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i^ 
 
 FUNDAMENTALS OF 
 SOCIOLOGY 
 
 WITH SPECIAL 
 
 EMPHASIS UPON COMMUNITY AND 
 
 EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 
 
 BY 
 
 EDWIN A. KIRKPATRICK, B.S., M.Ph. 
 
 Author of " Inductive Psychology," " Fundamentals of Child Study " 
 
 " Genetic Psychology," " The Individual in the Making " 
 
 ''Use of Money" 
 
 ■3350? 
 
 BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 
 
 HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY 
 
 ^ 12 
 
COnrUGHT, 1916, BY EDWIN A. KIRKPATRICX 
 AU, RIGHTS RXSXRVKD 
 
 Vbr SttirMflit 9reM 
 
 CAMBXIDGR . MASSACHUSETTS 
 
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 PREFACE 
 
 It may seem presumptuous for a specialist from 
 another field to attempt to outline for young students 
 the essentials in this field, with its immense literature 
 of facts, researches, theories, and speculations, from 
 which is just emerging the new science of sociology 
 that must be the basis of all successful social reforms. 
 Yet freedom from having dwelt on details is an advan- 
 tage rather than a disadvantage in getting and pre- 
 senting a general view of a subject. 
 
 Again, sociology both scientific and practical, has 
 been a subject of interest to the author for more than 
 a quarter of a century, during which time he has been 
 gaining clearer ideas without having them fixed by any 
 one school of thought. Becoming convinced that soci- 
 ology may be of as much value to education as psy- 
 chology, he prepared a course which he has given to 
 his own students and to students in summer sessions at 
 the Universities of West Virginia and of Vermont. 
 The response of those students, both elementary and 
 advanced, confirmed his belief in the value of the sub- 
 ject and gave some confidence in the suitability of his 
 presentation for promoting scientific and practical think- 
 ing and research in sociological lines. 
 
 No attempt has been made at completeness of treat- 
 ment of any topic, but no effort has been spared to 
 reveal the fundamental influences affecting group life 
 and action in its earlier beginnings and in present- 
 day life. Technical terms are avoided because they are 
 
ir PREFACE 
 
 numerous and not well established in meaning and 
 would contribute to confusion rather than to exactness 
 of thought. 
 
 It is expected that teachers who use this book will 
 have it supplemented by reading, discussion, and re- 
 search to a considerable extent, and that they will pass 
 lightly over some topics and spend a great deal of 
 time on others that are perhaps merely mentioned here. 
 It is also hoped that students will be accorded a good 
 deal of liberty as to the special lines of study they 
 pursue. 
 
 Education is now such an important phase of social 
 life that every student of sociology should become 
 familiar with its purposes and problems, yet the large 
 proportion of space devoted to it in this book will per- 
 haps make the book most interesting for those preparing 
 for the teaching profession. 
 
 The questions asked and the reports and facts called 
 for at the close of each chapter are intended to be sug- 
 gestive to teacher and pupils rather than directive. 
 Little or much may be done in those lines, as desired 
 or as time permits. In all cases pupils shoidd do some 
 reading, observing, and writing on special topics. 
 
 A complete bibliography would be impossible, while 
 the value of exact references to the precise books, 
 chapters, and articles that it is best to read in connec- 
 tion with each topic depends so much upon the length 
 of the course, the library facilities of the institution, 
 the age and interest of students, and the purpose of 
 the instructor that the idea of giving such detailed 
 references was abandoned. At the close of the book 
 will be found a selected list of books that the author 
 believes will aid in introducing readers to a knowledge 
 
PREFACE V 
 
 of the literature treating of all phases of sociology. No 
 attempt is made to refer to the exhaustless periodical 
 literature except by giving the names of a few journals 
 where many valuable articles may be found. 
 
 It is hoped that the book may prove interesting and 
 clai'ifying to general readers and that it will accelerate 
 the movement toward increasing the prominence of 
 sociological study in colleges and normal schools and 
 even in certain high schools. 
 
 Thanks are due to my daughter for clerical assist- 
 ance, to my wife for literary help, and to Louis M. 
 Wilson and Dr. J. P. Porter, of Clark University, for 
 courtesies and suggestions. 
 
 E. A. K. 
 
 December 10, 1915. 
 
Digitized by tine Internet Archive 
 
 in 2007 witii funding from 
 
 IVIicrosoft Corporation 
 
 li ftp ://www.arcli ive.org/details/fundamentalsofsoOOkirkiala 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Chapter I. Introduction 
 
 Nature of sociology — Relation to other sciences — The essen- 
 tial characteristics of social phenomena — Exercises ... 1 
 
 Chapter II. Evolution of Group Action 
 
 The fonnation of groups — Geographical influences — In- 
 fluence of group upon group — Likeness and difference in group 
 action — Leaders — Effect of leaders on customs and classes — 
 Products of group action — Exercises 7 
 
 Chapter m. The Biological View of Human 
 Development 
 
 Man's chief means of survival — Balance of nature — The law 
 of diminishing returns — The law of Malthus — Growth of pop- 
 ulation — Evolution of human characteristics — Eugenics — 
 Exercises 19 
 
 Chapter TV. A Psychological View op 
 Behavior and Needs 
 
 Consciousness and group behavior — The social instincts of 
 man — Common needs of animals and human beings — Higher 
 human needs and instincts — Classification of sociological 
 phenomena — Exercises 82 
 
 Chapter V. Economic Needs and Activities 
 
 Needs, values, and wealth — Economic activity and coQpera- 
 tion — Burdensome classes — Economic consumption of wealth 
 — Tools and wealth production — Machines and industries — 
 Machines, capital, and managers — Institutions and production 
 
viii CONTENTS 
 
 — Advertising and standardization of products — Machine pro- 
 duction and growth of cities — EflBciency of workers — Regula- 
 tion of industries — Exercises 41 
 
 Chapter VI. Protective Needs and Activities 
 
 Primitive protective activities — Development of the institu- 
 tions of government — Internal protection — Development of 
 laws — Protection against the elements and disease — Protection 
 against accidents — Protection of the weak — Protection, pre- 
 vention, and control by government — Exercises .... 59 
 
 Chapter VII. Recreative Needs and Activities 
 
 The play instinct — Play and recreation in relation to work — 
 Increase in recreative needs and activities — Development of 
 games and amusements — Commercialized and institutionalized 
 recreations — Control of recreations — Exercises .... 76 
 
 Chapter VIII. Cultural Needs and Activities 
 
 Relation of culture to play and work — Social character of 
 culture — Transmission, exchange, and fusion of culture — In- 
 vention and culture — Institutions and culture — Culture and 
 life — Exercises 84 
 
 Chapter IX. Social Needs and Activities 
 
 Strength of social needs — Specialization of social intercourse V 
 
 — Institutions and social life — Social classes -^r Social rules — 
 
 — Exercises 92 
 
 Chapter X. Moral and Religious Needs and 
 Activities 
 
 Relation of morals, religion, and custom — Conditions and 
 morals — Morals and punishment — Group loyalty — Enlarge- 
 ment and specialization of regulative influences — Institutions 
 and public opinion and morals — Utility and morals — Scientific 
 knowledge and religious belief — Religious observances de- 
 creasing — Religion still powerful — Exercises 101 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Chapter XI. Educational Needs and 
 Activities — ^General 
 
 Education a need of every social group — Character of primi- 
 tive education — The character of civilized education — Aims 
 and functions of the schools — Organization and control of 
 schools — School administration — Marking, examinations, and 
 tests — Standardization in education — General and vocational 
 education — Exercises 119 
 
 Chapter XII. Educational Needs and 
 ^ Activities — Elementary 
 
 General character of elementary education — General symbol 
 knowledge, or reading and writing — Economic education — Pro- 
 tective education — Cultural education — Recreational and 
 social education — Moral and religious education — Exercises . 145 
 
 Chapter XITI. Educational Needs and Activities 
 (;_. — Intermediate and Secondary 
 
 Specialization — General and vocational education — Greneral 
 and vocational courses — Exercises 157 
 
 Chapter XIV. Educational Needs and 
 D Activities — Higher 
 
 Development and dominance of higher education — Scholas- 
 tic standards versus usefulness — Tests of the results of general 
 and vocational education — Higher vocational education — 
 Exercises 172 
 
 Chapter XV. The Family as a Social Group 
 
 AND AS AN Institution 
 
 The smallest imspecialized social group — The family as an 
 institution — Marriage customs — Varieties of the family — 
 The socializing influence of the family — Regulation of mar- 
 riage — Divorce — Family life and modem conditions — Ex- 
 ercises 186 
 
z CONTENTS 
 
 Chapter XVI. The Community and its Functions 
 
 The primitive community — The modem coimnimity — 
 Commmiity institutions and progress — Social progress and 
 community action — Community problems — Rural and urban 
 communities — Exercises 201 
 
 Chapter XVII. Community Studies — 
 X General Suggestions 
 
 Value — Purposes of a survey — How surveys are made — 
 Geographical conditions — Population — Housing — Institu- 
 tions — Effects of rural and urban life — Exercises .... 215 
 
 Chapter XVlJl. Community Studies — 
 ^ Economic and Protective 
 
 Economic conditions and public finances — Economic re- 
 sources and activities — Specific figures to be obtained — Protec- 
 tion against crime and injustice — Protection against disease and 
 accident — Protective regulation and education — Specific facta 
 to be obtained 233 
 
 Chapter XIX. Community Studies — Recrea- 
 
 Recreational facilities — Recreation facts to be collected — 
 Cultural influences — Cultural facts to be observed or estimated 
 — Social intercourse — Social facts to be obtained — ^Religious 
 activity — Facts to be obtained regarding churches . . . 248 
 
 ^ Chapter XX. Community Studies — 
 Educational Survey 
 
 General considerations — School equipment and control — 
 School finances — Educational efficiency — Social value of the 
 school — Specific facts to be tabulated 259 
 
 BiBLIOOBAPHT 277 
 
 Index 289 
 
-^OC)\<W^ 
 
 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Nature of Sociology. Sociology has for its subject- 
 matter the life and behavior of human beings in groups 
 and it seeks to formulate the laws governing group 
 activities. It concerns itself with the products of social 
 action in the form of customs, institutions, and laws, 
 and with all influences, conscious and unconscious, in- 
 volved in cooperating for the securing of common ends. 
 In its broadest view it includes the study of the nature 
 and history of man, the formation and behavior of 
 family, community, and national groups, and the evolu- 
 tion of all that we call civilization. Its phenomena may 
 be studied in any group of people acting for common 
 ends, such as a hunting party, a group of students form- 
 ing a new literary society or an athletic association. 
 Sociology must consider how groups form, increase, de- 
 velop, retrograde, unite, separate, cooperate, compete, 
 and dissolve or survive as a group. 
 
 The laws revealed by the science of sociology may bo 
 used in directing groups of people in efficient activity 
 toward the satisfaction of common desires. On the 
 negative side it should show how poverty, crime, and 
 other weakening and disturbing activities may be elimi- 
 nated. Sociology has often been defined as the science 
 of society, but this only opens the way for a more diffi- 
 cult definition of what is meant by society. The state- 
 
2 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 ment that sociology is the science of human association 
 means nearly the same and is a little clearer. 
 
 Most sociologists have given a good deal of promi- 
 nence to the subjective states of the individuals con- 
 stituting a social group, but now that psychology is 
 becoming more objective or behavioristic, there is reason 
 for giving more prominence to the objective behavior 
 of groups of people and less to their supposed mental 
 states. We must recognize that just as unconscious and 
 instinctive impulses play a large part in the actions of 
 individuals, so also do they in the actions of groups of 
 people. Sociology will be more scientific if it is based 
 primarily on what groups of people do and secondarily 
 upon their subjective mental states. 
 
 Relation to other sciences. Sociology as a science 
 includes many other sciences and utilizes facts from all 
 fields of knowledge. It is related to biology, since man is 
 one of the many species of animals inhabiting the earth, 
 and to physiology, since the actions of men depend upon 
 their physical condition. Geography in considering 
 earth as the home of man is to a considerable extent 
 sociological in character. Anthropology and ethnology 
 contribute to sociology in describing the physical struc- 
 ture of men and the products of their manual activities. 
 History furnishes all sorts of facts for the consideration 
 of the sociologist, while all the languages and the science 
 of philology supply facts and truths regarding social 
 actions in connection with which the various languages 
 were formed. Ethics and religion reveal important in- 
 fluences concerned in the regulation of conduct of groups 
 of people. Psychology supplies many important facts 
 and laws which largely determine the character of group 
 life and of social action. 
 
INTRODUCTION 8 
 
 There are other fields of knowledge that may be re- 
 garded as not merely related to sociology but as divisions 
 of the subject. One of the most prominent of these is 
 the science of economics, which deals with the activities 
 of men involved in producing, distributing, and consum- 
 ing things of value. Political science is another important 
 division of sociology dealing especially with the regu- 
 lation of human conduct. Social psychology from one 
 point of view may also be regarded as a division, though 
 it is more properly a science upon which sociology is 
 based. History furnishes facts for sociology and becomes 
 a branch of the science when its facts are so classified as 
 to show general truths regarding the action of men in 
 groups. Ethics is largely sociological, but concerns itseK 
 with how men should act and not merely with the laws 
 governing their action. The science of education consti- 
 tutes one division of sociology, since it concerns a very 
 important form of group activity. There are number- 
 less special fields coming under the general head of soci- 
 ology, such as the problems of labor and capital, crime, 
 poverty, etc. 
 
 The essential characteristics of social phenomena. 
 Men form groups and act as one, partly by instinct and 
 partly as the result of intelligent deliberation and plan- 
 ning. The most important factor in producing social 
 phenomena is a c ommo n. jiegd that can best be met by 
 cooperative action. So long as men have different needs 
 which can be met by their own individual efforts there 
 is no occasion for the formation of groups and for 
 cooperation. If they have a common need, such as es- 
 caping from danger or the securing of food, each one 
 is stimulated instinctively by the action of others. But 
 if each is trying in his own way to satisfy his need, 
 
4 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 without reference to the others and regardless of any 
 customary mode or rule of behavior, his action is non- 
 social. It is only when each performs a part of the 
 complex act by which the end is secured for all, or when 
 there is some regulation of activities by the customs or 
 rules of the group to which they belong, that the action 
 becomes social in character. 
 
 This type of action is shown, not only by human 
 beings of all grades, but also by animals, as when wolves 
 hunt in a pack or cattle form in a circle for defense. If 
 several individuals all use their power in the same way 
 for a common end, as when they all push a heavy log that 
 is to be used for a boat, we have cooperative action, but 
 of a simpler sort than when they do different things, 
 some lifting, others prying or pulling, and one directing 
 the united effort by signals. 
 
 A still higher type of cooperation is shown when some 
 are making tools for moving and cutting the heavy log. 
 The social nature of their acts is still more character- 
 istic, though less evident, in the fact that the tools have 
 perhaps been invented by other men and the various 
 methods of using them also devised and practiced by 
 others. In all phenomena that are truly social the actions 
 of each individual are motived and directed, not by his 
 own personal impulses, but by other persons present and 
 not present, living and dead. 
 
 / Sociology is especially concerned with the evolution 
 of the more complex forms of cooperation. In the tropics 
 a man may gather bananas for himself, and the act is 
 not social in character. But in the temperate regions 
 a thousand persons have performed different parts of 
 the complex act by which the banana is brought to the 
 breakfast table. Countless thousands have also con- 
 
INTRODUCTION 5 
 
 tributed to the existence of the breakfast table and to 
 the customs associated \\'ith it. 
 
 Sociology does not limit itself to cooperative acts that 
 are being performed by a group of people in the pres- 
 ence of each other, but also concerns itself with the 
 origin and influence of customs that regulate the actions 
 of individuals when they are alone. It also considers 
 the social phenomena of institutions such as corporations, 
 banks, railroads, labor unions, and governments, that 
 facilitate, direct, and modify cooperative action. 
 
 Nor are social phenomena limited to cooperative 
 action. C ompetitive action is also social in c haracter 
 when it is regulated by sociaj ^customs or when it helps 
 to^lBring about cooperative action. An ordinary fight 
 between two angry men may not be a social phenome- 
 non, but if they fight according to the rules of the prize 
 ring or the dueling code, or according to the ideas and 
 customs of the community in which they live, social 
 phenomena are clearly involved. The taking of food by 
 an individual is conceivably not social in character, but 
 if the action of the eater is influenced by the customs 
 of the group to which he belongs, the action has in it 
 an element of the social. 
 
 Some acts are, so far as the individual is concerned, 
 anti-social in character. Any one who acts in opposition 
 to the cooperative efforts of others of his own group, or 
 who takes pains to act in opposition to their customs 
 and rules, may be regarded as anti-social in his conduct. 
 If, however, he is doing this in the hope of establishing 
 better means of cooperation or better customs, his ac- 
 tions are not strictly anti-social, although they may 
 appear to his companions to be so. 
 
 The phenomena of sociology, inexplicably complex as 
 
6 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 they seem, may be greatly simplified in thought if we 
 regard them chiefly as modes of cooperative action by 
 which common human desires are satisfied. In accord- 
 ance with this simplifying idea the chief divisions of 
 sociology will be made on the basis of ends served. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Make a list of a dozen sciences and state how they are 
 related to sociology, or study and discuss Compte's 
 classification and hierarchy of the sciences. 
 
 2. Give not fewer than three examples each of social acts, 
 of non-social acts, and of anti-social acts, and state why 
 they are such. 
 
 ' 3. How many people are required to constitute a social 
 ; group ? How many to perform a social act ? Illustrate 
 
 and discuss. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 EVOLUTION OF GROUP ACTION 
 
 The formation of groups. The long period of help- 
 less i nfanc y in man makes comparatively permanent 
 groups inevitable. Instincts impel the young to remain 
 with the old and the old to protect and care for the 
 young, hence family groups form. The habit of acting 
 together tends to prolong the family grouping beyond 
 the period of necessity and the requirement of the in- 
 stincts impelling them to remain together. There is 
 inevitably some division of labor in the family group, 
 the father usually being concerned in finding food and 
 guarding against danger and the mother in preparing 
 food and caring for the children. 
 
 Families are rarely found alone, but associated with 
 other families with whom they cooperate as occasion 
 demands. The taibe or^he community, therefore, con- 
 stitutes almost as fundamental a group as the family, 
 , and in many instances there is little distinction between 
 I the two, the community or tribe being simply a larger 
 u family, while the adults are equally the protectors of 
 iall the children. Various influences determine the size 
 of groups and lead to division into smaller groups or 
 the uniting of several into one. 
 
 Geographical influences. The most fundamental in- 
 fluences d etermining the size of groups and the degre e 
 of coop eration are geographical in character. A rich, 
 productive valley may be inhabited by a large group of 
 people who live in close proximity, but cooperate to only 
 
8 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 a limited extent. If, however, they are attacked by 
 enemies, a considerable degree of cooperation may be 
 developed. In less productive and hemmed-in regions 
 the groups are likely to be either smaller or migratory 
 in their habits, for the country will not support, except 
 for a short time, a large population. The occupations 
 of each group, such as hunting, fishing, herding, agri- 
 culture, are determined by the geography of the region 
 in which they live. Customs, institutions, and relig- 
 ious beliefs are also greatly influenced by climate and 
 occupations. 
 
 In the more primitive stages of group life the social 
 life of man is to a large extent the product of geo- 
 graphical influences. As man progresses and modifies 
 this environment, he becomes more and more inde- 
 pendent of geographical influences and much the same 
 type of civilization may be found in every zone. 
 
 Influence of group upon group. Just as the indi- 
 vidual is influenced more by companions than he is by 
 the natural surroundings, so are groups of human be- 
 ings influenced by other groups. In primitive life the 
 relation of each group to other groups is often that of 
 enmity. Where conditions of life are easy, groups are 
 rather loosely held together unless they are threatened 
 by danger of attack from some other group. In warm 
 but comparatively barren regions, small groups are 
 likely to compete with other groups for the scanty 
 means of subsistence. In frigid regions the necessity 
 of cooperating to secure shelter and the larger game 
 results in group life without much competition with 
 other groups. In temperate regions, if there is a pro- 
 ductive region near a comparatively unproductive re- 
 gion, cooperation of the people of the productive region 
 
EVOLUTION OF GROUP ACTION 9 
 
 is often brought about through raids being made upon 
 them by the people of less productive sections. If 
 these raids are made only at rare intervals, the co- 
 operation may be only temporary ; but if they occur fre- 
 quently, there is likely to be a more permanent uniting 
 and cooperating on the part of the inhabitants of the 
 richer region. 
 
 Where groups of people are in regions furnishing 
 ample subsistence but of different kinds, as for exam- 
 ple, valley, upland, and seashore, where fish are plen- 
 tiful in one region, herds in another, and fruits and 
 grain in another, the groups of people inhabiting these 
 several regions are more likely to be friendly and 
 exchange their products with each other. In thus 
 exchanging products each group exerts an important 
 influence upon the other. They exchange tools, also 
 their methods of working, their customs and beliefs. 
 Frequently there is marriage between the different 
 groups, and if danger threatens all may unite into one 
 larger group. 
 
 Where one group is at war with another group, 
 it would seem at first that the effect would be only 
 to compel each to cooperate more effectively, but this 
 is not the only result. Each learns of the weapons 
 and modes of warfare of the others and is stimulated 
 to new inventions to meet their attacks. War in all 
 ages has thus been one of the strongest stimuli to effort 
 and to invention. In addition to this, prisoners are often 
 taken, especially women, who become wives of the con- 
 querors. This inevitably results in the interchange of 
 tools, customs, and beliefs and in the modification of 
 the hereditary characteristics of the groups. 
 
 In the more primitive conditions of life, war with 
 
10 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 other groups of people was the most important cause 
 of cooperation and of progress ; but in more civilized 
 conditions of life, progress is more ejffectually promoted 
 by friendly relations between the different nations. It 
 must be admitted, however, that even yet nothing so 
 strongly stimulates to cooperation and unity of action 
 on the part of any people as war that threatens the 
 destruction of the group. The nations whose people 
 have learned to cooperate most effectively are the ones 
 that survive. 
 
 Likeness and difference in group action. A certain, 
 amount of similarity is favorable to group action, but 
 not absolute sameness. If all have the same powers 
 and the same needs, they are more likely to compete 
 individually than to cooperate as a group. Nature has 
 provided certain fundamental differences in the mem- 
 bers of all permanent groups of human beings. There 
 are adult men, adult women, and children, who are 
 more or less helpless. In addition to these there are 
 also always some old or infirm persons. 
 
 Besides these primary and fundamental differences 
 in individuals composing a permanent group there are 
 also differences in general and special abihty. At least 
 three grades of general ability are to be found in every 
 community, medium, superior, and inferior, while the 
 varieties of special ability — manual, intellectual, artis- 
 tic, etc. — are numberless. 
 
 Cooperative action is effective in proportion as there 
 is a common need and as each individual performs the 
 part for which he is best fitted in the complex process 
 by which the need is met ; hence there is much speciali- 
 zation of abilities. The higher the stage of civilization 
 reached, the more complex the process and the greater 
 
EVOLUTION OF GROUP ACTION 11 
 
 the specialization of the individuals cooperating in in- 
 dustrial and intellectual lines. 
 
 Leaders. The most important persons in every 
 group are those of superior ability who act as leaders. 
 In more primitive conditions of life, the leader is 
 quicker, stronger, and usually more intelligent than 
 other members of the group. He is the first to sense 
 dangrer and the first to learn how to meet or avoid it. 
 His actions influence others and they join him in escap- 
 ing or fighting. In providing for the necessities of food 
 and shelter, the leader is the first to perceive what needs 
 to be done and to suggest the line of action to be pur- 
 sued. Besides being quick to perceive and to act, the 
 leader is one who has the ability to impress others and 
 to cause them to imitate or obey him. 
 
 Among savage people the leader is often a hunter or 
 a warrior. If he is successful the group derives great 
 advantage from his leadership and is likely to submit 
 to him at other times and in other matters than those 
 of war and the chase. Throughout all history the war- 
 rior leader has exerted a powerful influence, not only 
 during the war, but also in times of peace. Note, for 
 example, how many of the warrior leaders in the United 
 States have been elected to fill civil offices. 
 
 Among all primitive people, where there is not a 
 continuous state of war, there is another type of leader 
 whose influence is equally powerful. He is known 
 variously as a medicine man, shaman, or priest. He is 
 supposed to be especially powerful in guarding against 
 dangers whose source and nature are unknown. He 
 professes to be able to cure diseases, to provide means 
 of avoiding accident, to bring rain, and to cause crops 
 to grow, and in general to secure the help and favor of 
 
12 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 the powers of nature and the spirits of the air. Shrewd- 
 ness especially in managing people is as necessary a 
 part of his outfit as is physical ability in the case of a 
 primitive war leader. He becomes especially powerful 
 through fostering superstitions and religious beliefs. 
 He performs elaborate ceremonies to impress the 
 people. To maintain his place he must be acute in 
 perceiving what is likely to happen and so perform his 
 ceremonies that it will seem as though they were the 
 cause of what takes place. Sometimes the medicine 
 man or shaman acts in opposition to the hunter or 
 warrior leader and sometimes in harmony with him. 
 He is frequently consulted as to when and where to 
 hunt or go to war and how to obtain success. Occa- 
 sionally a leader successfully combines the two roles of 
 warrior and medicine man. 
 
 Until comparatively recent times these two types of 
 leaders have played a large part in the history of the 
 world. At the present time civil, industrial, artistic, 
 and scientific leaders are taking a more and more 
 prominent place in stimulating and directing group 
 action. 
 
 Effect of leaders on customs and classes. The effects 
 of leadership are not confined to the actions performed 
 under the direction of a leader, but continue long after 
 he has passed away. All who, under the direction of a 
 leader, have acted in a certain way develop a tendency 
 to act in similar ways under similar circumstances. The 
 younger generation inevitably follows the example of 
 its elders and the modes of action originated by the 
 leader become more and more firmly established as cus- 
 toms. Any tendency to vary from these customs, if not 
 prevented by the mere force of habit, is often thwarted 
 
EVOLUTION OF GROUP ACTION 13 
 
 by a recital of what was accomplished by the great 
 leader. In many instances he is more or less deified and 
 his influence is more powerful after he is dead than 
 while he was living. 
 
 Custom in a broad sense may include not only the 
 usual objective actions of a group of peopld^ but also 
 the habits of thought and feeling transmitted from one 
 generation to another which govern their more con- 
 scious judgments and sentiments. Sometimes the term 
 " folkways " or " mores " is used to designate customs 
 in the broader, deeper sense of the word. In this sense, 
 mores govern the modes of thinking and determine sen- 
 timents and ideals as well as the habitual acts of every 
 race. They are the source of its proverbs and of its 
 moral and religious regulations. 
 
 Changes in conditions may make modifications in 
 customs advantageous, but unless a new leader arises 
 who sees this and is able to impress his followers with 
 the desirability of change, customs once established will 
 continue with only slight modifications. As people be- 
 come more civilized, reason, in part, takes the place of . 
 custom, and then it is not so difficult to bring about 
 changes. This is especially true when a group of people 
 is brought into contact with people having different 
 customs of which they can see the advantages. 
 
 Closely associated with the influence of leaders upon 
 custom is the effect of their leadership in producing a 
 division of the people into more or less artificial classes 
 according to their relationship to him. The successful 
 warrior leader becomes the governor of the people in 
 times of peace because of his personal power and the 
 service he has rendered. Nothing is too good for the 
 king. He has special privileges and he is subject to 
 
14 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 none of the regulations imposed upon the rest of the 
 people. 
 
 Members of his family and those who have served as 
 officers under him are likely to be given some of the 
 same honors and immunities. Those who have served 
 him as warriors take a somewhat lower place, but one 
 distinctly above the common people. Sometimes those 
 who have engaged in occupations conspicuously helpful 
 to him acquire a position higher than their fellows, 
 while those who have been captured in war and become 
 slaves of his own or of his noblemen are in the lowest 
 class. In case he is occupying a conquered country, the 
 people he has conquered occupy a lower place than those 
 of his own group. Thus have leaders been the cause of 
 artificial class distinctions in all nations. 
 
 As people become more intelligent and less subject 
 to the influence of custom and tradition, these artificial 
 social distinctions between classes of people slowly but 
 gradually disappear. At the present time most of the 
 kings of the earth have little arbitrary authority and 
 they are expected to conform to the ordinary rules of 
 morality. Kecently division into classes has come to 
 be based more upon wealth and occupation than upon 
 birth and tradition and the classes are therefore less 
 fixed. 
 
 Products of group action. The products of social 
 action are of two types, material and immaterial, yet 
 each has in it elements of the other type. The material 
 products are tools, weapons, utensils, clothing, houses, 
 roads, machines, cultivated fields, etc. The immaterial 
 products are customs, languages, institutions, laws, 
 knowledge. 
 
 Although a tool is classed as a material product, yet 
 
EVOLUTION OF GROUP ACTION 15 
 
 skill and knowledge have gone into its manufacture, 
 and the tool or machine is something more than the 
 material of which it is composed. Also, without skill 
 and knowledge on the part of the one who attempts to 
 use it, the tool is worthless. On the other hand, the 
 immaterial thing, knowledge, is useful only to him who 
 possesses it. To be useful to future generations it must 
 be expressed in some material form, such as books or 
 tablets. Art is an immaterial social product, but with 
 the exception of music it must be embodied in a mate- 
 rial form. 
 
 Customs are a universal product of group action. 
 Every member of the group is directed and bound by 
 them, and each new member comes under their sway 
 unless he is endowed with unusual qualities of force and 
 initiative. Customs once started go on forever except 
 as modified by contact with other customs, the exist- 
 ence of new conditions, and the influence of a powerful 
 leader. 
 
 Of all products of group action, institutions are most 
 characteristic and most important. Little or no intelli- 
 gence is necessary to start and follow customs, but an 
 institution requires a certain amount of intelligent 
 planning. Some one must see the need for doing a 
 certain thing, and must plan the mode of doing it which 
 can be carried out by successive individuals acting in 
 certain ways. 
 
 Just as a tool is a material social invention, so is 
 an institution an immaterial social invention. Some of 
 the simpler tools are the product of chance experience 
 rather than of intelligent planning, and in a similar way 
 some institutions — such, for instance, as that of mar- 
 riage and of government — have become institutions 
 
16 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 through a combination of customs. Most institutions, 
 however, are largely originated and perpetuated by con- 
 scious planning on the part of some one. 
 ^ A machine is the material embodiment of a great 
 
 deal of intelligence and skill and an institution is an 
 immaterial embodiment of wisdom and experience. For 
 example, such an institution as a successful insurance 
 company is the product of the experience and intelli- 
 gence of thousands of persons. This intelligence is rep- 
 resented chiefly in the plans and rules that must be 
 followed in organizing and running such an institution. 
 These having been worked out, the amount of intelli- 
 gence required on the part of those who conduct the 
 institution is not very great so long as conditions re- 
 main the same and the rules work as they have done. 
 Men may make mistakes and will surely die, but an in- 
 stitution conducted according to rules makes few mis- 
 takes in its fundamental operation and it may go on 
 for ever. For example, national banks cannot now fail 
 if conducted according to law. 
 
 In the ultimate analysis, knowledge is probably the 
 highest social product, but it is least self-perpetuating. 
 Customs and institutions are group affairs, but knowl- 
 edge belongs to the individual, and to survive must 
 be imparted to successive generations of individuals. 
 When embodied in the form of written language or in 
 the working of institutions, it may be perpetuated for 
 untold generations. In order to be useful the language 
 in which it is embodied must, however, be understood, 
 and there must be a basis of individual experience for 
 comprehending the thoughts expressed. Customs, on the 
 other hand, are followed without thought or effort, and 
 different phases of institutional activity may be learned 
 
EVOLUTION OF GROUP ACTION 17 
 
 without an understanding of the wisdom involved in the 
 organization and rules of the institution. 
 
 A group of people who possess knowledge may con- 
 struct tools and machines, initiate customs, and organ- 
 ize institutions. Hence knowledge is not merely a prod- 
 uct in itself, but it is a means of reproducing every 
 other social product that may have been destroyed and 
 a guide in forming new ones. Art is an important social 
 product, but artistic ability and appreciation are not so 
 readUy transferred from one individual to another as 
 is knowledge. The designer of a bridge may leave rec- 
 ords that will make possible the designing of other 
 bridges, but the originator of a work of art cannot for- 
 mulate directions that others can utilize in painting pic- 
 tures or writing poems. For example, Poe has told us 
 how to construct a poem like "The Raven," but none 
 but a genius can foUow those directions successfully. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Give facts showing how physical characteristics, mental 
 characteristics, customs, laws, and institutions are af- 
 fected by geographical influences. 
 
 2. Describe groups of people who travel from place to 
 place at different times of the year. 
 
 3. Describe instances of migration and immigration and 
 discuss causes. 
 
 4. Give facts showing how trade between two groups of 
 people influences them. 
 
 5. Give ancient and modern illustrations of the effects of 
 war upon cooperative action. 
 
 6. Show how variety in ability and special skill makes 
 effective cooperation possible in a community or in any 
 group of people. 
 
18 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 7. Show the necessity of some likeness in a cooperating 
 group. 
 
 8. Describe the characteristics of leaders with whom you 
 are familiar in relation to those they lead. 
 
 9. Give reasons for and against the view that all advances 
 in civilization have been due chiefly to leaders. 
 
 10. Do leaders ever interfere with advance ? How ? 
 
 11. What types of leadership are most prominent to-day in 
 school, community, nation, and the world ? 
 
 12. Name the most distinct classes of people to-day in your 
 community. 
 
 13. Give illustrations of the persistence and strength of 
 customs. 
 
 14. Report on the development of customs in some schools 
 or societies showing the part leaders have had in orig- 
 inating and changing customs. 
 
 15. A simple subject of investigation would be to determine 
 why in this country dinner is in some communities at 
 noon and in others at night, especially if there have 
 been recent changes. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THE BIOLOGICAL VIEW OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 
 
 Man's chief means of survival. Since sociology is 
 concerned with the life of man, as well as with his group 
 activities, his place in the world of living things and 
 his relation to plants and animals must be considered. 
 Man is only one of the many species of animals strug- 
 gling for existence and for more extensive and complete 
 living. In general he is subject to the same laws of life, 
 growth, and evolution as are other animals. Like many 
 other animals he is found in groups and this group life 
 is one of the means enabling him to survive as a species. 
 His social instincts and his intelligence make it possible 
 for him to cooperate and thus to get more benefit from 
 group life than can almost any other animal. 
 
 He has gained the supremacy in the contest with 
 larger animals through skill of hand, intelligence, and 
 efficient group activity. He is distinguished from all 
 other animals by the fact that he greatly modifies his 
 environment, while they in general simply adapt them- 
 selves to it. The principal characteristic giving him his 
 place at the head of animal life is that of intelligence. 
 This serves him instead of natural weapons, strength, 
 or speed. He is able to fashion for himself weapons and 
 tools by means of which he may conquer other animals 
 and make such changes in his environment as will give 
 him food, shelter, and protection from danger. This 
 is especially true of civilized man. It is because of 
 intelligence that this country supports to-day a hundred 
 
20 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 million people where three centuries ago a few hundred 
 thousand savages were unable to keep themselves con- 
 tinuously supplied with food. 
 
 Balance of nature. In the struggle for existence 
 each species of plant and animal survives because of its 
 relation to other species and to the conditions of the 
 region. In any portion of the world where conditions 
 have remained nearly the same for ages, there is a fairly 
 well-established balance in nature. Increase of the food 
 of a given species may temporarily increase its numbers, 
 but this in turn gives a chance for its enemies who prey 
 upon it to increase and thus the balance is restored. 
 
 These two facts, that there is a balance in nature 
 and that man makes important changes in his environ- 
 ment, have very important results. As long as climatic 
 conditions remain practically the same for ages, there 
 will be little change in the plant and animal life of a 
 region. A few years that are especially favorable for 
 one species may cause a great increase in the numbers 
 of that species. This increase will not, however, be per- 
 manent, for any species that feeds upon the one that is 
 increased will have a much better chance and will also 
 increase to such an extent that the other will be dimin- 
 ished. If the number of this second species becomes 
 great, their food supply becomes inadequate, and they 
 in turn will be diminished to a point where the first 
 may again increase. Such compensating relations exist 
 between all the species of plants and animals in a given 
 region, so that the balance, which is continually being 
 temporarily disturbed, is automatically restored. 
 
 Man makes great changes in the life of the regions 
 that he inhabits. First, he moves plants or animals to 
 new environments, where if their usual enemies are not 
 
BIOLOGICAL VIEW OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 21 
 
 present they multiply enormously, as in the case of 
 rabbits taken to Australia and English sparrows and 
 brown-tail moths to New England. Second, he destroys 
 some species and increases the number of others, as 
 when forests are felled and corn is planted, or when 
 wolves are destroyed and cattle bred. Third, he changes 
 the characteristics of plants and animals by breeding 
 and selection. 
 
 Whenever such changes are made, fresh difficulties 
 are always met. If extensive regions are planted with 
 one kind of crop, the insects that feed upon that crop 
 multiply enormously, and since they are artificially fed 
 by man, they must be artificially destroyed by him or 
 the crop will fail. In breeding plants and animals to 
 make prominent characteristics that are desirable to 
 him, man produces varieties less hardy than those found 
 in nature. Hence he must combat the weeds that would 
 destroy his crops and must guard his pure-blooded 
 animals against injury and disease. 
 
 Among the chief factors that determine the amount 
 of life on any portion of the earth are heat and mois- 
 ture. Man, standing at the head of living things, and 
 dependent directly or indirectly upon the amoimt of 
 plant and animal food produced on the earth, cannot 
 increase in numbers beyond the limits of subsistence 
 that the earth affords. On some portions of the earth 
 where there is little heat and on others where there is 
 little or no moisture, the earth will perhaps support not 
 one person to the square mile, while, where both heat 
 and moisture are abundant and the soil favorable, hun- 
 dreds may live in luxury. Except in a very few favored 
 tropical regions, however, only a few persons can ob- 
 tain a living on a mile of territory that has not been 
 
22 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 modified by man. By working the soil, planting the 
 right crops and taking proper care of them several 
 persons are able to get a living from a single acre of 
 ground. 
 
 The law of diminishing returns. Such an enormous 
 increase in the amount of food produced on an acre of 
 land is possible that it may seem as if there were no 
 limit to such increase. It may be that there is no abso- 
 lute limit, but it is found that the amount of increase 
 of product in relation to the labor expended does soon 
 reach a limit. By proper planting, fertilization, and 
 cultivation the amount produced on an acre may be 
 doubled or quadrupled. A further doubling of fertilizer 
 and of intensive cultivation will almost surely not result 
 in doubling the crop. On the contrary, too much fertil- 
 izer will diminish the amount produced, and an increase 
 in the work expended in preparing the soil and culti- 
 vating the crop will not produce a corresponding increase 
 in the product. It is not possible, therefore, for the 
 people living in any region to increase indefinitely the 
 food products. There is always a point reached beyond 
 which an increase in labor expended does not result in 
 a corresponding increase in the product. This is known 
 as the law of diminishing returns. 
 
 Ability and readiness in learning may temporarily 
 obscure this law, as when a better selection of seed gives 
 a larger crop without any increased effort, or a more 
 suitable kind of fertilizer or method of handling the crop 
 increases the production ; but whatever means are used 
 a limit is reached in the amount that may be produced 
 in a given region until new discoveries are made. A 
 further effort to increase the product will then result in 
 smaller and smaller increase. This law of diminishing 
 
BIOLOGICAL VIEW OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 23 
 
 returns holds for every form of agriculture, including 
 stock-raising. 
 
 It also applies to mining. Tlirough the use of ma- 
 chinery and the most effective specialization and organ- 
 ization of labor, the amount of coal or ore taken from 
 the mine may be greatly increased, but when the pos- 
 sibilities of improvement in this direction are reached 
 and the coal or ore must be brought from greater depths 
 or from thinner veins, the amount obtained for a given 
 amount of labor becomes less and less. 
 
 It would seem, then, that although the earth, in re- 
 spouse to intelligent effort, will for a while yield richer 
 returns for the labor expended, yet there is a tendency 
 for these returns to become proportionally less. By in- 
 vention and discovery man may combat this law and 
 continue to increase the earth's products, but whenever 
 he ceases to find new and more effective means of agri- 
 culture and mining the law of diminishing returns is 
 sure to begin to work. 
 
 In the case of manufacturing the conditions seem to 
 be somewhat different. Increase in the size of a manu- 
 facturing establishment makes possible the employment 
 of more efficient machines and methods, and more and 
 more is produced in proportion to the amount of labor 
 expended. There scarcely seems to be a limit beyond 
 which increase in the amount produced will result in 
 greater cost of production, providing the articles pro- 
 duced are all alike. The only way in which the law of 
 diminishing returns can affect the manufacturing in- 
 dustries is indirectly, through a diminution in the raw 
 materials in proportion to the amount of work ex- 
 pended in getting them from the earth, or through in- 
 creasing transportation costs. 
 
24 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 This will probably be shown first iu the diminishing 
 supply of lumber and of coal, but this is being met in 
 part by the discovery and utilization of means by which 
 wind, water, and other forces of nature are made to do 
 the work of manufacturing. 
 
 The law of Malthus. About a century ago a noted 
 thinker named Malthus, after considering some of the 
 facts just mentioned, came to the conclusion that there 
 is an inevitable tendency for the population in every 
 portion of the earth to increase and the means of sub- 
 sistence to become relatively small. He held that, since 
 the product did not increase in the same proportion 
 as the amount of labor expended, a time would come 
 when the labor of. the increased number of human beings 
 would not furnish them enough food to maintain life. 
 So far as the facts then known are concerned his con- 
 clusions seem justified. So many inventions and dis- 
 coveries have been made, however, that up to the pres- 
 ent time the means of subsistence are greater rather 
 than less in proportion to the number of people and to 
 the amount of labor expended. People now work fewer 
 hours and have more of the necessities and luxuries of 
 life than was the case when Malthus lived. This has 
 been made possible, however, not wholly by increase of 
 productiveness in the thickly inhabited regions, but by 
 the development of the earth's resources in other places 
 which are now easily drawn upon by our improved 
 means of transportation. If, however, the population 
 of the earth shall continue to increase as Malthus esti- 
 mated that it would, there will surely come a time, 
 unless discoveries and inventions greatly alter the situa- 
 tion, when the means of subsistence will not increase 
 in proportion to the labor expended. 
 
BIOLOGICAL VIEW OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 25 
 
 Growth of population. The increase in population 
 has proved to be much less than that anticipated by 
 Malthus. Although human beings increase much less 
 rapidly than other animals, the rate biologically pos- 
 sible is very great. Four or five generations may be 
 produced in a century and each woman may bear twelve 
 children. Other influences make the increase much less 
 than this. Marriage is frequently delayed, thus decreas- 
 ing the size of the family and the number of genera- 
 tions produced in a century. There are also many 
 women who never marry and a large number of those 
 who do are barren. Since the time of Malthus the in- 
 crease in population has been lessened in other ways. 
 In all civilized countries there has been a very consid- 
 erable decrease in the size of families. 
 
 This is partly balanced by decrease in the death-rate, 
 especially of infants. In France the birth- and death- 
 rate have been nearly equal for several decades, and as 
 there has been little migration to and from that coun- 
 try, the population has remained almost stationary. In 
 other countries the birth-rate is still in excess of the 
 death-rate, but statistics show that while both are de- 
 creasing the birth-rate is decreasing more rapidly. If 
 this continues the time is not far distant when the 
 population of the earth will be stationary or decreasing. 
 If this should happen and the inventiveness of man 
 continue as it has for the last hundred years, it will be 
 possible for the law of diminishing returns to be more 
 than neutralized, subsistence increasing more rapidly 
 than population and more necessities and luxuries be- 
 ing obtained by fewer hours of labor. 
 
 Evolution of human characteristics. Some animals 
 survive by their great productiveness, others by their 
 
26 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 strength, swiftness, or ability to live under hard condi- 
 tions. Man's chief means of survival and of supremacy 
 over other animals lie in intelligence which enables him 
 to modify and utilize the things in his environment and 
 the forces of nature for his own ends. In most species 
 of animals there is a struggle for existence, not only 
 with other species, but among the individuals of the 
 same species, and those survive who are best fitted to 
 the conditions of life. This is less true of man than of 
 other animals and still less true the more civilized he 
 becomes. Men cooperate more than they compete. 
 Various kinds of ability are thus utilized and the weak 
 are protected and supported by the strong. 
 
 At the present time the struggle among human be- 
 ings is to only a slight extent for survival, but chiefly 
 for position. Very few die for the want of food or 
 shelter. The general biological law affecting survival 
 is, therefore, in the case of the human species, consid- 
 erably modified by what is sometimes called counter- 
 selection. Intelligence was never so important a factor 
 in the life of man as it is to-day, but intelligence deter- 
 mines not so much who shall live as who shall take a 
 prominent place. The intellectual achievements of 
 men are due to their intellectual capacity, on the one 
 hand, and to the opportunities they have of acquiring 
 and making use of the intellectual products of past 
 generations. 
 
 It is very doubtful whether the intellectual capacity 
 of man is any greater than it was several thousand 
 years ago, and there are probably biological reasons 
 why it will not greatly increase in the future. Intel- 
 lectual capacity depends upon the size and structure 
 of the nervous system, especially of the brain. A large 
 
BIOLOGICAL VIEW OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 27 
 
 brain means a large head, and it is a well-known fact 
 that children with excessively large heads are generally 
 stillborn. If it be supposed that there may be a tend- 
 ency to a greater growth of head after birth, then we 
 must recognize certain laws of physical balance in the 
 organism which would make the development of human 
 beings with excessively large heads impossible. If 
 the nervous system were disproportionately prominent, 
 health could not be maintained and the individual 
 would die or the activity of the brain would be inter- 
 fered with. From the biological point of view, although 
 it may be possible, it is certainly not probable, that 
 there will be any very great increase in the intellectual 
 capacity of the human being. The so-called super-man 
 will probably never appear. 
 
 This does not mean, however, that there will be no 
 further change in the intellectual characteristics of 
 men. When we observe what has been accomplished 
 in the breeding of animals we are Impressed with the 
 fact that although no super-horse, cow, dog, or hen 
 has been produced, yet that there has been great spe- 
 cialization of characteristics. We have the trotting 
 horse, the running horse, and the draft horse, the milch 
 cow and the beef cow, and scores of varieties of dogs 
 excelling in one or another characteristic. In a similar 
 way it would undoubtedly be possible to develop spe- 
 cialized varieties of human beings — mathematicians, 
 musicians, artists, scientists, philosophers, men of great 
 executive ability, etc. Theoretically this is undoubtedly 
 possible, but practically the possibilities are not likely 
 to be very fully realized. In such countries as India, 
 where the caste system has prevailed for many cen- 
 turies, and where there is almost no marrying outside 
 
28 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 of one*s caste, there has been a development of rather 
 distinct varieties of human beings. In other countries 
 there is something of a tendency for persons of the 
 same mental characteristics to become acquainted with 
 each other and to marry, but unless mating is controlled 
 by authority and custom more completely than it ever 
 has been, it is not likely that very highly specialized 
 varieties of human beings will be developed. 
 
 Eugenics. There has been much talk recently of 
 possible improvements in the human race. The above 
 considerations indicate that much improvement in gen- 
 eral intelligence is scarcely possible and that specializa- 
 tion of intelligence is not probable unless very impor- 
 tant and undemocratic changes in our social regulations 
 be made. There is still, however, a possibility of im- 
 provement, chiefly in a negative way. When the 
 different classes of people are studied it is found that 
 some are increasing in numbers much more rapidly 
 than others. It seems as if intelligence itself were lim- 
 iting the development of intelligence in man as a 
 species, for the birth-rate is smallest among the most 
 intelligent and greatest among the unintelligent and 
 feeble-minded. 
 
 This is due partly to the fact that those who attain in- 
 tellectual prominence must defer marriage until a later 
 age. This results in smaller families and fewer gener- 
 ations to the century. In addition to this, there is 
 clear evidence that a large proportion of the more in- 
 telligent classes are voluntarily limiting the size of 
 their families. If everybody married and all the chil- 
 dren born lived to maturity, it would be necessary, in 
 order to maintain population, that there should be two 
 children in each family. Since many children die and 
 
BIOLOGICAL VIEW OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 29 
 
 some individuals do not marry or produce any chil- 
 dren, the number of children in each family must aver- 
 age between three and four in order that population 
 may not decrease. Statistics of the families of college 
 graduates show that the size of their families ranges 
 on the average from one and a half to two and a half. 
 On the other hand, it is found that the average family 
 of common laborers is considerably above that neces- 
 sary to maintain population, while the birth-rate among 
 the feeble-minded is stiU greater. It is evident, there- 
 fore, that at the present time there are strong influ- 
 ences tending to increase the numbers of the unintelli- 
 gent portion of the population far more rapidly than 
 of the intelligent. 
 
 This is partly counteracted by the extensive inter- 
 marriage of peoples of various grades of intelligence 
 and also by the fact that the classification of people as 
 unintelligent or intelligent according to the position 
 they occupy in society is not at all reliable. The com- 
 mon laborer may have as much intellectual capacity as 
 the doctor or lawyer, and his son, when given proper 
 opportunities, may show intellectual capacity equal to 
 that of the son of the professional man. StiU the fact 
 remains that human beings of the lower types, espe- 
 cially of the feeble-minded variety, are numerous, and 
 their numbers are increasing more rapidly than are 
 those of a higher type. The most obvious thing to be 
 done, therefore, by those interested in eugenics, is to 
 de\ase means for preventing the production of the 
 unfit and to make conditions more favorable for in- 
 creased productiveness of the fit. 
 
