^^^^^^^w 9S88B8 mSSSt THE THINKING HAND MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED LONDON BOMBAY CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO DALLAS SAN FRANCISCO THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD. TORONTO THE THINKING HAND OR PRACTICAL EDUCATION IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL BY T. G. LEGGE j DIRECTOR OF EDUCATION IN THE CITY OF LIVERPOOL MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED ST. MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON 1914 V COPYRIGHT G. STANLEY HALL, PH.D., LL.D., PRESIDENT OF CLARK UNIVERSITY, U.S.A. AUTHOR OF "ADOLESCENCE" AND OF "YOUTH," THIS VOLUME IS VERY RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED. Thatiger Geist und sinniger Hand Ziehen den Segen ins Vaterland." Non ha 1' ottimo artista alcun concetto Ch' un marmo solo in se non circonscriva Col suo soverchio ; e solo a quello arriva La man che ubbidisce all' intelletto." MICHAEL ANGELO, Sonnet xv. PREFACE. LORD HALDANE has recently been delivering his views on our educational system or want of system. He appears to regard the situation as chaotic, and to be as much troubled by chaos in education as by unrest in society. Obvious remedies are parliamentary action and administrative action ; a new bill, more codes and regulations. But Lord Haldane is more than a mandarin ; he is also a philosopher. And the philosopher brooding over chaos has conceived an additional remedy for all ills cheap access to univer- sities. Harmony, of which universities in general furnish so many rich examples, is to be restored to society and education by a touch of the academic wand. One object of this book is to show that the workers on lower planes of education than the universities are not conscious of living in a state of chaos, but are progressing steadily without the intervention of the Homeric heroes of Parliament and the Board of Education. The Zeitgeist is abroad, and the rank and file, in obedience to it, are, as they ought to do, working out their own salvation. One of the lines, perhaps the main line, on which the ele- mentary school system is advancing is the movement towards the introduction of a manual side into the activities of our elementary schools. This move- ment has made astonishing progress in recent years, not merely, or chiefly, in England, but all over the world, in the British Colonies, notably Canada, in the United States, in Scandinavia, in Germany, and no doubt elsewhere. In Canada indeed certain illustrated official publications lead one to the view that, despite the fine efforts of several of our English counties, a distinctively rural education, so far as practical gardening and estate carpentry are con- cerned, is more general there than in the old country. This book deals with the movement as it displays itself in city schools. Liverpool's reputation for modesty will save the writer from any accusation that he is glorifying the city which he serves. The fact is that dwellers in Liverpool are no better informed of what is going on inside their own schools viii PREFACE than are the inhabitants of any other city in the country. Liverpool is not unique ; as full a picture could no doubt be furnished by many another large town. The author naturally selected the city best known to him. The letterpress is here simply to explain and lead up to the illustrations, which are designed to give the general public, in a single evening and without the need of stirring from an easy chair, such a view of one side of the work going on in our public elementary schools, as could otherwise only be got by a person- ally conducted inquirer whirled about the city for a whole week in a taxi-cab. The photographs of many phases of the work are piled one on the top of another to show that the work is being done in the mass ; to convince the public that visits are not being paid only to carefully selected experimental stations. Considerations of space have unfortunately dictated the omission of all illus- tration of what is going on in our Infant Schools better known in any case than schools for older scholars and of one branch of handicraft, viz. drawing, in which during the past five or six years little short of a revolution has been accomplished. The material afforded by drawing is only too copious, and demands a volume to itself. While the Appendices, as well as the illustrations, may afford some useful hints and suggestions to persons taking a professional interest in their subject, the design of the book precludes any attempt to compete with the numerous text-books, many of great value, which are being poured out for the guidance of teachers addressing themselves to the problems of hand-work in the work- shop, domestic centre, and class-room. There is nothing original in his efforts, but the author makes no apology for quoting largely both from others and from himself. He quotes from others where they have said in better words than he could command, and with more authority, what he desired to say, and from himself where poverty of expression has prevented him from finding a new formula of words in which to cloak his ideas. He can only express the hope in conclusion that those who do the book the honour of at least glancing through the illustrations will not only be interested, but will also realise that the pathological aspect of childhood, of which we hear so much, is not the only one, and that in the realisation of a sane and sound future for the child, the teacher, even if a modest place be reserved for the parent, will have quite as much to do as the doctor. J. G. LEGGE. October 20th, 1913. CONTENTS. CHAPTER p AGE I. CLEARING THE GROUND - . i II. THE GROWTH OF AN IDEA 7 III. ON THE APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES - 15 IV. ON WORK AND PLAY - - - 21 V. A DREAM - - 28 VI. PLAIN FACTS - 37 APPENDICES. I. SCHEMES MAINLY FOR GIRLS. A . Hygiene and Household Science - 44 B. Care of Infants and Young Children 48 C. Syllabuses of Cookery and Laundry Work 52 D. Specimen Scheme of Instruction in Combined Domestic Subjects, including Housewifery 75 E. Alternative Scheme of Housewifery 83 II. SCHEMES MAINLY FOR BOYS. A . Notes on Schemes of Handicraft - 85 B. Specimen Schemes of Hand-work in Particular Schools - 88 C. Syllabus of Cookery Instruction for Boys - 103 D. Scheme of Gardening and Nature Study in Suburban School - 104 x CONTENTS III. ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Clay Modelling - - 109 Paper Cutting and Folding - 115 Paper and Cardboard Modelling - 116 Lino Cutting and Printing - - 120 Raffia Work - - 121 Care of Infants - 124 Housewifery - 127 Sewing, Mending and Making (Girls) - - 135 Clothes Mending Spinning - - 142 Plain and Fancy Needlework - 143 Knitting (Boys) - - 144 Clothes Mending (Boys) - 145 Clothes, Boot and Clog Mending (Boys) - 146 Patched Garments - 147 Cookery (Girls) - - 149 Cookery (Boys) - - 155 Laundry Work - 157 Handicraft (Boys) - 163 Handicraft (Boys and Girls) - - 167 Woodwork Models - 168 Woodwork and Cardboard Models - 171 School-made Apparatus and Models - - 172 Toys - - 178 Historical Costumes, Weapons, etc. - 182 Metal Work - - 184 Metal Work Models - 188 School-made Apparatus - 190 Brass, Leather and Stone Work - - 191 Human Habitations - - 192 Large Models - 200 Use of Hygrometer and Theodolite - 204 Use of Plane Table - 205 Wireless Telegraphy Surveying - - 206 Use of Museum - - 207 School Gardening - 209 Nature Study - 212 Miniature Rifle Shooting - 216 CHAPTER I. CLEARING THE GROUND. THE purpose of this book is, as stated in the preface, to give some idea of one of the most effective movements now to be found in the sphere of elementary education, viz. the development of the manual side of the curriculum, not in opposition to the intellectual side, but in association with it. An attempt will be made to write of the subject in plain English as distinguished from Pedagogese, to treat it as a simple matter, not shrouded in any oriental mys- tery, and to show that little more is necessary to an appreciation of it than common sense and good-will. In his Talks to Teachers Professor William James has well said : " Altogether it does seem as if there were a certain fatality of mysti- fication laid upon the teachers of our day. The matter of their profession, compact enough in itself, has to be frothed up for them in journals and institutes, till its outlines often threaten to be lost in a kind of vast uncertainty." It is time, indeed, that a protest was made against not only the mystagogic tendency of educational literature, but also against the portentous solemnity and the pretentiousness, nay even the canting assumption of superior virtue, which characterise much of it, and not least official utterances in circulars, and the introductions to codes and regulations. There lurks a real danger in this attitude. Official literature on the subject of education is so dull that it bids fair to be the cause of dulness in all concerned with teaching, or with the administration of education. The complaint is rife that the general public will not interest itself in education. Why should it ? Who was ever in- terested in a bore ? Even one bore cannot tolerate another, and every plain man instinctively recoils from the diet of verbiage and platitude thrust upon him. A 2 THE THINKING HAND Let us then attack our subject in an earnest spirit, if you will, but cheer- fully, and with the hope that we may get some enjoyment out of it. And as there is no greater fun than fighting, let us have a tilt in our first chapter at three giant windmills set up by pedants to discountenance us. Those of us who advocate the introduction of manual work into elementary schools have been charged with (i) infringing the principle that the elementary school should confine itself to providing the basis of a general education, (2) trenching on the field of technical education, and (3) introducing prematurely the voca- tional school, a term more suspect to-day than it will be ten years hence. In meeting the first charge we may admit that the aim of the elementary school is to afford a general education, such an education as may indeed form the basis of specialisation afterwards, but in itself only proposes to turn out a child at fourteen or thereabouts as well equipped as may be to play some part on the great variety stage of life. This book contains no attempt to upset the sound principle thus enunciated, but it will raise the question whether the principle has been rightly understood, whether as a matter of fact there is a colourless abstraction which can be expressed in terms so as to serve, not as a type, but as the type. The common interpretation of a general educa- tion is an all-round preparation of the individual for life. But in face of the facts that individuals differ, and that life has a particular signification for every individual, we can scarcely fail to recognise that the education which fits one individual for his life cannot always be expected to fit another for his, and are driven to the conclusion that there is no one type of general educa- tion. And it then becomes an open question whether a scheme of education is not entitled to be styled a general education, even if it has a certain colour, or, to change the metaphor, is so designed as to give a certain bias. That a general education may yet have a particular bias is now accepted in secondary education. The old idea that the only type of general education is the classical type, based on linguistic and what was supposed to be intel- lectual training, is gone. In our English public schools we have had for years our classical and modern sides. In Germany, the home of organisation, the differentiation of types is even clearer, and the old classical gymnasium has now a twin brother in the Oberrealschule. A third type, with a commercial bias, is asserting itself both in England and Germany, and it will not be long before these two nations of manufacturers, business men, and shopkeepers, develop this type to something like an equality with the other two. Why not some such differentiation of types in the elementary school ? CLEARING THE GROUND 3 The plea is indeed more urgent in the case of the elementary school. Our main interest is bound to be centred in the elementary schools, for under existing conditions they furnish the bulk of the population with all the formal education they will get in their lives, and in them lie the hope and the despair of the future. There is more to be borne in mind than the mere facts that the bulk of the population receives its education in the elementary schools of the country, and that the vast majority of elementary school pupils do not proceed to secondary or technical schools. The rapid growth of muni- cipal and county secondary schools, and of technical institutes of several grades, renders it probable that in a very short time the majority of young people in England receiving a secondary or a technical education will be found to have received their early training in an elementary school. Even more important than these considerations is the part played of necessity by the elementary school in forming a child's habits. Mr. Temple, the headmaster of Repton, in an address on " The Education of Citizens," has referred to Aristotle's statement that there are three sources of virtue nature, habitua- tion, and education, of which the second, habituation, is the most important. But Mr. Temple complains that when children go to school they are already moulded and beginning to be stereotyped into the form that early influence has determined. That is not true so far as the elementary school is concerned ; the children are not moulded or stereotyped when they enter it at four or five years of age. The elementary school shares with the home, far more than does any other school, the duty of forming the child's habits. Hence the predominant importance of the elementary school, hence the vital necessity for getting into it the right atmosphere, not the rarefied atmosphere of an abstract curriculum, but a natural atmosphere charged with interests appro- priate to the children who frequent it, and shot through with flashes of light and colour that stimulate their eager curiosity. Against the second charge, that we are trenching on the field of technical education, we may advance the following considerations. It is becoming a commonplace among investigators of the industrial and social conditions of the country that the main evil at the root of unemployment is that too large a proportion of our population is positively unemployable. There is no doubt a good deal of truth in the contention, but it can be pushed too far, and the statement is not to be accepted as a mere commonplace. There are certainly other and serious causes of unemployment than the undoubted fact that many of our labouring classes are unsuited for skilled employment of any sort, and 4 THE THINKING HAND some for any kind of sustained exertion whatever. We may assume that it is desirable to increase the number of skilled workmen and labourers. We may go further and assume that it is the duty of the State to provide facilities to become a skilled workman for every child capable of becoming a skilled workman. If those facilities are not taken advantage of in every case, the fault will rest with the individual or the individual's family, and not with the State. But if we have heard of late years much discussion on the necessity of technical training, it must be admitted that the avowed end is too often the training of so-called captains of industry to the neglect of the rank and file. The need of capable and resourceful workmen is quite as great as that of experienced foremen and scientifically trained managers or directors of great enterprises. Moreover, if we are to discharge faithfully the duty which we assume to be ours of giving every child at least the chance due to it, we must furnish the child likely to become a workman with such an equipment in boyhood as will enable him, by steadiness and by study in youth and early manhood, to rise through the rank of foreman to that of manager or director. At present two classes of children are favoured : (a) those whose own friends have both the will and the means to secure the right sort of education to develop the individual talent of the child ; (b) certain children who by a system of scholarships are picked out from the elementary schools and given similar opportunities to those enjoyed by the children just referred to. This selection is made when the children are young, and it may be questioned whether the selection is one which does give a fair chance to the child that has other ability than that suited to a commercial or professional career ; whether, in fact, the selection does not favour the black coat and ignore the dungaree jacket. The root of the mischief, however, is deeper than this. It is a serious question whether the whole system of modern education up to the most recent days has not devoted itself too assiduously to a one-sided intellectual culture, and so tended to disturb a balance which it is the object of the movement described in this book to restore. As for the third charge, the premature introduction of the vocational element into the school, we may claim that this has already been met to some extent by our answer to the first and second charges. But be it noted that the dread of introducing the vocational school too early under the guise of manual instruction is due not merely to a survival of the mediaeval prejudice in favour of the linguistic and logical training of the clerk as opposed to the CLEARING THE GROUND 5 manual training of the mechanic a prejudice which has persisted in the teaching profession itself as long perhaps as in any class but quite as much to confusion of thought. Your pedant has so long been immersed in the abstract that the concrete shocks and offends him. Mental calculations and calculations on paper have so long sufficed that actual calculations with weights and measures, such as the common shopman uses, or with the rule which the carpenter wears concealed about his person, strike him as the intrusion into childhood of a rude experience from which youthful innocence has hitherto been sedulously protected. And when this stage of confusion has been got over, it has been too often only to enter on a further stage, to think that you can teach the use of tools by making nothing in particular, but a generalised object, of no use in itself and therefore so far goes paradox educationally sound. On this hear Stanley Hall's exposure of certain weaknesses he detects in American manual training schools. " Industry is everywhere and always for the sake of the product, and to cut loose from this as if it were a contamination is a fatal mistake. To focus on process only, with no reference to the object made, is here an almost tragic case of the sacrifice of content to form, which in all history has been the chief stigma of degeneration in education. Man is a tool-using animal ; but tools are always only a means to an end, the latter prompting even their invention. Hence a course in tool manipulation only, with persistent refusal to consider the product lest features of trade- schools be introduced, has made most of our manual-training high schools ghastly, hollow, artificial institutions. Instead of making in the lower grades certain toys which are masterpieces of mechanical simplification, as tops and kites, and introducing such processes as glass-making and photography, and in higher grades making simple scientific apparatus more generic than machines, to open the great principles of the material universe, all is sacrificed to supernormalized method." 1 In Munich Dr. Kerschensteiner has had to meet the same charge as we have been dealing with. There in his continuation schools for lads and young women of from fourteen to eighteen years of age he has founded the finest system of vocational schools in the world. But when in the elementary 1 Youth, its Education, Regimen, and Hygiene, D. Appleton & Co., page 38. This work, a summary of Dr. Stanley Hall's monumental volumes on Adolescence, is quoted as the more generally accessible of the two publications. 6 THE THINKING HAND schools of Munich he endeavoured to prepare the way for the continuation school by a reasonable measure of preparation and co-ordination he was charged with endeavouring to turn them into vocational schools. His answer is clear : " The essence of preparatory training for manual work does not lie in introducing into our manual training courses, tools, machines and materials that belong to a definite profession. In the same way the essence of preparatory training for intellectual vocations does not consist in dispensing knowledge for a special profession. In both cases the essential thing is to form and practise those organs, mental or physical, which are necessary for the vocation, to form habits of honest work, of carefulness, of thoroughness and of foresight, and lastly to awaken a real joy in work. If any one gains these qualities in any kind of systematic work (e.g. woodwork), then he possesses them and uses them in any kind of manual work which his vocation later may call for. It is just the same as with the student who has developed a logical way of thinking, conscientiousness and love of truth by means of a study of Latin or mathe- matics. He possesses these qualities and uses them later, perhaps not as a philologist, mathematician or scientist, but as a lawyer, historian or philosopher." l For ourselves let us adopt as our formula the words in which Dr. James W. Robertson, late Principal of Macdonald College, Canada, dismissing psycho- logical subtleties of language, has well summed up the matter : " Manual training ... is the general culture of the powers of the body, and of the mind through the activities of the body. ... It is a training in accuracy, in ability to control self and environment, in ex- pression of thought in deeds and substances rather than in language." 1 The Idea of the Industrial School, The Macmillan Company, page 28. CHAPTER II. THE GROWTH OF AN IDEA. HAVING thus demolished the giant windmills, without the consciousness of being unhorsed in the process, let us proceed to consider how we have arrived at our present position in the matter of manual work in elementary schools. A convenient opening will be found in a quotation from a paper 1 published in one of the Board of Education's Special Reports some years ago by Dr. Sadler and the present writer : " Throughout the history of education for more than two centuries we can see the struggle of two conflicting ideals. The upholders of one ideal are inclined to an almost hierarchical organisation of society, regard it as essential that every means should be taken through education to increase the technical efficiency of those who by birth are destined in the mass to form the labouring population, and distrust any scheme of school training which throws the greater stress on the imparting of ideas, through literature and the other constituents of what has conveniently been termed a liberal education. Those who sympathise with the other ideal regard it as of paramount importance in education to develop to the uttermost the moral and intellectual personality of each child, believe that such development cannot be fully accomplished except through long and careful instruction in the use of the mother tongue, and through acquaintance with the great tradition of human thought as embodied in history, science, and some great works of literature. There is nothing fundamentally incompatible between these two ideals. Many of those who lay stress on the first are earnestly desirous that every child in the nation should be given access to the intellectual and moral ideas which 1 Note on Children's Workshops in Sweden, Special Reports, vol. 8 (1902), being an account of Fru Hierta-Retzius' remarkable organisation which has spread far and wide in Scandinavia. 8 THE THINKING HAND are enshrined in great books, and for the proper study of which some large measure of linguistic training is indispensable. Those, on the other hand, who incline to the second ideal, are ready to submit that manual labour, under present conditions, will be necessarily the lot of the great majority of the human race, and that an education which actually dis- qualifies a child from fulfilling the duties of that lot is mischievous, how- ever well-intentioned. But each view is liable to a characteristic defect. The first may be applied in a reactionary and selfish spirit, so as to deprive the children of their share in the heritage of human culture ; the other view may be so applied as to deprive the children of those opportunities of early training in, and familiarity with, handicraft which are the natural preparations for skill in manual labour." The real problem in education is now, as always, how to effect a compro- mise or bring about a working agreement between the two ideals, how to dovetail into one another the industrial and the literary elements of a child's training. Of old, where and so long as domestic arts and crafts existed, educa- tion was as much the work of the home as of the school. In the schoolroom, or the schoolhouse, even though the latter were but a barn or a hovel, the child learnt the literary and numerical elements of its education, reading, writing, and arithmetic ; at home the child watched its father or its mother at work, and, if only at play, exercised its little fingers in imitation of what it saw them doing. And processes were simple : without much formal ex- planation, the child imbibed slowly and unconsciously a knowledge, none the less real because the child could not define it, of the principles underlying these simple processes. But after the Industrial Revolution, after the dis- covery and the application of steam-power, came the factory system ; the hearth grew cold, and the home side of education faded away. There followed the horrors of bare unabashed industrialism in our growing towns, horrors familiar to those who have studied the early history of the Ragged School Movement, or who know their Dickens, and have read Disraeli's Sybil, when children ran wild with neither home nor school, or, hardly out of infancy, were swept into factory, or mill, like animals, to serve their elders through long hours of joyless, soul-destroying, body-stunting drudgery. Then came the Factory Acts, and, late in the nineteenth century, after years of noble voluntary effort on the part of the Churches, and no less admirable exertion on the part of lay philanthropy, an Act establishing compulsory education, which swept the children from the streets into school, and while not clearing the factory THE GROWTH OF AN IDEA 9 and mill altogether of young children, shortened the hours of child-labour, and compensated the child for some loss of manual drudgery, by providing it with equivalent drudgery of another sort. It was natural, when a universal school system was introduced, that the school should take up that side of education which had always been recognised as its province, viz. the literary and numerical. But the report on Manual Instruction in Public Elementary Schools issued by the Board of Education in 1910, to which reference is made later in this chapter, affords curious evidence that an industrial side in education persisted until positively destroyed by the administrative action of Government. " The need of a certain amount of manual occupation in the curriculum of an Elementary School has been recognised from the earliest days of our educational system. The first Form of Report issued to Inspectors in 1840 contains two subsections dealing with Handwork : one for Industry, including Knitting and Sewing, Strawplaiting, sweeping the school floors and keeping the garden border free from weeds ; and another for the Imitative Arts, including Drawing, either on the board or on the wall, as a preliminary to Writing. Work of this kind, however, fell into abey- ance owing to the stress of the Examination system introduced by the Revised Code of 1862. Teachers quite naturally came to regard matters not included in the Schedules of Examination as extraneous and un- necessary, however educationally desirable they might be." However this may be, after 1870 the developments called for were on literary lines, a smattering of history and geography, and some tincture of pure literary culture. A dash too of science was early introduced, largely through the influence of the great Triumvirate Huxley, Tyndall, and Spencer whose writings and speeches spread some hazy notion that scientific fact was the same as moral truth, a scientific experiment more than the equivalent of a logical syllogism, and the book of nature quite as reliable a guide to conduct as the Bible. Even then something was soon felt to be wrong. The curriculum was lopsided ; those pulling at the educational oar experienced something of the discomfort of rowing in a badly balanced boat. The first idea that occurred to people was to restore the balance by introducing as make- weights subjects of another kind, manual not mental. It was impossible that a man or woman working in a slum school, should fail to recognise the incongruity of teaching io THE THINKING HAND ragged, hatless, unshod, even verminous children, stocks and shares, history and geography, and literature, without some effort to place in their possession the means of leading a clean and decent life, and of enjoying a modicum of wholesome leisure. Needlework and cookery and laundry-work had irre- sistible claims for girls : for no pedagogic purist was ever so petrified in pedantry but in his heart of hearts believed that a girl could not begin too young to learn how to sew on his buttons, boil his potatoes, and wash his shirts. The case of boys was not so simple. To meet their needs a formal system of manual instruction was evolved, mainly based on the doctrines of Swedish Sloyd. Though English teachers have advanced far beyond anything practised at the School of Naas, they will not forget the debt they owe to Otto Salomon, the school's director. His scheme was narrow, perhaps, and over-methodised ; but in England we should not be where we are to-day but for the enthusiasm he kindled in pupils who have outgrown his teaching, not in spirit but in letter, and, on the foundation laid by him, have erected an edifice more variegated than he ever dreamed of. What has brought about the vast development that has taken place during the past ten years in our notions on the place of hand- work in education, and has turned manual instruction from a somewhat dull series of exercises in tool-manipulation to a field of activity with a range conditioned by little more than the teacher's industry, skill, inventiveness, or ambition ? A fer- mentation of ideas, the result of various leavens working on the consciousness of teachers and many co-operating with them, has brought about this change, and will bring about changes still more wonderful. (1) The sense of the loss of the old home side in education has deepened as people have realised more and more how difficult it is under modern conditions for even a good home to discharge fully the duties of a home. We want to introduce into the school more of the atmosphere of life as it is lived, to give the scholar more of the environment of life ; for it is atmosphere and environment far more than direct instruction that give character. (2) Pestalozzi has come into his own. His principles, procedure from the concrete to the abstract, learning by " doing " things, not merely by " think- ing " or " talking " about them, the development of intellectual knowledge out of its origins in sense perceptions, the stimulation of mental growth by the encouragement of self-expression, always a high moral purpose, always freedom, in view, these were the principles preached by Fichte, adopted by THE GROWTH OF AN IDEA n Stein in the hour of Germany's deepest humiliation, the principles on which was founded a hundred years ago the Germany of to-day. The mantle of Pestalozzi descended upon Froebel, and in the scholastic sphere his elaborate working out of Pestalozzi's ideas, with rich contributions of his own, resulted in a type of infant school adopted all the world over. But the very success of the Kindergarten rendered more glaring the contrast between infant schools and the junior classes of schools for older children. How to bridge the gap remained a problem until solved in this twentieth century by the introduction of hand- work right through the elementary school. (3) Had Froebel lived to work out his ideas for older scholars our elementary schools would have been very different from what they have been. Possibly, however, we have not lost so much as might be imagined : we might have been over-methodised. Complaints that method has been overdone in the Kindergarten have not been unheard, and have assisted to open the door to Dr. Montessori's passionate plea for the cultivation of individual freedom. Since Rousseau no one has urged so uncompromisingly the claim for the free development of the individual child, and on reading her own deliverances (rather than those of her exponents) one is strongly attracted to her view. But we have to remember that even in her own educational experiments the teacher plays a necessary part, and a part distinguishable less in kind than in degree from that played by many a teacher in a Froebelian school whose natural disposition has led her to teach by suggestion wherever possible. A compromise is inevitable between this ideal of self-development, and the social ideal education for citizenship which also agitates the modern world. The individual exists only in society. A useful corrective to the one-sided view which may result from an unreasoning extension to older children of Dr. Montessori's claim in behalf of infancy, an extension possibly quite unauthorised by herself, will be found in two books by another great educator, Dr. Georg Kerschensteiner's Education for Citizenship a and The Idea of the Industrial School already cited. In these two books, neither of them bulky volumes, though the interests of the individual are by no means ignored, the social ideal is eloquently preached. To us, arguing the case for manual work in schools, the special interest of studying the views of great educators of the past, and of those of to-day, lies in the fact that, whatever the ideal they hold out, for the realisation of their ideals they come back to the work of the hands. 