conferva and fuci, and not to being laid on coppery beds, as has been supposed by some. Violent ef- fects are occasionally produced by eating oysters, but this happens for the most part when eaten in too large a quantity, or out of their proper season. The oyster casts its spawn in the month of May, after which they are sick and unfit for food ; but in July they begin to improve, and in August they are perfectly sound. Hence the origin of the old saying, that an oyster is never good except when there is an R in the month. Oys- ters are very abundant on the Atlantic coast, from New York to Florida, and of an excel- lent quality. There is no article of food more prized by the epicure. The mussel, which was formerly eaten to considerable extent, and then went mostly out of use, is again in considerable demand as an article of food. Some people consider the dark part, which is the heart, to be poisonous, and therefore remove it before eating 292 APPENDIX. them. This is, however, a mistaken notion. We have certainly known mussels produce poisonous symptoms oftener than any other kind of food, and in many instances, too, where they were neither stale nor tainted, s?o that we have been inclined to think that, under some circumstances, an absolute poison may be generated. The symptoms, as they have come under our own observation, have not always been similar ; but, gener- ally, they have been those which characterize violent derangement of the stomach and bowels. There were present in one instance, where a family of eight persons were most violently affected by eating them, cardialgia, pain in the stomach and bowels, nausea and vomiting, cramps, heat and constriction of the mouth and throat, a prickly sensation in the hands, difficulty of swallowing and speaking, numbness about the mouth, extending to the arms, with great debility and prostration. One of the persons thus affected, a healthy man of 40, died; the others all recovered. It is now well ascertained that the poisonous principle in these cases is not copper, as was once supposed, nor is it prob- able that it is owing to changes induced by decay. By some it has been attributed to idiosyncrasy, and this may have been the^case in some instances, as we know individuals who can eat no kind offish without being violently affected. " A relation of mine," says Christison, " for many years could not take a few mouthfuls of salmon, trout, herring, turbot, halibut, or lobster, without being attacked in a few minutes or hours with violent vomiting ; yet at an early period of life he could eat them all with impunity* and at all times he has eaten, without injury, cod, ling, haddock, whiting, flounder, oyster, and mussels/' Some ascribe their poisonous qualities to disease in the fish, while AJ. Lamouroux conjectures that the poison may be a particular species of Medusa. In the present state of knowledge on the subject, we are entirely ignorant in what the poisonous principle may reside. It is, however, necessary to be extremely cautious in eating this kind of food, and during the hot months of summer it should be entirely prohibited. (5.) Page 145. DECAYED ANIMAL SUBSTANCES AS FOOD. It is not an uncommon circumstance in this city to meet with cases of poisoning from eating smoked beef, which has been imperfectly cured. During the last year, about 40 cases of this kind occurred in a particular neighborhood, and were all traced to a lot of smoked beef, sold at a certain grocery. The symptoms closely resembled those already mentioned, as produced by poisonous fish, and were, no doubt, occasioned by the meat having partially undergone putrefaction, but not sufficiently so as to offend the sense of smell or taste. It is well known that in Germany, cheese, a particular kind of sausage, and bacon, acquire dangerous properties in this manner, as noticed by our author. Dr. Kerner considers that the poison is a compound one, consisting of fatty acid, analogous to the sebacic, and of a volatile principle. Buchner has also isolated a fatty acid from poisonous sausages, which he calls Botulinic acid, and which produces all the effects of the article from which it is extracted. Some have supposed that the deleterious properties of the smoked beef above mentioned were owing to overdriving the cattle, and that, to prevent the occurrence of such cases, there should be an inspector appointed, whose duty it should be to examine carefully all cattle before they are slaughtered. We are, however, left to surmise what are the signs by which we are to tell whether cattle have been injured by overheating, and their beef unfit to be eaten. APPENDIX. 293 (6.) Page 146. WHEAT. Wheat is cultivated very generally over the United States, though it may be called the bread-corn of the people of the Northern and Eastern States. Indian corn is consumed in larger quantities at the South and West, although wheat also constitutes no small part of the bread-stuffs. The quantum of Indian corn raised in the United States annually is about 360 millions of bushels, while that of wheat is about 85 millions of bushels ; a large amount of the former is, however, consumed by horses and other stock. Dr. Bell estimates that 65 millions of bushels are consumed by the people of the United States annually, or less than four bushels per individual, while he allows eight .bushels per individual of bread- corn yearly. Considering that this constitutes the chief bread-corn among the slave popu- lation, as well as in some of the free states, this estimate is probably not too large. In 1838, the quantity of wheat flour exported from the United States was 448,161 barrels, and of wheat, 6,*291 bushels ; while in 1790, there were 1,124,458 bushels of wheat, and 724,623 barrels of fiour exported. The annual average of wheat exported during those periods was 209,686 bushels, and of flour, 877,000 barrels. The exports of wheat from Pennsylvania alone, 100 years ago, were greater than from the whole United States in 1838, and but two years during the last twenty-five give a larger export of this article than Pennsylvania alone sixty years ago. These facts show that the home consumption has vastly increased, and that the true way of furnishing a market for the article is, to encourage the arts and manufactures among ourselves. The best flour in the New York market comes from the state of Ohio, and is in great request among bakers, generally commanding half a dollar a barrel more than any other kind of flour. The southern flour is of a darker color, and not so marketable ; but as it contains more gluten, it generally makes a lighter bread. Flour is subject to inspection in our market, but the inspector's brand is far from being an infallible proof of good qual- ity. The rame of the mill where the flour is manufactured is usually stamped upon the barrel, and this often leads to deception, by purchasing up those barrels which bear the most celebrated brands, and replenishing them with an inferior article. Flour from the same manufactory is, however, found to vary greatly in quality in different years. This is owing to a variety of causes, some of which are not well understood. Where wheat is cultivated after wheat for several years on the same soil, we know that it exhausts the ground of alkalies, especially the silicate of potash, to which its strength of stalk is due, and its growth is consequently arrested. This is the reason why land in the older states will not produce wheat vitScut frequent manuring; but this cause does not probably affect the quality of whtt is iv'sod. (7.) Page 150. bREAD MAKING. From a variety of experiment's we are satisfied no good bread can be made except from good flour, fermented in the 'icurl manner with good yeast. If it is well kneaded with pure water, seasoned with a little srlt, raised with fine yeast, and baked sufficiently, at a proper heat, the bread must necessarily ta good. If there is a deficiency in any of these particulars, the bread will be poor. otne are in the habit of using leaven, made by mixing flour and water into a paste, and exposing it to heat, when it undergoes partial fermentation, and will act as leaven when mixed Wi*h fresh dough. But the bread is more liable to become sour than when yeast is usad. \7t have 1 tried t? n?ise dmifrh with muriatic acid and magnesia, after the manner describtd b_, om i\_*hor, bi;* the Hrcad hjis 294 APPENDIX. always been tough and heavy, and of an unpleasant flavor. We doult whether, as a general rule, the plan will ever succeed, though it possibly may in the hands of a few who have experimented pretty extensively. Where acetous fermentation has taken place in the dough, we know no objection to adding a little carbonate of magnesia to the flour, which will correct the evil. Where the flour is of an indifferent quality, from 20 to 30 (if very bad, 40) grains of magnesia to a pound of flour will greatly improve the bread, without producing any evil consequences. The reason why Indian corn and other grains, which consist chiefly of starch, are incapable of making bread, is that they contain no gluten. " Wheat flour paste," as Dr. Ure has well remarked, " is merely a viscid and elastic tissue of gluten, the interstices of which are filled with starch, albumen, and sugar." (8.) Page 160. RICE ** If we desire," says Dr. Bell, " to know the various fashions of preparing it for ali- ment, so ao to please the palate without loss of its nutritive properties, we ought to con- sult the records of Indo-Chinese cookery. A common dish with the people of the Ea&t is kicheri, or rice boiled and dressed with lentils or with small beans. Rice torrefied, and the central part of the grains exposed, and pressed into a kind of cake before the grains become dry, may be preserved for a length of time, ready for immediate use. The com- mon and simplest form of preparation is by boiling the rice in a moderate quantity of water until it becomes softened, and the liquid white and slightly consistent This is