 The best means known at present of preventing the 
 increase of the unfit, especially of the feeble-minded, is 
 
30 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 custodial care during the child-producing period. It is 
 estimated that the feeble-minded number between one 
 and two per cent of the total population and that 
 nearly three fourths of all cases of feeble-mindedness 
 are hereditary. If, therefore, all feeble-minded persons 
 now living were prevented from producing children, 
 feeble-mindedness would be reduced by more than one 
 half in a single generation. Further study of the laws 
 of heredity and of what affects development before and 
 after birth, in particular the influence of drugs and 
 diseases, would make it possible still further to de- 
 crease the production of the unfit, not only those that 
 are feeble-minded, but those that are defective in other 
 ways or who have a tendency to insanity. 
 
 On the positive side, those interested in eugenics 
 may do most by a campaign of education which will 
 develop an interest and pride in the production of 
 healthy and intelligent children, and give increased 
 knowledge of how this may be done. Probably some- 
 thing may be gained by making economic conditions 
 more favorable for those who are likely to produce and 
 care for such childi-en. 
 
 ^Jipther side of the problem of producing a higher 
 type qf human beings is concerned with making the 
 physical, social, and mental conditions favorable to the 
 development of the best inherited capacity of each in- 
 dividual. This method of improving the human race, 
 not through heredity, but through favorable surround- 
 ings, has been named euthenics. Its problems, as we 
 shall see later, are much the same as those of education. 
 
BIOLOGICAL VIEW OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 31 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Give examples of social animals and how they help each 
 other to survive when living in groups. 
 
 2. Give several striking examples of how man has modi- 
 fied his environment. 
 
 3. Give examples showing how one species is limited in its 
 development hy other plants or animals. 
 
 4. Study density of population in the United States in re- 
 lation to rainfall. 
 
 5. Give examples in detail of the working of the law of 
 diminishing returns in farming and in mining. 
 
 6. Report on the theory and arguments of Malthus. 
 
 7. Illustrate the law of increasing returns in manufactur- 
 ing- 
 
 8. Explain how so many millions can live on the small 
 space of earth occupied by New York City. 
 
 9. Illustrate the increase of luxuries in the last century. 
 Show how competition for place has increased. 
 
 10. Report statistics of birth-rate and death-rate in various 
 countries. 
 
 11. Summarize the facts favoring Malthas' law and those 
 favoring its opposite. 
 
 12. Summarize the arguments in favor and against the 
 probability of further increase in general intelligence 
 in man. 
 
 13. Describe more fully the possibilities and probabilities 
 of man's increasing in special types of intelligence. 
 
 14. Discuss ways of raising the general standards of intel- 
 ligence by means of eugenics. 
 
 15. Discuss the possibility of improving man by education. 
 
CHAPTEE IV 
 
 A PSYCHOLOGICAL VIEW OF BEHAVIOR AND NEEDS 
 
 Consciousness and group behavior. Some of the 
 earlier sociologists, notably Rousseau, held that human 
 beings formed groups instead of living solitary lives, be- 
 cause of a social contract by which they gave up certain 
 individual rights in order to gain the advantages that 
 came from association with others. If this were to be 
 taken literally, nothing could be farther from the truth. 
 Men have always lived in groups as they are impelled 
 to do by instinct. It is the hermit who acts in accord- 
 ance with conscious states instead of according to his 
 instinct, who separates himself from the group. There 
 are many advantages gained from forming groups, but 
 consciousness of the advantages is not necessarily the 
 cause of their being formed. Instinct rather than con- 
 sciousness plays the larger part in the social actions of 
 animals, of primitive man, and also of even the most 
 civilized men. 
 
 The chief basis of the psychology of the crowd is the 
 instinctive tendency to respond to the actions and sig- 
 nals of others in a more or less imitative way. If one 
 individual shrieks and starts to run, others do the same, 
 and soon the whole crowd is in a panic of fear that is 
 not based upon any knowledge of danger, but is excited 
 by the cries and movements of the others. A mob may 
 burn and slay under the stimulus of cries and gestures, 
 with little or no knowledge of the occasion for the act 
 of vengeance. 
 
A PSYCHOLOGICAL VIEW OF BEHAVIOR 33 
 
 Giddings regards consciousness of kind as one of the 
 most important factors in social action. It is undoubt- 
 edly true that animals are more sensitive to the cries 
 and actions of members of their own species than they 
 are to those of another species, and this is true also of 
 hiunan beings. Even in persons, however, this is in- 
 stinctive rather than involving a definite thought of 
 others as being like ourselves. It is primarily the like- 
 ness rather than the consciousness of the likeness that 
 gives all the same impulse and brings about group ac- 
 tion. 
 
 There can be no doubt, however, that some sort of 
 common consciousness is an important element in social 
 action. Common consciousness is produced by a com- 
 mon situation and by common movements and atti- 
 tudes, and it often is an important means of unifying 
 a group of people and getting them ready for coopera- 
 tive action. This common consciousness, however, is 
 not likely to consist so much in a distinct thought of 
 others as being like ourselves, as it is in a feeling that 
 others have the same needs that we have. The fact 
 that people of many different races may persistently 
 cooperate and act together in a strike, shows that need 
 rather than mental and physical similarity is the es- 
 sential element in group action. Similarity is favorable 
 to group action, probably in part because the similarity 
 gives a stronger impression of the needs being the same 
 and partly because those who are similar can under- 
 stand one another better and .can, therefore, cooperate 
 more effectively. 
 
 Consciousness and a high degree of intelligence un- 
 doubtedly play a large part in the higher forms of co- 
 operative action. This is shown especially in planning 
 
34 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 the actions of a group so as to satisfy the common 
 need. The work to be done by each individual and the 
 rules that guide him in doing it must be carefully for- 
 mulated. Instinctive impulses furnish the motive for 
 cooperative action and conscious intelligence devises 
 the means. Of all modes of common action the utter- 
 ance of words is the most important. It is through the 
 common consciousness thus produced that knowledge, 
 the highest product of social action, residts. 
 
 The social instincts of man. Man, like many other 
 species of animals, has probably always lived in groups. 
 This group life has produced a profound influence upon 
 his nature. His most useful forms of behavior are either 
 reactions, in company with others, to forces and objects 
 in nature, or reactions to what other human beings are 
 doing. 
 
 During the long period of infancy and immaturity 
 it is much more necessary that the child shall notice 
 and react to persons than to things. He is dependent 
 upon persons for food and protection. It is better that 
 he shall call for food and react to the signal that food 
 is present than that he himself shall search for it. It is 
 more important that he shall respond to danger signals 
 than that he shall perceive the danger himself. 
 
 In animal and primitive human groups the individual 
 that is quick to respond to food signals has a better 
 chance to be well fed than those that are less sensitive 
 to the movements and sounds of their companions, and 
 the one that responds most quickly to danger signals is 
 most likely to escape. The young that reach maturity 
 are, therefore, not necessarily the strongest and boldest, 
 but those that are most sensitive to what their older 
 companions do and who react most quickly in an ap- 
 
A PSYCHOLOGICAL VIEW OF BEHAVIOR 35 
 
 propriate way. In some respects group life is more 
 favorable to weaker individuals than it is to the strong. 
 In the competition within the group, however, for food 
 and for mates, the strong have the advantage and thus 
 a balance is preserved. The young animal or child that 
 is sensitive to what members of the group are doing 
 gains through imitating their safer line of conduct. 
 When the young are partly grown, they begin to come 
 into competition with their elders, and those who are 
 first to perceive that the older ones have satisfied their 
 hunger will be better fed than those who are slower, 
 whUe those who attempt to secure the food too soon 
 may get hurt. Similar conditions exist between adults 
 and the leader of the group. 
 
 Also, in all the activities concerned in securing a 
 mate, a premium is put upon quick perception of the 
 meaning of actions of mates and rivals. The individual 
 that most quickly perceives the meanings of move- 
 ments and that most accurately estimates the strength 
 of rivals, is the one that is likely to survive and pro- 
 duce descendants. Since any individual that makes a 
 wrong move which angers his elders or the leader is 
 likely to be driven away, while those that act in just 
 the right way at the right time have privileges and ad- 
 vantages, there is developed a strong instinctive tend- 
 ency to act so as to secure the approval of other mem- 
 bers of the group. 
 
 Leaders must not only be quick to perceive and to 
 act, but their actions must be impressive to others. A 
 leader must be able to attract attention and to stimu- 
 late to the kind of action he desires. A leader observes 
 his followers and by doing just the right thing at the 
 right time is able, through the action of others, to get 
 
36 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 more that he desires than he could by his own efforts. 
 In meeting and fighting with individuals of his own 
 species within and without the group, success depends 
 as much on the ability to anticipate what the opponent 
 will do as it does upon strength and quickness. These 
 facts make it evident why the interest and attention 
 of human beings are concerned more with what other 
 human beings are doing than with anything else, and 
 why desire for approval plays such a large part in life. 
 People instinctively seek to remain with other persons 
 because they are lonely and uncomfortable without the 
 stimulus of other people. 
 
 Common needs of animals and human beings. Man, 
 like other animals, has need of food, and also like them 
 is endowed with the instinct to get it. He, as well as 
 they, has need of protection from dangers of various 
 kinds and has the instinct to escape from danger. Like 
 them he requires a mate and is endowed with the mating 
 instinct. Man, in common with other animals that live 
 in groups, needs the companionship of those of his own 
 kind, and instinctively seeks it. Most of the higher 
 animals, including man, have need for recreation and 
 consequently engage to a greater or less extent in play. 
 Needs are the chief stimuli to action in both men and 
 animals. Hence, sociology, in considering the actions 
 of men in groups, must take into account their needs. 
 
 A large proportion of the activities of human beings 
 are directly or indirectly aimed toward securing food. 
 The chief difference between men and animals in this 
 respect is, that while animals find their food, civilized 
 man produces it. The need for food is the principal oc- 
 casion for the phenomena of group activity considered 
 under the head of economics. The need for protection 
 
A PSYCHOLOGICAL VIEW OF BEHAVIOR 37 
 
 from danger has given rise to most of the activities con- 
 sidered under the head of political science. The need 
 for a mate not only perpetuates the species, but has led 
 to the formation of the primary social group, the family. 
 The need of companionship has led to the formation of 
 many other groups more or less permanent, while the 
 need of recreation has led to various activities of play 
 and amusement. 
 
 Higher human needs and instincts. In addition to 
 the needs and instincts possessed in common with other 
 animals, man has other needs and instincts that are 
 either not present at all or in only a slight degree even 
 in the higher animals. All animals have instinctive 
 modes of satisfying their wants, while man is not so 
 fully endowed with fixed instincts, but must to a much 
 greater extent use his intelligence to find means of 
 satisfying his desires. All animals as well as human 
 beings have the instinct of curiosity. In man this 
 amounts to an intellectual hunger to know. It is not 
 limited to curiosity regarding the necessities of life, but 
 extends to aU sorts of phenomena. This becomes then 
 a genuine need of human beings, and means of satisfy- 
 ing it to a greater or less extent are being used wher- 
 ever there are groups of people, civilized or uncivilized. 
 
 The need for beauty is one that is also very strong in 
 man and shown only slightly or not at aU by animals. 
 Music, art, and literature are the products of activities 
 concerned in satisfying this need. 
 
 Among all human beings there is a very distinct need 
 for the regulation of conduct. Other animals have this 
 to only a slight extent because their instincts direct 
 them. Man, acting partly in accordance with intelli- 
 gence, feels the need of some directing and control- 
 
38 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 ling influence. This need has given rise to two in- 
 fluences regulating conduct, the moral and the religious. 
 In morals the individual's actions are directed not 
 wholly by his own impulses or wishes, but in ac- 
 cordance with the customs and wishes of the group to 
 which he belongs. In religious regulation of conduct, 
 the wishes of some spirit are the standard. This need 
 for the regulation of conduct by something outside of 
 one's self has played a very prominent part in social 
 development, and cannot be ignored by the scientific 
 sociologist. 
 
 Classification of sociological phenomena. So varied 
 and complex are the phenomena of group life and action 
 and the resulting products that a satisfactory classifica- 
 tion is exceedingly difficult. Considerable simplification 
 results, however, when we reflect that all actions of men 
 singly and in groups are the result of instinctive im- 
 pulses to satisfy needs. These needs, although largely 
 individual in character, are common to all human beings 
 and many of them can be satisfied only through group 
 life. Cooperative action is a more effective means of 
 satisfying these common needs than individual effort. 
 It is clear, then, that all sociological phenomena, from 
 the comparatively blind action of the mob up to the 
 most intelligent cooperative institutional activity of 
 highly civilized man, constitute forms of action by means 
 of which the needs of the group are satisfied. If, there- 
 fore, we classify social actions and social products ac- 
 cording to the ends served, we shall have a classification 
 that is fundamentally the same for all grades of civiliza- 
 tion and for permanent groups of all sizes. 
 
 These needs are closely related and the means of 
 satisfying them involve some of the same activities. 
 
A PSYCHOLOGICAL VIEW OF BEHAVIOR 39 
 
 Hence, even on this basis, lines must not be draven too 
 sharply. It will be of great help, however, to be able 
 to apply a few fundamental conceptions to group life 
 in its various stages of evolution. 
 
 Among every group of people we shall find that most 
 of the sociological phenomena may be considered under 
 the following heads : First, e conomic n eeds and activi- 
 ties which were concerned primarily with securing food 
 and gaining protection against climatic changes, and 
 secondarily with the production and distribution of ma- 
 terial things that serve these and other purposes ; second, 
 p rotective needs and the resulting activities, the purpose 
 of which is to guard against dangers to the group from 
 other groups, from dangers of the environment, and from 
 the action of anti-social individuals within the group 
 who would otherwise not conform to the regulations 
 necessary in order to preserve life and property against 
 death and injury ; third, r ecreative needs and those 
 activities by means of which bodyandTaind are re- 
 freshed ; fourth, social needs and the activities which 
 satisfy the social instincts ; fifth, cultural nee ds and the 
 activities which gratify intellectual and aesthetic desires; 
 sixth, i dealistic or mo ral and religious need s and activi- 
 ties that are concerned in the fixing of standards for 
 the regulation of action within the group ; seventh, edu- 
 cationaL^needs and activities which result in teaching 
 the younger generation the means to use in satisfying 
 their wants. 
 
 The sociological life of every group, small or large, 
 savage or civilized, may be studied under these heads, 
 and every custom, machine, and institution is a means 
 of satisfying one or more of these needs. 
 
40 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Report on the " social-contract " theory. 
 
 2. Give reasons for the view that social development has 
 been and still is, to a large extent, instinctive rather than 
 conscious and intentional. 
 
 3. How can people who have a common language cooperate 
 better than those who can communicate with one another 
 only by signs ? How may they profit by the experiences 
 of one another? 
 
 4. Illustrate that we notice the movements of strangers 
 whom we meet and quickly decide how to act in relation 
 to them. 
 
 5. Illustrate the strength of the competitive instinct and of 
 the desire for approval. 
 
 6. Show that the social, intellectual, and sesthetic interests 
 are more prominent in man much of the time than the 
 biological instincts by which life is preserved. 
 
 7. Show how intelligence makes greater cooperation pos- 
 sible. 
 
 8. Give illustrations, from your own community life, of co- 
 operative acts to secure economic, protective, recrea- 
 tional, social, cultural, regulative, or educational ends. 
 
 9. Make a list of a dozen or more machines and institu- 
 tions and state what need or needs they serve. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 ECONOMIC NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 
 
 Needs, values, and wealth. The science of economics 
 treats of the production, distribution, and use of wealth. 
 From one standpoint it is simply a division of sociology. 
 The strictly economic view, however, is concerned chiefly 
 with the material objects of wealth and efliciency in 
 their production, while sociology is concerned rather 
 with the producers of wealth, their cooperative activi- 
 ties and their welfare. The primary cause of economic 
 activity is the need for food and shelter, but other 
 needs are also satisfied by the production of objects of 
 value. Whatever will satisfy any human need has a 
 value. If it can be exchanged for something else that 
 will satisfy desire, it is wealth, or, in other words, has 
 economic value. If individuals or a group of people 
 gather food and consume it, no wealth is produced, 
 but if one catches fish, another hunts game, a third 
 raises corn, and a fourth makes tools, and they ex- 
 change their several products, they have produced 
 wealth. 
 
 The earth furnishes the materials for the production 
 of wealth, but in general it does not become such until 
 labor has been expended upon it. Most economic activ- 
 ity is concerned with the transportation of material 
 products, with making changes in the earth by means 
 of which more may be obtained, with the transformation 
 of products into a liable form, or with getting them to 
 consumers. 
 
4& FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 Economic activity and cooperation. All economic ac- 
 tivity is in its very nature cooperative. The effort that 
 one expends in getting directly what wiU satisfy his de- 
 sires is not, properly speaking, economic activity. It is 
 only when he expends labor to produce something that 
 can be exchanged for what will satisfy desire that his 
 activity is economic in character. The man who gathers 
 bananas for his own consumption is not engaged in 
 economic activity, but if he gathers more than he wants 
 and exchanges the surplus for fish, meat or grain, tools 
 or clothing, he is so engaged. He and all those that ex- 
 change with him are satisfying their desires by indirect 
 means. It is in this respect that civilized human beings 
 differ most from savages and from animals. Activity of 
 this kind is necessarily cooperative because it is utterly 
 impossible for each to satisfy his several desires unless 
 others put forth the effort to produce what he wishes. 
 Hundreds of people who have never seen one another, 
 therefore, continually cooperate in meeting their own 
 and others' needs. 
 
 If the man who is raising grain produces an insufifi- 
 cient amount or an inferior quality, others are affected 
 almost as much as if they had failed properly to perform 
 their own part. The sum total of desires that may be satis- 
 fied is increased by increased efficiency on the part of any 
 of the workers and is decreased by idleness and ineffi- 
 ciency. Any individual who consumes what others pro- 
 duce and produces little or nothing himself is a burden 
 upon the cooperating group. This is very evident in 
 the case of a small party of explorers who must travel 
 and draw their sledges a certain distance before their 
 food supply is exhausted. If a man is crippled and can 
 no longer help, but continues to eat, he is a burden 
 
ECONOMIC NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 43 
 
 upon the party and may bring disaster upon the ex- 
 pedition. 
 
 The same principle holds good for the whole civil- 
 ized world. Idleness or inefficiency on the part of any 
 decreases the total amount of wealth and some are 
 deprived of what they would otherwise have had. 
 
 Burdensome classes. In every community and every 
 nation there are many who are not producers. The 
 largest group of these comprise children who are not 
 old enough to labor. Those who are too old to work 
 effectively constitute another class always to be found. 
 In addition there are a large number who are sick or 
 defective and are, therefore, either temporarily or per- 
 manently non- workers. To these must be added a great 
 many who are able to work, but who do not care to do so 
 or who are unable to obtain employment. Besides these 
 there are many women who are engaged in home-mak- 
 ing, an activity classified in statistics as non-economic. 
 
 In every country each producer of wealth has to fur- 
 nish the means of support not only for himself, but for 
 one or more other persons. With the best possible social 
 adjustments probably less than one half of the total 
 population of any country could be economically active. 
 In this country only a little over one third are pro- 
 ducers of wealth. One of the chief problems of practical 
 sociology is that of adding to the number of workers 
 and of increasing the efficiency of those who do work. 
 It is estimated that there are in the United States ten 
 million people who occasionally or regidarly receive 
 financial assistance. Besides these, criminals in large 
 numbers must be supported and guarded. Many are a 
 burden upon society because of heredity, others because 
 of sickness or accidents, and others because financial 
 
44 FUNDAMENTALS OP SOCIOLOGY 
 
 and social conditions are such that they cannot be profit- 
 ably employed where they are and no means have been 
 provided for taking them to where employment may 
 be found. Still others are not profitably employed be- 
 cause they have not been trained for the work that 
 would otherwise be open to them. 
 
 Economic consumption of wealth. In cooperative 
 economic activity consumption of wealth plays an im- 
 portant part and some ways of consuming wealth are 
 of greater advantage to all the people than others. If 
 a man makes a bonfire of his wheat instead of using it 
 himself or exchanging it for something else, he has de- 
 stroyed rather than used a certain amount of wealth. 
 He must consume food that some one else has produced 
 in order himself to remain an effective producer, and 
 the world's supply of wheat has been diminished so 
 that some one will have to do with less bread or all 
 will have to give an increased amount of some other 
 product to secure it. If a man consumes more of any 
 form of food than he needs there will be less for others, 
 and he himself is likely to become a less efficient pro- 
 ducer because of injury to his health. 
 
 If a man spends his money in buying stone and em- 
 ploying workmen to build a monument for himself, he 
 is wasting a portion of the world's wealth because he 
 is putting it into a form that will not be of use to any 
 one else unless it is a genuine work of art. On the 
 other hand, if he puts the same stone into a suitable 
 building it may remain of value to the world and be 
 useful to many generations. 
 
 In general that is the most useful consumption of 
 wealth which either embodies it in a form that will 
 continue to be valuable to others, or which makes its 
 
ECONOMIC NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 46 
 
 consumers more efficient producers. Any consumption 
 of wealth which transforms it so that it can no longer 
 be used, or that lessens the efficiency of those whose 
 desires are satisfied, is bad, and injures not simply the 
 individual, but all who are cooperating in economic 
 activity. 
 
 Uses of wealth that satisfy desire, without either in- 
 creasing or decreasing the efficiency of the consumer, 
 or interfering with others, may be classed as neither 
 exceptionally bad nor good. It is a matter for the par- 
 ties concerned individually to decide what desires to 
 satisfy, whether sensory, intellectual, or artistic. 
 
 Tools and wealth production. There is very little 
 production of wealth without the use of tools of some 
 kind. Tools are inventions by means of which labor is 
 made more effective, more wealth is produced by the 
 same amount of effort, and many things are done that 
 would be impossible without them. A man could cul- 
 tivate the ground with his fingers, but if he spends 
 part of his time in constructing an implement for work- 
 ing the ground, or in working for some one else who 
 constructs it, and then uses this implement in raising 
 his crop, he will probably have larger results than if 
 he spent all the time working with his fingers. 
 
 The labor expended in the making of tools is an in- 
 direct means of producing what will satisfy desire, 
 which is worth while when the tool constructed enables 
 one to accomplish more than would have been possible 
 by direct effort, A tool is a material embodiment of 
 both skill and intelligence on the part of the maker and 
 it may be useful long after his death. The same is true 
 of all implements and machines used in producing 
 wealth. The invention of a useful tool or machine may 
 
46 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 enable one man to do the work of ten. This will tem- 
 porarily throw some of them out of a job and they may 
 think it is a curse rather than a blessing. Considering, 
 however, the whole body of producers, every invention 
 that diminishes the amount of labor required to pro- 
 duce a given amount of wealth is of advantage. Some 
 of this advantage is diminished by the time required to 
 construct the machine and by loss of time of those who 
 are temporarily thrown out of work, but ultimately all 
 may find work of another kind and the total amount 
 of wealth produced will be increased. This will make 
 it possible for the cooperating group of people either 
 to satisfy more desires or decrease the number of hours 
 that they must labor. 
 
 Machines and industries. These facts apply equally 
 to tools and machines. A distinction between the two 
 is, however, worth noting. A tool demands strength, 
 skill, and intelligence to use it, while the operator of a 
 machine may require these qualities in only a slight de- 
 gree, although a great deal of intelligence is needed by 
 the one who constructs it or keeps it in running order. 
 The intelligence of the constructor of the machine 
 makes it possible for it to be run by one of the forces 
 of nature and the movements of its parts are made 
 with such exactness that very fine work is produced by 
 an operator without much intellectual capacity. For 
 example, the modern loom, run by steam and directed 
 by patterns punched in cardboard, weaves intricate 
 designs and the loom tender does little but supply it 
 with material and repair breaks. The power sewing- 
 machine requires no strength to run it and no skill on 
 the part of the operator to direct the movements of 
 the needle, and with suitable attachments no great de- 
 
ECONOMIC NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 47 
 
 gree of skill and intelligence is required to manipulate 
 the fabric so as to produce remarkable results in the 
 way of hemming, ruffling, etc. Since the need for intel- 
 ligence and skill is supplied by a machine, its tender 
 does not need those qualities to the same extent as does 
 the wielder of tools. The old-time shoemaker had con- 
 siderable intelligence and a good deal of skill in using 
 his tools. Now there are machines for the various proc- 
 esses of shoemaking and a large proportion of those 
 engaged in the industry are simply machine tenders. 
 Each can acquire in a few days all the skill necessary 
 for adjusting the materials to the action of the machines. 
 
 In some industries machines have been improved so 
 that they are automatic and adjust for themselves the 
 materials upon which they work. Of these, the modem 
 printing-press which takes a roU of paper and in an 
 hour turns out a hundred thousand copies of folded 
 and counted newspapers is a striking example. Inven- 
 tive genius is producing machinery more and more 
 automatic, but whether there will ever come a time 
 when hides can be fed into a machine at one end and 
 shoes turned out at the other, is doubtful. 
 
 As long as tenders of machines are required, many 
 workmen with little skill and intelligence may be em- 
 ployed. On the other hand, skilled workmen are re- 
 quired to manufacture these machines, to keep them 
 in running order, and to manage machines and workers 
 so that they will produce to their fidl capacity and so 
 that there will be no loss of time in passing material 
 from one process to another. Many intelligent workers 
 must also be employed in buying material, transporting 
 it, selling the finished product, keeping accounts, etc. 
 On the whole, then, machine production requires less 
 
48 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 strength and less variety of skill on the part of some 
 of the workers, but a much higher grade of intelligence 
 on the part of many of those engaged directly or indi- 
 rectly in producing and distributing the goods. 
 
 Machines, capital, and managers. Machines are the 
 residt of past effort and they serve more and more as 
 substitutes for present effort. A hundred men working 
 with crude tools may not be able to produce as much 
 as a single man using a machine. At the present time, 
 therefore, wealth is being produced not so much by 
 those who are now working as by the stored-up results 
 of past labor. The first step in starting a manufactur- 
 ing plant in these days is not to find workers, but to 
 get buildings and machines. This is what gives capital 
 its prominent place in modern industry. The owner of 
 the capital does not necessarily engage in the industry 
 himself. He may lend his money to another person who 
 becomes the manager of the business. This manager 
 must get proper machinery, purchase raw materials, 
 arrange for the efficient working of every machine and 
 man employed, and find a market for the products. To 
 do this a high degree of intelligence is required and 
 many subordinate helpers or heads of departments are 
 needed. This furnishes a marked contrast to former 
 methods of production when tools only were used. Each 
 workman had a comparatively small amount of capital 
 invested in tools and he was his own manager and 
 salesman. Capital played a small part in the production 
 of wealth and varied but not profound intelligence was 
 required. 
 
 Institutions and production. In general, machine 
 production is profitable only when a large quantity of 
 goods of the same kind is to be produced. If a single 
 
ECONOMIC NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 49 
 
 chair of a certain style is to be made, it will be eco- 
 nomical to use tools in constructing it, but if a hundred 
 thousand are required, it will pay to use machinery, 
 and the cost per chair will be only a small part of 
 what it would be if tools were used. Thus, production 
 by machinery inevitably tends to result in large fac- 
 tories. It follows that a large amount of capital is 
 needed and that the business must be carried on for a 
 long period of time. With rare exceptions could a sin- 
 gle man furnish the capital and manage the business. 
 
 We find, therefore, that to a very large extent insti- 
 tutions in the form of companies or corporations have 
 taken the place of individuals in the production and 
 distribution of wealth. A company is organized, capital 
 is furnished by the various stockholders, and managers 
 are secured. They hire workers, conduct the business, 
 and establish the reputation of the firm. Such an in- 
 stitution, after being well organized, may continue its 
 work in much the same way regardless of the fact that 
 the owners of the capital, the managers, and workmen 
 are changing from year to year. With the development 
 of big business and its conduct by corporations there is 
 a growing tendency, not only for workers to specialize, 
 but for institutions to be developed for special purposes. 
 Banking institutions facilitate the purchase of mate- 
 rials, the payment of workers, and the selling of goods. 
 Advertising agencies take charge of making the goods 
 known to the world, transportation companies bring 
 materials and carry away the products. Insurance 
 agencies guard against loss to goods and to workmen 
 through accidents. In addition to this associations are 
 formed by the managers of manufacturing establish- 
 ments and trade unions by the workers. 
 
50 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 Advertising and standardization of products. The 
 
 change from tool to machine production immensely 
 complicates the problem of selling goods. Machine pro- 
 duction necessarily means that a larger quantity of goods 
 must be produced in one place than can be used in the 
 immediate neighborhood. Hence these goods must be 
 sold to strangers in distant places. The old-time shoe- 
 maker made shoes for his immediate neighbors who 
 came personally and bought them. The modern shoe- 
 maker makes shoes for people all over the country and 
 perhaps for those in other countries. He can make 
 a pair of shoes for a fraction of the cost to the old- 
 time shoemaker, but after they are made he must spend 
 a good deal of money in making them known to cus- 
 tomers and in getting the goods to them and the money 
 in return, or he must seU them to wholesale dealers who, 
 through retail merchants, get them into the hands of 
 customers. 
 
 There is always a considerable difference between the 
 cost of manufacturing goods and the price paid by the 
 customer, the latter being often from two to ten times 
 the former. This difference is spent in advertising, sell- 
 ing, and transporting the goods. One of the problems of 
 modem economics is to reduce the cost of getting goods 
 from the manufacturer to the consumer. Except in the 
 case of very heavy goods, transportation is only a small 
 portion of the expense. Millions are spent in making 
 the goods known or advertising, and the rest goes to 
 pay the wholesale and retail merchants or the so-called 
 middlemen. 
 
 One of the most promising means of reducing this 
 cost is through the standardization of products. There 
 is very little money spent in advertising sugar, and 
 
ECONOMIC NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 51 
 
 although It is a comparatively heavy substance to ship 
 there is only a small difference between the cost of 
 manufacture and the price to consumers. This is due 
 chiefly to the fact that sugar is a known product of 
 standard quality and is in extensive and constant de- 
 mand. No money need be spent in making it known or 
 urging people to buy ; it is not perishable and the 
 amount used is large. Hence dealers can afford to sell 
 it at a small profit. In proportion as goods of any kind 
 come into general use and are standardized as to quality, 
 is the cost to consumers reduced and without any loss 
 to manufacturers or middlemen. In the case of tool- 
 made articles, for the special use of individuals, a stand- 
 ard product is undesirable, but for machine-made prod- 
 ucts, for use by people who have no chance to inspect 
 the goods before purchasing, standardization is becom- 
 ing more and more advantageous. 
 
 The standard product is much more cheaply produced 
 by the manufacturer and after it has once become well 
 known little advertising is necessary in order to secure 
 regular sales at fixed prices. When sewing-machines 
 were first invented they were costly to manufacture and 
 could be sold only by glib-tongued agents who must be 
 well paid for their efforts. Now the housewife does not 
 need to be instructed regarding the advantages of hav- 
 ing a machine, and she probably knows the different 
 kinds and can order one that will exactly meet her 
 needs without seeing it. The manufacturer takes care 
 that each style of machine shall be of a standard quality 
 and he has machinery for making each part by the 
 thousands, so that the cost to him is only a fraction of 
 what it formerly was. A good bicycle can now be pur- 
 chased for one sixth of the cost of a poor one a quar- 
 
62 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 ter of a century ago. At that time manufacturers were 
 bringing out new models every year, and because of that 
 fact they had to do extensive advertising and frequently 
 change the machinery and the processes of manufacture. 
 Now everything is standardized and the consumer gets 
 the benefit with no loss to the manufacturer and to the 
 middleman. 
 
 Standardization of product is of advantage not only 
 in manufacturing, but also in agriculture. Flour is com- 
 paratively cheap, partly because the different grades of 
 ■wheat have been carefully standardized. The most 
 marked effects of standardization have probably been 
 produced in raising and selling fruit. There was a time 
 when the growing of oranges in California was a very 
 uncertain business. The man who shipped a carload of 
 oranges might obtain very large profits or they might 
 not sell for enough to pay the freight. Since the organ- 
 ization of fruit exchanges all oranges are carefully 
 graded as to size and quality. They are shipped in such 
 a way that they arrive at their destination in first-class 
 condition and no more go to any one city than can be 
 used there. The consequence is that each well-informed 
 merchant and customer knows exactly what he is buy- 
 ing. The prices are steady and reasonable to the cus- 
 tomer Bs are also the profits to the orange-grower and 
 the merchant. 
 
 The lack of standardization has made the produc- 
 tion and marketing of milk very unprofitable. In most 
 of the smaller cities and villages milk is delivered to 
 people in the same block by a half-dozen different milk- 
 men and each milkman travels many miles unneces- 
 sarily to dispose of his load. If milk were standardized 
 as to quality so that a particular brand of milk should 
 
ECONOMIC NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 63 
 
 "be always the same, then the cost of getting it to the 
 consumer would be only a fraction of what it now is. 
 Laws prohibiting the sale of milk below a certain 
 standard of richness have not relieved the situation. 
 It is not easy to produce milk of exactly the same 
 richness. It is unprofitable to make it richer than the 
 required standard and dangerous to drop below. In 
 creameries a much better method is used. The richness 
 or amount of butter fat is tested and a corresponding 
 price is paid. It is perhaps weU to require by law that 
 milk be produced under conditions that will make it 
 healthful, but to fix just one standard of richness is of 
 doubtful advantage. 
 
 Closely associated with the problems of advertising 
 and standardization is the problem of constancy in pro- 
 duction. This is most difficult to meet in the case of 
 clothing, especially in millinery, where the styles are 
 continually changing. Manufacturers do not dare to 
 produce many goods until they know what the style is 
 to be. This is unfortunate both for the manufacturer 
 and for the workers. The manufacturer has to make 
 rather expensive changes in his processes when the 
 styles change and usually the workers can be employed 
 only during a portion of the year. This frequently gives 
 them an inadequate income, although the manufacturer 
 may pay fairly high wages. Goods that are not quickly 
 sold are a partial or total loss. The ultimate increased 
 cost of goods produced under such conditions must, of 
 course, be paid by the consumer. 
 
 There is another side to advertising and standardiza- 
 tion that must not be lost sight of. A standardized 
 product may not be as good as it should be. The more 
 completely a product is standardized the more difficult 
 
64 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 it is to induce people to use something new that is 
 really better. It is unfortunate, therefore, for any prod- 
 uct to be standardized before a reasonable degree of 
 perfection has been reached. The kind of advertising 
 which makes people familiar with things that are more 
 healthful, economical, and useful than those that they 
 have been using is for the good of society. It is a 
 means of education that has had a profound influence 
 upon people of all classes and upon the efficiency with 
 which every variety of process is carried on. 
 
 Machine production and growth of cities. Since 
 machine production is more profitable, the larger the 
 amount produced, thousands of workers are employed 
 in a single factory and must live in more or less close 
 proximity to it. This requires the presence of many 
 selling and transporting agencies and consequently each 
 factory is the nucleus for a large population. Although 
 there were some large cities before the days of machine 
 production, the increase of urban as compared with the 
 rural population, in the United States especially, has 
 been very rapid in the last forty years. This brings 
 into especial prominence the problems of city life. 
 
 One that is now receiving most attention is that of 
 city planning, especially the question of proper hous- 
 ing. In the early days of city planning, ideals of beauty 
 were prominent, but now it is recognized that the most 
 important problem of all is so to lay out the streets and 
 mark off the lots that everybody may have sufficient 
 space, and that transportation from one part of the city 
 to another may be ample for all purposes. Streets are 
 costly to maintain and should not therefore be broader 
 than necessary. If buildings are tall the streets must 
 be wider to accommodate the increased population. If 
 
ECONOMIC NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 55 
 
 dwelling-houses are only one or two stories in height 
 the city must be spread over a large area, and either 
 the workers must be located near their places of em- 
 ployment or cheap means of transportation must be 
 supplied. In order to be healthful buildings must have 
 sufficient light and air, must not be overcrowded, and 
 must be properly supplied with sewers and water. Un- 
 less these necessities are furnished at a reasonable cost, 
 overcrowding is almost inevitable. Careful social studies 
 indicate that the results of this evil are many and seri- 
 ous from the point of view of sociology. 
 
 Efficiency of workers. Efficiency in the industries 
 demands not only that the best machines shall be used 
 and shall be run in the most efficient manner, but also 
 that there shall be capable workers kept constantly in 
 good working condition. Manufacturers appreciated 
 the necessity of having the best machines and of keep- 
 ing them in good running order long before they learned 
 the value of having their workers in good condition. 
 It was formerly thought that it was profitable to the 
 manufacturer to employ men for as small wages as 
 possible and for the greatest number of hours, and to 
 assume no responsibility whatever for their health or 
 their freedom from accidents. It has been proved by 
 some manufacturers that in their business exactly the 
 opposite is true. They have increased wages, decreased 
 hours, put in safety appliances, taken means for proper 
 housing of their help and for keeping them contented 
 and happy, and every one of these changes has resulted 
 in increased production. How far this may profitably 
 be carried and whether it will prove true in all occu- 
 pations remain to be established. 
 
 In addition to these means of promoting efficiency 
 
56 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 there are two others receiving a great deal of attention 
 from employers, shop management and vocational edu- 
 cation. 
 
 Regulation of industries. With the development of 
 big business and the change from individual manage- 
 ment to institutional control and with the increase in 
 the number of people affected by each industry and its 
 methods, regulation becomes inevitable. Every institu- 
 tion has its rules that must be followed by all persons 
 connected with it. These rules are chiefly for the ad- 
 vantage of the business. The good of the people gen- 
 erally, however, has made necessary the passing of 
 legislation regarding the management of institutions. 
 For the conduct of many of these, laws have been made 
 which insure that they will be conducted more safely and 
 advantageously than if they were managed according 
 to the best individual judgment. This is especially true 
 of the laws regarding the conduct of banks and insur- 
 ance companies. Laws regulating railroad and other 
 corporations are also proving very helpful. Much of 
 this regulation of industries is the remote but inevit- 
 able result of the production of wealth by means of 
 machinery and progress in learning. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. When does water become wealth ? 
 
 2. Mention various classes of persons and modes of ac- 
 tivity that are to the disadvantage of others who belong 
 to the same cooperating group. 
 
 3. How are other people affected by slow, irregular, and 
 defective work on the part of several laborers in a 
 manufacturing plant such as a car factory ? 
 
 4. Look up statistics of the numbers of the defective 
 
ECONOMIC NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 67 
 
 classes and of their cost, and of the economic losses 
 due to sickness, accident, and unemployment. 
 6. Name a half-dozen ways of consuming wealth and 
 show which are the most and which the least profitable 
 modes of using it, and why. 
 
 6. Can you supply arguments that will convince a man 
 who has been thrown out of work by a machine, that 
 the machine is a good thing ? 
 
 7. Compare the difference in skill and intelligence neces- 
 sary if ten thousand men are employed in carrying 
 freight on their backs or are transporting it by wagons 
 or by motor truck or by steam car, taking into account 
 those engaged in constructing the apparatus and in 
 directing the operation, noting the difference in general 
 intelligence and in specialization of knowledge and 
 skill. 
 
 8. On the average in this country, labor receives about 
 three fourths of the value of what is produced and 
 capital one fourth. Mention industries in which there 
 are great variations from these proportions and tell 
 which are most developed. 
 
 9. Look up and report regarding the development of some 
 such institution as a corporation, bank, or insurance 
 company, or summarize the advantages and disadvan- 
 tages of institutions taking the place of individual effort 
 in the same processes. 
 
 10. Give a number of examples of the advantages of stand- 
 ardization. 
 
 XI. When is the cost of advertising a burden upon the 
 people generally, and when is it of advantage to all ? 
 
 12. State advantages to employer, employees, and con- 
 sumers of continuous demand for and production of 
 goods in some special line. 
 
 13. From the history of some city show how it has grown 
 and how its problems of housing have been brought about 
 through the establishment of one or more factories. 
 
 14. Compare the value of a man thirty years old with the 
 
58 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 value of a harvesting machine or motor truck that will 
 last for ten years, as a producer of wealth, and show 
 the comparative advantages of keeping both in good 
 working condition and in steady use. Consider both the 
 immediate employer and the general public. 
 15. Prepare a paper on the conservation of natural re- 
 sources, then one upon the conservation of human 
 resources, and discuss the relative value of the two. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 PROTECTIVE NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 
 
 Primitive protective activities. In primitive life pro- 
 tective activity is caxried on chiefly in connection with 
 the smallest social group, the family. The father pro- 
 tects against wild beasts and against human enemies 
 within the tribe and without. Protection against the 
 elements is generally provided for the family by its 
 own members. There is very little done for protection 
 against accident, fire or flood, or against disease. 
 
 Where a number of families are living together as 
 a more or less distinct tribe or group of people, pro- 
 tection by the larger group becomes necessary. This is 
 most frequently brought about through conflict with 
 other groups. In order to defend themselves against 
 enemies there must be some kind of organized group 
 activity. Natural leaders assume direction of the fight- 
 ing in time of war. If they are successful, they gain 
 great authority over other members of the group, not 
 only when fighting but at other times. Their supremacy 
 leads to the formation of customs and laws prescribing 
 what different classes may and may not do. Thus is es- 
 tablished a more or less distinct permanent government. 
 
 In cases where the larger group takes the character 
 of a patriarchal family and there is little fighting with 
 other tribes, the older men exercise protective functions 
 similar to that of the father in a family, and out of this 
 grows a more or less definite form of government ad- 
 ministered chiefly by the elders of the tribe. 
 
60 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 Customs and laws are established not only through 
 the evident need for them and through the personal in- 
 fluence of leaders, but they are usually emphasized and 
 made more effective by association with superstitious 
 and religious beliefs. It is taught that those who dis- 
 regard them will suffer more severe punishment from 
 spirits and gods than can be inflicted by man. Leaders, 
 especially of the " shaman " type, use this means of 
 establishing and enforcing customs and laws very effec- 
 tively. They broaden the sphere of government by pre- 
 scribing courses of action which are supposed to protect 
 not only against enemies, wild beasts, and accidents, 
 but against disease and injury to property and growing 
 crops. From such conditions ultimately arises the insti- 
 tution of government, exercising protective functions 
 and regulating the conduct of various classes of people. 
 
 Development of the institutions of government. 
 Most governments, especially those developing under 
 the influence of war, are at first personal in character. 
 If the group governed comes to be a large one by con- 
 quest or otherwise, one man is unable to carry on all 
 the functions of government. He must have helpers 
 who form a secondary governing class. Able men 
 among these subordinates are likely to undertake to 
 wrest the government from the chief. In the rivalry 
 and fighting that follow between such leaders, each seeks 
 the help of the common people and the one who gets the 
 help of the majority, by whatever influences he is able 
 to bring to bear upon them, is likely to succeed in the 
 contest. 
 
 The primitive leader usually makes laws that give 
 himseK and his friends special privileges and that im- 
 pose upon the populace burdens and restrictions of va- 
 
PROTECTIVE NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 61 
 
 rious kinds. When, however, leaders contend with each 
 other and seek the aid of the common people, they find 
 it necessary to secure that aid by promising more favor- 
 able laws to them. Thus there is a constant tendency 
 in the direction of making laws for the protection of the 
 common people as well as of those of the higher classes, 
 and as the common people become intelligent they gain 
 a larger and larger share in determining what laws 
 shall be made. This general tendency is very well illus- 
 trated by the history of the development of the English 
 constitution. In the contest between king and nobles, 
 the common people, in return for money and service, 
 gained more privileges and more influence in the mak- 
 ing of the laws, until, at the present time, although 
 king and nobles remain, the people rule. 
 
 This tendency toward democratic government would 
 appear to be inevitable among people of intelligence : 
 the many are stronger than the few and in the course 
 of ages will, in every country, assume control of the 
 government. With the growth of democracy, laws are 
 made to protect the weak as well as the strong. 
 
 National government generally grows out of warfare 
 with other nations. (As people become more intelligent 
 they develop more effective ways of dealing with other 
 nations, and commerce and diplomacy take the place of 
 warfare. Historically the Romans were among the ear- 
 liest to develop methods of dealing with surrounding 
 tribes by treaty and contract instead of by warfare. 
 They established definite bounds for each tribe and 
 made regulations regarding the crossing of these bound- 
 aries, and thus laid the foundations for international 
 law as they also did for civil law governing the people 
 within the nation. 
 
02 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 Where a large number of people are under one gov- 
 ernment it is impossible for a central authority effec- 
 tively to control all of them. Local officials with more or 
 less authority must officiate in the various parts of the 
 country. In most countries there exist, therefore, sev- 
 eral units of government, the national government, the 
 local government of the small group or community, and 
 usually one or more intermediate units such as the 
 province, county, or state. The national government 
 concerns itself chiefly with all that is necessary to the 
 protection of the nation against other nations and to 
 the maintenance of conditions of prosperity, while the 
 smaUer units of government are concerned chiefly with 
 the protection of the person and property of the various 
 classes of individuals within the community. 
 
 In considering the development of governments as 
 they now exist, it would not be correct to say, either 
 that national governments are the result of uniting 
 smaller units of government or that the smaUer units of 
 government are merely differentiations and divisions in 
 national government. Both kinds of change have taken 
 place, and government as it now exists in any country 
 is the result of a double set of influences, one national, 
 the other, local. The comparative extent of control ex- 
 ercised over the people by the local and by the national 
 units of government varies greatly in different coun- 
 tries. In all, the national government is supreme in all 
 matters concerning war, while under even the most 
 autocratic government the local community has some 
 degree of freedom in controlling the activities of its 
 members. 
 
 Internal protectioii. Protection of people within the 
 group is now usually provided by a unit of government 
 
PROTECTIVE NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 63 
 
 intermediate between that of the nation and of the local 
 community. In the United States this intermediate unit 
 is the State. In primitive times men defended them- 
 selves individually or sometimes by uniting in a group 
 against some strong offender. Many persons, though 
 individually weak, by uniting could thus control the ac- 
 tion of the strongest individual who would interfere 
 with their rights. With further development the pro- 
 tecting group became permanent and more or less well- 
 defined methods of procedure were established. 
 
 The primitive laws were established customs, or, 
 where new conditions arose, they were the decisions of 
 the leaders of the group or the majority opinion of the 
 whole group, and judgment was rendered and executed 
 either by the community acting as a sort of a mob or by 
 certain recognized leaders who heard the evidence and 
 decided what punishment should be given the offender* 
 
 In modem times an advance was made from customs 
 and personal judgment to statute laws and court trials. 
 Definite laws were enacted by the people or proclaimed 
 by the accepted leaders and officials were appointed to 
 apply and execute them. When industries became di- 
 versified and large numbers of people lived together, 
 laws prescribing what each person must or must not do 
 increased in number and more definite regulations be- 
 came necessary regarding the application of laws and 
 their execution. At the present time these regulations 
 are so numerous that experts in the law are necessary, 
 and judges act almost whoUy in accordance with the 
 prescribed rules of court procedure instead of exercising 
 their personal judgment regarding each case brought 
 before them. In the effort to prevent miscarriage of 
 justice through the bad judgment, prejudice, and cor- 
 
64 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 ruption of individual judges, this system of court pro- 
 cedure has become in this country so cumbersome and 
 complex that only experts can take part in it and in- 
 dividuals are often wronged through the judges apply- 
 ing the law strictly in accordance with court methods. 
 
 Many are also beginning to question whether society 
 is really protected by our present methods of dealing 
 with criminals. For the most part there is no natural 
 relation existing between the crime and the punishment 
 inflicted. Imprisonment of some kind is applied to all 
 varieties of criminals. Since the criminal has not con- 
 trolled his own actions so as not to interfere with other 
 people, it is fitting that he should lose his liberty and 
 that his actions should be directed for a time by society. 
 However, his own good and that of society demand 
 that this forcible control shall be continued no longer 
 than is necessary. The individual should be treated in 
 such a way as to make him capable of controlling him- 
 self and he should then be set at liberty. Under the 
 methods that have been in use, criminals have often 
 been rendered less capable of self-control and then have 
 been set at liberty, only to do further damage and to 
 be rearrested. It is claimed that the effect of imprison- 
 ment is to confirm criminals in their criminality rather 
 than to cure them and that the brutalizing effects upon 
 keepers of the prisoners are almost equally bad. 
 
 Considerable improvements have, however, recently 
 been made. The laws now admit indeterminate sen- 
 tences and shortened time for good behavior, provide 
 for remunerative and educative employment while in 
 prison and for parole and reinstatement in society. 
 
 Development of laws. With the growth of civiliza- 
 tion, laws have increased not only in number, but also 
 
PROTECTIVE NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 65 
 
 in variety. They are now concerned far less with pro- 
 tection against violence and far more with protection 
 against interference with property, health, and com- 
 fort. This is inevitably the case because growth of 
 civilization always results in an immense increase in 
 wealth and usually means a much greater density of 
 population and closer relations of people to one another. 
 Acts which, in a sparse population and where there is 
 little property, would cause no injury to any one, may, 
 in a crowded district, seriously endanger the property, 
 life, and health of thousands. So complex is our present- 
 day civilization that, without laws to guide one as re- 
 gards setting of fires, disposal of garbage, rate of travel, 
 etc., even well-intentioned people may interfere with the 
 rights and pleasures of others. 
 
 Under the older conception, a law was a command 
 or decree issued by some one in authority to prevent 
 certain classes or individuals from performing wrong 
 acts or from interfering with other people. Under the 
 more modern conception, laws mark out a mode of pro- 
 cedure which, if followed, will be of advantage to all 
 parties concerned. Under this new view of law we may 
 compare legislation to the making of rules or directions 
 for running a machine or carrying on the work of a 
 shop. A law is a social discovery or invention which 
 prescribes and enforces the kind of action that is most 
 favorable to group welfare. 
 