1 English translation published by George G. Harrap & Co., 9 Portsmouth Street, Kingsway, London, W.C. 12 THE THINKING HAND They find manual work invaluable as a means of intellectual development, invaluable as a means of self-expression, invaluable as a means of keeping the individual in touch with life. (4) In the service of child-study have been enlisted physiologists as well as psychologists, with the result that experimental psychology has established a physiological basis for the claims put forward by Rousseau and Pestalozzi, and countless psychologists since their day, that the sense of touch plays a most intimate part in developing the child's consciousness ; and no less a claim is now put forward that the hand is an organ of thought. Over thirty years ago C. G. Leland, an ardent apostle of manual training by way of art- craft, but whose hope of immortality rests on the Hans Breitmann ballads, declared that " from seven to fourteen years a certain suppleness, knack or dexterous familiarity with the pencil or any implement may be acquired which diminishes with succeeding years." The practical truth of this has been proved by experiment of the most ample range. If any one doubts it let him consider whether he ever heard of a first-rate pianist whose fingers were not exercised on keys or strings long before the age of fourteen ! But the claim of the physiologist goes beyond this, and, for the sake of the title of this book, it must be stated with some fullness. A now familiar statement of the claim will be found in the introduction to the Board of Education's syllabus of physical exercises. " There are in the brain certain ' centres ' or masses of brain matter which preside over co-ordinated movements of all kinds. These centres begin to perform their functions in early life, when the child learns to stand, to walk or to talk. As new movements are attempted, new centres become active, certain nerve impulses become more or less habitual, and thus new nerve paths are opened up and established, and the connections between the centres in different parts of the brain become increasingly well- defined and co-related. It has been found that within reasonable limits the greater the scope of the physical education, the more complex and highly specialised and developed do these centres become." The argument is worked out with more refinement by Stanley Hall in his great work on Adolescence. " Too much," he says, 1 " must not be claimed for the basal, e.g. hill-climbing, muscles of leg and back and shoulder work, and of the yet more fundamental heart, lung, and chest muscles." He says, indeed, that " the motor areas are closely related and largely identical with the psychic, and muscle culture develops brain centres as nothing else yet 1 See Youth, Chapter II. THE GROWTH OF AN IDEA 13 demonstrably does. Muscles are the vehicles of habituation, imitation, obedi- ence, character, and even of manners and customs. For the young motor education is cardinal . . . and for all education is incomplete without a motor side," and he goes so far as to claim that " the hand is a potent instru- ment in opening the intellect as well as in training sense and will." But he makes a clear distinction in muscle structure and function between the funda- mental and the accessory. " Perhaps the best scale on which to measure all normal growth of muscle structure and functions is found in the progress from fundamental to accessory. The former designates the muscles and movements of the trunk and large joints, neck, back, hips, shoulders, knees, and elbows, sometimes called central, and which in general man has in common with the higher and larger animals. Their activities are few, mostly simultaneous, alternating and rhythmic, as of the legs in walking. . . . The latter or acces- sory movements are those of the hand, tongue, face, and articulatory organs, and these may be connected into a long and greatly diversified series, as those used in writing, talking, piano playing. They are represented by smaller and more numerous muscles, whose functions develop later in life and represent a higher standpoint of evolution. These smaller muscles for finer movements come into function later and are chiefly associated with psychic activity which plays upon them by incessantly changing their tensions if not causing actual movement. . . . The entire accessory system is thus of vital importance for the development of all the arts of expression. These smaller muscles might almost be called organs of thought." And his conclusion is : " the education of the small muscles and fine adjustment of larger ones is as near mental training as physical culture can get ; for these are the thought muscles and movements, and their perfected function is to reflect and express by slight modifications of tension and tone every psychic change. Only the brain itself is more closely and immediately an organ of thought than are these muscles and their activity, reflex, spontaneous, or imitative in origin." In support of the claim that manipulative exercises give an intellectual stimulus, a mass of evidence is being accumulated by practical teachers as their interest in the experiment widens, and by their testimony the plain man is more likely perhaps to be impressed than by volumes of scientific disquisition. There is no teacher in a school for mentally defective children who does not support the claim ; many did so long before they heard the name of Montessori. To teachers in general much encouragement was given by a semi-official endorsement of their experiments given in the Report of a 14 Committee of H.M. Inspectors on Manual Instruction in Elementary Schools, issued in 1910. The encouragement was semi-official only, for the method of publication was somewhat peculiar. At a time when the Board of Education was issuing a series of documents in the nature of decrees, this particular report was laid tenderly on the educational doorstep like a bantling of whose legitimacy the Board was not fully assured. But it was a comely infant and did not lack for sponsors. It gave a wide interpretation to manual instruc- tion ; it provided a useful summary of the arguments in its favour, and a most informing account of what is being done in the country, and it added valuable and far-reaching suggestions with regard to organisation and method. Moreover, it urged all its points with a modesty and restraint which rendered it all the more effective. It remains the best short statement of the case yet produced. 1 1 Manual Instruction in Public Elementary Schools, Wyman & Sons, Ltd., Fetter Lane, London, E.G., price 3d. CHAPTER III. ON THE APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES. THE considerations on which we have dwelt in the last chapter have estab- lished the basis for our claim that manipulative exercise shall find a place in our elementary school curriculum. It is a basis the foundations of which have been laid after the researches of many an earnest student into studies which can be characterised in terms of suitable gravity, studies historical, studies sociological, studies pedagogical, and studies geneto-psycho-physio- logical. Our argument on behalf of manual instruction can be resolved into the following six reasons : (i) to develop certain centres in the brain ; (ii) to develop manual dexterity at the age when it must be developed if it is to reach the pitch it should in maturer years ; (iii) to afford scope for the constructive faculties, or, if the term " faculties " be objected to, to afford scope for self-expression through the exercise of the motor activities ; (iv) to make school subjects more real to the child : in other words to bring into relation with every possible subject in the curriculum the third dimension ; (v) to keep the child in touch with its environment, with what life means to it, not to some imaginary child brought up in an atmosphere of late- Victorian culture ; (vi) to give it something to do which it recognises as definitely useful, and thereby to implant the germ of the idea of usefulness, the fruit of which is social service, the very condition of the existence of civilised society. If we have all these purposes in view when we call for the introduction of manual work, it is vain to seek for one scheme, one kind of material, one tool 16 THE THINKING HAND or set of tools which will accomplish all. True, we cannot devise any scheme which will not satisfy at least three requirements, for the first two, the de- velopment of brain centres and of manual dexterity, will be bound up with every imaginable scheme. But the common-sense conclusions seem to be these : (a) we need several sets of exercises in different materials, each devised to carry out one main purpose ; (6) the main purposes on which stress will be laid wiD differ (i) in different schools, (ii) at different ages, and, if the school be large enough, (iii) with different children of the same age ; (c) the time to be devoted to manual work will vary at different ages and in different schools, the limit of the manual side in any case being the point at which it ceases to foster the all-round, intellectual as well as physical, development of the child. These conclusions, it may be submitted, secure two essentials ; they afford infinite scope for the teacher, if he will only avail himself of the liberty offered him, and, properly applied, safeguard the individuality of the child. On the application of them in detail there is no need to dwell here ; the photo- graphs at the end, illustrating what is going on in a single city, will show more clearly than any words can do how great is the variety of schemes open to choice. But there are certain general considerations which must be emphasised. (a) While recognising the value of manipulative exercises in education, we must not forget that the formal teaching of reading, writing, arithmetic, history, geography, and the rest has still in due measure to continue, and that much of the formal teaching of the past was good and will persist. We are not to replace one cast-iron system by another. We are to modify method maybe, but we must still have practice with the old-fashioned tools and materials, reading-books, arithmetic books, paper, pencil, and pen. Much harm is done by thoughtless, indiscriminate abuse of books, and the entire condemnation of abstract teaching. Even on physiological grounds, as has been pointed out in the last chapter, an individual's physical development will be incomplete without exercise of the fine movements brought into play by reading, by writing, and by calculating. The point is that the tendency has been to work them too hard, too exclusively, at an age of peculiar delicacy from the developmental point of view. Above all, a certain amount of formal arithmetic must be taught in addition to exact measurement and the appli- ON THE APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 17 cation of the foot-rule in the workshop. The latter will fertilise the former, but in its turn will be a husk without it. The recognition of this simple truth will save bitter disappointment, and the timid may be reassured by noting, from the schemes set out in Appendix II., with how small an allowance of time to manipulative exercises sound educational work can be done. (b) It is a mistake to worry over equipment. Most elementary schools to-day are without a workshop, or even a lumber room such as may provide a real workmanlike makeshift. They will be without workshops for many a long day. There are in many large towns manual instruction centres, to which boys go in drafts from this school and that, each for the weekly turn nicely calculated to earn the Government grant. Much can be done with the aid of the re-juvenated centre, where no longer a rigid monotonous course of exercises in little more than the handling of tools is prescribed, but free constructive work is finding a place, and the making of wholes not parts is the rule ; where, too, the handicraft instructor is in close touch with the class- teacher, and the two are working together. But many a school-teacher is not satisfied until manual work of some kind is being done under his own eye, within the walls of his own school, even where conditions are circum- scribed by the need to restrict his manipulative operations to work adapted to desks designed for literary studies. The ingenuity, indeed, of the teacher has often made light of material obstacles : and the very homeliness of make- shift arrangements, of rough and ready apparatus, of desks converted for the nonce into benches, and the working up into new creations of the covers of old exercise books, of old boxes, old tins, gives an agreeable desert island, Swiss Family Robinson feeling, which is not only a relief from the air of the conventional class-room, but in itself is congenial to practical work. And to what boy does not camping-out, even in the school-room, make its appeal ? (c) There is danger in brooding too much over the " educational value " of a particular piece of hand- work. The term " educational " is to be taken broadly. Educational value is there if the work, whatever it be, is attacked by teacher and pupil with zest, and in a right spirit. Too often the question, " What is the educational value of this occupa- tion ? " asked by a pedant who does not understand the value of all real con- structive work, because he does none himself, but spends a parasitic existence watching others at work, has chilled that enthusiasm which is the teacher's most precious possession. There was once a Convent School where the Superior, anxious to bring a whiff of the outer world into the somewhat cloistered exist- i8 THE THINKING HAND ence of her charges, introduced a shop. It was more than a tuck-shop ; the girls had money to their credit, were given coins of the realm to keep in a purse, and bought at the shop their school-books and school-materials, their toys, their hats, ribbons, gloves, the stuff for their various garments, and what not ; girls served at the counter, girls kept the books. One day there entered an Inquisitor : he praised the institution of the shop, but presently suggested that it would be more " educational " were cardboard coins substituted for the real ones. " This," said he, " will make clear to the children the first lesson in political economy, viz. that money is but a symbol." O wise pedant ! It will generally be found that the critic who questions the educational value of any piece of hand-work on which teacher and scholars are keen has not himself got beyond the stage of geometrical models in cardboard, and if he possesses imagination, only that " Which towers a flight three hedgerows high, poor bat." (d) Scarcely less is the danger at the outset of worrying too much over neatness and accuracy of work. It is perfectly true that one of the great values of hand-work is the training it gives in accuracy. But this must not be regarded as its main value, and must not be pushed to the extent of dis- couraging teacher and child. Be it remembered that almost every piece of hand-work has the advantage claimed for the Montessori apparatus ; it is self-corrective. A child may or may not know of itself whether a sum is right or wrong, whether a word is rightly or wrongly spelled ; it has no doubt as to whether a lid will fit on to a box or not, whether a toy boat is lopsided or not, whether a doll's clothes are too small or not, whether a model pump leaks or not, whether a tin-pot steam engine works or not. The age of chil- dren in our elementary schools, particularly of the elder ones of thirteen, is a critical one ; the latter is just the age at which a child, if it shows any earnest purpose whatever, should receive a word of encouragement however poor may be performance. As for the teacher, if he is keen, or even if he shows interest, encouragement often does quite as much as skilled advice. It will be within the experience of all who have watched the growth of hand- work in elementary schools how the standard of work grows, subconsciously as it were. One generation of boys and girls works to a higher standard than its predecessors. The teacher visits another school ; he sees work better than his own ; even though he may not definitely formulate a new standard in his mind, the standard formulates itself. Meticulous criticism comes in useful when, as does occur, 19 the cocksure stage is reached prematurely in teacher or pupil. To the attitude of sympathetic encouragement on the part of H.M. Inspectors is largely due the success of this new movement, and it is right that this tribute should be paid to them. The Board's local inspectors have to live with people ; they are, so to speak, de-bureaucratised. Rarely indeed in them, though perhaps elsewhere, persists the spirit that animated Jane Austen's Lady Catherine on her visits to the Collins family. 1 " Now and then they were honoured with a call from her ladyship, and nothing escaped her observation that was passing in the room during these visits. She examined into their employments, looked at their work, and advised them to do it differently ; found fault with the arrangement of the furniture, or detected the housemaid in negligence ; and if she accepted any refreshment, seemed to do it only for the sake of finding out that Mrs. Collins' joints of meat were too large for her family." (e) The liberty accorded to the teacher must be a real liberty. This is a delicate point. It is not only teachers that call out for liberty ; Local Education Authorities are beginning actively to resent the coil of a central bureaucracy drawn tighter and tighter. The child, all are agreed, is to be allowed freedom for proper development. Why not the teacher ? Why not the Local Education Authority ? But all teachers have not initiative ; no more have all Local Education Authorities. Some stimulus, some guidance may be necessary. If, however, your teacher does show particular interest in a particular line, let him follow it in Heaven's name. Don't divert him to another in which you, the critic, happen to be interested ; be even careful of urging him to follow other lines as well, for they may distract his attention and dissipate that concentration of energy which is often the secret of a man's success. If he is keen on history, and wishes to apply his hand- work to the illustration of that subject, let him ; either by making models of castles, fortifications, the pillory, the stocks, and all the amenities of by-gone ages in which children delight, or by following Dewey of Chicago's sociological lead, and constructing models of the habitations of man at all ages, or by making costumes and properties to be used in dramatisation. If Geography be his subject, then let him produce relief-maps, picture-maps, models of river basins and the like, or follow the anthropological line and call for models of the villages, houses, temples, river-boats, queer hats and shoes, utensils 1 Pride and Prejudice. 20 THE THINKING HAND or tools of a chosen country or continent. If he has a mechanical turn, let him set his boys to work at light woodwork or metal-work, making cranes, inclined planes, pulleys, pumps, water-wheels, gliders, aeroplanes, steam engines, and even dynamos. If his bent is science, let him either devote his energies to nature-rambles, and the mounting of specimens, or to the making of simple apparatus through the use of which his pupils will gain some notion of the elements of experimental science, and paddle on the shallow margin of the infinite unknown. But because the work in history is good, don't rush on to urge him to apply the same method to geography, mechanics, and science. There is scope for all, but be content with one, if there is life in it. The class will be content, for children are singularly responsive to a teacher's enthusiasm ; the magnetic influence of an enthusiastic teacher is irresistible ; the quality ranks equal with kindness and only below honesty. In any case, bear in mind that if the head teacher will allow his class-teachers some of the freedom he claims for himself, the school will not lack for variety in the appli- cation of hand- work to the passive subjects of the curriculum. Finally, where guidance is required, or, as will often be the case, desired, let it be by way of suggestion, not of command. In this twentieth century it may prove not amiss to adopt, in the matter of administration, the Miltonic adage, and " make persuasion do the work of fear," fear, whether it be of police- court fine, or of those solemn official acts known as " sur-charge " and " with- holding of grant." CHAPTER IV. ON WORK AND PLAY. THERE may be much agreement with what has been said, and yet the impres- sion may be left on not a few that something is lacking from a full and satis- fying presentment of the case. Is there not too much play about all this hand-work ? Does it not carry Kindergarten principles too far on in life ? Is not something more serious and more definite required if the child at four- teen is to go on easily and naturally to continuation classes or the technical school ? To meet these objections let us endeavour (i) to demonstrate the moral value, for we shall use no smaller term, of hand-work, and (2) to indicate by a single definite illustration how the last year of elementary school life can, without undue specialisation, be brought into close relation with the technical school. With regard to the first point, the reader may be invited to glance again at the brief account given in Chapter II. of the loss of the home side of educa- tion. Now it is not to be supposed that a really valuable part of the child's education was to be got in a home where the child was actually put to labour by parents playing the unlovely part of taskmasters. The right conditions were obtained where the child, watching the father or mother at work, followed the irresistible call of instinct and played at doing the same work, or spon- taneously took actual part in their work, either fetching or carrying for them, " serving " them, or engaging actively in the lighter operations of the parental craft. What is work ? What is play ? How differentiate between them ? One is real work, you say, the other imitative or artificial work. But that depends on the point of view, whether you take that of the pompous sophisti- cated adult, or that of the nai've unassuming child. To the child a toy is a real thing, and has uses infinite in variety. Even at the risk of incurring the 22 THE THINKING HAND charge of pedantry an appeal may be made to Plato. " Let early education," he says, " be a sort of amusement ; you will then be better able to find out the natural bent." But he recognises how mixed up are sport and earnest, and elsewhere, snapping his fingers at Areopagitical critics of vocational educa- tion, he says : " According to my view anyone who would be good at anything must practise that thing from his youth upwards, both in sport and earnest, in its several branches : he who is to be a good builder should play at building children's houses ; he who is to be a good husbandman, at tilling the ground ; and those who have the care of their education should pro- vide them when young with mimic tools." x When a child is making mud pies, it is at play. Why not when it is kneading pies of dough ? When a boy scout is engaged on bridge-building, is he at work or play ? A candid adult must admit that the confusion between work and play is not all on the child's side. The stalwart parson of a southern parish, great cricketer and excellent parish priest, exclaimed as he returned to the tent on the village green after a merry innings : " The worst of playing cricket three days a week is, it makes a man so busy." He spoke as a boy, and his full meaning requires a man with the mind of a boy to appreciate it without attacking the principle of a State Church. Many happy individuals are able all their lives long to approach at least some of the routine of their daily work in a playful spirit, and they are all the more efficient in consequence. Nevertheless, when the best has been said for instruction by recreative method, it may still be doubted whether enough real useful work as distin- guished from artificial substitutes for work has found its way into our schools. By manual work, says Dr. Robertson, in his evidence before a Committee of the Canadian House of Commons in 1903, a boy " is taught to think clearly towards an end believed by him to be useful." What stimulus do we afford the child in this regard ? A course of geometrical models in cardboard is good, no doubt, and useful ; but the main purpose subserved is geometry. The making of apparatus for science-teaching or of models to illustrate history and geography lessons, or for use in the infants' school, is also good, and useful at the same time. But far more directly is the idea of utility served if the child is encouraged to make something for its own use or the use of its home. 1 Laws, I. 643 (Jowett's translation). ON WORK AND PLAY 23 Here the girls have had an advantage, for their manual work in school has always been bound up with the idea that, whatever their future occupation in life, their prospects of happiness, even of contentment, are bettered if they are good housewives, good home-makers. There may be some who deny that this ideal is a sound one for girls, who declare it to be in these days of emanci- pation, a reactionary, a narrowing ideal. To that the answer is : The ideal is not only a sound one for girls, it is also a sound one for boys. It is the appeal of this argument to the practical intelligence of a manager in one school and of a teacher in another that first gave us some years ago in Liver- pool the spectacle of boys cooking a meal, darning their own socks or stockings, and mending their own clothes, mending them indeed with such zest that a watch had to be set lest they should cut holes in their breeches for the sheer pleasure of mending them. How much is there to be said for work such as this ! How little against ! Is not this the sort of work we envy in the handy- man, the sailor-man ? Is not this the sort of idea that has prompted the scout movement ? The mandarin may pass unmoved, but the superman has said : l " In all things to serve from the lowest station upwards is necessary ; to restrict yourself to a trade is best. For the narrow mind whatever he attempts is still a trade, for the higher an Art ; and the highest in doing one thing does all, or, to speak less paradoxically, in the one thing which he does rightly he sees the likeness of all that is done rightly." Can anyone imagine work more truly educative for the schoolboy in one of the poorer quarters of our large cities than the mending of his own breeches, stockings, and boots ? The work has a deeper significance than may at first appear. The boy is not merely doing something useful, he is doing something calculated to raise his self-respect ; and he will be dull indeed if on his con- sciousness does not dawn after the idea of usefulness to himself that of useful- ness to his mother, and to others about him. And just as it will do the boy good to give him a turn once a week in the Girls' Domestic Centre, so it will do the girl good to set her to work once a week with hammer and nail in the Boys' Workshop. Stress is to be laid upon this idea of usefulness, because the possibility of implanting even in germ the idea of social service is a valu- able addition to the list of virtues ascribed to manual work by Professor William James, least sophisticated and most human of philosophers. 