\ University of California Berkeley ICfe LIFE AND RESOURCES AMERICA. PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION ARINORI MORI u For circulation in Japan. WASHINGTON, D. C. 1871. CONTENTS. 7S-6' Page Introduction, - 9 Official and Political Life, 15 Life among the Farmers and Planters. 45 Commercial Life and Developments, 93 Life among the Mechanics, - 125 Religious Life and Institutions, - 147 Life in the Factories, - 203 Educational Life and Institutions, - 237 Literary, Artistic, and Scientific Life, 269 Life among the Miners, - - 305 Life in the Army and Navy, - - 327 Life in the Leading Cities, - 347 Frontier Life and Developments, - 377 Judicial Life, - 389 Additional Notes, - - 401 PART FIRST. A PRELIMINARY NOTE. THE knowledge furnished by all the bet- ter qualified minds of the world, is a pow- erful element, rendering great service in the cause of humanity. It is often the case that enmity and bloodshed, are the consequence of storing up prejudices, re- sulting from the want of mutual knowledge of the parties engaged. The object of this publication, is not only to aid in removing those prejudices, but also to invite all the lovers of their race, in Japan, to join in the noble march of progress and human happiness. In view of the fact that many dates are mentioned in this volume, it has been found necessary, for the sake of convenience, to adopt the Western Calendar altogether, and it is hoped that this course will not lead to any embarrassment in the mind of the reader. ARINORI MORI. Washington City, U. S., September, 1871. Or, according to the Japanese Calendar, the Seventh month of the Fourth year of Mcidi. INTRODUCTION. BY the term America which appears on the title page of this book, we mean the United States of America. As we are writing for the information of a class of readers who have never visited this coun- try, we propose to speak in as simple and concise a manner as possible. What- ever statements of fact, we may make, shall be founded upon the public and other authentic records ; and in submitting any general observations, w T e shall endeavor to steer a middle course, and give only such opinions as are held in common by the people of the country. Before proceeding to the main object of this volume, however, we think it necessary to take a brief survey of the area and population of the United 10 INTRODUCTION. States, as follows. The total area of the Republic, which extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean, and excepting Alaska, lies wholly in the temperate zone, is about three million, eight hundred and thir- ty thousand square miles, an extent of sur- face larger than the whole of Europe; it has a coast line, including shores of bays, sounds and lakes, of 30,000 miles, of which 2,800 are on the Atlantic, 1,800 on the Pacific, and 2,000 on the gulf of Mexico; it is traversed from North to South by two great ranges of mountains called the Alleghany and Rocky mountains; its rivers are numer- ous, and among the largest in the world ; its lakes contain more than one half of the fresh water on the globe ; and its population, according to the census of 1870, is not far from thirty-nine millions, which is a considerable advance upon the population hitherto claimed for the empire of Japan. In the last 70 years, the increase has been about 33,000,000. Of these inhabitants it has been estimated that more than two- INTRODUCTION. 11 fifths of them are immigrants, or the descendants of immigrants from foreign countries. Great Britain and Ireland have contributed most largely to this immigra- tion, and the other countries which have helped to swell the population, are as follows, and we mention them in the order of their contribution, viz : Germany, France, Prussia, China, West Indies, Switzerland, Norway and Sweden, Holland, Mexico, Spain, Italy, Belgium, South-America, Denmark, Azores, Portugal, Sardinia, Poland and Russia, whose contribution was less than two thou- sand. Of this great mass of immigrants it has been ascertained that a very large proportion, have changed their circumstan- ces for the better. With regard to the Black race, who, prior to the year 1860, were in a state of bondage, but are. now free, they number nearly four millions and nine hundred thousand ; the half civilized Indian tribes, about twenty-six thousand, and the wild Indians have been estimated at three hundred thousand. In 1870 there 1 2 INTRODUCTION. were of Chinese 63,254, with whom were included 53 Japanese, but since then the latter have reached about 250 in number.* The public lands of the United States are so abundant, that every man who settles in the country, can afford, with careful management, to have a small farm for his exclusive benefit, as the price of land is generally so reasonable that it scarce- ly exceeds, and seldom equals, the rent payable in England. There is no descrip- tion of produce, European or Tropical, which may not be raised in the United States, and aside from its many other advantages, there is no other country which offers so many inducements to peo- ple in search of permanent and comfortable homes; and it is the present condition, of the people who enjoy this inheritance, with their manners and customs, that we propose to describe, in the following pages of this volume. * It must not be understood that all these foreigners have been naturalized. INTRODUCTION". 