 The construction of a law is much more difficult than 
 the framing of a set of rules for running a machine or 
 a shop or for conducting a scientific experiment, because 
 the law must not only prescribe the right methods of 
 procedure, but it must provide penalties and rewards 
 or advantages which will induce all parties concerned 
 
66 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 to act in accordance with its provisions. A law pre- 
 scribing just what may not be done and imposing very 
 severe penalties may entirely fail, partly because the 
 advantages of disregarding it are very great, and partly 
 because, when the penalties are severe, those concerned 
 in applying and enforcing it may sympathize so strongly 
 with the violator that there will be few arrests, con- 
 victions, or punishments. A successful law must be 
 founded upon scientific knowledge and practical expe- 
 rience and must be so adapted to the people and to the 
 conditions that with rare exceptions all will find it best 
 to obey the law and to inflict punishment upon the few 
 who disobey it. 
 
 In our modern democratic government we are recog- 
 nizing more and more that a law framed in the interest 
 of certain classes of individuals can never be of perma- 
 nent advantage to the group as a whole. We are also 
 recognizing that so far as the ends to be attained are 
 concerned the wishes of the people shall dictate, but 
 that the framing of the law as a means to reaching the 
 desired ends must be the work of experts and that laws 
 must be modified in the light of experience. These 
 principles are being recognized by the extension of the 
 referendum, on the one hand, and, on the other, by the 
 appointment of special commissions to investigate con- 
 ditions and formulate laws that will bring about the 
 results desired by the people. 
 
 Protection against the elements and disease. From 
 earliest times diseases of many sorts have been the 
 deadly foe of men, especially whenever a large number 
 were living close together. The artificial conditions cre- 
 ated by man demand special modes of action in order 
 that he may be sheltered from the elements and may 
 
PROTECTIVE NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 67 
 
 maintain his health in his artificial environment and in 
 close association with others who may be suffering from 
 contagious disease. No matter how wise or careful the 
 individual may be, he cannot insure his own health un- 
 less his neighbors are equally wise and careful, and per- 
 haps not even then unless certain rules of procedure 
 are agreed upon and carried out. This is the reason 
 why so many laws of the present day are concerned with 
 housing and health conditions. That man can succeed 
 in maintaining health in close settlements, living under 
 artificial conditions, is demonstrated by the fact that in 
 cities where health regulations are properly carried out 
 the death-rate is already considerably less than in coun- 
 try districts where natural conditions are more favor- 
 able, but where less attention is given to the proper 
 regulation of housing and sanitation. 
 
 The fact remains, however, that the housing problem 
 and the sanitary and other problems associated with it 
 are most serious ones in all our cities and even in the 
 smaller towns. Small houses, large families, wells, vaults 
 or cesspools, garbage thrown out into the back yards, 
 may not be a serious matter in widely scattered settle- 
 ments among people who spend most of their time out 
 of doors, but in thickly settled regions, where people 
 spend much of their time indoors, rooms must be open 
 to the sun and must not be overcrowded at night; 
 water must be supplied from distant and pure sources, 
 sewerage and garbage disposal must be managed by 
 cooperative means, and all sources of contagion must 
 be removed or isolated. 
 
 The housing problem is so intimately related to every 
 phase of life that it must be regulated by law and by 
 cooperative action in order that not only the poor, but 
 
68 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 also the wealthy may be properly protected under the 
 conditions of city life. Every family must be provided 
 with housing that is at least healthful, and the prosper- 
 ity of the community demands that it shall also be more 
 or less pleasing and agreeable to its occupants and easily 
 accessible to means of livelihood and recreation. 
 
 The housing problem is thus associated with every 
 phase of city life and is the most important one to be 
 considered in planning a city and in establishing local 
 rules and regulations. Laws must be made as to the 
 height and locality of buildings of various kinds, their 
 manner of construction with regard to safety from fire, 
 their health conditions as to lighting, heating, ventilat- 
 ing, and plumbing. These laws must be based upon a 
 real knowledge of the effects of housing conditions and 
 must be accompanied by proper public provision for 
 supplying water and for sewage and garbage disposal. 
 In a thickly settled region it would be utterly impos- 
 sible for each individual to make these provisions for 
 himself. The facilities must be provided by cooperative 
 means and the use of them regulated by law. 
 
 Since under such conditions very little if any food 
 can be produced, it is necessary that regulations shall 
 be made regarding the character of the food brought 
 into the city and supplied to the people. Each individ- 
 ual may not be allowed to buy and sell as he chooses, 
 for the consumer of milk infected with typhoid germs 
 may in turn infect other people who exercise the great- 
 est care in their choice of food. 
 
 Protection against accidents. Man has always been 
 subject to injury by the unusual action of the forces of 
 nature, such as fire and flood, and through accidents by 
 falls and otherwise. Primitive men had no means of 
 
PROTECTIVE NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 69 
 
 guarding against such injuries, except by means of 
 charms, and when accidents did occur they did little 
 that was effective in promoting a cure. In modem 
 times, by cooperative action, floods may be stayed, pre- 
 cautions are taken against fires, and many things are 
 done to minimize accidents. When fires do break out 
 there are in all large cities more or less efficient fire 
 departments for extinguishing them. 
 
 In America much greater progress has been made 
 in the means of fighting fires than in ways of prevent- 
 ing them. In Europe the materials used and the build- 
 ing regulations enforced render fires comparatively rare 
 and the need of efficient fire departments much less 
 great. When fire loss does occur we have, through in- 
 surance companies, a very sure and effective means of 
 distributing the loss so that it does not fall heavily upon 
 any one person. This does not, however, prevent the 
 loss by fire from being a genuine and often extensive 
 economic loss to the community and to the nation as a 
 whole. 
 
 The possibility of injury through accidents has 
 greatly increased with the dense population, the exten- 
 sive use of machinery and of rapidly moving vehicles 
 of many kinds. Accidents are common, although they 
 have recently been diminished by traffic regulations, 
 traffic officials, and by safety devices. In the industries 
 and in transportation the chances for accidents are still 
 so numerous that in the United States the number of 
 persons killed and injured by accidents has amounted 
 to over two hundred thousand in a single year. 
 
 In recent years a great deal has been done toward 
 decreasing the number of accidents, by laws making the 
 employer responsible for damages, by the invention and 
 
70 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 use of safety devices, and by the avoidance of unfavor- 
 able conditions, such as fatigue and drunkenness, under 
 which accidents most frequently occur. The destruc- 
 tion of human life and of human efficiency is also ren- 
 dered less disastrous to the individual family through 
 accident and life insurance, either voluntary or enforced 
 by the state. 
 
 When accidents do occur there are very efficient 
 means provided for caring for the injured, in the form 
 of apparatus for first aid to the injured, ambulances, 
 and well-equipped hospitals. "Within the last quarter 
 of a century there has been an almost complete change 
 from the guarding against and treatment of accidents 
 by individuals to a more effective control of such mat- 
 ters by institutions and laws. 
 
 Protection of the weak. Long after the common 
 people were given comparatively equal rights under the 
 law and a voice in the making of laws, the weak and 
 helpless members of society were left to perish or to be 
 cared for or abused by individuals. Only within the last 
 century have they been extensively protected and cared 
 for by institutions. At first these institutions were pri- 
 vate organizations, one for the insane, another for the 
 poor, others for the blind, deaf, crippled, diseased, aged, 
 etc., but in recent years such persons have not only 
 been protected by the laws of the state, but they are 
 now in most places partially or wholly cared for at the 
 expense of the state or of the local community, imless 
 their friends provide for them. 
 
 In the case of the poor we are still in a transition 
 stage. In nearly all communities the poor are helped 
 by private individuals, charitable societies, and by the 
 state, county, town, or city. In most places individual 
 
PROTECTIVE NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 71 
 
 help has been replaced by institutional relief with ad- 
 vantage to the community. The relief of poverty may 
 do more harm than good if the individual receiving 
 help becomes a permanent pauper. This is more Hkely 
 to occur when the relief is received from private indi- 
 viduals who are not personally acquainted with the ones 
 receiving charity than it is when the matter is handled 
 by trained charity officials who investigate the case, find 
 out exactly what the conditions are, and what relief, if 
 any, is being received from other sources. 
 
 So effective has been the work of some of the chari- 
 table organizations that public funds have been turned 
 over to them instead of being expended through regu- 
 larly appointed poor officers. Whether this will prove 
 to be a good solution of the problem is doubtful. In 
 proportion as the private institutions are supported by 
 public funds instead of by philanthropic gifts, there is 
 something of a tendency for the officials of the socie- 
 ties to lose the personal enthusiasm and interest that 
 have distinguished them from the city, town, or county 
 officials administering poor relief. In order that relief 
 may be given without destroying self-respect and pro- 
 ducing permanent pauperism, it must be given under 
 the law as a right, or it must be given by those who 
 have sympathetically studied the case and who supply 
 it temporarily in a form that helps the individual to re- 
 instate himself as a self-supporting member of society. 
 
 The latest and apparently most promising means of 
 giving relief for widows and children, without destroy- 
 ing self-respect, is in the form of mothers' pensions, a 
 certain amount being paid to the mother for caring for 
 her children instead of supporting them in an institu- 
 tion. 
 
72 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 Another attempted solution, especially as regards 
 poverty due to old age, is to provide compulsory insur- 
 ance and old-age pensions. 
 
 A very great advance has been made in recent years 
 in the public protection of children. Formerly they 
 were entirely under the control of their parents or other 
 guardians and were subject to kindness or overwork 
 and abuse according to the nature of the persons who 
 had them in charge. Now their rights are strictly 
 guarded even against parents, from whose control they 
 may be taken if abused or neglected. They are not per- 
 mitted to work until of a suitable age, or to work at 
 night or for more than a certain number of hours per 
 day, in most of the states in this country. They are 
 provided with educational opportunities, and, if they 
 have no parents, are cared for by private societies regu- 
 lated by law or in state institutions. This is true not 
 only of normal children, but also of the feeble-minded, 
 deaf, and crippled. 
 
 In taking over this control of children by the state 
 it has been found that strictly institutional management 
 is not very successful. The best institutions, in caring 
 for these children, imitate the home as far as possible 
 by putting them in small cottages instead of in large 
 buildings. Even this is not generally as good for normal 
 children as placing them in caref uUy selected private 
 homes where they have the advantages of real family 
 life, although it is an adopted family. 
 
 Protection, prevention, and control by government. 
 As we have already seen, the protective activities of 
 government have become more and more necessary as 
 civilization, specialization, and density of population in- 
 crease. Men of intelligence have been brought to realize 
 
PROTECTIVE NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 73 
 
 more and more that the most effective form of protec- 
 tion is that of prevention. This has extended the law 
 beyond what is primarily protective in character. This 
 is especially true when protection is supplied in an en- 
 tirely indirect way, as, for example, when the people of 
 a city are protected against the depredations of a gang 
 of boys by establishing schools and playgrounds to 
 occupy the time and energy of boys, or when crime is 
 diminished by furnishing working people with oppor- 
 tunities for wholesome recreation. 
 
 Such considerations and practices have led to an en- 
 tire change of opinion as to the proper functions of 
 government. The idea that government, national, state, 
 and local, should be administered for the welfare and 
 happiness of all the people is rapidly gaining ground 
 and being embodied in the laws of our country. It is 
 being found that an increasing number of the activities 
 of life can be carried on more economically and efficiently 
 by institutions under state regulations than by indi- 
 viduals. 
 
 At the present time it is generally accepted that 
 many activities should be conducted either by institu- 
 tions acting under the laws of the state or by the state 
 itself. Railways, banks, insurance companies, and other 
 institutions are now regulated by law in a way un- 
 dreamed of a generation ago, and there is a growing 
 tendency for the local, state, or national government to 
 carry on these activities instead of merely regulating the 
 institutions that are now directing them. Many cities 
 now control not only their sewerage and water systems, 
 but also their lighting system, and a good deal is be- 
 ing done to control transportation and the markets. 
 The national government is not only providing in- 
 
74 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 creased postal facilities, but through its various depart- 
 ments is furnishing useful information regarding a 
 variety of occupations, including that of home-making. 
 A few cities have already established boards of public 
 welfare to supplement the work of other departments 
 of the city and to assist in all means that are being 
 used to increase the efficiency, pleasure, and culture of 
 the people. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Give examples of customs sapported by law and by 
 saperstitious or religious beliefs. 
 
 2. Discuss class legislation, ancient and modem. 
 
 3. Trace the growth of democracy in some country. 
 
 4. Describe the scope and prominence of control, local, 
 county, state, and national, in various phases of pro- 
 tection and regulation of people in your section of the 
 country, as regarding health, fire, property, persons. 
 
 6. Describe and compare the procedure of regular courts 
 and of special courts that are less subject to rules of 
 court procedure, such as juvenile courts, courts of do> 
 mestic relations, small-debtors' courts, etc. 
 
 6. Report on the subject of prison reform. 
 
 7. Examine new legislation with a view to seeing how the 
 character of laws is changing. 
 
 8. Describe the working of one or more successful and one 
 or more unsuccessful laws and point out the reasons for 
 success or failure. 
 
 9. Mention health regulations that are required of a city 
 dweller and not of country dwellers. 
 
 10. Make special studies of various phases of housing prob- 
 lems and the part that legislation has in solving them. 
 
 11. Mention a number of laws concerned with protection 
 against fires and accidents. 
 
 12. Study some of the laws for protection of the weak, such 
 
PROTECTIVE NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 75 
 
 as the blind, insane, etc., and especially those for the 
 protection of children. 
 
 13. Discuss the working of the new laws for giving home 
 relief, especially mothers' pensions for care of children, 
 also old-age pensions. 
 
 14. Describe movements for protection by prevention and 
 especially by education. 
 
 15. Report upon the work of the Board of Public Welfare 
 of Kansas City and discuss the desirability of such 
 boards in all communities* 
 
CHAPTER Vn 
 
 RECREATIVE NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 
 
 The pl^y instinct. Man in common with the higher 
 animals manifests the instinct of play. The broadest 
 view of this subject considers as playful all activities 
 beyond those necessary to maintain life. In other words, 
 play is the manifestation and the enjoyment of life 
 after the means of living have been obtained. All the 
 fine arts and all knowledge that is not immediately use- 
 ful in making a living are in a sense the products of 
 play activity. 
 
 Surplus energy and time are necessary if play is to 
 be a prominent feature of life. This is one reason why 
 the young of all creatures are most playful. Variety in 
 climatic and other stimuli are also favorable to play 
 activity. The lack of this results in less play on the 
 part of inhabitants of torrid regions, while lack of time 
 and energy beyond that necessary to maintain life 
 limits the play of dwellers in frigid zones. 
 
 Play is instinctive and it takes characteristic forms 
 related to other instinctive acts. Young animals play 
 at feeding, fighting, and fearing, and are thus prepared 
 for the serious life that is to follow. Children do the 
 same, and in addition playfully imitate all the acts of 
 their elders, and are thus prepared for the work they 
 will have to do later. 
 
 Man, with an active mind as well as an active body, 
 naturally has a tendency to greater variety of play 
 activity than other animals manifest. Play of the im- 
 
RECREATIVE NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 77 
 
 agination and of the intellect, which is so prominent 
 a feature of human life, is almost if not quite impossi- 
 ble to any of the other animals. This is partly the rea- 
 son also why man has a keen sense of humor while other 
 animals have little or none. 
 
 Play and recreatioii in relation to work. Play may 
 l)e regarded as the most important and active form 
 of recreation, while rest, change in surroundings, and 
 amusement are comparatively passive forms of recrea- 
 tion. Sleep is recreative, but has in it no element of 
 play. People who do not work have little need for 
 recreative play. Those who have a variety of work in 
 moderation also have comparatively less need for play, 
 while those who engage in excessive labor for long 
 periods of time feel more the need of sleep and rest. 
 The person who engages in one kind of labor for a 
 moderate period of time feels the most need for recrea- 
 tive change. Play supplies this far more effectually 
 than rest. Other activities of body and mind need to 
 be excited in order that physical and mental balance 
 may be restored. If general as well as special fatigue 
 has been produced by prolonged activity, amusement 
 and rest may be more recreative, but if the fatigue is 
 special, play calling into action other powers is most 
 advantageous. 
 
 In earlier times play grew directly out of work activ- 
 ity. People engaged in agriculture usually had periods 
 of play at the close of the harvest and frequently also 
 at planting time. They also had playful competitions to 
 determine who could perform certain kinds of labor 
 most quickly. Hunters, after a successful expedition, 
 frequently engaged in feasting, dancing, and other play- 
 ful exercises. Warlike people, after a successful raid. 
 
/ 
 
 78 FUNDAMENTALS OP SOCIOLOGY 
 
 celebrate their victories by dancing and play. Impor- 
 tant events of life, such as marriages, births, or even 
 deaths, are often celebrated by playful activities. Play 
 and work are thus closely related, one preparing for the 
 other by the contrast between them, and yet play often 
 having its character determined by the preceding or 
 accompanying work activity. 
 
 Increase in recreative needs and activities. Civil- 
 ized man is a worker to a far greater extent than his 
 primitive ancestor, and for the reasons given above en- 
 gages in more extensive and varied recreative activities. 
 This is especially true since the change in industries 
 brought about by the invention of machinery and the 
 consequent extreme specialization of labor. Doing the 
 same thing over and over for hours at a time makes 
 some form of recreation absolutely necessary. Increased 
 production through the use of machinery and the fatigue 
 resulting from continued use of the same powers have 
 brought about shorter hours of labor, so that now all 
 workers have some time for recreation in addition to 
 what is needed for work and rest. 
 
 The need for special provision for play and amuse- 
 ment IS rendered still greater by the fact that there is 
 little or no possibility of directly associating play and 
 work in our specialized industries and by the fact that 
 children and young people, who are naturally most ac- 
 tive, now have little varied work to do, but must spend 
 most of their time in study (which is their work) or in 
 playing and being amused. The question of plays and 
 amusements for all the people, and especially for young 
 people, has, therefore, become an important sociological 
 problem. The fact that on holidays large numbers are 
 arrested for disturbance of the peace shows that many 
 
RECREATIVE NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 79 
 
 persons have not learned how to use their leisure time 
 in recreative ways. 
 
 History shows also that the kind of amusements in 
 which the people of any nation engage has very im- 
 portant effects upon their further moral and social 
 development. If his amusement dissipates energy and 
 demoralizes the individual instead of recreating and 
 inspiring him to fresh effort, the results are inevitably 
 injurious. 
 
 The need of special provision for recreation is also 
 increased by the fact that large numbers live in close 
 proximity and the space for play activities is limited. 
 Since also the specialized work in which people are en- 
 gaged does not furnish materials or activities that can 
 be used for purposes of play and amusement, the sub- 
 stitution of games and play apparatus and the devising 
 of special amusements are necessary. 
 
 Development of games and amusements. With the 
 specialization and regulation of work activity there has 
 also come about specialization and regulation of plays 
 and amusements. Spontaneous dancing and plays of all 
 kinds have largely given place to games that must be 
 carried on according to more or less strictly defined 
 rules and that in many cases involve the use of special 
 apparatus. The most popular games of to-day, such as 
 baseball, basketball, football, tennis, and golf, all require 
 special apparatus and suitable spaces. The sports of 
 hunting, fishing, etc., can now be engaged in only by 
 special arrangements and usually in accordance with 
 definite rules and laws as to seasons and means used. 
 
 The development of artificial amusement facilities 
 has been even more marked. The dancing, singing, 
 story-telling, and dramatic exhibitions engaged in by 
 
80 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 the members of each community have been replaced by 
 the work of a few specially trained professionals who 
 furnish the amusement and entertainment for the great 
 mass of the people. 
 
 Machinery has also entered the field and is now an 
 essential element in amusement parks and moving-pic- 
 ture shows. The moving-picture business now ranks as 
 the sixth largest in the country. No industries have 
 grown more rapidly in the last fifty years than those 
 concerned in supplying amusement and recreation for 
 the people. Probably one fourth of all economic ac- 
 tivity has for its end the entertainment of the people. 
 
 Commercialized and institutionalized recreations. 
 In the cities and to some extent also in the country 
 comparatively little recreation is now obtained except 
 through the expenditure of money. Furnishing amuse- 
 ment and providing facilities for it have become dis- 
 tinct vocations, and people buy their entertainment as 
 they do food. Institutions have also taken a prominent 
 place in supplying means of recreation. Theaters and 
 pleasure resorts are in the hands of corporations and 
 syndicates rather than of individuals. Clubs of all sorts 
 provide opportunities for amusement and recreation for 
 their members and sometimes to outsiders, either with 
 or without the payment of a fee. It is almost impossible 
 for a person to obtain the use of facilities for games ex- 
 cept through an institution of some kind, and frequently 
 a membership in the organization is necessary in order 
 that one may have companions in play. Men must 
 now obtain their recreations as well as their necessi- 
 ties by indirect means and through the help of insti- 
 tutions. 
 
 Another important change has also taken place as the 
 
RECREATIVE NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 81 
 
 result of the changes just specified. Eecreation is now 
 specialized to a much greater extent than ever before. 
 There are still some recreations that appeal to old and 
 young of all classes, but a large proportion, especially 
 those of an active rather than a passive character, are 
 specialized for adults of different classes and for chil- 
 dren of different ages. To a less extent than formerly, 
 therefore, do men, women, and children of all classes 
 take their recreations together, especially when these 
 recreations take the form of play. 
 
 Control of recreations. So long as recreations of the 
 home and conununity were carried on without the help 
 of professionals or institutions, there was less occasion 
 for any regulation of them. Under present conditions 
 of commercial and institutional control of amusements 
 among crowded populations, such regulation is abso- 
 lutely necessary. It was not needed so much when 
 private institutions or clubs had their own regulations 
 for their members and when some philanthropic organi- 
 zations provided means of recreation for the general 
 public, but when the furnishing of opportunities for 
 recreation became a matter of business the interest of 
 the public demanded that there should be regulation. 
 In most communities a license must be obtained by 
 commercial institutions furnishing recreation, and the 
 character of the amusement, and the conditions under 
 which it is given, and the age of children who may be 
 admitted are determined by law. 
 
 In addition to this there has developed within the 
 last few years a tendency not only to regulate amuse- 
 ments by law, but to furnish facilities for them at pub- 
 lic expense, and in some instances also to have the en- 
 tertainments managed by public officials or employees. 
 
82 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 This movement has had its most extensive develop- 
 ment in the establishment of playgrounds and parks 
 often provided with apparatus and with some one to 
 supervise the play. In a few places municipal theaters 
 have been established. PubUc buildings, especially 
 school-houses, are now being opened for recreative 
 purposes. 
 J^ In most cases as yet, the entei*tainments are provided 
 by societies already existing or organized for the pur- 
 pose by the people of the community. Some entertain- 
 ments, such as band concerts, are now often given at 
 public expense, and it may be that in time not only the 
 facilities for recreation will be furnished at public ex- 
 pense, but that as a matter of course entertainments 
 will be provided and the plays supervised by public 
 officials. It may be questioned, however, whether it will 
 not in most cases be best for the community to limit its 
 activities to the regulation of recreation and to providing 
 facilities, leaving it to the initiative of the people to de- 
 vise and direct entertainments and sports individually 
 and through special organizations. It may also be well 
 to give children opportunities for spontaneous and 
 unsupervised play. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Describe the plays of animals and of young children and 
 show how they prepare for the work of life. 
 
 2. Describe mental plays, some of which result in artistic 
 products. 
 
 3. Describe the recreations suited to various types of work- 
 ers. 
 
 4. Discuss the need of public provision for recreation now 
 as compared with former times. 
 
RECREATIVE NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 83 
 
 6. Have each student report on the extent to which play 
 and amusement in his home community are institutional. 
 
 6. Discuss the question of how far public support, admin- 
 istration, and regulation of play and amusement should 
 extend in various lines and what should be left to in- 
 dividuals, families, or societies. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 CULTURAL NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 
 
 Relation of culture to play and work. The human 
 mind is naturally active beyond the point necessary to 
 the maintenance of life. Intellectual impulses or in- 
 stincts, such as curiosity and the aesthetic instinct, im- 
 pel men to be mentally and physically active in many 
 ways not necessary to bodily existence. The basis of 
 cultural needs and activities is, therefore, much the 
 same as that of many forms of play. 
 
 Culture is, however, closely related to work. Men 
 have the instinct to collect, to construct, and to deco- 
 rate the things with which they work. The warrior 
 whose serious business in life is fighting may spend 
 much leisure time in collecting and decorating war ma- 
 terial, in composing war songs, practicing war dances, 
 or in composing stories, more or less imaginary, relat- 
 ing to war. Thinkers and poets among those who plant 
 and reap may devote their leisure to constructing myths 
 regarding the origin of grains and fruits. 
 
 Superstitious and religious beliefs, as well as practi- 
 cal necessities, are also important sources of art and 
 literature. Curiosity is primarily concerned with things 
 that may be useful or injurious, but if there is a surplus 
 of time and energy it is likely to be directed toward 
 other things, and thus is developed a knowledge of 
 various objects, relations, and causes. 
 
 Such activity of the mind is in a way playful, as is 
 also the production of works of art, but the interest is 
 
CULTURAL NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 85 
 
 more prolonged than in mere play and the results are 
 enjoyable after the activity of production has ceased. 
 In this respect cultural activity differs from and yet 
 combines some of the characteristics of both play and 
 work. It may be regarded as the most valuable form 
 of play or the most enjoyable kind of work. 
 
 The enjoyment of the cultural products of others is 
 a form of recreation similar to that of amusement. The 
 mind is then engaged in appreciating the more strenu- 
 ous yet partly playful activity of the artist and thinker. 
 
 Hard conditions of life are unfavorable to the devel- 
 opment of culture, but prosperous people with leisure 
 time almost surely become active in its appreciation and 
 production unless they become dissipated and degener- 
 ate. Sometimes culture is enjoyed and produced by one 
 class of persons at the expense of another, as was not- 
 ably the case in ancient Greece. Her slaves provided 
 the mean of subsistence for the citizens, who devoted 
 most of their time to the culture of mind and body. 
 
 Social character of culture. Cultural activity is in 
 general social and more or less cooperative in charac- 
 ter. Language, which represents in a large measure 
 various forms of culture, is entirely social in origin. It 
 developed partly as a means of rendering cooperative 
 effort more effective and partly because of the impulse 
 to express feelings and emotions. Dancing, music, story- 
 telling, painting, and modeling are carried on largely 
 because of the appreciation of others, and without such 
 appreciation there would be very little cultural activity. 
 
 Nature is not as strong a stimulus to such activity 
 as people. Their personality and deeds in war, love, 
 and religion have called forth most of the world's artis- 
 tic and literary activity. So prominent are human be- 
 
86 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 ings as stimuli to cultural activity that in primitive 
 times nature had little part in literature except in so 
 far as the forces of nature were personified and human- 
 ized as spirits or gods similar to human beings. In- 
 tellectual, scientific, and poetic interest in nature was 
 late in developing. It is only within the last century 
 that culture in the form of scientific knowledge of na- 
 ture has had a rapid development. 
 
 As previously stated, the appreciation and develop- 
 ment of culture are largely cooperative in character. 
 An individual separated from his kind would never 
 acquire a language or produce any works of art. Every 
 writer, artist, and scientist must use the products of his 
 predecessors. He cannot devise anything entirely new, 
 but can only make new arrangements and slight addi- 
 tions to what has already been produced. Every indi- 
 vidual, when thinking and constructing, is cooperating 
 with thousand of thinkers and artists of the past and 
 the present and perhaps with many that are to follow. 
 Even the appreciation of cultural products is largely 
 cooperative. The enjoyment of music, literature, and 
 art is greatly increased by the presence of others who 
 are evincing their pleasure. 
 
 Transmission, exchange, and fusion of culture. Cul- 
 ture is transmitted to others partly through the medium 
 of teaching and intercourse and partly through the ma- 
 terial products of culture, such as books, works of art, 
 and architecture. 
 
 Language is one of the most important means of 
 transmitting culture. Through language one may ac- 
 quire a knowledge of the actions of persons and of the 
 characteristics of objects that he has no opportunity to 
 observe and which are perhaps distant in both time and 
 
CULTURAL NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 87 
 
 space. Through this medium the mental, and conse- 
 quently the cultural, environment of a people is im- 
 mensely enlarged. By means of language, much of the 
 cultural activity of preceding ages is made a part of 
 the cultural life of to-day. It is also one of the most 
 important means for the exchange of culture among dif- 
 ferent groups of people. Especially is this true in mod- 
 em times when there is much communication and a 
 great deal of translation. The development of a world 
 language would still further facilitate this interchange. 
 
 In more primitive times this exchange was brought 
 about largely through the observation of the customs 
 of other tribes and the imitation of useful and artistic 
 objects. Groups of people that were at war with each 
 other interchanged to a less extent than those that 
 engaged in friendly trade. The same utensils, customs, 
 and stories are found in many parts of the world, even 
 among savage tribes. To determine whether this is due 
 to separate invention, to exchange through contact of 
 group with group, or was brought about through the 
 medium of travelers has been an important problem in 
 scientific investigation. 
 
 Notwithstanding this interchange among different 
 groups of people, each group that has existed for a 
 number of generations has a culture that is distinctive 
 in character. Experts are able to tell by what people 
 and when a specimen of art or literature was produced. 
 This shows that the actions and objects of the immedi- 
 ate surroundings have the most important effect upon 
 the appreciation and production of cultural material in 
 any group of people. 
 
 Culture and culture material are never equally dis- 
 tributed among all classes of the same group, but are 
 
88 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 distinctive for eacli class. The general tendency in 
 recent times, however, toward the development of de- 
 mocracy has greatly increased the diffusion of all sorts 
 of culture among all classes of people. 
 
 Invention and culture. Inventive activity is more 
 or less cultural in character, especially when it con- 
 tributes to the pleasures of life rather than to actual 
 necessities. One of the chief values of inventions and 
 discoveries is in facilitating cultural activity and in 
 promoting the diffusion of culture. The invention of 
 printing and the later development of the printing- 
 press have had a most profound influence in these 
 directions. Inventions of methods of manufacturing 
 and reproducing works of art have also greatly in- 
 creased the diffusion of artistic products among the 
 people. In many of the humblest homes in all civilized 
 countries are to be found books and pictures, equal to 
 those found in palaces centuries ago. 
 
 This is made possible not only by new methods and 
 machinery, but by the invention and organization of 
 means of transportation and communication. Through 
 the telephone and the telegraph, aided by the news or- 
 ganizations, the printing-press, and the railways, every 
 one is now informed of the actions not only of his im- 
 mediate neighbors, but of people in distant places and 
 foreign countries. He is thus made more or less familiar 
 with the art, literature, customs, and laws of other peo- 
 ple than those with whom he is immediately associated. 
 
 Facilities for travel also enable even the moderately 
 well-to-do to observe the cultural activities and products 
 of people in other places and countries. Next to the 
 newspaper, no invention provides greater facilities for 
 the diffusion of culture than the moving-picture films. 
 
CULTURAL NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 89 
 
 Institutions and culture. The growth of industrial 
 institutions is paralleled by the development of those 
 concerned with culture in its various forms. Not only 
 are there scientific, literary, and artistic associations in 
 great numbers whose object is the promotion of cultural 
 activity, but most civilized governments have taken a 
 prominent part in such work. Institutions are espe- 
 cially prominent in the diffusion of culture among all 
 classes of people. Museums, libraries, theatres, book- 
 and picture-publishing establishments, and newspapers, 
 nearly all institutional in character, are active in the 
 dissemination of culture and cultural products. In ad- 
 dition to these institutions, which are concerned prima- 
 rily with the adult population, there is a great network 
 of institutions and schools, the special function of which 
 is to transmit culture to the younger generation. "We 
 see, then, that institutions, which are themselves im- 
 portant products of culture, have now become the most 
 effective means of giving cultural training to young 
 people and spreading it among all classes. 
 
 Culture and life. The intellectual and aesthetic needs 
 of man are almost as imperative as are the physicaL 
 Many men prefer to go hungry rather than miss an 
 intellectual or an artistic treat. Even among the hum- 
 blest people are found those who ornament themselves, 
 their homes, and their yards, and are interested in 
 music, literature, and the drama. It may even be said 
 that the struggle among human beings at the present 
 time is not so much for the necessities of life as for 
 cultural materials and opportunities. Men accumulate 
 wealth, not that they may be better fed or more com- 
 fortably protected against the weather, but that they 
 may have a variety of food served on beautiful dishes 
 
90 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 in an artistically furnished house surrounded by hand- 
 some grounds, and that they may have clothing that is 
 fashionable or pleasing to their tastes. Men work also 
 in order that they may have facilities and opportunities 
 for reading,^ seeing works of art, listening to music, 
 observing dramatic performances, and learning of the 
 progress of science and industry. A large part of 
 the life of civilized man is concerned with the enjoy- 
 ment and production of objects of culture and in strug- 
 gling to get the opportunities for such enjoyment. It 
 is culture that makes life permanently worth while 
 after the means of subsistence have been obtained. It 
 must be recognized, however, that culture is an impor- 
 tant means of social enjoyment and of obtaining dis- 
 tinction, hence it is sought for other reasons than for 
 individual enjoyment. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Enumerate various products of cultural activity that 
 are appreciated mentally, but are in no way necessary 
 to physical life. 
 
 2. Is more attention usually given to culture in old or 
 new countries ? Why ? 
 
 3. Discuss the relative prominence of nature and people in 
 stimulating natural production and cultural appreciation. 
 
 4. Classify the various forms of culture as to the degree 
 of cooperation they require. 
 
 6. In visiting a museum or an art gallery can you tell 
 what nation produced the things in each room without 
 looking at the labels, or in what age they were pro- 
 duced ? "Why are the peculiarities more distinctive in 
 some cases than in others ? 
 
 6. Study the development of some tool, machine, language, 
 system of music, or type of literature. 
 
CULTURAL NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 91 
 
 7. What coantries have most influenced the culture of the 
 United States ? Why ? 
 
 8. Enumerate the cultural objects in some home and note 
 how many of them are there because of modern inven- 
 tions. 
 
 9. Discuss which have had the most influence upon the 
 culture of the people of the United States, travelers 
 who have visited other countries, or visitors and immi- 
 grants from other countries ? Why ? 
 
 10. Which are playing the larger part in giving us the 
 culture of other peoples, words or pictures ? 
 
 11. Report upon the development of some cultural institu- 
 tions, such as libraries, moving pictures, museums, 
 newspapers. 
 
 12. Discuss cultural desires as stimuli to wealth-getting as 
 compared with nutritive needs as such stimuli. 
 
 13. Study statistics and estimate what proportion of the 
 wealth produced each year is to satisfy cultural needs. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 SOCIAL NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 
 
 Strength of social needs. Man has so long lived in 
 companionship with others that his nature demands 
 social intercourse. He cannot be satisfied without be- 
 ing with other persons and sharing his mental life with 
 them. Even art and literature lose their charm without 
 some one with whom to enjoy them and religion gains 
 added power when one joins with others in its rites. 
 
 Social intercourse is not primarily a distinct form of 
 activity, but is an incidental though very important 
 factor in all work and play. The desire for social com- 
 panionship leads to the forming of homes and to com- 
 munity life. One of the first questions asked in seeking 
 a new location is regarding the people with whom one 
 will associate. The same is true in entering various 
 vocations and forming connections with, institutions of 
 all sorts. 
 
 Human beings form the principal stimulus to effort 
 and to ambitions. The desire to be treated in certain 
 ways and to be looked upon with approval by certain 
 classes of people mingles with every end toward which 
 human beings strive and probably furnishes the strong- 
 est motive to action. 
 
 Social activities always imply a certain amount of 
 likemindedness in those who associate, but social inter- 
 course is the most satisfactory and stimulating when 
 there are also differences in the persons associating. 
 
 Under ordinary conditions each individual has more 
 
SOCIAL NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 93 
 
 or less association with those older, those younger, and 
 those of his own age, of his own and of the opposite 
 sex. Some of this association is naturally and normally 
 as a member of a group in which all these classes of 
 persons are represented. 
 
 Specialization of social intercourse. Under more 
 primitive conditions this association of all classes and 
 ages was more prominent in the family and in the com- 
 munity than it is to-day. The members of the family 
 were together much of the time and to a greater or 
 less extent played and worked together. In the com- 
 munity also each individual was generally well ac- 
 quainted with others of the community, both old and 
 young. 
 
 Formerly people who lived near each other often ex- 
 changed products and labor, borrowed, brought things 
 from the market for each other, and helped neighbors 
 in cases of festivity, sickness, or death. Now necessaries 
 are bought of dealers and delivered by them, the near- 
 ness of the market makes borrowing unnecessary, and 
 in cases of need, specialists, such as caterers, doctors, 
 nurses, and undertakers are hired, and neighbors can 
 do little or nothing. In this way the natural means of 
 establishing social relations with those around one are 
 diminished. In addition to this, one cannot possibly 
 know all the people in a city, or even in one's own 
 neighborhood, and though the desire for social inter- 
 course is still as strong as ever, it is satisfied by inter- 
 course not with persons in one's own locality, but with 
 persons that one meets in his work and recreations and 
 with those who are members of the same organizations 
 to which he belongs. 
 
 Specialization in the industri^^l and other activities, 
 
94 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 resulting from the invention of machinery has also 
 greatly changed social conditions. The different mem- 
 bers of the family are together much less than formerly. 
 They have fewer common interests and in many in- 
 stances rarely or never do the same thing together. The 
 father goes early in the morning to his work, of the 
 nature of which his children know little or nothing, 
 while they join a group of children of their own age 
 who are often entirely unknown to the parents. Fre- 
 quently the father and mother know as little of what 
 their children are doing in the school as the children 
 do of their parents' work. In a large proportion of cases 
 there is not more than one meal a day eaten in common 
 by the whole family, and sometimes not even that. In 
 the leisure time of the evening each member of the 
 family finds amusement by himself or in company with 
 others of his own age. Under such conditions the social 
 activities of the family are very limited compared with 
 what they once were. 
 
 In more primitive times, as in the smaller communi- 
 ties to-day, all the social relations incidental to work 
 and play and to public and to many private affairs were 
 with the same group of people. In modern city life each 
 kind of incidental, social relationship is largely with a 
 different class of persons : the people whom one meets 
 in connection with his work are not likely to be the same 
 as those he meets in church, in his lodge, or at places 
 of amusement. Each group of persons is known in only 
 one aspect of the lives of those comprising it, and each 
 calls for a different phase of one's social nature. 
 
 Along with this specialization of social intercourse 
 there has been a great broadening of the field of one's 
 social relations and a change in the means by which 
 
SOCIAL NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 95 
 
 each knows and to some extent shares the life of others. 
 Formerly the chief means of knowing others and their 
 affairs was by casual meetings and by hearsay. Now 
 we know a much larger number of people through the 
 medium of the newspaper. This performs the function 
 of the village gossip not only in the local community, 
 but in the state and nation. Through its medium the 
 actions of prominent people are made familiar to every 
 one, and public sentiment, corresponding to conununity 
 sentiment, is given expression. 
 
 In the cities conditions have also changed in com- 
 munity life. The persons who live near each other are 
 engaged in a variety of work, or if in the same occupa- 
 tion do not necessarily carry it on in association with 
 the others. People may inhabit the same block for years 
 and never exchange a word or learn one another's names. 
 
 This decrease in natural, incidental, social intercourse 
 has not diminished the need or desire for such inter- 
 course so much as it has changed its form. It has 
 brought about a great deal more association between 
 those of the same age. The children of different ages 
 and the parents have each associates of their own class. 
 
 It has also led to the formation of many societies for 
 social purposes or for the pursuit of a common interest, 
 such as bird study, civics, art, or music, and to a great 
 increase in the social activities of other societies. In 
 general these societies, however, do not very frequently 
 bring together men, women, and children, but provide 
 only for special groups of each. So nvmierous have these 
 societies, lodges, and clubs become that many persons 
 spend very little even of their leisure time at home. In 
 this way social life is very completely specialized. Any 
 one who moves into a city now finds it almost impos- 
 
96 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 sible to become acquainted except through some insti- 
 tution, such as a church, a club, or a lodge, or some 
 cultural, recreational, or civic society. 
 
 Institutions and social life. In most communities, 
 rural as well as village and city, there is frequently 
 nothing of sufficient interest to bring about a com- 
 munity feeling or common action. Special classes of 
 people are interested in special institutions, sometimes 
 in a good many of them, but there is usually less com- 
 munity interest than there is of state or national pa- 
 triotism and interest. State and national elections, with 
 the public questions involved and the interests at stake, 
 have generally been much more prominent than local 
 civic affairs. Recently, however, societies have been 
 formed and a great deal of work has been done by var 
 rious individuals and organizations to improve the com- 
 munity and to develop local civic pride. These have a 
 good deal of influence, especially when a large number 
 of persons are induced to help in doing something for 
 the community, such as cleaning it up, beautifying it, 
 or developing a recreation center. 
 
 Experience shows that gatherings and societies for 
 the sole purpose of social intercourse are not successful. 
 Something which all may do in common is necessary 
 to make the community sufficiently likeminded and to 
 bring out interesting and effective social reactions of 
 one to another. Some common act, such as playing, 
 working, or eating, is necessary unless there is some 
 definite purpose to be accomplished by discussion and 
 the planning of united effort. It may be said that one 
 of the most important things accomplished by all sorts 
 of organizations is the acquaintanceship and social ac- 
 tivity that incidentally result, but that any society that 
 
SOCIAL NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 97 
 
 attempts to make social activity the only or the chief aim 
 is likely to fail of its purpose. 
 
 Under present conditions it seems that the incidental 
 social activity of home, community, and business is far 
 less complete and varied than is demanded by the good 
 of the individual and of the community. The numerous 
 clubs of to-day are not the cause but the result of these 
 conditions. The remedy lies not in condemning these 
 clubs as destructive of family life, but in improving 
 them, eliminating those which give the least valuable 
 forms of social intercourse and forming more of the 
 kind that brings together all members of a community 
 and promotes unity of action and interest. 
 
 Social classes. Specialization in work and in play 
 and amusements, together with institutional develop- 
 ment, makes specialization in social intercourse inevi- 
 table. In so far as successive generations follow similar 
 occupations and keep the same financial and educational 
 standing, the inevitable result is the development of 
 distinct and permanent social classes, each of which has 
 no social intercourse with the others. This is a condi- 
 tion directly opposed to democracy. Even an employer 
 capitalist who has risen from the ranks soon loses social 
 touch with the laboring classes and loses the power to 
 look at things from their point of view. Much more is 
 a descendant of generations of capitalists differentiated 
 from a descendant of generations of laborers. Much of 
 the friction between employer and employees is due to 
 these facts, and one of the best remedies is being found 
 in the meeting of representatives of both classes, where 
 they can talk freely, get acquainted with one another 
 and learn to appreciate the different points of view pre- 
 sented. Similar meetings of educated and uneducated 
 
96 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 and of rich and poor, in which all are on an equality as 
 regards the question at issue, are of the greatest value 
 in a democracy. The public schools are doing much to 
 promote democracy in the young and to develop in their 
 parents common interests. They are, therefore, the most 
 promising social centers of to-day. 
 
 Social rules. Whenever people associate, customs 
 and institutions with rules are soon developed as guides 
 for the individual in his social intercourse with others. 
 The existence of distinct classes of persons favors this 
 tendency. A large part of oriental education consists 
 of training in the proper ways of acting toward the va- 
 rious classes. In Japan such action is developed into a 
 fine art, and the grace with which a Japanese lady per- 
 forms the social act of serving tea has been attained by 
 at least a year of special training to prepare her for that 
 important function. 
 
 Among western nations, especially as they become 
 more democratic, there is less occasion for elaborate 
 rules of social intercourse between people, since all are 
 of the same rank. The time-honored distinctions be- 
 tween men and women and between youth and age tend 
 also to disappear. There still remain the ordinary con- 
 ventions as to dress and conduct, but the finer courtesies 
 of life lack support ; consequently Americans are far less 
 polite than are the people of aristocratic and oriental 
 countries. 
 
 In place of rules of action for distinct social classes 
 are developed certain common rules for all, such as 
 taking one's turn in line, and special rules followed in 
 different sorts of institutions and assemblies. Just as 
 in older society what is fitting in conduct toward one 
 class of persons may not be permitted toward another, 
 
SOCIAL NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 99 
 
 so tlie courtesies of a baseball fan are not permissible 
 when he is in a church, or those of a bather at the beach 
 when in a drawing-room or in a public library. 
 
 A large part of the regulation of social intercourse in 
 America is through the institutions or societies with 
 which one is connected. Under the influence of each 
 institution we regulate our actions in relation to others 
 according to the rules and established customs of that 
 institution. The fine art of social intercourse now con- 
 sists not so much in behavior toward persons of a certain 
 class as of doing what is fitting between equals who are 
 members or ofiicers of certain institutions or engaged 
 in a special form of activity. Whether this kind of 
 social regulation can ever reach as high a state of de- 
 velopment as the older remains to be seen. Already, to 
 be a good loser in athletics is an obligation more strongly 
 enforced than that of making a polite bow, and it is 
 probably more necessary where majorities pm&t rule. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. If one had no association with people, either directly or 
 through the medium of language, could he maintain a 
 mental life above that of animals ? 
 
 2. To what extent are cultural products purchased for 
 one's own pleasure and to what extent for securing social 
 standing and approval? 
 
 3. Disciiss the part that likeness and difference in race, 
 class, age, sex, education, and temperament play in the 
 social intercourse of nations, classes, and individuals. 
 
 4. Each student should report as to the acquaintances of 
 different members of the family so as to show to what 
 extent they are associated with different groups of 
 people. 
 
 5. Report as to the part proximity of residence and being 
 
100 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 connected with institutions has had in promoting ac- 
 quaintance. This may be done by making a list of say 
 fifty acquaintances and stating the medium through 
 which the acquaintance was chiefly promoted. 
 
 6. What are the chief influences in this country that are 
 developing social classes and what are promoting ac- 
 quaintance between classes ? Compare various organiza- 
 tions as to their influence in this respect. 
 
 7. Discuss the part that division into classes has upon the 
 prominence of social conventions in the life of any peo- 
 ple, comparing such countries as India, England, and 
 the United States. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 MORAL AND RELIGIOUS NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 
 
 Relation of morals, religion, and custom. Moral and 
 religious needs are inherent in the social nature of man 
 and are closely related to each other. They depend upon 
 the fact that men feel the need of controlling and regu- 
 lating their action by some influence outside of them- 
 selves. In the case of moral action this influence is sup- 
 plied by the conduct and ideas of the other members of 
 the group, or if they are not present, by memories of 
 how they have acted under similar circumstances. 
 
 In the case of religion, it is the idea that the spirit 
 of some ancestor or a power of nature or a deity ap- 
 proves or disapproves of certain kinds of conduct. These 
 two influences frequently combine, the conduct being 
 regulated and the customs of the group being enforced 
 more effectively by belief in the spirits or gods than by 
 the mere example and opinion of persons. On the other 
 hand, faith in the spirits or gods is derived from the 
 example and opinions of the group to which one belongs, 
 since the ideas and customs regulating the conduct of 
 individuals are generally impressed upon the younger 
 members of the group by older persons and by leaders. 
 The longer any given custom has prevailed and the 
 more it is supported by leaders living and dead and by 
 religious beliefs, the stronger will be its controlling and 
 regulating influence. Warrior leaders and medicine 
 men have had much to do with shaping the moral and 
 religious practices of every group of people. 
 
102 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 In the regulation of conduct, both economic and moral, 
 there is always a peculiar mingling of more or less con- 
 scious wisdom as to what is the most useful form of 
 action for the group and superstitious and religious be- 
 liefs and ceremonies handed down by custom and tra- 
 dition. This is shown in all phases of both work and 
 play and in the conduct of both savage and civilized 
 peoples. In hunting, in cultivating the soil, in caring 
 for the dead, in war, and in games, what must or must 
 not be done is decided partly in accordance with true 
 knowledge and partly in accordance with customs and 
 traditions that have no justification in facts. The Indians 
 of the western desert regions developed a type of com 
 better suited for growth in those regions than any that 
 has been produced by modern experimenters in agri- 
 culture. Their methods of selecting, preserving, and 
 planting seed were, however, apparently regulated more 
 by superstitious and religious ideas than they were by 
 knowledge of cause and efifect. 
 
 The Indians of Mexico, in their favorite game of 
 long-distance racing have developed a system of dieting 
 and physical training that enables their athletes to accom- 
 plish most remarkable results in the way of speed and en- 
 durance. The directions as to what the contestant must 
 do before and during the race in order that he may win 
 are based on a pecidiar mingling of foolish superstitions 
 and of sensible practices in full accordance with the 
 laws of hygiene. 
 
 Our own ideas at the present day as to what animals 
 are suitable for food and what are not are influenced in 
 a similar way. It is tradition rather than scientific 
 knowledge that causes the mouth to water at the thought 
 of beefsteak and the stomach to revolt at the thought 
 of horse or dog steak or cat stew. 
 
MORAL AND RELIGIOUS NEEDS 103 
 
 Conditions and morals. It may be accepted as gen- 
 erally true that some of the rules regulating conduct in 
 relation to others, as well as in relation to work and 
 play, are founded upon what is for the advantage of 
 the group or upon what was advantageous or even abso- 
 lutely necessary at one time in its history. Some very 
 diverse moral codes may thus be justified by the peculiar 
 conditions of life under which different groups existed. 
 