1 Goethe, in W^lheim MtisUr (Carlyle's translation). 24 THE THINKING HAND " The most colossal improvement which recent years have seen in secondary education lies in the introduction of the Manual Training Schools ; not because they will give us a people more handy and practical for domestic life and better skilled in trades, but because they will give us citizens with an entirely different intellectual fibre. Laboratory work and shop work engender a habit of observation, a knowledge of the differ- ence between accuracy and vagueness, and an insight into nature's com- plexity, and into the inadequacy of all abstract verbal accounts of real phenomena, which once wrought into the mind remain there as life-long possessions. They confer precision ; because, if you are doing a thing, you must do it definitely right or definitely wrong. They give honesty ; for, when you express yourself by making things, not by using words, it becomes impossible to dissimulate your vagueness or ignorance by ambiguity. They beget a habit of self-reliance ; they keep the interest and attention always cheerfully engaged, and reduce the teacher's dis- ciplinary functions to a minimum." Now let us proceed to give our promised illustration of how in the last year of elementary school life the manual work can be so specialised, so inti- mately associated with a subject admittedly intellectual in the highest and driest sense of the term, that without the faintest suggestion of vocational taint the elementary school child may pass as naturally and as well prepared to the technical school as does the boy of classical training from the private preparatory school to the public school. It has been claimed that the scheme of work in an elementary school may have a certain bias without infringing the principle of a general education. But it is time enough to develop the conscious bias when reason begins to assert itself, when the child reaches the topmost classes of the elementary school, with short but precious time in front of it of which much may be made if it be wisely used. Up to the stage when reason begins to play its part it does not matter much, within the limits of common sense, what is taught ; the way the teaching is done, and the spirit in which it is done, are the main concern. The young child, as Mr. Temple has happily expressed it, is powerfully impressed by what it cannot understand precisely because it cannot understand. " If he could understand he could also criticise ; but as he cannot understand he is of necessity passive in the hands of a force which he cannot resist because he is unconscious of its existence. . . . The early ON WORK AND PLAY 25 influences to which the child unconsciously submits are in normal cases the most powerful determinants of its character, both because they operate while the soul is still plastic and because the child has offered no resist- ance." This is the view of ancient philosophy, and it is confirmed by modern psychology. But there comes a time, and that before the elementary school age is passed, when the child is not satisfied with assimilating the results of observations made through its senses. It begins to chew the cud, to ruminate, to think, to criticise. Now is the time when it is not merely safe, but actually imperative, to give definition to our scheme if we are to do full justice to our charge. As a basis on which to found our preparation for technical training, a course in practical physics may be suggested. We shall naturally commence by developing the practical arithmetic in the elements of which we may assume our juniors have already been drilled. The practical arithmetic of the seniors will include graphs and the use of symbols, and lay stress on the measurement of length, of curved lines, of the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, of area, of rectangular figures, of the circle, of irregular figures, of volume, of regular and irregular solids. There will then follow instruction and practice in the use of simple measuring vessels, the use of the balance and the density bottle, and experimental proof of Archimedes' principle and its application. For a definite course by which to lay our line of instruction we may consult the Report on Science Teaching in Public Schools issued by the Board of Education in 1909, one of the valuable series of reports published from time to time, which give, not the views of theorists, but actual schedules in use by men and women engaged in the art of teaching. In Appendix II. of that report will be found a most ingenious scheme, the first year's syllabus of which is here appropriated. It may be doubted whether even an English public- school boy of from twelve to thirteen can digest so much in a single year, but as this is apparently taken for granted, we may hazard the suggestion that the English elementary- school boy can attack it with fair success in two. The syllabus is as follows, and the treatment of subjects all through must be understood to be qualitative, not quantitative. Though the list of nominal subjects is long enough in all conscience to preclude any charge of too intensive a culture, one thread runs through each series, and another connects them together, so that the whole effect is as satisfying artistically as that of a cave-man's bone and shell necklace. 26 THE THINKING HAND PHYSICS SCHEME. MECHANICS. Levers. Moments. Work. Speed ratio. Efficiency. Mechanical advan- tage. Wheel and axle. Windlass. Capstan. Pulleys. Cranes. Belts and shafts. Bicycle. Toothed wheels. Inclined plane. SOUND. Idea of waves. String instruments, piano, harp, etc. Resonance boards. Wind instruments. Organ pipes. Whistles. Siren. Musical scale. HYDROSTATICS. Barometer. Siphon pumps. Fountains. Water press. Balloon. Air pump. LIGHT. HEAT. Mirrors and lenses. Steam pressure. Telescopes. Microscopes. Lantern. Spectacles. Eye. Colour. Steam gauge. Simple steam engine. Hot air engines. MAGNETISM. How to make a magnet. Action of current on magnet. Electro-magnet. FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY. How to produce electricity. Electroscope. Leyden jars. Lightning. VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY. How to make a simple battery. Use of resistance coils, commuta- tors, shunts, gal- vanometers, am- meters, volt- meters. Electric light, bells, induction coils. Dynamo. Motor. Electrolysis and electro-plating. The claim must be conceded that this is a successful attempt to arouse interest in scientific study, and particularly in physics, by giving some insight into the application of principles to the phenomena of everyday life. And ON WORK AND PLAY 27 what a wealth of suggestion for the manipulative work of the boys is contained in the scheme, if, as ought to be the case, they make for themselves the rough working models of machines, instruments, and apparatus absolutely necessary for the illustration of each section ! It is difficult to imagine a happier union of handicraft and science. And the very difficulties that the boys will encounter in their manipulative work will, as the author l of the scheme claims, show them the need for, and the value of, further work, quantitative and not merely qualitative, if they are to make conscious progress. Thus they cannot fail to develop something of that scientific temper of mind, which, rather than the mere acquisition of facts, should be our aim. We make bold to claim that such a scheme as is here outlined cannot reasonably be attacked as specialisation. It does give a bias, but such a bias as may legitimately characterise a general education. Boys who have taken advantage of it will have had their general intelligence sharpened, will have cultivated the scientific habit, and be in a position to attack methodically whatever sort of problem is presented to them, and will have acquired inci- dentally a vast amount of useful general knowledge ; and all these acquire- ments, while undoubtedly to the advantage of the lad passing on to a specialised course in technology, will none the less be no handicap, but a precious posses- sion, to the boy of fourteen who enters retail trade, or specialises later on the clerical rather than the constructive side. 1 Mr. W. E. Cross, Headmaster of the Grammar School, Maidstone. CHAPTER V. A DREAM AT this stage, if not earlier, some reader may suggest that the writer of this book has not carried out the promise of the first paragraph of Chapter I., that he has not kept clear of pretentiousness, that here and there he has been dull, and that at times he has had the impertinence for one of his status, which is that of an uncertificated teacher, to dogmatise. Before then we plunge into the matter of fact of Chapter VI., let us leave dogma altogether and take refuge in a dream. The future is with the dreamer, for the dream of to-day may well become the accepted truth of to-morrow. If anyone sneers at the dream, we may take it that he is at least forty-five years of age, probably one of the forces now controlling education, a head-teacher of experience, a senior inspector or high official under Government either Central or Local, or a professor, everyone of whom in twenty years will, in obedience to the law of nature or superannuation, have surrendered his charge. With this sobering thought in our minds let us bear with the dream whatever it be. There is nothing original in this book, and the dream we are about to relate is not more original than the rest of it. The dream is taken straight from Zola, who took it at several removes from Fourier. Dreams, unfortun- ately, require a deal of explanation, and this dream in particular cannot be appreciated without some understanding of the personalities of the individuals who dreamed the dream. Emile Zola has himself to blame that he has been a man misunderstood. Few men underwent so much obloquy during their lives, and so deservedly. But in return for his heroic intervention in the Dreyfus case much was for- given him. It set people reading him afresh and pondering over the riddle of his books. The view that he was the first of the Realists had indeed been abandoned earlier for the subtler, and cynical, view that he was the last, and A DREAM 29 worst, of the Romanticists. But now it began to dawn on people that through all the muddy expanse of his works ran a slender rill of idealism, a yearning for the redemption of humanity from the brutal conditions which the sordid misery of his own early life had made only too familiar to him, and that this rill broadened and deepened as years went on, until he ceased merely to paint in crude colour the nakedness of life, but threw his main energy into vast, at times grotesque, projects of reform. The last series of works he projected consisted of what he called the four gospels of " Fecundity, Work, Truth, and Justice." He did not live to com- plete the series, but the Utopia whose system of education is presently to be described occurs in the second, the Gospel of Work. He drew his inspiration from Fourier, an even more perplexing philosopher than Swedenborg, and set himself the task of reviving and popularising Fourier's Utopian scheme for the reorganisation of society, and incidentally of education. Fourier, 1 the source of Zola's inspiration, was a contemporary of Robert Owen, and there are many similarities in their schemes for the reconstruction of society. He had not the vigorous personality, and the practical philan- thropic energy which make of Robert Owen so attractive a figure, but he had a far finer intellect, was an educated man, and possessed a full measure of the insanity of genius. His idea was to reconstruct society out of a series of groups which he called phalanges. Each of these groups was composed of a number of what we may style family groups of eight or nine individuals, each of whom had, to use Goethe's term, some " elective affinity " to hold them together. The main group was to be made up of about eighteen hundred persons, and each main group was to organise its life in common. Members were to live in one vast building called a phalanstere, a sort of combination of the General Post Office, Harrod's Stores, the Stock Exchange, and the Hotel Metropole, and as beautiful a building as the best of them. Private apartments were permissible for those who preferred them, but the general rule was to be a communal existence. As you would have industrial groups, commercial groups, agricultural groups, etc., etc., so you would build up your whole society. The agricultural groups, the industrial groups and the rest would be indispensable to one another and thus have an irresistible 1 The account of E. Reybaud in his Rtformateurs Modernes is here followed. That account is not unsympathetic on the whole, though it may be admitted that the quotations he gives from Fourier's works do not fully illustrate the saner side of his genius. One enthusiastic disciple of the master is not content with less than to style Besa^on, his native place, " this modern Bethlehem." 30 THE THINKING HAND interest for one another ; and these interests being indispensable to one another, and at the same time different, could never clash. The need of a central government practically disappears, for what is the need of a central govern- ment but to keep the peace in a badly organised society resting on no scientific basis ? If wanted at all, it is for ornament, not use, though as ornament it is not perhaps to be despised. All this reads as artificial and inhuman as most Utopian reconstructions of society, but Fourier rendered both to political thought and to social de- velopment at least one signal service which should keep his name alive. He drew so clear, so striking a picture of the advantages of co-operation that it is probable that everyone who has since written in its favour has either borrowed from him first-hand, or second-hand from some other borrower. More perhaps than on his native France he left his mark on Russia, Germany, and the United States. Moreover, though Fourier had not that inborn personal love of children which does more than anything else to render a man lovable himself, he recog- nised the vital importance of childhood, and on schemes for the welfare of children he lavished some of his sanest and some of his insanest thought. Was the man sane or insane who wrote the following passage in his Traite d 1 Association ? The Kitchen considered as a means of Education. " Nowadays young children are refused access to kitchens for various reasons. First, they are clumsy and break the crockery. Second, they upset dishes and dirty their clothes. Third, they get burnt ; they don't know how to handle fire, and have to be kept even from getting near it. Fourth, the number of infants in our kitchens is too small to enable us to organize their work in groups. Fifth, particular departments of work such as plucking, sorting and washing, skinning, do not offer work in large quantities. Sixth, our kitchens are without a special department for child-cookery, etc. " Thus the first school of childhood is closed to it. I call it the ' first school ' because its stimulating effect is greater than that of any other. ... A single roast on a spit offers no attraction to the child as we know it ; but there is an attraction for the children of (our State of) Harmony when they see numerous spits ranged about three roaring fires which serve seven or nine kinds of spits : at the large fire, the large spits and A DREAM 31 the big joints ; at the medium-sized fire, medium-sized spits and joints ; at the little fire, little joints and little spits. This assortment furnishes some function for every age. The Cherubim look after the tiny little roasts, Larks, Wrens and Dicky-birds placed in rows on one side of the little fire, while the Seraphim watch rather larger spits holding Quails, Thrushes or Pigeons. Children of Secondary School age take charge of the medium-sized fire with two or three kinds of spits for poultry and medium-sized joints. Finally, those well in their teens will supervise in front of the large fire the spits holding the large joints." But one has to be careful before one decides how mad at times Fourier may have been. There are brilliant flashes of almost inspired truth in him, sufficient to equip a whole school of Reformers, and a mingled irony and freakish humour which suggest the now accepted philosopher, Mr. Bernard Shaw. Such was the source of Zola's inspiration, and the story in which he gives his version of Fourier's dream is as follows : Luke Froment, a young engineer living in Paris, is summoned to advise an old friend living in the country. This friend of his, a wealthy man, devotes his whole energy to scientific research with a view to improving the conditions of manufacture ; such questions as the conservation and transmission of heat and energy absorb his whole time and interest. The source of his wealth consists of metalliferous deposits in the hills behind his beautiful park, la Crecherie, and a large foundry where the ore is smelted. The engineer in charge of the foundry has suddenly died, and the scientific recluse, worried at having to attend to business, sends for his friend Luke Froment to advise him and take all responsibility off his shoulders, leaving him free to drag his frail body about his beloved laboratory. Close by, on the same range of metalliferous mountains, is a large steel town, monstrous and horrible. AH the brutality of life in this Inferno, fitly termed " The Abyss," is ruthlessly laid bare for us by Zola. Luke Froment, in the study of his friend's concerns, has also to study the industrial conditions of the Abyss, and the horror of it sinks into his soul. A passionate desire comes on him to do something to relieve this horrible condition ; but what ? He had taken up his quarters in an old dower-house or lodge standing on the edge of his friend's park. One sleepless night he throws himself out of bed, lights his lamp, and wanders about the vast bedroom : there is a bookcase in the room, he looks at it ; it is full of books on Economics and on Social Reform ; he takes up a slim little 32 volume giving an account of Fourier's philanthropic scheme, and as he reads it there dawns on him the conviction that the true gospel of life is his at last. The next afternoon a luncheon party at the Crcherie consisting of the Jordans (brother and sister), Luke, and three intimates of the house, the neighbouring cure, the doctor, and the schoolmaster, drift over their coffee into a discussion on Education. Somewhat to the annoyance of the cure and the schoolmaster, Luke, brooding over his reading of the night, bursts out with his view as follows : " The fault in our schools is that we start with the idea that man is bad ; that he is born rebellious and idle, and that a whole system of punishment and rewards is necessary if we wish to get anything out of him. And so we have converted education into a sort of torture. Study has become as irksome to our brains as manual labour to our hands. Our professors have been con- verted into the warders of a convict university, whose duty it is to pound the intelligence of the young according to a recipe, and then run them all into the same mould without taking any account of individuality. They are no better than butchers of initiative. Under a mass of ready-made ideas and official verities, they absolutely crush the tendency towards criticism, towards research, and the development of personal and individual talent. And the worst is that, by this process, character is as profoundly affected as intelligence, and such a scheme of education can hardly produce anything but incapables and hypocrites. . . . The schoolmaster's task is none other than to awaken energy. He is, as it were, a professor of individual energy, simply charged with the duty of disengaging a child's aptitude by provoking questions from him and thus developing his personality. There is in the heart of every man an immense, an insatiable desire for learning and know- ledge, and this ought to be the sole incitement to study, without any punish- ment or reward. Clearly it should suffice, were we to content ourselves with smoothing the way for every child to learn what he likes, and rendering a study attractive to him by letting him take it up for himself, and then pro- gress by the force of his own ever- widening intelligence with the joy of con- tinual discovery. That man shall make man by treating man as man, is not that the whole problem of instruction and education which we've got to solve ? " A fine example this of Zola's sledge-hammer eloquence, so overdone as to provoke not interruption perhaps, but certainly a smile ! Sceurette, as Jordan's sister is called, listens in silence to the discussion, but drinks in every word that Luke says. Her brother sits musing, and closes A DREAM 33 the discussion with the remark : " The one eternal truth is Work ; the world will be one day what work has made it." Then Sceurette finds words and speaks of a scheme she has been cherishing to found a sort of day-nursery for infants whose mothers are employed all day in her brother's establishment. Luke takes up the idea, develops it for her, and before many days are past has kindled all her enthusiasm for his own more spacious dreams. Together they talk Jordan out of the resolve he had come to, to rid himself for ever of the encumbrance of his mines and his foundry by selling the whole concern to the owners of the Abyss, and to devote himself undisturbed to the toy- furnaces and retorts of his laboratory. Luke's whole soul, and Sceurette's are in revolt at the thought of handing over more victims to Moloch. Jordan's colder philosophic spirit is gradually inflamed and in the end he installs his friend as controller of the whole of his property, with full power to develop it to the utmost, to build on it an industrial town which shall be all that the ideal city should be, all that the Abyss is not. Quickly he set to work, and Fourier's Utopia took visible shape. It was a garden-city indeed : this is how Zola describes it in its early days : " Luke wished that the houses of his industrial city, each surrounded by its own garden, should be comfortable dwellings where family life should flourish. There were fifty already occupy- ing the land bordering the park of the Crecherie, forming quite a little town stretching out to Beauclair. Every newly built house was like another step towards the conquest of the sinful old town, whose doom had been pronounced. " In the centre of the property he had erected the People's Palace, a vast building containing the schools, a library, assembly rooms, playrooms and baths. That was all he had retained of Fourier's phalanstere. He allowed every man to build as he pleased, without troubling him too much with building regulations, as he saw no necessity for common action or a common type except in the case of certain public services. And then in the background rose the co-operative stores, growing larger day by day, with departments for bread, meat, and groceries, as well as for clothing, hardware, and all the little odds and ends indispensable to domestic life. There was thus corre- sponding to the co-operative effort regulating production at the factory, co-operative effort in distribution." Factory and workshop in the Garden City are thus described : " After the gloom and the choking dust, and the filth of the Abyss, with its heavy, dilapidated sheds, dimly lighted by narrow windows, the sunny rooms of the c 34 THE THINKING HAND Crecherie, built of iron and brick, with large bay windows letting in floods of light and air, seemed marvellous." And now for the schools. Here, strung together, are some of the passages in which the school life of the children is described. " The schools were divided into three distinct sections : a day-nursery for quite little ones, where the working mothers could leave their children, even the babies in long clothes ; then a school proper, with five divisions, giving a complete education ; then a series of workshops, in which the pupils went through a course of industrial training designed to develop their practical skill step by step with the growth of their general intelligence in the classroom. The two sexes were not separ- ated, boys and girls grew up together, side by side from the very cradle to the workshop. In the classroom too they sat on the same bench, associated as they would be in life." First, we pay a visit to the day-nursery. " In a huge white room the white cradles were ranged along the white walls. Little pink faces slept in them and smiled from them. Round them, coming and going, were kind women in large spotless aprons, with soft eyes, and motherly hands, who with gentle words tended these firstlings of humanity, no more as yet than human buds as it were, the buds which were to flower into the men and women of the future. But there were also children up to three or four years of age, miniature men and women, and these moved about at large, the more delicate in wheeled chairs, the others taking their chance on their little legs, without fear of tumbling. The room opened on to a verandah filled with flowers, which led on to the garden. The whole delightful flock gambolled in the sun and the warm air. There were toys and puppets dangling on strings to amuse the babies, and the elder children had dolls, and horses, and carts which they noisily dragged about, like heroes already stirred by the call for action. It was cheering to see this little world preparing so gaily and in such comfort for the task of to-morrow." We leave the Day Nursery by the verandah, and walk along it to visit the neighbouring school. We pass the French windows of the five classrooms, which all give on to the green garden, and as the weather is warm, the windows are wide open, so that you can look into each classroom from the threshold without going in. " Ever since the schools were instituted the teachers had been working out a new curriculum. From the first class where they received the child before he could read, to the fifth, where they parted from him after giving him all the necessary elements of general knowledge, the teachers A DREAM 35 endeavoured above all to present objects and facts to him, to keep him in touch with the real things of the world. Their effort was also to awaken in him the desire for order, to make him methodical from daily habit. Without method there can be no effective work. It is method that puts everything in its place, and enables us to gain fresh knowledge without losing any of the store we have already accumulated. And book-learning, if not condemned, was at any rate treated as of minor importance ; for the child will only learn properly what he sees, what he can touch, what, in a word, he can find out for himself. He was stimulated of his own initiative to find out the truth, to get inside it, and make it his. The individual energy of every pupil was thereby aroused and strengthened. On the same principle all punishments and rewards were done away with, threats and cajolements were no longer relied on to force idle children to work. There is no such thing as an idle child. There are only sick children, or children who fail to understand clearly what is imperfectly explained to them, or children again whose little heads refuse to receive instruction in subjects for which they have no aptitude. If we wish to have nothing but good scholars it is enough for us to utilise the burning desire for knowledge alight in everyone's being, the child's inextin- guishable curiosity in regard to all that surrounds it, that curiosity which wears us out with its questions. The moment the teacher makes instruction attractive by contenting himself with simply awakening the intelligence and merely leading it on to make its own discoveries, learning ceases to be a tor- ment, and becomes a pleasure which grows sweeter every day. It is every- one's right and his duty to work out his own development. And the child must form himself, he must be left to do so alone in the midst of the vast world, if he is ever to become a man, an energising Force, a Will to govern and decide. " So the whole curriculum unfolded itself, from the first notions of things to the conception of all the truths of science in a logical and gradual emanci- pation