13 But, before concluding this introduction, it is important that two subjects should be mentioned for the special consideration of the Japanese people. While we entertain an exalted opinion of what is called a Re- publican form of Government, we confess that it is not without its disadvantages and dangers. For any foreign nation fully to understand them, must require time, and much careful study. The Japanese people have been somewhat fascinated by what they have seen of the American government and institutions, and it is of the utmost im- portance, that they should well consider the subject in all its bearings, before adopt- ing any of its features into their own form of government. The evils resulting from the misuse of freedom in America, are among the most difficult to correct or re- form, and ought to be carefully avoided. Another fact that should not be forgotten has reference to the educational qualifica- tions necessary to secure success in a Re- publican form of Government. It is un- }4 INTRODUCTION. doubtedly true that the best thinkers in America deplore the fact that the machina- tions of the politicians, have resulted in placing the United States in an unfortunate condition in this respect. It has been so profitable with designing and selfish men, to increase the number of voters, that they have secured the passage of laws which allow all men to vote in view of the single idea of personal freedom. This is undoubt- edly all wrong, and the evil effects of this state of things are being manifested every day. A prosperous, happy, and permanent Republican government can only be secured, when the people who live under it are vir- tuous and well educated. OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. As preliminary to this chapter, it would seem to be necessary that we should give an outline of the machinery of the Ameri- can Government. It is two-fold in its char- acter; first Federal, because it is made up of States, and second National, because it acts directly from the people. According to the Constitution, it is divided into three branches, viz : Executive, Legislative, and Judicial. The head of the Executive branch, or ruler of the Nation, is called the President, who is elected by the votes of the people for the term of four years, and is sometimes re-elected for an additional term of four years. He is also the Com- mander-in-Chief of the United States Navy and Army. The average cost of each elec- 16 OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. tion in money, has been estimated at two millions of dollars. His office is styled the Executive Mansion, and is identical with his official residence, the White House. He is obliged to be a native and citizen of the country, and thirty-five years of age, and his annual compensation is twenty-five thou- sand dollars. The second officer of the Government is called the Vice President, whose business is to preside over the Sen- ate. He is elected in the same manner as the President, and his salary is eight thou- sand dollars per annum. The Executive Departments of the Government are seven in number, viz : the Departments of State or Foreign Affairs, Treasury, Interior, Post Office, War, Navy, and of Justice. The heads of them are called Secretaries, and they form the Cabinet of the President. They each receive a salary of eight thou- sand dollars, and their jurisdiction, under the President, extends to all the subordinate officers of the Government, whether located in Washington or in the several States of OFFICIAL AXD POLITICAL LIFE. 17 the Union. The Judiciary of the country is vested in a Supreme Court, District Courts, and the Court of Claims ; the sala- ries of the Judges ranging from sixty-five hundred down to thirty-five hundred dol- lars per annum. The Legislative branch of the Government, consists of a Senate and House of Representatives, the Sena- tors, numbering seventy-four, elected for six years, and the Representatives, two hundred and forty-three, elected for two years, and their compensation is five thou- sand dollars per annum. The number of States which form the Union is thirty-seven, with ten Territories or incipient States, and their form of government is precisely simi- lar to that of the nation at large ; the lead- ing officers of each State or Territory bear- ing the titles of Governor and Lieutenant Governor. To the above may be added the municipal form of government for cities and towns, where the local authority is allied to that generally recognized in Europe, where the chief officers consist of Mayors and Al- 18 OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. dermen and their subordinates, although bearing different names, in different coun- tries. With these particulars before him, the reader will be able to comprehend the following observations. Although the real and official residence of the President is in Washington, the fashionable season, so- called, begins and ends with the sittings of Congress, beginning in December and