 It would seem at first that there could be no justifi- 
 cation in a code that demands that a son shall kill his 
 parents as soon as they become helpless. We must con- 
 sider, however, that the people who recognized this moral 
 code were wandering people living under very hard 
 conditions, so that it was impossible for the group to 
 survive if they were burdened with a great number of 
 helpless individuals. To leave them behind meant tor- 
 ture from hunger and suffering or death from wild 
 beasts or enemies. Hence the good of the group and 
 kindness to the individual demanded that they should 
 be put out of the way, and this was regarded as pecul- 
 iarly the son's duty. 
 
 All groups of people have some sort of code to which 
 all members of the group must conform. In every case 
 it is safe to say that some of its rules enjoin those ac- 
 tions which, under the conditions in which the group 
 lives, are most favorable to its preservation and welfare. 
 Other portions of the code as surely represent actions 
 that are not now, and perhaps never have been, of any 
 real utility to the group as a whole. \They have origi- 
 nated as chance superstitions, or have been devised by 
 leaders for their own advantage, and then perpetuated 
 by custom and their supposed sacred character. Some 
 of them represent actions that are of use to no one, 
 
104 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 while others present standards of conduct which are 
 favorable to certain classes of individuals only, such as 
 rules regarding control of slaves, the divine right of 
 kings, or the sacredness of priests. 
 
 Morals and punishment. However founded, moral 
 codes are powerful in controlling and regulating the 
 conduct and the ideals of the individuals of the group 
 in proportion as they seem to represent the sentiments 
 and practices of all its members or of its leaders. 
 
 Under special circumstances, as in the case of certain 
 isolated tribes in Africa, custom alone, without teach- 
 ing or punishment, may quite effectively regulate the 
 conduct of the group. In certain villages, where there 
 is no relation with the people of other villages except 
 that of warfare, all members of the village have the 
 same customs, which are acquired through imitation by 
 the younger people and perpetuated generation after 
 generation. No one uses incorrect speech because he has 
 never heard any language different from that usual in 
 the village. The same is largely true of conduct. Pun- 
 ishment in order to make children or adults conform to 
 the customs of the group is unknown so far as could 
 be determined by a missionary living among them for 
 seven years. Some instances of scolding were observed, 
 but these were expressions of irritation rather than 
 punishments intended to change conduct. 
 
 Among people of more intelligence and initiative and 
 with stricter regulations, or who, through association 
 with other groups, observe conduct and customs differ- 
 ing from their own, it is impossible to regulate the con- 
 duct of individuals without some form of punishment 
 direct or indirect. 
 
 Among intelligent people who consider the future 
 
MORAL AND RELIGIOUS NEEDS 105 
 
 as well as immediate results of action, the moral code 
 always means a good deal of repression of instinctive 
 impulses. Hence punishments must be inflicted or re- 
 wards offered to induce individuals to exercise restraint 
 in accordance with that code. This is especially the case 
 where the pleasures of the individual and the good of 
 the group seem to come in conflict and in cases where 
 cooperative action can be successful only when each in- 
 dividual conforms to certain directions and rules. Such 
 regulations often originate in time of war and are then 
 strictly enforced by the leaders. 
 
 Every social group must protect itself against an in- 
 dividual whose act will in itself bring harm to the 
 group, either directly or because, as supposed, some 
 spirit will visit punishment upon the group if he is dis- 
 pleased by the action of one of its individuals. Among 
 peoples where the family and the larger community 
 group are combined in the patriarchal tribe, moral con- 
 duct is most clearly regulated by considerations of group 
 welfare. An individual is forbidden to interfere with 
 the persons or property not only of members of his own 
 tribe, but of members of other tribes. The leaders are 
 strict in prohibiting such acts because they know that 
 their whole tribe will be held responsible for the action 
 of one of its members. Any member of the tribe is 
 liable to loss of life and property because of the action 
 of any other member. 
 
 The group is always stronger than the individual, 
 and through the older men and the leaders the younger 
 and more independent individuals have their actions 
 controlled and regulated. Such regulations constitute 
 the moral code of the group and iJtimately the con- 
 science of the individual. 
 
106 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 Group loyalty. The primary basis of all moral codes 
 is that the conduct of the individual must be regulated 
 by the customs and beliefs of the group to which he 
 belongs. 
 
 Among oriental nations generally the individual re- 
 ceives little consideration. His duty is to conform to 
 the ideas and customs of his people and of his ancestors, 
 regardless of what his own feelings may be. Among 
 occidental peoples the feelings and the welfare of the 
 individual receive much more consideration, yet in the 
 final decision, if there seems to be a conflict between 
 the individual and the group to which he belongs, the 
 moral code of every people requires that the will of the 
 group rather than of the individual shall prevail. 
 
 This constitutes the burden of most moral teaching, 
 and every person learns sooner or later that it is for 
 his own good to conform in a large measure to the 
 accepted customs and regulations of his group. He finds 
 that the way in which he acts inevitably determines the 
 way others act toward him, and that he can gain his 
 own ends only by recognizing the rules of conduct fol- 
 lowed by those about him. This is especially impressed 
 upon boys who engage in games and find themselves 
 shut out if they do not conform to the rules, and who 
 see that failure to conform by others interferes with the 
 pleasures of the game. In work and cooperative activ- 
 ity of all kinds each individual sees that he must regu- 
 late his own conduct by the customary action of his 
 fellows. 
 
 Where the group to which the individual belongs 
 comes in conflict with another group, the chief deter- 
 mining influence upon the conscience of the individual 
 is the idea of loyalty to his own. He deems it his duty 
 
MORAL AND RELIGIOUS NEEDS 107 
 
 to act for the injury of other groups if the customs or 
 the good of his own group demand that he shall do so. 
 In more primitive times no moral obligation was recog- 
 nized except to one's own people. Strangers were killed 
 or maltreated without compunction. 
 
 War has always emphasized this attitude. It not 
 only justifies doing to the members of another tribe or 
 nation what would be regarded as a crime if the indi- 
 vidual injured were a member of one's own group, but 
 it has encouraged such actions and has even made them 
 models of the heroic. To deceive, kill, and even torture 
 an enemy is the act of a hero. The reason for this is 
 that the good of the group is supposed to demand that 
 an opposing group shall be injured as much as possible, 
 and that the action of the individual who risks his own 
 life, or in any way sacrifices himself to that end, is 
 noble. The idea of loyalty to one's own is so funda- 
 mental in all moral codes that it cannot be dispensed 
 with on the playgroimd, in business, or in the relation 
 of nations to one another. 
 
 Social organizations of all kinds emphasize this ideal, 
 that one must be true to his nation, his family, his fra- 
 ternity, his imion, his church, or to whatever organiza- 
 tion he belongs. His own interests must be sacrificed 
 for the good of the group. This idea has been and 
 must continue to be fundamental in moral codes al- 
 though it may not completely dominate. 
 
 Enlargement and specialization of regulative influ- 
 ences. A higher type of morality can develop only by 
 modification in ideas as to what constitutes the group 
 to which one belongs and to which one must be loyal. 
 As civilization progresses each individual in fact and in 
 his own consciousness becomes a member of a larger 
 
108 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 and larger group, until the time may come when he 
 shall recognize that all human beings, living and dead 
 and those yet to be born, belong to the same group, the 
 human brotherhood. This fosters the feeling that one's 
 deeds should be worthy of one's ancestors and enforces 
 the truth that the act of each individual affects more 
 or less all persons now living and those to follow. 
 Actions must, then, be justified not only to neighbors, 
 but to the world and to future generations. 
 
 This increasing consciousness of the common nature 
 and needs of all human beings and appreciation of the 
 effects of one's acts upon all members of the race, as 
 well as upon the small group among whom one is living, 
 are associated with considerable specialization in loy- 
 alty and in the moral rules recognized by the individ- 
 ual. Formerly one knew a few individuals in many 
 relations and he was responsible for all phases of his 
 conduct to the sentiments of this small group. Now, in 
 cities especially, one knows many groups of people, each 
 in only a few relations, and he is responsible to the sen- 
 timents of each group separately. 
 
 With his business associates he must conform to the 
 rules recognized among business men. In his club, 
 which may consist of an entirely different set of indi- 
 viduals, he must regulate his conduct according to the 
 rules and sentiments of the club. The same is true of 
 all the different groups of people with whom he comes 
 in contact. He is loyal to each and conforms to the 
 rules of each group with which he is associated. In one 
 group he may have the fuU support of his companions 
 in acts which, if known to other groups to which he be- 
 longs, would be severely condemned. 
 
 This applies especially to residents of large cities, 
 
MORAL AND RELIGIOUS NEEDS 109 
 
 but it applies even more to persons who occasionally 
 visit large cities, where they meet no one with whom 
 their home people are acquainted, and where their ac- 
 tions are, therefore, largely iminfluenced by what their 
 neighbors may say, think, or do. This makes it possi- 
 ble for many forms of vice to thrive in a city which 
 would receive no support or patronage in a small com- 
 munity. 
 
 Institutions and public opinion and morals. The 
 change from personal to institutional activity also has 
 considerable influence upon moral conduct. Every in- 
 stitution is carried on according to certain rules, and 
 conformity to these means a great deal of regulation of 
 conduct for those connected with the institution. Some- 
 times these rules refer not only to business, but also to 
 personal conduct, such as politeness or sobriety. 
 
 On the other hand, the feeling toward an institution is 
 not the same as that toward an individual. Many men 
 will, therefore, be much more inclined to deal dishon- 
 estly with an institution than with a person. The man 
 who would not think of cheating any one out of money 
 justly due him will take every possible advantage of 
 a railway, an insurance company, or other institution. 
 This is largely because he does not see so clearly the 
 effect of his acts, and especially because his friends and 
 the persons who are ultimately wronged do not know of 
 his conduct and have no way of showing their disap- 
 proval of the wrongdoer. Many grafters of public funds 
 are strictly honest in their dealing with individuals, in- 
 cluding their fellow grafters. 
 
 The man who would not think of cheating or injur- 
 ing his poor sick neighbor may sell worthless, even 
 injurious, preparations to thousands of unfortunate 
 
no FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 strangers. This is possible because lie does not fully 
 realize the results that come from his business and be- 
 cause no one that he knows, or to whose set he belongs, 
 shows any disapproval of the act. The farmer who 
 would not sell defective fruit or diseased meat to his 
 neighbor may send them away and sell them to people 
 he does not know. 
 
 Kapid changes have, however, been taking place, and 
 along with a decrease in some of the influences favoring 
 personal moral action there are also many influences 
 increasing institutional and public morality. 
 
 Banks, insurance companies, and manufacturers now 
 take more pains to build up and maintain their reputa- 
 tion for reliability than do most individuals. They, and 
 also public service corporations, such as railways, recog- 
 nize their responsibility, not only to their employees and 
 stockholders, but to the general public. Standardization 
 has also had important effects because false claims are 
 easily detected. 
 
 An increasing knowledge of the more remote results 
 of any course of action in these days of specialization 
 and exchange of products between people who have 
 never seen each other, and increasing publicity and fix- 
 ing of responsibility through the newspapers, have had 
 important effects. 
 
 The gossip of neighbors in a small community exer- 
 cises a strong restraining influence upon every member 
 of that community. In a similar way the newspapers 
 give publicity to one's acts and their results, and this 
 has become a powerful social influence upon men as indi- 
 viduals and as officials of the government and of other 
 institutions. 
 
 As people become better informed regarding the re- 
 
MORAL AND RELIGIOUS NEEDS 111 
 
 suits of different ways of carrying on business, politics, 
 and institutions of all kinds, the influences impelling 
 each person to recognize the rights and pleasures of the 
 public become greater and greater. This moral responsi- 
 bility is recognized in law as well as in public sentiment, 
 and the heads of institutions now conform to laws and 
 to the demands of the public in ways never conceived 
 of by those of a generation ago. Manufacturers and 
 business men of to-day now have the same reasons for 
 being honest with those who ultimately use their goods 
 as did men who exchanged with their permanent neigh- 
 bors. They know that they cannot continue to sell their 
 goods unless they are according to representation. Any 
 customer who purchases a standard product and finds 
 it defective is encouraged by the retail dealer and the 
 manufacturer to return it and receive in its place a new 
 supply. 
 
 At one time it was thought that lying was the most 
 successful mode of advertising, but now those who do 
 professional advertising for firms that expect to con- 
 tinue in business, insist that advertisements must be 
 essentially truthful or success will be brief. 
 
 Although this type of morality has recently developed, 
 yet many officials conform to its principles, not merely 
 because it pays, but because they wish to promote the 
 welfare of all persons who are affected by their public 
 acts. Only the more intelligent people, however, appre- 
 ciate this higher type of morality, and it still remains 
 true that in many places a politician, whose public acts 
 are generally injurious to the people of his city, is elected 
 to office again and again because he is personally kind 
 to the voters and their families and helps them in trouble 
 and misfortune. 
 
112 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 Utility and morals. Along with these changes others 
 of considerable importance have taken place. Formerly 
 ideas as to what was right were determined very largely 
 by custom and tradition and only slightly by definite 
 knowledge and appreciation of the natural and inevit- 
 able results of certain kinds of action. 
 
 The scientific tendency shown in other lines to study 
 cause and effect has had its influence in the field of 
 morals. More and more are actions approved as right 
 or condemned as wrong according to the consequences 
 that follow, and more and more is the moral code being 
 based upon known sociological laws. Young people and 
 others are no longer satisfied when told that a thing is 
 "Wrong because it has always been so regarded. They 
 must be shown just how and why it is wrong. 
 
 In many respects this represents a distinct advance, 
 but we must also recognize that knowledge not backed 
 by instinctive tendencies does not have strong control- 
 ling and regulating influence. People may know that 
 certain acts are injurious to themselves and to others 
 and yet not be restrained from them as effectively as 
 they are in other cases where instinct, sentiment, or 
 custom play a larger part. The use of drugs may be 
 condemned by the mind and yet practiced because of 
 appetite, fashion, or habit. A man may be fully con- 
 vinced intellectually that it is unwise or even wrong to 
 give to beggars and yet his instinctive sympathy may 
 impel him to do so. He may believe that there is no 
 justification in the welfare of society for the giving-up 
 of their lives by talented individuals in order that some 
 ignorant, unimportant women may be saved, yet we 
 still honor rather than condemn the man who makes 
 such a sacrifice. 
 
MORAL AND RELIGIOUS NEEDS 113 
 
 The modern code of ethics is very properly founded 
 to an increasing extent, upon scientific knowledge of 
 sociological phenomena, but it does and should take 
 into account not merely the more immediate utilitarian 
 results, but also the value and significance of fund*- 
 mental instincts and racial ideals in human conduct. 
 To preserve the lives of useless human beings and care 
 for them may not be justified on utilitarian grounds, yet 
 sentiment will probably maintain the practice. Although 
 science may and should more and more determine the 
 moral code, yet folk-ways and ideals are more powerful 
 in controlling strong instinct opposed to moral codes 
 than scientific knowledge of results, and, therefore, 
 must not be hastily abandoned. 
 
 Scientific knowledge and religious belief. In many 
 respects the changes regarding religious beliefs and ac- 
 tivities have been greater than in the field of morals. 
 Religion has always been associated with the belief in 
 an immaterial world of powerful beings who are able 
 to exercise a potent influence upon things and person8.JI 
 This belief in unknown spirits has mingled with knowl- 
 edge of things and their relations. In many enterprises 
 of men attempts have been made not only to utilize 
 knowledge in securing desired ends, but also to enlist 
 the favor and help of spiritual powers. Among most 
 primitive peoples the beginning of all important acts, 
 war, seed-planting, harvest, etc., and important events, 
 such as marriages, births, and deaths, are associated with 
 religious ceremonies of some kind. This has continued 
 down to the present time, but now exists to a very much 
 less extent than formerly. 
 
 The scientific spirit, which seeks a material cause for 
 every event, has largely taken the place of the religious 
 
114 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 spirit and of religious exercises. The change is well 
 illustrated by such incidents as this : Cotton Mather, 
 when suffering from a toothache, decided that he must 
 make a careful self-examination to discover in what re- 
 spect he had failed in his duty and thus had caused this 
 affliction to be sent upon him. The modern minister 
 would never think of doing this, but would go to a den- 
 tist and ask him regarding the physical cause of the 
 pain and have him apply the necessary means for re- 
 moving it. Men no longer look to the evil acts of its 
 inhabitants for the cause of pestilence in a city but 
 rather to its water supply, its sewerage system, or its 
 germ-bearing insects. 
 
 This tendency to find causes and apply known reme- 
 dies extends not only to material things and to bodily 
 conditions, but also to the thoughts and acts of men. 
 We go to psychology to find the explanation of certain 
 acts and states of mind instead of supposing them to 
 be caused by some evil spirit. This does not mean that 
 scientific knowledge leaves no place for religious beliefs, 
 but merely that it has taken the place of many old re- 
 ligious beliefs and consequently gives religion a differ- 
 ent and less conspicuous place in modern life. 
 
 These changes are important, not so much in the 
 effect that they have had upon the foundations of re- 
 ligious beliefs and practice of the deeper thinkers, as in 
 their effects upon the beliefs and especially the prac- 
 tices of the common people. Those who study deeply 
 into the phenomena of nature, trying to search out ulti- 
 mate causes, come to things that are unexplainable by 
 science, just as their more ignorant predecessors found 
 themselves unable to explain by anything they knew 
 the common events of nature. The ancients often per- 
 
MORAL AND RELIGIOUS NEEDS 116 
 
 sonified forces of nature as gods, while by the modern 
 believer they may still be regarded as expressions of 
 God's unchanging will which man may come to know 
 through increased knowledge of the invariable working 
 of these forces. 
 
 To others, however, who have not gone so deeply into 
 the question, it seems, as one mystery after another is 
 explained by science, that all things may thus be ex- 
 plained and that there is no occasion for supposing the 
 existence of any spiritual power or for invoking its aid. 
 The development of machinery, the results of whose 
 wonderful working may be seen by every one, but whose 
 details are understood by but a few, serves to increase 
 faith in material causes and to divert attention from 
 spiritual forces. 
 
 Religious observances decreasing. This change in 
 intellectual attitude is associated with even more im- 
 portant changes in conduct. Religious ceremonies play 
 a much smaller part in the life of people to-day than 
 was formerly the case. Where they are continued it is 
 largely as a part of special religious exercises and not 
 so much in connection with all the important events of 
 life. Religious ceremonies are much less prominent in 
 connection with death, marriages, and public events of 
 all kinds. In other words, people are not so frequently 
 engaged in acts which recognize spiritual forces as con- 
 cerned with human affairs. 
 
 This has a more important influence than lack of 
 thought or belief regarding such forces. Nothing so 
 makes any belief a part of one's self as joining with 
 others in acting as if it were true. Young people of to- 
 day do not so frequently see religious ceremonials and 
 do not themselves take part in them so much as for- 
 
116 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 merly. Hence it is inevitable that religion should play 
 a smaller part in their life, conduct, and belief than it 
 did in the lives of preceding generations. This decrease 
 in the influences reflecting religious beliefs and prac- 
 tices is made still greater by the growing tendency to 
 separate religion and morals and to develop a scientific 
 conception of moral codes. 
 
 Religion still powerful. Notwithstanding these 
 changes modifying religious beliefs and decreasing re- 
 ligious practices, it still remains true that religious be- 
 liefs exert a powerful influence even upon those who 
 profess to be unbelievers. There never has been and 
 probably never will be any group of people among whom 
 religion in some form ia not an important factor in regu- 
 lating and controlling action. The superstitions con- 
 nected with religion have declined so that it now has 
 less influence upon thought and action in the minor 
 aiFairs of life, yet the best of religion has been em- 
 bodied in our social and moral ideas and still controls 
 beliefs and conduct to a large extent. 
 
 In our own country, although there is supposed to be 
 complete separation of church and state, there is still 
 official recognition of religion in the opening of assem- 
 blies of various kinds and to some extent in our legis- 
 lation. The Sunday laws in many states are still based 
 upon the idea that Sunday is a sacred day which for 
 religious reasons must be observed by not engaging in 
 ordinary work. In some states, however, the laws re- 
 garding Sunday are based solely upon moral and socio- 
 logical principles. Instead of saying what may be done 
 on that day, the law simply provides that all workers 
 shall have one day in seven free to spend in other ways 
 than in their regular work, or it may go a little farther 
 
MORAL AND RELIGIOUS NEEDS 117 
 
 in recognizing the rights of certain classes of people to 
 follow their custom of observing Sunday in certain ways, 
 and to that end prohibits others from doing anything 
 to interfere with such observance. 
 
 Much is gained by taking the scientific view with 
 regard to religious as well as other phenomena, but in 
 so far as utility rather than some ideal serves as a mo- 
 tive for action, there is a distinct loss. There is a pos- 
 itive danger to society in developing knowledge and 
 utilitarian ideas as standards for control and regidation 
 of conduct, if there is at the same time a loss of the 
 powerful influence of religious ideals as ultimate con- 
 trollers and regulators of action. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Give illustrations of regulations that are binding largely 
 because of custom and others for which a reason may 
 be shown. 
 
 2. Why was horse-stealing considered such a serious crime 
 in pioneer days ? Give other examples of morality gov- 
 erned by special circumstances. 
 
 3. If laws inflicting punishment for stealing were repealed 
 in your state would stealing increase ? Would the ma- 
 jority of the people steal ? Why ? 
 
 4. Is there any ideal of heroism that can take the place of 
 those furnished by war ? 
 
 6. Give several illustrations of moral obligations based on 
 the idea of loyalty to a group ? 
 
 6. Why is acting as a strike-breaker regarded as so wrong 
 by union men even when the one who so acts has a 
 family threatened with starvation? To what extent 
 do societies of various kinds enlarge or narrow group 
 loyalty ? 
 
 7. Should a statesman be judged by his loyalty to his dis- 
 trict, to his country, or by his personal morals ? 
 
118 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 8. To what extent does a permanently successful, indus- 
 trial, or commercial institution foster morality on the 
 part of those who are rimning it and haying dealings 
 with it ? 
 
 9. Give specific evidence of increase in public morality or 
 regard for the interests of all the people instead of for 
 certain individuals, groups, or classes. 
 
 10. Just how or why does standardization in the industries 
 help to promote honesty ? 
 
 11. Are truthfulness and honesty valued now chiefly be- 
 cause of their sacred character or because they are sen- 
 sible, useful, profitable ways of acting ? Which exercises 
 the greater restraint, the supposed sanctity of truth, or 
 knowledge of its general value or significance in life ? 
 Is it the same for all kinds of persons ? 
 
 12. Would a nation that destroyed all helpless and defec- 
 tive individuals reach a higher type of civilization than 
 one that cared for them ? 
 
 13. Give illustrations of the substitution of scientifically 
 directed operations for religious exercises. 
 
 14. Just how does such an act as keeping the Sabbath, or 
 fasting, foster religious belief ? 
 
 15. What evidence can you find in the census reports that 
 religion is or is not powerful enough to enlist more men 
 and money in its service than formerly ? 
 
 \ 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 EDUCATIONAL NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES — GENERAL 
 
 Education a need of every social group. Whenever 
 people have been living, working, playing together for 
 some time, they have developed certain customs, knowl- 
 edge, and skill which must be acquired by any new- 
 comer before he can successfully carry on his part as a 
 member of the group. This applies equally to the vari- 
 ous organizations of to-day, to nations, and to the most 
 primitive groups of hmnan beings. Many of the mod- 
 em societies and lodges give special instruction to new 
 members, and most of them do not allow a member to 
 take a position of prominence until he has been allied 
 with the society for some time and has had an opportu- 
 nity to become familiar with its workings. 
 
 In groups of primitive people considerable knowledge 
 and skill is necessary in most places in order to main- 
 tain life. They must know what may be used for food, 
 where it may be obtained, and how it may be prepared 
 and stored for future use. There must be knowledge of 
 what is dangerous to life and of the means of providing 
 protection against wild animals, climatic changes, and 
 enemies. Besides this there are in every social group 
 certain kinds of action expected of the different classes 
 of people, the men, the women, the children, and the 
 leaders or the servants if there are such. Each group 
 of people has traditions, social customs, moral and reli- 
 gious beliefs with which any newcomer most become 
 familiar. 
 
Y 
 
 120 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 Even if the group is isolated and has none coming 
 to it from other groups, still it is continually receiving 
 new individuals by the birth of children and their 
 growth to maturity. The process by which these new 
 individuals learn to take their places in the community 
 is one of education. They are not bom with the knowl- 
 edge possessed by the group, but must acquire it. They 
 do not, however, have to acquire it all independently, 
 by chance or purposive experiments that reveal to them 
 what is good to eat, what is dangerous, what the needs 
 for the different times of the year are, or what customs 
 are most advantageous. They can learn these things in 
 a shorter time and with much less pain and danger by 
 observing the actions of older members of the group 
 and by imitating and receiving instruction from them. 
 If the young people in each group did not have the 
 opportunity thus to learn from their elders, it would 
 be difficult for the group to survive except in the more 
 favorable regions of the earth and it would be impos- 
 sible for it to maintain its institutions and culture. 
 Education of the younger generation is, therefore, a 
 necessity in every case. 
 
 The greater the knowledge and skill required in 
 order that the group may live efficiently, the greater 
 the necessity for education and the more necessary is it 
 that the new generation shall not only learn from their 
 elders rather than by their own experience alone, but 
 that they shall be consciously taught by them. This is 
 why so much time must be devoted to education in the 
 present day thickly settled community with artificial 
 surroundings, where life is maintained by complex indus- 
 tries. 
 
 Character of primitive education. Among primitive 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — GENERAL 121 
 
 people the children receive a large part of their educa- 
 tion incidentally through observing the actions of older 
 people, imitating them, and helping them. In most 
 cases they also receive some instruction as to how to 
 secure and prepare food, clothing, and shelter. This 
 training is given chiefly by parents and older children. 
 The more formal and direct instruction is usually moral 
 and religious and is given by the elders of the com- 
 munity. In nearly aU tribes a certain amount of time, 
 varying from a few days to several months, is devoted 
 to giving the young the special training necessary to 
 perpetuate the moral and religious beliefs of the group. 
 This instruction is usually given at the age of puberty, 
 just before the young people take their places as mem- 
 bers of the community. 
 
 The character of the education varies with every 
 group, but in most cases it involves more action than 
 receiving of instruction. In many cases the youths are 
 made to endure hunger and pain and are required to 
 deny themselves and act exactly in accordance with 
 directions. Often they are required to go through cer- 
 tain ceremonies that are symbolic or religious in char- 
 acter. Along with these ceremonies there may be given 
 some instruction as to the history of the tribe and the 
 significance of the various movements, songs, dances, 
 etc., which they learn. 
 
 The instructors are in nearly all cases the older men 
 of the tribe, and if the customs and beliefs of the group 
 are to be perpetuated, the instruction must be impres- 
 sive and permanent in its effects. This is probably one 
 reason why fasting, tests of endurance, secrecy, and de- 
 tailed directions as to the exact way in which things 
 must be done are made so prominent in these initiative 
 
122 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 ceremonies which constitute the principal feature of 
 the education given by the priests and old men of the 
 group. 
 
 The character of civilized education. When people 
 have developed so that they use a great many tools and 
 a great variety of machinery in many specialized in- 
 dustries, and when the amount of general and special 
 knowledge possessed by the group is very extensive, 
 the necessity for the education of children becomes 
 vastly greater. Years of study and training are neces- 
 sary before the individual can acquire even a small por- 
 tion of the general knowledge possessed by the group, 
 and many more years of technical training, to prepare 
 for one of the more highly specialized occupations by 
 means of which individuals indirectly obtain food, cloth- 
 ing, shelter, and the satisfaction of various desires. 
 
 Although much may still be learned incidentally by 
 observation and imitation, yet a great deal more must 
 be definitely taught. The occupation of the father is 
 usually outside of the home and the son has little op- 
 portunity to become familiar with it by observation. 
 Of the occupations of other men he has also little op- 
 portunity to learn incidentally. He must go into the 
 office, shop, or factory, and then he finds division of 
 labor and specialization so complete that he can learn 
 little except by special study and practice in particular 
 processes. 
 
 As to general knowledge the child at the present day 
 can acquire much incidentally concerning his own neigh- 
 borhood and his own times, but of other places and of 
 other ages he must learn for the most part by special 
 study. 
 
 For the reasons g^ven above, civilized society, instead 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — GENERAL 123 
 
 of requiring the young to spend a few days or a few 
 months in receiving instruction, finds it necessary for 
 them to spend from six to eighteen years in preparing 
 themselves for taking an effective part in the activities 
 of life. Education can no longer be left to the parents 
 and to a few of the older men, but society must provide 
 a means for carrying it on. 
 
 Although children stiU receive a great deal of edu- 
 cation in the home and from various other sources, 
 especially the church, yet the chief institution for pre- 
 paring the young to take their places in life is the 
 school. The necessity of such an institution is now fully 
 recognized. Not only are there schools in aU civilized 
 countries, but these schools are generally controlled and 
 supported by the state. Education is no longer re- 
 garded merely as a convenience for the individual, but 
 as a necessity for society. The material and social com- 
 fort of life to-day depends not so much upon natural 
 environment as upon artificial conditions that can be 
 maintained only by skilled workers who have received 
 a long course of training. 
 
 If a single generation were left without education, 
 the possibilities of life, comfort, and happiness would 
 decrease so rapidly, especially in the thickly populated 
 districts, that untold misery would result. We all know 
 that a strike in a single industry may cause an im- 
 mense amount of discomfort and suffering. Inefficiency 
 in all the industries and in the management of govern- 
 mental affairs would result from failure to educate a 
 single generation. Without the natural advantages the 
 savage enjoys, we in our artificial environment would 
 be far more helpless than he. 
 
 Where each generation is educated, it is possible for 
 
124 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 a thousand times as many people to live comfortably in 
 the same territory as it would be if they were ignorant, 
 untrained savages. Civilization can maintain itself only 
 by educating each new generation as fully as the past 
 generation was educated. In order to advance, the edu- 
 cation given each rising generation must be superior to 
 that given to preceding ones. It must prepare them for 
 doing successfully what is already being done, accord- 
 ing to the methods now used, but it must also prepare 
 them for receiving new ideas and introducing improved 
 methods. 
 
 A nation may aim, as China did for centuries, to 
 ^ve an education designed to produce a condition of 
 society like that of its own best past, or it may prepare 
 for the life of to-day as it is being carried on, or it 
 may prepare for a different and better future which is 
 expected when the newer generation takes its place in 
 society. 
 
 It is impossible to make a complete break with the 
 past because the teachers, the schools, and all other 
 social influences are the products of the past. Educa- 
 tional institutions, ideals, and practices require several 
 generations before they can be wholly transformed. It 
 follows, therefore, that even though the ideal be a new 
 order of society, considerable time must be required 
 before teachers can be trained to teach so as to bring 
 it about, since they cannot entirely break away from 
 the training they themselves had when young. It is safe 
 to say also that there is much in the past teaching that 
 is fundamentally good or it would not have been used 
 for many generations. 
 
 Closely associated with the aim of education is the 
 question of the materials of instruction to be used. 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS— GENERAL 125 
 
 The more the material is taken from the culture epochs 
 of the remote past rather than from the recent past or 
 immediate present, the more conservative is the teach- 
 ing. The new generation is prevented from breaking 
 away from the traditions of the older and is fitted for 
 life as it has been, but not necessarily for the present. 
 If the culture material is taken from the life of to-day, 
 there is a possibility that it may not be so good, against 
 the chance that it may be better, and a certainty that 
 the new generation will be different from the old which 
 had different training. 
 
 In former times the aim of education was to develop 
 a highly cultured, well-trained, ruling class, but in re- 
 cent times, as democracy has developed, the aim has 
 been to give everybody at least a minimum amount of 
 education, and the tendency is for more advanced edu- 
 cation to be granted to a larger portion of the people. 
 In some countries, however, a disproportionately large 
 amount of money is spent on higher education as com- 
 pared with the elementary schools. 
 
 Aims and functions of the schools. The necessity 
 for education, as already indicated, determines to a con- 
 siderable extent the aims and functions of the schooL 
 The school must take the chief responsibility of prepar- 
 ing the yoimg people to carry on the world's work and 
 to make further advance in civilization possible. It is 
 true that an immense amount of education is given the 
 rising generation incidentally and intentionally outside 
 of the school. It is the business of the school to utilize 
 and supplement this education in such a way that young 
 people will be prepared for the work now being done 
 and that which will need to be done in the future. 
 Whatever education is needed that is not given sue- 
 
126 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 cessfuHy by experience, by the home, or by the church, 
 must be given by the school. 
 
 The demands being made upon the school are in- 
 creasing rapidly, not only because of the advance in 
 knowledge and the increase in complexity of the proc- 
 esses involved in the various industries, but because 
 the effectiveness of the other educational influences is 
 decreasing rather than increasing. The children have 
 less opportunity to learn by observation and experience 
 than formerly, because they are in the midst of an arti- 
 ficial environment in which many of the processes are 
 carried on by means of complicated and invisible ma- 
 chinery. They have comparatively little opportunity to 
 observe the phenomena of nature or to observe and 
 imitate the simple means by which food, clothing, and 
 shelter are obtained under primitive conditions. 
 
 The home is far less influential than formerly be- 
 cause the various members of the family are together 
 there only a small portion of the time. Much of the 
 work is done away from home and amusement and so- 
 cial intercourse are gained elsewhere, often separately 
 by the different members of the family. 
 
 The church, although directly and indirectly a pow- 
 erful educative influence, is comparatively much less 
 prominent than in former days. The number of hours 
 spent in church and Sunday school are few and the 
 amount learned correspondingly slight. 
 
 It is not strange, therefore, with the mass of subject- 
 matter to be learned increasing with wonderful rapidity 
 and the educational influence of other institutions than 
 the school diminishing, that more and more should be 
 demanded of the schools. Subject after subject is added 
 to the courses of study and still there is increased de- 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS— GENERAL 127 
 
 mand that the schools do more. The schools are being 
 made a means not only of preserving what has already 
 been gained in knowledge, but of preparing for further 
 advance in science, art, literature, civics, and morals. 
 
 The functions of the schools are being enlarged still 
 further. Primarily they were established to prepare 
 the youthful generation for life, but now they are be- 
 ginning also to take on the function of giving further 
 education to the adult population. This is being done 
 both directly and indirectly. Indirectly, important edu- 
 cative influences reach from the schools to the home 
 through the children. This is perhaps especially promi- 
 nent in the lines of literature, home decoration, and 
 hygiene. Direct education is given to adults in the form 
 of public lectures, evening schools, continuation schools, 
 reading clubs, and university extension work. At first 
 this kind of instruction was given largely through pri- 
 vate organizations, but is now being directed more and 
 more by school authorities. 
 
 In addition to this, researches of all kinds are being 
 carried on by educational institutions and the results of 
 these studies are given to those to whom they will be 
 most valuable. Up to the present time the most impor- 
 tant work of this kind has been in the line of agricul- 
 ture. The principles of better farming have been devel- 
 oped in experiment stations and agricultural colleges 
 and have been taught to the farmers of the country very 
 extensively. The schools, lower and higher, are being 
 more and more relied upon for discovering new truths 
 that will be useful to mankind and for spreading the 
 knowledge to young and old. 
 
 Many think that too much is being demanded of the 
 school, that it is taking upon itself functions that could 
 
128 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 better be performed by other institutions. This may be 
 true, but the young people must be properly trained or 
 civilization cannot be maintained, to say nothing of mak- 
 ing progress, and if the training is not being given out- 
 side, it remains for the school, as the chief educational 
 institution under the control of society, to do the work. 
 
 It has been claimed by some that with such an in- 
 crease in the number of subjects it is impossible for the 
 schools to give as thorough training in the older funda- 
 mentals as was given when the subjects were fewer. A 
 comparison with the work sixty years ago, made possible 
 by the discovery of a set of old examination papers in 
 Springfield, Massachusetts, proves, however, that the 
 modern youth, with his many subjects, is superior to the 
 old-time pupil in the fundamentals of spelling, writing, 
 and arithmetic, and no one wiU question that he is supe- 
 rior in reading and in general information. The more 
 cultural surroundings in which children live to-day, 
 and better methods of teaching and correlating what is 
 taught, make it possible for children to pursue the more 
 extensive course of study and yet increase their efficiency 
 in the fundamentals. 
 
 Organization and control of schools. It is generally 
 recognized that the state is the final authority in edu- 
 cation. In most civilized countries it requires all children 
 to attend school up to a certain age, and it provides or 
 requires that the local community shall provide for the 
 education of all children. It also regulates to a greater 
 or less extent, by law, the processes of education. 
 
 As to the actual carrying-on of the schools there are 
 considerable differences in various countries and in the 
 states of this country. In some places there is what 
 is called a centralized system in which the state assumes 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS— GENERAL 129 
 
 full control of the local schools, while in other places 
 the state makes certain general regulations, but leaves 
 the local community to carry on its own schools, the 
 expense being usually born in part by the state and in 
 part by the local community. Under the centralized 
 system the state not only specifies the general charac- 
 ter of the schools that must be established and the 
 length of time that they shall be in session, but it 
 makes the course of study, sometimes prescribes the text- 
 books to be used, determines who shall teach in the 
 local schools, gives examinations, and determines all 
 matters of admission, promotion, and graduation. In 
 other states, especially in Massachusetts, the local com- 
 munity has had until recently almost complete freedom 
 to control its own schools, which it supports almost 
 wholly by local taxation. The state makes certain gen- 
 eral regulations and encourages towns to have good 
 schools by helping the poorer towns in proportion as 
 they are willing to help themselves, as shown by their 
 spending a large proportion of the money raised by 
 taxation on their schools. 
 
 A centralized system has all the advantages of uni- 
 formity and the still greater disadvantages. It saves 
 the schools in some communities from being as poor as 
 they might be, but it makes it difficult for others to 
 be as good as they wish to be. The basal idea support- 
 ing the centralized system is the belief that one man 
 or a group of men can be wiser for all the communi- 
 ties of the state than the members of each community 
 ^•/yt^can be for themselves. It also presupposes that all 
 SrCommunities are essentially alike and what is good for 
 "^ne is good for the others. The last supposition is en- 
 tirely without foundation, for in each state there is an 
 
130 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 immense difference between the rural and city com- 
 munlties and also between different rural and urban 
 communities. 
 
 The former supposition, that the central authorities 
 can direct the affairs of each community better than 
 the people of the community, is true only in an un- 
 democratic country and where the people of the local 
 communities are ignorant. In a monarchy such cen- 
 tralized control would be consistent, but in a republic, 
 where each local community not only governs itself, 
 but takes a part in national and state government, it 
 is quite inconsistent to suppose that they cannot man- 
 age their educational affairs. 
 
 Furthermore, the responsibility of the community 
 for directing the education of its children is in itself 
 an important educative influence. To deprive it of that 
 responsibility is to take away one of the most important 
 means of progress. 
 
 This does not mean that the local community should 
 be left entirely without help in solving its educational 
 problems. On the contrary, the central educational 
 officials should furnish it with all possible information 
 as to what may be done and as to the most successful 
 means used in other communities. The central officials 
 in education should be to the local school officials what 
 the departments and schools of agriculture are to the 
 farmers of the state. These institutions have no au- 
 thority whatever over the farmer, but they furnish him 
 reliable information as to what crops may be success- 
 fully grown in each kind of soil and how the plant- 
 ing and culture of a crop may be carried on most 
 profitably. In a similar way the state educational 
 officials should aid the local communities. This policy 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — GENERAL 131 
 
 of showing them what may be done with advantage will 
 be far more effective than requiring all to come up to 
 some fixed standard. 
 
 Another objection to authoritative control by state 
 officials is, that it tends not only to uniformity, but to 
 a continuance of that uniformity. On the other hand, 
 if the local communities are allowed to try whatever 
 seems to meet their needs and the state officials study 
 and test the results of these experiments in the various 
 parts of the state and make public the facts obtained, 
 the chances for improvement and advancement with 
 changing needs are greatly increased. 
 
 School administration. The administration of schools, 
 like that of other organizations, has tended to become 
 narrowly institutional instead of broadly public-spir- 
 ited. Schools were organized to perform a public serv- 
 ice for society, but have been administered as if the 
 purpose of each grade were to prepare for the grade 
 above, and the aim of the whole to prepare for an 
 academic career instead of for community life. 
 
 Educators, finding that there were considerable ad- 
 vantages in teaching children in groups comprising 
 those that had taken the same work, were led to over- 
 value the importance of grading and especially the im- 
 portance of artificial standards in education. This theory- 
 was carried out in the form of strict grading, and only 
 those who had done a certain amount and kind of work, 
 as indicated by examinations and markings, were per- 
 mitted to advance from one grade to another or to be 
 admitted from the grades to the high school and from 
 the high school to college. In some instances children 
 who had failed in one subject only were held back, and 
 as a total result great numbers of children dropped out, 
 
UB FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 wlio would have continued in school longer had they 
 been permitted and encouraged to do so. The only 
 advantage gained by this policy was the preservation of 
 lA an artificial standard of scholarship and the fact that 
 ■^f the work of the teachers was rendered somewhat easier 
 and more mechanical. The disadvantages were many, 
 the chief one being that a large number of children 
 were discouraged or refused an education, who had as 
 good a right to it as those of greater ability and per- 
 haps of less need. Not only were they discouraged by 
 these means from taking further education, but also by 
 the fact that the advanced studies offered were not such 
 as were needed or desired by pupils who did not expect 
 to enter the professions. 
 
 When we look at the matter from a broad sociologi- 
 cal point of view we see that every child and youth 
 should have that kind of education which he is most 
 capable of receiving or of which he is in most need, and 
 which will make him a useful member of society, re- 
 gardless of what scholastic standards may be. We see 
 also that the only justification for keeping a child in a 
 given grade of school, or for advancing him into an- 
 other, is that he can profit more with that group than 
 with any other and that he can gain this profit without 
 seriously interfering with the work of other pupils. 
 
 In a few schools this attitude is already taken, and 
 any pupil who is making little or no progress, even 
 though he may be in only the fifth or sixth grade, if 
 old enough and if it is believed that he can profit by 
 the work of the secondary school, is placed in that school 
 and given the work which will be most beneficial to 
 him. There is no justification for any other policy in 
 graded and secondary schools supported by public funds. 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS— GENERAL 133 
 
 Marking, examinations, and tests. If this be true, 
 then the only reasons for making any record indicating 
 the proficiency of any pupil are these : first, that bet- 
 ter advice may be given as to where he shall be placed 
 and what subjects he shall take in order that he may 
 make the most of his educational opportunities ; second, 
 to inform the pupil regarding his own successes and his 
 points of greatest strength and to stimulate him to fur- 
 ther effort. 
 
 Neither of these ends is effectually accomplished by 
 the system of examination and marking and the usual 
 policy with regard to promotions. The examinations are 
 largely tests of memory rather than of usable acquisi- 
 tions and at best are very inexact. They vary greatly 
 in difficulty and the standards of those who mark re- 
 sults are still more variable. They are also open to the 
 criticism that, since the pupil in order to go on with his 
 education must obtain certain marks, they encourage 
 effort toward getting those marks by the easiest means 
 available, rather than toward getting a real knowledge 
 of the subject being studied. Since so much depends 
 upon getting certain marks, some persons are nervous 
 and fail to do their best, others cram for examinations, 
 often with the aid of professional tutors whose business 
 it is to prepare them to pass. 
 
 The experience of teachers and records of universi- 
 ties show that there is no close relation between the 
 daily work of a pupil and his examination, and still less 
 relation between the entrance examinations of pupils 
 and the record they make during the college course. 
 On the other hand, it is found, in general, that pupils 
 who in the grades do well, in the opinion of their teach- 
 ers, who mark them not merely by their examinations, 
 
134 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 but by all that they know of them m their work, also 
 do well in high school and college. This indicates that 
 acquaintance with a pupil leads to a more accurate 
 judgment as to what he can do than does the grading 
 of a set of papers that he has written. 
 
 Recent developments in psychology and pedagogy in- 
 dicate that great improvements may be made in test- 
 ing and promoting pupils. This is best exemplified by 
 the Courtis tests in arithmetic. By means of these it is 
 possible to measure what one can do in arithmetic with 
 almost as much accuracy as it is to determine how far 
 a boy can jump or how rapidly he can run. Scales for 
 grading work in penmanship have also been constructed, 
 and many other tests are being developed which will 
 be as much more accurate than are examinations, in 
 measuring what pupils can do, as a steel tape is more 
 accurate for linear measurement than a rubber band. 
 
 These tests, in order to be useful, must, however, be 
 considered merely as measures and not as standards 
 that must be reached in order to obtain promotion. It 
 is a good thing to be able to measure a boy and see 
 how tall he is or to time him and find how rapidly he 
 can run, but there is no reason whatever why we should 
 try to make him approximate a certain standard height 
 or a certain standard rate of running and keep him 
 working to try to reach those standards instead of do- 
 ing things that are more useful to him. Heredity limits 
 the possibilities of his attainment in those directions, 
 and only the amount of practice needed to develop them 
 to a reasonable extent is valuable. That he should be 
 kept to a certain kind of exercise, instead of doing 
 something else, unless reasonable improvement is tak- 
 ing place, has no justification. 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS— GENERAL 135 
 
 What is true of physical abilities is just as true of 
 mental. There is no reason why a boy, who is slow in 
 addition and who has almost ceased to improve with 
 practice, should be kept at it instead of being allowed 
 to take up some other work that will give better re- 
 sults. The same is true in every sort of a test or stand- 
 ard of mental ability. The test should be as accurate a 
 measure of the ability being tested as possible and the 
 standard should simply be a norm by means of which 
 the child and others may know whether his power in 
 that respect is greater or less than that of others of the 
 same age and who have had the same training. Such 
 knowledge is as interesting and helpfid to the boy as 
 is a knowledge of how tall he is as compared with other 
 boys of his own age, or of how his jumping or his strength 
 or his speed in running compares with that of others. 
 It helps him more accurately to judge his own abilities, 
 stimulates him to improve if he is capable of improve- 
 ment, and helps him to decide as to the lines in which 
 he can most profitably specialize. 
 
 Such tests are also helpful to the teacher in accu- 
 rately judging the special ability of his pupils. They 
 may also be of great help to superintendents and sci- 
 entific students of pedagogy. By means of such tests 
 the relative advantages of different methods of teach- 
 ing a subject may be determined and the efficiency of 
 different schools and different teachers may be com- 
 pared. Care must, however, be taken in using them for 
 the latter purpose. If teachers know that they are thus 
 to be used, they may attempt to give special drill pre- 
 paratory to passing these tests, instead of giving the 
 best training in the subjects concerned. 
 
 Although tests may be prepared that will measure 
 
136 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 pretty accurately what has been gained in the study of 
 a certain subject under ordinary circumstances, yet it 
 would be difficult to construct tests that will be accu- 
 rate measures of knowledge and ability in the subject 
 when special time has been spent in drilling, directly 
 preparatory to the test. 
 
 If the question of promotion is simply that of put- 
 ting the child where he can get what is of most value 
 to him, there will be no motive inducing him to take 
 special means for getting a higher record than his 
 abilities warrant. The teacher is also relieved of the 
 necessity of trying to give a mark that will indicate 
 the exact attainments of pupils. She will only need to 
 decide whether the pupil is likely to profit more in the 
 advanced grade or school than he is by remaining. 
 
 If any record other than advice as to promotion is 
 needed for any purpose, the records of such scientific 
 tests as have been taken and the judgment of the 
 teacher as to the attainment of the pupil may be in- 
 dicated sufficiently by ranking the pupil as belonging 
 to one of three or five groups. If this is done, the rank- 
 ing should be made not in accordance with any ideal 
 standard of how good the work should be, but merely 
 as an indication of the comparative success of the dif- 
 ferent members of the class. The largest proportion of 
 the class should be in the group of pupils of medium 
 attainment, a smaller number above medium and below 
 medium, and a stiU smaller number who have done 
 exceptionally well or whose work is exceptionally poor. 
 Such records as this mean more than percentages, for 
 if the student is in the first third of his class we know 
 that he has done well compared with others who have 
 the same opportunity as he, but if he has a record of 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — GENERAL 137 
 
 eighty-seven per cent, we do not know what it indicates 
 as to his ability and his attainment in that subject, 
 unless we know the mark received by others of the 
 class who had the same chance. 
 
 Standardization in education. Measurements and 
 standards are as important in working toward effi- 
 ciency and economy in education as they are in eco- 
 nomics. Measurements, though somewhat less exact 
 than in other sciences, may be employed in the same 
 way in developing a theoretical and applied science of 
 education. In order that this may be the case, pupils 
 who fail in various tests should be permitted to remain 
 in school and records should be kept that will show 
 whether students who fail in certain lines to a certain 
 extent will almost surely fail in other lines. If, for ex- 
 ample, it is established by such tests and records that 
 all those who fall below a certain standard in arithme- 
 tic, grammar, or any other subject, are sure to fail in 
 algebra, geometry, or commercial arithmetic, while they 
 may be able to succeed admirably in literature, draw- 
 ing, and manual training, then there would be good 
 reason for fixing certain standards in certain subjects 
 that must be reached if certain other subjects are to be 
 studied. Such a use of standards in education would be 
 scientific and of advantage to the individual in saving 
 him wasted effort. There is no justification, however, 
 for fixing standards arbitrarily or even for basing 
 standards upon what a majority of pupils of a certain 
 age achieve after a certain amount of training, espe- 
 cially if such standards are to be used as a basis for 
 excluding individuals from further educational oppor- 
 tunities. The slow, the dull, and even the mentally defi- 
 cient should be given further training suited to their 
 
138 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 needs, regardless of their failure to reach the usual 
 standards of achievement. 
 
