Engineering Library Burning Liquid Fuel A Practical Treatise on the Perfect Combustion of Oils and Tars, giving Analyses, Calorific Values and Heating Temperatures of Various Gravities with Information on the Design and Proper Instal- lation of Equipment for All Classes of Service BY William Newton Best Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts., Engineer in Caloric, Member Am. Ry. Master Mechanics Asso.; Am. Soc. M. E.; Am. Inst. Min. and Met. Eng.; Inter. Ry. Fuel Asso.; Am. Inst. of Metals; Am. Drop Forge Asso.; Areo Soc. of Am.; Franklin Inst.; N. Y. Academy of Sciences; and Petroleum Inst. The Burners, Furnaces and Various Installations Described in this Book are Fully Protected by Letters Patents. New York U. P. C. BOOK COMPANY, Inc. 243-249 West 39th Street Nineteen Twenty-Two ; : ^ . ; ? ^- ' ' FIRST EDITION COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY WILLIAM NEWTON BEST REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION COPYRIGHT, 1922, BY U. P. C. BOOK COMPANY, INC. Engineering Library Bcbtcation AS THE YOUNGEST OF A LARGE FAMILY IT WAS MY CUSTOM IN CHILDHOOD TO BRING MY EXAM- PLES AND COMPOSITIONS TO MY BROTHERS AND SISTERS FOR THEIR CORRECTION AND APPROVAL SO NOW I BRING TO THEM THESE PAGES, WHICH REPRESENT THE LABOR OF MANY YEARS SPENT IN MAKING EX- HAUSTIVE TESTS, LESS CONFIDENT OF THEIR APPROVAL, BUT MORE FUL- LY APPRECIATING THEIR LOVE. TO THESE DEAR ONES WHO, EACH IN THEIR OWN WAY, AIDED AND ENCOURAGED ME IN MY CHOSEN CALLING, I AFFECTIONATELY DEDI- CATE THIS BOOK. FOREWORD Dear Friend Best: As the general subject of Petroleum, and particularly the fuel feature of the problem, has strongly appealed to me for the past thirty years, it was with exceeding interest and professional profit I read the advance proof sheets of your valuable and prac- tical treatise on the efficient combustion of oils and tars. Your distinct fitness to write upon this important subject will be recognized by our leading engineering experts, not only by reason of your broad experience as regards oil fuel matters but likewise due to the varied, progressive and successful results ac- complished by you along that line. During the extended series of boiler tests conducted by the Navy (1901-1904) with both coal and oil as a combustible, it was you who first distinctly and strikingly called attention to the im- portance and necessity of providing a very marked increase in the volume of combustion chamber with the use of oil as a fuel. It has been development in this direction which constitutes one of the distinct advances obtained in burning oil more efficiently and safely as well as in very materially increasing the output of boiler capacity. There were other important features of the problems of safely, uniformily, efficiently and rapidly burning oil which were suggested and emphasized by you, and which have since been uni- versally adopted. The Navy as well as the Nation is therefore indebted "to you for the far-reaching military and engineering counsel you render- ed your country in promoting the successful development of the oil burning furnace an achievement of importance whether viewed from an industrial, maritime or strategic standpoint. As our economic advance may very materially influence our future welfare, it is fittingly supplementary to your other impor- tant accomplishments, that you should now give to the engin- eering world of this nation a Treatise that tells of the most pro- gressive manner in which fuel oil, one of the important products of our most distinct national asset, should be handled and con- served. With affection and esteem, I am sincerely, (Signed) JOHN R. EDWARDS, > Rear Admiral U. S. N. Ret. Dr. W. N. BEST, F.R.S.A., donating Engineer, 11 Broadway, New York. 482151 PREFACE THE wisest man who ever lived upon this earth stated that right- eousness exalteth a nation. Both history and ruins prove the truth of this statement. The greatest asset of any corporation is its reputation, for this reveals the character of its officials ; hence, the necessity for producing goods of 100% quality. Scientific books benefit their readers only in proportion to the amount of truth which they contain, for science is truth. Often theory is termed science, but eventually it must give way to truth. The author has read hundreds of works only to find them disappointing both as to their statements and applications. The illustrations and data con- tained in this book are, however, based only on facts. In the compilation of this edition of the Science of Burning Liquid Fuel the author has given data which cover all the various forms of equipment. This has been obtained from thousands of actual tests, and is the result of knowledge gleaned from more than thirty-three years' experience in the burning of oil and tar. The language used is plain. It will be readily understood by professors and students of public schools, technical schools or uni- versities; the mechanic or consulting engineer; the heater or forger of metals ; the melter or superintendent of a foundry ; the draftsman or a works manager; the superintendent or president of a manufacturing concern; and the metallurgist or the chemist. The equipment shown are not mere photographs of the outside but give interior construction. They have been selected from the 42,000 installations in successful operation and reveal the most modern application of liquid fuel so as to obtain CO 2 therefrom (perfect combustion of fuel). The general construction and the principles on which the installations were based are different from all others. This edition contains data, tables and illustrations which are invaluable to multifarious branches of manufacture, transpor- tation, etc. These tabulated results of tests are surprising if we consider only the calorific value of coal and oil, but due allowance must be made for all phases and varieties of service. We hope we have made clear the absolute necessity of thoroughly atomizing the oil, as well as the use of a burner that will not car- bonize. It is also necessary to use a burner that will make a flame that will fit the combustion chamber or fire-box to which it is ap- 4 BURNING LIQUID FUEL plied as perfectly as a drawer fits an opening in a desk. I cannot conceive how anyone could expect a round flame to fit a flat surface any more than one could expect a carpenter to fit a round drawer to an oblong opening in a desk. Such a thing is impossible. The flame must be made to fit perfectly. As a lover of Youth I wish to make the statement that you can never succeed in this world unless you love your particular calling. It has been well said that "He who aspires must perspire." Genius is 90 per cent, work and 10 per cent, concentration. Knowledge is Power. You will find work to be your best friend, and in your life's calling you can be successful only in proportion to the amount of intelligent effort that you put forth in making your contribution to the world. My hope is that you will let the world know that it has been made better because you, the reader of this book, have lived in it. In my life's work I am encouraged very much by the following poem by Rudyard Kipling: L'ENVOI "When Earth's last picture is painted, and the tubes are twisted and dried, When the oldest colours have faded, and the youngest critic has died, We shall rest, and faith, we shall need it lie down for an aeon or two, Till the Master of All Good Workmen shall set us to work anew ! "And those that were good shall be happy; they shall sit in a golden chair; They shall splash at a ten-league canvas with brushes of comets' hair; They shall find real saints to draw from Magdalene, Peter and Paul; They shall work for an age at a sitting and never be tired at all! "And only the Master shall praise us, and only the Master shall blame ; And no one shall work for money, and no one shall work for fame ; But each for the joy of the working, and each, in his separate star, Shall draw the Thing as he sees It for the God of Things as They are!" W. N. BEST. July, 1921. Table of Contents CHAPTER I PAGE EARLY EXPERIENCES 7 CHAPTER II LIQUID FUEL ITS ORIGIN, PRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS 15 CHAPTER III ATOMIZATION 33 CHAPTER IV OIL SYSTEMS 39 CHAPTER V REFRACTORY MATERIAL 69 CHAPTER VI LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT 72 CHAPTER VII STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 84 CHAPTER VIII Low PRESSURE BOILERS AND HOT AIR FURNACES 129 CHAPTER IX COMMERCIAL GAS INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 135 CHAPTER X SUGAR INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 142 CHAPTER XI STEEL FOUNDRY PRACTISE 152 CHAPTER XII HEAT-TREATING FURNACE PRACTISE 171 CHAPTER XIII MALLEABLE IRON, GREY IRON AND BRASS FOUNDRY PRACTISE. . . 194 CHAPTER XIV MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTISE 216 5 6 BURNING LIQUID FUEL CHAPTER XV PAG E BOILER MANUFACTURERS' FURNACE EQUIPMENT 243 CHAPTER XVI COPPER INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 264 CHAPTER XVII ENAMELING EQUIPMENT 269 CHAPTER XVIII CHEMICAL INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 272 CHAPTER XIX CERAMIC EQUIPMENT 283 CHAPTER XX LIME INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 286 CHAPTER XXI CEMENT INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 291 CHAPTER XXII DRYERS AND ORE ROASTERS 295 CHAPTER XXIII BREAD AND CRACKER OVEN EQUIPMENT 306 CHAPTER XXIV CHOCOLATE INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 312 CHAPTER XXV OIL AND TAR STILL EQUIPMENT 314 CHAPTER XXVI INCINERATOR EQUIPMENT 318 CHAPTER XXVII GLASS INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 320 CHAPTER XXVIII COMBUSTION ENGINEERING . 332 Chapter I EARLY EXPERIENCE The author of this book began the study of liquid fuel while Master Mechanic and Superintendent of the Los Angeles Electric Railway in the year 1887. We used the Daft system of electricity. This system had previously operated an electric railway in Boston, Mass. They, however, did not have the overhead wire, but used the third rail system. Ours was the first overhead system of electric railroad in the United States, if not in the world. A view of the electric motor car then used on this road is here given. You can also see the first electric locomotive with two trailers attached. It may be of interest to here state that after building the Myrtle Avenue branch of this road (which was a branch of the main line to Pico Heights), I reported to the Board of Directors that we should purchase motor cars for the branch line and not use the electric locomotive and trailers, because the latter was more costly to operate, but I also made the statement that in a few years electric locomotives would be used instead of steam locomotives in certain branches of work and for that service they would be better than electric motor cars. This portion of my report caused considerable merriment as there were grave doubts in the minds of many as to the fulfilment of this prophecy. The boilers to which I first applied oil as fuel were the "Hazel- ton," and manufactured in New York City. The burners, if such they could be called, were made of gas pipe, and produced a round flame. These were soon changed to the flat type by simply flatten- ing the pipe in a blacksmith's forge so that the nozzle would, in a measure, produce a flat flame, but which in reality produced a very uneven, irregular flame. The steam and the oil passed out in the same direction through the one orifice, which often resulted in much carbon forming therein, and necessitated the apparatus being removed quite frequently in order to remove the carbon which collected in the mouth piece. The equipment was exceed- a .