of the intellect. In the garden there was a gymnasium, and there were games and physical exercises of all sorts to give the body health and strength, as the mind gained wisdom. You can only get perfect mental equilibrium in a healthy body. In the junior classes especially there were long intervals for recreation. At first the children were only given short tasks, which were frequently changed, and which were adapted to their powers of endurance. It was the rule to shut them up as little as possible. Lessons were often given in the open air ; walks were organised with the object of teaching the scholars in the midst of the very things they were learning about ; 3 6 THE THINKING HAND visits to factories ; country rambles with their opportunities for the study of animals, plants, hills, and rivers. The study of men and things, of life itself, was called upon to furnish the best part of their education, for the conviction was that all knowledge should have no other aim than to enable us to live well our lives. " The workshops were on the other side of the garden. There were courses of instruction in the principal trades, the children trying their hands at them, not so much for the purpose of mastering them, but in order to get a general notion of all, and to determine their particular bent. The industrial training was graduated in precisely the same manner as the studies in the classroom. As soon as the child began to acquire at the desk the first notions of reading and writing, in the workshop on the other side of the garden, some simple tool was put into his hands. While in the morning he was studying grammar, arithmetic, or history, ripening his intelligence, in the afternoon he was working with his little arms, to gain muscular vigour and skill. This industrial training was, as it were, a useful recreation ; it rested the brain and put an agreeable strain on the muscles. The principle had been accepted that every man must learn a trade, so that every pupil, on leaving the schools, had only to choose the trade he fancied, and perfect himself at it in a real workshop. The cult of beauty was not neglected. The children went through courses of music, of drawing, of painting, and of modelling, which revealed the joys of existence to their awakened souls. Even for those who could not get beyond the mere elements of art, life was fuller, the earth and all things on it became articulate, and the humblest homes were glorified." This dream of the future is not to be dismissed as a nightmare. Much of what Zola says is marred by over-emphasis, even by gross exaggeration, some of it is mere fustian, and some of it again reads like a parody, or the reductio ad absurdum, of suave and sentimental pleadings of which we have more than a sufficiency in these days. It is not true, it never was true, and it never will be true, that there is " a burning desire for knowledge alight in everyone's being." But no one can walk through many a school of to-day, or, in default of that, look through the photographs at the end of this volume, without feeling that there are even more things to come about in our schools than have yet been dreamt of in our philosophy. It is difficult to believe that boys and girls brought up like those to be seen at work on pages 109-217, will not have an extraordinarily different outlook from their parents. CHAPTER VI. PLAIN FACTS. LIVERPOOL is a city with a population, according to the census of 1911, of 746421. The total number on the rolls of elementary schools for September, 1913, was 134,464, with an average attendance of 121,037. It may be claimed that some sort of manual work in school, in addition to the manipulation of pen and pencil, is now provided for well over 75 per cent, of these children. The manual work provided may be arranged in three categories : (i) Work done in special workshops or centres, for which a special grant is paid by the Board of Education. (2) Light woodwork or light . metal work, which may be executed in a special workshop or room reserved for the purpose, or in the ordinary classroom. For a certain amount of this kind of manual work a special grant is also paid by the Board. (3) The varied occupations carried on in the ordinary classroom without any special equipment, (a) in illustration of the general subjects of the curriculum, or, (b) in the case of girls, and some boys, for their direct utility, e.g. knitting and sewing, or (c) for the sake of fun, to put a valuable consideration in the briefest possible form. A few words may be said about the kinds of hand- work comprehended under each of these paragraphs. We shall take for conrenience' sake boys first. With regard then to the boys and their work in category number (i), it should be stated at the outset that in Liverpool no set scheme is prescribed. The only direct lead given from headquarters will be found in the Notes set out at the beginning of Appendix II. The schemes set out in the same Appen- dix, and following the Notes, will show what a rich variety has thus been secured. The heavy hand-work comprehended in category (i) is carried out in well-equipped workshops, providing for both woodwork and metal work. The former are furnished with nearly a full bench of tools ; the latter with 3 8 THE THINKING HAND forges, lathes, drills, vices, and the usual tinman's outfit. These workshops are either centres standing in isolation and serving from eight to ten schools, or centres established in particular school buildings and serving from two to three schools. Or, again, the workshop is part of a particular school and serves that school only. The Liverpool Education Committee have established in certain schools in suitable localities, where the workshop and the domestic centre are likely to make a special appeal, a complete equipment for both boys and girls. For grant-earning purposes the centres or workshops are frequented by shifts of twenty or forty or sixty boys, according as the particular centre is a single, a double, or a triple centre. The grant-earning period is from two to two-and-a-half hours per week. The majority of these centres or work- shops are established as well as maintained by the municipality, but it should be mentioned that in one or two of the voluntary schools an actual workshop has been provided by the managers, though it is maintained by the muni- cipality. Before passing from this category of hand-work, some statistics may be of interest. The boys admitted to the benefits of the centres or workshops must be over eleven. The total number of boys over eleven may be taken at twenty thousand. Of these, nine thousand had, during the last school year, their weekly turn of two or two-and-a-half hours in a fully equipped centre or work- shop. This does not, of course, mean that eleven thousand were excluded from hand- work altogether. A number got their turn the year before. Others, again, will get it next year ; for most of the remainder there is at least the opportunity, as will be pointed out later, of light woodwork or light metal- work, in addition, of course, to the miscellaneous occupations introduced into the ordinary classroom. But the provision of fully equipped centres and workshops is increasing rapidly, and it is quite possible that in the course of a few years the accommodation will practically equal the school population of appropriate age. The total cost of this work during the past year was, so far as regards maintenance, 5,000. A Government grant of 2,300 was received, leaving as a net cost to the rates 2,700. The number of single centres was two, of double centres thirteen, of triple centres two. Of work- shops attached to schools there were twelve, the great majority of which were monopolised by the school to which the workshop was attached, and of which it thus formed an integral part. With regard to girls, the corresponding hand-work under category (i) is PLAIN FACTS 39 to be found in connection with cookery, laundry, and a course known as the Combined Domestic Subjects Course. As in the case of the boys' workshops, so the girls' domestic centres consist of (a) independent centres, either for cookery alone or for laundry work alone, or with both cookery and laundry rooms in the same building, each centre being fed by from eight to ten schools. In addition, however, to the centres there are (b) cookery rooms and laundries attached to particular schools, and either serving one or two schools or mono- polised by the school of whose buildings they form part. Furthermore, there are (c) special centres for combined domestic subjects. As the cookery and laundry work has to be carried out under very strict Government regulations if it is to earn a grant at all, the syllabuses for cookery and laundry, to be found in Appendix I., will be found to be far more precise than the syllabuses of hand-work for boys. But they will probably strike people as reasonable enough in themselves, and not, as is the danger with set schemes, too formal and methodical. The cookery courses comprise three stages, with an alternative preliminary stage for schools in poor localities where girls have little or no knowledge of the simplest utensils for cooking. Only two of these stages are taken by any particular girl in a single school year ; and the same is the case with the shorter laundry courses, also with their three stages, each about half as long as the cookery stage, only two of which are taken by one girl in any particular school year. Of recent years a very useful variation of this training has been introduced, namely, the Combined Domestic Subjects Course, comprising cookery, laundry work, and housewifery. A girl can take this combined course after she has passed through Stage I. in both cookery and laundry work, and to enable the girls to reap the admitted advantage of a concentrated course each set spends a month on end in the centre. The instruction is probably more homelike and practical in connection with the Combined Domestic Subjects Course than with the more formal cookery and laundry courses, especially in those centres where teachers are actually in residence and the pupils under- take the whole work of the house. The cookery becomes more distinctively household or cottage cookery, and the laundry work may almost be dignified by the term washing ; in addition there is the invaluable practice under skilled instruction in all the sweeping, scrubbing, polishing, and wiping that goes to make the decent home, and above all the inculcation in practice of the rules of hygiene. The centres or school courses are attended by shifts of at most eighteen 40 THE THINKING HAND girls at a time, and the minimum grant-earning period is two-and-a-half hours weekly. There are twenty- three cookery centres, ten laundry centres, five double centres providing both for cookery and laundry, sixteen school centres for cookery and four school centres for laundry. There are seven special centres for combined domestic subjects. The number of girls who, during the last school year, received at least one course in one of these centres was thirteen thousand, out of a total of twenty thousand girls over eleven years of age. It would appear that in regard to manual work the Liverpool Education Committee, consisting mainly of men, has been a good deal more generous to girls than to boys. As a matter of fact, practically all girls receive some specialised instruction in cookery, laundry, and housewifery before they leave school, in addition to all the instruction they get in connection with the ordin- ary subjects of the curriculum in the classroom needlework, including the drafting and cutting out of clothes, the use of the sewing machine, hygiene, and the care of infants. The cost of the specialised instruction for the last school year was 4000, against which a relatively higher Government grant was received than in the case of handicrafts for boys, amounting to 2800, while 400 was realised by the sale of food, thus leaving a net cost to the rates of only about 800. With regard now to hand- work that may be included in category (2), this takes the form in the case of boys and also in an increasing number of schools in the case of girls of courses in light woodwork and light metal work. The equipment for woodwork is such as not to require a special bench, but can be adapted to the ordinary classroom if a movable top is fitted on the sloping desk ; the tools are light tools such as are required for working thin wood. The equipment for the light metal work course practically amounts to a simpli- fied tinsmith's outfit. There is no need, perhaps, to lay more stress on the light metal work and woodwork courses, for a specimen syllabus will be found in Appendix II., B. But a word should be said of one particular development of work on the girls* side, which may very properly be placed in this category, though it is not yet recognised by the Government by way of grant. This is the practical in- struction that is being given as a crown to the classroom course in domestic science and hygiene, which will be found set out in Appendix I., viz. the course of instruction in Care of Infants and Young Children. This is a course which has been attacked with particular enthusiasm by the Committee's Inspec- PLAIN FACTS 41 tresses and Headmistresses generally. Their enthusiasm is a striking illus- tration of the growth of interest in the physical well-being, not only of the rising but also of all future generations. And one may indulge the belief that when instruction of this sort becomes universal in our elementary schools successive generations will not only be healthier in themselves but also have a more wholesome outlook on life. As is only right, special pains are now being taken to secure that boys as well as girls shall receive instruction in hygiene, though no boy has as yet been initiated into the mysteries of bath- ing even a doll. The illustrations given in Appendix III., pages 124-126, will give a graphic presentation of this valuable form of hand-work in schools. With regard to hand-work coming within the third category, not much need be said. The illustrations in Appendix III. may be allowed to speak for themselves. Hand-work is employed to illustrate number, geometry, his- tory, geography, nature study, experimental science ; moreover, where it does not fulfil any one of these purposes in particular it will be found to be there for the sake of the moral value attaching to all useful work, or for the almost equally valuable purpose of giving fun : fun to the big boys who make an amusing toy or model, and fun to the infants to whom many of the toys and models are passed on. The whole of the letterpress of this book has been in the main an argument for the introduction universally of hand-work of this simple kind. Special attention may be directed to the schemes set out in Appendix II., B. There the variety will strike people, but the reader must be warned that the most elaborate scheme on paper is not necessarily the most elaborate and varied in practice. Good work is none the worse for being set out fully and clearly in a syllabus, but the convenience of the syllabus to the inspector, or anyone having the administrative charge of work, must not blind one to the fact that the work and not the syllabus is the real concern. As a matter of fact, at the present moment the most interesting of the seven schools whose syllabuses or schemes are set out in Appendix II. is, perhaps, the one whose scheme on paper appears the least adequate, the flimsiest of all. But note in each scheme how moderate is the allowance of time devoted to hand-work. Some impetuous critic may have had an uneasy feeling as he has perused the argument of the book or looked through the photographs, that this sort of work is all that the schools are doing. It is not so. All the time reading, writing, and arithmetic, history, geography, elementary science and the rest are still going on, but a new interest is being given to them all, both as they 4 2 THE THINKING HAND affect teacher and pupil, as opportunity is afforded for realising them in the concrete. Appended is a list of manual occupations now going on in Liverpool schools. The majority of the occupations will be found in a large number of schools, but a few have been adopted only in two or three departments, where there is a teacher specially gifted in a particular line. This is the case notably with the lino-cutting (see illustrations, page 120). This is only going on in one school, and is not the sort of occupation one would encourage any teacher to take up who had not the artistic gifts of the individual who has introduced it. So, too, with the use of the spinning-wheel shown on page 142. This has been prompted by the enthusiasm of a member of the Ruskin Society. Wireless telegraphy again (page 206) is as yet only practised in one Elemen- tary school. The miniature rifle shooting, of which illustrations are given on pages 216-217, is an enterprise not recognised by the Board of Education, and is carried on outside school hours with the assistance of private funds. Forms of hand-work to be found in Liverpool schools. Paper : (i) Cutting, folding, mounting, model-making. (2) Free cutting with the scissors. Cardboard : Model-making. Clay, putty, and wax : Modelling. Sand-building. Flower-making. Bookbinding. Beadwork. Weaving in raffia, cane, and string. Rug-making. Netting, knotting, and plaiting. Upholstery . Linoleum cutting and printing. Glass work : Making scientific apparatus. Repousse (metal) work. Woodwork (with knife). ,, (with fretsaw). (with carpenter's tools). Toy-making. Chip-carving. Marquetry. Knitting, sewing, and clothes mending (for boys). Cookery (for boys), (for girls). Laundry-work. Housewifery. Needlework, for girls. Dressmaking. Shoemaking and cobbling. Tailoring. Bent iron and other metal work. Gardening (in a few schools favourably situated). Spinning and weaving. Alabaster and other stone work. PLAIN FACTS 43 In conclusion, a word of tribute is due to the teachers. The handicraft and domestic centres are staffed by instructors who have been through a definite course of training, and have earned diplomas recognised by the Board of Education as qualifying them to give special instruction. But the bulk of the work, both the light woodwork and the general manual work in the classroom, is being taken by class-teachers, who, not content with having earned the recognised teacher's certificate, have qualified themselves by summer courses and by winter evening courses to combine hand-work with head-work in the training of their youthful charges. If we are to congratulate ourselves on the progress of this practical side of education let theirs be the credit, as theirs has been the labour. APPENDIX I. SUGGESTIONS FOR COURSES OF INSTRUCTION IN HYGIENE, HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE, AND THE CARE OF INFANTS, WITH SYLLABUSES OF COOKERY AND LAUNDRY WORK, FOR GIRLS IN PUBLIC ELEMEN- TARY SCHOOLS. A. HYGIENE AND HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE. SUGGESTIONS for more directly associating the Teaching of Household Science (Domestic Economy) in the Elementary Schools with the Practical Teaching given to older girls in the Centres by the Teachers of Domestic Subjects. SECTIONS A AND B (STANDARDS I. AND II.). 1. Simple rules of health inculcated practically, through the usual daily routine inspection of hands, nails, teeth, skin, hair, etc. 2. How to use the tooth brush. How to use the nail brush. How to wash oneself in the morning. Why we wash our hands before eating food. 3. Why children should go to bed early. Why " breathing exercises " are prac- tised either in the playground or in a room with open windows. Why we should breathe through the nose, and not through the mouth. Why a proper and frequent use of the handkerchief helps to keep the throat healthy. Reasons why we should not go about with our mouths half open, sit awkwardly at desks, hold reading books too close to the eyes, stoop over copybooks when writing, slouch along in the streets, instead of walking smartly, or loll about in a lazy fashion at any time. 4. How little boys and girls can help their mothers in the home. Duty of taking care of clothing. Manners of children in the home, in the school, in the playground, in the street. 5. Observation or object lessons on articles that can be bought at the green- grocer's, and at the baker's, and their use. SECTIONS C AND D (STANDARDS III. AND IV.). 1. Very simple lessons on the value of fresh air, sunshine, exercise, good food and sufficient sleep. 2. How to " mind " little children what to do, what not to do. How to amuse HYGIENE AND HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE 45 little ones. Dangers of swinging by the arms, jumping violently, etc. Dangerous playthings to be avoided (needles, pins, broken glass, sharp wood, knives, scissors, peas, beans, money, buttons, matches). Dangers arising from fires, boiling water, traffic, stray cats and dogs, sitting on stone or wet steps, playing near a grid or heap of rubbish. (N.B. This instruction is most essential in districts where from various causes the care of the youngest members of a family is delegated almost entirely to older brothers and sisters, often little more than babies themselves. Cases of preventable accidents to little children are continually being com- mented upon in the Coroner's Court, and a habit of thoughtfulness cannot be begun too early.) 3. Observation or object lessons on (a) articles bought at the grocer's, and their use ; (6) utensils and furniture found in the kitchen ; (c) in the sitting-room ; (d) in the bedroom, care of same and duty of care of property generally, especially that of other people ; (e) simple lessons on coal, water, air, cold and heat. 4. (a) How we get heat to warm houses and schools ; (b) Uses of food and clothing. 5. How to lay a dinner-table. How to lay a tea-table. 6. The life history of the domestic fly. SECTION" E (STANDARD V.). This is the stage at which instruction in cookery usually begins, and it is essential that the Domestic Economy taught in the schools should correlate with the work done in the Centres, so that the pupils may have clear and accurate ideas to corre- spond with terms necessarily in use such as albumen, fibrine, carbon, etc. It is a distinct advantage if the lessons on food and food-values can be given by a teacher with at least an elementary knowledge of chemistry, as simple experiments and accurate diagrams are essential to a right understanding of the composition and dietetic value of foods. 1. Food, its sources, uses, and functions. 2. Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen (very simple explanations). 3. Warmth-giving or force-producing food stuffs : Fat, starch, sugar. 4. Flesh-forming or tissue-producing food stuffs : Albumen, gluten, fibrine, casein, legumen, and gelatine. (It should be impressed that all foods are either force-producers or tissue-producers, or both. There is no strict limiting line between the two.) 5. Water as a food. 6. Salt and other mineral foods. 7. Proximate composition of milk, meat, bread, potatoes, and eggs. 8. Suitable food for infants, for little children, for school children, for adults (the manual worker and the sedentary worker) , for invalids and the aged. 9. Reasons for and methods of cooking food ; relative economy of the processes 46 THE THINKING HAND of stewing, boiling, baking, and frying as methods of cooking, and economic value of peas, lentils, and oatmeal as foods. 10. Choice of foods how to select vegetables, meat, fish ; current prices in neighbourhood ; weekly food bills. 11. How to make a bed. How to clean windows, boots and shoes, silver, etc. SECTION F (STANDARD VI.). 1. The skin and cleanliness. Circulation of the blood. 2. General build of the human body (bones, muscles, joints, digestion, nerves, brain). 3. Recapitulation, in greater detail, of the general rules of health, with some reference to temperance. 4. The feeding and care of infants (see Appendix B) . 5. Water supply. Wells, reservoirs. Simple methods of testing and purifying water. 6. Hard and soft water composition and properties. 7. Revision of lessons on the various foods and food stuffs, their source and use. Value of a " mixed diet." 8. Soap, soda, washing powder, blue, starch composition and use. 9. Composition of the air and changes produced by combustion and respiration. 10. Principles of ventilation. Why we should sleep with our windows open. 11. The Home Choice of position, lighting, ventilation, drainage, proximity to schools and father's work, cleanliness. 12. Methods of lighting the home, and how to trim a paraffin lamp. 13. Materials used as fuel, and economy in use of same. How to build a fire. 14. House and furniture cleaning. Apparatus and materials needed. 15. Wool its source, nature, and manufactured forms. Cotton its source, nature, and manufactured forms. Relation of the various materials used as clothing to heat and evaporation. SECTION G (STANDARDS VII. AND Ex.). 1. The washing, clothing, feeding, and care of infants as set out in Appendix B. The use of the fire-guard and particulars as to the recent Act of Parliament with respect to carelessness to be emphasised. 2. How to make a cot for the baby out of a banana crate, or box ; use of bran as a bed. Why infants should sleep alone. 3. Management of the sick-room ; home nursing. 4. Common ailments of children, of adults ; common accidents how to treat each. Duty of care for the aged, the afflicted and the infirm. HYGIENE AND HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE 47 5. Digestion. Rules of health as regards food and clothing (in greater detail than heretofore). 6. Common causes of disease. Infectious disease. Duty of notification to the authorities. Disinfectants and how to use them. 7. What may be done in the home to help to keep the city healthy. (Civic duty of women.) 8. Necessity for hot and cold baths. Use of public baths and wash-houses. 9. Consumption and what it is, how it is spread, open-air treatment, what people can do in their own homes to fight the disease. 10. Weekly budgets (made up by individual girls and criticised by the class) determined by wages and locality. Duty of thrift and economy in all things. Use of Post Office Savings Bank. Evils of the " credit " system. Advantages of ready- money payments. 11. Clothing choice, good taste shown in suitability for occupation and avoid- ance of the tawdry and showy. How to test wearing quality of materials. Necessity for mending, brushing, folding, etc. Inferiority of ready-made underwear. A box of patterns of serge, calico, flannel, print, etc., with prices and width plainly marked, is useful for illustrating in this lesson. 12. Temperance (see scheme of Board of Education). 13. Importance of modest, becoming deportment, of cheerfulness and good temper, of self-respect, of carrying on education after leaving school, of care in choice of an occupation. NOTE. No attempt has been made to divide up the suggested topics into lessons. Some points mentioned are impressed incidentally throughout the child's whole school career. Others again are obviously less necessary for schools in good neighbourhoods than in neighbourhoods where the girls have to depend entirely on the school for instruction and training in even the most elementary matters of hygiene and home management. In schools where there happens, from some cause or another, to be a number of older girls in the lower standards it has been found advantageous to group these together to form a special class with a special time-table. Extra time is given to Cookery, Laundry, Domestic Economy, Household Accounts, making, mending, and hand-work generally. The girls are found to gain in self-respect, being no longer depressed by fruitless efforts to keep pace with younger and sharper comrades ; increased interest results, and the gradually improved manual dexterity strengthens their brain power. Such girls are unquestionably being better equipped for life than they would be if left to struggle hopelessly along in the ordinary classes. 48 THE THINKING HAND B. SUGGESTIONS FOR A SHORT COURSE OF LESSONS ON THE CARE OF INFANTS AND YOUNG CHILDREN. 1. CLOTHING. Simple very few things absolutely necessary necessity for warmth and cleanliness if the shawl in which the baby is wrapped is worn by the mother it should be frequently washed dangers of tight garments flannelette pins value of wool. (The girls should make up a simple outfit for use in demon- strations, and cut out paper patterns for home use.) 2. WASHING AND DRESSING. Necessity for cleanliness action of skin baby's skin tender, chaps easily necessity for at least one bath daily how to prepare a bath a good supply of warm, clean water should be used for each child danger of cold and draught shock of sudden change of temperature how to wash, dry and dress how to support back and neck care of head, ears, eyes, folds of skin, nose nasal breathing comfort of soft towels and good soap. Children should never be dried with dirty clothes or rags, or held head downwards when being washed. (If asked, a mother will sometimes bring her baby for demonstration purposes, and be very interested in what is taught.) Why dirt is dangerous to young and old personal cleanliness a duty as a citizen use of public baths, name of one nearest to the school charge for warm bath, soap and towels Liverpool's magnificent water supply. How dirt acts on the mouth tonsils bowels and lungs. 