 Even in economic production means of measuring and 
 testing are more important than limitations with regard 
 to standards. Foods, medicines, etc., should be tested 
 and labeled according to the various substances that 
 they contain, but the fixing by law of certain standards 
 that must be conformed to in order that the goods may 
 be sold is justifiable only when such minimum stand- 
 ards are necessary for the protection of health. Educa- 
 tion rather than law should make a market for inferior 
 products impossible. It has already been shown that 
 there are great economic advantages associated with the 
 standardizing of products, but that there are also cer- 
 tain disadvantages. In the case of human beings who 
 are being educated the advantages of standardization 
 would be much less if exact standardization were possi- 
 ble, and the disadvantages much greater. A standard- 
 ization of product means necessarily that, for the time 
 being at least, there can be no change in the way of 
 improving it. 
 
 When education is the process and human beings the 
 product, it is evident that to adopt means which pre- 
 vent further improvement is directly opposed to the fun- 
 damental idea of education, at least so far as person- 
 ality is concerned. There is some ground for claiming 
 that skill in doing certain useful things may profitably 
 be standardized without interfering with the progress 
 of the individual in other directions. It may be well to 
 have an individual reach a certain degree of skill and 
 rapidity in penmanship and fix that as a habit by prac- 
 tice instead of practicing with a view to better or to 
 more rapid writing. 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS— GENERAL 139 
 
 The same tiling may hold regarding the skill that 
 should be attained in performing the operations in- 
 volved in each vocation. It would doubtless be a con- 
 siderable advantage to employ men in the various occu- 
 pations who would do a certain amount of work of a 
 certain quality in a given time. This is done to some 
 extent, especially in more mechanical processes, but the 
 natural difference in human beings is such that it is in 
 many instances not possible or not economical to have 
 all work according to the same standard rate. Where 
 the product can be measured accurately, piece-work is 
 therefore substituted for day-work, and each is paid 
 according to the amount he does instead of all being 
 trained and required to do the same amount. It would 
 appear, then, that even in vocational education, where 
 standardization is most justifiable, there is little reason 
 for attempting to bring all students to exactly the same 
 standards. Such a course limits and perhaps makes im- 
 possible the attainment of a higher standard by persons 
 of exceptional ability. 
 
 In the case of non-vocational training, where the 
 purpose is to develop as high a type of personality as 
 possible, the attempt to bring all individuals to the 
 same standard has no justification whatever. The 
 standard set is likely to become the ideal, and all ad- 
 vancement on the part of both teachers and pupils is 
 impeded by the effort to develop standardized individ- 
 uals. Nothing has so interfered with educational proc- 
 esses and progress as the prevalent idea and practice 
 which demand that a certain degree of attainment shall 
 be reached by each individual before he completes the 
 work of a grade or a school and is allowed to graduate 
 or to take advanced work. 
 
140 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 In short, measurements in education are always val- 
 uable, and standards based on the usual amount 
 achieved after a certain period of training may be of 
 very great use in testing different methods, in enlight- 
 ening and stimulating the pupil, and in helping the 
 teacher to advise him as to his further work, but the 
 results can only be evil if the attempt is made to have 
 our schools produce standardized personalities. 
 
 The older the pupils become and the more special- 
 ized the training that is beiug given them in prepara- 
 tion for certain occupations, the greater is the justifica- 
 tion for attempting to produce a standardized, economic 
 individual; but the younger the children, the more 
 general the training being given, and the greater the 
 hope of further progress, the less justifiable is the at- 
 tempt to standardize them in any respect. 
 
 The only successful and logical process of developing 
 standardized individuals was that practiced by the Jes- 
 uit schools. It was assumed that the supreme end of 
 education was to develop and train persons to be abso- 
 lutely dependable instruments of the church. This 
 meant that they were trained to give up all personal 
 desires, submit their will to that of higher authority, 
 and to work in accordance with prescribed methods. 
 Some will admit that the church has a right to demand 
 such suppression of individuality in order that a usable 
 standardized product may be produced, but few would 
 say in these democratic days that a state has any right 
 thus to suppress individuality in order to produce a 
 standardized human product, no matter how great the 
 efficiency brought about by having standard workers in 
 all lines. 
 
 General and vocational education. In order to pre- 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — GENERAL 141 
 
 pare the new generation for carrying on our present 
 civilization, it is necessary, first, that all shall be taught 
 the things that need to be known by every member of 
 this civilized society, whatever his occupation or place 
 in life. This may be called general education, and may 
 be elementary in character such as is needed by all, or 
 may be of a more advanced character which would be 
 useful to all and almost necessary to some. 
 
 Besides this general information nearly every one 
 needs the special knowledge and skill that fit him for 
 success in some vocation. This need for vocational edu- 
 cation is very much greater than formerly. The occu- 
 pations that do not demand special knowledge and 
 training now employ comparatively few persons, while 
 those that require years of preparation are numerous 
 and constantly increasing. Vocational education is, 
 therefore, becoming a more and more important work 
 of the schools. 
 
 In addition to general and vocational education there 
 is an increasing need for another kind of education, that 
 preparing one for living in contrast with the mere mak- 
 ing of a living. The hours of labor, which were formerly 
 from twelve to sixteen, are now from eight to twelve, 
 and even less in many occupations. Not only the leisure 
 classes, but almost all classes now have some time which 
 they can spend as they wish. Every man can satisfy his 
 desires for recreation, for social intercourse, and for 
 culture to the extent made possible by the means offered 
 him and his capacity for utilizing them. It has, there- 
 fore, become an important function of the schools to 
 educate for leisure, or, in other words, to teach how to 
 live after the means of living have been obtained. 
 
 To be properly educated, the new generation must 
 
142 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 be prepared to appreciate and help carry on, by the best 
 means that have been developed, the economic, protec- 
 tive, recreational, social, cultural, and moral and re- 
 ligious activities of the community. No person can be- 
 come an expert in all these lines, but in order to take 
 his place in the complex life of to-day he must know 
 something of all of them. The prominence of these ac- 
 tivities in the community and nation, and the character 
 of the knowledge and training that will best prepare in- 
 dividuals for engaging in and appreciating them, must 
 determine what should be given in the way of general 
 education. Education is, therefore, dependent upon so- 
 ciology for determining its aims and the kind of knowl- 
 edge needed, while psychology can aid only in telling 
 how the aims prescribed by society may be reached and 
 how the materials that social conditions make useful 
 may best be presented to the rising generation. 
 
 In vocational education the individual or his parents 
 must decide what he wishes to do, while the nature of 
 the occupation and its stage of development determine 
 what knowledge and skill are needed, and psychology 
 shows how this knowledge and skill may be gained with 
 least loss of time and energy. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Report on education as carried on in one or more primi- 
 tive tribes. 
 
 2. Describe the results if all education should cease in the 
 United States, indicating what industries would first 
 decline as decade after decade passed. 
 
 3. Discuss these topics ; (a) How far does a classic course 
 prepare for the life of a past civilization and science for 
 that of the present and future ? {b) Has human nature 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — GENERAL 143 
 
 changed as much as the material means of living? (c) 
 Contrast the comparative value as subject-matter of 
 (1) ancient history and present-day politics and soci- 
 ology ; (2) ancient and present-day literature ; (3) 
 primitive industries as advocated by culture-epoch theo- 
 rists and present-day industries as advocated by many 
 practical men. 
 
 4. Discuss the true function of the school, considering the 
 questions of teaching manual arts, housework, games, 
 politeness, morals, thrift, hygiene, sex truths, etc. Can 
 the school continue to take on new duties and yet do 
 its work successfully without increasing the length of 
 the school day or year ? 
 
 5. Is general diffusion of knowledge of most value in a 
 democratic or an autocratic nation ? Why ? Which will 
 give greatest eflBciency ? 
 
 6. Discuss control by force or authority and by educa- 
 tion in a nation or in a school system either large or 
 small. 
 
 7. Compare the schools of two states or two cities, in one 
 of which there is much central control and in the other 
 much local control, and discuss the advantages and dis- 
 advantages of each. 
 
 8. Is there any valid reason for strict grading and refusal 
 of promotion to those not meeting certain requirements 
 presented in the ideal of "maintaining educational 
 standards " ? Or should grading and promotion be solely 
 for the good of the individual and to promote efficiency 
 of effort on the part of teachers ? Why ? 
 
 9. Does similarity in knowledge and ability in class favor 
 efficient work, or is the work as good or better when 
 there are considerable but not too great differences ? 
 
 10. Discuss the relative value of these three ways of deter- 
 mining the grouping and promotion of children : (1) 
 judgment of teacher, (2) examinations, (3) standard- 
 ized, general, and special tests of ability and attainment. 
 Should age and size also be considered ? 
 
144 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 11. Is it necessary that those who are grouped together in 
 one subject shall be together in all ? 
 
 12. Compare the education needed by a carpenter and by a 
 farmer, that they may be good citizens and successful 
 in making a living, and see how far they are the same 
 and where they differ. What is needed by both may be 
 regarded as general, while that needed by the one may 
 be regarded as vocational. Compare in a similar way 
 the education needed by a lawyer, a doctor, a mechani- 
 cal engineer, and an architect, and judge as to what ia 
 general and what is vocational. Does each need to know 
 anything of the work of the other ? Why ? 
 
CHAPTER Xn 
 
 EDUCATIONAL NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES — ELEMENTARY 
 
 General character of elementary education. Ele- 
 mentary education, required by law in this country, 
 usually extends from seven to fourteen years of age. 
 In most places this education has been given in eight 
 years of school work, although a few have nine years, 
 and in some places, where the children are not admitted 
 until seven years of age, the elementary course is cov- 
 ered in seven years. These eight years of work have 
 ;been arranged with the idea of including what all chil- 
 dren shottld learn in order to take their places as citizens. 
 
 As a matter of fact, statistics show that about half 
 of the children leave school without having taken more 
 than six years of the work outlined for the elementary 
 schools. This condition is likely to continue for some 
 time. Whatever knowledge or training it is necessary 
 that all citizens should have must be provided in six 
 years of the elementary course or a large number of 
 persons wiQ leave school without having received the 
 education necessary to prepare them for the duties of 
 the most humble citizen. 
 
 This truth must be recognized regardless of the claim 
 that the course is already too full for the work to be 
 done properly in the time required. Still further must 
 we disregard the claim of the secondary schools that the 
 cliildren must be so prepared that they can effectively 
 pursue the studies of the secondary course. Nothing 
 must be required in the first six years of elementary 
 
146 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 work that is useful only or chiefly to those who are to 
 have a further education. Whatever is necessary for 
 such children should be arranged for in grades beyond 
 the sixth. The first six years of work must be devoted 
 exdttsively to the learning of what is necessary or of 
 most value to all persons whatever their occupation 
 may be and however far they may later carry their 
 education. In the past, courses of study have been ar- 
 ranged chiefly with the idea that the elementary course 
 must prepare for the secondary course and that for 
 higher education. This idea must now be subordinated 
 to that of social needs. 
 
 In planning the first six years of work, therefore, 
 little or no account should be taken of what some of 
 the children will do in the higher grades. The sole aim 
 in planning the course of study should be to provide 
 that which is most useful to all citizens of our Republic. 
 This demands a careful study of the social life of to-day 
 and the selection of study material with sole reference 
 to its usefulness either in making a living or contrib- 
 uting to the fullness and joy of life. 
 
 General symbol knowledge, or reading and writing. 
 The thing that is most needed by every one in this age 
 is facility in the understanding and use of the symbols 
 by means of which knowledge is preserved and commu- 
 nicated. The oral symbols of language are fairly well 
 learned by native children before they enter school. 
 Foreign children sometimes need to be taught them. 
 The present policy of requiring all instruction to be 
 given in English is absolutely essential to the preser- 
 vation of our national unity. Only in this way is it 
 possible to make one nation of the diverse peoples com- 
 ing to our shores. 
 
--/ 
 
 EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — ELEMENTARY 147 
 
 The written symbols of language are not usually 
 known before the child reaches school. The most essen- 
 tial thing in learning this visual language is that ideas 
 shall be associated with the visual forms so closely that 
 the child can quickly get thought from the printed page. 
 It is desirable but less essential that he should know 
 the correspondence between visual and oral symbols so 
 as to be able to pronounce the words that he sees. It 
 is not at all essential that he should be able to read 
 aloud fluently and effectively. The average person to- 
 day reads silently a hundred times as much as he reads 
 aloud. Facility in getting thought from the printed page 
 is, therefore, the most important thing to be acquired in 
 the first years of the elementary school. Some children 
 attain facility in this respect six times as great as that of 
 others. 
 
 Unfortunately, most of the methods of teaching read- 
 ing have tended to make children read slowly rather 
 than rapidly and to give more attention to the relation 
 between letter s and sounds than to the thoughts asso- 
 ciated with the words. Phonics may help in oral read- 
 ing7 but itEey are a hindrance to rapid thought-getting. 
 
 Since a large part of what is to be learned to-day can 
 be gained only through the medium of words, language 
 ability performs the same function, comparatively speak- 
 ing, as does the ability to use tools. The ability to 
 write is of far less importance, but sufficient knowledge 
 to read writing and to write with a reasonable degree 
 of correctness and rapidity may be regarded as essen- 
 tial for all. The invention of typewriters and other me- 
 chanical means of reproducing print makes great skill 
 in writing less important than formerly. 
 
 To express thought in visual form demands ability 
 
148 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 to spell and to punctuate as well as to handle a pen. 
 An unnecessary amount of time has doubtless been spent 
 upon spelling. The average native adult citizen who 
 has been through the grades knows by sight or sound 
 ten or fifteen thousand words, but he rarely or never 
 has occasion to write more than a fifth of that number. 
 A person who knows how to spell three thousand com- 
 mon words, and who knows how to look up the spelling 
 of words in the dictionary, has sufficient knowledge of 
 V spelling for the ordinary citizen's use. If the child learns 
 V'punctuation by practice rather than by the study of rules, 
 he can acquire practical efficiency in a very short time. 
 
 Economic education. In these days, when the means 
 of subsistence and comfort are obtained almost wholly 
 by indirect means through some form of economic ac- 
 tivity instead of being secured directly from earth's 
 resources, economic education is especially needed. In 
 the elementary school this teaching should not have for 
 its aim the purpose of preparing for economic effort, 
 or, in other words, should not be vocational, but should 
 enable the children to understand the economic proc- 
 esses by which the material needs of man are supplied. 
 The child should be made familiar with the industries 
 of his own community and also to some extent of other 
 communities and countries and should learn of the ways 
 in which commerce is carried on. Since money is the 
 means of measuring the value of economic products and 
 facilitating the exchange of one for another, much of 
 the education in economics may be associated with a 
 study of the uses of money. Every one should know 
 something regarding the manner in which money is ob- 
 tained and the ways in which it may most profitably be 
 used. This of course requires some knowledge of num- 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — ELEMENTARY 149 
 
 bers and some facility in making the calculations in- 
 volved in various common business transactions. The 
 fact that money cannot be used without counting and 
 computing is the chief reason for the teaching of arith- 
 metic in the elementary schools. It does not necessarily 
 mean that the child during the first six years should at- 
 tempt to gain a systematic knowledge of arithmetic as 
 a science. It does mean that he should know more about 
 the transactions with which numbers are concerned than 
 most children do to-day. 
 
 It is not absolutely necessary that every individual 
 should know a great many of the facts of numbers or 
 be able to perform arithmetical operations with great 
 rapidity. The average person spends very little time 
 after he leaves school in arithmetical calculations as a 
 necessary element in his daily life. He should, however, 
 acquire a few facts of numbers, learn how to compute 
 others mentally, and how to perform longer operations 
 on paper. He should have some experience in perform- 
 ing many of the calcvdations which are common in his 
 community. Special knowledge and skill in calculation 
 may be provided later for those who need it. 
 
 The ability to compute constitutes only a small por- 
 tion of the economic training needed by every one. 
 Money represents a certain amount of effort expended 
 and the possibility of satisfying various desires. The 
 child frequently sees money being received and spent 
 by others and he also has had some experience with it 
 himself. Means should be taken to impress him with 
 the truth as to the proper relations between work per- 
 formed and money received and the kinds and amount 
 of satisfaction that may be obtained in expending it in 
 various ways. 
 
150 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 Economic training in school may well begin with the 
 study of the child's own actual and possible experiences 
 with money. After a report as to how the children get 
 money and how they spend it, various problems may 
 be worked in discussing the question of how a boy or 
 girl may best spend, say fifty cents a week. Each one 
 may figure out how much this would be in a year and 
 indicate just how much he thinks it would be well to 
 use for different purposes. 
 
 If it is thought best that some of it should be saved 
 for the future, the various ways of keeping money 
 should be discussed and the comparative advantages of 
 a toy bank, a savings bank, a cooperative bank, postal 
 savings, and any other facilities for saving that are 
 offered in the community, should be studied. 
 
 The child should also study the financial problems of 
 his own home, finding the cost of various things and 
 the weekly, monthly, or yearly cost of the amounts 
 used. The advantages and disadvantages of renting as 
 compared with owning a house, of keeping hens and 
 cultivating a garden versus buying the products, of 
 buying clothing ready-made or buying the material and 
 making it, etc., etc. The children may also plan how 
 a family with a certain income shall spend its money, 
 making out with some detail the weekly budget. 
 
 In addition to this, the taxes paid by the father and 
 the public expenditures in the conununity for schools, 
 roads, and other purposes furnish good material for 
 obtaining valuable economic and arithmetical training. 
 
 Some time may also be spent in discussing the prob- 
 lems and performing the mathematical operations re- 
 quired in various occupations of the neighborhood. In 
 this connection the teacher should not fail to consider 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — ELEMENTARY 151 
 
 the relative advantages of saving and buying for cash 
 as compared with going in debt and buying on the in- 
 staUment plan. 
 
 Protective education. In connection with the eco- 
 nomic training thus described, there will inevitably be 
 gained some knowledge of the civic institutions con- 
 cerned in protection against criminals, against fire, 
 ''^ disease, and accident, and with the means by which 
 mails are handled, roads kept in order, and water, 
 sewer, and other conveniences furnished by the local 
 and national governments. 
 
 Hygiene should receive attention that personal health 
 may be preserved and that every citizen may cooperate 
 in all movements for better health conditions in the 
 neighborhood. 
 
 Questions of public interest to the community and 
 to the state or nation should be discussed in school in 
 order that the children may be better prepared for 
 considering such questions when they become responsi- 
 ble members of society. Such teaching as this will be 
 much more effective if it is associated with more or less 
 public work on the part of the children in keeping the 
 schoolhouse and grounds in good order and in provid- 
 ing healthful and pleasant conditions in the school and 
 in the community. Every form of self-government in 
 the schools also helps toward good citizenship. 
 
 Cultural education. The elementary-school pupil 
 should become familiar not only with his economic and 
 civic environment, but also with his natural environ- 
 ment. To this end he should make excursions in order 
 to know the location of the important objects in the 
 neighborhood and to observe plant and animal life more 
 closely and understandingly. In other words, he should 
 
152 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 study objects of nature, the industries, and the geog- 
 raphy of his own neighborhood, and thus get a better 
 knowledge of how all its natural advantages are util- 
 ized by individuals and groups of persons. 
 
 The studies thus far indicated are essential, but they 
 lack breadth of view and illuminating contrast. In 
 order to get this some time must be devoted to t>5 geog- 
 raphy and history of other places and peoples, in such 
 studies emphasis should be laid upon facts and events 
 that either contrast sharply with those of the home life 
 or those that are connected with the life of the neigh- 
 borhood and give a broader view from which to inter- 
 pret its meaning. Instruction in these lines needs above 
 all things to appeal to the imagination so that the chil- 
 dren will mentally visit other parts of the earth and 
 observe the actions of people of distant times and 
 places. Just what facts are learned and remembered is 
 of much less importance than that the pupils shall be 
 broadened by means of this mediated experience with 
 other lands and other people. 
 
 It is also desirable, as it always has been, that the 
 young should become familiar with the previous history 
 of the group to which they belong. No course in his- 
 tory can be satisfactory that does not give the child 
 some knowledge of the persons and events that have 
 been influential in bringing about the social conditions 
 under which he is living. 
 
 As wide an interest as possible should be cultivated 
 in art, science, literature, and music. This training 
 should be chiefly to develop appreciation. Whatever is 
 done in the way of production of artistic drawings, 
 elegant writing, or pleasing music by the children, 
 should not be done so much with the idea of making 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — ELEMENTARY 153 
 
 them skillful in such production as with that of making 
 them more appreciative of what good work in those 
 lines really means. Children should be given frequent 
 opportunities of hearing good music and seeing fine 
 pictures for the sake of developing pleasurable appre- 
 ciation and good taste. This will furnish, aU their 
 lives, a source of enjoyment and a stimulus to further 
 development. Those who have talent or opportunity 
 may later devote themselves to the production of artis- 
 tic things. All should, however, receive some training 
 that will help them to make themselves, their clothes, and 
 their home surroundings more beautiful and pleasing. 
 
 Recreational and social education. It should be 
 assumed that every one is to have some leisure, partly 
 because he is more efficient when he does not work all 
 the time and partly because the needs of his higher 
 nature demand what is not obtained in work. Children 
 should be taught by observation and experience not 
 only what it means to work, but also what it means to 
 rest and to play. They should be given experience in 
 playing a great variety of games so that they will know 
 how to spend their leisure time and how to help others 
 engage in pleasurable activity. 
 
 In learning to play games the children will inevi- 
 tably get a great deal of social training which will en- 
 able them to know how to react to other people and 
 cooperate with them in the enjoyment of life. In addi- 
 tion to the social training thus obtained, children should 
 also learn how to work with others for a common end 
 as well as how to work by themselves. Group work 
 should be provided as well as individual work, in such 
 a way that each will contribute to a common result. 
 This can be done with many of the subjects studied 
 
164 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 and especially in all things that are done for the good 
 of the school. Incidentally all the activities of the school 
 will furnish opportunity for that form of social training 
 indicated by the word politeness. 
 
 Moral and religious education. The moral training 
 given during the elementary course should be almost 
 entirely incidental. A few special lessons may be help- 
 ful in connection with general exercises, and history 
 and literature may sometimes be taught with special 
 reference to the formation of ideals of conduct and 
 character. Much of the moral training, however, should 
 come in connection with cooperative and properly regu- 
 lated activities of work and play, in which each indi- 
 vidual feels that in doing his part well, he is contrib- 
 uting to the success and pleasure of the entire group. 
 In order that the moral training may be of the best 
 character, a large proportion of the competitions car- 
 ried on should be between groups rather than between 
 individuals. 
 
 Religious training in this country must be carried 
 on largely if not wholly by other institutions than the 
 school. The fact that there are great differences in re- 
 ligious beliefs, and the sentiment in this country that 
 no person should be interfered with in his choice and 
 practice of religion, make it impossible to give religious 
 instruction in our public schools. The most that the 
 schools can do is to maintain respect for religion and 
 religious exercises of all kinds and perhaps allow cer- 
 tain hours and credits for religious instruction given 
 by representatives of the churches. 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — ELEMENTARY 155 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Abandon entirely for the moment the idea that the 
 purpose of studying any subject is to prepare for later 
 school work of any kind, then do one or more of the 
 following : (a) make a list of subjects that should be 
 taught, to prepare for engaging in the community life 
 of to-day, stating why they are valuable ; or {b) tell 
 just what and how much in some one subject should be 
 taught because of the use that will be made of it by the 
 children when they take their places as self-directing 
 members of the community ; or (c) make some research 
 as to knowledge that is being used by the people of 
 your commimity ; e.g., how many and what words does 
 every one need to know how to spell ? or what facts of 
 geography or history are necessary or helpful in reading 
 the newspapers ? 
 
 2. Discuss the comparative advantages to every one of 
 being able to read well orally or to read silently with 
 rapidity and good understanding, and the methods by 
 which each form of ability may be secured. 
 
 3. Test the economic knowledge of fifth-grade children by 
 asking how various articles are produced, their cost ; 
 the wages received in various occupations and ways of 
 safe-keeping and investing money, with a view to learn- 
 ing how adequate present-day economic teaching is, and 
 
 with the idea of determining how much arithmetical 
 
 knowledge is necessary. 
 
 4. Similar studies of educational value may be made 
 by asking where the money comes from that pays the 
 fireman, the postman, etc. 
 
 5. Make a list of facts of geography and history you think 
 that every one should know, then test a number of peo- 
 ple and see whether all know them and if they suffer 
 much inconvenience if they do not. 
 
 6. Ask the children of a sixth grade to write the names of 
 all the games they know how to play, or of the songs, 
 
156 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 pictures, or stories they like, or make plans for devel- 
 oping the appreciation of good literature, pictures, and 
 music. 
 
 7. How can elementary-school children be given ideals and 
 habits of moral action in the school ? 
 
 8. How may religious education best be provided ? 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 EDUCATIONAL NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES 
 INTERMEDIATE AND SECONDARY 
 
 Specialization. Looked at from the sociological point 
 of view, elementary education is that which every one 
 needs, while intermediate or secondary education is that 
 given to those young people in the community who are 
 80 situated that they can have further training and who 
 will probably engage in some form of occupation de- 
 manding more than ordinary knowledge and skill. They 
 may also perhaps occupy a somewhat different social 
 and civic position. 
 
 This intermediate and secondary education should 
 occupy not less than two nor more than eight years. 
 Heretofore in this country it has consisted chiefly of 
 four years of high-school work. The indications now 
 are that the grade work of two or three years formerly 
 counted as elementary will be specialized and counted 
 as intermediate, while high-school work in some places 
 is being extended to include a portion of the education 
 now given in colleges. It is also specialized according 
 as the pupils are to have much or little further educa- 
 tion and according to the occupation in which they are 
 to engage. In general the age of pupils taking inters 
 mediate and secondary education is from about twelve 
 to about eighteen. 
 
 In Germany general elementary education ends at 
 about nine or ten years of age, after which work is ar- 
 ranged with reference to the additional education to be 
 
158 FUNDAMENTALS OP SOCIOLOGY 
 
 received and the future vocation of the pupils. Those 
 who are destined for occupations requiring only slight 
 knowledge and skill, take a course which is completed 
 at about fourteen years of age, while those who are to 
 enter the more skilled industries take a course of study 
 involving from seven to nine years of work, which work 
 prepares them for entering the higher technology schools, 
 while those preparing for the professions enter upon a 
 nine years' course of study fitting them for university 
 work. 
 
 As the courses are arranged in Germany, a pupil 
 who has once entered upon any one of these three 
 courses cannot change to either of the others without 
 considerable inconvenience and loss of time. After he 
 has completed one of them, it is almost impossible to 
 get any other place in industrial, social, and civic life 
 than that for which his course of study has prepared 
 him. 
 
 In this country conditions have been quite different. 
 Until recently the training given in intermediate and 
 secondary schools was general in character, preparing 
 for no special occupation or position in life, although 
 leading more toward the professions than toward the 
 industries. This was due largely to the fact that the 
 secondary schools had to give proficiency in certain 
 lines in order that their graduates might be admitted 
 to college. This demand on the part of the colleges, 
 being the only one strongly and clearly made upon the 
 high schools, dominated all the work of the secondary 
 schools. A very marked change has, however, taken 
 place very recently in public sentiment, and now there 
 is a very distinct and imperative demand not only that 
 secondary schools shall provide the education called for 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — INTERMEDIATE 159 
 
 by colleges, but that they shall provide suitable training 
 for the far larger group of young people who will never 
 enter college. This demand has arisen partly because 
 statistics have shown that only a small percentage of 
 students go to college and partly because specialization 
 has developed to such an extent that the need of spe- 
 cial training for different occupations, industrial as well 
 as professional, is felt more than ever before. It is be- 
 coming harder to obtain employment in any of the 
 higher occupations unless one has had special prepara- 
 tion for it. 
 
 The special training demanded of every worker gives 
 a high degree of efficiency in the industries, but it 
 greatly limits the development of the individual. He 
 must decide at an early age what he is to do and 
 begin specializing preparatory to that work. Once 
 settled in a given occupation, incentive and ambition 
 must be very great if he takes the time to prepare 
 himself for engaging in another occupation and taking 
 another station in life. In this country conditions have 
 been such that people who have not had special train- 
 ing could obtain employment and have the chance to 
 show whether they could succeed. This has tended to 
 induce the more able and ambitious individuals to try 
 to better themselves by changing from one occupation 
 to another. Probably few of the successful men of the 
 passing generation have always been engaged in the 
 same line of work. Many of them have changed a 
 number of times and to occupations of a wholly differ- 
 ent character from that in which they began. 
 
 The way in which the schools are conducted will 
 have a great deal to do in the future with determining 
 whether this condition of facility of change of occupa- 
 
160 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 tion shall continue or whether we shall approach closer 
 to the German system requiring early choice of occu- 
 pation with careful training for it and very little pos- 
 sibility of successfully changing to another. Efficiency 
 of production may seem to demand the German system, 
 but the development of a high order of human beings 
 in a democratic country would seem to urge that there 
 should not be too early specialization nor too definite 
 fixing of the occupation and position in life of our citi- 
 zens. 
 
 In the seventh and eighth grades it is not too early 
 to allow some specialization. Some of the work should 
 be the same for all, but those who wish to do so should 
 be allowed to specialize in commercial or industrial 
 lines, while others may give more attention to general, 
 scientific, or literary training. 
 
 The work of the high school should, however, be so 
 arranged that pupils who have begun to specialize in 
 one of these lines shall not find it difficult to take up 
 work in another line. In order that this may be the 
 case, school men must give up the idea, very common 
 among them, that a certain sort of preparation is abso- 
 lutely necessary in order that certain subjects may be 
 profitably taken up. Experiments show that with a 
 slight change in the method of treating subjects, the 
 order in which they are pursued may be varied almost 
 indefinitely without interfering with success. Arith- 
 metic may precede geometry, but certain portions of it 
 at least may just as well or better follow geometry, and 
 a student who has had no algebra does not necessarily 
 have any special difficulty with geometry. For a simi- 
 lar reason the boy who has studied commercial arith- 
 metic may be just as well prepared for algebra as the 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — INTERMEDIATE 161 
 
 boy who has studied mensuration in connection with 
 manual training, while both of these individuals, with- 
 out formal grammar, may be able to take up German, 
 Latin, or French nearly as well as the literary student. 
 If practical equivalents of subjects and variability in 
 order of taking them are recognized, then children will 
 not be compelled to continue a course upon which they 
 have entered, but may change to one that is better 
 suited to their interests and abilities. In so doing they 
 may lose something in continuity, but they gain in 
 breadth and variety. The problem of teaching in the 
 same class pupils who have been differently trained, 
 presents some difficulties, but difficulties that no wide- 
 awake teacher, who studies the individuality of hia 
 pupils, will find great trouble in overcoming. 
 
 If high schools are so organized that any pupil may 
 be admitted to any course in the high school, regard- 
 less of how he specialized in the grades, we shall have 
 an educational system favoring later choice and greater 
 freedom of change, while if we put difficulties in the 
 way of changing from one line of specialization to 
 another, by insisting that certain subjects must be 
 taken preparatory to entering upon certain courses, we 
 shall assist, by our educational system, in bringing 
 about the condition that exists in Germany, where 
 occupations must be chosen early, and rarely, if ever, 
 changed. 
 
 General and vocational education. Until recently 
 the public schools attempted to give no vcicational 
 training whatever. Now it is generally admitted that 
 specialization of industries demands such training more 
 than ever before and that it is being given by the home 
 and by the apprentice system less than formerly. The 
 
162 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 school, the chief educational institution, must there- 
 fore take up the work of vocational education. Inter- 
 mediate and secondary schools must perform this 
 function for a large proportion of the people, because 
 only a few, comparatively, take the higher education. 
 
 The general book education of the schools has been so 
 different from the vocational education demanded by the 
 industries that unless the work of the present secondary 
 schools is greatly modified and extended, a new type 
 of schools must be established. Some have advocated 
 the estabHshment of an entirely separate system of vo- 
 cational schools. It is claimed that to introduce voca- 
 tional studies unduly complicates the problem of sec- 
 ondary schools, and, moreover, that vocational education 
 will necessarily be inefficient because the teachers have 
 all been trained in scholastic rather than industrial 
 lines. 
 
 There is truth in these claims, but other things must 
 also be considered. Those individuals who take occu- 
 pational training for work above that of the common 
 laborer need more general education than is provided 
 by the elementary schools. They need it as a condition 
 for success in their occupation, in order to know how 
 to spend their leisure time profitably, and in order to 
 take their proper position in the community as semi- 
 leaders. Such general education will not be given in 
 vocational schools taught by those who have been trained 
 in the vocations only. If other teachers are employed, 
 the work of the schools giving general education will 
 be duplicated. 
 
 Again, if the schools for vocational education and the 
 secondary schools for general education are entirely 
 separate, neither students nor teachers will have much 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — INTERMEDIATE 163 
 
 cliance for associating with those of the other type of 
 schools and learning of the work that they do and how 
 it is being done. This will increase the tendency to 
 specialization, make it difficult for an individual to 
 change from one type of education to another, and 
 make more prominent the distinction between different 
 classes of people. The teachers in one system of schools 
 will continue to be scholastic and impractical and in 
 the other practical and uncultured. 
 
 The immediate results of separate vocational schools 
 would perhaps be better so far as the vocational train- 
 ing is concerned, but the more remote results upon 
 pupils and teachers and as regards general social con- 
 ditions would probably be unfortunate. The ends de- 
 sired in secondary education, of giving some individuals 
 a good deal of general education and some practical edu- 
 cation and others a good deal of practical, vocational 
 education and some general or cultural education, can 
 better be accomplished by correlated school and com- 
 munity life than by special kinds of schools conducted 
 with little reference to the life of the community. 
 
 One of the best ways of accomplishing this is by 
 having pupils engage in occupations of the community 
 before they leave school, or by having them go to school 
 after they have taken up some occupation. The first 
 method is represented by practical-arts schools and by 
 part-time schools, and the second, by evening and con- 
 tinuation schools. Both are valuable, but the most 
 promising line of development in this country at pres- 
 ent is probably that of practical-arts and part-time 
 schools. 
 
 In the practical-arts school as it is now developing, 
 things are done not for the sake of practice in doing, 
 
164 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 as in the old-time manual-art and trade school, but 
 because there is a need that the things shall be done. 
 Besides doing things about the institution that are 
 needed, things of economic value are made and used or 
 sold. This gives a motive and reality to work that 
 mere practice does not. Care must be exercised, how- 
 ever, to see that the economic idea shall not overshadow 
 the educational. Such a school cannot be entirely self- 
 supporting and the educational side will suffer if there 
 is an attempt to make it so. The idea should be kept in 
 mind that it is primarily a school in which education is 
 obtained by doing real things and that it is only second- 
 arily an economic institution. 
 
 The part-time school incAritably means a close corre- 
 lation between the schools and the industries of the 
 community. The managers of the industries of the 
 community must however favor such a union of in- 
 dustrial practice with school instruction or the schools 
 cannot establish part-time courses successfully. The 
 chief change demanded in the industries is, that two 
 persons shall be employed instead of one for each kind 
 of work. One will work either a half-day or a week, 
 then the other wiU take his place the rest of the day 
 or the next week. In school, each one, during the 
 period when he is not at work, will receive certain 
 general training and some special training connected 
 with the occupation in which he is engaged. For the 
 younger pupils in the less skilled occupations the half- 
 day plan is probably better, whUe for older pupils and 
 the more difficult vocations, the weekly plan is more 
 feasible and perhaps as good. 
 
 One of the advantages of this system over that of 
 establishing trade schools is, that the schools are saved 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — INTERMEDIATE 165 
 
 the very great expense of providing the shops and 
 machinery necessary to practical training in many of 
 the trades. There is a good deal of difference also in 
 the mental attitude and effort of students who are 
 actually engaged in an occupation as compared with 
 those who are carrying on shop practice in preparation 
 for actual work. There is also the economic advantage 
 that persons of small means can, by means of the half- 
 time system, obtain much more education than they 
 can by the other system in which they have no oppor- 
 tunity to earn anything. 
 
 Great care must be taken, however, in conducting a 
 part-time system of vocational education, that the edu- 
 cational idea shall be more prominent than that of get- 
 ting immediate economic results. If such schools are 
 dominated by the economic idea, the school work is 
 made secondary to the industry and the chief aim in 
 the industry is to get as large a product as possible, 
 regardless of the effect upon the workers. This may re- 
 sult in having the pupils confined to one kind of work 
 instead of being changed from one process to another, 
 and it may also result in their spending so much time in 
 shop and in school that they have not sufficient time for 
 play and for general physical and mental development. 
 
 From the standpoint of pedagogy the advantages of 
 the part-time system are considerable. There is not 
 only a greater interest in both kinds of work if they 
 are properly correlated, but, as recent studies show, 
 there is much greater saving of energy when principles 
 and practice are brought close together than when they 
 are gained separately. 
 
 General and vocational courses. Every community 
 should provide both vocational and general culture edu- 
 
166 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 cation so far as possible, to meet the needs of all the 
 young people of the community. The vocational train- 
 ing required differs greatly with the locality. The gen- 
 eral culture education needed in all sections of this 
 country is more similar. It is of the same type as that 
 given in the elementary schools, but more extensive. 
 
 The problem of providing without too great expense 
 for the various forms of vocational education that may 
 be needed, and for different cultural interests, is not 
 so difficult in the large cities as in the smaller commu- 
 nities. Without employing too many teachers or requir- 
 ing each teacher to deal with too great a variety of 
 subjects, it is possible in the cities to provide for all, 
 including those who expect to take higher education. 
 
 In the smaller communities the difficulties are con- 
 siderably greater. If a great many courses are offered, 
 either many teachers will be needed or one teacher must 
 teach many subjects. The local community may more 
 easily provide for the vocational than for the general 
 education, because that can usually be connected with 
 the local industries, and by proper cooperation between 
 the schools and the directors of these industries, and 
 the utilization of the technical training and natural 
 ability of some of the leading workers as assistants to 
 the regular teachers, the necessary training can be given 
 to all who expect to work in those industries. If pupils 
 wish to engage in an industry not carried on in the 
 community it is better that they should go to some 
 center for that industry for their training. 
 
 All who are taking secondary education should have 
 some general and cultural training, while those who are 
 to receive a higher education will spend most of their 
 time on general culture subjects. All should be givei> 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — INTERMEDIATE 167 
 
 some work of that kind which will give them perma- 
 nent interests, helping them to know how to spend their 
 leisure moments, rendering them more appreciative of 
 culture of all kinds and more helpfid to the community 
 life in various ways. 
 
 Those who are to have a higher education not only 
 need this, but, according to the present demands of 
 colleges and schools of technology, they must have spe- 
 cial preparation for the studies that they are to take 
 up later. Since those who receive a higher education 
 are likely to be useful to a larger group of people than 
 that of their own community, there is good ground for 
 saying that such education should be provided and con- 
 trolled as much or more by the state than by the local 
 community. There is considerable reason, therefore, for 
 the establishment of central high schools preparing for 
 college entrance, to which pupils from the smaller com- 
 munities may go. In the larger school thus formed, the 
 variety of courses demanded may be given without ex- 
 cessive expense. In the case of large cities it may be 
 more economical for the local high schools not only to 
 give a high-school education, but also that of the first 
 year or two of college. 
 
 Since those who have a secondary education, whether 
 they receive a higher education or not, are likely to 
 form an influential portion of the community, it is im- 
 portant not only that they have the vocational training 
 enabling them to make a living, but that they shall 
 have such training as will enable them also to take part 
 in aU the higher forms of cooperation and regulation of 
 conduct for economic, protective, recreative, social, cul- 
 tural, moral, and educational ends. 
 
 In order that this may be the case, the training must 
 
168 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 be idealistic as well as practical. They must not only 
 understand the life of to-day and be prepared to con- 
 tribute to that of the future, but they must also have 
 their ideals and their conduct formed and regulated by 
 the best of the past. Under present conditions, scien- 
 tific studies are becoming increasingly more useful in 
 the industries and in social life, but science is in its 
 very nature more or less destructive of authority and 
 tradition. Hence there is a need for another kind of 
 training than that given by science only. The languages 
 are all based on custom and for the rules given in them 
 there is no other ultimate reason than usage. The study 
 of language has therefore considerable influence in de- 
 veloping respect for authority and the habit of con- 
 formity to usage. This is perhaps the chief distinctive 
 function of linguistic education. 
 
 History and literature, dealing as they do with human 
 acts, interests, and ideals, have a distinct place in cul- 
 tural training. They broaden the view and stimulate to 
 the formation of ideals of beauty and of conduct. The 
 study of the various arts has a similar influence. In 
 connection with all of these subjects there is more or 
 less incidental training favorable to the regulation of 
 conduct morally. This is especially true when the fun- 
 damental principles of civics are taken up in connection 
 with the study of history and of the life of the com- 
 munity. 
 
 Incidental training in morals is not, however, suffi- 
 cient. The youth needs more direct instruction in the 
 principles of moral conduct. This is especially true now 
 that he does not so readUy accept the teaching of author- 
 ity and the traditions of his elders. There is more and 
 more a tendency on the part of young people to ques- 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — INTERMEDIATE 169 
 
 tion regarding moral regulations, and they need to be 
 shown just why certain forms of conduct have bad 
 effects upon the individual and upon the social group 
 to which he belongs. This special study of the princi- 
 ples of ethics should not be a purely theoretical and 
 scholastic subject, but one dealing with practical prob- 
 lems of personal, family, community,, and national life. 
 
 Closely associated with such study there should be 
 something in the way of social training. The ideals and 
 practices of social conduct are in process of forming, 
 and at no other time are individuals so ready to conform 
 to the customs of the group to which they belong. High 
 schools shoidd, therefore, give a good deal of attention 
 to the social affairs of their pupils. This attention 
 should not be chiefly of the negative kind, in which cer- 
 tain kinds of action are prohibited, but positive, with 
 older people of the school and of the community taking 
 part, helping to make the occasions pleasant and sug- 
 gesting the forms of conduct that shoidd be followed 
 by young men and women. 
 
 To give the training needed for the present day much 
 more time needs to be devoted to the study of human 
 activities and the materials used in such studies must 
 be greatly changed. History must be entirely trans- 
 formed from what it has been, largely a study of wars 
 and warriors, into a study of the history of civilization 
 and of the principles of sociology and of civics. The 
 new types of leaders in science, industry, commerce, 
 and social service must take the place of warriors as 
 the heroes of modern life and of a civilization of peace 
 and progress. Recent and present activities of men 
 and women active in the world's work must receive 
 more attention and more time must be spent in study- 
 
170 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 ing local affairs. Since intelligent cooperative action is 
 becoming an increasingly important factor in every 
 phase of human activity, the principles and institutions 
 concerned in successful cooperation must be studied by 
 secondary pupils and the results of the study applied 
 to community life and to public questions of to-day. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Should a pupil who has begun to specialize in one line, 
 such as manual arts, be required to continue that work 
 in the high school or may he be permitted to change 
 to literary, classical, scientific, or commercial courses ? 
 Why ? May pupils from these various courses be taught 
 in the same classes effectively ? How ? 
 
 2. Make a study of the men of your community and see 
 how many of the successful ones have always followed 
 the same vocation and how many have changed one or 
 more times. 
 
 3. Is it desirable that all men should be trained for a spe- 
 cial vocation, then follow it permanently, or that they 
 should have experience in several ? 
 
 4. It is becoming harder for persons to secure employment 
 without special training for the work. Should the schools 
 increase the difficulty by discouraging change from one 
 course to another ? or should they decrease it by facil- 
 itating such changes ? 
 
 5. Summarize the arguments for and against separate sec- 
 ondary schools for general and for vocational training. 
 
 6. What are the advantages of part-time schools, and 
 might they have a value for general as well as voca- 
 tional education and for children under fourteen? 
 
 7. What are the advantages of making high-school pupils 
 familiar with the hfe and literature of ancient Greece 
 and Rome ? Of making them familiar with the older 
 English literature ? Of making them familiar with the 
 literature and the community life of to-day ? Should 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — INTERMEDIATE 171 
 
 pupils have only one of these subjects or a little of all, 
 with special emphasis on one ? 
 
 8. Summarize and compare the advantages of science and 
 language studies. 
 
 9. Should some or all high-school pupils have some teach- 
 ing in sociological and ethical as well as civic studies ? 
 Why? 
 
 10. Look up various histories to find the one that devotes 
 least space to war and suggest further possible improve- 
 ments in it. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 EDUCATIONAL NEEDS AND ACTIVITIES — HIGHER 
 
 Development and dominance of higher education. 
 In all civilized countries higher education was provided 
 for the few several centuries before there was much pro- 
 vision made for elementary and secondary education for 
 the many. The abler individuals demanded opportuni- 
 ties for education and were able to get their demands 
 granted. In the autocratic society of past centuries 
 leaders needed an education, while for the great mass 
 of people it was not thought necessary and many rulers 
 considered it undesirable. 
 
 So long as these leaders formed a distinct class with 
 honors and privileges rather than duties and obliga- 
 tions, the results of education were limited, but with 
 the growth of democracy those having higher education 
 have become in a broader sense leaders of the people 
 and disseminators of culture. Educational improvement 
 has been largely from the top downward to the second- 
 ary and elementary schools. There is always, however, 
 a tendency for educational processes to lag behind in- 
 dustrial and social progress ; hence, by the time an 
 improvement in higher education has modified second- 
 ary and elementary education it is likely to be a good 
 way behind, besides being not well suited to all the 
 classes for which it is provided. Until recently higher 
 education was designed for the professional classes only, 
 but now it is taken by many who engage in the indus- 
 tries and in commerce. 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — HIGHER 173 
 
 The modem higher education can only be under- 
 stood by going back to its modern beginning about four 
 hundred years ago. Immediately following the Renais- 
 sance there was a very marked development of skilled 
 workmen in a great many different lines. These work- 
 men formed guilds and took measures to partially stand- 
 ardize the skill of workers in gold, silver, and other 
 lines. Every one was required to work as an apprentice 
 under the direction of a skilled worker imtil he attained 
 sufficient knowledge to be able to carry on the work 
 without direction, when he attained the rank of jour- 
 neyman. If he gained such knowledge and skill as to 
 be able to plan work to be done by journeymen, he was 
 known as a master workman. 
 
 So prominent was this guild system, and so distinct 
 was the field of learning from that of the industries, 
 that when institutions of higher learning were formed 
 a guild of scholars was established. The bachelor's 
 degree marked the ending of the apprentice stage in 
 scholarship ; the master's degree signalized the attain- 
 ment of joumeymanship ; while the doctor's degree was 
 given to those who were able to do original work and 
 direct or teach others. 
 
 The guild of scholars is the only one that has sur- 
 vived in approximately its original form down to the 
 present time, and the degrees given by colleges and 
 universities are supposed to have much of the same 
 significance that they formerly had. This is true in 
 spite of the fact that higher education has been greatly 
 extended and modified in many ways. Universities still 
 prepare for the professions of law, medicine, and theol- 
 ogy, and to an increasing extent for teaching. 
 
 The greatest change has come through the wonder- 
 
174 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 ful development of science in the last few centuries, 
 which has broadened the field of knowledge immensely 
 and has made science an important part of the training 
 for all the professions and industries. Our higher in- 
 stitutions now offer so many different courses of study 
 that if a single individual took all of them he would 
 need several centuries in which to complete his educa- 
 tion. This fact and the further fact that higher educa- 
 tion is now needed by leaders in all the industries, in- 
 cluding that of commerce, make it utterly impossible 
 that our higher educational institutions shall be chiefly 
 workshops for a guild of scholars. This does not mean 
 that such a guild no longer has a place of usefulness 
 in civilized society. There is a distinct place in every 
 nation for leaders who are interested in non-utilitarian 
 affairs. We must look to the idealist for the stimulus 
 to new achievements and to a higher spiritual as well 
 as a material civilization. A guild of scholars may help 
 to develop such leaders. 
 
 It may be that the giving of degrees after the com- 
 pletion of a certain amount and kind of scholastic work 
 is the best means of preserving such a guild and of 
 promoting the development of idealistic leaders; but, 
 however that may be, there can be no justification 
 for claiming that all lines of higher education should 
 be directed in accordance with the same scholastic sys- 
 tem. It is time for those engaged in higher education 
 to consider the situation as it exists to-day and to strive 
 to supply a higher education of the kind needed by 
 those seeking it in order that they may be efficient 
 leaders in the lines of work in which they engage. 
 
 Scholastic standards versus usefulness. AH who 
 are taking a higher education need a more advanced 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — HIGHER 175 
 
 general education than that of the secondary schools 
 and also special training for particular vocations. In 
 this country the general education should be given in 
 the first two or three years of college work, which in 
 reality corresponds to a portion of the secondary edu- 
 cation of other countries. The last year or two of col- 
 lege and the graduate courses in the universities should 
 be recognized as the period when general education 
 should largely cease and the training become almost 
 wholly vocational. 
 
 It is desirable in this country that the final choice 
 of occupation for those who take a higher education 
 should be left open through most of the college course, 
 or at least that it should not be difficult for one to make 
 a new choice. 
 
 The number of subjects offered in higher institutions 
 of learning is now very great, and there is a good deal 
 of option allowed the individual student as to which he 
 shall take and in what order, but the scholastic ideal 
 still plays a large part in coUege-entrance and gradua- 
 tion requirements. More effort is expended in deter- 
 mining who shall be admitted to college, and who shall 
 graduate, and in giving artificial value to degrees, than 
 in trying to give what will be of most value to the dif- 
 ferent classes of students in the most efficient way. 
 Elaborate means are taken to exclude from the chances 
 of a higher education those who have not had a certain 
 kind and amount of training in the secondary schools, 
 and in testing and preventing those who do enter from 
 graduation until they have done a certain amount of 
 work. In accordance with the scholastic ideal such 
 studies as Latin and mathematics have been assumed 
 as necessary to aU who are to receive a higher educa- 
 
176 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 tion. This may be true for those who are to join the 
 guild of scholars, although even of that one may have 
 doubts, but that it is true for all those individuals who 
 are preparing to enter the professions and the indus- 
 tries, there is no evidence. 
 