-> . - . v > . > *> i> ? a * * V -8 ^ Av 'J BURNING LIQUID FUEL *.g '5 o "13 C w ^ > EARLY EXPERIENCE 9 ingly crude. I have since thought it was even more crude than the oil we were attempting* to burn. We were, however (after much experimenting) , able to get the normal rating of the boiler, but several months passed before this was accomplished. The oil was very heavy, being between 14 and 18 gravity Baume and of asphaltum base. While endeavoring to obtain information from those in the Eastern States and in Russia who claimed to have burned oil, I found that they were laymen in the art of burning the new fuel, and that I would have to put out to sea without any compass to guide me. We obtained our supply of crude oil from wells in the Puente fields about 30 miles from Los Angeles. Often it was reported that the supply was about exhausted and at times we were not sure of getting enough for our requirements. Again, too, the coal interests were endeavoring to protect themselves from inroads by the oil company, which made the consumer doubly careful. A number of firms installed oil fuel upon their boilers but had difficulty with the elements of the boiler being injured or with not being able to maintain the required steam pressure. Thus becoming disgusted with the new fuel, nearly all of these firms returned to the use of coal, believing that the kind of crude oil which we had in southern California was not commercially a success as a fuel. The author, however, was never discouraged, but was alert to each new de- velopment in the changes of brick work, different locations of the burner and the air openings through which the air could enter to effect combustion until he became convinced that it was the fuel of the twentieth century. In order to obtain satisfactory results I realized that it had to be scientifically burned and that careful consideration was necessary in order to achieve the highest effi- ciency and the strictest economy. After thirty-three years of study, I take pleasure in giving to the world some of the results achieved by the use of this incomparable fuel. After we had had the new fuel in service for several years other manufacturers became impressed with the fact that the California crude oil could be successfully burned and began to adopt it as a fuel. The first locomotive I endeavored to equip was while I was Mas- ter Mechanic of the Los Angeles and Redondo Railway. Many, many were the discouragements encountered before success crowned our efforts and demonstrated that crude oil was a God- 10 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 3 EARLY EXPERIENCE 11 send to both the engineer and fireman as this fuel increased the tonnage of the locomotive fully 15 per cent, over coal, and they could maintain the steam pressure at just below the limit required to prevent steam escaping through the pop valves. So success- ful was it on this road that I received a call to another road which had attempted but failed to burn this fuel. It was while Super- intendent of Motive Power and Machinery of this road (The Los Angeles Terminal Railway, which afterwards became the Los An- geles & Salt Lake Railroad) that I invented my own burner. The locomotive which carried my first locomotive burner is shown in Fig. 2. I had tried every form and type of burner up to that time and saw imperfections of construction and_ operation which I strove to obviate by making a burner foreign to all others. My experience in burning liquid fuel in furnaces began while I was Superintendent of the California Industrial Company's Rolling Mill in Los Angeles. We manufactured commercial iron (bar iron of all sizes and shapes) from scrap iron and soft steel. Many people have stated that oil cannot successfully weld iron and steel, while others, who have successfully used oil as fuel, state that oil is the only fuel for this class of work as it does not change the nature of the metal. As we had only scrap iron and soft steel to make the bar iron from, and as crude oil was our only available fuel, it was necessary to weld it perfectly; and, without fear of contradiction, will say that no better iron can be made than that produced with oil fuel, as oil, when properly used, is a purifier of metals. Since leaving the Rolling Mill I have installed oil burners and supplied designs for the construction of nearly every form of furnace including the following: Annealing, asphaltum mixers, babbitt heating, bolt making, brass melting, brazing, bread ovens, etc., brick and art tile kilns, case hardening, cast iron melting, cement kiln rotary, channel iron heating, chocolate bean roasters, continuous heating, copper plate, core drying, crematories, cru- cible brass melting, crucible steel melting, drop forge work, enamel- ing, flue welding, glass lehrs, glass melting, incinerators, indirect- fired, japanning ovens, ladle heating, locomotive steam raising, locomotive tire heating, malleable iron, mould drying, ore smelting, plate heating, pipe bending, pipe flange welding, portable torches, rivet making, rolling mill work, rotary kilns, shaft and billet heat- ing, sand drying, sheet steel heating, steel melting, steel mixers, tar 12 BURNING LIQUID FUEL stills, tempering, welding scrap iron, wire annealing, wire making. This book will show some of the different installations and the re- sults obtained therefrom. The burning of liquid fuel is a science. It can be burned either wastefully or economically. In order to obtain the highest pos- sible efficiency and strictest economy from any installation the oil system must be installed and operated upon scientific principles. I am aware that many articles have been published on oil burning. Some have contained much valuable information, while others it has simply been a waste of time to read, because of the fact that the writer himself was not familiar with the subject. Several years ago I read an article on the different methods of burning oil and when I visited the city in which the author resided I called upon the gentleman, for I desired to ask him several questions on points not clear to me. This man acknowledged that he had never burned a gallon of oil in his life and that his article was simply a compilation of reports on tests made by others, he not even having been present at any of the tests. The burners described in his treatise all seem to fit perfectly and operate without the slightest difficulty. The equipment which he described reminded me of an artist's girl friend who, in describing the ability of the artist, stated that one of the portraits which she painted of a gentleman was so perfect that it had to be shaved twice a week. My point is that if a man wishes to write a treatise on welding iron he should first learn how to make a weld himself, for some time he is liable to meet a man from Missouri "who will want to be shown," and Mr. Author might then be humiliated because of his imaginary ability. Theory is needed, but without practical knowledge it is like faith without works it is dead. To say the least, it is disappoint- ing, especially -in regard to the subject of heat, which we have been studying for centuries and by the knowledge of which we have raised ourselves above the brute creation and the Stone Age. A short time ago while addressing some students I asked, "What is the propelling power of a steam locomotive?" They thought long and hard, and at last after mentioning almost every part of the locomotive one student in desperation said "Heat," which of course is the propelling power of a steam locomotive. While it is not possible for an engineer in calorics to tell you how many gallons of oil are required to run a locomotive over a division of a railroad without knowing her tonnage and the average EARLY EXPERIENCE 13 grades, or to tell you how much oil a burner will burn without having full particulars in regard to installation, or to even guess how much oil will be used in a furnace without knowing its exact form and proportions, temperature required, the size and quantity of metal to be heated in the furnace per hour or per day, yet he should have such a knowledge of his business and the capacity of the oil burner that he can recommend an installation which will not prove a farce. If it is a copper refining furnace (such as is de- scribed in this book) he should know the size of burner required, the amount of air needed to reduce and refine a given charge of such metal, or if an annealing furnace he should be capable of figuring out the graduated size and location of heat ports neces- sary to give an even distribution of heat throughout the entire length, width and height of the furnace. I consider that a man is simply playing or guessing who first installs three or four oil burners in a furnace and then if they do not give the required heat, installs three or four more. This is not the intelligent way of solving an engineering problem. It is simply the old "rule of thumb." I have been asked if every man or firm makes a success of burn- ing liquid fuel. To this I always answer "No. Many cannot burn oil successfully." The next inquiry is "Why not?" My answer is "Some men cannot learn to play the piano, others the harp. Some women are good cooks but cannot sew, and vice versa. Many men cannot burn coal or wood advantageously, and therefore I can frankly make the statement that many cannot learn how to btTrn liquid fuel." I have been often amused at men wanting to run tests on boilers and furnaces, using all the different types of burners which they can borrow for the occasion. The men con- ducting the tests never having had any theoretical or practical experience in the burning of oil or tar, their efforts are not a com- pliment to any of the burners. The result is as absurd as though two men, neither of whom had ever previously shot off a gun, were to institute a shooting contest, borrowing as many weapons as they could from the various gun manufacturers, assuring them that the result of the contest would be of great advantage to the firm that was fortunate enough to win in the contest. Let me assure the reader that the man who has never shot off a gun (or the man who has never operated a burner) had better become familiar with their construction and operation before exhibiting 14 BURNING LIQUID FUEL the results of the contest, otherwise there might be some people who would not consider their efforts a criterion, and if their state- ment is incorrect they might have to meet the result of said de- cision in after years. l4iave known officials to be discharged be- cause they selected an inferior article and after years had elapsed, another test with one of the same burners revealed the fact that the superior device had been rejected at the first test, resulting in irreparable loss to their firm of hundreds of dollars in fuel and thousands of dollars in output. Under such circumstances any man should be dismissed for incompetency. The most dangerous man on earth is an egotistical "Jack of all trades." Personally I would just as soon give my watch to be cleaned or repaired to a man who has never repaired one as to give a burner to an in- experienced man to run one of these so-called tests. Chapter II LIQUID FUEL ITS ORIGIN, PRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS "The origin of petroleum is still shrouded in mystery." Humboldt expressed the opinion that it is derived from deep- seated strata ; Karl Reihenbach that it had its origin through heat action on turpentine, etc., etc. The various theories propounded are divided by the scientific world into two groups, namely : those ascribing to petroleum an inorganic origin, and those regarding it as the result of the de- composition of organic matter. M. P. E. Berth elot in 1866, after many experiments, suggested that mineral oil was produced by purely chemical action; while Mendeleheff ascribed its formation to the action of water at high temperature, on iron carbide in the interior of the earth. A near analogous theory to this is the one lately advocated by Eugene Coste, who ascribed its origin to solfatara volcanism. On the other hand overwhelming opinions are adduced favoring the organic origin. Among those favoring the decomposition of both animal and vegetable marine organism may be cited J. P. Lesley, E. Orton and S. F. Peckham, while others have held that it is exclusively of animal origin. This view is supported by such an occurence as that of the Trenton limestone, and also by the experiments of C. Engler, who obtained a liquid crude petroleum by the distillation of menhaden (fish) oil. Similarly there is a difference of opinion as to the condition under which the organisms have been mineralized, some holding that the process has taken place at a high temperature; while others, because of the lack of practical evidence, have concluded that petroleum, like coal, has been formed at moderate temperature and under pressure varying with the depth of the containing rocks. Consideration of the evidence leads us to the conclusion that at least in commercially valuable deposits, mineral oil has generally been formed by the decomposition of marine organism; in some cases animal, in others vegetable ; in others both under practically 15 16 BURNING LIQUID FUEL Fig. 3. Two logs showing geological formations or sands in which oil is found. LIQUID FUEL PRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS 17 Fig. 4. Pioneer Gusher in the United States. 18 BURNING LIQUID FUEL normal conditions of temperature and pressure; and also in some to solfatara volcanism. We are indebted to Capt. Anthony F. Lucas, who brought in the great gusher at Spindletop, Beaumont, Texas, in January, 1901, for the cut of the gusher, and also for the above article. Oil was first discovered in the United States in 1859 at Titus- No. 5. Col. Drake's Well at Titusville, Pa. ville, Pa. During the first year only 2,000 barrels (42 gallons each) were produced. Since then each succeeding year the pro- duction and demand have increased until the world's consumption now aggregates 1,000,000 barrels a day. In the year 1911 the United States alone produced 220,440,391 barrels, or 63.80% of the total world production. LIQUID FUEL PRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS 19 PETROLEUM PRODUCED IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1859-1918, IN BARRELS OF 42 GALLONS Year Pennsylvania and New York Ohio West Virginia California Kentucky and Tennessee Prior to 1908. 1908 BBLS. 687,425,409 10,584,453 BBLS. 366,250,105 10,858,797 BBLS. 185,039,718 9,523,176 BBLS. 201,965,825 44,854,737 BBLS. 5,276,578 e727,767 1909. ........ 1910 10,434,300 9,848,500 10,632,793 9,916,370 10,745,092 11,753,071 55,471,601 73,010,560 e639,016 e468,774 1911 . 9,200,673 8,817,112 9,795,464 81,134,391 e472,458 1912 8,712,076 g8,969,007 12,128,962 h87,272,593 e484,368 1913 8,865,493 8,781,468 11,567,299 97,788,525 e524,568 1914 9,109,309 8,536,352 9,680,033 99,775,327 e502,441 1915 8,726,483 7,825,326 9,264,798 86,591,535 e437,274 1916. . 8,466,481 7,744,511 8,731,184 90,951,936 1,203,246 1917 8,612,885 7,750,540 8,379,285 93,877,549 3,100,356 1918 8,216,655 7,285,005 7,866,628 97,531,997 4,376,342 788,202,717 463,367,386 294,474,710 1,110,226,576 18,213,188 Year Colorado Indiana Illinois Kansas Texas Prior to 1908. . 