3. FEEDING. Why natural feeding is preferable facts as to superior power of resistance to disease and greater chance of healthy growth and development of natur- ally fed infants artificial feeding use of cow's milk how prepared necessity for keeping covered in a cool place and boiling and diluting dangers of contamination particulars as to the cost and use of sterilised milk sold at Corporation depdts why babies are weighed and measured feeding bottles dangers of long tubes how to clean feeding bottles dangers of giving starchy foods before they can be digested why babies should not have " a bit of what we are having ourselves " dangers of over and under-feeding need for regularity in feeding dangers of sooth- ing syrups teething powders and alcohol ill effects of so-called comforters (mal- formation of mouth displacement of growing teeth imperfect articulation indi- gestion ulcerated mouth) mother's milk best up to end of 6 months milk diet alone up to end of 9 months later, fine oatmeal boiled in milk milk thickened with baked flour and boiled later, bread crumbs and gravy egg lightly boiled bread and butter, boiled milk to drink later, teeth to be exercised but not on pork, pickles, bloaters, sausages, or tough meat use of hard crusts biscuits rusks. Order of development of teeth care necessary during teething attendance at dental hospital of children of about seven importance of regulating second teeth. Nutritive value of bread and milk porridge milk puddings and bread and jam for little children no tea required milk instead. CARE OF INFANTS 49 4. CARE. Need for fresh air clean surroundings light sunshine (very young children should have their heads protected from the sun) children are like plants importance of regular sleep why better for baby to sleep in a cot baby's bed should be kept clean how to carry a young baby need for keeping neck, arms and legs properly covered how flies and vermin of any kind carry infection should be carefully kept from the baby danger of leaving candles, lamps, matches, pails of hot or cold water near little children precautions against dangerous playthings, such as rough pieces of wood, knives, scissors, broken bottles, forks, fires, etc. need for fire-guards what to do if a child is burnt, scalded, choking. Children who cannot walk should not be put down to sit on the doorstep or flags dangers arising from older children playing with street gullies. Why a doctor should at once be consulted in case of doubt as to infectious disease in case of running ear or abscess or in case of obstinate diarrhoea times of year when latter most prevalent importance of proper diet danger of stale fish, over-ripe fruit value of occasional doses of simple cooling medicine in spring and summer (liquid magnesia, liquorice powder). Treatment of sore eyes sore heads running ears care of hair and nails need for training little children in decent, cleanly, regular habits reasons for vaccination how cleanliness, light, warmth, fresh air, and proper feeding tend to make a baby content, happy, and thriving. (Attention should be drawn to the handbills issued by the Medical Officer of Health re the feeding of infants and the treatment of diarrhoea, also practical hints given from Dr. Caton's little book How to live, and the girls might make a copy of the appended dietary.) THE THINKING HAND TABLE OF DIETS FOR CHILDREN UP TO SIXTEEN TWENTY MONTHS OF AGE. (Useful if children cannot possibly be given the natural food.) AGE. MATERIALS AND QUANTITIES FOR 24 HOURS. AMOUNT AT EACH FEED. NUMBER OF FEEDS AND TIMES OF FEEDING. SUMMARY OF PRECAUTIONS NEEDFUL IN FEEDING. First two days. Up to six weeks. Up to 'three months. Up to ' six months. 6 tablespoonfuls cows' milk, half pint of water, one table-spoonful white sugar or milk sugar ; or sugar water may be used instead, i oz. of milk sugar to a pint of water. 12 tablespoonfuls milk, 24 tablespoonfuls of water, sugar as above. One gill and eight table- spoonfuls milk, same quantity water, same amount sugar. i gill and 12 table-spoon- fuls of milk, 1 6 table- spoonfuls water, same amount sugar. 3 table- spoonfuls. 4 table- spoonfuls. 8 table- spoonfuls. 8 table- spoonfuls. 9 feeds, 2 a.m., 6, 8, 10, noon, 2 p.m., 4, 6, 10. 9 feeds, as above. 7 feeds, 2 a.m., 8.30, ii, i. 30 p.m. 4, 6.30, 9- 6 feeds, 3 a.m., 9, noon, 3 P-m., 6, 9- As soon as the milk has been purchased make up the mixture in column 2, boil for 20 minutes, pour into clean jug, cover with clean cloth, place jug in basin of cold water to cool milk, with ice when procurable, in basin. Pour quantity required at each feed into feeding bottle, at once replace jug in basin and cloth on jug, renewing the cold water as required. Precautions as above. Precautions as above. As above. TABLE OF DIETS (INFANTS) NUMBER OF AGE. MATERIALS AND QUANTITIES FOR 24 HOURS. AMOUNT AT EACH FEED. FEEDS AND TIMES OF FEEDING. SUMMARY OF PRECAUTIONS NEEDFUL IN FEEDING. Six to 1 seven months. Cows' milk, i pint to one and a half pints. 8 to 12 table- spoonfuls. 5 feeds, 6 a.m., 9-30. As above. i p.m., 4.30, 8. Seven to 1 nin e months. Same, with increased quantity. Nine to twelve months. Up to eighteen months. Up to three years. 6 a.m., 12 tablespoonfuls of cows' milk boiled ; 9.30 a.m., same boiled with fine oatmeal ; i p.m. as at 6 a.m. ; 4.30 p.m. same boiled with bread crumbs ; 8 p.m. same as at 6 a.m. 7 a.m., bread and milk, or oatmeal or hominy porridge, with plenty of milk ; ii a.m., 12 tablespoonfuls of milk ; 1.30 p.m., bread crumbs and gravy, or a lightly boiled egg, with bread and butter soaked in the egg ; 5.30 p.m. bread and milk ; 9 p.m., milk to drink. As the infant is able to masticate food the diet may be gradually extended. But he should not have foods difficult to digest, such as pork or tough meat. Milk is to remain the principal article of diet. i These quantities should pass by gradual increase from the lower to the higher amounts, and may be increased cautiously if the infant appears to require more. 52 THE THINKING HAND C. COOKERY AND LAUNDRY COURSES AND REGULATIONS. 1. The cleansing of kitchen and laundry utensils must be taught systematically at the beginning of the first stage, and after every demonstration and practice lesson, and a record kept to ensure each child doing a fair and varied share. A simple drill helps to minimise disorder in the scullery work. 2. Hands and nails must be inspected before each lesson, and the girls should have their hair neatly tied back. Aprons and sleeves are to be worn by every child during practice lessons. 3. Not more than two children are to work at a board during practice, and each pair must prepare, cook, and dish up their own portion. In the third stage two girls are to cook a complete dinner, unaided, from their own previously discussed menu which must show the price of the dinner and the number of persons for whom it is intended. Every effort should be made at all stages to foster independence in work. 4. Great care must be exercised to maintain perfect order and discipline during practice lessons. 5. Every opportunity should be taken to teach economy in expenditure and in the use of materials. 6. Each child must keep a note-book. Notes should be brief, pointed, expressed as simply as possible, and bear directly on proportions, actual cooking, and food value of the material used. The teacher's regular revision of note-books will help to ensure neat and accurate work. A mark-book should also be kept, and the children encouraged to obtain the highest marks. Extreme cleanliness, good behaviour, and general intelligence should receive marks apart from those given for actual skill in cooking. 7. Blackboard summaries must never be omitted. They should be clear, well arranged, and sufficiently detailed to indicate the groundwork of the demonstration, and should consist chiefly of deductions made by the children themselves, and indicate general rather than particular application. " Rule of thumb " methods are to be avoided, as being unintelligent and less likely to be remembered than rules deduced from actual experiment. Teachers should be most careful to make themselves acquainted with the underlying theory of each lesson. 8. There must be no departure from the approved Time Table without previous official sanction, but teachers may at discretion substitute certain lessons from an advanced stage, if the reason for such change is entered in the log-book. In order to ensure time for the requisite preparation and the revision of note-books, teachers should be at their centres not later than 9 a.m. and 1.15 p.m. 9. The cheapest kinds of meat and fish should be used at centres in poor neigh- bourhoods, for which a special course is now included. N.B. i. Each teacher is responsible for the care of the utensils in use in her COOKERY AND LAUNDRY COURSES 53 classes, and an accurate record must be kept of articles in use and articles broken. Utensils supplied for the use of cookery and laundry classes must not be used for other purposes. 2. Cupboards must be scrubbed regularly, jars labelled, and utensils arranged in order. 3. Carron oil and linen bandages, medicated pink lint, adhesive or court plaster, and a fire blanket must be kept in every centre in a convenient place known to each child. An occasional practice in the prompt use of these will prevent fright or dis- aster should an accident occur. SYLLABUS. The syllabus is arranged to suit the seasons of the year, Stage I., January to June ; Stages II. and III., August to January ; though the latter may occasionally be altered at the teacher's discretion. An average weekly wage, suitable to the occupations of the parents, should always be considered, and the girls taught how to spend such money to the best advantage. At every class the amount cooked should be sufficient for a family of seven, and always compared with home quantities, the girls intelligently understanding that the full quantity is divided between them for practice, and to allow time for the proper cooking and serving. In Stages II. and III. Invalid Cookery and Infant Dietary are taught in con- junction with the other foods, the idea being to impress the necessity for regularly preparing special dishes for sick people, the aged, and very young children. The cooking of vegetables should receive as much practice as possible, particularly in poor districts. Experience proves that these lessons are of great advantage, especially if taken in conjunction with the making of brown gravy. The latter is a very im- portant item of diet for children in a poor home. To give variety, and to allow latitude to the teacher, several dishes illustrating the same method are set out in the syllabus. Food values and general principles should be discussed at every lesson, and simple proportions and cost given. Where the dish proposed takes a short time to prepare and a long time to cook, another dish similar in principle may be added at the teacher's discretion. Comparisons should constantly be made between the relative cost and whole- someness of home-made dishes and shop-cooked food, and home-made bread and baker's bread. Every opportunity should be taken to train the powers of observation and to exercise the judgment and reasoning faculties of the children. 54 THE THINKING HAND COOKERY. STAGE I. Time 2% hours. Demonstration and Practice. No. of Lesson SUBJECT OF LESSON. APPLICATION. NOTES. I Scullery work. Methodical arrangement of work. Cleaning materials used. Explanation of stove and flues laying a fire. Washing up. Cleaning knives, forks, tin, brass. Scrubbing boards and Rules for scul- lery work. tables. 2 Baking. Management of oven . Food value of rice family pud- dings. Homely methods of measuring and weigh- ing. Rice pudding. Sago or tapioca pudding. Revision of scul- lery work. Principles in- volved in bak- ing. Proportions for milk puddings. 3 Soups. Advantages of soup din- ners; choice of ingredients; economy in time and fuel ; cost. Scotch broth or Lentil or pea soup dry toast. General rules for soup making. Advantages of pot-herbs. 4 Stewing. Suitable meat ; principles involved in stewing ; cost of meat ; food value of Irish stew or stewed mutton and carrots. Rules for stew- ing. Choice and cost fresh vegetables. Stewed fruit. Homely meas- of ingredients. ures. 5 BoHing. Food value of vegetables ; choice and cost ; various methods of cooking ; neces- sary care in boiling green vegetables. Boiled potatoes. Boiled carrots and turnips. Boiled cabbage. Rules for boiling. Hints on cooking fresh vegetables. COOKERY 55 No. of Lesson SUBJECT OF LESSON. APPLICATION. NOTES. 6 Steaming and Boiling (re- vision). Principles involved in steam- ing ; kind and cost of food; comparative value of steamed and boiled foods. Fruit puddings. Roly - poly or suet dumpling. Rules for steam- ing. Proportions for suet crust. 7 Boasting and Baking. Roast and baked dinners ; cost ; suitable meats and vegetables ; batter and its uses. Roast and baked meat and vege- tables. Making of gravy. Rules for roast- ing and baking. Proportions for batter. 8 Bread making. Choice and cost of flour ; tests for yeast ; explana- tions of and reasons for various processes ; advan- tages of home-made bread ; merits of whole-meal or Making of white or standard bread. General rules for bread-making. Family recipe. standard bread. 9 Practice lesson. Embracing examples of each method taught girls to criticise each other's efforts. Special marks to be given. IO Re-heating and using up of scraps. Principles involved in re- heating ; boiling of bones for gravy ; rendering of fat ; hints on seasoning ; uses of stale bread. Brown gravy. Minced meat and hash. Dry toast. Re-heating of vegetables. Rules for making brown gravy and re-heating meat. ii Short crust pastry. Food value of ingredients used ; relative value of various fats ; use of bak- ing powder. Baked apple dumplings. Cornish or mut- ton pasties. Fruit tarts. Rules for pastry- making. Proportions for short crust pas- try. 12 Batter making. Ingredients and their food value ; effect of heat on eggs ; proportions used for batters ; preparation, uses and various ways of cook- ing batters. Yorkshire pud- ding. Pancakes. Toad - in - the - hole. Rules for mak- ing batters. Proportions for family use; cost. 13 Action of rais- ing agents. Revision of bread lesson. Advantages of public bakehouses. Difference between yeast and bak- ing powder. Scones. Currant bread. Making baking powder. Proportions for baking-powder. Simple recipe for scones. THE THINKING HAND No. of Lesson M SUBJECT OF LESSON. APPLICATION. NOTES. Frying. Use and abuse of the frying- pan ; choice and suitable foods for frying ; food value of fish. Fried fish (her- rings or other cheap fish in season). Fried eggs and bacon. Rules for frying. Choice of fish. Food values of herrings and kippers. Fried bread. 15 Cheap suet puddings (steamed). General foundation for suet puddings ; various flavour- ings ; food value and cost of suet. General rules for making white sauce. Lemon, treacle, ginger and date puddings. Sweet sauce. Family propor- tions for suet- puddings and simple sauces. 16 Invalid foods. Choice, preparation and serving of food for the sick ; suitable foods and their cost ; food value of Oatmeal gruel. Beef tea. Barley water. Rules for invalid cookery ; cost. liquid foods. 17 Infants' feeding. Preparation of infants' feed- ing bottles ; care of milk ; evils arising from use of impure, canned and skimmed milk. Sterilised and humanised milk. Baked flour. Choice, prepara- tion and serv- ing of food. 18 Inexpensive cakes. Choice, preparation and cost of ingredients ; uses of sour and buttermilk. Soda cakes. Gingerbread. Rock cakes. Rules for making and baking. General propor- tions. 19 20 Examination of individual work in theory and practice. Correction of general errors revealed in previous examination, marks gained during the term and in the examination. Discussion of COOKERY 57 STAGE II. Time 2% hours. Demonstration and Practice. No. of Lesson SUBJECT OF LESSON. APPLICATION. NOTES. I (a) Revision of Comparison between nutri- Fried steaks or Broad outline of primary methods tive qualities of food. fillets of fish the functions of and principles. Broad outline of foods suit- various coat- food. (b) Functions of able for various seasons. ings. (Deep food. frying not to be taught in poor neigh- bourhoods.) Mashed pota- toes. 2 Summer foods. Suitable foods ; cost ; how Stewed fruits. Eggs and their to preserve food in hot Custards (egg food value weather. and with egg various ways of powder) . cooking. Lemonade. Summer drinks. 3 Vegetables and Mineral foods. Fresh vege- Boiled green Food value of sauces. tables, their medicinal and vegetables ; vegetables. nutritive value, particu- e.g. cauli- Proportions of larly in hot weather. Food flowers, peas, ingredients for value of sauces. marrows. white sauce. White sauce. 4 Stewing (nitro- Nitrogenous foods ; func- Stewed mutton Nitrogenous genous foods). tions ; sources ; action of or veal with foods; their heat. Food value of peas or carrots. uses ; methods " pulses." Fruit or roly- of cooking. poly pudding. 5 Steaming and Functions of non-nitro- Steamed beef- Non-nitrogenou s Baking (non- genous foods. Simple ex- steak pudding. foods ; uses ; nitrogenous planation of digestion. Milk puddings methods of foods). with eggs. cooking. 6 Mixed diet. Revision of previous lessons. Three dinners to be chosen and Effects of improper feed- arranged by the girls with respect ing. to cost, quantities and number for whom cooked : work to be equally divided, and a complete dinner served at each table. THE THINKING HAND No. of Lesson SUBJECT OF LESSON. APPLICATION. NOTES. 7 Bread making Food values of various Brown and Choice, cost and and babies' flours. Principles under- white bread. food values of feed. lying successful bread Soda scones. ingredients. making. Baked flour (in Rules for mak- preparation for ing and baking. babies' food). Advantages of home- made bread. 8 Pastry making Revision of rules for making Sausage rolls. Rules for making ((a) flaky and short crust pastry ; various Mutton pies. flaky and hot (b) with hot shortening agents. Prin- water pastry. water) ciples involved in making and baking pastry. 9 (a) Preservation Principles involved in pre- Boiled bacon, Advantages of of foods. serving food. Compara- pickled pork preserved (b) Cooking of tive value of preserved and or spare ribs foods. preserved foods. fresh foods. with haricot Reasons for giv- Foods for invalids beans. ing invalids and babies. Steamed fish. fresh foods. " Fobs." 10 Roasting, Baking Rules for cooking colonial Roast mutton Rules for choos- and Steaming. and chilled meat ; cost of or pork. ing and cooking suitable joints. Onion or apple colonial and sauce. chilled meat. Lemon, fig or sultana pud- ding. u Grilling. Revision of previous lesson. Grilled meat or Rules for grill- Foods suitable for grilling ; fish. ing ; choice and cost. Food values of eggs Yorkshire pud- cost of foods. and milk. ding or pan- Advantages i cakes. and disadvan- tages of grill- ing. 12 Frying (revision). Difference between " wet " Fish cakes or Advantages and and " dry " frying. Use rissoles. disadvantages and abuse of the frying Chipped pota- of frying. pan. Necessary care of toes. Cost and care of fat in dripping jar. bath of fat. COOKERY 59 No. of Lesson 13 SUBJECT OF LESSON. APPLICATION. NOTES. Stock and Soups. Principles involved in stock and soup making. Choice, cost and preparation of ingredients. Economy of keeping a stock pot. Stock. Tomato soup (with stock). Potato soup (without stock). General rules for stock and soup making. Food value of soup. 14 Re-heating. Economy in the pantry ; the making from scraps, of nourishing and appetising dishes. Food value of Curried meat or fish with boiled rice. Potted meat or Rules for re- heating. Food value of rice ; cost. rice. fish. Cold meat saus- . ages or fried vegetables. Individual test in practical work, each girl taking entire responsibility of her own dish, knowing cost, recipe and time required for cooking. 16 18 Christmas fare. Cake making (rich and plain). Oven dinners. The choosing of fruits, cost, care in storing ; value of lemon juice and spices in preserving mincemeat. Choice, preparation and cost of ingredients ; care re- quired in the making and baking of cakes. Economy in time, prepara- tion and cost. Suitability of such dinners for washing day and during Spring cleaning. Mincemeat. Mince pies. Lemon cheese mixture. Plum, sultana or seed cakes. Victoria buns. Meat or potato pie (with pas- try) or Hot Pot. Rice or bread pudding. Recipes for home use ; cost. Food values of ingredients. Family recipes. Advantages of home-made cakes ; cost. List of cheap and easily prepared dinners. Family quanti- ties and cost. 19 20 Examination of individual work in theory and practice. Correction of errors in previous lesson. Results of marks. 6o THE THINKING HAND STAGE III. Time i hours. Demonstration and Practice. No. ol Lessci SUBJECT OF LESSON. APPLICATION. NOTES. I Expenditure of Brief summary of necessary Stewed mutton Expenditure of income. household expenses rent, or lamb. income. Amount al- coal, gas. Deduction of Green peas. Advantage of lowed for probable cost of food ; Fruit pie. buying dry food. The hints on true and false stores in bulk. making up of economy. weekly bud- gets. 2 Dietary value of Care necessary in cleansing Fruit and vege- Principles under- fresh vegetables and drying vegetables for table salads. lying salad and eggs. salad ; food value of fresh Salad dressing. making. vegetables ; reasons for Economical Ingredients and use of salad dressing or oil. trifle. their cost. 3 Summer dinners Necessity for forethought Fried fish or pies Principles under- instructions in housekeeping. Reasons made with lying the selec- as to drawing why old people and young tinned meat tion of summer up of menus. children must be con- or fish. foods. Special atten- sidered. Digestibility of Mashed pota- How to preserve tion to food fish. Comparison of canned toes. milk in hot for the aged with fresh foods as to food Lemon pudding, weather. and for young values, cost, convenience, ginger pudding people. etc. Evils resulting from or tarts made Use and abuse feeding infants on con- with canned of tinned food. densed, skimmed milk. fruit. 4 Importance of a Discussion on the various Roast mutton. Hints on suitable well-balanced food stuffs hi the dinner to Mint or onion combinations of diet. be prepared ; reasons for sauce. foods ; exam- variety. Choice of pud- Boiled potatoes. ples. dings. Milk pudding. 5 Criticism of girls' Family quantities. Suita- Hot-pot. A week's dinners menus. bility of combination of Stewed fruit. (a) Summer ; meat, vegetables and pud- (6) Whiter. ding. Home utensils and facilities. 6 Portable dinners. Reasons for providing lunch Meat pies. Advantages of for those unable to come Cornish pasties. home prepara- home ; relative values of Potted foods tions and cost. home-prepared and shop (meat, fish, meals. brawn). COOKERY 61 No. of Lesson SUBJECT OF LESSON. APPLICATION. NOTES. 7 The making of Market days ; how to choose Jam (best fruit General rules for Jams and fruitand vegetables; prices. obtainable). (a) buying, Pickles. Value of home-made jams Pickled onions, (b) preparing, and pickles. Dangers aris- cabbage or (c) cooking, ing from the use of over- walnuts. (d) potting; ripe fruit. cost. 8 Bread making. Quality and choice of flour ; Brown bread. Memorising of economy in buying large Currant bread. notes. quantities ; food value of Tea cakes. brown flour ; cost ; com- parison of yeast and bak- ing-powder bread. 9 All practice lesson. Dishes to be large enough, if possible, to suit a small family. 10 Use and care of Forethought in overlooking Grilled meat or Use and care of the larder, cup- stores ; economy of pur- fish. larder, cup- boards, meat chasing before store is en- Clarifying fat. boards, etc. safe or covers. tirely used up ; storing of Custards in pas- Storing of food dry goods ; care of the try. for long or dripping jar. short periods. ii Re-heating the Nourishing and appetising Fish cakes or Reasons for use using up of dishes made from scraps of rissoles. of sauces and scraps. meat, fish and vegetables. Mince and toast. seasonings in Reasons for substantial Roly-poly or re-heating. Me- puddings. fruit puddings. morising notes on re-heating brown gravy pastry. 12 Fish, classes, Food value of fish ; various Boiled and Choice of fish. methods of kinds ; steaming and boil- steamed fish. Comparative cooking. ing. Discussion on light, Melted butter. values of digestible meals for Swiss apple or various kinds. healthy and delicate peo- Queen of pud- ple. dings. 13 Vegetarian diet. Evils of excessive meat Tomato, lentil Advantages and eating foods most used or haricot disadvantages by vegetarians ; attention soup. of vegetarian drawn to free use of eggs, Stewed prunes. diet ; cost. butter, milk and cream. Cup custard. 62 THE THINKING HAND No. of Lesson SUBJECT OF LESSON. APPLICATION. NOTES. M Winter foods. Comparison of foods for hot Beefsteak pud- Principles under- Invalid diet. and cold weather. Food ding. lying the selec- Care of infants' value of barley water for Boiled potatoes. tion of winter feeding bottles delicate people and young Barley water foods. (revision). children. and cleansing of infants' feed- ing bottles. 15 Care of the stock Stock. Economy of buy- Stock. Principles in- pot. Invalid ing shin of beef or bones ; Soup. volved in stock foods (revision). emphasis on reasons for Milk pudding. making; choice, long, slow cooking ; food Gruel. preparation and value and digestibility of cost of ingre- liquid foods. Uses of dients. stock. 16 Baking and Fry- When in season ; choice of Fried fillets Hints on choos- ing (pork). joints ; dangers to be with sage and ing and cooking avoided ; necessity for onions, or pork. Family thorough cooking ; value Imitation goose joints or parts of apple sauce ; various and apple and cost. seasonings (sage, onions, sauce. etc.) and forcemeat (pars- Baked potatoes. ley, suet, etc.). 17 Cake making. Rich and plain mixtures ; Family fruit Principles in- methods of making ; cakes (suitable volved in mak- various fats used ; food to class). ing and baking value of dried fruits ; eggs Sponge cake cakes. Family and their substitutes. Pre- mixture. recipes and cost. paration of cake tins. 18 Marmalade mak- Advantages of home-made Marmalade. Recipe for family ing. marmalade ; best time to Remainder of quantity cost. purchase fruit ; cost of time to be General rules ingredients ; various spent in dis- for making pre- methods of making. cussion of in- serves. fant feeding. 19 Christmas fare. Preparation and choice of Mincemeat. Family recipes fruits, etc., for mincemeat Mince pies or and cost. and Christmas puddings ; Eccles cakes. Advantages of g reason for keeping ; uses steaming Christ- of spice, lemon juice and mas puddings. apples in helping to pre- serve the mixture. 20 Occasional dishes Girls to overlook store cup- Poached egg on Hints on break- for breakfast or board and make out a list toast. fast and supper supper. of foods to be replaced, Welsh rarebit. dishes (a) for giving quantities and cost. Porridge. children, (b) for Making tea, cof- adults cost. fee and cocoa. COOKERY (ALTERNATIVE) 63 ALTERNATIVE (COOKERY) SYLLABUS FOR SCHOOLS IN POOR DISTRICTS. The aim here is to teach the making of a good nourishing meal at a small cost, the nutritive value of which should be emphasised and frequently contrasted with that of a meal of tea and bread. Practical work is the essential ; only the most elementary theory should be taken. Dishes involving the use of the simplest utensils, the cooking of two dishes in one utensil, economy in the use of fuel, how a parlour fire can be utilised, and time required under varying conditions, must all be carefully demonstrated. The preparation and cooking of chilled meat should receive special attention. Gruel, barley water, and infant feeding should be taken with the ordinary dishes to impress the fact that special foods must be prepared daily for the sick, the aged, and very young children. The nutritive value of oatmeal, wholemeal flour, peas, beans, rice, barley, and hominy, and their comparative cheapness, need to be repeatedly impressed. The very limited accommodation and the scarcity of utensils in the homes of the poor lead to the excessive use of the frying pan. To counteract this tendency there is in this scheme a repetition of stewing a method which has many advantages over frying. The children should be encouraged to speak of the necessary, weekly, home expenses, and exercised in making budgets to fit the varying families and wages. This course is suitable for the many boys who do all, or at any rate a share, of the household work in the absence of the parents. A variety of dishes is given, and the teacher may use her discretion as to whether more than one is advisable in each method. 6 4 THE THINKING HAND ALTERNATE SCHEME OF COOKERY FOR SCHOOLS IN POOR NEIGHBOURHOODS. Time hours. Demonstration and Practice. No. of Lesson SUBJECT OF LESSON. APPLICATION. NOTES. I Scullery work. Kitchen utensils their cost and care ; uses of soda, sand and whiting. Washing up of plates and dishes after dinner. Sorting and wash- ing dishes. Names and uses of various clean- Cleaning knives and forks. ing materials. Cleaning brass, tin, steel, etc. 2 Soups. Advantages of soup dinners ; economy in fuel and time ; suitable vegetables. Pea or lentil soup. Sheep's head or Scotch broth. Ingredients ; cost ; time re- quired for cook- ing ; food value of soups. 3 Stewing. Suitable meat and vege- tables ; cost ; quantities for family meal. Irish stew or stewed mutton and rice. Gruel. Simple recipe and rules for stewing. Proportions for gruel. 4 Boiling (salt meats). Food value of meat or fish ; cost. Spare ribs, bacon or salt fish. Boiled cabbage or potatoes. Advantages and disadvantages of salt meats. 5 Baking. Dinners for healthy and sick people. Ordinary or vegetable hot- pot. Beef tea. Simple rules for baking. Cost and quantities for family din- ners. Proportions for beef tea. 6 The making of brown gravy. Economy of stewing bones and scraps for good gravy. Food value of vegetables. Brown gravy. Boiled potatoes, or Boiled peas or beans. Recipe for brown gravy. Hints on cooking pulse foods. COOKERY (ALTERNATIVE) No, of Lesson SUBJECT OF LESSON. APPLICATION. NOTES. -7 i Stewing (re- Revision of Lesson 3. Food Stewed pieces Family quanti- vision). values of barley and rice. of meat. ties and cost. Stewed giblets Food value of with rice or rice and barley. barley. 8 Bread making. Kinds of flour ; cost ; ne- Standard bread. Simple home re- cessity for good yeast ; Currant bread. cipes. care in preparation and Barley water. Rules for bread baking ; advantages of making. bake-houses. Proportions for barley water. 