last- ing from three to six months. The position occupied by officials under the Constitution, gives them necessarily a certain rank, ac- cording to the importance and nature of the office, the length of time, and the age, re- quired by law, of the incumbent. The house in which the President resides is the property of the Government; and to a great extent, his household expenses are paid by public appropriations. The title by which he is addressed in conversation is that of Mr. President, and every citizen of the Re- public, no matter how humble his position, has a right to visit the Executive in per- son. During the winter he holds public OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL, LIFE. 19 receptions as often as once a week, and on the Fourth of July, which is a National Holiday, and the First of January, he re- ceives, as a special mark of respect, the Di- plomatic Corps and the officers of the Army and Navy in full uniform, himself always appearing without any uniform. He ac- cepts no invitations to dinners, and makes no calls or visits of ceremony ; but is at liberty to visit without ceremony at his pleasure. State dinners are given by him quite frequently, and persons invited com- mit a breach of etiquette when they decline invitations. The rules of social intercourse which govern the Cabinet Ministers, are similar to those recognized by the President. As their tenure of office is limited, they have, in spite of themselves, a very busy time during their whole term of service : spending their days in dealing out patron- age, and their nights in giving or attending parties. Their families take the lead in fashion, and all American citizens have an undisputed right to attend their receptions, 20 OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. and after that public manner, to be fashion- able ; and as exclusiveness in the President or his ministers would be considered un- democratic, and therefore would not be tol- erated, there is no end to the so-called en- joyments of life. If a minister is rich and liberal, he becomes, for the time being, the biggest man of the hour, in spite of his politics ; if poor, and dependent only upon his salary, the fact of his having to occupy a hirge house, and to entertain the people, invariably sends him into retirement a poor- er man than he was before. With the Judges of the Supreme Court, these matters are somewhat different. They are the only dignitaries who hold office for life, and they can afford to do as they please, and gener- ally please to lead the quiet lives of culti- vated gentlemen. They go into society when the spirit moves them, are not disin- clined to partake of good dinners with their friends, a Foreign Envoy, or a Cabinet Min- ister, and perhaps the greatest of their blessings is, that they are not compelled to OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. 21 curry favor with the multitude. The next layer of Washington society, to which we would allude, is made up of the Heads of Bureaus and the Officers of the Army and Navy, their pay ranging from ten to two thousand dollars per annum. They are the men who more immediately manage the machinery of the Government,, and upon whom to a great extent depends the success of all the public measures enacted by Con- gress. Though generally well paid, many of them cannot afford to display much style although they live comfortably, and gener- ally, in their own houses, although many officials reside in boarding houses or hotels. The civil officers are but seldom appointed on their merits, but usually through politi- cal influence, and the party which happens to be in power, commonly claims all the patronage, and the most worthy and com- petent men, are often dismissed from office without a moment's warning. With the Military and Naval officers the case is some- what different, for though they may get 22 OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. into office through political influence, they are usually appointed for life, and are not removed without cause. After the above come the Clerks or employees of the Gov- ernment, which number several thousand in Washington alone. They are in reality the hardest working population of the Metrop- olis. Among them may be found men from every State in the Union, and from many foreign countries ; men of no particular mark, who have lost fortunes ; ripe scholars, who have been rudely bulfetted by the world ; men of capacity, who can teach their superiors in office ; rare penmen and common-place accountants ; and a sister- hood, composed chiefly of respectable wid- ows and orphans who have fled to the Gov- ernment for support. The custom of em- ploying women as clerks originated out of the disasters which followed the late war, and the number now employed by the Gov- ernment has already reached several thou- sand, and they have been found to be quite as useful as men clerks. Their compensa- OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. 