1908 BBLS. 8,874,285 379,653 BBLS. 90,127,511 3 283 629 BBLS. 28,866,683 33 686 238 BBLS. a42,357,150 1 801 781 BBLS. 117,819,991 11 206 464 1909 310,861 2 296 086 30 898 339 1 263 764 o 534 4fi7 1910 1911 239,794 226,926 2,159,725 1,695,289 33,143,362 31,317,038 1,128,668 1 278 819 8,899,266 9 526 474 1912 1913 206,052 188,799 970,009 ' 956,095 28,601,308 23 893 899 1,592,796 2 375 029 11,735,057 15 009 478 1914 1915 1916 222,773 208,475 197,235 1,335,456 875,758 769,036 21,919,749 19,041,695 17,714,235 3,103,585 2,823,487 8,738,077 20,068,184 24,942,701 27 644 605 1917 121,231 759,432 15,776,860 36,536,125 32 413 287 1918 143,286 877,558 13,365,974 45,451 017 38 750 031 11,319,370 106,105,584 298,225,380 148,450,298 327,550,005 20 BURNING LIQUID FUEL PETROLEUM PRODUCED IN THE UNITED STATES Cont'd Year Oklahoma Wyoming Louisiana Montana Other Prior to 1908 BBLS. 1)45,084,441 BBLS. c85,785 BBLS. 27,413,511 BBLS. BBLS. d21 471 1908 45,798,765 17,775 5,788,874 d!5 246 1909 1910 47,859,218 52,028,718 20,056 115,430 3,059,531 6,841,395 do,750 d3,615 1911 56,069,637 186,695 10,720,420 d7,995 1912 51,427,071 1,572,306 9,263,439 1913 63,579,384 2,406,522 12,498,828 ilO,843 1914 73,631,724 3,560,375 14,309,435 J7,792 1915 97 915 243 4 245 525 18 191 539 j!4 265 1916 107,071,715 6,234,137 15,248,138 44,917 J7,705 1917 107,507,471 8,978,680 11,392,201 99,399 klO,300 1918 103 347 070 12,596,287 16 042,600 69,323 k7943 851,320,457 40,019,573 150,769,911 213,639 112,925 ANNUAL PRODUCTION AND VALUE OF PETROLEUM FOR THE UNITED STATES Year United States Total Value Prior to 1908 BBLS. 1,806,608,463 $1,657,113,275 1908 178,527,355 129,079,184 1909 183,170,874 128,328,487 1910 209,557,248 127,899,688 1911 220,449,391 134,044,752 1912 . . 222,935,044 164,213,247 1913 248,446,230 237,121,388 1914 235,762,535 214,125,215 1915 281.104,104 179,462,890 1916 300,767,158 330,899,868 1917 . 335,315,601 522,635,213 1918 355,927,716 703,943,961 4,608,571,719 $4,528,867,168 a Includes Oklahoma in 1905 and 190o. b Production for 1905 and 1906 included in Kansas. c Includes Utah in 1907. d Michigan and Missouri. e No production recorded for Tennessee. f Includes Utah, g Includes Michigan, h Includes Alaska. i Alaska, Michigan, Missouri and New Mexico, j Alaska, Michigan and Missouri, k Alaska and Michigan. I am indebted to the Department o the Interior, United States Geological Survey, for the above data. LIQUID FUEL PRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS 21 SUMMARY OF PRODUCTION BY FIELDS Field Preliminary Estimates 1919 Final Figures 1918 Appalachian 29,232,000 25,401,466 Lima-Indiana 3,444,000 3,220,722 Illinois 12,436,000 13,365,974 Mid-Continent : Oklahoma-Kansas 115,897,000 148,798,087 Central and North Texas 67,419,000 17,280,612 North Louisiana 13,575,000 13,304,399 Gulf Coast 20,568,000 24,207,620 Rocky Mountain 13,584,000 12,808,896 California (a) 101,564,000 97,531,997 377,719,000 6355,927,716 a Average of figures collected by the Standard Oil Company and the Independent Producers' Agency. b Including 7,943 barrels produced in Alaska and Michigan. We are indebted to the Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, for the above data. January- July, inclusive, 1919 Field Total Daily Average Appalachian 17,462,000 2,076,000 7,496,000 63,243,000 36,005,000 6,840,000 11,712,000 8,025,000 59,390,000 82,368 9,792 35,359 298,316 169,835 32,264 55,245 37,854 280,142 Lima Indiana and Southwest Indiana. . Illinois Mid-Continent: Oklahoma-Kansas Central and North Texas North Louisiana Gulf Coast Rocky M^ountain California 212,249,000 1,001,175 Field July, 1920 Jan. -July, inclusive, 1920 Total Daily Average Total Daily Average Appalachian Lima Indiana and South- west Indiana . . . 2,613,000 275,000 925,000 12,919,000 5,912,000 3,293,000 2,296,000 1,603,000 8,583,000 84,290 8,871 29,839 416,742 190,709 106,226 74,065 51,710 276,871 17,165,400 1,751,000 6,386,000 85,857,000 38,845,000 20,473,000 13,751,000 9,646,600 58,706,000 80,589 8,220 29,981 403,085 182,371 96,117 64,559 45,289 275,615 Illinois Mid-Continent : Oklahoma-Kansas Central and North Texas . . North Louisiana Gulf Coast Rocky Mountain California 38,419,000 1,239,323 252,581,000 1,185,826 22 BURNING LIQUID FUEL ESTIMATED PRODUCTION OF CRUDE PETROLEUM FOR 1919 Production of Petroleum in the United States in Barrels (Exclusive of Petroleum consumed on leases and of producers' stocks, except in California). Field January February March April Appalachian 2,420,000 2,185,000 2,453 000 2 542 000 Lima-Indiana 271,000 274,000 282,000 293 000 Illinois . 1,094,000 940,000 1,166,000 1,008 000 Mid-Continent: Oklahoma-Kansas 8,971,000 7,887,000 8,734,000 8,387,000 Central and North Texas 5,094,000 4,479,000 4,959,000 4,762,000 North Louisiana 962,000 845,000 936,000 899,000 Gulf Coast 1,630,000 1,441,000 1,890,000 1,843,000 Rocky Mountain 1,085,000 990,000 1,168,000 1,259,000 California (a) 8,669,000 7,869,000 8,646,000 8,393,000 30,196,000 26,910,000 30,234,000 29,386,000 Field May June July August Appalachian 2,652,000 2,539,000 2,671,000 2,474,000 Lima-Indiana 324,000 311,000 321,000 306,000 Illinois 1,120,000 1,062,000 1,106,000 1,040,000 Mid-Continent: Oklahoma-Kansas 8,652,000 9,910,000 10,693,000 10,240,000 Central and North Texas North Louisiana Gulf Coast 4,913,000 927,000 1,621,000 5,630,000 1,064,000 1,521,000 6,168,000 1,207,000 1,766,000 6,730,000 1,286,000 2,044,000 Rocky Mountain 1,139,000 1,131,000 1,253,000 1,079,000 Calif ornia (a) 8,637,000 8,467,000 8,709,000 8,663,000 29,985,000 31,644,000 33,894,000 33,862,000 Field September October November December Appalachian 2,489,000 2,513,000 2,064,000 2,230,000 Lima-Indiana . . . 277,000 279,000 247,000 259,000 Illinois 877,000 1,064,000 1,033,000 926,000 Mid-Continent: Oklahoma-Kansas 10,976,000 10,764,000 10,408,000 10,266,000 Central and North Texas North Louisiana 6,369,000 1,304,000 6,219,000 1,262,000 6,107,000 1,249,000 5,989,000 1,634,000 Gulf Coast 1,796,000 1,543,000 1,715,000 1,758,000 Rocky IVIountain - 1,169,000 1,054,000 1,137,000 1,120,000 California (a) 8,410,000 8,621,000 8,154,000 8,326,000 33,667,000 33,319.000 32,114,000 32,508,000 LIQUID FUEL PRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS 23 WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF CRUDE PETROLUEM IN 1918 AND SINCE 1857, BY COUNTRIES Country Production, 1918 Total Production, 1857-1918 Bbls. of 42 Gallons Percentage of Total Bbls. of 42 Gallons Percentage of Total United States Mexico Russia Dutch East Indies (a) Rumania 355,927,716 63,828,327 40,456,182 13,284,936 8,730,235 b8,000,000 7,200,000 5,591,620 c2,536,102 2,449,069 2,082,068 2,079,750 1,321,315 711,260 304,741 190,080\ 35,953/ 69.15 12.40 7.86 2.58 1.70 1.55 1.40 1.09 .49 .48 .40 .40 .26 .14 .06 .04 4,608,571,719 285,182,489 1,873,999,199 188,388,513 151,408,411 106,162,365 14,056,063 154,051,273 24,414,387 38,498,247 7,432,391 4,848,436 4,296,093 16,664,121 24,425,770 317,823) 973,671 ( 19, 167 f 397,OOOJ 61.41 3.80 24.97 . 2.51 2.02 1.41 .19 2.05 .33 .51 .10 .07 .06 .22 .33 .02 India Persia Galicia Peru Japan and Formosa. . Trinidad Eevot Argentina Germany Canada Venezuela Italy Cuba Other Countries 514,729,354 100.00 7,504,107,138 100.00 a Includes British Borneo. b Estimated. c Estimated in part. I am indebted to the Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, for the above data At this time the oil fields of Mexico are attracting a great deal of attention because of their magnitude. The proven territory of oil-producing land in Mexico is considered by many scientists the most valuable fields on this planet, and those who have carefully examined the fields and are competent to judge prophesy that that country will produce more oil than the combined production of all other sections of the world. The Mexican oil is high in calorific value per gallon, and is especially adapted for fuel in its crude state but not for refining. It is therefore fortunate that these fields have been discovered in order to supply the growing demand for crude oil, but I believe that other new fields will be discovered and de- veloped with the ever-increasing demand until every coal-producing country will have an abundant supply of petroleum. The crude oil of Russia, Rumania and Borneo has approximately the same calo- 24 BURNING LIQUID FUEL rific value as that of the Beaumont fields in Texas, while the oil thus far discovered in Argentine Republic, Chile and Peru is of approxi- mately the same calorific value and gravity as the California petroleum. Of the total production last year (1920), the United States supplied 443,402,000 barrels, or 64.4 per cent. Mexico produced 159,800,000 barrels, or 23.2 per cent, of the world's output. By far the greatest gains were made by this country and Mexico. United States production increased from 377,719,000 barrels in 1919 to 443,402,000 barrels in 1920, and Mexico increased its pro- duction from 87,072,954 barrels to 159,800,000 barrels. The esti- mated production, in barrels, by countries, follows: 1920 1919 United States . ... 443 402,000 377,719,000 Mexico . . . . 159 800 000 87,072,954 Russia (estimated) ... 30 000 000 34,284,000 Dutch East Indies 16 000,000 15,780,000 India 8 500,000 8,453,800 Rumania 7 406,318 6,517,748 Persia 6 604,734 6,289,812 Galicia 6 000,000 6,255,000 Peru 2 790,000 2,561,000 Japan and Formosa . 2 213,083 2,120,500 TriniJad 1 628,837 2,780,000 Argentina 1 366,926 1,504,300 Ervnt 1 089,213 1,662,184 Fran 30 700,000 Venezuela 500,000 321,396 Canada 220,000 220,100 Germany 215,340 925,000 Italy 38,000 38,254 Total 688,474,251 554,505,048 The above figures have been compiled by the American Petroleum Institute, to which I am indebted There are two kinds of oil or petroleum, one having paraffine base and the other asphaltum base. Either may be used as fuel in its crude state, but both are largely distilled in order to obtain the more volatile oils such as gasoline, benzine, kerosene, etc. The residue is called Fuel Oil and is used in every class of service where coal, coke, wood or gas can be used. It has proven a most superior fuel because the operator has the fire under perfect control at all times and can attain and maintain the heat required. LIQUID FUEL PRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS 25 The analysis of Fuel Oil is as follows: Carbon 84.35% Hydrogen 11.33% Oxygen 2.82% Nitrogen 60% Sulphur 90% Gravity, from 26 to 28 Baume. Weight per gallon, 7.3 pounds. Vaporizing point, 130 degrees Fahr. Calorific Value varies from 18,350 to 19,348 B.t.u. per Ib. Analysis of Beaumont (Texas) Crude Oil: Carbon 84.60% Hydrogen 10.90% Sulphur 1.63% Oxygen 2.87% Gravity, 21 Baume. Weight per gallon, 7.5 Ibs. Calorific value, 19,060 B.t.u. per Ib. Vaporizing point, 142 deg. Fahr. California oil varies in gravity from 12 to 36 gravity Baume. Analysis of California Crude Oil (14 to 16 gravity Baume) : Carbon 81.52% Hydrogen 11.01% Sulphur 55% Nitrogen and Oxygen 6.92% Weight per gallon, approximately 8 Ibs. Calorific value, approxi- mately 18,550 B.t.u. per Ib. Vaporizing point, 230 deg. Fahr. Mexican Topped Oil runs approximately 14 to 16 gravity Baume, and vaporizes at 175F. ; but the bottom oil or the oil that is left near the bottom of the earthen reservoir varies in gravity from 11 to 12 Baume and vaporizes at from 205 to 210F. The weight of this bottom oil is approximately 8.2 Ibs. per gallon. Analysis of Mexican Topped Crude Oil (Tampico Fields) : Carbon 82.83% Hydrogen 12.19% Oxygen 43% Nitrogen 1.72% Sulphur 2.83% Weight per gallon, approximately 8 Ibs. Calorific value, approxi- mately 18,490 B.t.u. per Ib. Vaporizing point, 175 cleg. Fahr. NOTE: The British unit cf heat, or British thermal unit (B.t.u.) herein referred to, is that quantity of heat which is required to raise the temperature of 1 pcund of pure water 1 degree Fahrenheit at 39 degrees Fahrenheit, the temperature of maximum density of water. 26 BURNING LIQUID FUEL Oil tar is a by-product of the water gas system used in numerous gas works. Coal tar is a by-product from coke oven benches. When either of these tars are heated sufficiently to reduce their viscosity they are a most excellent fuel. Per pound their calorific value is less than that of oil, but as they weigh from 9.5 to 10 pounds per gallon, while fuel oil only weighs 7.3 pounds per gallon, their calorific value per gallon is greater than that of fuel oil. Oil tar has a calorific value of 16,970 B.t.u. per pound or 161,200 B.t.u. per gallon, while that of coal tar is 16,260 B.t.u. per pound or 162,600 B.t.u. per gallon. Analysis of London Tar and Tar from Dominion Coal : London Dominion Carbon 77.53 81.50 Hydrogen 6.33 5.68 Nitrogen 1.03 Oxygen 14.50 12.45 Sulphur .61 .37 Comparison between Oil and Coal or other Fuels in Various Services From data secured as a result of hundreds of tests and in order to show the value of liquid fuel in various forms of equipment, I give the following data which will furnish food for thought and which may prove beneficial to manufacturers in this and foreign countries. It can easily be seen that one cannot estimate the value of fuel oil by computing its calorific value without knowing the service to which the fuel is to be applied. So many engineers fail in their estimates simply because they have never run tests in burning liquid fuel against coal fuel. When using liquid fuel one can attain and maintain perfect combustion, but of course this cannot be done while burning bituminous coal. In marine service using mechanical burners it requires 180 gallons of oil to represent a long ton (2,240 pounds) of coal having a calorific value of 14,000 B.t.u. per pound. In tug boat service, using atomizing burners, it requires 147 gallons of oil to represent a long ton of coal. Two tug boats equipped with oil fuel can readily perform the same amount of service that three tugs can using coal as fuel. In locomotive service, using atomizing burners, 180 gallons of LIQUID FUEL PRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS 27 oil will represent a long ton of coal. The tonnage of the locomotive may be increased 15% immediately after being changed from coal to oil. In power plants with water tube boilers using atomizing burners, it requires 147 gallons of oil to represent a long ton of coal. In large forging plants 82 gallons of oil equal a long ton of coal. In small drop forging furnaces it requires 62 gallons of oil to represent a long ton of coal. In heat-treating furnaces with high temperatures 63 gallons of oil are equivalent to a long ton of coal. In heat-treating furnaces with low temperatures for drawing purposes only 56 gallons of oil are required to represent a ton of coal. In flue-welding furnaces, welding safe ends of locomotive flues, only 58 gallons of oil are required to represent a ton of coal. The reason for this is obvious. You cannot make a welding heat with a green fire. You must coke your fire and in so doing you not only lose the volatile matter from the coal but you also lose valuable time while coking the coal. Of course it should be remembered that the bituminous coal referred to has always the calorific value of 14,000 B.t.u. per pound, and is figured by long ton (2,240 pounds) . The oil referred to has a calorific value of 19,000 B.t.u. per pound, and weighs 7% pounds per gallon. 