9 Infant feeding. Care of milk ; evils arising Sterilised and Choice, prepara- Cleansing of from impure and canned humanised tion and serv- babies' feeding skimmed milk. milk. ing of food. bottles. Various types of feeding Baked flour (not bottles. to be used un- til a child's teeth appear). 10 (a) Foods for Revision of main points in Rice, sago or General propor- young children. infant feeding ; value of tapioca pud- tions for milk (b) Baking and skimmed milk ; food value ding. puddings; cost. boiling. of rice, etc. Bread pudding (c) Milk pud- (with currants dings. or raisins). ii Stewing. Food values of meat and Stewed ox-cheek Family quanti- vegetables ; revision of or shin of beef ties and cost. previous lessons on stew- with vege- Hints on foods ing. Reference to invalid tables. for the sick. foods. Gruel. 12 Methods of using Value of hot food over cold ; Re-heated meat Rules for re- up scraps and care of the dripping jar. or fish. heating. revision of in- Age at which starchy food Fried potatoes. Hints on making fant feeding. may be given to infants. " Fobs." " Fobs." 13 Stewing. How to choose tripe, liver, Stewed tripe Food value and etc. Food value of tripe and onions, digestibility of and milk. Cost of cow- or tripe and cow- heel. Stewed cow-heel. heel. M Frying. Use and abuse of the frying Fried fish (cheap Advantages and pan ; suitable foods for fish in season). disadvantages frying ; cost. Fried bacon and of frying. Food eggs. value of her- Fried soaked rings and cost. bread. 66 THE THINKING HAND No. of Lesson SUBJECT OF LESSON. APPLICATION. NOTES. 15 Boiling. Food value of fresh fish choice and cost ; special reference to aged, young and sick people. Boiled fish (cheap fish in season). Parsley sauce. Rice pudding. Hints oh foods for aged, young, and sick people; cost. 16 Roasting and Baking. Comparative cost of roast- ing and baking ; suitable joints. Hints on prepara- tion of colonial and chilled meats. Roast or baked breast of mut- ton and pota- toes or roast pork. Boiled cabbage. Simple rules for roasting and baking. Suit- able joints and cost. 17 Stewing and Boiling. Revision of stewing. Food value of suet pastry. Choice and cost of fresh fruits. Sea - pie or stewed meat and dumplings. Stewed fruit. Proportions for suet crust ; its various uses and cost. 18 Baking. Uses of sour and butter- milk, carbonate of soda Soda scones. Potato cakes. Simple recipes for home use. and baking powder. Ad- vantages of small cakes which can be baked over a Fritters (stale bread soaked in milk and small fire. fried in dripping ; bat- ter made from egg powder). 19 20 Examination of individual work in theory and practice. Correction of general errors in theory and practice and discussion on the marks gained during the term and in examination. COOKERY (JEWISH) 67 SPECIAL COOKERY COURSE FOR JEWISH CHILDREN. Time 2% hours Demonstration and Practice. No. of Lesson SUBJECT OF LESSON. APPLICATION. NOTES. I Scullery work. Cleaning of kitchen uten- Cleaning of tins, Rules for using sils ; their cost. Explana- spoons, knives various clean- tion of ovens and flues. and forks. ing materials. Various cleaning materials Scrubbing pas- Rules for scrub- in daily use. try boards and bing. rolling pins. 2 Boiling. Food value of fresh vege- Boiled potatoes. General rules for tables ; difference between Boiled cabbage. boiling vege- root and green vegetables. Boiled beetroot, tables. Comparison between Jew- carrots or tur- ish and other methods of nips. cooking and serving. Cost. 3 Stewing. Difference between " ko- Stewed meat Rules for stew- sher " and other meat and vegetables. ing. reasons. Dietary laws of Stewed fruit. Jews. Advantage of put- ting vegetables with meat. Cost of meat, vegetables and fruit. 4 Roasting and Advantages and disadvan- Roast and baked Rules for roast- Baking. tages of methods ; suit- meat. ing. able kinds of meat and Baked potatoes. Cost of family joints ; cost ; economy in Boiled greens. dinner. fuel. Special attention to laying table and serving food. 5 Boiling and Bak- Food value of milk and Rice puddings General rules for ing (milk pud- starchy grains ; reasons boiled and making milk dings). for slow cooking ; heat of baked. puddings. the oven ; cost. Measures and General propor- weights. tions for milk puddings. 68 THE THINKING HAND No. of Lesson SUBJECT OF LESSON. APPLICATION. NOTES. Pastry (Short crust). Soups. Baking and Steaming (pas- try with ren- dered fat). Frying. Batter making. ii Re-heating. Proportions of oil and flour. Revision of dietary laws with regard to meat and butter or milk. Food value of oil. Cost. Food value of liquids ; di- gestibility of soup ; stock and its uses ; uses of starchy foods ; macaroni, rice, sago, etc. Revision of short crust pastry. Difference between " ko- sher " and other kinds of suet ; reasons for render- ing ; value of suet as food. Advantages of steamed puddings ; difference in digestibility of baked and steamed puddings. Various oils and fats used ; classes of fish allowed ; advantages of cooking in oil ; deep and shallow fry- ing ; cost. Food value of eggs and milk. Revision of rules for frying. Reason why such foods must be eaten as soon as cooked ; cost. Reasons why Jews rarely have re-heated meat and fish ; how to make it di- gestible and appetising ; uses of herbs and sauces ; eggs with mashed pota- toes : cost. Meat and potato pasties. Fruit tarts. Jam tarts. Macaroni or len- til soup. Fruit or jam tart. Roly-poly pud- ding (baked). Fruit puddings (steamed). Rules for making pastry (short crust). Rules for soup making. Rules for mak- ing suet pastry. Fried fish. Chipped pota- toes. Yorkshire pud- ding. Pancakes. Fritters. Minced or hashed meat. Dry toast. Mashed potatoes. Rules for frying. Rules for making batter. Rules for re- heating. 12 All practice lesson. Dishes chosen by teacher, the girls of each of three tables dividing the work equally and cooking a small complete dinner. COOKERY (JEWISH) 69 No. of Lesson SUBJECT OF LESSON. APPLICATION. NOTES. 13 Bread making. Value of home-made bread ; White bread. Rules for bread difference between Jewish Whole-meal or making. and other bread ; value of rye bread. Family recipe. oil in bread, especially in large loaves in hot weather; various kinds of flour ; heat of ovens. I 4 Steaming (pad- Advantages of steamed over Ginger, lemon Simple propor- dings). boiled> puddings ; time to or treacle pud- tions. cook ; various flavourings ; ding. Rules for steam- value of eggs. General Fig, date or ing. foundation for such pud- marmalade dings. pudding. 15 Grilling. Advantages and disadvan- Grilled meat. Rules for grill- tages ; suitable parts ; Grilled fish. ing. cost ; necessity for good Baked apple Hints on suitable meat and clear, red fire. dumplings. parts and cost. 16 Boiling. Revision of fish lesson (9). Boiled fish. Rules for boiling. Freshness of fish food Melted butter or Proportions for value seasons cost. egg sauce. sauces. Various garnishes for fish. Stewed prunes. Food value of prunes. 17 Cheap cakes. Various fats used in cake Jam sandwich. General rules for making ; advantages of Queen cakes. cake-making. home-made cakes ; use of Seed cakes. Simple recipes. egg and baking powders. General rules for making ; . preparation of tins heat of oven for large and small cakes ; cost. 18 19 Individual test lesson in theory and practice. Correction of errors in test. Exhibition lesson, girls providing their own materials and each girl making a dish for a family. Knowledge of time required for cooking, cost, and correct method of serving to be shown. THE THINKING HAND LAUNDRY. STAGE I. Time 2% hours. Demonstration and Practice. No. of Lesson ; SUBJECT OF LESSON. APPLICATION. NOTES. Choice, cost and care of laundry utensils. Buying and storing of soap, soda, blue, etc. : cost. Preparation for Family Wash. Intro- duction to simple washing methods. Various irons their uses and cost storing of irons cleaning with tallow, soap and brick-dust. Arrangement of ironing table advantage of taping or pinning sheet. Nature and use of blue. Washing, starching and finishing table linen. Making hot-water starch. Water hard and soft ; advantages of latter. Method of softening water. Processes of steeping, washing, boiling, etc. Hanging out. Care of the mangle. Lighting and man- aging of boiler fire. Cleaning boiler and uten- sils. Sorting of clothes. Preparation of materials. Re- moval of stains. Washing and fin- ishing children's hair and neck ribbons. Washing and iron- ing pocket-hand- kerchiefs. Washing and fin- ishing table linen. Washing and dry- ing of bed and body linen and towels. Choice and care of household, wash- ing utensils. Advantages of home washing. Notes on materials used and processes involved in the removal of stains. Rules for cleaning irons. Principles involved in the washing of white clothes. Proportions for hot-water starch. Rules for softening water. Reasons for drying in the open air. Methods of handling heavy clothes. Reasons for keeping bed and body linen and towels clean LAUNDRY No. of Lesson SUBJECT OF LESSON. APPLICATION. NOTES. 6 Damping, folding, mangling and ironing. Finishing of bed and body linen and towels. Rules for damping, mangling and ironing. 7 Starch its source, use and cost. Borax its source, use and cost. Making of hot- water starch. Starching and ironing plain white pinafores and aprons. Rules for ironing. Notes on borax. 8 Methods of preserving the colour in prints. Liability of soda and soap powders to destroy colours. Washing prints (pinafores, aprons, etc.), drying and Simple rules for washing and get- ting up prints. ironing. 9 Nature and the properties of wool. Washing flannel and other woollens how to prevent shrinking and loss of colour. Washing and dry- ing of flannel and other woollen garments, e.g. vests, shawls, etc. Rules for the wash- ing of woollens and for the pre- vention of shrink- ing. IO An all practice lesson as a test each girl being provided with a pair of stockings to be washed and one other article to be washed and ironed, the whole making a Family Wash. STAGE II. Time 2% hours. Demonstration and Practice. No. of Lesson SUBJECT OF LESSON. APPLICATION. NOTES. I The washing of delicate fabrics. Stiffen- Washing and get- Hints on prepara- ing agents starch, gum, sugar. Pre- ting up of lace tion for washing paration for washing curtains shak- and of short mus- curtains, re-tint- ing out of dust, mending, stitching to- lin and lace win- ing, etc. gether to prevent injury in wash. dow curtains. Re- Method of stretching, drying and re- tinting curtains. tinting lace curtains. THE THINKING HAND No. of Lesson SUBJECT OF LESSON. APPLICATION. NOTES. 2 Use and abuse of soda and powders. Infants' clothing. Hints on special Value of woollen garments. Dangers of Washing, drying care in washing flannelette. Importance of airing chil- and ironing air- and airing inf ants' dren's clothes. ing goffering and garments, and ne- crimping. Why cessity for keeping trimming on in good repair. babies' garments should not be stiffened. 3 Revision all practice lesson. Washing and get- ting up of body linen. 4 Washing and ironing collars and cuffs. Washing, starch- Rules for washing Cold-water starch. Use of borax and ing and ironing and ironing collars turpentine. Advantages of home of collars and and cuffs, and for washing and ironing. cuffs. making cold-water starch. 5 Revision of above. Use of wax. Gloss- Washing and finish- Rules for glossing. ing of linen. ing collars, cuffs and fronts. 6 Revision of lesson on getting up of table Washing, starch- Memory recipe for linen. Use of full and diluted starch. ing and ironing of hot-water starch. Further remarks on the removal of dresser and tray Rules for finishing stains and the destructive power of cloths, serviettes table linen. chemicals. and d'oyleys. Ex- periments in the removal of stains. 7 Revision of lesson on washing of woollens, Washing, drying Memory rules for etc. Danger of flannelette how to and finishing an washing flannels. render it less inflammable. Care in unlined blouse Hints on danger of pressing flannels. (woollen, muslin wearing flannelette or flannelette), or garments, especi- boys' pants or ally in reference to girls' serge little children. knickers. 8 The washing of blankets and woven Washing of cot Personal cleanliness woollen underwear. Revision of the blankets, woven necessary to health. washing of woollens generally. woollen under- Importance of un- wear, etc. derwear and bed clothes being kept clean. LAUNDRY 73 No. of Lesson SUBJECT OF LESSON. APPLICATION. NOTES. 9 10 Cleaning and renovating silk use of gum, borax, etc. Individual work in the form of a test e 1 Silks, ribbons, fancy-work, lace ties and collars. /ery girl washing and Hints on how to renovate silk care in washing and ironing. ironing some articles. STAGE III. Time 2% hours. Demonstration and Practice. No. of Lesson SUBJECT OF LESSON. APPLICATION. NOTES. Washing and getting up of prints. How to keep clothes a good colour. Bleaching. Revision. The washing and getting up of baby clothes. Washing and getting up of silks. How to prevent scorching in the ironing. Teaching by experiment the action of soda, powders, rubbing, boiling, hot water, etc., on " soft " colours. Revision blouses, pinafores, little boys' suits, over- alls, underskirts, etc. Washing and get- ting up of collars and fronts at- tached, turn-down collars, etc. The washing of all kinds of baby clothes cotton and woollen. Washing and get- ting up of silk blouses and other silk articles. Washing and get- ting up of men's or boys' coloured shirts. Memory test of rules. Rules for bleaching. Superiority of grey calico from point of view of economy in outlay, dura- bility and colour keeping. General directions and revision of previous notes on same. Revision of hints on renovation of silk. Revision of rules for prevention of loss of colour. 74 THE THINKING HAND No. of I-esson SUBJECT OF LESSON. APPLICATION. NOTES. 6 A Family Wash. Order in which work Each girl to wash Discussion on most should be done necessity for early and finish a pair suitable day for rising and preparation the day before. of stockings or this and reasons one other small kinds of mending woollen article, most often neces- and one article in sary. B.B. sum- white or coloured mary to consist of cotton or linen results of discus- the whole to form sion. a Family Wash. 7 Extra washing for Spring cleaning. Washing, cleaning Hints on use of Choice of day. Revision of blanket and finishing of ammonia and on washing. How to prevent loss of blankets, woollen care needed in colour in coloured woollen articles. table cloths, sofa storing blankets Use of ammonia in cleansing woollen rugs, etc. and other woollens. | articles. o V o Use of bran, salt, vinegar and size. Pre- Washing, starching Rules for wash- M servation of colour in brown holland. and ironing cre- ing the materials ft tonne, chintzes or named. W3 holland (valences, sofa and chair covers, etc.). 9 Revision of lesson on the washing of lace Washing and get- Revision of hints and window curtains. ting up of lace and on preparation for of short muslin washing curtains, and lace window re-tinting, etc. curtains. Re-tint- ing curtains. 10 An all practice lesson as a test each girl being provided with a small woollen article or a pair of stockings and one other article to be washed and got up the whole forming a Family Wash. NOTE. i. The necessity for the careful airing of clothes should be insisted upon in every lesson, and reasons given. 2. Reference should be made to the equipment and use of public wash-houses. 3. In poor districts the teacher is at liberty to accept whatever the children can bring in the way of material for practice silk d'oyleys, serviettes, etc., are unknown articles in poor homes. HOUSEWIFERY 75 D. SPECIMEN SCHEME OF INSTRUCTION IN COMBINED DOMESTIC SUBJECTS, INCLUDING HOUSEWIFERY. COMBINED DOMESTIC SUBJECTS CENTRE ARNOT STREET. Instruction in Combined Subjects. 1. Centre to be used for girls over 12 years of age. 2. Sixteen girls to form a class. 3. Girls to have had previously at least one course of Cookery and Laundrywork. 4. Class to attend in a continuous period of five weeks (all day) for four days per week. 5. Register to be marked once only at each meeting. 6. Girls to be told duties for following week and to be encouraged to bring work from home. Chief Points in Organisation of Work. 1. Course to be chiefly practical. 2. Demonstration to be given where teacher deems it necessary to depend upon knowledge of various branches of work shown by girls. 3. Mornings to be devoted chiefly to usual morning work of house marketing, housework, cooking, washing, etc., afternoons to completing morning's work, house- hold sewing, hygiene, demonstrations on subjects of which girls have shown lack of knowledge, lectures on thrift, household accounts, physiology, and all branches of care of infants, young children, invalids, the aged, etc. theoretical and practical in the case of infants. 4. Note-books to be kept by each girl and to record : (a) Daily work performed. (6) Notes of special lessons. (c) Menus and budgets for varying incomes. (d) " Hints " special recipes, etc. (e) Seasons of food stuffs. (/) Diagrams, notes, etc. (No set time to be arranged for copying notes, but, as opportunity arises, notes can be written up.) 5. The work of the Centre should be in accord with the home environment. 6. Economy of time and materials to be taught and practised throughout the courses. 7. Tidiness of person to be insisted upon. 8. Endeavour must be made to enlist the sympathy of parents with the instruc- tion given at the Centre. 76 THE THINKING HAND Notes on Syllabus. Work planned so that in Course I. the girls are instructed in the principles under- lying the making of a home, and guided in their application. Special attention must be paid to income available, and methods of economising time, labour, etc. Course II. Having had instruction in Course i the girls are to apply principles more independently in their practical work. More detailed knowledge is required, and the doing of a larger quantity of work in less time more complicated processes to be used, and all work to be more advanced in type. If the girls in turn are placed in entire charge as housekeepers during this course they learn to arrange the work of a house and to supervise it in a way which enables them to take the responsibility of a home. Course III. More advanced work. Combination of Courses I. and II. Food values varied diets planning of whole week's work spring cleaning, etc. HOUSEWIFERY 77 BRIEF OUTLINE OF SUGGESTED ARRANGEMENT OF WORK OF HOUSE. (16 girls to work in sets of 4.) MORNING WORK OF HOUSE. 9.30 TO 12.0. ist set (4 girls). and set (4 girls). 3rd set (4 girls). 4th set (4 girls). (i) Marketing. (2) Cooking of dinner. (3) Cleaning of kitchen. (4) Dishing up. (i) Cleaning of bedrooms (daily), making of beds, etc. (2) Sitting room. (3) Weekly cleaning of one bedroom. (4) Care of plants, flowers, etc. (i) Stairs, landings. (2) Steps, front brass, hall. (3) Lavatory, cleaning basin, taps, linoleum, W.C., etc. (4) Laying of table for meal, clearing away, etc. (5) Attending to door bell, etc. (i) Washing of garments and household articles necessary for use of house. (2) Ironing of smaller articles. (3) Assistance in scullery or kitchen. AFTERNOON WORK. 1.30 TO 4.0. From 1.30 to 2.30 or 3.0 remainder used for Practical Work based on Demonstrations. Tuesday. Wednesday Thursday. Friday. Hygiene lesson see syllabus. Demonstration in cookery, laundrywork, or housewifery. Lesson on thrift, accounts, weekly budgets, etc. Household sewing making and mending. Use of sewing machine. Upholstery lesson. Practical care of infants and little children. Younger children from the Infants' Department may be utilised for this lesson. Girls in turn to take sole charge to amuse and mind one or more little children to wash them brush their hair prepare food tell stories play games, etc. Pupils may be sent to the " baby room " in the Infants' Depart- ment for some experience in this connection the teacher in charge giving marks for capacity shown. 7 8 THE THINKING HAND COURSES OF INSTRUCTION. COURSE I. (1) Courses must of necessity vary according to powers of class. (2) Economy of time, money, and labour must be taught in every connection. HOUSEWIFERY. COOKERY. LAUNDRYWORK. LESSONS. i. The house. Plan, i. Simple dinner. i. Preparation for Such subjects as : arrangements, drainage, etc. 2. Teas. Tea, coffee, wash. Choice of day, etc. Sorting, i . The house. (a) Choice. water supply what and cocoa. mending, removal (b) Drainage. to do in case of burst 3. Breakfasts. of stains, etc. pipe stop taps. 4. Suppers. 2. Washing of all 2. Ventilation. 2. The kitchen, scul- T.. -''' fabrics and articles 3. Household ac- lery, etc. Washing 5. Budgets for week, in common use in counts. up cleaning uten- menus, etc. the house. (a) Thrift. sils, etc. Care of sink traps, grids, etc. flushing. 6. Marketing, cost of food. 3. Finishing off same articles. (6) Weekly ac- counts. (c) Division of in- 3. The sitting room simple daily, weekly and spring cleaning. Care of furniture, 7. Seasons of foods. 8. Simple chemistry of food stuffs. 4. Use of simple chemicals for bleaching, remov- ing stains, etc. come. 4. Household linen. Cost, care, etc. carpets, ornaments, 9. Food values. 5. Simple disinfect- 5. First aid bandag- in of etc. 10. Mixed diets. ing. lug. 4. The bedrooms. Beds making, care ii. Bread and cakes. 6. Advantages of home washing. 6. Care of infants. 7. Foods in season. of bed linen, mat- 12. Soups. tresses, etc. 7. Mending and put- 8. Sources of Great 5. Bathroom. Lava- 13. Stews. ting away clothes. Britain's food sup- */ tory, stairs, land- 14. Methods of cook- plies. ings. Care of bath, ing rules. 9. Selected subjects W.C., basin, taps, 15. Simple jams and from syllabus. etc. pickles. 10. Chemistry of 6. Grate and stove. 1 6. Choice and stor- foods. Cleaning and care flues, lighting of fire, age of food. 11. Food values of etc. 17. Food for manual common food stuffs. 7. The table. Laying and sedentary workers. 12. Economy in the a table, clearing house : away, waiting at 1 8. Cooking of joints, fuel, food, table. puddings, fish, etc. time, labour. HOUSEWIFERY 79 HOUSEWIFERY. COOKERY. LAUNDRYWORK. 8. Cleaning of mirrors, windows, silver, glass, brushes, paint, brass, carpets, boots, shoes, and other leather arti- cles. 9. Infants, children, and old people care, feeding, cloth- ing. 10. Simple polishes for furniture, etc. 1 1 . Household sew- ing. Rug making. Making, mending, and renovating. Simple upholstery. 12. Thrift. Post- office savings bank, clubs, school bank, etc. 13. Lighting and heat- ing. Home. Read- ing gas meter care of gas. 14. Knitting. 19. Using up of scraps, care of lar- der and meat safe. 20. Cookery for in- valids, infants, little children, and the aged. 2 1 . Portable dinners. 22. Daintiness in dishing up gar- nishes, etc. 23. Salads. 13. Patent medi- cines. Uses and abuses. 14. The home medi- cine chest. (a) making of car- ron oil. (b) Boracic oint- ment, etc. (c) Old linen pillow cases, etc., for bandages. 15. Temperance. 8o THE THINKING HAND COURSE II. 1. More independent practical application of ist Course instruction to work of house more advanced cookery, laundrywork, etc. larger amount of work to be done in less time girls to depend more upon their own resources, arrange own work, etc. 2. Work to include fully Course I. and following extra instruction. HOUSEWIFERY. COOKERY. LAUNDRYWORK. EXTRA LESSONS. i . Spring cleaning. Revision of Course I. i . Revision of Course i . Personal cleanli- Plan of work. Reno- i . More advanced I. taking finer ness and habits. vations, etc. Use cookery in all things. Teeth, hair, nails, of vacuum cleaner. J branches. 2. Washing of etc. 2. Lamps care, etc. 2. Jams and marma- blankets. 2. Infants. lade. 3. Chintzes and Cre- (a) Care and feed- 3. How to take a ing. house formalities, 3. Pickles. tonnes. (i) Birth to denti- etc. 4. Weekly menus and fo^i" 4. Simple dry clean- ing of furs, gloves, tion, (ii) Bottles. 4. Drainage. Extra V^WO !* etc. (iii) Dentition, 18 information. Where the drain leads to tests. Drainage of a town. Flushing, etc. 5. More advanced dinners. 6. Catering for par- ties special inex- 5. Infants' clothing. 6. Use of gum, bran, ammonia, etc. months, (iv) Sterilised milk. (6) Cradles and cots, (e) Complaints : 5. Water supply. pensive dishes and beverages as trifle, croup, convulsions, diarrhoea etc. What to do in case blanc mange, lemon- of frozen pipes, stop ade, etc. 3. Infectious disease taps, etc. Burst pipes, etc. 6. Fire. Procedure 7. " Lump " cakes icing and decora- ting cakes. preparation of room notification . 4. Evils of furnishing on hire system in case of fire house or clothing. 8. Serving of after- money lending, etc. Fire guards. Dan- ger of flannelette. noon tea and pre- paring trays for in- 5. Hygienic and un- hygienic clothing valids. garters, corsets, etc. 7. Cleaning of water bottles, stained 9. Additional din- ners and perhaps 6. Simple physiology. marble, etc. the making of 7. Digestion, etc. 8. Making " thrift " wholesome sweets. 8. How the mother garments cutting 10. Christmas fare. in the home can down garments. Mince meat. Plum assist in keeping Knitting. puddings, etc. the city healthy. HOUSEWIFERY 81 HOUSEWIFERY. COOKERY. LAUNDRYWORK. EXTRA LESSONS. 9. Upholstering, chair-making, loose cover-box, footstool, etc. 10. Bed curtains. 11. Cradle from banana crate or clothes basket. Clothing and pillow for above. 12. Use of tools. Knocking in nails, screws, etc. ii. Meat-safes, lar- ders, etc. 9. Selection from other subjects men- tioned. COURSE III. 1. Courses I. and II. fully revised and practised. 2. Girls to be given responsibility of complete housekeeping. 3. Each girl to act as housekeeper during the course, and to plan and super- intend work of house under supervision of teacher. Special Points of Course HI. and Extra Instruction. HOUSEWIFERY. COOKERY. LAUNDRYWORK. EXTRA LESSONS. I . Carpets. Mending i . More advanced i. Courses I. and II. i. Exercise in regard and joining stretch- ing rings, etc. cookery. 2. Extra theory. to health. 2. Cleaning door mats and hearth rugs. 2. Dinners. Artisan to five course din- 3. Chemistry of laundrywork. 2. Disposal of house- hold refuse. ner. 3. Invalids. Chang- ing sheets. Bed 3. Vegetarian diet. 4. Public wash- houses. 3. Mending china and glass. sores and treatment. Advantages and 5. Soap-making. If 4. Spring cleaning. Full preparation for sweep, etc. Clean- disadvantages. 4. Birthday cakes. possible visit to public wash-houses and Port Sunlight 4. Stores to be bought in bulk, and reasons. ing Venetian blinds. Soap-works. 5. Sources of food Renovation of mat- 5. Extra dishes as supplies of Great tresses, etc. roast fowl. Britain. 82 THE THINKING HAND HOUSEWIFERY. COOKERY. LAUNDRYWORK. EXTRA LESSONS. 5. Cleaning lacquered articles. 6. Visiting and en- tertaining. 7. Furnishing with prices : (a) Cottage home. (b) Better class house. 8. Knitting and cro- cheting. Rug-mak- ing wool and rag. 9. (i) Papering (box or room), (ii) Whitewashing (yard or coal house), (iii) Distempering. 10. Making homely toys. (a) Doll's house from orange box. (b) Doll's bed from notepaper, boxes, etc. 1 1 . Raphia work, ser- viette rings, etc. 12 Simple millinery. 6. Importance of " dishing up " food daintily. 7. Complete cooking and " dishing up " of four course din- ner. Waiting. Lay- ing table, etc. 8. Fancy folds for serviettes. 6. Adulteration of food. Law. Food commonly adulter- ated : flour, coffee, milk, etc. 7. Preservation of food. (a) Methods. (b) Advantages and disadvantages . 8. Dust-composition. Danger to health. 9. Cost of living. Country and town. 10. The citizen. Du- ties of women as citizens. HOUSEWIFERY (ALTERNATIVE) 83 E. ALTERNATIVE SCHEME OF HOUSEWIFERY. Lessons of 2| hours' duration. 1. The chief things that make a healthy house. Need for continual warfare with dust and dirt. The various apparatus and materials required in cleaning the house. Cost of same. Practical work. Cleaning out a cupboard and rearranging the contents. Sweep- ing and dusting the use of dry and damp dusters. Care of brushes when not in use. 2. The ordinary utensils used in cooking. Cost economical substitutes. Practical work. Cleaning utensils washing dish-cloths. 3. Cleaning of iron and steel materials required. Various kinds of fuel-com- bustion. Economy in use of fuel. Practical work. Blackleading a stove or grate, laying and lighting a fire. Clean- ing of knives and forks. Revision. 4. Cleaning of wood (plain and painted) materials required. Water as a cleans- ing agent. Practical work. Scrubbing a table sweeping and scrubbing a floor. Cleaning various wooden utensils. Washing paint. 5. Cleaning brass, copper, tin, and white or plated metal. Materials used and cost. Laying a table for dinner. Practical work. Cleaning brass fire-irons, tin canisters, forks, spoons, etc. Set- ting a dinner-table. 6. Care of sinks, drains, pails, and lavatories. Use of a dust bin. Right dis- posal of household refuse. Disinfectants and their use. Practical work. Tracing water supply and waste pipes. Cleaning sinks, hand basins, etc. 7. Cleaning leather. Washing of glass and china. Practical work. Cleaning boots and windows. Washing of glass and china. Laying a tea-table. 8. Polishing furniture making of furniture polish. Washing hair brushes and dusters. Practical work. Polishing furniture. Washing hair brushes and dusters. 84 THE THINKING HAND 9. Hygiene of the bedroom. Need for open windows, clean bedding, and con- stant overhauling. Use of brown paper and newspaper quilts. Practical work. Making the bed of a baby's cot. Making newspaper and brown paper quilts. (Cot from a banana crate and bedding to be made in the ordinary handicraft and needlework lessons of the school.) 