 University extension classes and summer schools 
 have proved beyond a doubt that a great many persons 
 who cannot meet college-entrance requirements are able 
 to profit by the subjects offered in higher institutions 
 of learning. In most higher institutions such persons 
 are either not permitted to enter even as special stu- 
 dents, to get what they can from the courses offered 
 without asking for a degree, or if they are permitted to 
 enter, are made to feel that they can never be the equals 
 of those who take a regular course. 
 
 It may be admitted that the guild of scholars has a 
 right to protect itself by the maintenance of standards 
 of scholarship, but there is no justification whatever for 
 the domination of this guild of scholars over all the 
 higher education, and to a considerable extent also over 
 the secondary education, of a large number of persons 
 who do not wish to enter the guild, but who do wish a 
 higher education, and who would profit by it and be- 
 come thereby more efficient members of society. This 
 is especially true of state universities supported at pub- 
 Kc expense. Any one who can profit by the work of- 
 fered in such institutions should be permitted to take 
 it. They, at least, should certainly not be run as "closed 
 shops." 
 
 It may be necessary that those seeking degrees from 
 the scholastic guild should be graded in their work, 
 but this is no reason why students who are taking work 
 because of its value or interest to them should be graded, 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — HIGHER 177 
 
 or why their teachers should spend a large part of their 
 time in examining and grading them instead of teach- 
 ing them. If the custom of giving degrees except to 
 classical students were dropped, there would be little 
 or no occasion for marking other students. Each teacher 
 should have the privilege of excluding any student from 
 his class whose work is so inefficient that he is gaining 
 little from the course and who is interfering with the 
 work of others. He should also know his students well 
 enough to advise them as to future work. 
 
 A certificate might be given each student stating 
 what work he had taken. Under this arrangement there 
 would be no artificial standards of scholarship to main- 
 tain. Each pupil would take that which was most inter- 
 esting to him or which he thought would be most use- 
 ful, while each teacher would try to make his courses 
 as valuable as possible. A certificate stating what 
 courses had been taken in a given institution would 
 then perhaps become more significant than are the de- 
 grees now given by that institution. 
 
 The very fact that examinations are given and every 
 student is graded on his work tends also to modify the 
 teaching in order that it may be easier to mark the at- 
 tainments of students. The English university man who 
 objected to the introduction of English literature into 
 the course, because it is impossible to grade accurately 
 the work in that subject, was entirely logical if the 
 scholastic ideal of maintaining definite standards is to 
 be carried out. A course in English literature, domi- 
 nated by the ideal of accurately measuring what the 
 students obtain from the course, can scarcely be of 
 very great cultural value. The same may be said of 
 many other subjects. 
 
178 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 The two ideals of culture and of scholastic tests and 
 standards are opposed to each other. There is good 
 ground for saying that if the same effort were made to 
 develop permanent cultural interests in persons taking 
 secondary and higher education that there is in main- 
 taining scholastic standards by means of the marking 
 system, the results would be a larger proportion of 
 leaders with non-utilitarian interests and ideals. This 
 would certainly be true of those who do not take the 
 scholastic courses, and would probably be true of those 
 who do, because in their case the marking system di- 
 rects the attention to the mechanics of language 
 instead of toward the finer beauties of thought and 
 expression. 
 
 The relative importance of the various types of lead- 
 ers in the world's work to-day has changed so much 
 that higher education should no longer be dominated 
 by ideals and practices originating at a time when scho- 
 lastic leaders were the most prominent members of 
 society. It maybe claimed that the scholastic guild, by 
 maintaining degree and college-entrance requirements, 
 is doing a service to the nation by making it necessary 
 that leaders in all the industries and professions shall 
 study some non-utilitarian subjects and develop ideal- 
 istic interests that will counteract the tendency of the 
 age toward materialism and utilitarianism. 
 
 On the other hand, it must be admitted that a large 
 number who would otherwise take a higher education 
 are prevented from so doing and many others take the 
 required subjects under protest. The wisdom of this 
 procedure is best tested by the results. If the majority 
 of those who take the non-utilitarian subjects under 
 compulsion, and some who take them by choice, never 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — HIGHER 179 
 
 develop any permanent interest in them under the scho- 
 lastic system, that system is not justified. 
 
 Where there is an elective system the classical stud- 
 ies should be put on the same plane with other courses 
 and subjects, with no artificial advantages other than 
 those they gain by having been for many generations 
 the leading subjects taught. No students shoidd be 
 compelled to take them in order to get into college or 
 in order to take any other subject that he wishes. The 
 teachers of those subjects should be placed on the same 
 plane as teachers of the other subjects, having the oppor- 
 tunity to demonstrate that they are interesting and val- 
 uable without any direct or indirect coercion in their 
 favor. Special privileges should not be given to sub- 
 jects any more than to persons. The only thing re- 
 quired of any one taking a higher cultural education 
 should be that he has studied with a reasonable degree 
 of industry and efficiency and that he can probably 
 profit from the further education which he desires. 
 
 In the case of vocational education more definite re- 
 quirements may be made, as experience has shown that 
 certain subjects of study are necessary to certain voca- 
 tions and certain preparation is necessary in order to 
 take those studies profitably. 
 
 Tests of the results of general and vocational edu- 
 cation. In both cultural and vocational education it is 
 desirable to have some means of measuring results. In 
 vocational education the rdtimate test is the success of 
 the students who have taken certain courses of study 
 supposed to prepare them for their work. Other stand- 
 ard tests of what they know of certain subjects and 
 especially of what they can do in certain lines may be 
 devised, which will help the student to know how well 
 
180 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 he is prepared for the work m which he is to engage, 
 and as a guide to the teacher in giving further train- 
 ing and in advising as to further study. 
 
 In general education standard tests may be devel- 
 oped in some subjects, but to a considerable extent the 
 best results of higher cultural education are indicated 
 by interest aroused rather than the passing of tests. 
 The best measure of interest is the amount of effort 
 put forth in pursuing the subject. This is indicated 
 partly by the amount of reading and studying done 
 and by the amount of productive work in the way of 
 scientific research, and literary, musical, or dramatic 
 compositions. 
 
 The quantity of work of this kind can be measured, 
 but the only measure of quality is the appreciation of 
 those to whom the production is submitted, not only 
 the teacher in charge, but fellow students and some- 
 times the general public. One of the best tests of what 
 one has obtained from a general culture subject is 
 found in trying to pass on to some one else its benefits. 
 Students in the higher institutions should, therefore, 
 be given as many opportunities as possible for doing 
 university extension work and for contributing to the 
 cultural activities of the community. 
 
 It is doubtful whether the cause of general and cul- 
 tural education in higher institutions is ever favored 
 by compulsory requirements. If a subject is generally 
 useful or is calculated to arouse a permanent cultural 
 interest, skillful teachers should be employed who will 
 demonstrate that fact to the student body and to the 
 general public. Although it may be admitted that 
 English, the most commonly required subject in sec- 
 ondary and higher education, is valuable in an increas- 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — HIGHER 181 
 
 ing degree to leaders in all lines of life to-day, still it 
 may be questioned whether better results would not 
 follow if teachers of English had to demonstrate this 
 fact instead of merely having to give the required 
 course to those who must take it. 
 
 A knowledge of sociological problems and of the 
 fundamentals of all the sciences is overwhelmingly im- 
 portant to-day as compared with its value in former 
 times. The productive value of such information may 
 be quite limited for most individuals, but all, especially 
 the leaders, need a broad, appreciative knowledge, in 
 the light of which they will be able to understand all 
 movements for increasing industrial efficiency, improv- 
 ing public health, promoting mental and social hygiene, 
 developing efficient civic life, and increasing educa- 
 tional facilities. Emphasis should be placed upon these 
 subjects, not by requiring students to take them and 
 putting them in charge of poorly prepared teachers, 
 but by offering every encouragement possible to teach- 
 ers who will demonstrate their interest and value. 
 
 In general we may say that every desirable form of 
 education may best be provided, not by force, but by 
 furnishing the best possible facilities for that kind of 
 education and giving it a fair chance to demonstrate 
 its value to students and to society in general. 
 
 Higher vocational education. The number of per- 
 sons of all classes now attending college is so great and 
 the education given so general in character that much 
 of it may be classed with secondary education. The 
 amoimt of post-graduate work has greatly increased, 
 and it is now taken not only by those preparing for the 
 professions, but by many specialists in engineering and 
 other lines. In some instances the time required for 
 
182 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 college and graduate work is being shortened by spe- 
 cialization, during the last year or two of coUegiate 
 work, in the direction of a vocation. In most vocational 
 schools of the higher type the course has been length- 
 ened for those who are not college graduates. This is 
 made necessary because those engaged in the higher 
 vocations to-day need more general education and more 
 technical training than ever before. Besides this length- 
 ened course for the higher vocations there is often 
 required a period of practice in a hospital, a law office, 
 an industrial or other establishment, according to the 
 course taken, before the individual is considered fully 
 prepared for his work. 
 
 Since graduate students are expected to become in- 
 dependent workers and directors of the work of others, 
 it is desirable not only that they shall be broadly 
 instructed and well trained, but that they shall possess 
 initiative and be able to strike out in new lines. There 
 is good reason, therefore, for having graduate students 
 brought into close touch with original research and 
 that they themselves shall make some original investi- 
 gations. 
 
 It is well also that many of them should make re- 
 search work their vocation. Nothing can be of greater 
 advantage to a nation than research and invention. The 
 scientific discoverer and inventor of to-day is more 
 powerful and useful to his country than was the warrior- 
 priest leader of more primitive times, and his work is, 
 almost without exception, of permanent advantage to 
 his people and to the whole world. Warrior and politi- 
 cal leaders may work for themselves rather than for the 
 people and leave behind them customs and laws that 
 are on the whole a disadvantage. Great artists, writers, 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS — HIGHER 183 
 
 and philosophers may be of much value to a nation, 
 but such men are less the product of education than 
 are scientific investigators, and their methods are less 
 useful to others. Education may, however, do much to 
 insure that the work of great captains of industry and 
 finance and of great political leaders and statesmen 
 may be successful, and that it may promote public 
 welfare instead of furthering selfish ends. 
 
 As was shown in an earlier chapter, leaders are the 
 important factor in all social progress ; hence one of the 
 most important functions of the school is to discover 
 and train those who will be able to direct their follow- 
 ers in right lines and induce them to cooperate effect- 
 ually. The colleges and imiversities are supposed to be 
 especially responsible for the development of leaders, 
 but to be successful they must have the cooperation of 
 the lower schools. If the lower schools have required 
 simply obedient following of directions and have dis- 
 couraged independence and originality, some with the 
 qualities of leaders will have dropped out and others 
 will come to the universities with no training in ini- 
 tiative. This consideration justifies educators not only 
 in emphasizing original research in the universities, but 
 in encouraging initiative and originality in the lower 
 schools. This can best be done by sending teachers 
 into colleges, normal schools, and high schools, imbued 
 with the spirit of investigation and able to teach their 
 pupils according to the methods used in scientific re- 
 search. 
 
 In artistic, literary, and industrial lines something 
 may be done toward developing leaders with initiative 
 by having pupils confronted with real problems which 
 they are responsible for solving, instead of requiring 
 
184 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 them to practice according to directions given them. 
 Many of the qualities of leadership are inherited rather 
 than acquired, but education may do much to develop 
 leaders by training and by encouraging instead of sup- 
 pressing independent and original effort. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. To what extent is the influence of higher education in 
 lower schools of advantage to them ? Will the making 
 of a course of study for an elementary or a high school, 
 suited to the needs of the community in which it is lo- 
 cated, without reference to the requirements of college, 
 improve the school in all respects, or will it result in 
 decreased interest in education, decreased stimulus to 
 effort, and the pursuit of less valuable studies ? Why ? 
 
 2. Would it be a good thing if some colleges adhered 
 closely to the classic education, while others ignored it 
 entirely, instead of giving the classics artificial ad- 
 vantages and prominence, but all the time making con- 
 cessions to modern demands as most of them do ? What 
 would be the effect of giving degrees for high-grade 
 work in the classics, and giving no degrees, but allow- 
 ing perfect freedom in all other lines ? 
 
 3. Look up the history of the guilds and of the universities 
 and trace their influence in modern education. 
 
 4. Collect estimates of the percentage of time spent by the 
 administrative, clerical and teaching force of colleges in 
 labor that grows out of the system of marks and de- 
 grees. What is gained by such labor ? Is the teaching 
 better because the teachers mark pupils on their work 
 or is it not so good ? Do the pupils work harder and by 
 better methods? Does the system develop in students 
 interest, responsibility, and initiative to a greater extent 
 than would be the case if the whole time of the teacher 
 were devoted to making the work interesting and use- 
 ful to the student ? 
 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS -HIGHER 185 
 
 6. Could the freedom that is allowed in taking summer- 
 school courses be extended to the regular college work, 
 or is more gained by encouragfing all summer-school 
 pupils to work for credits and degrees as in the regular 
 work of the college ? 
 
 6. In what subjects can the valuable results of teaching be 
 most accurately tested and in what subjects are accurate 
 tests least possible ? 
 
 7. Should all studies in college be given an equal chance 
 and the fittest, as determined by the number that take 
 them, be allowed to survive ? Why ? How could this be 
 done? Might some subjects disappear in some schools 
 and become very prominent in others ? Would this be 
 objectionable or would it be a good thing for colleges to 
 specialize in making certain lines of education very 
 strong ? If teachers were expected to make their sub- 
 jects attractive to students, would there be danger that 
 education would become superficial, or if neither easy 
 nor hard courses led to a degree, would students choose 
 substantial rather than superficial ones ? Whatever the 
 majority did, would not all get what they desired, 
 whether it were temporary pleasure or permanent 
 value ? 
 
 8. Make up a list of prominent discoverers, inventors, 
 artists, writers, political and commercial leaders of ad- 
 mitted originality, and see how many of them had 
 special school training in the line of their success and 
 how many had no such training. 
 
 9. Give suggestions as to how leadership maybe promoted 
 by the schools. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 THE FAMILY AS A SOCIAL GROUP AND AS AN 
 INSTITUTION 
 
 The smallest unspecialized social group. The family 
 group has aU the needs and engages in all the activities 
 of larger groups such as the community and the nation. 
 It constitutes an economic and protective unit, provides 
 variety of social intercourse, gives opportunity for play, 
 has its own cultural material, its own code of morals 
 and its religious beliefs and exercises, and it is one 
 of the most important educational institutions. Every 
 phase of social behavior is more completely represented 
 in this small group than in any larger group or in the 
 various groups formed for special purposes. 
 
 The above statements hold, with slight exceptions, 
 for family life in all ages and in all parts of the world. 
 Such coiild not be the case if the family were a purely 
 artificial creation. The family is primarily a biological 
 and psychological group that has grown into a social 
 institution. Families as biological units are common in 
 the animal world, but are generally much less perma- 
 nent than in the human species. This is due primarily 
 to the comparatively long and helpless infancy of the 
 young of man. The instinct to care for the young is 
 correspondingly strong and permanent in human par- 
 ents, especially in the mother. Social and imitative in- 
 stincts tend to prolong family unity beyond the time 
 made necessary by biological conditions. The instincts 
 of ownership and of jealousy help to keep the husband 
 
THE FAMILY AS A SOCIAL GROUP 187 
 
 and wife together, and the father is more surely kept 
 with the group if his protection is needed and if his 
 pleasures are increased by the mother and children. 
 The social instincts of companionship, and of leader- 
 ship and sympathy, and the tendency to submit to a 
 leader, all have free play in the family group and help 
 to prolong its existence. 
 
 The family as an institution. The above biological 
 and psychological considerations show why family groups 
 exist and remain more or less permanent. Among all 
 peoples, with few and partial exceptions, the family has 
 also been made into a social institution. The fact that 
 family groups naturally exist has led to social regula- 
 tions defining, preserving, and controlling the family. 
 These regulations were primarily the outgrowth of more 
 or less unconsciously formed customs. No doubt indi- 
 viduals of strong personality, who took active measures 
 to preserve their own family groups, were influential 
 in producing more conscious regulation of family life. 
 This led to the common recognition that each man was 
 entitled to special rights, privileges, and authority in his 
 family that he did not have in other families and that 
 other men did not have in his family. Each man was 
 also held responsible for the actions of other members 
 of his family and for the care of them. Such develop- 
 ment as this made the biological group into the social 
 institution, with which was associated commonly recog- 
 nized customs and rules. 
 
 Marriage customs. The change to more conscious 
 and intentional regulation of the family as an institu- 
 tion came in connection with the formation of new 
 families, or, in other words, with marriage and its 
 recognition as an institution. Among even the lowest 
 
188 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 savages the mating instinct is not given free play, but 
 there are more or less clearly recognized and strictly 
 enforced regulations regarding the matings of young 
 people. 
 
 They must or may not mate with certain clans or 
 gens or with relatives or members of their own tribes. 
 Among the aborigines of Australia and other places 
 the regulations as to required or permissible marriage 
 were so complex that it was a long time before they 
 were comprehensible to students of marriage customs. 
 In other tribes the regulations are few and simple, but 
 everywhere there is some sort of a ceremony that is 
 recognized as marriage and some regulation of mar- 
 riage by the elders of the community. In many places, 
 especially in the Orient, the young people themselves 
 do not choose a mate, even within the permitted class, 
 but marriage is arranged entirely by the heads of their 
 families. In some places the property idea dominates, 
 and wives must be purchased of the father or the bride 
 must bring a dowry to her husband. In other cases 
 property has less to do with marriage arrangements 
 than family, position, tradition, and relationship. In 
 all such cases the desires of the young people are con- 
 sidered of secondary importance or perhaps of no sig- 
 nificance whatever. 
 
 Religion often has much to do with marriage. This 
 is especially true when the religion consists to a greater 
 or less extent of some form of ancestor worship. The 
 idea of gods as associated with certain localities also 
 has a similar influence upon marriage. In many in- 
 stances, as among the ancient Greeks and Romans 
 and the Chinese, the father was the priest of the family 
 and made offerings to the god of his ancestors and of 
 
THE FAMILY AS A SOCIAL GROUP 189 
 
 the region in which he lived. Each man must have a 
 son to perform the proper religious ceremonies after 
 his death. When a new family was formed by mar- 
 riage, one party must adopt the religion of the 
 family to which the other belonged. This led to 
 marriage ceremonies that were distinctly religious in 
 character. 
 
 In countries where there were distinct classes of peo- 
 ple who did not intermarry with each other, and where 
 marriage meant the initiation of one of the parties, 
 usually the woman, into the worship of the special gods 
 of the family to which the other party belonged, an ex- 
 traordinary importance was attached to marriage and 
 to the family. The family, with its gods, its traditions, 
 and its position in the community, was to be preserved 
 at any cost. The whole life of the individual was regu- 
 lated by the family, and his personal desires in marriage 
 as well as in every other sphere of life were of little 
 significance in comparison with the supposed good or 
 honor of the family. A Japanese who had no family 
 was an outcast. On the other hand, a member of a 
 noble family would unhesitatingly give up his life or 
 sacrifice himself in any way for his family's good. 
 
 Christianity, although recognizing only one God, has 
 sanctioned marriage and marriage ceremonies, and has 
 usually insisted, as do many religions, that a marriage 
 shall be permanent. 
 
 Varieties of the family. The typical family consists 
 of one man, one woman, and several children. The two 
 sexes are nearly equal in numbers, and each individual 
 instinctively seeks a mate, and thus the natural con- 
 dition is that of monogamy. With very few exceptions 
 the majority of families among all peoples have been of 
 
190 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 this type, although among a number of them families 
 of other types are sanctioned by social usage. 
 
 The union of one man with several wives constitutes 
 a type of family recognized in many places. This form 
 is technically known as "polygyny," though "poly- 
 gamy " is commonly used instead. (This is not accu- 
 rate, since polygamy means merely much married, and 
 hence may refer to either man or woman.) Many fami- 
 lies of this type cannot, however, exist among a people, 
 unless there is a temporary surplus of women due to 
 their capture in war or to the deaths of many men 
 through warfare, without causing a large number of 
 men to be left without mates. Polygyny is most fre- 
 quently due to the influence of warrior leaders. They 
 assume the right to many wives and give the privilege 
 to their relatives and helpers, or perhaps to any one 
 who can provide for them. In some instances the wives, 
 instead of having to be provided with food, relieve the 
 husband of the need of providing it even for himself. 
 In that case it is all the more necessary that he shall be 
 a strong or privileged person in order that he may main- 
 tain his claim to several wives against those who have 
 none. 
 
 Polyandry, in which one woman has several husbands, 
 is a much rarer type of family. It probably exists only 
 where there are special conditions favoring it, as, for 
 instance, in Thibet, where many of the men are away 
 a considerable part of the year, herding. Usually the 
 several husbands are brothers and whichever brother is 
 at home is for the time being the principal husband. 
 
 The above are the three typical forms of families, 
 but there are other temporary or semi-family groups. 
 In some places there is a condition known as group 
 
THE FAMILY AS A SOCIAL GROUP 191 
 
 marriage, promiscuity or communism, or there may be 
 temporary matings without permanent distinction be- 
 tween family groups. In such cases food, no matter 
 how obtained, is often regarded as belonging equally to 
 all and not especially to the individual who provided it 
 or to his wife and children. The best form of this type 
 of life is, perhaps, found among some tribes of Esqui- 
 maux. The smallest social unit that can best survive in 
 the regions in which they live is larger than that of 
 a single family. There is no economic necessity that a 
 woman and her children shall stay with her husband, 
 or that he shaU protect and provide for them, since 
 they are all free to use whatever there is in the com- 
 munity. Under these conditions there is, however, little 
 communism or promiscuity, but many of the matings 
 are temporary. This is true among all people where 
 marriage is not socially regulated, especially by reli- 
 gion. Nature preserves the family group for a while, but 
 when children do not need protection the group is fre- 
 quently broken up unless there are social regulations 
 that help to preserve it. 
 
 Of the three principal types of the family, monogamy 
 prevails in all civilized countries. Besides the reasons 
 given above for that type of family being found in all 
 grades of civilization, there are other reasons for its 
 survival among more highly developed people. One 
 reason is that it results usually in the birth of more 
 children, and always in their better care, than do other 
 systems, except under special temporary conditions. A 
 group of people practicing promiscuity, polygyny or 
 polyandry, could not, therefore, survive in competition 
 with one practicing monogamy. Another reason is that 
 a family furnishes better conditions for the development 
 
192 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 of the higher social and intellectual qualities. There 
 are, therefore, biological, sociological, and psychological 
 reasons why the people practicing monogamy have sur- 
 vived as the strongest and most civilized. 
 
 Closely associated with regulation of marriage and 
 the typical kinds of families are the customs regard- 
 ing heredity and family relationship. In most civilized 
 countries persons are recognized as being related 
 through either parent, but more importance is usually 
 attached to heredity in the male line. Among some 
 tribes, however, heredity is counted only through the 
 males, while in others it is counted only through the 
 females. One is called the patriarchal and the other 
 the matriarchal system. The first would seem naturally 
 to be more frequently associated with polygyny or with 
 the idea of the priestly character of the father, while 
 the second would seem to be more appropriate to pol- 
 yandry, communism, or temporary unions. Although this 
 seems a reasonable explanation of the origin of these 
 customs, yet proof is lacking and the facts show that 
 there may be cross-relationships. The North American 
 Indians, for example, practice polygyny to some extent, 
 and yet count heredity through the mother. 
 
 The socializing influence of the family. Family life 
 inevitably exerts a very great socializing influence upon 
 its members. Even in our individualistic country this 
 influence is profound. When two young people marry, 
 identify their interests, and live in close companion- 
 ship, each, if the relation is to be agreeable, must act 
 not merely to please himself, but the other party to 
 the alliance. In other forms of association one sort of 
 adjustment is made with one person and another with 
 another person or group of people, but in marriage 
 
THE FAMILY AS A SOCIAL GROUP 193 
 
 there is a more complete and varied adjustment of 
 many phases of life to each other's needs and a more 
 complete unifying of all interests. 
 
 When children are born their welfare usually be- 
 comes the dominant motive for action, and whatever is 
 proposed is decided largely with reference to the good 
 of the children. The mother must continually sacrifice 
 her desires for their welfare and the father must mod- 
 ify his action because of them and on account of the 
 changed conduct of the mother. Both feel a responsi- 
 bility that they never felt for themselves or for each 
 other and regulate their conduct accordingly. The chil- 
 dren are at first absolutely helpless, and the parents 
 must care for them or they will die. Later they must 
 be properly dressed and trained or they will be an an- 
 noyance and a disgrace to the parents. So long as fam- 
 ily obligations are recognized in the community, they 
 cannot be ignored by individuals. 
 
 The effect of family life upon children is still more 
 profoimd. They feel their absolute dependence upon 
 adults and respond to the expression of their love. They 
 receive their first lessons in regulating their conduct 
 from parents and have as their first companions the 
 other members of the family. The child's health is 
 guarded and his intelligence, tastes, morals, and reli- 
 gious impulses are stimulated and directed by the home 
 life, as would not be possible in a larger group or in a 
 group of one age and sex with no special love for and 
 obligations toward him. Family life with its close com- 
 mon interests necessarily means regulation of the indi- 
 vidual. 
 
 If famUy life and family obligations were aU abol- 
 ished, there would result an extreme individualism in 
 
194 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 which each individual would recognize no permanent 
 obligation to any one else. Each would act according 
 to his own desires except as he was temporarily influ- 
 enced by an individual or a group, or there would be 
 developed in a much higher degree some other regulat- 
 ing influence, such as that of the community, the state 
 or nation, or humanity, or deity. Highly developed 
 human beings might have their lives regulated in some 
 respects by such influences, but probably none of them 
 could so stimulate and regulate every phase of the life 
 of hmnan beings, especially of small children, as can 
 the small family group. 
 
 Statistics show that juvenile delinquency is much 
 more common in homes where there is only one parent, 
 especially if the parents have been divorced. It is also 
 found that the best institution for orphans is one in 
 which a comparatively small group of children, with 
 one or more older persons, form an artificial family. 
 Even that is inferior to a moderately good home, and 
 it is generally agreed among social workers that it is 
 better to get children adopted into respectable homes 
 than it is to place them in even the best institutions. 
 
 Regulation of marriage. As has been indicated, mar- 
 riage has always been regulated to a greater or less ex- 
 tent. Religious traditions have until recently had most 
 influence in the making and enforcing of these regula- 
 tions, which have heretofore only incidentally been con- 
 cerned with the birth of healthy children and the pro- 
 vision of a proper home for them. 
 
 Since attention has been called to the importance to 
 society of having born as many superior and as few in- 
 ferior children as possible, and to the value of the fam- 
 ily as the institution best suited to promote their phys- 
 
THE FAMILY AS A SOCIAL GROUP 195 
 
 ical, mental, and moral welfare, in preparing them to 
 become useful members of society, a new type of legis- 
 lation has appeared. Many states have laws prohibit- 
 ing the marriage of insane, feeble-minded, or diseased 
 persons. Some require health certificates, and some go 
 still further and provide for the asexualization of per- 
 sons who might, it is thought, produce defective chil- 
 dren. This is a move in the right direction, but in many 
 instances it is a more or less blind and ineffectual move. 
 Much more study is needed before laws can be framed 
 that will bring about the desired results. 
 
 In the mean time laws requiring the registration of 
 births, parentage, and physical condition of the children 
 should be made and enforced until there is a body of 
 facts upon which wise and effective legislation may be 
 based. Doubtless also laws requiring notice of intention 
 before marriage may prevent some hasty and unwise 
 marriages. Social education that gives higher ideals of 
 parenthood and honors those who produce children of a 
 high type is an important, positive help. 
 
 Laws making the husband economically responsible 
 for the care of wife and children are doubtless of value 
 in preserving the family unit. Such laws should prob- 
 ably be applied in nearly the same way to illegitimate 
 as to legitimate children. Persons who have given be- 
 ing to a child have performed an act in which the 
 whole social body is interested, and should be held re- 
 sponsible as far as possible for supplying the family life 
 that children need. 
 
 Divorce. This topic is often made to read, "The 
 divorce evil." In view of what has been said of the 
 functions of the family, and of the fact that there has 
 never been, and perhaps never will be, any institution 
 
196 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 developed that can so well perform all these functions, 
 it may be affirmed that destruction of family life is an 
 evil. This does not necessarily m^an that divorce is 
 destroying family life and is evil. It may mean merely 
 that families where it occm*s have already failed to be 
 successful and that the number of divorces is merely 
 an index of the number of such failures. 
 
 This view has some support in the fact that four 
 times as many divorces occur in cases where there are 
 no children and in the additional fact that over half of 
 the divorces granted are for adultery and for desertion. 
 
 The truth probably is that divorce is primarily an 
 index of the number of failures of family life and only 
 incidentally the cause of such failure. Laws have a 
 good deal of effect upon customs and sentiment, hence 
 easy divorce laws may lead to less importance being 
 attached to marriage and its obligations. Again, nu- 
 merous divorces make more evident the frequency of 
 the failure of family life, and thus perhaps lessen the 
 social disgrace of such failure. These influences are, 
 however, comparatively slight, and the influence of the 
 law may probably be made more effective through strict 
 regulation of marriage and family life than it can 
 through difficulty of divorce. 
 
 The fact that divorce is not easy to obtain will have 
 little influence in preventing young people from hasty 
 or unwise marriages. Strict regulations as to who shall 
 marry, requirement of previous declaration of intention, 
 and compelling the assumption of legal obligations dur- 
 ing marriage are more effective. It seems, then, that 
 the real problem is not that of putting legal difficulties 
 in the way of divorce, but of finding the causes of the 
 failure of family life and the remedy for such failure, 
 
THE FAMILY AS A SOCIAL GROUP 197 
 
 or possibly, some time in the distant future, evolving 
 some institution that can successfully take the place of 
 the family. 
 
 Easy divorce laws result in more of the failures in 
 family life being made evident, but are probably far 
 from a perfect index of family conditions. In Switzer- 
 land, where there is a liberal and imiform divorce law, 
 the rate of divorce to marriage varies in different can- 
 tons from one in seven to one in two hundred and fifty. 
 Divorce is much less common in Catholic countries 
 than in Protestant, and everywhere religious and social 
 sentiment has more influence than law in preserving 
 the appearance of family life. It is probable that they 
 also have some influence upon the actual conditions. 
 Religion and sentiment are generally opposed to indi- 
 vidualism, which puts desire ahead of duty; hence they 
 help to preserve family life. Again, if for any reason, 
 social, religious or other, a person refuses to make pub- 
 lic the failure of his family life, he must then make the 
 best of it, and may perhaps have a reasonably success- 
 ful home. 
 
 Divorces are more frequent in cities than in rural 
 sections and more frequent in New England and the 
 Rocky Mountain regions than in other parts of the 
 country; or, in other words, they are most common 
 among native whites where American individualistic 
 ideas are most dominant. 
 
 Statistics show that there are more divorces in the 
 United States than in all the other civilized countries 
 together, and that the proportion of divorces to mar- 
 riages has more than doubled in thirty years, the ratio 
 now being one to twelve. 
 
 As compared with the various other causes tending 
 
198 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 to destroy family life, the chief cause of increase in the 
 number of divorces is undoubtedly the lessening influ- 
 ence of religion upon social sentiment and upon laws. 
 In this as in other lines there is a growing tendency to 
 make laws and direct conduct, not in accordance with 
 religious traditions, but by more or less established 
 knowledge of results. 
 
 The Church may remain a powerful factor by pre- 
 serving its traditions and sentiments regarding the 
 sanctity of marriage, but the legislature and the scien- 
 tific, social reformers must devote themselves to ascer- 
 taining the exact functions performed by the family 
 and to finding the best way of insuring by legislation 
 that these functions shall be effectively performed. Per- 
 haps the State may do most by promoting economic 
 welfare, especially in the line of housing conditions. 
 
 Family life and modem conditions. In rural dis- 
 tricts, family life is similar to what it has always been, 
 but in the cities the family is taking a less prominent 
 place among social institutions. Economically the unity 
 of the family is not so great. Husband and wife are 
 often both wage-earners and separate spenders. Fur- 
 nished apartments and dining facilities give little oc- 
 casion for combined family ownership and effort. To 
 only a slight extent do the parents act as protectors. 
 These functions are performed by the State, the police, 
 the fire department, the board of health, etc. Clubs 
 and institutions of all sorts specialize in supplying dif- 
 ferent members of the family with social intercourse, 
 recreation, and amusement, while the school has taken 
 over a large part of the educational functions of the 
 family, and the Church supplies religious instruction 
 and training. 
 
THE FAMILY AS A SOCIAL GROUP 199 
 
 It sometimes looks as if the family as the universal 
 nursery of the young might disappear and specialized 
 substitutes be provided by other institutions. On the 
 other hand, we must remember that even in the large 
 cities, where conditions are least favorable to family 
 life, it is still maintained by a very large percentage of 
 the people, especially in homes where there are chil- 
 dren. The most marked effect of modem conditions up 
 to the present time has been to increase the number of 
 persons who do not marry and to lead more married 
 people to forego parenthood. With few exceptions those 
 who do have children make considerable sacrifices in 
 order that they may have a home and a separate family 
 life. This indicates that in spite of the influences tend- 
 ing to disintegrate the home and family life, there axe 
 powerful instincts and traditions that are maintaining 
 it and conserving its usefulness for at least the younger 
 children. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Compare the length of family life in the case of some 
 of the animals with that of the haman family. 
 
 2. Read and report on the family life of the ancient Ro- 
 mans or of other peoples. 
 
 3. Report on various marriage customs where religion is 
 and where it is not a prominent feature. Report espe- 
 cially regarding the religious character of family life in 
 Japan and in ancient Greece. 
 
 4. Read and report regarding different types of families 
 and ways of counting relationship. 
 
 5. Summarize the arguments in favor of monogamy. 
 
 6. Study carefully the difference in the social development 
 of a person reared in a large orphan asylum from in- 
 fancy and one reared in a home with other children. 
 
200 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 7. Look up statistics regarding the home life of delin- 
 quents. 
 
 8. Summarize and discuss the laws regulating marriage in 
 one or more states. 
 
 9. Discuss the value of haby shows with prizes for the 
 most perfect. 
 
 10. The divorce laws and the divorce statistics of one or 
 more states or countries may be compared and dis- 
 cussed. 
 
 11. Should ease of divorce be greater for childless couples 
 than for those having young children ? 
 
 12. What influences may be used to strengthen family life 
 and reduce the number of failures ? Can the schools do 
 anything ? 
 
 13. A statistical study might be made of a certain number 
 of families to find how many meals are eaten in com- 
 mon and how many evenings are spent at home by all, 
 and to what extent all join in doing the same things. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND ITS FUNCTIONS 
 
 The primitive community. A community in general 
 consists of a number of families living in close prox- 
 imity, having common interests and associating with 
 one another in various ways. 
 
 In the primitive community, many, sometimes all, 
 the families were related and the whole group was sim- 
 ilar to a large family with the older men or one patri- 
 arch at the head. In some cases much of the property 
 was held in common. This was true of part of the land 
 even in New England in the early days. In nearly all 
 cases most of the necessities of life were produced in 
 the community, although some trade was usually car- 
 ried on with other groups. In early times this was often 
 done by means of barter at fairs held at more or less 
 regular intervals. 
 
 Each community took whatever means were neces- 
 sary to protect it against enemies and to regulate the 
 conduct of families or individuals who interfered with 
 the welfare of the group or some of its members. This 
 phase of community life, which is the one concerned 
 with providing protection, or government, was then as 
 now a means of marking off one community from an- 
 other. Naturally the social intercourse and the play 
 outside of the small family circle were with other mem- 
 bers of the community and in accordance with its cus- 
 toms. There was more or less music, dancing, story- 
 telling, and ornamentation of person, clothes, utensils, 
 
202 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 and dwellings, which constituted the cultural activity 
 of the group. These were usually distinctive, though 
 influenced by contact with other groups. 
 
 In the primitive community the religion is always 
 the same for every individual and its ceremonies are di- 
 rected by the elders or by a priest. The moral code is 
 based chiefly on religious traditions. 
 
 The modem community. Specialization and easy 
 communication make it exceedingly difficult to define a 
 modern community, especially in urban districts. We 
 may still say, however, that it consists of a number of 
 families living near each other, with some common in- 
 terests and association. In modem communities, how- 
 V ever, the common personal interests are comparatively 
 ^C few, and the association within the group is limited as 
 ^ compared with that outside of it. In the modern com- 
 Umunity there is usually some form of government, and 
 some organizations exist to which a large proportion of 
 the people belong. 
 
 In rural sections the community is the school dis- 
 trict, the town, or a village. In some sections, especially 
 in the South, the county is an important sociological 
 unit, but it is rather too large to admit that pei-sonal 
 association of its inhabitants necessary to a commimity. 
 A small city is a community in itself, and in a way this 
 is true of large cities, but there are many districts in 
 each city that may be regarded as partially separate 
 communities. In many cities, however, it is difficult or 
 impossible to distinguish these separate communities. 
 In some apartment districts it may truly be said that 
 there is no community association worthy the name. 
 Those living near each other may have no common 
 interests and no acquaintance. Their economic inter- 
 
THE COMMUNITY AND ITS FUNCTIONS 203 
 
 ests are in various places and their social interests, 
 amusements, and cultural opportunities are found in 
 various parts of the city and surrounding country, or 
 perhaps in other cities. Even if they happen to be of 
 the same religion, it is a chance whether they will at- 
 tend the same church as their immediate neighbors. 
 
 In what are called residential districts the conditions 
 are similar, but sometimes common interest in a local 
 church or a school, or in street improvement, sewers, 
 or other public necessities, may lead to acquaintance 
 and united action for the benefit of all the people in 
 the neighborhood. Such a community is never econom- 
 ically independent, but receives nearly all its necessities 
 from other communities, many of them very distant. 
 It has no separate government, and other than local 
 talent is frequently drawn upon for recreation and cul- 
 ture. 
 
 In some portions of a city, therefore, definite com- 
 munities are easily distinguishable, but very rarely are 
 there as many evident common interests, or as general 
 a personal acquaintance and sharing in all sorts of ac- 
 tivities with the same people, as in the more primitive 
 community. 
 
 The community life of a large city is as important, 
 though less personal, than in smaller places. No matter 
 how large a city may be, it is a community just as the 
 modem shoe manufactory is a shoemaker's shop, al- 
 though not an individual in it may be capable of mak- 
 ing a complete shoe. All the people of a city do have 
 common interests of all sorts, and the happiness of each 
 person is dependent upon what other groups of people 
 do, although this is not so evident in their personal re- 
 lations as in a small community. The things upon which 
 
204 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 a person's life, comfort, and happiness depend are for 
 the most part, however, provided by institutions and 
 persons regarding whom he has little or no personal 
 knowledge. It is advantageous to be in a city that is 
 economically prosperous, that is well governed, where 
 there are good facilities for social intercourse, recrea- 
 tion, and cultural opportunities, and where the reli- 
 gious beliefs are not too different from one's own. A 
 city is, therefore, a community in which the commtmity 
 life is so specialized and institutionalized that it is hard 
 to recognize it and one misses the personal feature so 
 prominent in the old-time community. 
 
 Community institutions and progress. In every com- 
 munity, large and small, there are matters which con- 
 cern all the people that can be dealt with successfully 
 only by some form of common action. This common 
 effort takes two principal forms, that of political action 
 and the organization of societies working for various 
 purposes. Successful action for the good of all by either 
 means is more difficult than in the primitive commu- 
 nity, because the problems are more complex both 
 within the community itself and in relation to other 
 communities, and because conditions are continually 
 changing so that past experience and usage cannot be 
 relied upon to direct present action as much as formerly. 
 It is not strange, therefore, that many foolish and 
 unworkable laws are passed and many organizations 
 formed that accomplish little or nothing for the general 
 welfare. Many such societies expend all their energy 
 in keeping themselves alive, and the objects for which 
 they were formed are slightly if at all furthered by 
 their existence. In general, new societies formed for a 
 specific purpose accomplish most. Under present con- 
 
THE COMMUNITY AND ITS FUNCTIONS 205 
 
 ditions many of them succeed best by demonstrating 
 community needs and means of meeting them, then se- 
 curing political action that puts the matter under pub- 
 lic control and leaves the society no further excuse for 
 existing. Good roads, playgrounds, and libraries have 
 resulted from this kind of organized effort. 
 
 Social progress and community action. Civilization 
 progresses in proportion as modes of cooperative group 
 action become perfected and embodied in successfully 
 working institutions and laws. The lack of progress 
 in China, where the people are intellectually capable, 
 may be largely accounted for by the persistence of 
 hampering customs originating in superstitious beliefs, 
 and by the failure of the Chinese to learn from experi- 
 ence what methods of cooperating are valuable and to 
 fix them by permanent institutions and laws. For ex- 
 ample, the Chinese are ingenious in devising credit and 
 insurance schemes for the advantage of the persons 
 concerned. Ten men will, perhaps, pool all their cap- 
 ital and give to one of them the use of it for a certain 
 period, then to another, till all have had the use of the 
 combined amount. If all live and meet their obliga- 
 tions it is advantageous to all, but loss may come 
 through death or the failure of one. They seem to 
 have no idea of forming a permanent institution that 
 can function successfully for generations, no matter 
 what happens to individual members, providing certain 
 rules are followed, as has been done by Western fi- 
 nanciers in devising building and loan associations, co- 
 operative banks, and cooperative credit institutions. 
 
 The Chinese are also ingenious in devising means of 
 insurance against loss, but have never embodied the 
 most useful of these ideas in a permanent institution. 
 
206 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 They organize many societies, but do not develop 
 them so as to make them permanent. For instance, to 
 save each man the trouble of watching his own crop, a 
 meeting is called and arrangements are made for re- 
 porting thefts and imposing fines for failure to report, 
 and a temporary court of trial is established, but they 
 evolve no permanent institution with officials acting 
 according to certain laws for the protection of property. 
 The cooperation for common interest is temporary and 
 for the advantage only of the persons taking the action. 
 It is true that there are representatives of national 
 authority that may be appealed to, but for the most 
 part they also act as seems to them fitting or advan- 
 tageous especially to themselves and not with the idea 
 of developing and administering a governmental insti- 
 tution in accordance with rules that will work effec- 
 tively for many generations regardless of who may be 
 iu office. 
 
 Koads are in wretched condition because no perma- 
 nently valuable means of dealing with this common need 
 has been developed. The road is on private land, and 
 the owner not only does not keep it in repair, but if he 
 needs soil elsewhere he may dig it from the road, which, 
 by the flow of water, is then transformed into a ditch. 
 This unsystematic arrangement is made more or less 
 sacred by custom and superstition, so that permanent 
 enlightened improvement is hindered. For example, a 
 wealthy and progressive woman built a road that was 
 of great advantage to herself and others, but when 
 soon afterwards there was an epidemic of influenza the 
 people believed that it was caused by the road and 
 were barely prevented from destroying it. 
 
 In every village there is a common need for water, 
 
THE COMMUNITY AND ITS FUNCTIONS 207 
 
 but this need is met by individual rather than by insti- 
 tutional means. Wells are not numerous, and it is dif- 
 ficult to draw the water, so men make a business of 
 drawing and carrying it to those who do not wish to 
 go for it themselves. A missionary in one place, in 
 return for favors received, proposed to put a pump in 
 a central well. The leading men of the village con- 
 sidered the proposition and asked him not to do so. 
 They said it would not be fair to the people who were 
 near other wells unless pumps were placed in them 
 also, that the water-carriers would be deprived of their 
 means of livelihood, and then, besides, if they got used 
 to having a pump and it got out of order and would 
 not work, what would they do? 
 
 There is good reason to believe that the people of 
 Western nations are far ahead of the Chinese, not 
 because of their greater intelligence or their greater 
 ability to cooperate, but because they are less boimd 
 by hampering customs and superstitions and more in- 
 clined to look ahead to the good of posterity in their 
 cooperative acts, profiting by past experiences in such 
 a way that permanent institutions with increasingly 
 better methods of working are developed. Such insti- 
 tutions well organized and managed best promote 
 efficiency. Progress is indicated by special cooperative 
 acts for new purposes or to meet special conditions 
 and by the formation and improvement of new insti- 
 tutions. Efficiency and progress are favored when the 
 government is such that the local community has a 
 good deal of responsibility for its own affairs and the 
 central government of state or nation has final author- 
 ity to legalize those institutions and rules of procedure 
 that have been shown to be permanently useful. This 
 
208 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 it may do partly by compulsion and partly by educar 
 tion. For example, a community may be required to 
 establish a hospital, poor-farm, school, or sewerage sys- 
 tem, and to administer these according to rules pre- 
 scribed by state law, or the administration may be in 
 the hands of state officials ; or the state may establish 
 bureaus whose business it is to inform the various com- 
 munities of the best ways so far discovered for meeting 
 their common needs, as is done in agriculture and some- 
 times in education. 
 
 Perhaps the state may require that the need shall 
 be met and possibly establish an institution to meet 
 it, but have the commimity choose the officials and 
 carry out the plans that seem to them best. The 
 special function of the state government is to provide 
 for common community needs by those institutions 
 and laws that have proved to be of universal value, 
 while the community should have the responsibility of 
 using these established means and methods with varia- 
 tions of detail so as to meet its own special conditions 
 and necessities or desires. 
 
 Changes are continually taking place which make in- 
 dividual or family effort and control less advantageous 
 than group action by special organizations, these in turn 
 giving place to public control by the community or per- 
 haps by the state. 
 
 If this process should go on until all needs are rec- 
 ognized as common and the state should assume the 
 function of supplying them, there would be the condi- 
 tion dreamed of by the socialists. How far changes in 
 this direction may go with advantage cannot be deter- 
 mined by reasoning, any more than the physicist can 
 determine the effect upon any substance of lowering 
 
THE COMMUNITY AND ITS FUNCTIONS 209 
 
 the temperature to absolute zero. Without experiment 
 he could not infer the sudden change from gas to liquid 
 or from liquid to solid that takes place with decrease 
 in temperature. In a similar way it is idle for a sociol- 
 ogist who wishes to be strictly scientific to reason on 
 purely theoretical grounds regarding socialism. The 
 results of each change toward more complete govern- 
 mental control may be studied, its advantages weighed, 
 and the probable effects of further changes inferred, 
 but long-range predictions as to what would happen if 
 a sudden and complete revolution were made are not 
 warranted on scientific grounds. Sociology must, as far 
 as possible, proceed inductively as do other sciences if 
 it is to be a real science. Hypotheses may be formed, 
 but they must be tested by actual experiment or expe- 
 rience before they can be considered established prin- 
 ciples of science. One of the advantages of local control 
 is that a great variety of methods in economic and so- 
 cial lines are tested by experience. 
 
 Community problems. The chief problems of com- 
 munity life in this country are these : first , to utilize 
 the means provided by the state for supplying common 
 needs, by getting men in office who are sufficiently in- 
 telligent to use those means and wisely adapt them to 
 local conditions, and who are broad enough to work for 
 the advantage of the whole community rather than for 
 special individuals or classes; second, to decide how 
 much money shall be raised and expended for various 
 public purposes ; jbhird, to organize and carry on various 
 cooperative movements and societies by which the com- 
 mon needs and desires of the whole community, or of 
 special classes of it, that are not provided for by pub- 
 lic institutions, may be met and satisfied more easily 
 
210 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 and effectively than is possible by individual or family 
 effort. 
 
 The solution of the first problem is greatly furthered 
 by the laws prescribing the methods of electing officials 
 and clearly defining their duties and responsibilities. 
 The Australian ballot system and provision for decreas- 
 ing the number of persons responsible for certain func- 
 tions, e.g., members of school committees, are among 
 the most valuable improvements. 
 
 Kaising and expending money for public purposes is 
 a question in which all are interested. In this country 
 money for local purposes is obtained chiefly by direct 
 taxation (property and poll tax), while that for state 
 and nation is more commonly obtained by less direct 
 means, such as the tariff, internal revenue, and corpo- 
 ration taxes. This makes it more evident to the people 
 that they are paying for their roads, schools, etc. Con- 
 ditions differ so much in different localities, however, 
 that as yet no completely satisfactory method of assess- 
 ing property has been evolved. There are always com- 
 plaints that assessments are unfair and there is no 
 reliable means in general use by assessors of determin- 
 ing the facts. 
 
 The third problem, that of providing by means of 
 special societies for the common interests of larger or 
 smaller groups, is made much easier by the existence 
 of well-organized national societies with local chapters 
 in the various communities. In addition to these, it is 
 often a good thing if there are distinctly local societies 
 for the purpose of promoting one or more community 
 interests. 
 
 Rural and urban communities. It may be stated as 
 a general principle that rural life is more favorable to 
 
THE COMMUNITY AND ITS FUNCTIONS 211 
 
 unity of family, urban life to that of the community. 
 Rural life is also favorable to the intercourse of indi- 
 viduals and urban to the working of institutions. 
 
 In rural districts each family has its own house and 
 yard, water, sewerage, and lighting system, its own 
 means of transportation and protection and its own 
 bakery, and it finds the means of satisfying its social, 
 recreative, cultural, moral, and religious needs and de- 
 sires in the home or in association with near neighbors. 
 The majority of the interests of the farmer are connected 
 with family possessions and activities, hence he does not 
 readily notice or properly estimate the common needs 
 of himself and neighbors. It is often hard, for example, 
 to get him interested in good roads or in cooperative 
 buying and selling. 
 