3% barrels of oil (42 gallons per barrel) are equivalent to 5,000 pounds hickory or 4,550 pounds of white oak. 6 gallons of oil represent 1,000 cubic feet of natural gas, the gas having a calorific value of 1,000 B.t.u. per cubic foot. 31/2 gallons of oil equal 1,000 cubic feet of commercial or, water gas, having a calorific value of 620 B.t.u. per cubic foot. 2% gallons of oil equal 1,000 cubic feet of by-product coke oven gas, having a ca^rific value of 440 B.t.u. per cubic foot. 42 gallons of oil equal 1,000 cubic feet of blast furnace gas of 90 B.t.u. per cubic foot. This gas is used in this country in boilers and also in large fur- naces but requires coal tar or oil to aid in the keeping up of the required horse-power of the boilers, or in furnishing the tempera- ture required for the heating furnaces. Oil or coal tar are excellent fuels which can be readily used as fuel to operate in conjunction with the blast furnace gas in boilers or large furnace practice. Usually 10 gallons of coal tar are made from every ton of coal coked 28 BURNING LIQUID FUEL in by-product coke ovens. This tar has a calorific value of 162,000 B.t.u. per gallon and weighs 10 pounds per gallon. The following list showing typical value of the various kinds of fuel may be of service to the reader : Kind D. T. U. per Pound Pounds per Gallon B. T. U. * per Gallon Liquid: Fuel Oil (residuum of Petroleum) Beaumont crude petroleum . . . 19,000 19,060 19,500 18,820 18,940 16,120 13,140 10,080 16,260 16,970 15,391 12,141 10,506 13,189 13,000 5,280 8,160 5,120 550 to 6 800 to 1,0 130 440 7.3 7.5 7.6 7.5 7.5 7.2 5.7 5.6 10.0 9.5 138,700 142,950 147,200 141,150 142,050 116,000 74,900 56,500 162,600 161,200 California crude petroleum . . . Lima crude petroleum Pennsylvania crude petroleum Kerosene Denaturized alcohol Alcohol (90 per cent) Coal tar Oil tar Solid Pocahontas coal Bituminous coal (Pittsburgh) Bituminous coal (Illinois) Anthracite Coke ... Turf (dried) Ppat Oak wood .... Gaseous Illuminating gas (city coal gas) Natural gas 50 B. T. U. per Cu. Ft. QO B. T. U. per Cu. Ft. B. T. U. per Cu. Ft. B. T. U. per Cu. Ft. Producer gas By-product coke oven gas In nearly every country on the face of the globe there are mil- lions of tons of coal of very little calorific value that it is almost impossible to burn without the aid of some gaseous or liquid fuel. Fortunes can be made by utilizing in combination with oil the coal and coal products now wasted. For example, in the State of Rhode Island there is graphitic coal which has a calorific value of only 7840 B.t.u. per pound. Owing to the lack of volatile matter it is difficult to burn this coal, but with the aid of liquid fuel (as shown in Fig. 6) this coal burns readily. Pulverized coal is delivered to the hopper and is fed in the man- ner shown upon the flat sheet of steam or compressed air produced by the oil burner, which carries the pulverized coal through the combustion chamber and delivers it as heat into the furnace. The LIQUID FUEL PRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS 29 graphitic coal must of course be dried and pulverized in the usual manner. By this method the proper quantity of graphitic coal can be delivered to the furnace, using say 20 per cent oil and 80 per cent pulverized coal. The flat flame oil burner supplies the oil as well as the force for carrying the pulverized coal through the com- bustion chamber. (See Fig. 14, page 38.) Of course, water gas tar or coal tar can be used instead of crude oil if desired. Fig. 6. Apparatus for burning liquid fuel in combination with pulver- ized coal or graphitic coal in melting, forging or heating furnaces. Heat of Combustion The chemical combination of a combustible with oxygen disen- gages energy in the form of heat. The quantity or measure of this heat may be expressed in British 30 BURNING LIQUID FUEL thermal units (B.t.u.) or the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit. The number of British thermal units released by the combustion of one pound of the following substances, and the resultant tem- peratures are : Hydrogen burned to H 2 0, 62,032 B.t.u. Temp. 5,898F. Carbon burned to C0 2 , 14,500 B.t.u. Temp. 4,939F. Carbon burned to CO, 4,452 B.t.u. Temp. 2,358F. The great loss of heat due to the incomplete combustion of car- Fig. 7. Retort for determining vaporization point of petroleum. bon is shown by the difference between the total heat of perfect combustion of carbon to C0 2 (14,500 B.t.u.), and that of carbon to CO (4,452 B.t.u.) One pound of carbon when imperfectly burned produces 12L 6 = 2% pounds of carbon monoxide. If this quantity of gas is burned to carbon dioxide the total LIQUID FUEL PRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS 31 amount of heat released will be 14,5004,452=10,048 B.t.u. ; there- fore the calorific value of one pound of carbon monoxide is.. 10 ' 048 =4,312 B.t.u. Testing Instruments Steam is used in the lower chamber of the re- tort shown in Fig. 7. The top opening is covered with a piece of cardboard having an %" opening therein. When the steam has heated the oil so that vapor is seen passing out of this small opening in the cardboard cover, a temperature has been reached which is known as the vaporizing point of the oil. When vapor is thus visible, the oil has been heated to the temperature at which when burned, it gives an intermittent fire. A thermometer is placed on the retort so that the temperature of the oil at the vaporizing point may be recorded,. The oil should be delivered to the burner at a temperature three or four de- grees lower than the vaporizing point as recorded by the thermometer. To ascertain the quantity of water contained in oil, fill the Water Test Cylinder (Fig. 8) with gasoline to the point marked 30 and then add crude oil until it reaches the place marked 60 on the cylinder. Expose the cylinder with its con- tents to the sun for several hours until the gas- oline is all evaporated. The percentage of water in the oil is that found at the bottom of the cylin- der affer the gasoline has evaporated. In order to ascertain the gravity, fill the glass cylinder shown in Fig. 9 with oil and place therein the hydrometer thermometer. Fig. 8 W ater test cylinder used to test the oil for water content. A calorimeter is an instrument used for testing liquid fuel in order to find out the number of British thermal units (B.t.u.) which it contains. Parr's calorimeter or any other approved make should be used. 32 BURNING LIQUID FUEL Fig. 9. Glass cylinder and hydrometer thermometer. Chapter III ATOMIZATION Thousands of patents have been issued by our Government to inventors covering oil or tar atomizers or burners. Many of these inventions involve the same principle and all may be grouped in three distinct classes, viz. : mechanical, internal mixing and exter- nal atomizing. Many people have supposed that by simply mash- ing down a piece of pipe and coupling it to a steam or air and oil I COMPRESSEDAIR OB DRY STEAM DIRECTION OF 4 STEAM OR AIR OIL ORTAR Fig. 10. High pressure, external atomizing oil burner. supply line, they have evolved a cheap burner; a burner which, in 99 cases out of 100, they have seen working in some other shop. They very seldom state just where they have seen it in operation and often claim that it is their own invention, and that it only cost about fifteen or twenty cents to make. But there is another side to be considered. The first cost of an article may be a trifle but that is no sign that the article is really cheap. One must consider what the device will have cost in time, labor and fuel at the expira- tion of a year or more. One of the greatest abuses of liquid fuel is the endeavor to use it with burners that do not thoroughly atomize the oil and evenly distribute the heat throughout the entire fire- 33 34 BURNING LIQUID FUEL box or the charging space of the furnace. A burner should be of such construction that it can be filed or fitted to make a long nar- row flame or a broad fan-shaped blaze, fitting the entire length and width of a fire-box or furnace as evenly as a blanket covers a bed. A burner wherein the base of the fuel carbonizes over the fuel passage is absolutely worthless, for it should be capable of atomizing any gravity of fuel procurable in the open market with- out either clogging or carbonizing, no matter whether it be fuel oil of very light gravity or crude oil, oil tar or coal tar. A burner is not worthy of consideration unless it enables the operator to burn any gravity of liquid fuel, for no manufacturer should be limited to the purchase of one particular kind of fuel. There should be no internal tubes, needle points or other mechanism which will clog, wear away or get out of order readily. Each burner should be thoroughly tested so that when it leaves the shop where it is made the manufacturer knows that it will fill the requirements for which it is being furnished. Considering that air contains 20.7 parts oxygen and 79.3 parts nitrogen, at 62 deg. Fahr. 1 Ib. of air occupies 13,141 cu. ft. At 100 deg. Fahr. this air occupies 14,096 cu. ft. Theoretically it re- quires 13% to 14% Ibs. of air to effect the perfect combustion of 1 Ib. of oil. Allowing 14 Ibs. at 62 deg. Fahr. it would require 183.97 cu. ft. of air to effect perfect combustion of 1 Ib. of oil or at 100 deg. Fahr. it would require 197.34 cu. ft. of air. Practically it requires from 17% to 19% Ibs. of air to effect perfect combustion of 1 Ib. of oil. Allowing 19 Ibs. at 62 deg. Fahr. this air occupies 249.68 cu. ft. or at 100 deg. Fahr. it occupies 267.82 cu. ft. Allow- ing 1 gal. of oil to weigh 7% Ibs., practically it requires 142% Ibs. of air to effect the perfect combustion of 1 gallon of oil or 1872% cu. ft. of air at 62 deg. Fahr. or at 100 deg. Fahr. it will require 2009*4 cu. ft. It is therefore essential that liquid fuel be thoroughly atomized so that the oxygen of the air can freely unite with it. Except where mechanical burners are used, the fuel is atomized by means of high or low pressure air or steam. Com- pressed air or steam is preferable to low pressure air because it requires power to thoroughly atomize liquid fuel. With low pres- sure or volume air you are limited to the use of light oils, whereas with compressed air or steam as atomizer you can use any gravity of crude oil, fuel oil, kerosene or tar which will flow through a %- inch pipe. For stationary boilers steam at boiler pressure is ATOMIZATION 35 ordinarily used to atomize the fuel. In furnaces the most economi- cal method of operation is the use of a small quantity of compressed air or dry steam through the burner to atomize the fuel, while the balance of the air necessary for perfect combustion is supplied independently through a volume air nozzle at from 3 to 5 oz. Fig. 11. Mechanical burner. pressure. Every particle of moisture which enters a furnace must be counteracted by the fuel and it is therefore essential, if steam is used as atomizer, that it be as dry as possible. It is folly to attempt to use steam as atomizer on a small furnace, especially if the equipment is located some distance from the boiler room, 36 BURNING LIQUID FUEL for oil and hot water do not mix advantageously. Numerous tests have proven that with steam at 80 Ibs. pressure and air at 80 Ibs. pressure, by using air there is a saving of 12% in fuel over steam, but of this 12% it costs 8% to compress the air (this includes inter- est on money invested in the necessary apparatus to compress the air, repairs, etc.) , so there is therefore a total net saving of 4% in favor of compressed air. Fig. 12. Low pressure or volume air burner with oil regulating cock. With high pressure air or steam as atomizer a burner having a large oil orifice below the atomizer orifice and independent of same is preferable, because there can then be no liability of the fuel solidifying or carbonizing over the atomizer slot at the nose of the burner. As the fuel passes out perpendicularly, as shown in Fig. 10, it is struck by the atomizer coming out of the small orifice hori- zontally and so thoroughly atomized that each drop of fuel is dashed into 10,000 molecules and looks like a fine mist or spray. This burner is provided with means whereby it can be cleaned or blown out without removing it from its position and thus any foreign solid particles such as sand, red lead, scale, etc., can readily be ex- pelled. It produces a flat flame which may be a long narrow flame or it can be a fan-shaped flame of any width required, up to nine feet. This burner is not considered automatic, but it is automatic in its action, for in boiler