congee, as familiar to the Hindoos as porridge to the Irish, polenta to the Italians, or mush to the Americans. Rice-eaters are content with this simple food, slightly seasoned with some aromatic or spice ; they drink water, and are ignorant of that multiplicity of animal aliments which become so frequently a cause of disease to Europeans and Anglo-Amer- icans." (Bell on Regimen, e f sons, the diet consisted as follows : Breakfast. Two pounds of potatoes boiled. Dinner. TJjree pounds of potatoes boiled. Supper. One pound of potatoes boiled. At the beginning of the experiment, eight were in good health, and two in indifferent health ; at the end, the eight continued in good health, and the two who had beet:- in in- different health had improved. There was, on an average, a gain in weight of nearly 3J pounds per prisoner, the greatest gain being 8i pounds. Only two lost in weight, and the quantity in each case was trifling. The prisoners all expressed themselves satisfied with this diet, and regretted the change back again to the ordinary diet. On the whole, these experiments prove that prisoners may be kept in good condition at a verv mode- rate expense, the cost not exceeding 6d. per day, when fed as above. Indeed, we know, from an experiment conducted on a still larger scale in Ireland, that potatoes and milk, with a little oatmeal, are sufficient for healthy nutrition. ("Fifth Report of the Inspectors of Prisons of Scotland," tac,e to milk, milk and water, black tea, milk and sugar, which, taken tepid, form very >i^reable and healthy drinks. (13.) Page 193. COFFEE. The following encomium upon coffee, is said to have been written by Abd-al-Kader Anasjin Djezeri Hanbali, son of Mohammed. It was translated from the Arabic, and published in a German Journal, in 1834. u O Coffee ! thou dispellest the cares of the great ; thou bringest back those who wan- der from the paths of knowledge. Coffee is the beverage of the people of God, and the cordiul ot'his servants who thirst for wisdom. When coffee is infused into the bowl, it e.xh/'lrc.- the odor of musk, and is of the color of ink. The truth is not known except to B6| who drink it from the foaming coffee-cup. God has deprived fools of coffee, wh'j with invincible obstinacy condemn it as injurious. "Coffee is our gold, and in the place of its libations we are in the enjoyment of the best and noblest society. Coffee is even as innocent a drink as the purest milk, from which it is only distinguished by its color. Tarry with thy coffee in the place of i; paration, and the good God will hover over thee and participate in his fwast. There the graces of the saloon, the luxury of life, the society of friends, all furnish a picture of the abode o f happiness. 'Kvwry care vanishes when the cup-bearer presents the delicious chalice. It will circulate fleetly through thy veins, and will not rankle there : if thou doubtest this, con- template the youth and beauty of those who drink it. Grief cannot exist whore it gT>w8 ; Borrow humbles itself in obedience before its powers. -O>ft-?e is the drink of God's people; in it is health. Let this be the answer to those wno doubt its qualities. In it will we drown our adversities, and in its fire consume our sorrows. Whoever has once seen the blissful chalice, will scorn the wine-cup. Glori- ous drink ! thy color is the seal of purity, and reason proclaims it genuine. Drink with confidence, and regard not the prattle of fools, who condemn without foundation." In contrast with this high-wrought eulogy of this favorite article, may be placed the abuse of some late ultra dietetical reformers, who, in their zeal to bring man back to the Antt'ilihivi.m beverage, proscribe every thing in the shape of lluid, with the exception of milk and water. We should, however, consider that cordials or stimulants are, at least, occasionally useful, and that, whether useful % r not, mankind always have, and probably always will, make use of them. But of ai those which have hitherto been in- troduced, none perhaps, combine so many excellent, with so few evil qualities, as that of coffee. To moderately nutritive properties, it adds those of a m.'l-d and cordial stimulant, APPENDIX. 299 without producing those peculiar narcotic effects which so often accompany the use of strong green tea. We are persuaded that it is not wise to wholly proscribe coffee, as it is eminently useful to those who are trying to wean themselves from the use of alcoholic stimulants, and if employed of moderate strength, with milk and sugar, it cannot be con- sidered injurious as a common beverage. (14.) Page 199. ALCOHOL IN BEER. According to Christison, Edinburgh Ale contains 7'35 per cent, alcohol, or 16-15 per cent, by volume of proof spirit. According to Brande, London Ale contains 6$ per cent, of alcohol, or 13 percent, of prool'spirit ; porter, 4 per cent, alcohol, or 8$ per cent, proof spirit. Small beer, 1$ per cent, alcohol, 2$ per cent, proof spirit. According to Dr. L. C. Beck, Albany Ale in barrels con- tains 7'38 percent, alcohol, or 14-76 per cent, proof spirit, while that in bottles has 10-67 per cent alcohol, or 21-34 per cent, proof spirit. The word " spirit," in the above extract from Dr. Ure, evidently stands for alcohol, and not proof spirit, as is generally understood.* (15.) Page 200. MALT LIQUORS. Al uch attention has been devoted in the United States, for the last twenty years, to an investigation of the dietetical and medicinal effects of distilled and fermented liquors, and it is proper to state that a majority of the medical profession, it is believed, have adopted the opinion, that in health such drinks are not only useless, but in general injurious. Malt liquors have not been excepted from the condemnation which has been passed on all the others ; and the discovery of the very general, if not universal, adulteration prac- tised in their manufacture, as well as the common employment of the most filthy water, * We have found, by evaporating North River Ale over a sand-bath, that it yields about 816 grains of solid wxtractive matter to the pint, or one eleventh of the whole weight. This is equivalent to nine ounces of solid matter to the gallon. The loss sustained by the process of malting and brewing may be estimated thus : 100 Ibs. of good barley, taken in its ordinary state of moisture . 100 Ibs. Loss of matter by the process of malting, 8 per cent. Loss sustained by brewing ........ 67 " Total loss of soluble matter 75 per cent. In barley, hordein and starch constitute the largest proportion, sugar and gum being in small quantity ; but by the process of mailing, the hordein is chiefly converted into starch and sugar, the latter of which by fermentation is changed into alcohol, and a portion of the former into gum. The changes effected by malting may readily be understood from the following table of Proust. (An. de Chim. et de Ph. r.) In 100 parts of barley. In 100 parts of malt. Resin ... 1 .1 Gum Sugar Gluten SLtarch Hordein 4 5 3 32 55 15 15 1 56 12 Previous to fermentation, one quart of strong ale has been calculated to yield about three ounces of solid matter. In the condition of Sweet wort, it yields not less than six ounces. Every pound weight of solid matter decomposed by fermentation is found to yield half a pound of alcohol of the sp. gr. 0-825. The gum, which constitutes the chief portion of the solid matter in malt liquors, possesses comparatively but slightly nutritious properties. 300 APPENDIX. have tended to increase the prejudice under which they previously labored. The Conse- quence has been, that the use of these drinks has very much diminished. The opinion of Dr. Franklin also, previously alluded to, has had no little weight in convincing Ameri- cans that malt liquor is not so "nutritious" a beverage as it is supposed to be in threat Britain ; moreover, that its stimulating qualities are by no means desirable in hea'ih, or advantageous to laboring men. When a journeyman printer in London, he informs us that he endeavored to convince his fellow-workmen that "the bodily strength furnished by the beer could only be in proportion to the solid part of the barley dissolved in the water of which the beer was composed ; and that there was a larger portion of Hour in a penny loaf; and that, consequently, if they ate the loaf, and drank a pint of water with it, they \s oiild derive more strength from it than from a pint of beer." In proof of the correctness of this position, Dr. Franklin states as follows "On my entrance I worked at first a.- \ iv.