 In urban districts, where the population is dense, 
 separate houses, yards, gardens, water, sewerage, and 
 lighting systems for each family are impossible, while 
 home work, play, amusement, social intercourse, cul- 
 tural and religious activities are replaced by special 
 institutional activities. Permanent public provision re- 
 garding dwellings, streets, water, sewerage, garbage dis- 
 posal, fire protection, and lighting is almost absolutely 
 necessary if people are to live so densely in health and 
 comfort. Experience also shows that recreation and 
 cultural facilities may be provided more abundantly 
 and cheaply by society or community action than by the 
 separate efforts of the family. 
 
 People of urban communities become accustomed to 
 doing and having things done through institutions, and 
 thus are much more receptive to ideas along that line 
 than the country dweller. On the other hand, urban 
 people sacrifice much of their home life for institutional 
 
212 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 life. Many citizens are, however, interested only in spe- 
 cial institutions, and do not realize how all are related 
 or how closely their interests are concerned with all and 
 especially with their control and regulation by local and 
 state action. This is one reason why city government 
 has been so costly and inefficient. The extension of 
 government control into new forms of protection and 
 into the providing of facilities for recreation and cul- 
 ture has increased interest in local government and is 
 leading to great improvements in municipal affairs. 
 
 In the rural districts the chief common interest met 
 by an institution under public control has been the 
 school. People of rural communities have learned, 
 however, of what is being done in cities in other lines, 
 and, after various fruitless attempts at economic coop- 
 eration by means of institutions, are now succeeding 
 in many places in carrying on cooperative creameries, 
 grain elevators, and fruit exchanges. In thickly settled 
 rural Denmark this has been done to an extraordinary 
 extent and is associated with a well-developed credit 
 system. Such economic cooperation is not likely to be 
 very successfvd except in rather thickly settled regions 
 and where there are only a few varieties of products. 
 
 In a few rural communities in this country the peo- 
 ple already cooperate in social, recreational, and cul- 
 tural activities in a public way, and it may be expected 
 that this will everywhere sooner or later follow success- 
 ful economic cooperation. 
 
THE COMMUNITY AND ITS FUNCTIONS 213 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Report upon the community life of various peoples, 
 especially of China or India. 
 
 2. Describe dLflferent types of community life, pointing out 
 to what extent there are common interests and coopera- 
 tive acts and institutions concerned in meeting them. 
 
 3. Is cooperative action more or less necessary in a rural 
 than in a city community ? Why ? 
 
 4. Describe organizations that you know which have ac- 
 complished their object and have ceased to exist, and 
 others that are merely keeping themselves alive. 
 
 5. Trace the history of some institution, such as that of 
 insurance companies, and show how cooperation of in- 
 dividuals, successful and unsuccessful, leads to the for- 
 mation of permanent, eflBciently working institutions. 
 
 6. Report regarding the change from individual effort to 
 institutional activity and then to governmental regula- 
 tion and control of some means of satisfying a common 
 need, e.g., roads and railways, lighting systems, or play- 
 grounds, and note the advantages and disadvantages 
 coming from the change. 
 
 7. Which is best suited for state and which for local com- 
 miinity management, schools or prisons ? Why ? 
 
 8. What is the Australian ballot system and what are its 
 advantages over the system formerly in use? What 
 other improvements have been made and proposed for 
 getting better men in office? Discuss also the initiative 
 and the referendum. 
 
 9. What is the chief advantage of a commission form of 
 municipal government over that of two representative 
 boards? 
 
 10. What are the advantages of the so-called "short bal- 
 lots " ? 
 
 11. Should taxes be higher on land or on improvements? 
 Why? 
 
 12. Discuss various proposed tax reforms. 
 
214 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 13. Describe the working of a society in a community that 
 you know and state the advantages or disadvantages of 
 its being a branch of a national organization. 
 
 14. Look up the history of the grange movement and of the 
 early and later attempts at cooperative buying and sell- 
 ing in this country. Also study what has been done in 
 England and in Scandinavian countries in the way of 
 economic cooperation. 
 
 15. Discuss the need of a rural credit system in this country. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 COMMUNITY STUDIES — GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 
 
 Value. Social surveys of a certain type have for 
 many decades been made by the census bureaus of our 
 own and other civilized countries. Of recent years these 
 have been much more complete and detailed than for- 
 merly. Many states have also conducted census studies, 
 and there is now a growing belief that much may be 
 gained from more detailed community surveys. This is 
 partly because of increased appreciation of the fact that 
 every community is a cooperating social group, and that 
 the happiness and welfare of each class of persons 
 and of every individual depend upon the ways in which 
 various community activities are carried on. 
 
 Another cause of increased belief in community sur- 
 veys is the valuable results that have been obtained in 
 manufacturing and commercial institutions by a care- 
 ful study of every phase of the business and the rela- 
 tion of one process to another. This is something more 
 than the long-established custom of business institu- 
 tions of taking account of stock at regular intervals, 
 to determine to what extent the business is prospering. 
 Now different parts of the business are studied to deter- 
 mine which are profitable and which are not, and in 
 manufacturing establishments even the exact cost of 
 each article produced and of each process concerned in 
 its production is estimated. This has led to an examina- 
 tion of the efficiency of the processes, machines, and 
 
216 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 workers. Out of these studies have developed the sci- 
 ence and the professiou of efficiency engineering. 
 
 The same ideas and methods may be applied to the 
 study of community activities. Community life is really 
 a problem in social engineering, and in the course of 
 time a science and a profession for dealing with it will 
 probably be developed. The problem to be solved is to 
 determine how the commimity activities may be most 
 efficiently directed so as to supply the common needs, 
 economic, protective, recreational, social, cultural, moral 
 and religious, and educational. A detailed survey of 
 the community will show more or less clearly how com- 
 pletely and efficiently the community needs are being 
 met and what possibilities of improvement there are. 
 
 Purposes of a survey. The purpose of a community 
 survey may be general or special. In a general survey 
 the chief aim is to get a more complete knowledge of 
 the community life in all its phases, either as a study 
 for purely scientific purposes or with the 'practical idea 
 of learning what may be done for the improvement of 
 the community. In both cases as many facts as possible 
 should be collected, classified, and interpreted. In order 
 to do this successfully, definite figures must be obtained 
 or approximate estimates made and compared with 
 corresponding figures from other communities as nearly 
 like the one being studied as possible. This wiU show 
 how the community in question ranks, in various re- 
 spects, with other communities of a similar type and 
 size. The figures showing the present condition of the 
 community should also be compared with conditions as 
 they were in the past, to show what kinds of changes 
 are taking place. 
 
 Up to the present time there have not been enough 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 217 
 
 detaile<i surveys made to establish standards that can 
 be used as a basis of comparison. It is usually neces- 
 sary to figure out approximate standards by taking the 
 census reports and the public documents of several 
 communities similar in size and type to the one being 
 studied. 
 
 Sometimes the purpose of a survey is not only to 
 discover need for improvements, but to formulate defi- 
 nite plans for bringing them about. This goes some- 
 what further than movements for a civic betterment in 
 the community. It considers not only the institutions 
 and persons that are carrying on the work of the com- 
 munity, but also the natural conditions and the possi- 
 bilities of planning future growth and improvement in 
 both material and social lines. The new movement for 
 city planning requires this sort of a survey. 
 
 Sometimes the purpose of a survey is for some im- 
 mediate practical end, such, for instance, as to deter- 
 mine whether there will be sufficient custom to support 
 a business of a certain kind, or to determine the health 
 conditions in bakeries, or to find out whether additional 
 playground facilities would be valuable, or to determine 
 what new lines of church activity are needed to reach 
 all classes of people. In such cases as these many of 
 the general facts and figures obtained by a general sur- 
 vey will be of value, but the principal attention will 
 naturally be given to facts, whether they can or cannot 
 be expressed nimierically, that have any bearing upon 
 the end being sought. 
 
 How surveys are made. Surveys have usually been 
 undertaken by some organization which raises money, 
 employs one or more experts, and secures the coopera- 
 tion of as many individuals and organizations as pos* 
 
218 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 sible. A complete and accurate survey of even a small 
 community requires a good deal of time to collect and 
 tabulate aU the facts that may be significant for sci- 
 entific or practical purposes, and still more time to 
 compare them with those obtained from other surveys 
 and determine the status and special needs of the com- 
 munity studied. The degree of completeness of a sur- 
 vey may, however, vary from an exact enumeration and 
 tabulation of all facts to mere observation and estima- 
 tion of conditions, supplemented by information and 
 opinions obtained from prominent people and by a few 
 census figures. The latter type of survey may be made 
 by a single individual. This is done by persons engaged 
 in city planning, by individuals who wish a more com- 
 plete knowledge of their community or of some phase 
 of its life, or by students of sociology and education 
 who wish some first-hand experience in studying social 
 phenomena. 
 
 The writer has found that university and normal 
 students are able in a comparatively short time to col- 
 lect and organize the facts regarding their home com- 
 munity in a way that gives them a much better under- 
 standing of it and of community life in general than 
 they have had before. They also bring out facts that 
 are surprising and suggestive to old residents who have 
 rarely considered their community in a broad, system- 
 atic, comparative way. On the other hand, the yoimg 
 investigator may learn much from citizens that wiU help 
 him to interpret the facts that he has collected. He will 
 also be greatly helped by studying the surveys that have 
 been made in other communities and by reading of com- 
 munity life in other lands. 
 
 Those who attempt surveys must very carefully dia- 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 219 
 
 tinguish between opinions and facts tliat can be verified 
 and enumerated, and while giving some weight to the 
 opinions of representative people should collect as 
 many exact facts as possible. They should not be hasty 
 in reaching conclusions and should be sure of the 
 grounds upon which they are based. It is usually best 
 in any survey to start with the facts regarding the ge- 
 ography of the region, the character of the population, 
 and the number and kind of organizations, then pro- 
 ceed to the special topic or topics of inquiry. The 
 census reports and public documents of the place, po- 
 lice and school reports, etc., and directory, if any, will 
 prove useful, as will also the reports of organizations 
 of all kinds and the facts that can be supplied by their 
 ofBcials. In addition to this the investigator will need 
 to observe, estimate, and enumerate, if possible, many 
 other facts. 
 
 Geographical conditions. In every general survey 
 geographical conditions must receive attention. In rural 
 communities the natural geographical conditions are 
 most important, while in urban communities the arti- 
 ficial conditions produced by man, such as the way in 
 which the city is laid out, the means of transportation 
 and communication, the kinds of business organized 
 and buildings constructed, are of most significance. 
 
 In a rural community climate and soil are of first 
 importance, and they determine to a considerable extent 
 the kinds of crops produced and the density of the 
 population. If the country is level or markets distant, 
 field crops are often raised and much machinery is em- 
 ployed on comparatively large farms. If the country is 
 hilly and rocky, machinery will be used less, the farms 
 will be smaller, and the crops of a different character. 
 
220 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 Near a large city, fruit aud garden products are more 
 likely to be raised, but with the present means of trans- 
 portation, communities favorably situated for producing 
 early fruits and vegetables may, by proper cooperation, 
 market them in cities a thousand miles distant. 
 
 The discovery of minerals and oil in a rural com- 
 munity may entirely transform it. It may also be 
 greatly changed if it has natural advantages and means 
 of communication fitting it for a summer resort. 
 
 In the case of a city, natural geographical conditions 
 have much to do with the location and early character 
 of the community, yet its later history and character 
 may be more completely determined by the people who 
 live there and the artificial conditions which they have 
 produced. Among the most important of these man- 
 made conditions affecting the life of the community are 
 the railroads, the factories, the streets, and the general 
 housing conditions. 
 
 Population. In studying a community as much at- 
 tention should be given to the general character of the 
 population as to the purely geographical facts. The 
 statistics as to number of people of each sex in the 
 community, their nationality, the size of families, pro- 
 portion of wage-earners and of literacy should be looked 
 up. A general view of the dominant occupations and 
 the social classes into which the people are divided is 
 also valuable. If there are many nationalities repre- 
 sented, this will mean a very complex study. If those 
 of the same nationality live in the same section, as is 
 often the case, there wiU be a number of very distinct 
 communities each with its peculiar problems. If the 
 various nationalities are mingled in their place of liv- 
 ing, most of them not citizens, and many of them single 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 221 
 
 men and only temporary residents, then little can be 
 gained for social purposes by making a detailed study. 
 The permanent residents who direct the activities and 
 carry on the public work of the community are the 
 ones that should receive most attention. 
 
 Where a large proportion of the population is of 
 foreign birth, but many are permanent residents and 
 citizens, they usually retain many customs and organiza- 
 tions of their native countries while gradually adopting 
 those of the new. Each quarter is usually receiving 
 fresh immigrants who learn from their countrymen of 
 the new-world customs, institutions, and laws. It is 
 very important, therefore, that each center of foreign 
 population shotild learn of the best of American life. 
 The schools are important influences in this direction, 
 but means should be used to inform the older people, 
 soon after they come, regarding our country and its in- 
 stitutions. On the other hand, it should be recognized 
 that they bring with them some customs and institu- 
 tions as good or better than our own. Instead of being 
 ridiculed, some of these should be commended and in 
 part incorporated into the new life. 
 
 A study of the population will quickly show whether 
 it is fairly homogeneous or one in which there are dis- 
 tinct classes which differ greatly. The important thing 
 to notice is whether they have any common interests and 
 whether there are institutions by means of which they 
 cooperate. In residential sections the people are often 
 of the same general grade, but in suburban districts 
 especially, there may be few common interests and no 
 organizations for associated action. In other sections, 
 on the contrary, there may be a diversity of nationali- 
 ties, but common interests, and some institutions, such 
 
22B FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 as a trade union, that bring all of them into close re- 
 lation. 
 
 The age of a community and its previous history 
 must often be considered in order to make an intelli- 
 gent survey and interpretation of the community life. 
 In an old community much depends upon traditions, 
 long-established institutions, and the way in which vari- 
 ous classes and cliques have worked together or against 
 each other. Unfortunately in many communities there 
 is much fault-finding and jealousy which interfere with 
 public movements, while in others there is a consider- 
 able amount of civic pride — a very desirable thing if 
 it is a pride in progressive activities, a serious handi- 
 cap if it is merely a pride in the past which prevents 
 improvement. 
 
 In a new city its leaders are the most important ele- 
 ment of the population. They have the real qualities 
 of leadership instead of holding the position merely 
 because of wealth or family, as is often the case in an 
 older community. They start movements and establish 
 institutions unhampered by traditions and clan feel- 
 ings. In older communities leaders with initiative must 
 often oppose old customs and prejudices supported by 
 men who have wealth and position, and they may give 
 up the struggle or emigrate to a newer country. The 
 work' of leaders in every community is of significance 
 to social students. In new communities the leaders of 
 the day have the greatest influence upon the present 
 and future life and institutions, while in older commu- 
 nities it is often more important to know of the work 
 of a leader long since dead. 
 
 Housing. No factor in city life is more important 
 than its housing conditions. It is a permanent influ- 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 223 
 
 ence continually acting upon every individual and upon 
 the most important of aU groups, the family. The city 
 that has the best housing conditions for all its dwellers 
 may be regarded as the one that has most completely 
 adapted its environment to meet the needs of a large 
 number of civilized people in a limited space. Good 
 housing conditions represent the most complete adjust- 
 ment of all the social activities of the community for 
 the advantage of all. It is only possible where all able- 
 bodied workers receive adequate pay, where the streets 
 are properly laid out and cared for, where building opera- 
 tions are intelligently carried on, where business and 
 residence districts are properly arranged with reference 
 to each other and to recreational and cultural centers, 
 and where there are efficiently planned and managed 
 water, sewer, fire, lighting, and health departments. 
 
 The housing conditions are the best index of suc- 
 cessful commimity life because they are so intimately 
 related to every phase of community activity both as a 
 cause and as an effect. Every improvement in housing 
 conditions makes possible further improvement in the 
 community, while every other improvement in any phase 
 of commimity life has its effect sooner or later upon 
 housing conditions. This is well shown by the changes 
 in certain sections of large cities. Very unattractive 
 houses may be occupied by foreigners when they first 
 come to this country, but as soon as their financial 
 affairs improve they learn something of the advantages 
 of better home conditions. They ^ist improve their 
 house furnishings, then they demand improvement in 
 the house, and often they move to another section of 
 the city where better housing is provided. Their places 
 are taken by another class of foreigners who are poor 
 
224 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 and ignorant. In any city where all classes have im- 
 proved financially and intellectually, no one can be in- 
 duced to occupy houses that are not favorable to health- 
 ful and happy home life. To bring this condition about 
 should, of course, be the aim of every city. 
 
 Much may be learned of the housing conditions in a 
 city and in its different sections by passing along the 
 streets, noting how close the houses are together, and 
 whether any are in the rear of others or facing on an 
 alley, the size and general aspect of the houses, the 
 appearance of the people, and the number of children 
 in the streets. The census report gives the number of 
 persons per building, and this is some indication of the 
 housing conditions. If the number in the community 
 being studied is larger, as compared with the area, than 
 the average, it means one of two things, large tene- 
 ments or small buildings overcrowded, or possibly both. 
 The best numerical expression of a crowded condition 
 or the absence of it is the ratio of the number of per- 
 sons to the number of rooms in the city or in certain 
 sections of the city. Another is the number of rooms 
 per family, but this is not so significant if boarders 
 are also found in many of the tenements. Although 
 many persons in a few rooms constitute the most sig- 
 nificant indication of bad housing conditions, yet the 
 size of the rooms, the window space, and the sewer, 
 water, and toilet facilities are in themselves more im- 
 portant than the mere fact of many people in a given 
 space. Other significant factors are narrow streets or 
 the absence of other open spaces, the proximity to noisy, 
 dirty, or evil-smelling factories, too great distance from 
 market, recreation, and cultural opportunities, or insuf- 
 ficient means of transportation. 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 226 
 
 It may be said that the character of the people is the 
 more important factor determining how clean, health- 
 ful, and attractive the home shall be. Theoretically this 
 is true, but with very few and usually temporary ex- 
 ceptions the people match their surroundings. People 
 partly choose and partly make their environment, and 
 hence they must, in the long run, correspond. Those 
 who like clean, pleasant surroundings will have them 
 even if they must pay a higher rent and do with less 
 desirable food and clothing. Those who do not care for 
 them will live in squalor and save money. If people of 
 neat habits are absolutely compelled by poverty to live 
 in dirty and unsanitary surroundings, they improve 
 their financial condition after a time and move, or they 
 gradually become less and less particular, and finally 
 descend to the level of their neighbors. 
 
 On the other hand, if persons who have lived in 
 crowded, dirty sections move into a section where there 
 is space and cleanliness, they will usually soon improve 
 their own habits of living until they approach those of 
 their new neighbors. If, however, a whole neighbor- 
 hood is given better living conditions, but no teaching 
 or example of clean, sanitary living, the change in msr 
 terial environment which has not been asked for or 
 produced by themselves will not greatly modify the 
 people. Instead they will modify the environment until 
 the well-built tenement is almost as unattractive as the 
 old one previously occupied. Transformation in a neigh- 
 borhood is usually best brought about gradually by 
 constructing a few good houses and having them occu- 
 pied by those who will keep them attractive, until the 
 whole community is transformed materially and spirit- 
 ually. A clean-up campaign for the yards and streets, 
 
226 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 some renovation of the buildings, and regular garbage 
 and rubbish collections may also greatly improve the 
 living conditions in certain sections of the city. 
 
 It may be admitted that people are more important 
 than their material surroimdings, but in cities, where 
 the surroundings are almost whoUy man-made, there is 
 an inevitable tendency for them to become adapted to 
 each other. It follows, therefore, that a study of the 
 housing conditions in any section furnishes a good index 
 of the characteristics of the people inhabiting it. The 
 longer they have lived in the same surroundings, the 
 more completely is this true. Improvement is most 
 rapid when the attempt is made to change both people 
 and surroundings at the same time, especially by in- 
 citing the desire to change and providing facilities for 
 improvement. 
 
 To produce good housing conditions at a low cost 
 is very difficult, so difficult that much cooperation of 
 many people, perhaps backed by political action, is nec- 
 essary. The best results have been reached where archi- 
 tects and builders have cooperated with individuals and 
 building associations and have observed public regula- 
 tions regarding streets and buildings in constructing 
 large numbers of houses of a few types suited to the 
 size, income, and tastes of typical families who were 
 likely to reside in that section. In this way good living 
 conditions have been produced in some cities at about 
 half the cost of planning and building as an individual 
 affair. 
 
 A study of housing conditions should show not only 
 how bad or good they are, but also just why they are 
 bad in any respect in order that it may be known how 
 to improve them. Sometimes the way in which the city 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 227 
 
 has been laid out or its geographical situation is respon- 
 sible, and the remedy may be obvious but costly. If 
 the streets are wide and far apart, houses may have 
 been built on alleys and on the backs of lots, as is the 
 case in Washington. In some cases rear houses are be- 
 ing torn down and in others alleys are transformed into 
 streets. If building laws prevent the erection of houses 
 on the rear of lots, then there may be much land with 
 each house. This is desirable, but adds to the cost of 
 housing unless tall tenements are erected. If streets 
 are wide, this is less objectionable than if they are nar- 
 row, but wide streets are a costly form of open space 
 to construct and maintain. They also decrease the 
 amount of taxable property in the city, and when they 
 occupy, as is sometimes the case, almost one haK of the 
 entire city area, it is evident that they must be very 
 costly and housing expenses unusually great. Where 
 there is nothing to prevent a city from spreading out, 
 it is better for residence districts to have narrow streets, 
 low houses, and open spaces in the form of yards, parks, 
 and playgrounds. These are much cheaper to maintain 
 than streets and more valuable for residents. Broad 
 streets are needed only where there are tall buildings 
 or much travel, as is usual in business sections. A city 
 that is spread over a large area will have more taxable 
 pi-operty than one of the same population that is con- 
 centrated on a small space, and the living conditions 
 will be much better. In the latter case the transporta- 
 tion problem is more difficult unless the inhabitants are 
 so grouped in relation to their work and to recreational 
 and other facilities that they do not often need to go 
 long distances. 
 
 In some cases the remedy for bad housing conditions 
 
S28 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 18 to be found in better water and sewer facilities, or 
 in better and more strict enforcement of regulations 
 regarding the construction of buildings. 
 
 In many cases people coming from rural districts, 
 where conditions are very different, or from foreign 
 lands, do not know how to make the best of their sur- 
 roundings even when they are fairly good, and they need 
 to be shown how their dwellings may be made more 
 healthful and attractive and to have their tastes in this 
 direction cultivated. Sometimes it may be found that 
 so many of the family are working long hours that they 
 have not time or energy to make their dwellings clean 
 and attractive. It may be discovered that wages or 
 employment are so irregular that overcrowding is an 
 absolute necessity. In such cases the remedy is entirely 
 economic. 
 
 Sometimes foreigners greatly overcrowd partly be- 
 cause they are used to it in the countries from which 
 they come (often from rural districts where it is less 
 objectionable) and partly because they are willing to 
 live in such conditions in order to save money. This is 
 more often the case where many families take boarders. 
 These are difficult cases to deal with. So far as the 
 individual families are concerned, however, it is often 
 temporary, for when they have saved enough money 
 they frequently either go back to their native country 
 or cease to keep boarders and perhaps buy a home of 
 their own. If societies were formed for supplying good 
 boarding conditions at a reasonable price, some of the 
 overcrowding of boarders in private families might be 
 prevented. 
 
 In considering general housing conditions, the rank 
 .of the community in question as compared with others 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 229 
 
 may be determined by a comparison of the rent paid 
 to income received by different classes of people. The 
 amount spent on rent varies in different cities and for 
 different classes from about one sixth to about one 
 third of the total family expenditure. Those with a 
 moderate income are likely to spend more in proportion 
 on rent, whUe the proportion spent for food is highest 
 among the very poor. 
 
 The cost of rent per room is another form of statis- 
 tics that may be used in a comparison of the purely 
 economic phase of housing conditions in different cities 
 and in the same city at different times. There is usually, 
 of course, a pretty close correspondence between the 
 cost of rent and the value of residences. 
 
 Institutions. In a general survey the part that its 
 various institutions play in the life of the community 
 as a whole should be considered. Very frequently a 
 society organized for a special purpose may enlist many 
 members and incidently increase the variety of its activ- 
 ities, until it is more influential in several lines than 
 are other societies organized for those special forms of 
 work. A church, a school, a woman's club, a board of 
 trade, a lodge of some kind, or a good government club, 
 a reading-circle, a recreative club, a Y.M.C.A., or a 
 social settlement may be the most efficient means of 
 association and common action that there is in the com- 
 munity. These various societies, as weU as the local 
 government and its administration, will naturally re- 
 ceive attention in studying the ways in which the sev- 
 eral social needs are met, but they should be considered 
 with reference to the whole life of the community as 
 well as from the point of view of special needs and ac- 
 tivities. 
 
230 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 Statistics may be collected as to the number, mem- 
 bership, and lines of activity of societies of all kinds, 
 and these compared with others gathered in similar 
 communities. It will be found usually that on the aver- 
 age each person is a member of several societies, and 
 yet in every community there are probably some adults 
 who belong to no society, while others belong to a score 
 or more. 
 
 One important thing to note in studying the socie- 
 ties of a community is this. What societies are for spe- 
 cial classes of people and which bring together many 
 different classes ? What is the value of these different 
 institutions in the life of the community? In some 
 places there are many organizations for special classes 
 and interests, but not one representing interests com- 
 mon to all and having the support of all. Such a com- 
 munity is unfortunate. 
 
 Effects of rural and urban life. The differences be- 
 tween rural and urban communities, already mentioned, 
 and discussed in the following chapters, are modified 
 by their relations to each other, and this relation must 
 be considered in all community studies. 
 
 A village with a rural population surrounding it may 
 combine many of the advantageous characteristics of 
 both the urban and the rural community, especially 
 now that good roads and telephones are common. This 
 is nearly always the case when the village is under the 
 same government as the surrounding country and is 
 the center of the economic, social, recreational, cultural, 
 religious, and educational life of the people. If the 
 people are sufficiently alike, there may be a happy 
 blending of personal association and institutional ac- 
 tivity that yields the fullest community life. 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 231 
 
 In many instances, however, the relations are less 
 fortunate. The people of town and country are not 
 similar, or unified in their interests. The effects are usu- 
 ally worst upon the rural population, especially when 
 it cx)nsists largely of temporary tenants. In nearly 
 every case the rural community loses its distinctive 
 advantages of family and neighborly life before it gains 
 those of urban institutional life. This is especially 
 true with regard to recreation and culture. Discontent 
 among country people, especially of the younger gen- 
 eration, is due largely to the fact that they must go to 
 town for recreation, while rural life supplies only hard 
 work. This is one of the chief reasons why there has 
 been such an increase of city population and in many 
 cases a decrease in the strictly rural districts. Not only 
 do the young people go to the city, but well-to-do farm- 
 ers rent their land and move to town where they and 
 their children have more cultural advantages. Under 
 such conditions the community life, instead of improv- 
 ing, degenerates. In thickly settled rural districts such 
 degeneration may be prevented by getting the people 
 to provide themselves with recreational and cultural 
 facilities. 
 
 The effect upon city dwellers of taking vacations in 
 the country is to attract them to it. There is, there- 
 fore, a double movement from city and country to sub- 
 urban sections. The people of these suburban districts 
 may or may not become unified as a community and 
 act in such a way as to secure the advantages of both 
 city and rural life. Sometimes they merely live in the 
 country for the sake of its natural advantages and go 
 to the city for the artificial advantages of specialized 
 institutional life. 
 
FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Discuss the possible future of the profession of social 
 engineer. 
 
 2. Each student should make at least a general or partial 
 survey of some community. 
 
 3. Standards of comparison that may be used in survey 
 work should be studied and reported upon. 
 
 4. Look up and report upon the development of the city- 
 planning movement. 
 
 5. Discuss the question of how to secure the cooperation 
 of all classes in making a community survey. 
 
 6. Describe two communities, one in which natural geo- 
 graphical advantages seem to dominate and another in 
 which the character of the people seems to give it its 
 distinctive character. 
 
 7. Beport on social settlements or other means of develop- 
 ing community life and of educating foreign people. 
 
 8. Have all students report their observations on the 
 housing conditions in the immediate locality in which 
 they are living and that of some contrasting locality 
 that they visit. After a few reports and some discussion 
 a general outline should be agreed upon to be followed 
 by all in a more complete study of the problem. 
 
 9. Have each student report upon the institution in his 
 home community that he thinks has the most influence 
 upon the community life as a whole. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 COMMUNITY STUDIES — ECONOMIC AND PROTECTIVE 
 
 Economic conditions and public finances. The eco- 
 nomic condition of a community should be carefully 
 studied whatever the purpose of the social survey. In 
 every case the conditions and possibility of improve- 
 ment in any phase of community life depend directly 
 or indirectly upon the economic prosperity of the com- 
 munity as a whole and upon the extent of the distribu- 
 tion of this prosperity among all classes. 
 
 One of the most important and easily obtained facts 
 with regard to the economic condition of the commu- 
 nity is the average amount of taxable property possessed 
 by its inhabitants. It is true that the assessed value of 
 property does not in every case correspond closely to 
 the actual value. It may represent in different com- 
 munities anywhere from thirty to a hundred per cent 
 of the real value, but it is the best estimate available, 
 and in every community the valuation made by the 
 assessors for taxation determines to a considerable ex- 
 tent the amount that can be expended for public pur- 
 poses. The average valuation per person in the United 
 States is about thirteen hundred dollars, but even in 
 the same states it is ten times as much in some com- 
 munities as it is in others. Usually it is greater in cities 
 than in rural sections. In a community with a very 
 small valuation it is evident that only a small amount 
 of money can be expended for public purposes, such as 
 roads, bridges, schools, etc. 
 
234 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 Although the amount of assessable property in a 
 community is the basis for determining the expenditure 
 for public expenses, it is not an accurate measure of 
 economic prosperity and of the amount that may be 
 used without hardship for community purposes. The 
 amount of property in a community is sometimes an 
 indication of past rather than of present prosperity. In 
 a new community property valuation may be low, but 
 annual income large, while in an old community prop- 
 erty valuation is sometimes large, but income small. 
 This is true if in the newer community a large pro- 
 portion of the people are engaged in productive work, 
 while in the older a large number are unproductive 
 and are living upon the income of past accumulations. 
 In communities of the former type a tax rate twice 
 as high as in the older community might be levied 
 without placing any greater burden upon the people. 
 In the new, enough may be raised for public purposes 
 even though the property valuation is below the aver- 
 age, because the people can afford to pay a higher rate 
 of taxes. 
 
 It is important to know in every community not 
 merely the average valuation of property and the aver- 
 age income per person, but how this property and in- 
 come are distributed. A community having a few very 
 wealthy persons may rank as high in average wealth 
 and income and yet be an entirely different sort of a 
 community, economically and otherwise, from one of 
 equal valuation and income in which there are no very 
 wealthy individuals. The first community would be 
 one in which there were great numbers of poor people, 
 while in the second there would be little if any extreme 
 poverty. The economic condition of the community 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 235 
 
 might probably be best indicated by classifying its 
 population in groups according to valuation of prop- 
 erty or income per year and finding what groups are 
 largest. In most cases in a democratic country we 
 wovdd regard the community having very few wealthy 
 and very few poor people as being in a better condi- 
 tion for the development of various forms of social life, 
 and there is no doubt that in a long course of years it 
 is more efficient and productive. 
 
 It is not only important to know how much money 
 is available in any community for public use, but also 
 to know how much is needed in that particular com- 
 munity. In a city a great deal must be expended upon 
 streets and sewers, the amount depending to a consid- 
 erable extent upon the nature of the ground and the 
 way the city is laid out, while in rural districts com- 
 paratively little will be thus expended in proportion to 
 the length of the highways. On the other hand, in a 
 very sparsely settled rural community, the comparative 
 expense of providing adequate school facilities will be 
 very great. 
 
 A very important question in every community is 
 that of how the public money is being expended. 
 Affairs are best managed, not in the community that 
 is most economical or the one which is most liberal in 
 its expenditure of public money, but in the one that 
 gets the most for its money in the way of public ad- 
 vantages for all classes of persons. Citizens generally 
 have been interested in the amount expended for vari- 
 ous purposes, but with the varied and often complex 
 forms of bookkeeping and financial reporting it has 
 been impossible for the average citizen to know just 
 how advantageously public money has been spent. 
 
236 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 One of the principal things needed at the present 
 time is more uniformity and simplicity of bookkeeping 
 and clearer statements regarding financial affairs, so 
 that every citizen shall know just how the public money 
 is being used and how much any improvement or addi- 
 tion to public conveniences will cost. Simplified finan- 
 cial statements and publicity regarding the financial 
 expenditure of the community, and the strict account- 
 ability of each o£Bcial in charge are most important 
 means of civic improvement. 
 
 Economic resources and activities. The natural re- 
 sources, especially in a rural section, should receive 
 careful attention. Climate, soil, minerals, water-power, 
 and natural means of communication with other places 
 are always to be studied to see how they compare with 
 the same advantages in other sections and how fully 
 they are being utilized. In addition, other advantages, 
 such as beautiful scenery or abundance of fish, may in 
 some places be important economic assets. 
 
 In farming communities the proportion of cultivated 
 land to the whole area, the number and size of the 
 farms, the value of the land and improvements, and the 
 amount and value of the yearly products, the number 
 of farms free from mortgages, etc., should be deter- 
 mined and compared with census reports of the state 
 and the United States. If a large proportion of the 
 farms are operated by owners, this almost surely means 
 permanence of residence and a better developed com- 
 munity life. 
 
 The artificial resources, such as roads, machinery, 
 and working capital, and institutions, such as banks 
 and produce associations, should be studied. Deter- 
 mine whether the natural facilities for making good 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 237 
 
 roads are utilized or neglected. Machinery ma,y or may 
 not be used as much as it should be considering the 
 soil and the crops. Lack of sufficient capital and a bad 
 credit system may make it difficult or impossible for 
 the farmer to procure proper machinery, stock, seed, or 
 help. The market conditions may be poor because there 
 is no near market and because there is not enough of 
 each kind of crop to make shipping to distant markets 
 feasible. This often results in there being only one or 
 two principal cash crops and a consequent lack of suit- 
 able variety and rotation of crops to keep the soil in 
 good condition. This difficulty may sometimes be rem- 
 edied by means of an organization which arranges for 
 the grading and marketing of the products of many 
 farms, which could not be shipped and sold profitably 
 in small lots. In newer sections of our country the 
 land is often productive but capital scarce, interest 
 high and markets uncertain, while in older sections this 
 is less likely to be the case. 
 
 Much depends upon the character of the people. If 
 they are industrious and intelligent, much work is done, 
 they raise crops suited to the region, and learn to co- 
 operate in getting credit and market facilities. 
 
 In urban sections the most significant economic facts 
 do not concern natural resources so much as they do 
 artificial assets, the railway and water facilities and the 
 factories in an industrial town, the business houses in 
 a commercial center, and the housing and living con- 
 ditions in a residential suburb. These mean that there 
 is more or less capital in the place to facilitate the pro- 
 duction and distribution of articles of value and make 
 living conditions comfortable. 
 
 The character of the community where there is only 
 
238 FCNDAMENTALS OP SOCIOLOGY 
 
 one dominant industry will differ greatly from that of 
 a place where there are many. If there is only one in- 
 dustry, the people are usually divided into a few dis- 
 tinct classes and prosperity varies from year to year, 
 while if there are many industries the classes are not 
 commonly so distinctly separate and prosperity is usu- 
 ally more evenly distributed. 
 
 One index of economic prosperity is the value of the 
 manufactured products and the amount of business done 
 by commercial houses. This is often indicated in a gen- 
 eral way by the bank clearings, also by the number and 
 financial condition of the banks. 
 
 The prosperity of the common people is indicated 
 by the deposits in savings banks and also by the 
 amount of business done by cooperative banks or build- 
 ing and loan associations. The wealth-producing activ- 
 ity of the conmmnity as a whole is measured to a con- 
 siderable extent by the percentage of the population 
 engaged in economic production and their average in- 
 come. A city of little wealth in which workers are 
 numerous and wages high may, therefore, be much 
 more prosperous than a city with much wealth but few 
 active producers. The industry and intelligence of 
 workers are a city's greatest assets if there is material 
 and institutional provision for their effective employ- 
 ment in economic activities. 
 
 The city needs not only a sufficient number of fac- 
 tories and business houses suited to the city and its 
 trade with surrounding places, but good banks, favor- 
 able means of transportation, an active board of trade, 
 and conditions favorable for keeping workers profitably 
 employed, healthy and contented, and economically and 
 politically interested in their home community. 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 239 
 
 The more people invest their money and spend for 
 necessities, pleasures, and culture at home, the more 
 prosperous will all classes of the community be. In- 
 crease in wages, then, increases the prosperity of the 
 stores, the banks, the insurance companies, the build- 
 ing trades, the theaters, the churches, and the schools. 
 More desirable people come to the place and remain, 
 more capital is ready for use, and more efficient work- 
 ers are kept in the city. 
 
 It is utterly impossible for a city to be permanently 
 prosperous if the conditions of living are bad for any 
 considerable proportion of its inhabitants. A large slum 
 district means that a large portion of the economic re- 
 sources of the city is partially or whoUy non-productive 
 and the rest of the city is, therefore, less prosperous 
 than it would otherwise be. 
 
 After facts have been obtained concerning the con- 
 ditions mentioned above, conclusions may be drawn as 
 to what constitutes the greatest economic weakness of 
 the community and suggestions made as to possible im- 
 provements and how they may be brought about. 
 
 Specific figures to be obtained. 
 
 Assessed valuation per person. 
 
 Value of products, past year and former years 
 (itemized and total). 
 
 Amount of wholesale and retail business, past year 
 and former years. 
 
 Bank deposits, past year and former years. 
 
 Savings banks deposits, past year and former years. 
 
 Building and loan business, past year and former years. 
 
 Total working capital, past year and former years. 
 
 Number and per cent of population engaged in pro- 
 ductive work. 
 
240 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 Average wages. 
 
 Average number of days employed. 
 
 Estimated average yearly income or number receiv- 
 ing more or less than certain amounts, e.g., $500, 
 $1000, $2000, etc. 
 
 Number of persons receiving aid, past year. Former 
 years. 
 
 Amount expended for aid, past year. Former years. 
 
 Cost of each department of the city, past year. 
 Former years. 
 
 Per cent of total spent by each department of the city, 
 past year. Former years. 
 
 Salary of chief officials, past year. Former years. 
 
 Wages of municipal employees, past year. Former 
 years. 
 
 Value of new buildings erected. 
 
 Amount of public money expended. 
 
 Tax-rate. 
 
 Public debt. 
 
 Miles of roads. 
 
 Miles of macadamized roads. 
 
 Protection against crime and injustice. Protection 
 against personal assault and property loss through the 
 acts of others is in all civilized countries provided by 
 governmental rather than private institutions, although 
 sometimes law and order leagues are organized for this 
 purpose, mobs are temporarily formed to punish crim- 
 inals, or corporations employ a detective agency to help 
 preserve their property at the time of a strike. The use 
 of any such protective means indicates that the govern- 
 ment institutions are not doing their work effectively. 
 There is reason also for saying that where there is effi- 
 cient government and conditions of life in a community 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 241 
 
 are good, there should be little need for individuals to 
 seek to protect themselves by locks, bars, and revolvers. 
 
 Such institutions as those insuring against burglary 
 or theft are not necessarily a reflection on local govern- 
 ment, since persons committing such acts rarely confine 
 themselves to one community, yet they mean that pro- 
 tection by law is inefficient. 
 
 There is no reliable index of the effectiveness of pro- 
 tective institutions. A small amount of crime in a com- 
 munity may be due to effective governmental protection 
 or to the good character of the people and the favorable 
 conditions under which all live. Few arrests may indi- 
 cate either an inactive government or little crime, while 
 many arrests may mean an active government, but un- 
 favorable conditions or lawless people. Again, it may 
 mean that many new and unfamiliar regulations, such 
 as those relating to spitting on the sidewalk or fast 
 driving, have been made and are being enforced. For 
 these reasons statistics of crime are difficult of inter- 
 pretation. They should, however, be collected and clas- 
 sified in such a way as to make some interpretation 
 possible. The proportion of convictions to arrests, and 
 the time elapsing before verdicts are rendered, are im- 
 portant indications of the activity and efficiency of po- 
 lice and judicial departments. 
 
 Court procedure, especially for juveniles, should be 
 carefully studied. The prisons and the work of proba- 
 tion officers should also receive attention. Besides the 
 protection afforded normal people under normal condi- 
 tions a study should be made of the provision made for 
 the weak and defective and those who are temporarily 
 unable to care for themselves. This means a study of 
 the institutions for charitable and hospital care, and may 
 
242 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 also include an investigation of the laws and societies 
 concerned in protecting persons with little knowledge 
 and money from the impositions of loan sharks and 
 swindlers of various sorts. 
 
 Children form the largest group of persons needing 
 protective care ; hence, in every community public pro- 
 vision is made and often special societies exist for guard- 
 ing them from physical and moral injury of various 
 kinds. These need to be carefully studied, especially in 
 cities where this function, properly belonging to the 
 family, is less perfectly fulfilled. 
 
 Protection against disease and accident. The most 
 important protective institutions are those concerned 
 in providing and maintaining conditions favorable to 
 health and which attend to such matters as sewer sys- 
 tems, water-supply, garbage-collection, building super- 
 vision, and hospital accommodations. All of these de- 
 partments may be under the general direction of the 
 board of health and administered by public officials, 
 though in some places these functions are carried on by 
 private institutions or individuals. The facts for the 
 community in question shoidd be ascertained and the 
 efficiency of the service estimated. 
 
 The chief index of health conditions is the death-rate 
 per thousand, and the nature of unfavorable conditions 
 is suggested by the causes of death and the age at which 
 most deaths occur, as compared with other places. Fig- 
 ures as to sickness, if they can be obtained, are helpful. 
 Much typhoid indicates usually that the water- and milk- 
 supply should be carefully examined, while a great deal 
 of tuberculosis suggests bad housing conditions, and 
 frequent accidents indicate a lack of proper protective 
 measures in the industries and on the streets and railways. 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 243 
 
 Protection against fire is supposed to be fumished 
 chiefly by the fire department and its efficiency and 
 equipment should be studied, but the character of 
 buildings and the precautions taken by the inhabitants 
 are more important. The best index of fire protection 
 is the amount of yearly destruction by fire. This, how- 
 ever, is quite variable. The insurance rate, which is 
 based on permanent conditions and much past expe- 
 rience, is usually a pretty good indication of the safe- 
 guards against fire. The surroundings of the city or the 
 nature of its industries may also determine whether the 
 fire risk is great or small. 
 
 The amount of business done by life insurance and 
 industrial accident and sickness insurance companies 
 and societies is a pretty good indication of the activity 
 of individuals in protecting themselves against injury 
 to person and loss to families. Of course, insurance 
 merely distributes the amount of loss to the world 
 among many people and over long periods of time with- 
 out actually making it good. This distribution of losses 
 does, however, benefit the individuals concerned and 
 indirectly the whole community ; for the insurance pre- 
 mium is a known amount that can be provided for 
 without interfering with economic production, while 
 without insurance the disturbances due to sudden in- 
 juries and losses are destructive to family life and dis- 
 organizing to the industry suffering loss, which perhaps 
 throws workers out of employment and so injures those 
 industries that depend upon their patronage. 
 
 Protective regulation and education. Regtdation is 
 provided by state laws and local ordinances and by the 
 rules adopted by the various protective institutions. 
 The laws are enforced by the officials of the state and 
 
844 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 community, assisted by the courts which impose pen- 
 alties for violation. 
 
 Another way of bringing about the desired protec- 
 tion is by education. Some health officers, for example, 
 rarely invoke the law, but devote their energies to in- 
 forming the people of the bad effects of certain prac- 
 tices and to inducing them individually and in groups 
 to cooperate in maintaining sanitary conditions. Such 
 regulation, if successful, is more lasting and attained 
 at much less cost than that brought about by imposing 
 penalties. The chief need for penalties occurs when all 
 but a very few can be induced to comply with the nec- 
 essary regulations, but where failure of those few nulli- 
 fies the action of all. If a large proportion of the people 
 are not convinced of the desirability of a regulation, 
 conformity can only be brought about by swift and 
 sure infliction of severe penalties. In a democratic coun- 
 try this is impossible, because arrests will not be made 
 or juries will not convict. 
 
 It may be stated that, with few exceptions, regula- 
 tions made before public opinion is educated to receive 
 them, must be enforced with severity or fail, sometimes 
 both, while education without the possibility of using 
 force is often rendered ineffective by the action of a 
 few. In general, then, education only should be used 
 where the results cannot be vitiated by the few who do 
 not conform, while in other cases education should 
 be used as far as possible and force only when neces- 
 sary. 
 
 The study of protective regulation in a local com- 
 munity is very much complicated by the fact that many 
 of the regulations are made by the state and in many 
 instances they are also administered and enforced by 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 245 
 
 state officials. Sometimes national laws and officials are 
 also concerned. 
 
 The great problem of protective and other regulation 
 is to find what course of action will bring about the 
 desired results, then, by education, induce the people 
 to adopt this course of action, and if necessary, for the 
 protection of all, punish a few. Institutions and laws 
 are social inventions and the public officials and the 
 officers of societies are the operators of these social 
 machines. Sometimes the institutions are like automa- 
 tic machines and officials have little to do but to follow 
 the rules, e.g., insurance companies and savings banks. 
 In other cases the official needs to be a skilled artisan 
 or social engineer who can adapt the institution and its 
 ndes to special conditions and secure the desired results 
 with least cost in effort and money. 
 
 In making a study of protective conditions these 
 truths should be borne in mind. The investigator must 
 make himself familiar with the institutions concerned 
 and the laws, ordinances, and rules that have been 
 made, and then he must observe their administration 
 to see how effectively the desired results are being 
 secured. 
 
 Failure may come through poorly devised organiza- 
 tion, or unwise rules, or through lack of energy, intel- 
 ligence, and honesty on the part of officials. Too many 
 institutions and individuals may be concerned in the 
 same matter without any one's having full responsibil- 
 ity. This is really an instance of the class of failures 
 first named. Our institution of municipal government, 
 in which there are many aldermen and councilmen and 
 numerous boards, is poorly devised and does not work 
 well, not only because officials can shirk responsibility, 
 
246 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 but because good officials have not sufficient authority 
 to do what should be done. For example, in the case of 
 a family of neglected, feeble-minded children there may 
 be no action because of lack of cooperation of the sev- 
 eral departments of charity, health, and police, no one 
 of them taking the responsibility. 
 
 The student of social life should seek first the facts 
 indicating that protection of various kinds is effectively 
 provided, then compare the facts with those found in 
 other places or in the same place at other times, when 
 institutions, laws, officials, or conditions were partly the 
 same and partly different. If the institutions and laws 
 have been successful in many places and under various 
 conditions, but are not working well in the local com- 
 munity, then, unless the conditions are very exceptional, 
 the officials are responsible, and the question is how to 
 get better ones. 
 
 If the local institutions and rules are the cause of 
 failure, the remedy is easier to find than if state laws 
 and institutions are involved. The student must deter- 
 mine how far remedy must be sought in the direction 
 of new legislation, local or state, in new organizations, 
 in better officials, in a campaign of education, or in 
 several of these combined. 
 
 Specific facts to be obtained. 
 
 Death-rate per thousand, past year. Former years. 
 
 Chief causes of death, past year. Former years. 
 
 Detailed facts regarding any departments that might 
 be a means of lowering the death-rate. 
 
 Number and character of accidents, past year. 
 Former years. 
 
 Number of fires, past year. Former years. 
 
 Loss, past year. Former years. 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 247 
 
 Fire insurance rates. 
 
 Per cent of population carrying some form of insur* 
 ance against death, accident, or disease. 
 
 Number of arrests, past year. Former years. 
 Chief causes of arrests, past year. Former years. 
 Number of policemen per thousand of population. 
 Methods of dealing with juveniles. 
 A list of local protective institutions. 
 A summary of local protective ordinances. 
 What state or local laws are much violated. 
 Kinds of protection that are inadequately provided. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 
 COMMUNITY STUDIES— RECREATIONAL, CULTURAL, 
 SOCIAL, AND RELIGIOUS 
 
 Recreational facilities. What constitutes the life of 
 the people in addition to its mere maintenance and the 
 preservation of health ? This is the further question to 
 be taken up by the student of community life. The an- 
 swer is most quickly found by a study of its means of 
 recreation and the uses that are made of them. 
 
 In rural communities there is usually less time for 
 recreation, less permanent, and rarely any public, pro- 
 vision for it. The principal play-times of the commimity 
 are on holidays, and then frequently a visit is made to 
 a near-by town or village instead of having entertain- 
 ment provided in the neighborhood. Shows, fairs, ex- 
 hibitions, and occasional picnics, parties, weddings, or 
 dances furnish some recreation. Even funerals are 
 sometimes regarded as social festivities of a solemn 
 kind. In some places, except in the busiest seasons, 
 there may be gatherings for baseball. Horse-racing, 
 card-playing, and drinking are sometimes engaged in 
 by groups of people on Sundays or at other times. At 
 some rural homes there are provisions for recreation in 
 the form of croquet grounds, swings, tennis, and appa- 
 ratus for indoor games that are used by the family and 
 neighbors occasionally. 
 
 Rarely are there to' be found in a rural community 
 permanent groimds, buildings, apparatus, or institutions 
 for providing recreation, nor do institutions for othei 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 249 
 
 purposes usually make recreation a promment incidental 
 feature of their work. In some communities, however, 
 the Y.M.C.A. and other organizations are now doing a 
 good deal to promote healthful recreation. 
 