service when the steam pressure lowers, it reduces the compression on the fuel at the nose of the burner and thus more fuel is syphoned out of the fuel orifice, which, of course, increases the fire and brings up the steam pressure. ATOMIZATION 37 As the use of steam means a waste of fresh water (which is a very scarce article on sea-going vessels), mechanical burners are attractive for marine service and many vessels have recently been equipped with them. With many of these burners you are, how- ever, limited to very light crude or fuel oil and there has been considerable difficulty experienced in preventing the paraffine or asphaltum base of the fuel from clogging the delicate mechanism of the burner. The grade of oil required for the average mechan- ical burner can not be obtained in every country, and as that capa- ble of being refined is being so largely distilled to obtain the more Fig. 13. Commercial or natural gas burner. volatile and valuable oils, the supply of this light oil is very limited. It is necessary to use from 80 to 400 Ibs. pressure on the oil sup- ply line to burners, this, of course, varying with the gravity of the fuel. The internal construction is such that the fuel is atomized while passing through the body and out of the nose of the burner. A centrifugal air compressor operated by a modern type of turbine engine (Fig. 20, page 45) has been developed which, in the opinion of the writer, will attract a great deal of attention from marine engineers because with this system any gravity of liquid fuel pro- curable in any section of the world is thoroughly atomized, perfect combustion is effected, and as the system is provided with con- 38 BURNING LIQUID FUEL densers there is no appreciable waste of fresh water. This appa- ratus is light, compact, durable and efficient, and furthermore high pressure is not required on the fuel ; 20 Ibs. air pressure is car- ried with this system to atomize the fuel. Low oil pressure can be used and is preferable for a low pressure air or volume air burner. In this type of burner, the light crude oil or fuel oil used as fuel flows down upon and through the sheet of air. In order to get the benefit of the full impact of the air against Fig. 14. Flat flame pulverized coal burner. the fuel, the air supply should be regulated at the mouth of the burner as shown in Fig. 12, and it is always advisable to get as simple a burner as possible so that there will be no internal tubes, needle points or other mechanism to wear away, clog, carbonize or get out of order. A natural or commercial gas burner, such as is shown in Fig. 13 may be used in combination with an oil burner if desired. It, as well as the pulverized coal burner (Fig. 14), is very simply con- structed and without any intricate parts to get out of order. Both burners can be made to produce a long narrow flame or a broad fan-shaped blaze so as to span the width of the furnace or fire-box. Chapter IV OIL SYSTEMS The method or manner whereby liquid fuel is supplied to the burners is commonly called the "oil system." Requirements vary according to the type of the installation and the fuel burned, but any one who has burned oil for a short time appreciates that the designing of an oil system is quite an engineering feat for so much of the success of the equipment depends upon the oil system. Per- fect combustion is C0 2 , imperfect is CO. If you have one moment fAOM 40 TO Fig. 16. Position of thermometer on oil supply main. carbon dioxide and the next moment carbon monoxide, you can readily see the fuel is not scientifically consumed and this results in irreparable loss in time and fuel. The air pressure should be constant and the fuel should flow to the burner under a constant steady pressure, no matter whether that pressure be 1 pound, 20 pounds or more to the square inch. Light oils, which vaporize at about 130 degrees Fahrenheit, need not be heated but heavy oil or tar must be heated sufficiently to reduce the viscosity so that it will flow readily. This is ordinarily done by means of steam coils. Care 39 40 BURNING LIQUID FUEL however must be taken not to get the fuel too hot, for if it vaporizes you can not pump it. The vaporizing point of the various fuels has already been given in this volume, and as steam at 100 pounds pressure is 338 degrees Fahrenheit you can readily see that it is possible to heat the fuel above the vaporizing point. Thermometers should be placed at various points throughout the works, and one should be conveniently placed for the man who is responsible for keeping the proper temperature upon the fuel. In laying the piping care must be taken to keep the oil supply pipes below the level of the burner in order to prevent the forma- tion of vapor pockets, which are liable to entirely shut off the flow of fuel. All pipe fittings should be malleable iron. All unions on pipe lines must be either ground joint or flange unions with lead gaskets. Rubber gaskets can not be used because liquid fuel soon disintegrates the rubber. The use of a paste of litharge and glycer- ine on all pipe joints will prevent their leaking. It is essential to place a strainer made of wire netting in the tank to prevent lamp black or other foreign substances from getting into the pipes and valves and clogging them. No sane person to-day would venture near a storage tank with a lighted pipe, cigar, torch or any light other than electricity, but in order to prevent conflagration and serious loss of property through a steel storage tank being struck by lightning, or getting on fire through some accident, it is wise to run a large steam pipe line from the boiler room into the top of the tank. There should be a large number of holes in the pipe in the tank so that when the steam valve in or near the boiler room is opened, the steam will be widely diffused over the fuel in the tank. Of course the most simple system is that often used in gas works, mines and other places, where there are no insurance regulations or city ordinances to prevent one from placing the tank so that the fuel will flow by gravity, the supply being controlled by the neces- sary valves. The bottom of the oil tank is ordinarily placed from four to six feet above the level of the burners, but in gas houses often the tank is placed on top of the boiler so that the heat in the boiler room will heat the fuel sufficiently to reduce its viscosity. Figure 17 shows an oil supply system which conforms with the Underwriters' requirements and which is used in hundreds of plants. The storage tank, placed at some distance from any build- ing, is covered with two feet of earth. As the average oil tank OIL SYSTEMS 41 03 Q C.) > ^ o 2-J P "8 42 BURNING LIQUID FUEL car contains about 6,000 gallons I always recommend oil storage capacity of 10,000 gallons if the plant is on a railroad siding. Either one large tank or small ones coupled together as shown may be used. A reciprocating pump is preferable. I never advocate a rotary pump except when nothing but light oils will be used, and even then a rotary pump has a tendency to churn the fuel into a foam, thereby causing slight but noticeable explosions in the fire- box or furnace. By means of the pump, pulsometer and a pressure release valve (set at 12 pounds pressure), with this system 12 pounds pressure is constantly maintained on the main oil supply line whether one or a dozen burners are in operation. While light oil which vaporizes at about 130 degrees Fahrenheit does not need to be heated, oil of 16 gravity Baume is first heated by means of a steam coil in the storage tank and then by the exhaust from the pump so that after passing through this heater it is fed to the burner at just below the vaporizing point. As the base and residuum of very heavy oil, oil tar or coal tar has a tendency to clog the pressure valve used in the above system and render it worthless, it is sometimes advisable to install a "valveless system" similar to that shown in Fig. 18. In this case that portion of the oil pumped which is not used by the burners flows into a column or standpipe of sufficient height to give six or eight pounds pressure on the oil line, and then back again to the storage tank. With this arrangement there can be no fluctua- tion in the oil pressure. Should the fuel be accidentally heated at any time above the vaporizing point, you will note that this vapor can readily pass out of the top of the standpipe through a vent pipe extending above the roof of the building and ten feet from any smoke stack. In case the Underwriters do not permit the use of a column or standpipe, it is necessary to use the pressure relief valve. In Fig. 19 is shown oil system used for heating hotels, office buildings, etc. An electric motor operates an air compressor which supplies air to force the fuel from the storage tank to burner and also the air required through the burner to atomize the fuel. This system is absolutely reliable, for should a fuse burn out the oil and air supply to burner are stopped simultaneously. Or an oil or gas engine may be used and the compressor operated by a counter-shaft. In this case should the engine stop or belt break, OIL SYSTEMS 43 ~ 3 00 1-1 bio 44 BURNING LIQUID FUEL the compressor will at once cease to force the fuel to the burner. Both these systems are simple, safe and sane. For marine service, where the prevention of the waste of fresh water requires careful consideration, a turbine engine with con- Fig. 19. Compressed air system only adequate for light crude or fuel oil. denser may be used to operate the oil pump and a compressor of adequate size to furnish air at sufficient pressure to atomize the gravity of oil obtainable in any port and to distribute the heat in the fire-box, also the additional air required in the boiler room. This system as shown in Fig. 20 is very compact, efficient and economical. As the engine exhausts into a condenser, the loss of fresh water is reduced to the minimum. While oil used exclusively as fuel cannot compete with the price of coal in many localities, it is very necessary to use it to aid the coal fire while carrying peak loads. To effect the strictest economy crude oil or tar must always be heated to just below the vaporizing point. With the heavy oil, such as is produced in Mexico, it is sometimes advantageous to use an oil superheater so that, as for instance on a locomotive, if OIL SYSTEMS 45 46 BURNING LIQUID FUEL the oil is not heated sufficiently in the storage tank of tender or if the tank has just been refilled at the end of a division, by passing through a superheater just before it reaches the oil regulating cock, it will be fed to the burner at just below the vaporizing point. (See Fig. 52, page 76.) When burning heavy oil in fur- naces, if the fuel must come considerable distance, it is often es- sential to preheat it near the burner even if there is a steam heater pipe immediately under the oil supply line from the storage tank. A superheater is also valuable for heating tar between the storage Fig. 21. Oil regulating cock. tank and the burner so that it will be of such consistency that it can be readily atomized. When an ordinary globe valve is used to regulate the fuel sup- ply, and the valve is partly closed, the small opening between the valve proper and the seat acts as a strainer and any residuum or foreign substances in the oil finally closes the opening and cuts off the supply. We have here shown an oil regulating cock provided with a V-shaped, knife-edged opening in the plug, which not only has a shearing action on heavy liquid fuels, but enables the op- erator to secure the finest possible adjustment. It is unnecessary to make comparison between this cock and an ordinary globe valve or plug cock to any intelligent man who has had experience in handling liquid fuel. When a furnace is working continuously on OIL SYSTEMS 47 48 BURNING LIQUID FUEL -Jv. T - >5 ^s g K^s H l a ' Xx be I. OIL SYSTEMS 49 & I 50 BURNING LIQUID FUEL one class of work, this cock can be set by the adjusting screw so that when the burner is stopped for noon hour, or at night, it can be returned to the same adjustment when again started. Improper Oil System. Please note the following points while studying Fig. Nos. 22 and 23 : 1. There is no foot valve or strainer upon the suction pipe, which causes the pump to labor unnecessarily. 2. The suction pipe is so installed as to cause a vapor pocket, which results in the pump not functioning properly. 3. The supply pipe rises and then drops again. If the supply pipe is thus laid, the result is that there is a vapor pocket in the supply pipe, which always permits vapor to collect in the pipe and causes an intermittent flow of oil to the burner. 4. There is a "dead end." The laterals lead from the supply pipe to the boilers or furnaces (whatever the oil pumping system is for) and there is no provision for any circulation of the oil. 5. The overflow pipe from the pressure relief valve is coupled to the suction pipe, which is absolutely incorrect. 6. But one pump is provided, and should the piston rod of this pump break (which is liable to happen even with the best construction) the result is that the plant is shut down, all the officials humiliated, the output ceases and an investiga- tion follows; all of which is absolutely unnecessary if the oil pumping system is properly installed. An Oil System which never disappoints the operator is shown in Fig. Nos. 24, 25, 26, and 27. Proper Oil System. Please note the following: 1. The tank is buried underground to conform with Under- writers' requirements. 2. The pumps are above the oil tank. 3. Oil is heated by means of modern oil heaters. 