-s- man, conceiving that I had need of bodily exercise, to which I had been accustomed in America. I drank nothing but water. The other workmen, to the number of aboul fifty, were great drinkers of beer. I carried occasionally a large form of letters in each hand, up and down stairs, while the rest employed both hands to carry one. They were, sur- prised to see by this and many other examples, that the American aquatic, as they used to call me, was stronger than those who drank porter." The general opinion, therefore, of the medical profession as well as others, in this country, seems to be, that malt liquors are more deleterious in their effects on the than ardent spirits ; and in the correctness of this opinion we are inclined to coincide. They certainly stupify the brain, render the blood too viscid, load the cellular tissue willi fat, and so modify the vital cohesion of the solids, as to render wounds extremely difficult t and accidents which in water-drinkers would be attended with little or no danger, ver\ cer- tainly fatal. Sir Astley Cooper notices this fact in his lectures. Old Dr. Chryne ad vet ts to the innutritious property of the extract contained in malt 'iquors, as follows : " As to malt liquors, they are not much in use, excepting small beer, with any but mechanics and fox- hunters. The French very justly call them barley soup. I am well satisfied that I stomach can as readily and with less pain digest pork and pea-soup as Yorkshire 01 .Not- tingham ale. They make excellent bird-lime, and when simmered some time over tie fire, make the most sticking and the best plaster for old strains that can be contri ed." (Essay on Health and Long Life" p. 60, 9th ed.) It is very questionable whether the daily use of the hop alone will be found serviei able to persons in health, as bitters, when regularly used, impair the functions of digestion. Dr. A. T.Thompson remarks, that "as appetite and digestion are promoted by the opera- tion of tonics on the stomach itself, it may appear singular that their frequent and long- continued use, is generally followed by a loss of tone, but such is really the G as about one ounce of hops are generally allowed in brewing to a gallon of beer, 01 two pounds to the barrel, he who drinks two quarts of malt liquor daily, swallows no! less than half an ounce of hops, in addition to nearly half a pint of alcohol, to say nothing of the danger of being poisoned by other drugs. Professor Mussey's experience on tins point is valuable. "At the age of twenty years," he remarks, " while occupied durini; the hay season upon my father's farm, I drank hop-beer for about three weeks, but w:i.s in- iuced to discontinue it on account of a peculiar organic weakness as well as a diminution of the general strength, which I attributed to that beverage. The local disorder in, me- diately subsided, and in about two weeks from the time of ceasing to drink the b strength was restored/' The adulteration of malt liquors has been carried in the United States to a very extent, as we have no laws as in Great Britain to prevent such practices. Perhaps viler APPENDIX. 301 L compounds under the name of drinks, were never manufactured than such as were in general use in this country a few years ago, and to some extent even at the present time. By an improved method of analysis, discovered by Professor Mapes of this city, a variety of samples, from nearly a dozen different breweries, were found to have been extensively adulterated with Cocculus Indicus or Nux Vomica ; at which, however, none were sur- prised who were acquainted with the effects which these liquors produced upon those who were in the habit of using them. The sale of drugs to brewers is a regular and by no means unprofitable part of the trade ; and the extent to which this has been carried on would not be believed, should we state merely the facts which have come within our own knowledge. Repeated at- templs have been made to induce the legislature of this state to institute an inquiry into the mode of manufacturing beer, but as many of our legislators are engaged in the business, such a proceeding would be evidently unconstitutional The only remedy against the evil is to abstain entirely .from the use of malt liquors, a practice which we are happy to know is now nearly universal. Dr. S. B. Woodward, of Worcester, (Mass.) on Malt Liquors. " With respect to ale as it was originally prepared by the English brewers, it was a safe and wholesome beverage, very proper as a mild cordial, where an article of the kind was needed. For a long time the English ale was manufactured from barley, malt, and yeast only, which made a delicious beer of less strength than cider, and hardly greater than the comnioi domestic beer of private manufacture. After a while, the hop was added, which gave bitterness and an exhilarating quality to ale, that it did not before possess. The in- troduction of the hop was complained of at that time by the lovers of pure ale. One of the oldest English writers on the subject, Mr. Andrew Boorde, says, 'that those who put any other ingredients than barley, malt, and yeast into the ale, sophisticated Jie labor. Without hops, &c.,' he continues, * ale is the natural drink of an Englishman but with them, it is the natural drink of a Dutchman ; but of late is much used in England, to the great detriment of many Englishmen.' 'There existed,' says Dr. Paris, 'for a long time, strong prejudices against hops, which were considered a pernicious weed. But re- cently they are considered an essential ingredient in English ale.' " More recently still, other drugs, highly narcotic, and much more dangerous, have been adde-d to the ingredients of ale, such as quassia wood, oil of vitriol, India berry, opium, hemlock, nux vomica, grains of Paradise, &c. Such is the extent to which this practice has been carried in England, that the British parliament passed laws imposing severe penalties for selling or using such drugs. The following is an extract from one of these laws: "' No druggist, vender of, or dealer in drugs, or chemist, or other person, shall sell or deliver to any licensed brewer, dealer in or retailer of beer, knowing them to be such, or shall sell or deliver to any pers n on account of, or in trust for, any such brewer, dealer or retailer, any liquor called by the name of or sold as coloring, from whatever material the same may be made, or any material or preparation other than unground brown malt, for the darkening the color of worts or beer, or any molasses, vitriol, honey, quassia, coculus indicus, grains of Paradise, Guinea pepper or opium, or any extract or preparation of molasses, or any article or preparation to be used in worts or beer, for or as a substi- tute for malt or hops ; and if any druggist shall offend in any of these particulars, such preparation, &c., shall be forfeited, and may be seized by any officer of excise, and the perso.n so offending shall forfeiture hundred pounds.' "For violating this and similar acts of parliament, the following prosecutions were made 302 APPENDIX. in London alone. 'During seven years,' says Mr. Allain, 'there were twenty-nine druggists and grocers prosecuted and fined for supplying these illegal ingredients to the brewer. In tho period of three years, nineteen persons who dealt in the article were fined for adulterating their liquors. Ii six years, fifty brewers were prosecuted foi usiner such articles in their establishments, and mixing their liquors in an illegal manner.' "The author of a practical treatise on brewing, published in England, has the following remarks. Speaking of these illegal ingredients, he observes, 'that however pernicious or disagreeable they may appear, he lias always found them necessary in the brewing of porter, &c., and he thinks they must invariably be used by those who wish to continue the taste, flavor, and appearance of the beer, and he could never produce the present flavored article without them.' Thus showing that all the beer approved of by connoisseurs in England, has a mixture of these poisonous ingredients notwithstanding the severity of the penalty. "If such practices are common in England, where these heavy penalties are im(K)sed, and this unceasing vigilance exercised to detect and punish such frauds, what may we suppose to be the practice in this country, where we have no laws on the subject, and no inspection of the vast quantities of these liquors issuing from our manufactories ? The individual who values health will prefer to dispense with the us: of ale and porter, rather than risk the danger that may come to him from these impurities, even should ho have no apprehensions from their intoxicating qualities. And yet it should not be disguised, that all the malt liquors do contain sufficient alcohol to produce drunkenness. "Dr. Johnson, of London, says of them, 'Thpy are a prolific source of dis-as,-;' lie therefore is opposed to their use, and declares *that the beer-bibber has little reason to exult over the dram-drinker.' "' Malt Jiquors,' says Doctor McNish, of Glasgow, ' under which title we include all kinds of porter and ales, produce the worst species of drunkenness, as, in addition to the intoxicating principle, some noxious ingredients are usually added, for the purpose of pre- serving them and giving them a better taste: after being swallowed, fixed air is copiously liberated, and tho digestion of delicate stomachs materially impaired. The effects of malt liquors on the body,' he continues, 'if not so immediately rapid as those of nrdent spirits, are more stupifying, more lasting, and less easily removed. Tbe most dreadful effects on the whole are brought on by spirits, but drunkenness from malt liquors is most suddenly fatal.' " Whether we consider it in reference to health, to its influence upon the mind and the feelings, no advantage whatever is gained by substituting wine or other fermented liquors (especially as usually prepared and adulterated) for alcohol in any of the forms of dis- tilled spirits." Nux Vomica and Cocculus Indicus. These poisonous drugs are imported into this country in large quantities, and chiefly purchased by brewers for the manufacture of beer. The amount annually imported can- not be accurately ascertained, though it is very great ; there is reason, however, to believe that it has been considerably diminished within the last few years. The following table shows the amount of these articles imported into England, and en- tered for home consumption, for the years 1829, '30, '31, '32, and '33; together with the amount of du' : es received in each year, and the rate of said duties. (Instead of seven shillings sterling, the English price, the price of these articles here averages about eight cents.) APPENDIX. 30U ARTICLES. Years. Quantities entered for Home Con- sumption. Amount of Duty received thereon. Rates of Duty charged. 1829 1830 1831 1832 1833 1829 1830 1831 1832 1833 1829 1830 1831 1832 1833 1829 1830 1831 1832 1833 Lbs. 6,862 1,528 2,547 1,477 4,142 value. 