10. Examination. (All practical work.) NOTE. It is possible to comprehend more practical teaching than might be done in districts where the theory is not taken so fully in the schools as it is in Liverpool. NOTES ON SCHEMES OF HANDICRAFT 85 APPENDIX II. NOTES ON SCHEMES OF HANDICRAFT IN CENTRES AND SCHOOL WORK- SHOPS FOR BOYS IN PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, WITH SPECIMEN SCHEMES OF HAND-WORK ADOPTED IN PARTICULAR SCHOOLS AND COVERING ALL CLASSES IN THOSE SCHOOLS, AND ALSO SYLLABUS OF COOKERY INSTRUCTION FOR BOYS. A. NOTES ON SCHEMES OF HANDICRAFT. Drawing in Relation to Handicraft. The drawing, connected with the handicraft, should serve as an aid or comple- ment to the practical work at the bench, and so long as this is properly done its true function in manual training has been achieved. The following suggestions are therefore made with the view of rendering some assistance in keeping drawing in its proper relation to practical work. () The first drawings made in the Centre should be sketches (either oblique, isometric, or perspective) after the model has been constructed. These drawings will serve as a record of work done, and should contain dimen- sions, kind of wood used, and any other particulars which may help in recording the details. (6) The next step would be to have the same kind of drawings made but with the necessary instruments, viz. drawing board, tee square, and set squares. This will give a mechanical pictorial representation of the subject made or to be made. (c) Following the pictorial representation, the next step is drawing in plan and elevation, which usually should be begun early in the second year. (d) From the foregoing suggestions, it should not be assumed that in all cases this rigid sequence should be strictly adhered to. In some cases boys, from the first, may sketch plans and elevations ; and in such cases they should be encouraged to proceed to use instruments and represent their work with some measure of exactitude. The above should be regarded as suggestions only. Order of Tools. With regard to the practical work, it should be remembered that the impulse 86 THE THINKING HAND and desire to " make something " is very strong in boys, especially in the earlier stages of the course, and due advantage should be taken of this in framing the outline of the work. The use of the tools should be introduced gradually, but too much instruction where the boys remain passive for any long period should be sedulously avoided. The plane (already set for working) and the tenon saw should be sufficient for the first two or three models. The use of the try square and marking gauge may be deferred until the boy has been led to realise the necessity and advantage of them. The " setting " and " unsetting " of the plane should also be introduced after the boys have become familiar with its use. The proper handling and use of the chisel should be demonstrated, and warnings as to the personal danger atten- dant upon improper use carefully given. This remark applies to the use of all edged tools. It will also be found advisable to demonstrate to the boys the best way of using all tools, with the attendant risks of misuse, but this should not be construed into the giving of regular and formal lessons. Lessons on Tools, Wood, etc. Lessons on the construction of tools for their several purposes should form part of the instruction, and the underlying principles generally discussed ; the lesson, as a rule, should take the form of a conversation and not that of a lecture. The boys should at all times be active participants in the work and not merely passive recipients. So far as time and circumstances permit, the general properties of the woods used, and the recognition of the common kinds, the countries from which supplies are obtained, and the processes of growth from seed to tree, and the nature study connected therewith, should be included in the syllabus. At the same time, due relation of time and importance of the various aspects of the work should be borne in mind. Character of Work. Though the character of the practical work may, in the early stages, not be up to the high standard that has usually been regarded as satisfactory in the past, there should be no falling away from the ultimate standard to be attained later on. The standard which should be set is one a little better than each boy is capable of attain- ing at any particular time, so that he should be always striving to reach that standard. So long as he does his best the best that he is capable of at the time his work must be regarded as satisfactory. Record Cards. The Record Cards will be of service in estimating the character and value of the work performed during the whole career of the boy in the Manual Instruction Class, and these records should be carefully and rigorously kept. They should be regarded as a valuable testimonial to the boy's attention and perseverance when seeking a post on leaving school, and when that happens the record card should be presented to him, signed by the instructor as a certificate of merit in this particular work. HANDICRAFT 87 Constructional Work. Models of " one piece " should be used only in the earlier stages, unless some sound reason exists to the contrary. What is highly important is that the work should develop, so soon as practicable, on constructive lines. The power to put things together and to make them "to go " or "to work " should be encouraged at every opportunity, and this side of the work should receive earnest consideration. The advantages of this constructional work are twofold, viz. : (a) It gives great scope for the exercise of ingenuity, and the varied application of constructive principles ; (6) For the comparatively small quantity of wood used it supplies a good deal of work, making it relatively less expensive. Other Materials than Wood. In order that a much wider range in the choice of models may be obtained, materials other than wood can frequently, and with advantage, be employed. This combination of materials should not be strained in order to introduce another medium, thus rendering the effect of the combination artificial. The most suitable material at hand should in all cases be employed, whether it be tin, lead, brass, string, glass, or anything else. Contributory Schools and Centres. One difficult and important matter to be faced is the mutual service that the contributory schools and the centres should render to one another. Where it is not easy to enlist co-operative work, an effort must be made to supply the deficiency. For this purpose it will perhaps be found necessary and advisable, when a model has been decided upon, to give a short lesson on its application in order that, sub- sequently, the boy may work at his problem more intelligently, and eventually arrive at some conclusion it was intended he should do, or that the model should be put to some further use by him. The General School Curriculum. So far as subjects of the general school curriculum are concerned, these will not be difficult to ascertain, and they should be a guide as to where the work of the Centre can be made a help in the better understanding of those subjects if a pro- fitable application of them to the work in the Centres be introduced. It should be remembered that though geography, history, or science are not specifically taught in the Centres, much useful work in this and in similar directions can and should be accomplished. Communal Work. With boys who have had some experience of handicraft work, a piece of com- munal work may with advantage be undertaken, but in some cases the work should not be divided so as to constitute a juvenile application of the " division of labour." 88 THE THINKING HAND Each boy should be given a section of the work to perform throughout, and not be allotted one process for the whole model. The character and temper of the boys should be studied, so as to entail the hearty co-operation of each for the well-being of the group and the successful execution of the whole piece of work. Conclusion. In conclusion, it will be well to take stock of the whole situation and the peculiar circumstances of each Centre before entering upon the work of formulating any definite line of action. Having done this, a general basis of several schemes should be laid down which may be varied and modified in order to adapt the scheme to the varying needs of the contributory schools, and the varying needs and proclivities of the boys from those schools. Further circulars of advice and suggestion, includ- ing illustration of new models as they present themselves, will be issued from time to time, and it is sincerely hoped that the good work already begun may be carried on successfully in the future. B. SPECIMEN SCHEMES OF HAND-WORK. SCHOOL I. BOYS. ACCOMMODATION 591. . Time : Standards I., II. 75 mins. per week. III. 120 IV. 60 V.-VIII. 75 These times are exclusive of 135 mins. spent at a recognised light woodwork course by 30 boys from Standard VII., and of 150 mins. devoted to handicraft at a Centre by 180 boys. In addition to these fixed periods for hand-work, portions of the times set apart on the time-table for arithmetic, history, geography, nature and observation lessons are often used for handwork exercises having a direct bearing on these subjects. General Note. In this school hand-work is not treated as an independent subject ; it is used to help forward the correct understanding of the other subjects in the school course. The education of the boys is made as practical as possible ; originality and initiative are fully encouraged, and in the upper classes much of the work is performed at home from suggestions, measurements, and drawings given at school. Parents are much interested in this side of the school- work, and valuable help has been obtained along this line. HANDICRAFT 89 CLASSES II. A, B, AND c. (THREE SECTIONS.) I. Accurate Work. Paper folding ; paper tearing ; paper cutting of illustrations for observation lessons and mounting of same ; paper modelling. II. Plastic Work. Modelling in clay, sand, modlex, and putty of natural and fashioned objects. All the observation lessons are specially illustrated by means of these media. Natural features as islands, mountains, river basins, etc., being noted. CLASS III. I. Accurate Work. Cardboard cutting ; cardboard modelling and modelling in paper. The examples are obtained from the various class-lessons. II. Plastic Work. Modelling in sand, clay, modlex, and putty as part of the observation and nature lessons. Simple exercises leading up to the read- ing of an easy contour (orographical) map form part of the course. Boys draw plans, model maps and draw simple maps from teacher's model. The colours used are limited to three in number. NOTE. The course of observation lessons mentioned above is designed to take the place of history, geography, and elementary science lessons in Classes II. and III., to prepare the boys to take up the definite study of these subjects in Class IV., and the handling and modelling of things forms the basis of the work. CLASSES IV. AND V. I. Accurate Work. Cardboard cutting and modelling. Advance upon work of Class III. Paper work to teach fractions, decimal area, etc. Modelling in paper, using the backs of old books and brown paper. The rough cos- tumes, helmets, etc., for the dramatic work in history are made by the boys. Examples of cardboard and paper work are : huts, houses, boats, castles, weapons, assault-towers, drawbridges, etc. II. Plastic Work. Modelling of maps, battlefields, river valleys, bridges, wind- mills, waterwheels, etc., in sand, putty, and modlex. Many illustrations for geography and history are obtained in this way. Exercises in contour work ; the making of easy raised maps, and the reading of simple oro- graphical maps are continued in this section. CLASSES VI. AND VII. Modelling in paper and cardboard to teach area, fraction, decimal, metre, etc. advance upon IV. and V. Light woodwork exercises designed to help the other school subjects, as history, geography, and science. The boys provide their own wood, and the fretsaw is the chief tool. Tudor carriages, ploughs, theatres, spinning wheels, fireplaces, etc., are made by the boys. 9 o THE THINKING HAND Modelling in putty of geographical and historical subjects is carried on here. Contour work ; reading of orographical maps, also drawing of same, and making relief maps in putty forms part of the work of this division. CLASSES IX. AND X. The boys of this section illustrate their lessons wherever possible. Raised maps, theodolites, protractors, parallel rulers, sundials, weather vanes, etc., for use in geography, history, and nature knowledge lessons, are made in putty, cardboard, and wood. Weather charts, temperature and pressure charts are kept by the boys. In geography, models illustrating the lessons are made and set scenes are con- structed boys working together in co-operative effort. In history special lines are followed up, e.g. History of spinning through hand- loom to present-day loom. History of methods of locomotion from the litter to present-day carriages. History of bicycle from the hobby-horse to the motor-cycle. History of bridge construction from earliest forms to bridges of present day. Many of the objects are sent to the Girls' and Infants' Schools to serve as illustrations for special lessons, and are found to be extremely useful. The making of raised maps, with contours cut out of cardboard or wood, is con- tinued in this class. Drawing of simple diagrams and graphical representations in geography and nature knowledge forms part of the course. Fretwork is encouraged amongst the boys, and all kinds of useful and ornamental articles are made at home. SCHOOL II. BOYS. ACCOMMODATION 360. Time : Standards I., II., and III. at teacher's discretion. IV. 135 mins. V., VI., and VII. 165 Handicraft Room. Classes i, 2, 3 (Standards IV., V., VI., and VII.) spend half a day per week in the specially equipped Handicraft Room in batches of 20. (The oldest section spends two half days there.) A special teacher of handicraft is in charge. The course of work embraces woodwork, tin, and other metal work (lathe, vice, forge, etc.). The models in the 3rd Year Course are based chiefly on " Everyday Science " lessons taken in class, also apparatus required to illustrate lessons given in class, viz. measuring rods, plumb line, spirit level, sundial, scales, balance, etc. Other examples are : Cradle for use in Housewifery Centre, model bed for use in sick- nursing lessons. In the ist and 2nd Year (IV., V.) the pupils proceed from models of a flat nature (cardboard, etc.) to construction, mainly in wood and wire, of models to illustrate gravity, centre of gravity, direction, natural forces, wind, water ; the drawings em- bracing the three dimensions by pictorial sketches, etc. The scheme throughout, HANDICRAFT 91 and each type of model, has a definite point in view, though the pupils themselves determine the model which shall illustrate the principle involved. As occasion demands, the pupils in a section combine to construct a number of models, forming a complete illustration. Farmyard, comprising house, garden, rails, seats, stables, shippon, kennel, pond, etc. Dairy, and tables, stools, churn, cheese-press, milk cans, strainer, etc. Promenade, and beach, bathing-vans, boats, pier, shelters, seats, etc. Shops, greengrocer, baker, butcher, and necessary fittings, counters, shelves, etc. Old English village, church and lych-gate, village inn, stocks, pillory, mounting stone, turnpike gate, thatched cottages, waterwheel, village green, maypole, etc. Fire engine station, engine, carriages, buckets, lamp, hydrants, etc. The class teachers taking the hand-work below Standard IV. use paper and card- board to illustrate the various problems in mensuration and mathematics, pupils being led to determine for themselves the formulae required, also diagrams for use in geometrical and geographical lessons. In the lower classes paper and cardboard are employed for measuring, division, fractions, decimals, areas, etc., whilst modlex is used to illustrate the terms in geography, events in history, and the songs, poems, and stories which the children are being taught. SCHOOL III. BOYS. ACCOMMODATION 373. Time : Standards I. and II. 180 mins. per week. III. and IV. 150 V. 180 VI. 200 VII., VIII. 150 Clay Work. Standards I., II., III. Modelling from simple objects in the solid, or low relief. Illustrations of his- torical objects, geographical models, science and nature work. String Work. Standards I., II. Simple knots, netting, hammock- work. Raphia. Standards I., II. Winding, plaiting, weaving. Cane Work. Standards III., IV. Weaving, matmaking, basketwork. Paper cardboard. Standards I., II., III., IV., V., VI. Technical and free models. Application to arithmetic, mensuration. Book-binding in V., VI. Light Woodwork and Knife Work. Standards IV., V. Combined course. Free and set models. 92 THE THINKING HAND Woodwork. Standards VI., VII., VIII., in workshop. Bench work course. Free and set models, toys, etc. SCHOOL IV. BOYS. ACCOMMODATION 247. Time : Standard I. 130 mins. per week. II., III., IV. 140 V., VI., VII. 120 Geography. Clinometer ; plane table with sight rules ; simple sextant ; simple theodolite ; prismatic compass ; rain gauge ; contour maps ; models of dis- trict in plasticine and plaster of Paris ; map of district. General Observation. Aeroplane ; works of clock ; cradle for gold sifting ; tent ; dock locks ; turbine ; bee line. Arithmetic. Pantograph ; punnets (cylindrical and rectangular of veneer). Science. Pulleys ; windlass ; Cooper's disc ; Tobia's tube ; Sherringham valve ; Ellison's brick ; drop hammer ; wheel-barrow ; convection apparatus ; steel- yard ; scales. Arithmetic and Geometrical Models. Triangle ; polygons ; discs ; box ; model of school premises ; gates (various kinds) . Geography. Sledge ; snow-shoes ; toboggan ; Assuan dam ; settler's hut. General Observation. Deck chair ; swing ; signals (distant and home) ; coal-mine cage ; shaft ; trestle ; stile ; easel. STANDARD IV. SECTION I. LESSON. MODEL. MATERIAL. The Alps. Model of section with passes of Mt. Cenis, St. Plastic. Gothard, and St. Bernard. Italy. i. Gondola. Thin card. 2. Map of S.W. Europe with scale of miles to show saving of time by overland route to India. 3. Alpine chalet. Veneer. France. i. Hand-loom. 2. Hand wine-press. 3. Stilts and walking-pole. 4. A boulevard : Trees of sticks and parsley, seats, tables, cafe. Spain. i. Relief map and model. Plastic. 2. Model of section of Moorish mosque (cf. architecture) . HANDICRAFT 93 LESSON. The Rhine. Denmark. Holland. Belgium. Russia. Scandinavia. MODEL. i. Bridge of boats (Cologne), composite. 1. Danish vessel. 2. Butter churn. i. Canal and swing bridge. 1. Dog- cart. 2. Drawbridge. 1. Troika. 2. House built on piles, i. Ski and toboggan. MATERIAL. Veneer. *> SECTION II. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. LESSON. MODEL. MATERIAL. Day and night. Toy to illustrate varying lengths of daylight. Thin card. The seasons. Clay model of globe with zones. Plastic. The tides. Dock with gates. Plastic, veneer. Springs. Intermittent spring. Clay, sawdust. Each child to make a sectional model. Graph of pressure at different places. Isobars. Colour chart to show composition of light. Card, paint. Sight-rule. Cardboard. Flow of water in this Relief map or contour of land from school to Plastic, neighbourhood. Queen's Drive. The river at the land- Sketch to show piers on the Cheshire side, ing stage. A section across. What is seen at the Storm cone. Thin card, stage. Water trap. Plastic. Buckets on endless chain (composite). Card, paper. Winds. Rainbow. Levels and slopes. Sewers. Dredgers (suction and bucket). A graving dock. A dock. Clay. N.B. All models in Section I. are based upon pictures or diagrams shown to the children, who make their own models to their own declared measure- ments when necessary. In Section II. all models and drawings are the results of children's own observation. 94 THE THINKING HAND STANDARD III. Subjects. Arranged to correlate with scheme of lessons in geography, history, science, etc. Geography. Relief maps of England, North of England, Mersey Basin, Scotland, Ireland. Models in modlex of a spring, a watershed. History. British war chariot, Norman castle gate of drawbridge, shields, crowns etc., of period, flail, tally. Science. Windmill. ),, ,. , , ,,. . .^. , .. Klnclined planes and wind pressure.) Ship with masts and sails. J Plumb line, wall ventilator, sundial. Exercises to correlate with Arithmetic. Square mat, square tray, book cover, rectangular prism, match box, pin tray, triangular prism, taper holder, hexagonal mat, cube, money box, box with lid, letter case. HAND-WORK. STANDARD II. These lessons will be connected with the history, geography, and observation lessons. CLAY OR PLASTICINE. PAPER CUTTING. Observation. Vegetables, fruits, flowers, tools, bell, Wall pocket, tidy, triangular basket, birds' beaks, birds' feet, leaves, stems bags of different sizes, envelopes, of plants, canoe, lighthouse. square tray, box with lid, bon-bon _ , box, card case, book cover, stamp ^ case, cart, chair, rabbit-hutch, sentry A spring, river, mountain, lake, volcano, 5^ table> mo torists' warning-post, peninsula, island. Geography. Weather vane, sundial (simple shape). War chariot, battle-axe, shield, cross- bow, arrows. Arithmetic. Cube, clock-face. CLAY-MODELLING. STANDARD I. Objects to be selected from the history, geography, or observation lessons. Observation. Model of squirrel with nut. The sparrow : nest, head, beak. Acorn and oak-leaf. Orange : fruit and leaf. Bee-hive. Leaves from the object. Reaping-hook : corn. Nuts. Bulbs : various stages. Apple and leaf. The robin : nest, etc. HANDICRAFT 95 History. Bow and arrow. Viking's sword, spear, and shield. Armour and weapons of soldiers from various periods of history taken. Herdman's hut (Alfred and cakes). Geography. Wigwam of Red Indian. Canoe of Red Indian. Model to illustrate and show difference between a hill and a plain. Simple model of a river. A sledge (Canada). General. A basket. A pipe. PAPER-FOLDING AND CUTTING. Arithmetic. Cutting of squares to measurements. Cutting of oblongs to measurements. Geography. Simple sundial. Compass-face. Watch-face. History. Cutting of Viking's axe. Cutting of Norman spear. Cutting of Saxon shield. Cutting of a halberd. General. Folding to make a house. Folding to make a dog-kennel. A square envelope. A wall-pocket easy designs. A long envelope. A photo-frame. Cutting out of wooden spade. An ash-tray. SCHOOL V. MIXED. ACCOMMODATION 1220 (INFANTS 370, JUNIORS 420, SENIORS 430). GENERAL SCHEME OF SCHOOL HAND-WORK. Time : Age n and upwards, 2 half -days per week (i half-day in classroom and i half-day in workshop). Age below n years, i half -day per week (in classroom). All boys eleven years old and over take handicraft class in the Manual Room (fitted with benches for woodwork, metal work, etc.) on one occasion per week in accordance with regulations of the Board of Education (Code, Sch. III. paragraph 36 (i) a). In addition all boys attend hand-work classes in the ordinary classrooms one half-day per week. Thus, including drawing and work done to illustrate other school subjects, the total time given is more than three half -days in the case of older boys, and over two half-days in junior classes. The following plan shows in outline the nature of the work done. Infants. Use of all usual kindergarten materials in connection with every possible lesson, each operation being made concrete by the child's own action. 96 THE THINKING HAND Standard I. Knitting. Weaving. Paper-cutting, and modelling (scissors). Clay- modelling. Standard II. Paper-modelling. Thin cardboard work (use of knife). Working to drawings. Clay-modelling. Standard III. Cardboard models. Introduction to light woodwork (knife and light tools). Clay-modelling. Standard IV. Cardboard models. Decorative work on models. Light woodwork at bench and in classroom. Use of various available materials. Standard V. Bench and classroom work in wood. Original design encouraged and scholars' own ideas developed in construction. Standard VI. Development of work as in Standard V. Light metal work added. Construction of models involving use of various materials. Standard VII. Individual and communal work. Importance attached to scholars' choice of exercise and method of construction. SCHEME OF HAND-WORK OF CLASSES WORKING IN ORDINARY CLASSROOMS. The following exercises are given as indicating what might be done, rather than what must be done. Freedom in choice of suitable exercises is left to each teacher, who will probably give scholars many opportunities of choosing what they would like to do. In this way the handwork lessons may serve to arouse greater interest in school lessons generally, and to bring the child's interests outside the school, in the home, the street, etc., into some relation with his school work. STANDARD I. Weaving, etc., Raffia Work. On frames : Tidies, handkerchief-cases. Circular weaving : Shell pincushion, cushion cover, book cover, blotter, work- bag, needle-case, etc. Cane work : Mats, work-basket, doll's hat. Simple basket-making. Paper-cutting and Modelling. Tents, candlesticks, watchman's hut, keys, three- barred gate, crackers, windmill, paper boxes, paper baskets, coin bags, wall- pockets ; construction and use of coloured papers ; diagrams for illustrating geographical terms, etc. Clay-modelling. Simple relief maps illustrating hills, valleys, coast, rivers. Simple leaf forms. Animals. Simple fruit and vegetable forms. Modelling cor- related as far as possible with such lessons as composition, simple science, geography, etc. HANDICRAFT 97 STANDARD II. Paper and Thin Card. Roman galley, Saxon harp, battle plan (Hastings, etc.), rabbit hut, ark, model illustrating zones, etc. Flags, letter-rack, screens, labels, mats, boxes, bags, envelopes, brackets, paper baskets, brushes, dustpan, etc. Clay-modelling. Apple, pear, lemon, etc. Cricket bat and set of wickets. Battle plan (fencing, etc. , wood strips) . Leaves : holly, mistletoe, ivy, etc. Simple river basin outlines Mersey. Simple relief scenes illustrating stories. STANDARD III. Paper and Card. Flower pot cover, bell tent, lamp and candle-shades, model cart, model van, model wheelbarrow, wall-pocket, book cover, kite, postcard album, clock face. Roman galley, models to illustrate geography, history, and other subjects. Light Woodwork. Measurement : use of foot-rule, try-square marking knife, cutting knife. Windwhirl. Toy scales, kite frame, flower stick, plant label, toy train. Rough models of native dwellings, etc. Clay-modelling. Battle-axe, spear-head, arrow-head, Lancashire, Devon, and Corn- wall, Thames Valley, six northern counties. Simple leaves, simple flowers, bottle, tools, toys. STANDARD IV. Cardboard, etc. Blotting pad, boxes and trays, windmill, boats and canoes, kennel and houses, sentry box, Roman shield, Saxon, Danish, etc., shields, letters in card, etc. Illustrations for lessons. Woodwork. Models of ancient implements and weapons. Various simple tools and apparatus used in school, at home, and at play. Simple communal work : Hanging fern basket. Wattled Saxon church, etc. Clay-modelling. Developed on lines indicated in other classes. G THE THINKING HAND MANUAL INSTRUCTION ROOM. TIME-TABLE. M. 9.30-12. A. 1.30-4. Monday. * Woodwork (First Year Course). * Woodwork and Metal Work (First Year Course) . Standard V. Standards IV. and V. Tuesday. * Woodwork and Metal Work (Second General Handicraft. Year Course). Standards VII. and Ex. VII. ) Wednesday. * Metal Work (First Year Course). Standard VI. Thursday. * Woodwork (Second Year Course). Standard VI. Friday. * Woodwork (First Year Course). Standards IV. and V. Standard VI. Light Woodwork. Standard III. Light Woodwork. Standard IV. General Handicraft. Standards VII. and VIII. Classes marked (*) are taken in accordance with Board of Education Regulations, Code, p. 36, i. (A). SCHEME OF WORK IN MANUAL INSTRUCTION ROOM. While the exercises give opportunity for instruction and practice in the proper use of tools and materials, it is evident that owing to scholars having freedom in choice, design, and construction, and the wide field open for correlation with school subjects, no definite exercises can be set out as a scheme. The following examples of exercises worked last year indicate the general plan to be adopted in each class. Standard VII. and Ex. VII. Plumb rule, T square, pantograph, hand screw, pyro- meter, veneer colour disc, pulleys, sundial, steam engine, model locomotive, aeroplane, rain gauge, callipers, opisometer, skeleton sphere, engineer's try square, hand-screw. Standard VI. Set square, pen and ink stand, windlass, towel-roller, flour scoop, bradawl, model blackboard, knife cleaner, mallet, mitre box, chisel, picture hook, test-tube stand, draughtboard and men. HANDICRAFT 99 Standard V. Marble board, hatpeg, pen and pencil rack, mounted cannon, bill file, money box, battle-axe, form, spice grater, meat hook, pen tray, Chinese canoe, see-saw, cart, swing, shield. Standard IV. Garden seat, weather vane, camp stool, whip handle, weaving needle, top, string-winder, paper-knife. Standard III. Windwhirl, garden rake, wooden shovel, kite frame, flower stick, ladder, cross, key label, pencil sharpener. Communal Exercise 12 boys. Chemical balance. SCHOOL VI. MIXED. ACCOMMODATION 1690 (MIXED 1140, INFANTS 550). Time : No fixed periods except for grant-earning classes, which are as follows : 6 classes of 16 boys each in heavy woodwork (2 hours per week) . 