4. Two pumps and heaters are supplied (one of each for re- serve). Each pump is supplied with a pump speed regula- tor so that in case the oil pressure on the oil supply line ex- ceeds 12 pounds the steam operating the pump is automatic- ally shut off, which in turn stops the operation of the pump. OIL SYSTEMS 61 52 BURNING LIQUID FUEL I e8 o> ^3 s 03 5 oa bfi O bJO OIL SYSTEMS 53 54 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 5. The oil supply pipe is so run that very short laterals are re- quired between the oil supply pipe and the boilers or fur- naces. 6. The pressure relief valve is set beyond the last boiler or furnace so that if the oil is heavy and must be heated, hot Fig. 28, Oil pump regulator. oil is delivered to all of the furnaces or boilers at all times at the proper temperature. 7. There are absolutely no "dead ends," but a perfect circula- tion of the oil. The overflow or excess oil passes through the overflow pipe and back to the oil storage tank. The OIL SYSTEMS 55 overflow pipe is declined so that the oil will flow by gravity from the relief valve to the tank. Fig. 29. Modern combination foot valve and strainer. Fig. 30. Pressure relief valve. Fig. 31. Pulsometer. 8. The oil supply tank is provided with a vent pipe, the exit end of which is covered with gauze so that the vapor rising from the oil can be vented from the vent pipe without danger. 56 BURNING LIQUID FUEL The manner of applying a modern oil system to a boiler is shown in Figs. 33 and 34. The cost for installation of the extra pump and heater is of minor importance as compared with a possible shut- down because of a broken piston rod, valve, spring, etc. The ex- haust of either pump may be employed for the heating of the oil, or if it is not desired to heat the oil, the exhaust of the pump may be by-passed to the open air. The valves upon the piping are so placed as to control the flow of oil to either one heater or to both heaters. The second heater, if desired, may be used to heat the oil by means of direct steam from the boiler to a higher temperature than can be obtained from the exhaust steam of the pump. The form of heater recommended is shown in Fig. 32. Fig. 32. Oil heater. Sometimes it is necessary during a coal strike or when for vari- ous other reasons the coal supply fails, to burn oil as an emergency fuel. In such a case it is advisable to use the temporary installation shown in Fig. 39. By means of the duplex pump and pressure relief valve set at 10 Ibs. a complete circulating system is effected and the excess oil is pumped back into the oil tank car. The pump should be coupled to the bottom of the tank and it is quite necessary to place a valve for drainage. This is a good system to use if you desire to run a test in a furnace, burning oil in place of coal. Oil storage tanks may be made in various forms and of various materials. That shown in Fig. 40 is of steel and you will note that there is an inner compartment provided with heater coils so that only approximately the quantity of fuel needed for one day is heated to the required temperature. This insures the fuel being supplied to the burners at the proper temperature and prevents deterioration OIL SYSTEMS 57 58 BURNING LIQUID FUEL OIL SYSTEMS 59 60 BURNING LIQUID FUEL o bo S 168 BURNING LIQUID FUEL STEEL FOUNDRY PRACTICE 169 .5? 170 BURNING LIQUID FUEL Fig. 143. Mould drying oven 44 feet long, 20 feet wide by 12 feet high in the clear, operated with one burner. Chapter XII HEAT-TREATING FURNACE PRACTICE In the heat-treatment of steel we must remember that the value of the steel depends wholly upon the heat-treatment which it re- ceives. Steel is not like copper, but is a very complex artificial Fig. 146. An indirect-fired furnace. product. In its annealed state a piece of .90 carbon tool steel is composed of ferrite and pearlite, but these minerals are decom- posed when heated to certain temperatures and others formed. For example, in heat-treating this tool steel there is no perceptible 171 172 BURNING LIQUID FUEL change until 1360 Fahrenheit is reached ; but if the temperature is increased to 1460, ferrite and pearlite have been decomposed and martensite is formed. Quenching at this point preserves the mar- tensitic condition and the metal is hard and brittle. In carbon steel, martensite is very sensitive to heat and decomposes readily, i. e., if the steel is heated sufficiently martensite disappears and Fig. 147. View showing the heat in an indirect-fired furnace passes from the heat chamber through graduated heat ports. ferrite and pearlite are again formed. For every variation of heat there is a variation in the grain of the metal. This steel an- neals between 1300 and 1350 degrees Fahrenheit. How important it is, therefore, to have a furnace of such con- struction that the temperature in any portion of the charging space does not vary more than 10 degrees Fahrenheit. HEAT TREATING FURNACE PRACTICE 173 For the average size indirect-fired furnace only one burner should be used, but for a furnace approximately 18 feet wide, 22 feet long x 7 feet high (Fig. 151), two burners are required. More than two burners should not be used, for it is impossible to regu- late a larger number of burners so as to have the heat as evenly distributed throughout the entire length and width of the furnace as it should be in order to perfectly heat-treat the metal. If this is important in the annealing or tempering of steel, it is equally as essential in the case-hardening of metals. C A** r/N& ~*.. 1&- -V0- ~&~ -gfr -3P _ -- -- < ^ -^B^ ^.-. :a ^:^ V^;>/.,^^^v>V.^r,^;^"4 *^ ; -l^;^.^^'^}OX : :1^1i 4ffW&>^^^^ Fig. 148. View showing heat ports of an indirect-fired furnace. An indirect-fired furnace is not suitable for the heat-treatrnent of high speed alloy steel, for this requires a much higher tempera- ture than carbon steel. As the temperature should be above 2000 degrees Fahrenheit, I recommend a direct-fired furnace having combustion chamber of such form and proportions as to insure the ignition of the oxygen necessary for perfect combustion with the atomized fuel before it reaches the furnace proper, thereby reduc- ing the oxidation of the metal to the minimum. Since it is true that the value of steel depends wholly upon the 174 BURNING LIQUID FUEL Fig. 149. Direct-fired furnace with preheating chamber for high-speed tool steel. HEAT TREATING FURNACE PRACTICE 175 heat-treatment it receives, to obtain the desired results it is essen- tial to establish and maintain an even temperature throughout the entire length and width of the furnace. For the heat-treatment of carbon steel, which requires an indirect-fired furnace, this can only be done by means of graduated heat ports. Only one burner Fig. 150. Double shell annealing furnace. should be used, the heat therefrom passing from the fire chamber into the charging space of the furnace through graduated heat ports substantially as shown in Fig. 148. As long as the fuel and atomizer supply remain constant, the burner, without any adjust- ment will operate without causing the slightest variation in the temperature of the charging space. This type of furnace should be 176 BURNING LIQUID FUEL used for all classes of annealing, case-hardening and tempering where the metal must be kept away from the direct flame. The Fig. 151. Indirect-fired car annealing furnace. size and the location of the heat ports is an engineering problem requiring most careful consideration. If they are not scientifically HEAT TREATING FURNACE PRACTICE 177 and accurately proportioned the incoming air used for the atomiza- tion of the fuel or to suppoj-t combustion will cause an excessive heat at the end of the furnace opposite the burner. Fig. 152. Shaft annealing furnace, car type, modern construction. For high-speed tool steel a direct-fired furnace is necessary. The more modern types have a preheating chamber above the charging space ; the waste gases from the lower chamber passing up into the 178 BURNING LIQUID FUEL preheating chamber slowly preheat the charge before it is passed into the furnace proper, thus preventing the too sudden expansion of the metal (see cut, Fig. 149) . Each of the two ovens of the double shell annealing furnace (Fig. Fig. 153. Car annealing furnace, overhead oil-fired, operated with only one burner. 150) requires a burner. These ovens are heated from below and the perforated cast iron drums are revolved by power. The drums roll out on the brackets in front to charge or empty the shells. The end walls of the double car annealing furnace shown in Fig. 151 are carried on the cars, so it is a very simple matter to pull HEAT TREATING FURNACE PRACTICE 179 the cars in and out of the furnace. While two cars are being heat- treated, others are being filled and made ready for charging and in this way the furnace is operated continuously. This furnace re- quires two burners, one in each of the farther corners. The car-type shaft annealing furnace (Fig. 152) is of most modern construction. It is so built that by means of the heat ports, 7'* ?' Fig. 154. Annealing furnace, 7 ft. square, with rotary table. the heat is evenly distributed. It can be operated to maintain the temperature required at all times and that temprature will not vary more than ten degrees in any portion of the entire length and width of the charging space. By means of differential gears the speed of the rotary table shown in Fig. 154 is regulated according to the size of the stock being 180 BURNING LIQUID FUEL HEAT TREATING FURNACE PRACTICE 182 BURNING LIQUID FUEL ft T3 1 bJO > ll OJO HEAT TREATING FURNACE PRACTICE 183 heat-treated, so that when the table has made one revolution, the charge is ready to be removed from the furnace. By means of either an air jack or a hydraulic ram, the 155mm. shells, placed one against the other, are forced down the ways as Fig. 158. Lead, oil or solution bath furnace. indicated in Figs. 155 and 156. They are heated as they pass through the furnace and after attaining the required temperature, they automatically drop into the bath. From this bath they are carried into the drawing furnace, which is immediately opposite the heat-treating furnace in which they were subjected to the higher temperature. Only one burner is required on this heat-treating furnace, the combustion chamber being of adequate proportions for the consumption of the atomized fuel and the even distribution of the heat. The cold punched nuts or cold headed rivets and bolts are charged into the chute at the burner end of the rotary furnace shown in Fig. 157 and annealed while passing through the revolving furnace. They then drop into the hopper, placed under the farther end of the furnace. The type of furnace shown in Fig. 158 is used in the heat-treat- ment of steel because it reduces oxidization to the minimum. The 184 BURNING LIQUID FUEL pot or receptacle used for the bath may be round or oblong or what- ever shape and size is most desirable. The tangential flame encir- cles the pot so that the heat is evenly distributed. The operator has the fire under perfect control and can attain and maintain the tem- perature required to perfectly heat-treat the metal. After once being set, the burner will operate continuously without the slightest variation as long as the Dil and air supply remain constant. The burner requires either crude or fuel oil and compressed air. Vol- ume or fan air should be used through the volume air nozzle under the burner. For temperatures up to 1600 deg. Fahrenheit, lead is sometimes used as the bath and it is also sometimes used in drawing steel at Fig. 159. Semi-pit furnace with bung arch for annealing, case-hardening or heat treating. 700 deg. For a solution bath for temperatures ranging from 1400 to 1600 deg. a good mixture is three parts Barium Chloride and two parts Potassium Carbonate. Where a very low temperature is required, Sodium Silicate is used as the melting point of this is 113 deg. Fahrenheit. Sodium melts at 572 deg. and Zinc at 504 deg. Fahrenheit. The bung arch on the Semi-pit Furnace (Fig. 159) can be re- moved with a crane or an air hoist. The charging space of this furnace is twelve feet long by five feet wide and four feet high. It is operated with only one burner. Many manufacturers prefer to have their furnaces constructed in their works by their own or a local mason. They usually pur- HEAT TREATING FURNACE PRACTICE 185 chase the furnace designs, together with the oil burner equipment from engi- neer in that line of business. The small angle or heat-treating furnace of semi- Fig. 160. Small angle or heat-treating furnace of semi-muffle type. 186 BURNING LIQUID FUEL muffle type, shown in Fig. 160, is one which can readily be con- structed in this manner and is a very well proportioned furnace for a small plant. The pit type furnace for steel foundry castings (Fig. 161) is six- teen feet wide, twenty-four feet long and six feet four inches to the bung, is operated with only one burner and is of such construc- tion that the waste gases pass out from the base of the furnace through vent ports. It is often necessary to change a coal or coke-fired furnace to oil- fired. In many cases this can readily be done by simply construct- ing a combustion chamber in the firebox and bricking up the firing door as shown in Fig. 163. A few years ago but little attention was paid to the annealing of grey iron castings. However, experience has taught us the neces- sity of removing as far as possible all strains from these castings. The declined hearth furnace (Fig. 164) has been constructed for the annealing of various sizes of cast iron pipe. The arch is pro- vided with two doors (located, one on either side of the burner) which can be raised just sufficiently to admit the various sizes of pipe. In Fig. 165, we have a battery of three furnaces for heat-treating automobile springs. First, there is the high temperature furnace in which the stock is charged before being bent. Number two is the heat-treating furnace in which the flat springs, after being bent, are charged and heated to approximately 1640 deg. Fahrenheit. The quenching tank is not shown, but after being quenched, the springs are charged into furnace number three where they are drawn to 680 deg. This battery of furnaces is ideal for a repair plant but of course it is at all times necessary for the plant metal- lurgist to determine the temperatures required as these will vary according to the carbon content of the steel. The use of hot-air furnaces for drawing steel (Fig. 166) has had a remarkable growth during the past two years, because they are clean and admirably adapted for the distribution of heat. More- over they can be located in a small building some distance from the factory if desired, or they can be installed in the basement or in any other portion of the building or factory. There is no fuel superior to oil for this class of service. HEAT TREATING FURNACE PRACTICE /?