 In cities and in nearly all except the smaller villages 
 the conditions are quite different. More people of lei- 
 sure are found in such places and work is more special- 
 ized, with far shorter hours, hence there is more time 
 and inclination for recreation of some kind. Motion- 
 picture entertainments are now provided almost every- 
 where, while theaters are found in all the larger places. 
 Generally there are permanent clubs of various kinds 
 for recreative purposes and other institutions that make 
 similar provision. These should be studied to determine 
 the extent and variety of facilities they offer and to find 
 out how large a proportion of the people make use of 
 them. The extent and comparative value of amuse- 
 ment facilities provided by commercial institutions, 
 clubs and societies and by public means should be de- 
 termined. 
 
 If the city provides no opportunities for play, then 
 the question of the need for such should be investigated. 
 This may be done, after the above facts have been ob- 
 tained, by making a detailed study, first, of the open 
 spaces where play may be carried on, and, second, of 
 the actual doings of children and perhaps of older peo- 
 ple during their leisure hours. 
 
 The principal places that may be used are parks, 
 school playgroimds, vacant lots (with or without per- 
 mission of the owner), and the streets which are more 
 or less free from traffic. The extent and location of 
 each of these in relation to the number of inhabitants 
 or number of children should be determined. 
 
260 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 What children do may be ascertained by going about 
 the city for a few days, observing various groups and 
 making a record of what they are doing and where. 
 When the doings of a few hundred children are clas- 
 sified, it will not be difficult to decide whether play 
 facilities and play supervision are needed. 
 
 A similar study of how adults spend their leisure 
 time is less easily made, but may show with equal clear- 
 ness whether there is occasion for the organization of 
 special societies or for public provision for recreation 
 for adults. If a large number of men dissipate when- 
 ever they have a holiday, it is evident that they need 
 opportunities and training that will lead them to find 
 more valuable forms of recreation. 
 
 Recreation facts to be collected : — 
 
 Number of commercial institutions for recreation. 
 
 Days open per year. 
 
 Number present. 
 
 Number of societies and clubs for recreation. 
 
 Number of meetings. 
 
 Membership. 
 
 Attendance. 
 
 Public provision for recreation. 
 
 Extent and use in more or less detail. 
 
 Acres of park, total and per thousand of population. 
 
 Acres of playgrounds, total and per thousand of popu- 
 lation. 
 
 Number and names of societies providing some rec- 
 reation. 
 
 Number of entertainments given. 
 
 Average of attendance. 
 
 Number of families in a hundred having home amuse- 
 ments and number of times per week. 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 261 
 
 General conclusions and discussion of needs of the 
 community and how they may be supplied. 
 
 Besides the more or less public recreational activities 
 it may be worth while to study the home recreations 
 and estimate their amount and significance. Among 
 these may be included what are sometimes called 
 avocations — some form of work engaged in after the 
 necessary work has been done, but which serves the 
 purpose of recreation. 
 
 Cultural influences. Many people find much of their 
 recreation in cultural activities and in their avocations 
 so that no sharp line can be drawn between them. In 
 general, however, there are more permanent effects 
 produced upon the mind by cultural activities than by 
 those that are merely recreational. Theaters should be 
 classed as cultural institutions, although when they are 
 run almost wholly for amusement, they nearly lose their 
 cultural character. 
 
 The most distinctly cultural institutions are libraries, 
 museums of art, nature, and history, academies of art 
 and science, lecture courses, study clubs and classes of 
 all kinds, including musical organizations. Books, news- 
 papers, and magazines and the statues and historical me- 
 morials found in various public places, all appeal to the 
 intellect and the taste and leave more or less permanent 
 impressions. The decorative qualities of buildings, 
 yards, and homes, and the language, manners, and good 
 taste in dress of the people are also important cultural 
 influences and expressions in every community. All 
 that there is in the community indicating aesthetic tastes 
 and producing cultural effects in the home through so- 
 cieties and by public provision should be observed and 
 estimated. 
 
262 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 Cultural facts to be observed or estimated : — 
 
 Number of books in library. 
 
 Number of books in relation to population. 
 
 Average number used per person each year. 
 
 Per cent of each class of books in library. 
 
 Per cent of each class used. 
 
 Number of branch libraries. 
 
 Provision for special use by children and others. 
 
 Number and kind of museums. 
 
 Days open. 
 
 Average attendance. 
 
 Lists of academic study classes and cultural societies. 
 
 Membership. 
 
 Attendance. 
 
 Number of meetings. 
 
 Musical organizations. 
 
 Entertainments. 
 
 Attendance. 
 
 Number and kind of theaters. 
 
 Seating capacities. 
 
 Average attendance. 
 
 Number of occasional lectures and cultui-al enter- 
 tainments yearly. 
 
 Number and circulation of local papers. 
 
 Number of books in homes. 
 
 Number of magazines in homes. 
 
 Per cent of high-school graduates in community. 
 
 Per cent of college graduates in community. 
 
 Prevalence of flowers, pictures, and musical instru- 
 ments in the homes. 
 
 Social intercourse. In rural districts proximity and 
 incidental meeting in connection with economic activ- 
 ities are among the principal promoters of acquaint- 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 253 
 
 ance, while in urban sections institutions play a much 
 larger part, especially those concerned with recreation 
 and culture. Church and school are institutions which 
 play a prominent part in promoting social intercourse 
 in both city and country. In the country a few people 
 are known in many relations, while in the city many 
 people are met, but most of them are known in only 
 one phase of their activities and interests. In the rural 
 community there are a few well-recognized conven- 
 tions, and public sentiment is manifested in gossip and 
 in the way in which individuals are treated whenever 
 met. In cities each institution and situation has its 
 special conventions, and disapproval for disregarding 
 them is shown only in that particular connection, while 
 the public opinion of the city is largely voiced by the 
 local newspapers. In the country each person is con- 
 demned or honored by all according as he does or does 
 not conform to a few simple standards, while in the 
 cily he is judged by a different standard by each group 
 of people that he meets in business, in the drawing- 
 room, at clubs, in politics, at church, or in a gambling- 
 hall. 
 
 In all personal association, however, external circum- 
 stances play a comparatively small part after people 
 have once met. Individualism is the stronger factor, 
 and determines who shall become intimate and who 
 shall remain comparative strangers, however often they 
 meet, who shall become leaders and how people shall 
 group themselves. 
 
 In rural districts individuality is more evident than 
 in urban sections. In a city one's actions are largely 
 regulated by special conventions for each institution 
 and situation. In meeting a cultured urban dweller 
 
8U FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 you can scarcely tell how much of his courtesy is an 
 expression of his personal attitude toward you or merely 
 the conventional amenities due from one of his class 
 and position to one of your class and in that special 
 situation. Class distinctions are much more closely 
 drawn and the treatment you receive is likely to be 
 quite different from that given a person of another 
 class. In a rural community, with fewer class distinc- 
 tions and less specialized conventions, most of the treat- 
 ment accorded others is more personal and individual. 
 
 Notwithstanding these differences leaders are to be 
 found in both types of community who must be studied 
 in order to understand, not only the social intercourse 
 of the place, but the most important factors in all sorts 
 of activities. The leader in a rural community exerts 
 his influence rather by his personal success and general 
 conduct, while in the city, power is maintained to a 
 greater extent through success in managing institutions. 
 A farmer may hold an influential place in a rural com- 
 munity without taking much part in public movements 
 of any kind, but in a city a man's influence is small 
 tmless he identifies himself with institutions and takes 
 part in public affairs. The power of a rural leader de- 
 pends most upon his personality and that of the urban 
 leader more upon the class to which he belongs and 
 the institutions through which he works. 
 
 The different classes of people, the organizations and 
 the unorganized cliques must be noted in a community 
 survey, but the situation can be fully understood only 
 by studying the present leaders ostensible and actual, 
 and sometimes it is necessary also to look up the his- 
 tory of former leaders in order to appreciate the 
 strength of prevailing customs and traditions. 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 255 
 
 Among the most important things to know about 
 leaders are : First, whether they are real leaders or 
 only occupy the position of leaders; second, whether 
 they are conservative, trying to keep things as they 
 have been, or progressive or even radical in trying to 
 improve or change them ; third, whether they are work- 
 ing chiefly for their own advantage or for the advance- 
 ment of the cause they uphold and the good of the 
 people. A study of leaders should result not in mere 
 opinions, but in a body of objective facts as to who ap- 
 pear to be leaders and just what they have done and 
 tried to do. 
 
 Social facts to be obtained : — 
 
 Number and characteristics of social classes. 
 
 Social organizations among each class. 
 
 Other organizations serving social purposes and how. 
 
 Leaders in each class and organization, their charac- 
 teristics, and what they have done. 
 
 Organizations and events that promote acquaintance 
 between all classes. 
 
 Which is more prominent, home or institutional so- 
 cial life? 
 
 To what extent do all members of each family know 
 the same people? 
 
 Per cent of divorces to marriages. 
 
 What do the members of the same family do in com^ 
 mon and how much of the time is spent with other 
 people of their own age and interests? 
 
 Is community sentiment prominent and well voiced 
 80 that it can easily be obtained from residents or 
 newspapers, or can one discover only individual and 
 class opinion on some or all topics of interest? 
 
 To what extent is there conduct opposed to the prev- 
 
266 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 alent sentiment of the community or the usual moral 
 and religious views of people of this country? 
 
 Religious activity. Religious activity, being confined 
 largely to a single institution, the Church, is more 
 easily studied than any previously discussed in this 
 chapter. Religious surveys have also been made to a 
 greater extent than most other kinds. In cities they 
 have usually been instituted for the practical purpose 
 of learning what people in each section have no connec- 
 tion with the work of the churches in order that their 
 influence may be extended to all. Sometimes the aver- 
 age attendance in all the churches is computed and 
 compared with church membership and total popula- 
 tion in the district, and most churches have for the 
 local church and for the denomination statistics of 
 membership and contributions. 
 
 Recently, rather extensive church surveys, especially 
 in rural districts, have been made with a view to de- 
 termining the number and kind of churches that are 
 succeeding best in typical sections of the country. In 
 Montgomery County, Maryland, for example, it was 
 found that nearly half the people were not in church ; 
 that there was a church to every two hundred and forty- 
 four people ; that twenty-eight per cent of the churches 
 were not growing ; that twenty-nine per cent had no 
 organization except Sunday school ; that fifty-seven per 
 cent had no organization for young people ; that ninety- 
 four per cent had no organization for men ; and that 
 eighty-six per cent were making no effort to serve their 
 communities as social centers. In Ohio, it was found 
 that about half the churches with resident pastors and 
 one tenth of those with no pastor were growing. In a 
 poorer agricultural section of three hundred and seventy- 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 257 
 
 eight country churclies, only four per cent had resident 
 pastors and only twenty-one per cent of all the churches 
 were growing. 
 
 Of churches with less than twenty-five members in 
 rural Indiana only two per cent, while of those of over 
 two hundred, seventy-nine per cent were growing. The 
 attendance at church service (which was not held in all 
 churches every week) was a little over one fifth the popu- 
 lation and the attendance at Sunday school a little less. 
 Of churches giving attention to social and recreational 
 life, sixty-five per cent were growing, while of those 
 not so doing only twelve per cent were growing. These 
 are only a few of the many truths brought out as to the 
 relation of local conditions to church life and the rela- 
 tive success of churches differently managed. It appears 
 that not only do churches that make a feature of social 
 life prosper, but that in rural places where other organ- 
 izations supply that need, church interest is increased. 
 This shows the close relation of social to religious life, 
 notwithstanding the fact that many of its forms are 
 believed to be directly opposed to the work of the 
 churches. In rural conununities the church and the 
 school are the chief organizations supplying social life, 
 and if they fail there is little but association of individ- 
 uals and families, and among renters this is temporary. 
 
 Facts to be obtained regarding churches : — 
 
 Per cent of population who are members of churches. 
 
 Per cent of population attending church once a 
 week. 
 
 Per cent of population attending church occasionally. 
 
 Proportion of number of churches to population. 
 
 Similar facts .for Sunday school and comparison with 
 former years and with similar places. 
 
258 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 Average number of organizations connected with each 
 church. 
 
 Average membership of organizations connected with 
 each church. 
 
 Number of meetings per year of organizations con- 
 nected with each church. 
 
 Attendance at these meetings. 
 
 Nature and work of these organizations. 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 
 COMMUNITY STUDIES — EDUCATIONAL SURVEY 
 
 General considerations. An educational survey must 
 include many facts regarding all phases of community 
 life and its relation to the state, but it concerns itself 
 chiefly with one institution, i.e., the school. This may 
 be studied in four principal aspects : (1) school equip- 
 ment and control ; (2) financial support and manage- 
 ment ; (3) educational efficiency; (4) social value in 
 the sense of preparing pupils for taking part in the life 
 of the community and of the state. 
 
 The standards for judgment of equipment are pretty 
 well established, while those regarding control are in 
 controversy. 
 
 School finances have received most attention in con- 
 nection with a discussion of the salary of teachers and 
 total cost of schools as compared with other places, but 
 are now being considered in relation to the economic 
 condition of the community. The financial management 
 of the school as an institution is being studied. 
 
 The third point, educational efficiency, has long been 
 a matter of study and investigation, and recently objec- 
 tive facts as to modes of administration and educational 
 results have taken the place of mere observation and 
 opinion. 
 
 The fourth, the social value of the school, has only 
 within the past few years been made the subject of ex- 
 act study. 
 
 An independent and thorough survey of a system of 
 
260 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 schools can be made only by experts. Efficient super- 
 intendents, however, are making continuous or annual 
 surveys of the schools under their charge which are 
 more or less valuable, and some of their yearly reports 
 are really better than some of the special survey reports 
 that have been made. The school statistics collected by 
 the United States Bureau of Education and by the dif- 
 ferent states give a partial educational survey of con- 
 siderable value. The most important work that the 
 nation and state can do for education in the local 
 community is to increase the scope and accuracy of 
 these yearly reports, show the people their significance, 
 and help them, if necessary by a local survey, to see 
 more clearly the condition of their own schools and the 
 improvements that are needed. 
 
 School equipment and control. The material equip- 
 ment of a school system consists of grounds, buildings, 
 furniture, apparatus, and books. An objective survey 
 of these is comparatively easy. The facts as to con- 
 venience and suitability of location of schools and the 
 character and extent of the school grounds should be 
 summarized. In connection with this the means of get- 
 ting to and from school should be noted. 
 \ The buildings should all be examined and the condi- 
 tions found compared with well-established standards 
 of school architecture, seating, and sanitation. The 
 lighting, heating, ventilating, and toilet systems should 
 receive careful attention, not only as regards their con- 
 struction and condition, but as to the way in which they 
 are being used. Actual figures as to temperature and 
 light in the rooms should be obtained and compared 
 with accepted standards. 
 
 The size and organization of the body of school 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 261 
 
 officials, the state laws under which it works, its rules 
 and methods of business, its relations to the superin- 
 tendent and his relations to supervisors and teachers 
 should be noted and compared with conditions in other 
 places. Facts indicating success or deficiency in the 
 working of the system of control in that particular 
 community should be collected. It is especially im- 
 portant to notice whether responsibility is clearly de- 
 fined and what degree of control is exercised by supe- 
 riors and what freedom and initiative are accorded 
 principals of buildings, special supervisors, and indi- 
 vidual teachers. 
 
 The work of the truant officer and the character of 
 the medical inspection should be carefully studied and 
 significant facts recorded. 
 
 School finances. If the schools are supported largely 
 by local taxation, as is usually the case in this country, 
 the first question to be asked is, what is the assessed 
 value of the property in the place being studied ? It is 
 not unusual to find, in the same state, school districts 
 and other administrative units with one tenth the 
 assessed valuation of others. Generally speaking, the 
 thickly settled sections have a greater valuation per 
 person than the thinly settled regions. This gives them 
 a financial advantage with regard to the support of 
 schools that is increased by the fact that in a thinly 
 settled region either a school has to be maintained for a 
 few children or the children must be transported con- 
 siderable distances. On the other hand, urban districts 
 must tax themselves relatively more for purposes other 
 than educational. 
 
 The amount of money spent for school purposes per 
 one thousand dollars of valuation is probably the best 
 
262 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 indication that can easily be obtained of whether a com- 
 munity can afford to spend more on its schools or not. 
 A better indication, but less easily accessible, would per- 
 haps be the percentage of average yearly income per 
 person that is used for school purposes. If the school 
 district receives aid from the state, that aid should be 
 proportional to the extent to which the people tax them- 
 selves for their schools, rather than to educational results. 
 
 The amount per child spent for school purposes is 
 usually considered a pretty good indication of the 
 character of the schools, providing they are well ad- 
 ministered ; yet in a district with very few children, it 
 may cost twice as much per pupil to maintain a school 
 of the same grade as in another district where there 
 are more children. 
 
 In the poorer and sparsely settled regions better 
 schools can be obtained only by the help of more state 
 aid than is given proportionally to the cities. There is 
 another complication with regard to amount spent per 
 pupil, due to the fact that some districts have longer 
 school years than others and some have a larger per- 
 centage of children in school. The amount spent per 
 pupil is never a true index of the value the people set 
 upon their school, for the town in Massachusetts that 
 spends most per pupil taxes itself only one fourth as 
 much per thousand dollars as some towns that pay 
 small salaries. 
 
 The amount per inhabitant that is spent on schools 
 is significant in a general way, but has no specific 
 meaning, because of the facts previously noted and be- 
 cause the number of children in proportion to the total 
 population varies greatly, as does also the percentage 
 of the children that are in the schools. 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 263 
 
 The practical questions in every community are 
 these. How much money is there available for school 
 purposes, and if more is needed can the local com- 
 munity afford and be induced to raise more, or can 
 the state be induced to render more aid ? If it can be 
 shown that the inhabitants are not taxing themselves 
 as much as are those of other places and that they are 
 not spending as much per pupil, it is reasonable to try 
 to get them to spend more. 
 
 After the amount that may be used for school pur- 
 poses has been determined, the question is how to 
 spend it with the probability of getting the largest re- 
 sults. The tendency in the United States is to put com- 
 paratively large amounts into buildings and equipment 
 in proportion to that spent in running the schools. It 
 is usually easier to raise money for a fine new building 
 than for a good superintendent and teachers. 
 
 Turning to the problem of running expenses, the 
 first question is, how many days shall there be in the 
 school year? In most cities there are forty weeks of 
 school, but in rural districts, where the children can 
 work on the farm and where money is scarce, the time 
 may be less than haK that. In cities it has been found 
 profitable to spend some of the school money in play- 
 ground work, or to add to the regular term a number 
 of weeks of vacation school for those who have nothing 
 to do and want to attend school. 
 
 The next question is that of the school day. It must 
 be admitted that it is not good business to use the school 
 plant only twenty-five or thirty hours a week ; but, on 
 the other hand, children cannot profitably engage in the 
 highly specialized activity of book work for more than 
 four to six hours a day. The hours of use of the school 
 
264 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 plant may be increased either by lengthening the school 
 day for the pupils and varying the work of the school so 
 as to include many manual, recreational, and cultural 
 activities, as well as the specifically intellectual, that 
 the pupils may not become fatigued, or that the school 
 may be run on the departmental plan as in Gary, or 
 in some other way so that the children will not all be 
 there at the same time, but so that all will have the 
 usual number of hours of schooling and perhaps also 
 manual and recreational training. The first method is 
 feasible in all communities except in the short days of 
 winter in rural districts, while the second is especially 
 suited to large centers of population where the distance 
 to school is short, and where there are many teachers 
 so that adjustment of hours and classes is more easily 
 made. 
 
 One of the important questions next to be decided for 
 elementary schools in the cities is the size of classes. In 
 many rural districts they must be small, but where 
 there are many children they may be made of any size 
 desired and the cost per year for each class will be 
 approximately the same. Until recently, the size of 
 class for the best results has usually been a matter of 
 opinion, but some studies have been made which indi- 
 cate that much more than forty in a room means slower 
 progress, while lowering the number much below thirty 
 has little effect in increasing the rate of progress. In- 
 vestigations have not yet proved it, but there are good 
 reasons for believing that the more usual policy of hav- 
 ing primary classes larger than those of higher grades 
 is not economical, since beginners need individual in- 
 struction more than any others and are likely to have 
 to repeat if they do not have it. 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 265 
 
 In high schools the size of classes is complicated by 
 the variety of subjects offered. In a small school it is 
 impossible to offer many subjects without having very 
 small classes, but in a large school the size of the classes 
 may easily be regulated. In laboratory courses, how- 
 ever, they are of necessity smaller than in literary 
 courses. In both elementary and high schools it is a 
 question of administration rather than of finance as to 
 whether eighty pupils shall be taught in two classes by 
 two teachers or whether they shall be taught in one 
 class by one teacher and given individual aid by an- 
 other, as in the Batavia schools. 
 
 Another problem that concerns both finance and 
 efficiency of work, regards the number of supervisors as 
 compared with the number of teachers to be employed, 
 and the extent to which these supervisors shall oversee 
 all the work of the schools or only special departments 
 of it. 
 
 Another important question is that of how to deal 
 with exceptional children. Shall they be allowed to re- 
 main with other children, receiving comparatively little 
 benefit and perhaps making the work of the teacher 
 less efficient, or shall teachers be employed to instruct 
 them individually and in comparatively small classes. 
 The latter method seems to be the more expensive, but 
 it is now believed, considering the increased progress 
 made by both normal and exceptional children, that it 
 is really more economical. 
 
 In studying a school system, if the records are prop- 
 erly kept, it is just as possible to show the exact cost 
 per year of instructing each pupil in the various sub- 
 jects as it is for the manufacturer to figure the cost of 
 each process in the manufacture of each article. It may 
 
266 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 be shown, for instance, that the cost of teaching Latin 
 per student hour of instruction is less than the cost of 
 teaching manual training or giving a laboratory course 
 in science, because in the latter cases more apparatus 
 is required and the classes must be smaller. When such 
 studies or reports are made, as they have been in New- 
 ton, Massachusetts, it is possible for the people of the 
 community to know just how much is being spent each 
 year for various educational purposes and to decide in- 
 telligently in what ways they wish more or less money 
 spent in the future. 
 
 The question of salary to be paid teachers and super- 
 visors or of increase of salary is one of both finance 
 and administration. In general it is to be expected that 
 where higher salaries are paid more efficient teachers 
 are secured, although this is not necessarily true of a 
 city or in the case of individual teachers. It is weU in 
 the school survey to study not only the average salaries, 
 but the methods of promotion, the degree of prepara- 
 tion required for beginning teachers, and the provisions 
 made for their improvement and advancement while in 
 service. It cannot be questioned that the usual custom 
 of increasing salary each year until a maximum is 
 reached is not entirely satisfactory. The usual scholas- 
 tic examinations are very poor tests of teaching ability, 
 and objective means of testing the efficiency of teachers 
 are not yet well developed. Hence, personal judgment 
 is now, and perhaps must always remain, an important 
 means of determining the worth of the teacher. 
 
 Educational efficiency. Entirely aside from cost, we 
 may look upon the school as an institution for bringing 
 about certain educational results. We may examine 
 the course of study to find out what its aims are and 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 267 
 
 then observe the processes of teaching and judge of 
 their effectiveness, or we may study the effects upon 
 the pupils by observing and testing them. 
 
 An expert in education, by visiting typical schools, 
 may form a fairly correct judgment as to the efficiency 
 of the teaching that is being given and may be able to 
 suggest means of improvement. Such a survey, however, 
 yields little but subjective data, and if challenged there 
 is no way of proving the correctness of the opinion of 
 the person who made the survey. This is the reason 
 why some surveys have produced little besides contro- 
 versy. 
 
 If a survey of teaching processes is made, it should 
 contain as much objective description and exact quota- 
 tion as possible, and if it is not made throughout all 
 the schools, it should be made in those that are admitted 
 to be typical or else in a certain number determined by 
 chance. Taking into account, however, the unnatural 
 conditions produced in a school by such a survey and 
 the personal feelings aroused, it is usually better not 
 to make it a prominent feature. Observation of the 
 actual teaching processes and suggestions for improve- 
 ment should be made by supervisors in their more or 
 less continuous survey of the schools ; but when a spe- 
 cial study of a school system is being made by an out- 
 sider, it is better for the study of the teaching processes 
 to be used chiefly as an aid to interpreting results ob- 
 tained in other ways and in suggesting improvement. 
 
 More definite objective facts may be obtained by 
 testing the results of teaching than by observing its 
 processes. It must be remembered, however, that only 
 the more superficial results can be accurately measured. 
 The effects of teaching upon the morals and upon the 
 
268 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 practical and cultural interests of pupils cannot be ade- 
 quately and accurately expressed in figures. Neither 
 can intellectual growth be determined with exactness, 
 but it is possible to test with considerable success ver- 
 bal knowledge, manual skill, and achievements in com- 
 plex processes of certain types involving both knowl- 
 edge and skill. 
 
 The ordinary examination is largely a test of knowl- 
 edge. If it is to be used in a school survey and com- 
 parisons made with other school systems, then the 
 particular questions used must be based on common 
 portions of the various courses of study, and a compari- 
 son should also be made as to the average time spent in 
 each school system on each subject or topic. Of the 
 various tests of knowledge, that of spelling is most easy 
 to make, but in order that the results may be accurate, 
 words that are commonly taught in all schools must be 
 used. Lists of words prepared by the Russell Sage 
 Foundation for each grade, and found to be spelled cor- 
 rectly by seventy per cent of the children in a large 
 number of school systems, furnish a good standard for 
 comparison, providing no opportunity is given for spe- 
 cial drill on those particular words, just previous to the 
 giving of the test. 
 
 Methods of testing general knowledge by means of 
 vocabulary tests will probably soon be perfected and 
 standards established. 
 
 Tests of knowledge of the essentials in the various 
 subjects taught will probably be developed so as to be 
 of general and permanent value, but as yet none have 
 been produced that are short, include only essentials, 
 and that cannot easily be prepared for by special 
 coaching. 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 269 
 
 Several tests of manual skill, especially of handwrit- 
 ing, have been devised and are proving useful both for 
 teaching and for survey purposes. 
 
 The most promising kind of tests, however, are those 
 of ability in complex processes involving knowledge, 
 skill, and intelligence of a special kind. The best ex- 
 amples of these are the Courtis tests in arithmetic. These 
 test the ability of pupils to read numbers and problems, 
 , understand them, and write the answers with a speed 
 and a degree of accuracy that may be computed and 
 compared with well-established standards obtained by 
 
 rany thousands of tests. 
 More recently, tests of ability to read orally or si- 
 \ lently and to understand and reproduce the thought are 
 \being developed. These doubtless will soon be perfected 
 and standards established so that they may be used in 
 estimating the effectiveness of the teaching being given 
 in any school system. Attempts have also been made to 
 produce accurate tests of language or composition abil- 
 ity, but these as yet are not very reliable or satisfactory. 
 Perhaps no single general test can ever be developed, 
 but special tests for certain grades and for certain kinds 
 of composition may be perfected and made useful. 
 
 Although only a beginning has been made in provid- 
 ing tests of the results of teaching that are scientifically 
 accurate, easily given, and that cannot be prepared for 
 by special coaching, yet enough has been done so that 
 objective facts showing what the pupils in different 
 grades can do in various fundamental processes may now 
 form an important part of the results of the study of a 
 school system. 
 
 If the school records have been properly kept, it is 
 possible to form a pretty good idea of the efficiency of 
 
270 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 the school system in relation to its course of study and 
 standards of achievement by studying the statistics of 
 retardation and acceleration. If the statistics do not 
 show the amount of repetition and double promotion, 
 the age statistics for the different grades will furnish 
 a pretty good measure of the percentage of the retarda- 
 tion and acceleration in completing the required work 
 in the different grades. If there is a great deal of re- 
 tardation, it means either that the course of study is 
 too hard, the standards of promotion too high, or the 
 teaching inefficient. A low percentage of retardation 
 may mean that the course of study is too easy or the 
 standards of promotion too low, or it may mean that 
 the teaching is unusually efficient. 
 
 School systems have in the past often been judged 
 by the number of grade pupils meeting the high-school 
 entrance requirements and the number of high-school 
 graduates who meet college-entrance requirements. It 
 is evident, however, that such a method of judging of 
 a school system is too narrow, because only the few 
 pupils selected by the system are made the basis and 
 the tests of efficiency are made only in lines of instruc- 
 tion prescribed primarily by the colleges. In a large 
 high school, where many courses are offered, the effi- 
 ciency of the college preparatory work may very well 
 be judged by the success of pupils going to college. As 
 conditions have been, however, this would be a very 
 false, narrow, and misleading standard by which to 
 judge of the efficiency of the whole school system. If 
 colleges would admit, regardless of subjects pursued, as 
 Chicago University is now doing, then the number who 
 succeed in their college work would be a good evidence of 
 the efficiency of the school systems from which they come. 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 271 
 
 Social value of the school. The primary purpose of 
 the school as a public institution is to give children 
 and young people the training that will fit them for 
 taking an effective part in the work and progress of 
 the community and the state. The success of the 
 schools in doing this work is indicated in part by the 
 way in which the people of the community regard 
 them, as shown by the amount that they give for their 
 support and by the extent to which they are patronized. 
 The latter is pretty well indicated by the percentage of 
 all children between five and twenty enrolled in the 
 schools and by the percentage of attendance. 
 
 Another very good indication as to whether the work 
 of the school is appreciated is found in the number of 
 children who continue not only through the elementary 
 schools, but through the secondary. If all went through 
 the high school, about one third of all the children in 
 school would be in high school, whereas the average 
 for the country is only about one eighth. Local eco- 
 nomic conditions are, of course, much more favorable in 
 some conununities than in others for pupUs to continue 
 in school. In many instances, however, the small pro- 
 portion of children in high school is due to the fact 
 that the standards of promotion are so strict that 
 many are shut out. Again, many leave school because 
 they are not interested and do not see the value of 
 what they are learning. The facts iu these respects in 
 a given community may be ascertained by collecting 
 statistics as to the causes of leaving school. Such sta- 
 tistics show that in many places failure in certain re- 
 quired subjects, especially algebra and Latin, has often 
 been the occasion of leaving. 
 
 This suggests another method of studying the social 
 
272 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 value of the schools, that of examining the contents of 
 a course of study. One way of doing this that has re- 
 cently been tried is to test successful adult members of 
 the community as to their knowledge of the things the 
 children are required to learn. In Springfield, Illinois, 
 it was found that eleven of the most prominent citizens 
 failed in an examination in spelling, arithmetic, geog- 
 raphy, and history that was based upon the required 
 work of the seventh grade. Extensive tests of this 
 kind may result in changes in the course of study that 
 will better fit them to conditions of life as they now 
 exist. 
 
 Another method, which is being tried in Cincinnati, 
 is to study the pupils leaving school and compare their 
 success in various lines with their school records. 
 
 Employers have been asked to tell in what respects 
 pupils coming to them from the schools are proficient 
 or deficient, but as yet such studies have not been suf- 
 ficiently extensive, systematic, or scientific to show what 
 changes are needed. 
 
 The suitability of the school to local conditions should 
 receive some attention, but this should not be the only 
 basis for estimating their value, because a large pro- 
 portion of the children are likely to move to other 
 places where the conditions are different. It is well, 
 however, to inquire regarding the extent to which the 
 work of the school is based upon and connected with 
 geographical and sociological facts that may be ob- 
 served in the community. In the prevocational and the 
 vocational work of the schools there should also be a 
 careful study of the industries of the vicinity, and the 
 courses of study and the work should be so planned as 
 to prepare pupils for the local vocations that they may 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 273 
 
 wish to enter. In this connection attention should also 
 be given to what is being done by the schools in the 
 way of vocational guidance. 
 
 Another index of the social value of the school is its 
 influence upon the adult population. This influence 
 may be shown in two ways: by its teaching being 
 passed on from the children to their elders (common 
 in foreign sections) and by the extent to which the 
 school buildings are used for community purposes. 
 
 Specific facts to be tabulated: — 
 Equipment. 
 
 Nimiber of school buildings and of rooms in each. 
 
 Number of standard-size rooms. 
 
 Number over and under standard size. 
 
 Number of rooms above and below standard lighting. 
 
 Number of rooms above and below standard heating. 
 
 Amount and distribution and use of school grounds. 
 
 Number of buildings with a good toilet system. 
 
 Number of buildings with a poor toilet system. 
 Control. 
 
 Size of school board or committee. 
 
 How placed in office. 
 
 Number of meetings per year. 
 
 Chief subjects considered. 
 
 By whom are teachers nominated? 
 
 Is the superintendent the responsible head of the 
 school or the mouthpiece of the board? 
 
 What are the chief school regulations? 
 
 Number of male and female teachers. 
 
 What is the proportion of supervisors to teachers? 
 
 What degree of freedom do teachers have? 
 
 How are promotions and salaries of teachers deter- 
 mined ? 
 
274 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 How many teachers' meetings per year ? 
 
 What is done to promote study and progress among 
 teachers ? 
 
 Number of teachers with normal school or other 
 special preparation. 
 
 Number of teachers in service less than three years. 
 
 Number of teachers in service between three and 
 ten years. 
 
 Number of teachers in service between ten and 
 thirty years. 
 
 Number of teachers in service more than thirty 
 years. 
 
 Summary of the reports of the attendance and medi- 
 cal officials of the school or similar facts other- 
 wise obtained. 
 Financial support and management. 
 
 Wealth of school district per inhabitant. 
 
 Value of school plant. 
 
 Annual cost of running schools. 
 
 Annual cost for salaries of teachers, superintendent, 
 and supervisors. 
 
 Annual cost for supplies. 
 
 School tax per thousand dollars of valuation. 
 
 Average cost per pupil in elementary schools. 
 
 Average cost per pupil in high school. 
 
 Average cost per inhabitant. 
 
 Percentage of public funds spent for schools. 
 
 Average salaries of grade teachers. 
 
 Average salaries of high-school teachers. 
 
 Detailed salary schedule. 
 
 Average size of all schools in the grades. 
 
 Average size of all high-school classes. 
 
 Number of schools and classes of each size. 
 
COMMUNITY STUDIES 276 
 
 Number of hours given to each subject per year. 
 
 Tabulation of the cost per student hour of instruc- 
 tion in each subject. 
 
 Number of special classes in the elementary school. 
 
 Number of pupils in special classes. 
 
 Average cost per pupil. 
 Efficiency of work. 
 
 School population. 
 
 School enrollment. 
 
 School attendance. 
 
 Percentage of children of each age in schooL 
 
 Number of children in each grade. 
 
 Number of children of each age in each grade. 
 
 Estimates of percentage of retardation. 
 
 Estimates of percentage of acceleration. 
 
 Number of repeaters each year. 
 
 Number of double promotions each year. 
 
 General character of teaching methods. 
 
 Description of tests used to determine teaching re- 
 sults with tabulations and comparisons. 
 Social value. 
 
 School population. 
 
 School enrollment. 
 
 School attendance. 
 
 Number attending beyond age required by law. 
 
 Percentage of children in high school. 
 
 Percentage of graduates of high school taking higher 
 education. 
 
 Tables of incomes of persons of different degrees of 
 education. 
 
 Facts furnished by employers as to fitness of school 
 graduates. 
 
 Facts showing the relation of the school work to the 
 
276 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 conditions and life of the community in vocational 
 
 and other lines. 
 Tabulated list of causes of leaving school. 
 Extent of community use of school plant. 
 Results of tests of adults with course of study. 
 Results of other tests of the usefulness of school 
 
 work. 
 Evidences of the effects of schools upon recreations, 
 
 morals and Interests of pupils and graduates. 
 
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INDEX 
 
 Ability, 10, 11, 22. 
 
 Accidents, 60; protection against, 
 
 68-70, 242-43. 
 Advertising and standardization, 60- 
 
 54. 
 Esthetic, 84, 89. 
 Africa, 104. 
 Agriculture, 23, 127. 
 Aims, 125. 
 Amusements, 85; development of 
 
 games and, 79-80. 
 Anthropology, 2. 
 Art, 15, 17, 84, 86, 90. 
 Artistic leaders, 12. 
 Australia, 188. 
 Australian ballot, 210. 
 
 Balance of nature, 20-22. 
 
 Banking, 49. 
 
 Banks, 73, 238. 
 
 Behavior, a psychological view of, 
 
 32-39 ; consciousness and, 32-34. 
 Biological view of development, 19- 
 
 30. 
 Biology, 2. 
 Birth-rate, 25. 
 Boards of public welfare, 74. 
 
 Capital, 48. 
 
 OaAtP 28 
 
 Ceremonies, 121 ; religious, 116. 
 
 China, 124, 205. 
 
 Chinese, 188, 205, 207. 
 
 Christianity, 189. 
 
 Church, 96, 107, 126, 256, 257. 
 
 Cities, 73, 74, 116, 227; machines and 
 
 growth of, 54-55. 
 City planning, 217, 218. 
 Civilization, 8, 10, 64, 107, 134, 128, 
 
 205. 
 Civilized, 13. 20, 26, 122. 
 Classes, 12, 172; and customs, 12-14; 
 
 burdensome, 43^44; social, 97-98. 
 Commerce, 61. 
 Common consciousness, 33. 
 Communities, rural and urban, 210- 
 
 12 229—30 
 Community, 7, 95, 110, 129, 130, 142, 
 
 148, 150, 162, 166, 167, 169, 170, 194; 
 
 and its functions, 201-14. 
 Community studies, general, 215-32; 
 
 economic, 233-40; protective, 240- 
 
 47 ; recreational, 248-51 ; cultural, 
 
 251-52 ; social, 252-56 ; religious, 266- 
 
 58 ; educational, 259-76. 
 Competition, 8, 26. 
 
 Consciousness and behavior, 32-34. 
 
 Consumption, 45. 
 
 Control of recreation, 81-82. 
 
 Cooperation, 4, 8, 9, 10, 246 ; economic, 
 42-43. 
 
 CoSperative, 5, 10, 33, 38, 69, 86. 
 
 Corporations, 49. 
 
 Courtis, 134, 269. 
 
 Crime, 64 ; protection against, 240^42. 
 
 Criminals, 43, 64. 
 
 Cultural education, 151-63. 
 
 Cultural influences, 251. 
 
 Cultural needs, 39. 
 
 Cultural needs and activities, 84-91. 
 
 Culture, exchange of, 86-88. 
 
 Curiosity, 84. 
 
 Customs, 5, 8, 9, 12, 14, 16, 17, 60, 98, 
 103, 104, 192; and classes, 12-14; re- 
 lation of religion and morals to, 
 101-02; marriage and, 187-89. 
 
 Death-rate, 25, 242. 
 
 Democracy, 98. 
 
 Denmark, 212. 
 
 Development, 49; biological, 19-30; 
 
 of institutions of government, 60- 
 
 62; of laws, 64-66; of higher edu- 
 
 cation, 172-74. 
 Disease, 60; protection against, 6&< 
 
 68,242-43. 
 Divorce, 195-98. 
 
 Economic conditions, 233-36. 
 
 Economic education, 148-51. 
 
 Economic needs, 39; and activities, 
 41-56; consumption of wealth, 44- 
 45. 
 
 Economic resources, 236-40. 
 
 Economics, 3, 36, 50. 
 
 Education, a need of every social 
 group, 119-20; primitive, 120-22; 
 civilized, 122-25; standardization 
 in, 137-40 ; general and vocational, 
 140-42; tests of, 179-«1; general 
 character of -elementary, 145-46 ; 
 economic, 148-51 ; protective, 151 ; 
 cultural, 151-53; recreational and 
 social, 153-54; general and voca- 
 tional, 161-65; dominance of higher, 
 172-74; higher vocational, 181-84; 
 protective regulation and, 243-46. 
 
 Educational efficiency, 266-73. 
 
 Educational needs, 39, 119-85. 
 
 Educational surveys, 259-76. 
 
 Efficiency, 74, 207 ; of workers, B5-66 ; 
 educational, 26&-73. 
 
290 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Efliciency engineering, 216. 
 
 Employment, 44. 
 
 Environment, 19, 20, 21. 
 
 Etliics, 2, 113. 
 
 Ethnology, 2. 
 
 Eugenics, 28-30. 
 
 Evolution, 4; of group action, 7-18; 
 
 of liuman characteristics, 25-30. 
 Examinations, 177, 268 ; markings 
 
 and tests, 133-37. 
 Exchange of culture, 86-88. 
 
 Family, 7, 28. 29, 59, 68, 72, 93, 94, 97, 
 107, 223, 224, 226, 255; as a social 
 group and institution, 186-200. 
 
 Feeble-minded, 28, 29, 30, 72. 
 
 Fires, 69, 243. 
 
 Folkways, 13. 
 
 France, 25. 
 
 Gary, 264. 
 
 Geographical conditions, 219-20. 
 
 Geographical influences, 7-8. 
 
 Geography, 2. 
 
 German, 160. 
 
 Germany, 158. 
 
 Giddings, 33. 
 
 Government, development of, 60-62; 
 
 and protection, 72-74. 
 Greece, 85. 
 Greeks, 188. 
 Group, 1, 3, 19, 34, 37, 103, 106, 108; 
 
 family as a social, 186-200. 
 Group action, 33 ; evolution of, 7-18 ; 
 
 products of, 14-17. 
 Group education, need o£, 119-20. 
 Group loyalty, 106-07. 
 
 Hereditary, 9. 
 Heredity, 30, 43, 192. 
 History, 3. 
 Home. 126, 150. 
 Housing, 67, 68, 222-29. 
 Hygiene, 127. 
 
 Imitation, 35. 
 
 India, 27. 
 
 Indians, 102, 192. 
 
 Individualism, 253. 
 
 Individuals, 34, 39, 49, 61, 62, 92, 105, 
 106, 112, 176, 194. 
 
 Industrial leaders, 12. 
 
 Industries, 63, 148, 158, 159, 164, 172; 
 machines and, 46-48; regulation of , 
 56. 
 
 Inheritance, 30. 
 
 Instincts, 32, 84, 112; and social phe- 
 nomena, 3; social, of man, 34-36; 
 play, 76-77. 
 
 Institution: family as a social, 186- 
 200. 
 
 Institutions. 5, 8, 14, 15, 16. 48, 56, 71, 
 72, 73, 98, 99. 124, 170, 174, 246, 248; 
 and production, 48-49; and govern- 
 ment, 60-62; and recreations, 80- 
 81 ; and culture, 89; and social life, 
 96-97; and public opinion, 109-11; 
 
 community, and progress, 204-05; 
 
 survey of, 229-30. 
 Insurance, 49, 73, 243. 
 Intelligence, 16, 19, 26, 28, 33, 46, 47, 
 
 48, 104. 
 Invention, 24; and culture, 88-89. 
 
 Japan, 98. 
 Japanese, 189. 
 Judges, 64. 
 
 Knowledge, 14, 15, 16, 17. 
 
 Language, 14, 86, 87. 
 
 Law, of diminishing returns, 22-24. 
 
 Laws, 14, 53, 56, 60, 61, 65, 66, 67, 68, 
 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 116, 195 ; develop- 
 ment (k, 64-66. 
 
 Leaders, 11-12, 13, 35, 60, 61, 63, 64, 
 101, 105, 172, 174, 178, 182, 183, 210, 
 222 255. 
 
 Literature, 86, 127. 
 
 Loyalty, group, 106-07. 
 
 Machinery, 80, 94. 115. 
 
 Machine, production and growth of 
 
 cities, 54-55. 
 Machines, 14, 15, 16; and industries, 
 
 46-48 : capital and managers, 48. 
 Malthus, 24, 25; law of, 24. 
 Managers, 49; and machines, 48. 
 Manufacturer, 30, 51, 52, 53, 55, 111. 
 Manufacturing, 23, 50. 
 Marking, 133-37. 
 Marriage, 9, 25, 28, 255 ; customs, 187- 
 
 89; regulation of, 194-95. 
 Massachusetts, 128, 129, 266. 
 Mather, 114. 
 Mining, 23. 
 Mob, 32. 
 
 Moral education, 154. 
 Moral needs, 39 ; and religious needs, 
 
 101-18. 
 Morals, 168; and public opinion, 109- 
 
 11 ; and utility, 112-13. 
 Mores, 13. 
 
 Needs, and behavior, 32-39 ; common, 
 36-37; and instincts, 37-38; classi- 
 fication of. 38, 39; economic, 41-56; 
 values and wealth, 41 ; protective, 
 59-75; recreative. 76-83; cultural, 
 84-91 ; social, 92-100 ; moral and re- 
 ligious, 101-18 ; educational, 119-85. 
 
 Organization, of schools, 128-31. 
 
 Philology. 2. 
 
 Play, 85, 92 ; and recreation in rela- 
 tion to work, 77-78; relation to cul- 
 ture, 84-85. 
 
 Playgrounds, 73, 249. 
 
 Play instinct, 76-77. 
 
 Political science. 3. 
 
 Polyandry, 190, 191. 
 
 Polygamy, 190, 191, 192. 
 
 Polygyny, 190. 
 
INDEX 
 
 291 
 
 Population, 8, 64; growth of, 25-28; 
 survey of, 220-22. 
 
 Prevention and protection, 72-74. 
 
 Priest, 11, 12. 
 
 Primitive community, 202-03. 
 
 Primitive education, 120-22. 
 
 Primitive protective activities, 59- 
 60. 
 
 Printing, 88. 
 
 Production, tools and wealth, 45-46; 
 machine, and growth of cities, 54- 
 55. 
 
 Products, standardization of, 50-54. 
 
 Protection, 36 ; internal, 62-64 ; 
 against disease, 66-68 ; against ac- 
 cident, 68-70 ; of workers, 70-72 ; 
 and prevention, 72-74 ; against 
 crime and injustice, 240-42 ; against 
 disease and accident, 242-43. 
 
 Protective education, 151. 
 
 Protective needs and activities, 39, 
 59-75. 
 
 Protective regulation and educa- 
 tion, 243-46. 
 
 Psychological view of behavior, 32- 
 39. 
 
 Psychology, 2, 3, 32, 134. 
 
 Punishment, 60, 66 ; morals and, 104- 
 07. 
 
 Recreation, 36, 141. 
 Recreational activity, 256-58. 
 Recreational and social education, 
 
 153-54. 
 Recreational facilities, 248-51. 
 Recreative needs and activities, 39, 
 
 76-83. 
 Regulation, 63, 105, 106, 192 ; of in- 
 dustries, 56 ; of marriage, 194-95 ; 
 
 protection and education, 243-46. 
 Regulative activities, enlargement 
 
 and specialization of, 107-08. 
 Religion, 2, 85. 
 Religious activity, 256-58. 
 Religious beliefs, 60, 84, 113. 
 Religious education, 154. 
 Religious needs, 39, 121 ; moral and, 
 
 101-18. 
 Renaissance, 173. 
 Romans, 61, 188. 
 Rural and urban communities, 210- 
 
 12; and urban life, 230-31. 
 Russell Sage Foundation, 268. 
 
 Schools, 73, 145; aims and functions 
 of, 125-28; organization and con- 
 trol of, 128-31; administration of, 
 131-32 ; equipment and control of, 
 260-61 ; finances of, 261-66 ; social 
 value of, 271-73. 
 
 Science, 2, 174. 
 
 Scientific knowledge and belief, 113- 
 15. 
 
 Scientific leaders, 12. 
 
 Shaman, 11, 12, 60. 
 
 Social character of culture, 85-^6. 
 
 Social education, 153-54. 
 
 Social instincts, 34-36. 
 
 Social needs, b9, 92-100. 
 
 Social progress and community ac- 
 tion, 205-09. 
 
 Social value of school, 271-73. 
 
 Sociological phenomena, 38-39. 
 
 Specialization, 163, 202 ; of social in- 
 tercourse, 93-96; of regulative in- 
 fluences, 107-08 ; in education, 167- 
 61. 
 
 Springfield, 128, 272. 
 
 Standardization, in advertising, 50- 
 54 ; in education, 137-40. 
 
 Superman, 27. 
 
 Surveys, value of, 215-16 ; purpose 
 of, 216-17 ; how made, 217-19 ; of 
 geographical conditions, 219-20; of 
 population, 220-22 ; of housing con- 
 ditions, 222-29; of institutions, 229- 
 30; of economic conditions, 233-36; 
 of economic activities, 236-39; of 
 protection against crime and in- 
 justice, 240 - 42 ; of protection 
 against disease and accident, 242- 
 43; of recreational facilities, 248-51; 
 of cultural influences, 251-52 ; of 
 social intercourse. 252-56; of re- 
 ligious activity, 256-58; educa- 
 tional, 259-76. 
 
 Survival, 26. 
 
 Switzerland, 197. 
 
 Tests, 133-37, 179-81. 
 
 Thibet, 190. 
 
 Tools, 14, 15 ; and wealth, 46-46. 
 
 Tradition, 14, 222. 
 
 Transportation, 55, 73, 219. 
 
 Universities, 133, 176. 
 
 Urban and rural communities, 210- 
 
 12. 
 Urban and rural life, 229-30. 
 Utility and morals, 112. 
 
 Values, 41. 
 
 Vocational courses, 165-70. 
 Vocational education, tests of, 179- 
 81 ; higher, 181-84. 
 
 War, 9, 11, 14, 62, 85, 107. 
 
 Warrior, 11, 13, 101. 
 
 Wealth, 43 ; needs and value, 41 ; 
 
 economic consumption of, 44-45; 
 
 and tools, 45-46. 
 Work, 85, 92 ; in relation to play, 77- 
 
 78 ; relation to culture and play, 
 
 84-85. 
 Workers, 47, 49, 159, 173; eflaciency 
 
 of, 55-^6. 
 
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