23 tion ranges from nine hundred to twenty- five hundred dollars per annum, and while it is true that many receive more than they earn, because of their idle or inattentive habits, others find it difficult to secure a comfortable support. Occasionally, a man may be found who has grown gray in the public service and is an oracle, but the great majority are, in reality, a floating popula- tion. The comparative ease with which these Clerks earn their money, tends to make them improvident; many instances might be mentioned, however, where Clerks have left the Government service, and be- come distinguished as merchants or in some of the professions. For a totally different phase of Washington life, and the most in- fluential for evil or for good, we must turn to the brotherhood of Congressmen. Com- ing as they do from all parts of the country, and representing every variety of popula- tion, it is quite as impossible to speak of them collectively, as of their individual characteristics. Among them are to be 24 OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. found honest and able statesmen, but that a large proportion of them are mere time- serving politicians, is a fact that cannot be questioned. It is frequently the case that after a Congressman has ended his career as a legislator, he turns office-seeker, and many of them, without a knowledge of any language but their own are sent abroad as Diplomatic Ministers. Of these Congress- men, there have been not less than five thousand of them elected since the founda- tion of the Government; and the several political parties to which they have be- longed may be summed up as Federalists, Democrats, Whigs, Locofocos, Freesoilers, Abolitionists, Fire-eaters, Republicans, Cop- perheads, Native Americans, Secessionists and Radicals, forming in the aggregate a conglomeration of political ideas quite in keeping with the energetic and free spirit of the American people. Prior to the late civil war, colored men were not admitted to seats in Congress, but at the present time a few of them hold positions in both OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. 25 Houses of Congress, there being now no distinction recognized on account of color, so far as political rights are concerned. With regard to the permanent population of Washington little can be said of special interest. Occupying, as this city does, a position on the River Potomac, at the head of navigation, about midway between the Atlantic Ocean and the Alleghany Moun- tains, it was calculated to become a place of commercial importance. But this idea was not realized, and it became a metropol- itan city, chiefly dependent for its support upon the General Government. The local trade is measured by the wants of the pop- ulation, and there is nothing exported ex- cepting a limited amount of flour, and a considerable quantity of bituminous coal. The only particular, perhaps, in which the inhabitants differ from those of other Amer- ican cities, is in their free and easy manners, growing out of their intercourse and famil- iarity with people from all quarters of the globe, drawn hither by business or pleasure. 26 OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. With them, the dignitaries of the land, as well as ambassadors from abroad, are ap- preciated at their real value ; and a man, who towers as a giant in the rural districts, is very sure to be measured accurately in the Metropolis. But the most peculiar fea- ture of Washington society at the present time (1871) is, the position to which the colored or Negro population has attained. Before the late civil war, these unhappy people were in a state of bondage, and only enough of them were congregated in the Metropolis to supply the demand for house- hold servants. While the war was pro- gressing, which resulted in their emancipa- tion, large numbers fled to this city, as to a place of refuge, and here, a large propor- tion of them have continued to remain to the present time. They have been admit- ted to all the rights and privileges of citi- zenship; but, while the more intelligent have profited by their advantages, large numbers of them are content to idle away their time, or depend upon the authorities OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. 27 for support, and they constitute about one- third of the present population. They have not as yet been sufficiently educated to be received in society on the same footing with the white race, and the repugnance to re- ceiving them at the same table, or to inter- marrying with them, is as strong as in other times, quite universal, and will probably so continue. In the further prosecution of our plan, we must direct attention to that large mass of the community engaged in carrying on the business of the nation in the diverse regions of the United States. We begin with the Postmasters, one of whom is loca- ted in every city, town and village through- out the land, and the aggregate number of whom is about twenty-six thousand, exclu- sive of their numerous assistants. Their duties are, to receive and deliver all letters sent to their several Offices, and to look af- ter the prompt dispatch of the mails, by ships and railroads, by coaches and wagons, and on horseback, and their compensation 28 OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. ranges from six thousand dollars to a few dollars per annum. They are all