^8:r. 187 t ! f ,.' * / joo/f I N *-* !. i -f<' *""" ^* , . >., :, 1 -\\\ 4 i * p ' vy^:* ; -'*v*^^v^ &&!& .*.>: v." -rv.if ' ** : v. <- * ; ?. : u : * S'^x^^L^r;*.^ ^-'^ &V&feV>-vSv~^ Fig. 189. Heat-treating furnace. capital lying idle and the workmen are constantly employed. Room 3 is the large forging department, with its forge machines or piercing machines. Room 4 is a small drop forge plant in which board drops or steam drop hammers are used. These furnaces are of modern construction, usually twin-type. The object of this is obvious, for as a charge is put into one section of the furnace and heated, stock is being drawn and forged from the other. Room 5 is the heat-treating department, and the next (Room 6) is the store room for finished forgings. Room 7 is the boiler room. In MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 223 other words, the metal is charged at one end of the plant and reaches the store room as finished forgings, after being carefully heat-treated and inspected. In the construction of a forge shop, the first thing to do is to find the proper size of furnaces required for the forgings. Never build a building until you know the size of the furnaces required for maximum output. You will notice that there is a circulating oil system extending to all the furnaces, and the main oil pipe also passes into the boiler room (No. 7) in order to protect the power plant against a shut- down in case there should be a coal strike or coal shortage, or a car shortage. It is poor business and poor shop practice to wait for the coal strike to come before procuring the necessary oil-burn- ing equipment for the boilers. This should always be on hand if oil is used in any other portion of the works. A heat-treating furnace, of course, should be of modern con- struction. We usually recommend a semi-muffle type, as shown in Fig. 190, having graduated heat ports, the heat being made in the lower chamber and delivered to the charging chamber of the fur- nace through these graduated heat ports. It is distributed in such a way as to insure an even distribution of heat through the entire length and width of the furnace. We have found this can only be done by graduated heat ports because the velocity of the atomized fuel from the burner would otherwise make the opposite end of the furnace two or three hundred degrees hotter if all the heat ports were made of the same proportions. The sulphur contents in the Mexican oil often run as high as 3.85 per cent. It therefore necessitates the use of a canopy so that all the obnoxious gases will be removed from the furnace or forge shop and not annoy the workmen nor cause them to become dissatisfied. As before stated, the metallurgist is an indispensable man about the forge plant, for upon him devolves the responsibility of making the forgings of the tensile strength demanded by the users. He is a competitor of the iron and steel foundry, for he makes the forged product of the highest stability and at the same time pre- vents any waste of metal by not having the drop forgings larger than is absolutely necessary. Of course the tensile strength of the metal is increased by heat-treating, and it is this man who states the temperatures to the furnace operator which govern him in the operation of the furnace, and he in turn maintains the temperature specified by the metallurgist. 224 BURNING LIQUID FUEL The die maker is another invaluable man and is a co-worker with the metallurgist. He is the man responsible for the accuracy of the shape and size of the drop forgings. He should be a man of excellent judgment and prevent waste of metal. The plant superintendent is the man who demands a maximum output by developing team work in all the departments, and en- deavors to have an important watchword such as: "WE LEAD ALL SHOPS IN EFFICIENCY, ECONOMY, MAXIMUM OUT- PUT OF SUPERIOR QUALITY." The successful superintendent tfcrrott ft \ Fig. 190. Ingot heating furnace. is the man who leads and never follows, a "progressive" in the true sense of that word, not a dreamer obtaining his knowledge and making improvements by best known modern practices. He should be like Columbus, who did not follow the ideas and ideals of other mariners of his day, but had a greater vision ; otherwise America never would have been discovered. The superintendent who copies the furnace construction and methods of other companies cannot lead; he must necessarily follow. The man who imitates is never a very dependable official. He lacks the ability of an ex- MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 225 ecutive. Often we find men who try to copy the methods of others. The class of work, the construction of the furnaces, and the method of operating studied in another plant might be absolutely impractical in his plant, and the result is that the imitation ends in a miserable failure. It is all very well to investigate methods, but it is not always wise to copy them. There are so many things that enter into their practical use that one must be very guarded in striving to emulate the exact practice of another works. I am well aware that oil, in marine service, is attractive be- cause of the saving effected in labor, there being no discharging of ashes, as well as the time saved in charging the oil fuel on the vessel as against the time required for the loading of coal, and also the advantage of being able to increase the speed of the vessel, the cleanliness, and improved sanitary conditions as well as the fact that this fuel elevates the mind of the fireman as his duty does not require mere brawn but brains for the scientific burning of oil, and gives him the feeling that though he is housed up in a hot boiler room (much cooler because of the use of oil as fuel) he is a man "for a* that." In tug boat service oil is even more attractive as a fuel than it is for ocean-going vessels. In numerous tests it has been found that two oil-fired tug boats will take the place of three tugs of the same size and power, and having all other conditions the same as when using coal as fuel. Yet we must consider the use and the many advantages of this fuel for the manufacturers whose products must furnish at least a part of the cargo for these vessels or else these vessels will be operated at a loss. For example, Fig. 190 shows a vertical mid-section view of an ingot-heating furnace operated with liquid fuel. The large ingot is brought to a forging heat in five (5) hours* time. The tempera- ture in any portion of this furnace will not (while taking a 12- foot heat) vary more than 20 degrees Fahrenheit. The weight of that portion of the ingot that is heated is thirty-six (36) tons. You will note that there is a combustion chamber which is used to consume the atomized fuel before reaching the furnace proper, and it is so located as to insure a reverberation of the heat around the ingot. This gives an even distribution of heat, which is absorbed uniformly by the ingot, and the result is that the ingot does not require turning. One heater can operate six of such furnaces, and only eighty-two (82) gallons of oil are required to represent 226 BURNING LIQUID FUEL a ton of coal, as before mentioned. Now, compare this with a coal-fired ingot-heating furnace, heating the same size ingot to the same temperature. It will require thirty (30) hours, instead of five (5) hours to heat it, and owing to the variation of the tem- perature in the furnace (it is usually from 250 to 300 degrees hotter at the top of the furnace just past the bridge wall, than at MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 227 the base of the furnace) the ingot must be constantly turned in different positions so that the upper portion of the ingot will not become overheated. It requires at least six (6) men to turn and rebrick around the ingot. There is not a metallurgist in the world who will not agree with me in the statement that any furnace in which can be secured an even distribution of heat is attractive, as it means even absorption of heat. I am very sure that all forge- men, also, will agree with me that forgings should be heated as evenly as possible in order to reduce to the minimum all strains caused by uneven temperatures while heating. The men in marine service will get a new vision also, and that is, in the forging industry oil is even more attractive than in marine boiler equip- ment on ocean-going vessels because a great deal more labor can be saved in a forge shop than in marine service, to say nothing of the increased output and superior quality of the product from the forge shop. In times of peace oil should be used only upon as few naval boats as possible. It should be used on some vessels, how- ever, owing to the fact that men should be trained in the art of operating oil burners. It would be well to have the boilers of the vessels interchangeable so that they can readily be changed from coal to oil, and from oil back to coal, for in a case of war oil should be used if possible on naval vessels. I know that there are a large number of merchant vessels now being equipped with oil in order to save labor and avoid strikes. I believe that will only be used temporarily, but I am equally confident that the nation which con- serves its oil and gives its manufacturers all the oil they require, will be the manufacturing nation of the future. Continuous furnaces (Fig. 191), have either an inclined or de- clined hearth and are the most economical furnaces in use because with them you retain as much of the waste heat as is possible. Sometimes waste heat is carried to a boiler, while in other types of furnaces the waste heat is vented without the use of the stack. The latter form is preferable. In drop forge practice the twin-type furnace as shown in Fig. 192 is always preferable to a furnace having only a single charging opening owing to the fact that you will get a more even heat on blanks or small billets charged, because often in actual practice with a single type furnace there is but a space of about the width of an ingot between the last blank charged and the one about to be drawn from the furnace. This practice produces an uneven 228 BURNING LIQUID FUEL MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 229 1 i 5 ! s ; - s < , - v, * \ . ! ? \ H n 5 t ^ ;. ; 5 :' r" 5 i at : -< y . * * ;S < * ,: 1 i I j \ ? s j | 5 j: 'l i !; 1? 0= ffli liiiii E E rl - i 5 fi r 3fco 230 . BURNING LIQUID FUEL temperature on the next blank that is to be drawn because the cold blank absorbs the heat more rapidly than the one that is almost the temperature required for forging, and this results in the un- even heating of the forging next to be drawn from the furnace. We have never known of any firm which, having used the twin- type furnace, has returned to the single opening type of furnace. Blanks are charged into one of the openings of the twin-type fur- nace and are brought to heat while the blanks of the other section of the twin-type furnace are being drawn and forged. This type of furnace occupies more room, but the output is greater and more even heats are obtained, which of course pleases the forgeman. In the construction of furnaces always use the best non-expand- ing fire brick procurable that will withstand the temperature your work requires, remembering that it costs just as much to build or reline a furnace using poor brick as good brick, and some fire brick is not worth putting in at all. Modern heat deflectors should be provided with which to de- flect the heat from the furnace operator. This should be done in order to prevent the workman from being overheated and to en- able the operator to obtain the maximum output with minimum fatigue. Every furnace should be of the proportions required for the maximum output. It should be modern in every detail and should be so constructed that the upkeep of the furnaces will be reduced to the minimum. Construction along scientific lines is absolutely essential in order to get the maximum output, maintain the re- quired temperature and an even distribution of heat. This is essential and must always be considered by the engineer designing the furnaces. A modern furnace is shown in Fig. 193. Some firms desire to place their furnaces on concrete foundations such as are shown in Fig. 194. The furnace is made of channel iron and can be removed to the mason's room by the night force when repairs on the lining are necessary. The furnace shown in Fig. 196 was originally fired with coal but it has been changed to oil-fired. The waste heat from this furnace passes up through the elements of the boiler and then out through the stack. In Fig. 198 we have a furnace serving two bolt headers. (Note the absence of flame from the charging openings.) A furnace of this type is often placed between a bolt header and a rivet making MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 231 Fig. 194. Portable forge furnace. 