3 classes of 24 boys and I class of 24 girls in light woodwork (2 hours per week). Except in the case of the " grant-earning " classes, the subject of handicraft is not entered on the time-table, but about one-third of the time given to history, geography, English, arithmetic, etc., is given to handicraft exercises in these subjects, giving a total of from 4 to 6 hours weekly. Some of the hand-work is done in the classrooms, but in addition the school has a room fitted to accommodate 16 boys for heavy, or 24 for light woodwork. As an experiment a second classroom has been cleared of desks, fitted with benches adapted by the scholars, and stocked with tools and various media. Some of the younger scholars spend one hour weekly in this room ; the older scholars use the main handicraft room. The work done in these rooms arises out of the ordinary work of the classes, and the models made are frequently used to illustrate lessons throughout the school. A class is not confined to the use of any particular material ; the children throughout are encouraged to use whatever materials are best suited to the model under construction. The scope of the work can perhaps best be indicated by mentioning a number of models recently made, or at present in course of construction, with the medium used in each case. CLASS. MODELS AND MATERIALS. (Recently made or in process of construction.) Kindergarten. An orchard : sticks, paper, clay, bunting. A tea table : sticks, paper, clay. Preparatory. The seashore : sand, clay, paper, crayon. A railway station : matchboxes, cardboard. A farmyard : matchboxes, veneer, stales, clay, cardboard. A park : clay, veneer, stales, wire, cardboard, string, glass. G2 IOO THE THINKING HAND CLASS. MODELS AND MATERIALS. Standard I. Tower of London : cardboard. Walls of Chester : clay, veneer. Indian and Eskimo huts : clay, stales, cotton-wool. Windmill : clay, paper. Lighthouse : clay, paper,. cardboard. Standard II. Landing of Romans : tableau in cardboard. British village : clay, stales. British chariots, shields, swords, helmets, horns, etc. : clay, wood, cardboard. Maps of Lancashire, etc. : clay, paper (coloured and mounted). " Wind in a Frolic " : tableau in clay. Standard III. Norman castle and keep : clay, cardboard, wood. Norman musical instruments : veneer, string. Hawk frame and quintain : wood, cardboard. Railway tunnel, lines, etc. : clay, wood, wire, paper. Scenes from Robin Hood's life : tableau in clay. Standard IV. Horse litter : wood, cloth. Sedan chair : wood. Flail : wood, leather. Quintain : wood. Standard V. Lincoln gateway : wood, paper. Lighthouse : wood, metal. Motor car, Anglo-Saxon church, sundial : wood. The Aldgate : wood, sand, isinglass. Old English hand-gun : wood, lead, tin, tarred rope. Russian raft : clay, twigs, cloth. Standard VI. Contour map of Liverpool Bay : fretwood. Egyptian waterwheel, aeroplane, shaduf : wood, metal. Plate armour : brown paper, blacklead. Maps : paper pulp, paste of flour and water, modlex. Rancher's hut : twigs, wood, straw, sand, cardboard, wax, cotton-wool. Dolls dressed to illustrate costumes. Elizabethan manor-house : clay, paint. Sphinx and camels : clay, paint. Church reading-desk and chained Bible : wood, paint. Gold-digger's encampment : wood, paper. HANDICRAFT 101 CLASS. MODELS AND MATERIALS. Standard VII. Maps : modlex, paint. Trans-Siberian Railway : wood, modlex. Siberian village : modlex, wood, metal. Siberian posting-station : twigs, metal, cotton-wool, wood. Japanese tea-house : wood, silk, paper, paint, gloy. Model of school and of district within a radius of i| miles : cardboard, wood, glue. Model of school building : cardboard, mica, glue. Conway and Rochester Castles : card, wood. Standard Ex. VII. Oxford Castle : wood, card, seccotine, paint. Scenery for school concert : canvas, wood, charcoal, paint. Theodolite, survey poles, clinometer : wood, metal, cardboard, glass. Spirit level : wood, metal, glass. Part of wireless telegraphy installation : wood, metal, wire. In connection with the school hand-work it may be noted the children from Stan- dard II. upwards spend one hour weekly at practical science; that a number of children get some practice in gardening ; and that experimental classes are being tried in the following directions : a class of senior girls is taking a course of light woodwork, and a boys' class has been formed in cookery and needlework for boys who intend to go to sea. It may also be noted that at the rifle range attached to the school, a number of senior boys from this, and from neighbouring schools receive instruction, after school hours, in the use of the rifle. SCHOOL VII. BOYS. ACCOMMODATION 203. Time : 2 hours per week. HANDICRAFT. LIGHT WOODWORK. Scheme for Special Class subject to alteration, addition, or deletion as deemed desirable. This class has supplanted the ordinary educational hand-work class which had been in existence for some two years. There is no Manual Centre available. Ages in class range from n to 13. The scheme provides for a i, 2, or 3 years' course. The work will be approached from several standpoints, viz. : 1. Set Scheme. 2. The Child : self-expression, freedom of choice. 3. Central Idea : industrial, historical, scientific, literary, etc. 4. Problematic. 5. Co-operation. 6. Toy-games. 102 THE THINKING HAND 1. Set Scheme. Include objects to be suggested by simple drawings, the dimensions and method of construction being generally left to the discretion of child. Alternatives and variations will be required. A choice can be made from the scheme. 2. The Child. Each child will be required to submit a more or less simple drawing, showing his intentions, previous to the lesson. In every case a record drawing will be kept in a school book provided. 3. Central Idea. Models working to illustrate : (1) Rope spinning and topping local industry. (2) Agriculture ; history ; irrigation. (3) Simple machines. (4) Subjects suggested by books read. 4. Problematic. Occasional exercises given as a test for single lesson or part of lesson, or problem announced to be solved by drawing and experimentation in own time. 5. Co-operative. Children will form their own groups. This method will only be taken up by the more experienced boys. 6. Toys Games. This aspect partly included under No. 2, but the teacher will supplement. Right use of tools taught and better use suggested as occasion arises during work individually and in class. Teacher will give short demonstrations in technique, such as : rounding, pinning, end-nailing, half-lapping, staying, etc., after certain amount of experimentation, as occasion demands, the principle of model and method of construction being left to boy's intelligence. Short demonstrations and brief talks on saw-setting, tool-sharpening, etc., will also be given. EXTRA OBJECTS AND CO-OPERATIVE WORK. Primitive Drill. Fire Drill. Irrigation. Shaduf, sakieh, windmill wheel (Norfolk), Archimedian spiral. Weaving. Frame, loom. Rope Spinning. Spinner with one bobbin, topping cranks and top. N.B. Hemp to be grown, fibre extracted, and spun. Weather. Clinometer, sextant, anemometer, vane, sundial, hygrometer. Arithmetic, Mechanics, etc. Altometer, steel-yard, knife-grinder, windlass, parallel rule, reed, expansion meter. Farm Implements, such as : plough, primitive or otherwise, harrows, sower, roller, horse-rake, etc. Toys, Games, etc. Humpty Dumpty, Jumping Jack, camera, target and darts. COOKERY (BOYS) 103 C. SCHEME OF INSTRUCTION IN COOKERY FOR BOYS' CLASSES. Stage I. (20 lessons of 2\ hours each) . 1. Use, care, and cleaning of utensils, cupboards, etc. The washing of glass and china. 2. Cleaning, firing, and management of stoves (coal and gas). The laying of a table. The making of bone stock and use of pot liquor. 3. Soups. Pea or lentil, rice soup (not sieved), broth. 4. Potatoes. Baked, boiled, steamed, fried, crisped. 5. Fish. Boiled, baked, fish pie. 6. Meat (fresh). Baked, roast, fried, revision of potato lesson. 7. Meat (fresh). Irish stew, hot-pot. 8. Meat and Fish (salt) . Boiled. The making of sauces. 9. Re-heating. Brown gravy, mince, toast. 10. Revision. (Dishes to be selected by the teacher.) n. Vegetables. Boiled greens, carrots, turnips, parsnips, etc. 12. Pastry. Short crust, fruit tart, jam tart. 13 and 14. Puddings (boiled). Plain suet, fruit puddings, sweet sauce. 15. Puddings (baked). Bread pudding, milk pudding with and without eggs. 16 and 17. Bread making. How to make yeast, brown bread, white bread. 18. Scones and Tea Cakes. Tea and coffee. 19. Examination (practical). 20. Eggs. Boiled, poached, fried, scrambled. Porridge. Stage II. (20 lessons of 2 J hours each) . 1. Soups. Stock and care of stock pot. Haricot and tomato soups. 2. Batter making. Pancakes, Yorkshire puddings, fritters (with dried or fresh fruits). 3 and 4. Fish. Fried in batter. Chowder, salt fish and stewed fish, haddocks, bloaters, kippers. 5. Tripe. Fried in batter, stewed, mashed potatoes. 6. Meat puddings and sea pie. 7. Revision of re-heating (cottage pie and hash). io 4 THE THINKING HAND 8. Meat. Mock goose, stuffing, and forcemeats. 9. Fish. Stuffed (revision). Potatoes (revision). jo. Pulse Foods. Spare ribs and boiled lentils, peas, and haricot beans. 1 1 and 12. Bread making (revision) . White and brown, currant bread and tea cakes. 13. Revision. (Dishes to be selected by the teacher.) 14 and 15. Puddings (revision). Boiled puddings of various kinds. Use of crusts and bread crumbs. 16. Invalid Cookery. Arrowroot, gruel, gargles, beef tea, poultices (bread and linseed). 17. Re-heating. " Colcannon," " Bubble and Squeak," fish cakes, potato cakes. 18. Breakfast Dishes and making of cocoa, tea, and coffee. 19. Examination (practical). 20. Corn Flour and Rice Moulds. Stewed fruits, lemonade, and revision of any weak points. NOTE. The order of the lessons may, if necessary, be varied at the teacher's discretion, always provided that the progressive nature of the course be kept in mind D. SCHEME OF GARDENING AND NATURE STUDY IN SUBURBAN SCHOOL. The total area of the garden is a little over a quarter of an acre, which is divided by narrow grass paths into 24 plots of varying size. Plots numbered 1,2, and 3 will be utilised by the Infant Classes in conjunction with their object lesson course for the purpose of flower cultivation and observation ; plots numbered 7, 8, 9, and 10 being similarly utilised by Standards I., II., and III., and the girls of Standard IV. Plots numbered 4, 5, and 6 will be utilised by the girls of Standards V. and up- wards for the purpose of flower and shrub cultivation. They will also use plots numbered 23 and 24 for vegetables. The time available on the time-table and marked " Nature Study " is, in the case of Standards I., II., and III., thirty minutes per week, and in the case of the girls of Standard IV. and upwards, forty-five minutes. The instruction will be given in school during wet or cold weather, and in the garden during fine weather. The boys of Standards IV. to VII. will undertake the heavy manual work through- out, and will also cultivate plots numbered n to 22 either singly, in pairs, or as com- mon plots, according to their individual skill, knowledge, and industry. Each of these plots measures approximately one square pole, and is to be divided as I is to GARDENING 105 4 or thereabouts between the cultivation of flowers and vegetables. Two plots will be reserved for seeds and experimental purposes. The time available for these lessons is shown on the time-table as : 1. Monday, 1.30 to 2.30. Nature Study and Gardening. 2. Thursday, 1.30 to 3.0. Practical Hand-work or Gardening. If the weather is unfit for gardening, in the case of No. i a theoretical nature lesson will be taken in school, or notes of outdoor work made ; and in the case of No. 2 practical hand- work will be taken, which may or may not be co-ordinated with gardening. The aims throughout will be : 1. To cultivate a love of nature for itself. 2. To render of practical value the instruction in nature study and to assist in making the ordinary school work concrete and interesting. 3. To cultivate the powers of observation and reasoning, a sense of responsibility, a habit of experiment, and the qualities of carefulness, patience, perseverance, and resourcefulness. 4. To instil a conviction of the dignity of labour. GARDEN WORK. It is proposed that the inner walks shall be covered with grass, and that these shall be kept in order by the boys who cultivate the neighbouring plots. The outer border on the boundary road and school playground sides will slope and be laid out as grass banks or rockeries. The outer 4 ft. walks and the open spaces at the corners will also be grass covered. The work of the year will be arranged as follows : Winter Months (December to February). Lay out plots and walks take off turf where not required, and utilise same for making and repairing walks, constructing banks, etc. dig up the plots and trench if necessary subsequently re-dig and manure. Spring Months (March to May) . Plant potatoes sow beans, carrots, parsnips, sweet peas, lettuce, radish, and vegetable marrow. As seed beds require they will be thinned out and transplanting done. Different boys will attend to the cultivation of a small selection of the various crops so that their close attention may be concentrated on a few varieties, and that at the same time they may have general experience of a greater number. This will also permit reasonable attention being given to the rotation of crops. Sow annuals such as mignonette, sweet peas, Virginia stock, sunflower, nasturtium, French marigold, calceolarias, stocks and asters take up bulbs and store divide primrose roots, etc. transplant chrysanthemums. io6 THE THINKING HAND Summer Months (June to August). Hoe and thin out where necessary keep walks and banks in good condition dig up early potatoes and prepare ground for next crop. Stake peas thin out seed beds and transplant to available ground. Earth up potatoes water where necessary, and prepare ground for winter crops. Take up spring flowers or transplant plant out late summer varieties : pansies, stocks, asters, etc. Autumn Months (September to November}. Complete arrangements for winter crops dig up potatoes, carrots, beets, and prepare ground plant out cabbages, cauliflowers, etc. cleanse soil. Give room to chrysanthemums take cuttings from geraniums into school for the winter plant bulbs (hyacinths, tulips, crocuses, snowdrops), plant out wall flowers clear beds. ILLUSTRATIONS CLAY MODELLING 109 SEFTON PARK COUNCIL SCHOOL SEFTON PARK COUNCIL SCHOOL H no CLAY MODELLING ST. MARGARET'S C.E. SCHOOL, PRINCES ROAD ST. MARY'S C.E. SCHOOL, EDGE HILL CLAY MODELLING in BIRCHFIELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL ST. MARY S C.E. SCHOOL, EDGE HILL 112 CLAY MODELLING SEFTON PARK COUNCIL SCHOOL VENICE STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL RELIEF MAPS CLAY MODELLING CLINT ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL CLINT ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL RELIEF MAPS CLAY MODELLING PAPER CUTTING AND FOLDING WALTON LANE COUNCIL SCHOOL LISTER DRIVE COUNCIL SCHOOL n6 PAPER AND CARDBOARD MODELLING LISTER DRIVE COUNCIL SCHOOL CHATSXVORTH STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL PAPER AND CARDBOARD MODELLING 117 ST. MARGARET'S C.E. SCHOOL, PRINCES ROAD CHATSWORTH STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL uS PAPER AND CARDBOARD MODELS BANKS ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL BIRCHFIELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL PAPER AND CARDBOARD MODELS 119 LISTER DRIVE COUNCIL SCHOOL BIRCHFIELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL 120 LINO CUTTING AND PRINTING CHATSWORTH STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL CHATSWORTH STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL CHATSWORTH STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL RAFFIA AND ROPE WORK 121 BEAUFORT STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL ST. CHRYSOSTOM S C.E. SCHOOL 122 RAFFIA AND CANE WORK BEAUFORT STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL ASPEN GROVE C.E. SCHOOL RAFFIA AND CANE WORK ST. MARGARET S C.E. SCHOOL, ANFIELD ASPEN GROVE C.E. SCHOOL 124 CARE OF INFANTS HARRINGTON COUNCIL SCHOOL BRAE STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL CARE OF INFANTS 125 ST. BENEDICT S C.E. SCHOOL HARRINGTON COUNCIL SCHOOL I 126 CARE OF INFANTS NORTH CORPORATION COUNCIL SCHOOL ALL SOULS R.C. DOMESTIC CENTRE HOUSEWIFERY 127 STANLEY ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL ARNOT STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL 128 HOUSEWIFERY BIRCHFIELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL HARRINGTON COUNCIL SCHOOL HOUSEWIFERY 129 LAWRENCE ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL HOPE STREET BRITISH SCHOOL 130 HOUSEWIFERY STANLEY ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL ARNOT STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL* HOUSEWIFERY HARRINGTON COUNCIL SCHOOL 132 HOUSEWIFERY COUNCIL SCHOOL ARNOT STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL HOUSEWIFERY 133 HARRINGTON COUNCIL SCHOOL STANLEY ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL 134 HOUSEWIFERY ST. PATRICK S R.C. DOMESTIC CENTRE SEWING, MENDING AND MAKING (GIRLS) 135 BIRCHF1ELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL LISTER DRIVE COUNCIL SCHOOL 136 SEWING, MENDING AND MAKING (GIRLS) ST. JAMES COUNCIL SCHOOL ST. ALBANS R.C. SCHOOL SEWING, MENDING AND MAKING (GIRLS) 137 ST. PATRICK S R.C. SCHOOL TIBER STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL 138 SEWING, MENDING AND MAKING (GiRLS) BOALER STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL STANLEY ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL SEWING, MENDING AND MAKING (GIRLS) 139 OLD CHURCH C.E. SCHOOL BIRCHFIELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL 140 SEWING, MENDING AND MAKING (GIRLS) LAWRENCE ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL LAWRENCE ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL SEWING, MENDING AND MAKING (GiRLS) 141 ALL SOULS R.C. DOMESTIC CENTRE ST. ALBANS R.C. SCHOOL K 142 CLOTHES MENDING SPINNING BOALER STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL ARXOT STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL PLAIN AND FANCY NEEDLEWORK 143 CLINT ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL CLINT ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL KNITTING (Bovs) WALTON LANE COUNCIL SCHOOL ST. JOHN S C.E. SCHOOL, WALTON CLOTHES MENDING (Bovs) 145 PENRHYN STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL OAKES STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL 146 CLOTHES, BOOT AND CLOG MENDING (Bovs) PENRHYN STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL PENRHYN STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL PATCHED GARMENTS 147 PENRHYN STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL PENRHYN STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL 148 PATCHED GARMENTS OAKES STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL OAKES STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL COOKERY (GIRLS) ORWELL ROAD COUNCIL COOKERY CENTRE STEERS STREET COUNCIL COOKERY CENTRE COOKERY (GiRLS) GRANBY STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL " MORRISON " COUNCIL SCHOOL COOKERY (GiRLS) DURNING ROAD COUNCIL COOKERY CENTRE ANFIELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL 152 COOKERY (GIRLS) BANKS ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL BURNING ROAD COOKERY CENTRE COOKERY (GIRLS) 153 STEERS ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL CROWN ST. COUNCIL SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF 154 COOKERY (GIRLS) ST. JAMES COUNCIL SCHOOL ST. MARGARET S C.E. DOMESTIC CENTRE COOKERY (Bovs) 155 BIRCHFIELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL ST. JAMES COUNCIL SCHOOL 156 COOKERY (Bovs) ST. JOHN S C.E. SCHOOL, WALTON PENRHYN STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL LAUNDRY WORK BURNING ROAD COUNCIL DOMESTIC CENTRE ST. JAMES COUNCIL SCHOOL L LAUNDRY WORK ST. MARGARET S C.E. SCHOOL, ANFIELD ST. JAMES COUNCIL SCHOOL LAUNDRY WORK BIRCHFIELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL ANFIELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL 'i6o ' LAUNDRY WORK GRANBY STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL LISTER DRIVE COUNCIL SCHOOL LAUNDRY WORK 161 GRANBY STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL STEERS STREET LAUNDRY CENTRE l62 LAUNDRY WORK ST. MARGARET S C.E. SCHOOL, BELMONT ROAD ORWELL ROAD COUNCIL LAUNDRY CENTRE HANDICRAFT (Bovs) 163 ST. MARGARET S C.E. SCHOOL, PRINCE S ROAD SELBORNE STREET COUNCIL MANUAL INSTRUCTION CENTRE 164 HANDICRAFT (Bovs) VENICE STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL CHATSWORTH STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL HANDICRAFT (Bovs) 165 ST. MICHAEL S COUNCIL SCHOOL HOLY TRINITY C.E. SCHOOL, WAVERTREE i66 HANDICRAFT (Bovs) BIRCHFIELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL BRUNSWICK WESLEYAN SCHOOL HANDICRAFT (Bovs AND GIRLS) 167 ST. BENEDICT S C.E. SCHOOL BIRCHFIELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL i68 WOODWORK MODELS PLEASANT STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL CLINT ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL CLINT ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL WOODWORK MODELS 169 GRANTON ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL DOVEDALE ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL 170 WOODWORK MODELS WEBSTER ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL PLEASANT STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL VENICE STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL WOODWORK AND CARDBOARD MODELS 171 ST. MARGARET S C.E. SCHOOL, BELMONT ROAD BRUNSWICK WESLEYAN SCHOOL SCHOOL-MADE APPARATUS AND MODELS LISTER DRIVE COUNCIL SCHOOL LISTER DRIVE COUNCIL SCHOOL PLEASANT STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL SCHOOL-MADE APPARATUS AND MODELS. ST. MICHAEL S COUNCIL SCHOOL HOLY TRINITY C.E. SCHOOL, WAVERTRKE M SCHOOL-MADE APPARATUS AND MODELS LKUNSWICK WESLEYAN SCHOOL BRUNSWICK WESLEYAN SCHOOL SCHOOL-MADE APPARATUS AND MODkLS' VENICE STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL ARNOT STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL PLEASANT STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL SC-riOOL-MADE APPARATUS AND MODELS BANKS ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL SELBORNE STREET MANUAL INSTRUCTION CENTRE SCHOOL-MADE APPARATUS AND MODELS: .::' ' "'.- BANKS ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL DOVEDALE ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL TOYS ii2 ST. MARGARET S C.E. SCHOOL, BELMONT ROAD ST. MARGARET S C.E. SCHOOL, BELMONT ROAD TOYS ST. MARGARET S C.E. SCHOOL, BELMONT ROAD ST. MARGARET S C.E. SCHOOL, BELMONT ROAD TOYS BIRCHFIELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOI BIRCHFIELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL TOYS "i-8'r BIRCHFIELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL BIRCHFIELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL 182' '?' ' 'HISTORICAL COSTUMES, WEAPONS, ETC. BRUNSWICK WESLEYAN SCHOOL BRUNSWICK WESLEYAN SCHOOL HISTORICAL COSTUMES, WEAPONS, ETC. 183 BRUNSWICK WESLEYAN SCHOOL BRUNSWICK WESLEYAN SCHOOL METAL WORK BANKS ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL BRAE STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL METAL WORK 185 i86 METAL WORK METAL WORK 187 BRAE STREET MANUAL INSTRUCTION CENTRE i88 METAL WORK MODELS BANKS ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL STEERS STREET MANUAL INSTRUCTION CENTRE METAL WORK MODELS 189 STEERS STREET MANUAL INSTRUCTION CENTRE STEERS STREET MANUAL INSTRUCTION CENTRE X SCHOOL-MADE APPARATUS BRASS, LEATHER AND STONE WORK ''. WEBSTER ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL ST. LAWRENCE C.E. SCHOOL MAJOR LESTER COUNCIL SCHOOL 192 HUMAN HABITATIONS ST. BRIDGET S C.E. SCHOOL, WAVERTREE ST. BRIDGETS C.E. SCHOOL, WAVERTREE HUMAN HABITATIONS 193 ST. BRIDGET'S C.E. SCHOOL, WAVERTREE ST. BRIDGET S C.E. SCHOOL, WAVERTREE HUMAN HABITATIONS ST. BRIDGET S C.E. SCHOOL, WAVERTREE OMMUNAL WORK SETTLER'S HUT H 'S CARD IS OWE FOOT 10/vc PENRHYN STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL HUMAN HABITATIONS OAKES STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL BIRCHFIELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL HUMAN HABITATIONS BRUNSWICK WESLEYAN SCHOOL PLEASANT STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL HUMAN HABITATIONS 197 ARNOT STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL ARXOT STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL 198 HUMAN HABITATIONS OAKES STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL PLEASANT STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL HUMAN HABITATIONS 199 CLINT ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL CLINT ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL 2OO LARGE MODELS RICE LANE COUNCIL SCHOOL RICE LANE COUNCIL SCHOOL LARGE MODELS 201 BIRCHFIELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL WEST DERBY C.E. SCHOOL 202 LARGE MODELS ASPEN GROVE C.E. SCHOOL BIRCHFIELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL LARGE MODELS 203 ARNOT STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL LISTER DRIVE COUNCIL SCHOOL 204 USE OF HYGROMETER AND THEODOLITE USE OF PLANE TABLE 205 BRAE STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL If IT HOLY TRINITY C.E. SCHOOL, WAVERTKEE O 2O6 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY SURVEYING BIRCHFIELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL ST. STEPHEN'S C.E. SCHOOL USE OF MUSEUM 207 PLEASANT STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL PLEASANT STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL USE OF MUSEUM PLEASANT STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL PLEASANT STREET COUNCIL SCHOOL SCHOOL GARDENING 209 FAZAKERLEY C.E. SCHOOL FAZAKERLEY C.E. SCHOOL 2IO SCHOOL GARDENING MORRISON COUNCIL SCHOOL BIRCHFIELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL SCHOOL GARDENING 211 FAZAKERI.EY C.E SCHOOL BIRCHFIEI.D ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL 212 NATURE STUDY ASPEN GROVE C.E. SCHOOL MORRISON COUNCIL SCHOOL NATURE STUDY 213 DUNCOMBE ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL DUNCOMBE ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL NATURE STUDY 215 BUNCOMBE ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL DUNCOMBE ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL 2l6 MINIATURE RIFLE SHOOTING BIRCHFIELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL BIRCHFIEI.D ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL MINIATURE RIFLE SHOOTING 217 BIRCHFIEI.D ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL BIRCHFIELD ROAD COUNCIL SCHOOL GLASGOW I PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS BV ROHERT MACI.EHOSE AND CO. LTD. BOOKS ON HANDICRAFTS. The Teachers' Book of Constructive Work FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS BY ED. J. S. LAY HEAD MASTER OF THE CHADWELL COUNCIL SCHOOL, ILFORD Illustrated. Oblong 4/0. 3*. 6J. net. THE Teachers' Book contains forty-one full-page Illustrations produced from photographs of the real objects, all made by the children in one school. The book includes schemes of practical and suitable handicraft work, applied to and allied with the teaching of Arithmetic, History, Geography, Drawing, Nature Study, Needlework, and Clay, Paper, Cardboard, Wood and Floor Modelling. The Pupils' Books of Constructive Work BY ED. J. S. LAY HEAD MASTER OF THE CHADWELL COUNCIL SCHOOL, ILFORD Crown &z>0. Illustrated. THREE sets of Pupils' Books are published, each set consisting of three books, containing Constructive Work for the Upper, Middle, and Lower Divisions of a school. SET I. (Three Books) contains ample Constructive Work combined with Arithmetic, and Modelling in Paper, Cardboard and Wood. Book I., 4d. ; Cloth, 5d. Books II. and III., 5d. each; Cloth, 6d. each. SET II. (Three Books) contains Constructive Work combined with Geography and History. Book I., 4d. ; Cloth, 5d. ; Books II. and III., 50!. each; Cloth, 6d. each. SET III. (Three Books) is designed especially for Girls' and Mixed Schools, and contains Constructive Work combined with Arithmetic, and Needlework combined with Applique Work and Cardboard Modelling. Book I., 4d. ; Cloth, 5d. Books II. and III., 5d. each ; Cloth, 6d. each. Manual of Carpentry and Joinery. By J. W. RILEY. With 923 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 45. 6d. Manual Training : Woodwork. A Handbook for Teachers. By GEORGE RICKS. With 275 Illustrations. Crown 410. ys. 6d. The Grammar of Woodwork. A Graduated System of Manual Training for Elementary, Secondary and Technical Schools. Designed for the Pupils of the Whitechapel Craft School by WALTER E. DEGERDON. 4to. 33. Sewed. 25. Educational Woodworking for Home and School. By JOSEPH C. PARK. Illustrated. Globe 8vo. 45. 6d. net. Varied Occupations in Weaving and Cane and Straw Work. By LOUISA WALKER. Globe 8vo. 35. 6d. Varied Occupations in String Work. By LOUISA WALKER. Globe 8vo. 33. 6d. LONDON : MACMILLAN & CO., LTD. BOOKS ON HANDICRAFTS. The School Cookery Book. Compiled and Edited by C. E. GUTHRIE WRIGHT, Honorary Secretary to the Edinburgh School of Cookery. Pott 8vo. is. The School Cookery Book. For Use in Elementary Schools and Technical Classes. By MARY HARRISON. Globe 8vo. Sewed. 6d. The Middle-Class Cookery Book. Compiled for the Manchester School of Cookery. Pott Svo. is. 6d. First Lessons in the Principles of Cooking. By LADY BARKER. Pott Svo. is. Garment Construction in Schools. By ADA HICKS. Illustrated. 4to. 45. 6d. A Text-Book of Needlework, Knitting, and Cutting-Out, with Methods of Teaching. By ELIZABETH ROSKVEAR. With original illustrations and sectional diagrams. Crown Svo. 45. 6d. Needlework, Knitting, and Cutting -Out for Older Girls. By ELIZABETH ROSEVEAR. Globe Svo. Standard V., 8d. ; Standards VI., VII., and Ex-VIL, is. Manual of Dress-Cutting. By MADAME A. GUERRE. 410. Sewed. 6d. Practical Dressmaking for Students and Technical Classes. By Mrs. J. BROUGHTON. Crown Svo. 25. 6d. Cutting-Out and Dressmaking. From the French of Mile. E. GRAND'HOMME. Pott Svo. is. Dressmaking. A Technical Manual for Teachers. By Mrs. HENRY GRENFELL. Pott Svo. is. Principles and Practice of School Gardening. By ALEXANDER LOGAN. Illustrated. Crown Svo. 33. 6d. A Primer of Horticulture. By J. WRIGHT. Pott Svo. is. Garden Flowers and Plants. A Primer for Amateurs. By J. WRIGHT. Pott Svo. is. Greenhouse and Window Plants. By CHARLES COLLINS. Edited by J. WRIGHT. Pott Svo. is. Vegetable Culture. A Primer for Amateurs, Cottagers, and Allotment Holders. By A. DEAN, F.R.H.S. Edited by J. WRIGHT. Pott Svo. is. LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD. v -oo o THE " FEB 14 1933 Oct26'54B V 333906