270 81b. 12 Lbs. 1,118 2,471 3,541 3,663 4,559 13,035 18,093 8,722 15.738 40^11 s. d. 621 4 2 191 280 7 3 194 12 6 517 15 1 15 3 7 6 139 15 308 17 6 443 12 6 457 17 6 569 19 5 1,303 10 1,809 16 872 4 1,673 16 3,191 2 2 }-2s. 6d. per pound. J }.75 per cwt. ad valorem do. or 10s. per pound V2s. 6d. per pound. j>2s. per pound. r Extract of Nux Vomica . . . .1 Cocculus Indicus < Paradise and Guinea grains- WILLIAM IRVING, Inspector- General of Imports and Exports. Inspector-General's Office, Custom House, ) London, 27th June, 183 1. \ The following are a few out of a large number of instances of the prosecution and eoa- viction of English brewers, between the years 1813 and 1819, for receiving and using illegal ingredients in brewing : Richard Gardner, for using adulterating ingredients, 100. Stephen Webb, and another, for using adulterating ingredients and mixing srrotJk and table beer, 500. Henry Wyatt, brewer, do., verdict 400. Philip Blake and others, do., verdict 250. John Swain, do., verdict 200. John Gray, do., 300 and costs. Richard Bowman, for using liquid in bladder, supposed to be extract of cocculus TUJ'CUR, 100 and costs. S. Stephens, for do., 50. James Rogers, do., 220 and costs. George Moore, for using coloring, 300 and costs. Webb & Ball, for using ginger, Guinea pepper, and brown powder, (name unknown,) 1st, 100, 2d, 500. Henry Clark, for using molasses, 150. Kewell & Burrows, for using cocculus indicus, multum, &c., 100. Alatson & Abrahams, for using cocculus, multum and porter flavor, &c., 630. Swain & Sewel, for using cocculus, Guinea opium, &c., 200. John Gray, for using ginger, hartshorn shavings, and molasses, 300. Mr. Betteley, for using wormwood, coriander seed, and Spanish juice, 200. Convictions of druggists, for the sale of adulterating ingredients, have been numerous in England, but notwithstanding the heavy penalties, the occupation of brewers' druggist j 301 APPENDIX. is stiil carried on, and becoming an extensive business. We shall give bi t a single instance : 1817. Josiah Nibbs, Surrey. Multum . . ... 84 Ibs. Cocculus Indicus ..... 12 Ibs. Coloring ........ 4 galls. Hartshorn shavings .. ga 14 Ibs. Honey 180 Ibs. Spanish juice 46 Ibs. Orange powder 17 Ibs. Ginger 56 Ibs. Penalty, 300. But if these articles are constantly used, the question may be asked, why there are no more convictions? Perhaps the following item of evidence, given by an excise officer, Mr. Wells, on an examination before a Committee of the House of Commons, may throw some light on the subject. He stated that the " adulterating ingredients were not kept on tlto premises, but in the brewer's house, and that the brewer had a very large jacket, manly omit their use with safety, but with very great benefit. The effects of \\int, a.s (Ir-srnbed by our author, prove that it is a valuable stimulant, and a highly useful medi- cui x :D some states of the system ; but these very facts show very conclusively that it is nor u proper agent to be drank habitually in a state of health. Some wine-drinkers, it is tni'-- have lived to a good old age ; and so also have some persons who resided in ma.arious districts of country, but these facts do not prove that wine or malaria are con- ger, uil to the human constitution ; they indeed constitute exceptions to a general law of an pposite character. to* however, it is a very common opinion that it is dangerous to break off suddenly tr>'i* the use of stimulating drinks, the following facts may assist in correcting this err j neons opinion. fti 1833, Mr. Dwight, the Secretary of the Prison Discipline Society, reported that in the JVhiinn Stato Prison, where no person is allowed to drink any kind of stimulating liquor, " r> prisoner had died from a natural cause since the organization of the prison," (about tni -e years.) " An important experiment," he remarks, " has been made in this prison, of rin -rfect on health of cutting off habitual drunkards at once from the use of spirituous iq -v s in every form, and confining them to cold water. It has been found invariably beneficial. They soon renewed their youth, and a more hale, healthy, muscular body of men cannot be found in prison, or out of prison, than the cold-water convicts in the quarry of the Maine prison. It is an experiment, also, to show that hard labor can be performed on good food and cold water. As evidence of this, it is only necessary to see these men handle rocks." APPENDIX. 305 I From the State Prison in New Hampshire, it is reported, by the same agent, that " the same valuable experiment has been made, as in Maine, concerning the effect of cutting off drunkards from the use of ardent spirit, and with the same results." In the report from the Vermont Prison, it is also stated that the same valuable experiment has been made in Vermont, as in New Hampshire and Maine, of the effect of cutting off habitual drunkards from the use of ardent spirit, and with the same delightful results with regard to health. The subjects of such treatment renew their health directly." In the prison at Sing Sing, in this state, this truth is confirmed by a still more decisive experiment. The keeper says " the men neither suffer nor die from abstinence, though they have been formerly intemperate ; nor is there any want of ability to work hard all the time, on wholesome food and good water." From the Auburn Prison, where there are on an average not less than 450 convicts, the keeper reports that "they are strictly prohibited the use of ardent spirit and tobacco, except as a medicine, and it has been found invariably that the most besotted drunkards have never suffered in their health from that course, but almost as uniformly their health has been improved." The account given by Dr. Wood- ward, of the experiment in the State Prison of Connecticut, shows the same salutary results. (Second Annual Report ofthe'Prison Discipline Society, 1827.) To this we may add, that since the above report was written, from which these ex- tracts are made, thousands of drunkards, and tens of thousands of immoderate drinkers of alcoholic liquors in the U. States and Great Britain, have suddenly abstained from their use, and in nearly every instance with perfect safety. If then it be true, as these facts abundantly show, that the sudden withdrawal of ardent spirits may be practised with entire impunity, no one certainly ought to doubt that those accustomed to the use of the milder stimulant wine may discontinue its use with safety and advantage. " To persons in health," says Dr. Pereira, in his " Elements of Materia Medica," " the dietetical employment of wine is either useless or pernicious." In general, we are com- pelled to maintain that it is both. Dr. Beaumont, in 'his experiments upon St. Martin, found that wines, as well as distilled spirits, invariably interfered with the regularity and completeness, of digestion, and always produced morbid changes in the mucous mem- brane of the stomach, although not always connected with unpleasant feelings or dimin- ished appetite. But if wine does not aid digestion, it certainly does not enable a person to endure mo?e fatigue or incur greater exposures of temperature and weather than he could otherwise do. The following remarks of Dr. Bell, of Philadelphia, doubtless express the truth on this point. " The recorded experience of men in all situations and climates, under all kir.iis of labor and exposure, prove that abstinence from alcoholic liquors gives in- creased itbilit}' to go through the labors of the farm and the workshop, to resist heat and cold, an-l to encounter hardships on sea and land, beyond what has ever been done under the unnatural excitement of alcohol, followed, as it always is, by depression and debility, if not by fever arid other diseases. The observations of naval and military surgeons and commanders are now pretty uniformly to the same purport, and their testimony is ad- verse to the issue of rations of spirits, or of alcoholic drinks generally, to men in the army and navy." (" On Regimen," p. 359.) (17.) Page 209. ADULTERATION OF WINES. SHERRY. Mr. McCulloch remarks that "perhaps no wine is so much adulterated as Sherry" Again he observes, " When Madeira was a fashionable wine in England, every sort of 20 IP :W5 APPENDIX. deception was practised w th respect to it, and large quantities of spurious trash were dis- posed of for the genuine vintage of the island. This naturally brought the wine into dis- repute, so that Sherry has been for several years the fashionable white wine. It is diffi- cult, however, to imagine *hat adulteration was ever practised to a greater extent upon Madeira than is now practised upon Sherry." Redding (" On Wines") states that " Sherry of the brown kind, and of low price, when imported, is mingled with Cape wines and cheap brandy, the washings of brandy casks, sugar-candy, bitter almonds, and similar preparations ; while the color, if too great ior Pale Sherry, is taken out by the addition of a small quantity of lamb's blood, and then passed off for the best Sherry, by one class of wine-sellers and advertisers. The softness of good Sherry is closely imitated." The basis of the Pale Sherries sold in our market, is Brown Sherry, which may gener- ally be purchased at a lower price ; to this is added Cape, Brandy Coice, Extract of Almond Cake, Cherry Laurel Water, Gum Benzoin, and Lamb's Blood, and sometimes Raisin Wine. Large vats are employed, in which these ingredients, in their proper pro- portions are placed, and the result is, that eight butts of high-priced Pale Sherry are manufactured out of four butts of low-priced Brown, at a profit of some five hundred per cent. ; and if bottled, the profit is vastly greater. PORT WINE. A large proportion of the Port wine drank in this country, is a purely fictitious article. But much of it is manufactured from a red wine imported from Marseilles and Bordeaux, at about ^0 cents a gallon, called French Port, which is made into "first-rate" Oporto by adding burnt sugar, or a decoction of Brazil wood, and a portion of alcohol : sometimes it is mixed with real Port, affording a very large profit to the dealer. Besides this, cheap red wines are imported from Spain, Portugal, and the Cape, which are readily di.