232 BURNING LIQUID FUEL bfl MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 233 234 BURNING LIQUID FUEL Fig. 197. Forge in which oil is used exclusively as fuel. MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 235 machine. In either case, it will serve both machines to the limit of the physical endurance of the operators. If desired for rivet heat- ing in larger quantities, various sizes can be heated at one time. A large coal-fired forging furnace is changed to oil fuel by simply building a combustion chamber of proper form and proportions in the former fire-box and placing a burner at the end of this combus- tion chamber. With this slight change the operator has now an oil furnace wherein the fire is under perfect control and from which he obtains a maximum quantity of output of superior quality. When a furnace of this type (Fig. 199) is changed from coal to oil, the operator almost invariably wishes to operate the furnace just the same as when burning coal. That is, by having an abundance of Fig. 198. Furnace serving two bolt headers. flame (about 2 ft. high) passing out of the door opening. You might thus run an oil-fired furnace for days without getting a weld- ing heat, but when the oil is regulated so that only a greenish haze about 6 in. long passes out of the door, C0 2 is effected and in a few moments in the interior of the furnace can be seen a glow which insures a welding heat, thereby giving not only the highest efficiency from the fuel but also the greatest output from the furnace. For dressing drills and other high speed steel tools it is convenient to have a furnace of the type shown in Fig. 200. This furnace is also valuable for a wide range of forging in smith shops, etc. Placed 236 BURNING LIQUID FUEL between two bolt heaters, a furnace of this type with charging opening on each side, will serve both machines to the limit of the men's ability to handle the blanks. A furnace with two charging openings will produce double the output of the same size furnace with only one opening, with increase in oil consumption of less than 30 per cent. The man or firm who intends to continue in business and com- pete with modern methods must of necessity use liquid fuel for the manufacture of drop forgings as with this can be produced the Fig. 199. Forging furnace changed from coal to oil-fired. maximum quantity of output of superior quality in minimum time. Anyone who has used oil as fuel quickly notices the softness of the heat. That is, oil produces a penetrating heat so that the metal is thoroughly heated throughout its entirety, while that heated with coal, coke or gas is subjected to an abrasive heat so that the out- side of the blank or forging is heated much hotter than the center. Because of the penetrating heat produced by liquid fuel, oil heated MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 2S7 blanks and f orgings are forged quicker, with less power, and there is also a saving on the dies. Furnaces (Fig. 201) for this purpose should be of such design that the heat will be evenly distributed throughout the charging zone and a proper size combustion chamber used to reduce the oxidization of the metal to the minimum. A 12-in. billet charged into the furnace shown in Fig. 202, after Fig. 200. Furnace for heating high speed steel, etc. A Oil burner. B Oil regulating cock. C Air pipe. D Oil pipe. E Deflection blast pipe. F. Auxiliary blast. it has been shut down over night can be brought to a forging heat in 45 minutes. A 10-in. square ingot or billet can then be brought to a forging heat in 32 minutes. This furnace is used for annealing, tempering, heating, forging and welding large billets, shafts, etc. As there are two charging openings opposite one another, heats can be taken on any portion of long shafts or billets. In many plants 238 BURNING LIQUID FUEL this furnace is operated with compressed air as long as that is available. When the air is needed for pneumatic tools, etc., by sim- ply opening a by-pass valve, steam at boiler pressure is used to atomize the fuel. Either steam or volume air (at from 3 to 5 oz. pressure) is used through the deflection blast in front of the charg- ing opening to deflect the heat from the operator and retain it in the furnace. In Fig. 203 we have an 8 ft. x 24 ft. furnace used for years in Fig. 201. Small drop forging furnace. rolling mills or large blacksmith shops, where they have to use all kinds of scrap iron which must be brought up to a welding heat before passing through the rolls or forged under the steam hammer. Only one burner is used, but this, giving a fan-shaped flame and used in conjunction with a combustion chamber of proper size, causes an even distribution of heat throughout the entire length and width of the furnace. The waste gases, passing up through a 350 H. P. vertical water-tube boiler, are utilized for the generation of steam. MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 239 Fig. 202. Billet heating furnace. 240 BURNING LIQUID FUEL bo 1 ,c: +-> ^Q> 3 I 1 MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 241 bfl 242 BURNING LIQUID FUEL In many plants there is great need for a furnace designed for dressing and tempering high speed tools (60 carbon upwards), such as lathe, planer, shaper, slotters, chisels, flats, capes, etc. (Fig. 205.) Instead of the blacksmith heating but one chisel at a time as is the case while using a coal forge, with this furnace seven chisels Fig. 205. Small tool dressing furnace. can be heated at once without injury to the metal. The heat being held at the required temperature constantly, a much superior tool is produced than could possibly be made by the use of coal or coke. A forging heat can be obtained eight minutes after starting the cold furnace and it is not necessary to speak of the output as that is up to the endurance of the man operating the furnace. There is no waste of fuel while the furnace is not in use. Chapter XV BOILER MANUFACTURERS' FURNACE EQUIPMENT Fig. 208. Plate heating furnace, charging space 18 ft. x 30 ft. Ordinarily only one burner should be installed in the average plate heating furnace if you want a good even heat, but this should be a burner giving a flat fan-shaped flame, which in conjunction with a combustion chamber of adequate proportions, distributes a blanket of flame and heat evenly throughout the entire length and width of the furnace. Sometimes, however, it is advantageous to have a furnace in which plates of various lengths can be heated. That shown in Fig. 209 has two bag-walls and for short heats only 243 244 BURNING LIQUID FUEL the first burner is operated. For longer heats the first bag wall is removed and two burners used. For full length heats both bag- walls are removed and all three burners operated. In the furnace shown in Fig. 213, the bars are charged in at one end of the furnace and drawn out at the other end. For small rivets, some people prefer to cut the bars into lengths of eight or nine feet. The length of furnaces of this type will vary according to the sizes of the rivets to be made and the length of the bars to be heated as blanks for the rivets. For a wide range of small work in a small shop, the little fur- nace shown in Fig. 214 is ideal. For instance, in many plants one & line Vie**. Fig. 209. Long plate heating furnace with two bag walls. of these little furnaces is used for forging, rivet heating, annealing, hardening dies, dressing high speed steel tools, and by placing a muffle in the charging space it is used as a muffle annealing and tempering furnace. It heats rivets uniformly and on 2% gallons of oil per hour is equal to four coal forges, the maximum capacity being eight thousand %-in. x 3-in. rivets per day (ten hours). Either compressed air or dry steam can be used to atomize the fuel. The burners on about 60% of these furnaces are operated with steam. While a small furnace (Fig. 214) is ideal for heating small rivets, larger rivets should be heated in a larger furnace, preferably of the twin charging type (Fig. 215). Some rivets can in this type of furnace be shoveled in through one of the openings and while BOILER MANUFACTURERS' FURNACE EQUIPMENT 245 that batch of rivets is being heated, others (which had been previ- ously charged) are being withdrawn from the other opening. In using a bull riveter it is necessary to heat the rivets quickly and at the same time reduce the scale as much as possible. It is therefore essential to have a combustion chamber on the furnace so as to reduce the oxidization of the metal to the minimum. Fig. 210. Plate heating furnace, charging space 8 ft. x 9 ft. Fig. 216. A self-contained portable outfit with 20 gallon oil tank, which can readily be moved around from place to place and which is used for heating rivets as well as for forging, tool dressing, etc. Very convenient for small work in shops not equipped with the regu- lar oil system as well as for work where portable outfit is necessary. Compressed air at pneumatic tool pressure is used to operate this outfit. That is, the full pressure is used through the burner to atomize the fuel and distribute the heat, and through the deflection blast in front of the charging opening to deflect the heat from the operator and to retain it in the furnace, but the air used on the tank 246 BURNING LIQUID FUEL BOILER MANUFACTURERS' FURNACE EQUIPMENT 247 to force the oil to the burner is reduced from pneumatic tool pres- sure to 12 Ibs. as it passes through a pressure reducing valve. This device is most essential to prevent excessive pressure on the oil tank and safeguard human life. Fie 212 Flange furnace, twin door type, charging space 14 ft. wide by 20 ft. long, Angle heating furnaces are needed in boiler works, shipyards, etc. That shown (Figs. 217, 218, 219 and 220) is so constructed that you only operate as many burners as are actually required. In this 248 BURNING LIQUID FUEL BOILER MANUFACTURERS' FURNACE EQUIPMENT 249 particular furnace heats varying in length from six to sixty-seven feet can be taken, but of course the furnace could have been con- structed for taking heats one hundred feet long equally as well if de- sired. No stack is used upon this type of furnace. Until quite recently wood was used for firing up boilers in boiler shops for testing purposes, or in locomotive works for rais- Fig. 214. Small forging furnace. ing steam to set pops when the locomotive is completed. By us- ing oil instead of wood for this purpose there is 50 per cent, saving in time and cost. With an apparatus such as shown in operation in Fig. 221 the operator has the fire under perfect control, and one man can look after 5 or 6 furnaces at a time. For the largest Mogul engine we use either one furnace, such as shown in Fig. 222 which gives a fan-shaped incandescent flame 18 inches to 10 feet 250 BURNING LIQUID FUEL ' BOILER MANUFACTURERS' FURNACE EQUIPMENT 251 in length at a point 6 feet from the furnace, the flame being 4 feet wide, or two of the smaller portable furnaces shown in Fig. 223, which give a round incandescent flame 1 foot long, 3 inches in dia- meter to 6 feet long and about 10 inches in diameter. For a smaller size locomotive ordinarily one of the furnaces shown in Fig. 223 is used. These furnaces are also used for a multitude of other purposes Fig. 216. Portable, self-contained outfit for rivet heating, etc. such as setting up corners of fire-box sheets to mud-rings; flang- ing, laying on patches, heating crown sheets, heating and welding band rings; bending pipe up to 16-inch diameter without sand filling; (straight pipe is laid on bending table with a shaper ar- ranged to suit curve; one end of pipe is clamped, and pipe bent 252 BURNING LIQUID FUEL BOILER MANUFACTURERS' FURNACE EQUIPMENT 253 I? 03 O '! 254 BURNING LIQUID FUEL after heat is applied to outside of bend, thus stretching metal on the outside, without buckling inside of bend) ; straightening bent frames after a wreck, etc., etc. Referring to Fig. 223 you will note that compressed air (pneu- matic tool pressure) is used to operate this equipment. The full pressure is used through the burner to atomize the fuel and dis- tribute the heat, but the air used to force the fuel from the tank Fig. 219. End view of angle heating furnace, showing the location of the sixth burner. Fig. 220. Door end view of angle heating furnace. to burner passes through a reducing valve which reduces it from pneumatic tool pressure to 10 pounds on the tank. To safeguard human life this pressure reducer is most essential. The welding of the rudder of the "Brutus" in 1905 was considered a remarkable achievement at that time, for it was the first time in the history of any navy yard or private ship yard that a weld had BOILER MANUFACTURERS' FURNACE EQUIPMENT 255 been successfully made under these conditions, using oil as fuel. The feat was accomplished with the author's equipment. It is pos- sible with oil as fuel to make a better weld than can be made with any other fuel, for the metal is made more homogeneous. Fig. 221. Portable furnace, rest- ing in fire door opening, firing up a locomotive boiler. Fig. 222. Portable furnace shown in operation in Fig. 221. Fig. 223. Smaller portable furnace with hose and tank on truck. There are three ways of welding locomotive frames. Thermit and oxy-acetylene are efficient but very costly, while with oil in about 40 minutes with a few gallons of oil a perfect weld is made. 256 BURNING LIQUID FUEL c I g i 1 1 OJ o O I c