appointed directly by the President, and hold office during his pleasure. Next to these come the custom-house officers, who, including all grades, number not less than five thou- sand employees ; after these, comes another large body whose business is to collect the Internal Revenue of the country ; and also a very extensive force engaged in carrying on the interests connected with the Public Lands, the Indian Tribes, and the Judicial business in the various States and Territo- ries, as well as those interests prosecuted under the authority of the Patent Office, the Pension Office and the Agricultural Department. Now, as the people here men- tioned, numbering in the gross not far from sixty thousand persons, obtain their posi- tions through political influence, it is natural that they should take a special interest in politics, and do their utmost for the success of the particular party to which they belong. Hence the great excitement which invaria- OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. 29 bly prevails at all the elections. As before intimated the President and Vice President are voted for once in every four years ; and the Representatives in Congress once in two years ; the Senators being chosen by the State Legislatures. It would appear therefore that as the people are intelligent and honest, so must be the office-holders ; but this is not always the case, because of the existence of what are called mere poli- ticians or demagogues. This class of citi- zens has greatly multiplied of late years, and it is safe to say that nearly all the troubles w r hich befall the country are the result of their petty schemes and selfish intrigues. There is not a village in the land where they do not congregate or pur- sue in secret their unpatriotic designs. Of course there are many exceptions to this state of things, but the rule is as we have stated it : and the evils resulting from the power thus obtained and prostituted, have come to be universally recognized and de- plored by the honest people of the land. 30 OFFICIAL ASD POLITICAL LIFE. The loss of dignity, and the decline in pub- lic morals on account of politics is, to-day, a source of mortification and alarm among the virtuous and patriotic citizens of the country. The philosophy of Government, is a subject to which the people of America have devoted but little attention, and very few books have been published on the sub- ject, and yet it is claimed that they are in advance of all other nations, in the practice of self-government. To what extent this is true, the present writer is not called upon to decide. It is too true, however, that the opinion is frequently expressed by for- eigners that the unbridled system of a Re- publican government leads to many political troubles. The two or three crowning fea- tures of the American Government would seem to be as follows : That the nation is a peculiar organism, having a life and destiny of its own, founded on the idea of humanity, and like the individual person, but in a more continuous degree ; that its authority to govern the people, is derived from their OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. 31 actual or implied assent; and that in assert- ing its prerogatives, it looks to the least possible interference with the free action of the individuals composing the community. This form of government involves the idea of contract, tacit or expressed, and no mat- ter how it may be carried out, must rest upon the understanding of the people, not only as to the end to be pursued, but also as to the methods. As one circle within another, so does the government of each State and Territory revolve within the cir- cle of the Union, and the State, county and town elections, for offices which are subject to State patronage, are precisely similar in character and results to the National elec- tions. While deprecating the abuses to which the American people are subject, on account of what is called universal suffrage, there are many social features which are to be highly commended, and are peculiar to the country ; among these is the absence of pauperism, and the universal respectability in personal appearance among all classes. 32 OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. This fact is apparent to all observers, and has been fully conceded by the best Eng- lish writers on this country. There is no beggary here except such as arises from profligacy or causes beyond the control of human nature. Another peculiar feature of American life is, the equal distribution of wealth, acknowledged as remarkably characteristic of the nation. In all the large cities and occasionally in the country, may be found a man possessing enormous wealth, but among the millions of our pop- ulation wealth is diffused, and there is a wonderful equality in the material condition of the population. Another phase of Amer- ican life, to which w T e have already alluded, and which has astonished the Governments of the Old World, is, the doctrine of Univer- sal Suffrage. It is this which lies at the basis of all her institutions, and it is this, more than anything else, taken in connec- tion with the super-abundant resources of the country, that tends to an equal distri- bution of wealth. It is not, as a noted OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. 