-. and sold for real Port. In mixing and adulterating, a variety of articles are used, such as Salt of Tartar, Red Sanders, Gum Dragon, Berry-Dye, Juice of Elder Berries, Cider, Burnt Sugar, &.c. But a very small portion of wine professedly exported from Oporto as pure Port wine, is really the produce of that country. This will appear from an examination of the following Table of Exports from Oporto to the Channel Islands, with the Imports from the Channel Islands to London. Pipes Exported from Oport* Imported from the Channel to the Channel Island*. Islands to London. 1826 38 293 1827 99 99 1828 73 75 1829 90 1830 147 1831 143 1832 363 1833 ... ... 862 According to the custom-house books of Oporto* for the year 1812, 135 pipes^ and 20 hogshead of wine were shipped for Guernsey. In the same year there were landed at the London docks alone, 2,545 pipes and 162 hogsheads from that island, reported to be Port wine (Henderson on Modern Wines.') Morewood states that one half the Port and 5-6ths of the white wines consumed in London are the produce of the home presses. It is often supposed by the ignorant, that if wine can be purchased with the custom- house mark on the cask, and from unler the custom-house key, there can be no question as to the genuineness of the article. This is, however, a great mistake, as the above table will show. The following extract from a letter of an agent of the Oporto Company, APPENDIX. 307 in defence of the practice of adulterating this kin,d of wine, will throw much light on the subject. "The English merchants knew that the first-rate wine of the factory had become ex- cellent ; but they wished it to exceed the limits which nature had assigned to it, and that when drank, it should feel like liquid fire in the stomach ; that it should burn like inflamed gunpowder ; that it should have the tint of ink ; that it should be like the sugar of Brazil in sweetness, and like the spices of India in aromatic flavor. They began by recommend- ing, by way of secret, that it was proper to dash it with brandy in the fermentation to give it strength, and with elder berries or the rind of the grape to give it color; and as the persons who held the prescription found the wine increase in price, and the English merchants still complaining of a want of strength, color, and maturity in "the article supplied, the recipe was propagated until the wines bepame a mere confusion of mixtures." MADEIRA. Good Madeira wine is rarely to be obtained ; the greater portion of what goes under that name being a fictitious article. A cheap Vidonia or Teneriffe wine is mixed with a small portion of common dry Port, Mountain, and Cape wine, which is fined and reduced to the proper color by Lamb's Blood, or Charcoal, and sold readily for " London Madeira," or "Old London Particular." Whether "East India" or "West India" Madeira has ever seen those countries is extremely problematical. The only satisfactory proof in such a case, is to journey with them. CHAMPAGNE. In England, Champagne wine, so called, is often prepared from the juice of the Goose- berry. We are told (Reece's " Monthly Gazette of Health," 1829) that a company of Frenchmen contracted with some farmers in Herefordshire for a considerable quantity of the fresh juice of certain pears, immediately on expression, and before fermentation had commenced ; from which they made an excellent brisk wine, resembling the finest spark- ling Champagne, and not to be distinguished from it. Other acid fruits have also been employed for the same purpose. In this country, the best Newark cider has been in great demand for the manufacture of Champagne wines. The price of Champagne varies here from twenty shillings to thirteen dollars per dozen. If it be true, as Mr. Busby states, that genuine Champagne is never sent out of France at less than three francs or 60 cents a bottle, we must conclude that a large portion of the wine sold in the United States under that name cannot be genuine.' This, however, may be a mistake on the part of Mr. Busby, as the author of the " Wine and Spirit Adulterator Unmasked" states that the poorest kind of Champagne may be purchased at about twelve francs per dozen. It is, however, a fact of general notoriety that much of the Champagne drank in this coun- try is a fictitious article, and not,a small portion of it is adulterated with lead. We have detected this metal, in different samples, in quantities sufficient to exert highly dangerous effects upon the system. It is to this circumstance that the English writer above quoted refers, when he observes, "It has been remarked by French physicians, as they have oc- casionally been called in to attend English patients, that in most cases the indisposition of our countrymen, when they are in. France, can be ascribed only to the Champagne which they drink, and which, owing to the avidity with which the English people indulge themselves in its consumption, is not only more frequently, than otherwise, supplied to them of an indifferent kind, but of a sort possessing properties which have the most per- nicious and injurious tendency possible to the constitution." He then goes on to speak of lead as a common ingredient in low priced Champagne wines of that country. Who- 308 APPENDIX. ever, therefore, are in the habit of drinking Champagne, should be very particular as to the quality of the article. CLARET. There is perhaps no kind of wine moie often adulterated than claret. Vintners' and grocers' books abound with recipes for making it of the most approved taste and color. In general, it is made by mixing a portion of Spanish Red wine, and Rough Cider, with a quantity of inferior Claret, a color being previously added to the cider by means of the Berry-Dye or Tincture of Brazil-wood, or Poke Berries, or Syrup made of Damson plums, sugar, and wine, and may be manufactured at a maximum expense of about two cents a bottle. Even much of the wine which is imported as Claret, is nothing more than a compound of the refuse of various inferior French wines, mixed with French cider, to which a portion of brandy and coloring material is added. It is prepared in large vats, whence it is racked off into casks or drawn off into bottles and shipped to its destination. Much of it is what is called "third quality" wine, which is obtained by retreading the re- mains of the grapes in the vat (after having already twice undergone this process) by the occasional addition of large quantities of water, which, by washing the pulp of the friiit, becomes impregnated with some portion of vinosity. In tasting this kind of wine we have often been reminded of a stanza in an old song " One glass of drink, I got by chance, 'Twas Claret when it was in France ; But now from it moche wider. I think a man might make as good With green Crabbes, boiled in Brazil-wood, And hall" a pint of cider." (18.) Page 222. MODE OF LIVING IN THE UNITED STATES. Americans, it is said by foreign travellers, eat faster, if not more, than any other nation on the civilized globe. From Capt. Hall down to Dickens, the complaint has con- stantly been, that in dining in public (we hear no complaints of private dinner parties) they have hardly had time to finish their soup, before they find themselves alone, and in the way of the servants. We believe that this charge will apply only to our large hotels in cities, where the guests are chiefly transient persons, merchants and others, visiting the city on business, and who have not a moment to spare in which to accomplish the work they have laid out. We know houses of this sort in this city, where the average time of sitting at table at dinner is fifteen minutes. But we have no doubt that the same haste is exhibited at the dining-tables in the commercial hotels of Liverpool, and most other commercial places. The practice itself is a highly pernicious one, leading, as it does, to indigestion, and the usual evils which follow in its train*. Healthy digestion is only com- patible with perfect mastication and insalivation. These are impracticable where there is much haste in eating. In private families we suppose there is as much deliberation in eating among us as in Great Britain or any other nation. We fully agree in the following remarks of the late Dr. Avery on the mode of living : n the United States: "As a people, we eat far too much hearty food ; that is, we take in more rich nutriment than we require, and the consequence is, our system becomes ove/- loaded and oppressed, our organs are clogged in the performance of their several func- tions, the circulating fluids become too thick and stimulating, and the proneness to derangements and diseased action greatly increased. Hence arises a large proportion of APPENDIX. 309 the inflammatory a/id febrile diseases among us. Hence it is that copious blood-letting and active medicines are so much more required in America than in most other coun- tries a fact admitted by all those physicians whose opportunities of observation have enabled them to form a correct opinion on the subject." (The Dyspeptic' s Monitor, p. 74.) (19.) Page 232. DIETARIES FOR CHILDREN IN THE UNITED STATES. The dietaries of orphan asylums and other establishments for children in the United States are very similar, and generally do not vary essentially from the mode of living adopted in respectable private families. Milk is generally substituted for tea and coffee, and allowed morning and evening, with bread and molasses. Meat is usually furnished for dinner, with vegetables, either daily or four times a week at least. Plain molasses or sugar-cakes twice a week at supper. Rice, puddings, vegetables, and fruit are also freely allowed. For some years past there has been a controversy going on in relation to the best diet- aries for children, and some experiments have been tried, in order to ascertain, if possi- ble, whether, as a general rule, animal or vegetable food is best adapted for their health and nourishment. The vegetable-eaters claim that the results are on their side of the question, while the supporters of animal food are quite as positive that they have the best of the argument. Without undertaking to decide the question, though our own opinion is in favor of a mixed diet, we shall give an account of an experiment made in the Or- phan Asylum of Albany, as first published in the Northampton Courier : The institution was established about the close of the year 1829, or the beginning of the year 1830. Shortly after its establishment it contained 70 children, and subsequently many more* For the first three years the diet of the inmates consisted of fine bread, rice, Indian puddings, potatoes and other vegetables, arid fruit with milk ; to which was added flesh or flesh soup, once a day. Considerable attention was also paid to bathing and cleanliness, and to clothing, air, and exercise. Bathing, however, was performed in a perfect manner only once in three weeks. Many were received in poor health, and not a few continued sickly. In the fall of 1833 the diet and regimen of the inmates were materially changed. Daily ablution of the whole body, in the use of the. cold shower or sponge bath, or, in cases of special disease, the tepid bath, was one of the first steps taken ; then the fine bread was laid aside for that made of unbolted wheat meal, and soon after flesh and flesh soups were wholly banished ; and thus they continued to advance, till in about three months more they had come fully upon the vegetable system, and had adopted reformed habits in regard to sleeping, air, clothing, exercise, &c. They continued on this course till Au- gust, 1836, when the results were as follow : During the first three years in which the old system was followed, from four to six children were continually on the sick list, and sometimes more. A physician was needed once, twice, or three times a week, uniformly, and deaths were frequent. During this whole period there were between thirty and forty dsaths. After the new system was fairly adopted, the nursery was soon entirely vacated, and the services of the nurse and physician no longer needed, and for more than two years no case of sickness or death took place. In the succeeding twelve months there were three deaths, but they were new inmates, and were diseased when admitted, and two of them were idiots. The Report of the Managers says, K Under this system of dietetics the health of the children has not only been preserved, but those who came to 310 APPENDIX. the asylum weakly have become healthy and strong, and greatly increased in activity, cheerfulness, and happiness." The Superintendents also state, that "since the new- regimen has been fully adopted, there has been a remarkable increase of health, strength, activity, vivacity, cheerfulness, and contentment among the children. The change of temper is very great. They have become less turbulent, irritable, peevish, and discon- tented, and far more manageable, gentle, peaceable, and kind to each other." One of them further adds, "There has been a great increase in their mental activity and power; the quickness and acumen of their perception, the vigor of their apprehension, and the power of their retention daily astonish me." Remarks. In relation to the above experiment, we may remark that the results appear to us to be owing more to the changes made in the general regimen, air, cleanliness, bathing, ex- ercise, &c., than to the substitution of vegetable for animal food. In order to be satisfac- tory, the experiment should have been conducted with reference to the diet alone. As it is, we do not see how it can be quoted, as it has been, as furnishing satisfactory evidence of the superiority of vegetable over animal diet We have often known the same im- provement take place among children in private families by the daily use of the shower bath, without making any alteration in their manner of living. The experiment, how- ever, is a very valuable One, as it shows the great advantages which flow from a well- regulated system of air, exercise, and bathing. In proof of the correctness of our opinion that the favorable results in this institution were not owing to a change of diet, we may refer to a similar experiment in a school in Germany, as contained in the "American Annals of Education" for August, 1836. IIre meat was allowed, though the food is stated to have consisted chiefly of bread and other vegetables, fruits and milk ; but cold bathing was practised daily. The results, as stated by the teacher, were as follows : "I am at present the foster-father of nearly seventy young people, who were born in all the varieties of climate from Lisbon to Moscow, and whose early education was neces- sarily very different These young men are all healthy; not a single eruption is visible on tlu>ir faces; and three years often pass during which not a single one of them is con- fined to his bed : and in the twenty years that I have been engaged in this institution, not one pupil has died. Yet I am no physician. During the first ten years of my residence here, no physician entered my house; and not till the number of my pupils was very much increased, and I grew anxious not to overlook any thing in regard to them, did I begin to seek at all for medical advice. It is the modS of treating the young men here which is the cause of their superior health; and this is the reason why death has not yet entered our doors. Should we ever deviate from our present principles should we approach nearer the mode of living common in wealthy families we should soon be obliged to establish in our institution, as they do in others, medicine-chests, nurser- ies, &c." In individual cases, after children have acquired their first teeth, we have seen no advantages follow from confining them exclusively to vegetable diet, except in disease ; but, on the contrary, we have known great improvement, especially among the children of the poor, from a more liberal allowance of animal food, anc we doubt not that the dietaries of children should be formed on this principle. P. S. Since writing the above, we have conversed with one of the founders and princi- pal managers of the Albany "Orphan Asylum," and find that the change in the health of the children could not with propriety be attributed to the substitution of wgeta'ble for APPENDIX. 311 animal food. During the first few years after the establishment of the institution, it was located in a poorly ventilated building, in one of the most crowded streets in the city of Albany, where fresh air and proper exercise were out of the question, and cleanliness was next to impossible. At the commencement of the experiment above-mentioned, the children were removed into a large, commodious, and exceedingly well ventilated build- ing, situated out of the city, and in one of the most delightful spots in the neighborhood of Albany. In addition to cold bathing, every morning the children were required to take an abundance of exercise were confined but three 0r four hours daily in school, instead of six or seven, and were, moreover, allowed meat occasionally, though the prin- cipal part 'of the diet consisted of milk, potatoes, Indian mush, and a plenty of good bread. NEW YORK ORPHAN ASYLUM. Breakfast Bread and molasses, with Dinner Monday . . Tuesday . . Wednesday Thursday . Friday . . . Saturday . Sunday . . cup of milk, or milk and water. Other Supper .... { Indian mush, with milk or molasses ( vegetables. . Soup and vegetables, bread, &c. ( Meat, hashed with potatoes, and other vege- l tables. . Indian mush, or rice and molasses, or milk { Mashed fish and potatoes, (generally cod, ( fresh or salt.) . Soup, &c., as on Tuesday. . Cold roast beef and vegetables. On Sunday, bread 5 Bread and milk, or bread and molasses. I and butter, or gingerbread. Remarks. There are 108 boys and 52 girls in the institution. Beef is the meat chiefly used. On Tuesdays and Saturdays sixty pounds of best quality of rounds of beef are purchased, making one hundred and twenty pounds weekly. On Saturdays the meat is boiled suffi- ciently for soup, then roasted and set aside to be eaten cold on Sunday. The bread is baked in the institution. Four and a half barrels of flour are used per week, and half a barrel of Indian meal. About 425 bushels of potatoes annually. Three cows are kept on the premises, and a small quantity of milk is purchased, amounting to about fifteen dollars annually. Milk is allowed night and morning, and once a week for dinner. The children are kept in school six hours a day, and bathe in tepid water every Saturday. The deaths have averaged about two and a half annually. The children are allowed to eat what they want, within moderation. Though the children appear satisfied with their diet, yet they have not that florid and healthy appearance which is characteristic of rugged health. We believe that if meat were allowed daily in moderate quantity, it would be an improvement in their system of diet; and if required to take more exercise, it would doubtless contribute to their health. The ophthalmia, which was formerly very prevalent in the institution, (and probably caused by want of ventilation and cleanliness, with perhaps too low a dieO ; s now almost unknown. 312 APPENDIX. DIETARY OF THE NEW YORK PROTESTANT HALF-ORPHAN ASYLUM. ( Monday Bean-soup with bread. '1 \uxday Mutton soup, with vegetables, (potatoes, turnips, carrots,) bread. Wednesday Mutton, hashed with potatoes and rice ; clam-soup, during the summer months, with potatoes and rice ; or balls of flour boiled, with rice, r) Thursday Beef-soup, with vegetables and bread. Fivlay Beef, hashed with potatoes and rice, bread. | Saturday Bread and butter, or rice. Sunday Cold corned beef and bread, except during the summer months, when crack- ers and cheese are substituted for ealt meat, which was found to produce ^ bowel complamts. J l^reaJ and milk for the smaller children ; bread with molasses, or sugar, or honey for J tne i ar ger ones. Supper . Plain bread, except on Sunday night, when gingerbread is allowed. REMARKS. The number of inmates ranges from 154 to 180; ages from 3 to 9 years. 22 quarts of milk are furnished daily, at 5J cents per quart. Once a week the children are bathed in cold Croton water, except during the hot months, when the larger children are taken to the cold salt-water bath in the river. They remain in school six hours per day. 50 Ibs. of mutton are purchased twice a week, and 50 Ibs. of beef, ditto. Occa sionally codfish and potatoes, and fruit in its season, are furnished. (20.) Page 241. AMERICAN DIETARIES FOR PAUPERS. There can be no doubt that American paupers fare better, as it respects their diet, than those of any other nation on the globe. A comparison of the Tables which we shall give below, with those of Great Britain, contained in the body of the work, will show a great superiority in favor of the former. Gruel, which forms with bread the breakfast of Eng- lish paupers, is seldom, if ever, seen in our Almshouses; but in place of it, tea or cof- fee, milk or milk-porridge and bread, and in some of them bread, and butter ad libitum, within moderation. Indeed, there is generally no restriction as to quantity, with the ex- ception of meat : of which, in some establishments, nearly a pound is allowed for dinner The effect of this generous mode of living, though highly favorable to health, is expen- sive, and renders an Almshouse residence, especially during the winter, quite desirable to a large class of our city poor. Accordingly, applications for admission are overwhelm- ingly numerous during the fall months ; and where admission cannot be secured, in- stances are by no means unfrequent where petty-brceny or some other offence is commit- ted, for the very purpose of being sentenced six months, the usual period for such crimes, to the Penitentiary, where the mode of living does not materially differ from that of the Almshouse. The whole Almshouse system in our country requires a radical change, and we are happy to learn that R. M. Hartley, Esq., the late most able and efficient Agent of the New York City Temperance Society, is engaged in collecting facts, and devising plans for improving the moral, social, and physical condition of our poor popula To this gentleman we are indebted for much of the information which we give on this subject DIETARY OF THE BOSTON ALMSHOUSE, AND HOUSE OF INDUSTRY. Dinners. Sunday, boiled rice and molasses ; Monday, beans, baked or stewed, and pork ; Tuesday, beef and soup, vegetables and wheat bread ; Wednesday, baked beef, vegetables and wheat bread ; Thursday, beef and soup, vegetables and bread ; Friday, ealt fish, vegetables and bread ; Saturday, beef and soup, vegetables and bread. Breakfasts. Tea or coffee, and white bread ; suppers, chocolate and white bread. The APPENDIX. 313 diet of the sick is regulated by the medical attendants. The number of children in the house for the past year has been about 200, which deducted from the average number of inmates, 571, leaves 371 consumers of meat, without making any deduction for the sick in the hospital. 350 Ibs. of best beef four times a week, at 4 cents per Ib. The allowance of meat for each ward is weighed off accoiding to the number of per- sons, and ratably distributed among them. The bread, which contains a small quantity of Indian, is baked in the establishment. Excepting meat, the-.^ is no restriction as to the quantity of food. " No rebellions," says Dr. Smith, " are to oe apprehended in the Boston Almshouse, like that which lately occurred in the Poorhouse in Liverpool be- cause the appetite is satisfied. A story is abroad of an Irish pauper, at South Boston, who wrote home, advising his relatives to come out to this establishment immediately, as they had meal twice a week. We regard the moral and dietetic regulations of the city's institutions for prisoners and paupers as superior to those of all other cities or towns in the United States." BALTIMORE ALMSHOUSE. The following is the general diet of the paupers : For Breakfast Bread, and rye coffee sweetened with molasses ; for Supper, bread, and tea sweetened with sugar. Dinner On Monday, beef and soup ; Tuesday, mush and molasses ; Wednesday and Thursday, beef and soup ; Friday, herring, mush and molasses, or hommony ; Saturday, beef and soup ; and on Sunday, pork and vegetables. Eight oz. of beef, or five oz. of pork is allowed each pauper on the days animal food is furnished ; and to each laboring pauper, twenty oz. of bread ; and to all others over one year old, sixteen oz. of bread per diem. The diet of the sick is regulated by the physicians. PROVIDENCE ALMSHOUSE, RHODE ISLAND. The diet of the inmates is as follows : For Breakfast Coffee, bread and butter, one morning, and alternately milk or milk- porridge and bread. For Supper Tea, bread and butter one night, and alternately milk or milk-porridge and bread. For Dinner Sunday, flour or Indian pudding and molasses ; Monday, baked beef or pork ; Tuesday and Thursday, soup ; Wednesday, fresh meat, baked or roasted ; Fri- day, pork and beans ; Saturday, salt fish and potatoes. Brown bread is used by all except the sick. ALBANY ALMSHOUSE. The general diet of the paupers consists of bread and bohea tea sweetened with mo- lasses, for breakfast ; soup five days in the week, and fish and potatoes two days in the week for dinner ; mush and milk, or mush and molasses, for supper. BELLEVUE ALMSHOUSE NEW YORK. The diet in this Institution is as follows : For breakfast, bread and tea, the tea sweeten- ed with molassfs, and a little milk. For dinner, on alternate days, meat and soup: of beef, 17 Ibs. are allowed for 15 rations ; of pork, three fourths of a pound to each person, and about one pound of bread with potatoes ; on the other days, mush and molasses with bread. For supper, the same as breakfast. A woman with a child, is allowed one 314 APPENDIX. and a half pounds of bread per diem, for borh. Each woman is allowed half a pint of milk per day, and a pound of tea per month. The bread made of wheat flour is baked at the establishment. BLOCKLEY ALMSHOUSE, PHILADELPHIA. In this Institution the general diet of the inmates is as follows : Every day for breakfast Coffee, half rye, half imported. Every day for supper Chocolate or tea ; both at breakfast and supper as much good wheat bread is allowed as they can eat. Dinner. On Sunday, soup ; Monday, half a pound of beef, of which the soup was made on Sunday ; Tuesday, hash, made of the fragments of beef; Wednesday, mush and molasses. Working men receiving in addition thereto, half a pound of meat or soup ; Thursday, the same as Sunday, Friday as Tuesday, and Saturday as Wednesday. Beside?, potatoes or wheat bread are allowed every day for dinner. The diet of the sick is entirely regulated by their medical attendants. No pork is used in the establishment (21.) Page 246. DIET IN AMERICAN PRISONS. The common allowance of food in our Penitentiaries is equivalent to one pound of meat, one pound of bread, and one pound of vegetables, per day. In some of them it varies from this, but it is generally equivalent to it. The food is generally wholesome and well prepared. The opinion has prevailed that the convicts in our Penitentiaries have loo much food, and of a better quality than they ought to receive. This, however, is a mistake, as proved by further investigation. " In the Milbank Penitentiary in Great Britain," says Mr. Dwight, the agent of the Prison Discipline Society, " an experiment has been made on MAN, as to the quantity of food necessary to keep him alive. In such extensive establishments, a step once taken may lead to fatal consequences before it can be retraced. In this establishment near London, the advocates of a severe discipline de- manded a reduction of the diet of the prisoners, and a calculation was aiade, about the close of the year 1822, to ascertain how little food would sustain human life. There was at that time in the prison about 800 convicts, and their diet was reduced to half a pound of bread per day, and the soup made of ox-heads, in the proportion of one ox-head to one hundred males, and the same to one hundred and twenty females. A general decay of health was apparent, but the scurvy did not appear till January, 1843. The cases of dis- ease increased rapidly, and on the 28th of February one hundred and eighteen were sick, and on the tenth of April, more than four hundred. It was found, on inquiry, that the meat of an ox-head weighed only eight pounds, which being divided among one hun- dred, allows only one ounce and a quarter to each prisoner. To this diet, the College of Physicians, after long delay, ascribed the production of the disease. It became necessary at .ength, to remove every prisoner from the establishment, which was done, and the whole wan purified. In consequence of this sickness, the House of Commons resolved to give to the future inmates a full and nutritive diet, as to quality and amount. This experiment on human life may be of great use on this side of the Atlantic, by pre- venting a severity, as dangerous to life as excessive indulgence is injurious to morals. The experiment shows that eight ounces of bread, and one and a quarter of meat, cannot sustain life; it does not show, however, that three pounds of food per day are necessary APPENDIX. 315 to life and health, and it may still be a question of great importance, whether the Milbank Penitentiary was not in one extreme, and the Penitentiaries in the United States in the other ; so that the subject is still open for consideration and experiment, though it is ap- parent, from the experiment at Milbank, that it should be conducted with great discretion when human life is at stake." Experiment at Lamlerlon, New Jersey, in relation to the Food of Prisoners. An experiment was made a few years since upon the prisoners at Lainberton, New Jersey, confined in solitary cells, by reducing the allowance of food. The men on whom the experiment was tried, were confined the whole term of their sentence in solitary cells. Some of them had been confined eighteen months, and some two years. Their allowance of food was only half the allowance of the men who were employed in the shops, and the allowance of the men in the shops was only half a pound of meat, together with one pound of bread, one gill of molasses, and about half a pound of vegetables per day. It is stated by the agent of the "Prison Discipline Society," that this reduced allowance had no injurious effect upon the health. " They appeared," says the Report, " as well, at least, as any class of prisoners who have been visited in this country ; and the keeper, who has been thirteen years in the institution, stated, that the effect of solitary confinement, with this diet, had been very good ; and that the prisoners all left the cells with a strong determina- tion never to return to them, and no one had yet returned, nor did he believe that any one ever would return. If he was correct in this opinion and there was every thing in the ap- pearance and conversation of the prisoners in the cells to induce the belief that he was cor- rectthen this mode of punishment, with a reduced allowance of food, is much better than where one half or one third of the whole number of prisoners are committed a second, third, fourth, fifth, or sixth time, which is the fact in several Penitentiaries in the United States, where the men are fed abundantly." We may be permitted to express a doubt, in opposition to the apparent result of the above experiment, that, where food is withheld to that extent as to amount to punishment, the health of the prisoners must ne- cessarily suffer in a greater or less degree. To illustrate the dietary systems in our prisons, we give the following, out of a large number which we might present, as they will serve to show sufficiently the mode of living in these establishments. i DIETARY OF THE NEW YORK CITY PRISON. f Monday Mush and Molasses. l^iesday Beef with soup and bread. \ Wednesday Mush and molasses. Dinner j Thursday Fresh boiled beef, with soup and bread. I Friday Mush and jVIolasses. I Saturday Fresh beef, and soup with bread. L Sunday Mush and molasses. Breakfast . Coffee, with molasses boiled in it, and bread. REMARKS. No other meat than beef is furnished, and this consists of hocks and the coarser parts. It is estimated that one half the weight of the beef consists of bone ; on the days, therefore, on which meat is allowed, a sufficient quantity is purchased to al- low one pound exclusive of waste, to each prisoner. If more is asked for, it is allowed. There are but two meals a day, the first at 9 A.M. Dinner at half-past two P.M., (no sup- per.) The coffee is half rye and half coffee, (cheapest kind.) The bread is n ade of an inferior kind of flour ; looks a good deal like Graham bread, and is baked at the Almshouse. No potatoes or other vegetables are furnished during about half the year, 316 APPENDIX. say from March to October, and the soup is made during the whole of this time from beef alone, or with (occasionally) crumbs of bread boiled in it. The number of prisoners ranges from 130 to 180, the average being about 150. The cells are small and poorly ventilated. In consequence of recent complaints, the Commissioners of the Almshouse are making airangements to furnish the prisoners with potatoes and rice. BOSTON HOUSE OF CORRECTION The diet consists of the following materials, viz : 18 oz. No. 1 beef, or 12 oz. pork, and 20 oz. bread per diem. 1 pint black tea for breakfast, and another pint for supper. 2t bushels of potatoes ior 100 rations. 1 quart of .-nit for 2 oz. black pepper, " u " Soup is occasionally given, with bread and potatoes. 1,610 Ibs. of beef, at4i cents per Ib. has been the weekly allowance. The average number of inmates is 291. Instead of meat each day, boiled fresh beef is now allowed three days in each week ; oeef soup, three days ; and one day, baked beef. The allowance of meat now furnished, is 18 Ibs. beef daily of the first quality, for 300 prisoners. The bread contains a small quantity of Indian, and is of the best quality. If prisoners ask for more bread than the regular allowance, it is given them. It is, however, part of an individual's punishment for disobedience of orders, to be shortened in the allowance of food. These facts are ob- tained from that excellent periodical, the ** Boston Medical and Physical Journal," and are accompanied by the following remarks of the able editor, Dr. Smith. " All experience teaches that men can be easily governed when they are well fed. The hungry are prompted, by the goadings of an empty stomach, to the worst acts in the history of our race. It is a sad mistake that the convicts in many of the Penitentiaries of this country are kept at that exciting .point of hunger, which changes man into a devil in feeling, and a brute in conduct" (>>. Page 253.) DIETARY OF THE NEW YORK HOSPITAL. For dinner, on Tuesdays, Wai ncsdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays, beef soup, with beef and potatoes and bread. On Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, mutton soup, with mutton, potatoes, and bread. On Mondays, boiled rice, with one gill of molasses. For breakfast and supper, bread and black tea ; 1 ounce of tea to every six, and a pint of milk to evtry 8 patients. REMARKS. The above is the general diet of the patients at this establishment, including about two thirds of the number. Special diet is directed by the attending physicians, and adapted to the circumstances of each particular case. Eggs, milk, oysters in their season, crack- ens chickens, &c., are allowed, together with porter, wine, &c. About 78 quarts of milk are daily used, and about two dozen of eggs; 2 being allowed to a patient. The number of chickens consumed, averages only about 2 daily. Little or no butter, and no cheese is allowed. 100 Ibs. of beef are furnished three times weekly ; and 100 Ibs. of mutton, three days also. This will give but half a pound of meat daily, for six days in the week, without any allowance for waste. The following are the amounts of some of the articles of food annually used in the establishment, with their cost Beef Mutton Pork Poultry Fish Flour 3-V78 Ib*. 16,:>!4 " 2,181 " 3 J7 ban Bis $2,09522 76356 106-86 96-00 81-00 2,32337 APPENDIX. 317 Meal . 2,463 Ibs. $56.00 Rice 6,804 " 210.35 Crackers , 25.42 Potatoes 1,008 bushels 237.71 Vegetables . 62.81 Butter 3,023 Ibs. 485.05 Fruit 61.54 Cheese 100 Ibs! 10.47 Molasses 734 gals. 160.10 Vinegar 7bbls. 22.75 Tea 1,510 Ibs. 747.33 Sugar Coffee 12,636 " 1,289 " 772.78 147.25 Eggs 38.49 Milk 31,139 quarts 1,481.75 Spices . 17.60 Salt 18 sacks, 3 bushels 37.42 Yeast . 20.74 Liquors and Wines Porter 158.30 184.75 297 dozen The patients are allowed to eat ad libitum, within moderation. About one third pay for their board, either in whole or in part ; but in either case, their fare is the same, unless it is furnished from out the house. The principal objections to the dietary of this Hospital are the want of variety in the food, which is often of great benefit in the treatment of the sick, and the small allowance of meat. It is a question worthy of consideration, whether the dietary classification, adopted in most of the British Hospitals, would not be an im- provement in. the present system. We do not mean by this, to recommend the plan of dealing out portions of food by weight; this may be done in an individual case, perhaps, like that of Cornaro, where an individual has no control over himself, but it can never be introduced to advantage among a considerable number of men. Peas, beans, and other vegetables might be added to the present list, and a more liberal allowance of fruit, in its season, would be highly desirable. (23.) Page 257. DIETARIES FOR THE INSANE IN THE UNITED STATES. Much attention has been paid in this country to the effects of diet in the treatment of insanity, and the results of experiments in different institutions show that a plentiful allowance of animal and vegetable food, of the most wholesome and digestible kind, is re- quired. The adoption of a liberal diet is not only free, in such cases, from any exciting or too stimulant influence, but appears to calm the irritation which previously existed. Of course, no rules as to diet can be laid down, which are not subject to modification under particular circumstances, according to the peculiarity of the case and the state of the constitution. The great success of the late Dr. Todd, in the treatment of the insane at the Connecticut Retreat, at Hartford, was doubtless owing in a great degree to a highly nourishing diet, conjoined with a tonic course of medicine. BOSTON LUNATIC HOSPITAL. Diet. Beef soup, twice a week ; baked beef, twice a week ; corned beef, (cold,) fnce a week ; salt fish, once a week ; beans and pork, once a week. 250 Ibs. of beef, at 5$ cents per lb., is the weekly allowance. Average number of inmates, 103. In the matter of diet for the patients, a very liberal one has hitherto been allowed, upon the ground of its importance as a part of curative treatment. But in view of the fact, that a great proportion of the present inmates are hopelessly insane paupers, the Board of Supervision have concluded that no good reason exists for a distinction in diet from 318 APPENDIX. that of the House of Industry. They have accordingly suggested the expediency of equalizing the two, which the Superintendent is about to do. LUNATIC ASYLT'M. MANHATTANVILLE. (NEW YORK ISLAND.) Breakfas. . . Dinner . Meat, hashed with potatoes, or cold, with bread and butter, coffee, miL, and! sugar. Roast meat beef, mutton or lamb, with veef ahles, rice, flour, bread, or fruit puddings. Soup, with rice or Indian mush pastry on Wednesday. Corn beef with potatoes and other vegetable?, pudd-n^r, ' < Boiled fish, (either fresh or halted cod, fresh halibut, fliad.j \ mackerel, tec., in their season.) 'Monday . Tuesday . Wednesday Saturday Thursday . Friday . Sunday . Cold meat, with warm vegetables, pastry, eh ' Bread and butter, tea or milk molasses gingerbread on Jl'ednesday sugar cakes) uiftiu