33 English Statesman has said, so much a man's wealth, which the American people recognize, and to which they pay homage, as the energy and ability which may turn wealth to account. In theory, as well as in reality, they regard equality and broth- erhood as of the Essence of the Constitution under which they live, and of their social well-being and existence. As the official and political classes heretofore touched upon are either the law-makers of the land, or engaged in carrying out the laws, it may be well enough to notice their rights and privileges under those laws. While it is true that members of Congress, and some few dignitaries besides, are exempt from arrest for civil misdemeanors, when engaged in their public duties, all persons of every position are amenable to the criminal laws. A leading dignitary, when he violates the law, is as promptly brought to trial, as the humblest man in the community, but the misfortune is, that the influence possessed by the former is too apt to keep him from 34 OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. deserved punishment, while the latter is compelled to meet a less happy fate. The titles which accompany the possession of office, are of no special value, and, except in the Army and Navy, terminate with the office. At the same time it must not be supposed that the Americans are without the sentiments which grow out of associa- tion with old and honored families. In some parts of the country there is a very decided feeling of aristocracy, but it is pecu- liar to the regions which have been the longest settled. The privilege of receiving and sending letters free of postage, and without limit, is enjoyed only by the Pres- ident, his Cabinet, the heads of Bureaus and Congressmen ; under certain official re- strictions, the postmasters may frank their letters, but beyond that, all men in office have to pay postage like ordinary people. When a young man has determined to lead a political life, his first desire is, to be elec- ted to the State Legislature, then to become Governor of the State, and from that posi- OFFICIAL, AND POLITICAL LIFE. 35 tion he thinks himself entitled to go into the United States Senate, but there is no uniformity in these promotions. Generally speaking, the career of public men in this country, is measured more by their cunning or success in managing the people who have votes, rather than by their abilities. Nor does their political success depend upon their antecedents upon wealth or family position. Ten years before he became President, Ulysses S. Grant was a leather merchant; it was the boast of Andrew Johnson, the late President, that he had been bred a tailor; and of Abraham Lin- coln, that he had earned his living in early life as a common chopper of wood, or rail- splitter. The present Minister to England was once a tutor in an academy ; and the Ministers to France and Spain were both printers ; but at the same time it does occa- sionally happen in these latter days, as it fre- quently did in former times, that the diplo- matic representatives abroad have attained high positions notwithstanding the fact that 36 OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. they have been men of culture and quiet scholarship, as in the case of Motley and Bancroft the historians, and Marsh the dis- tinguished scholar and author. The pres- ent Secretary of the Treasury, was, for many years, a merchant's clerk ; and among the Senators and Representatives, are men who once sold dry goods for a living, or were engaged in various mechanical employ- ments, but who are not on those accounts, less esteemed than they would otherwise have been. But when a notorious gambler or profligate is elected to Congress, as has sometimes been the case, it must not be supposed that the American people are in- different to his antecedents. The most striking fact, perhaps, which can be men- tioned by way of illustrating the wonderful elasticity of the American Government is this, that among the Representatives now sitting in Congress and engaged in mould- ing the laws, are several persons, members of the Negro race, who were once slaves, employed upon plantations, both of which OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. 37 could alike, at one time, have been sold for a specific sum of money. Although there are many instances among the State Gov- ernors, where men have risen to eminence from obscurity, the people have generally been more careful in selecting their State executives, than in selecting their Congress- men ; and what we have said in regard to the changes effected by politics in the case of prominent officials, is equally true, in a less degree, of all the subordinate office- holders. And now the question arises, how about the servants of the public after they have been superseded in their official posi- tion ? It cannot be said that any of the Presidents have ever gone into any unbe- coming employment after leaving the Exec- utive Chair; but it is not uncommon for Ex-Congressmen and other ex-officials of the so-called higher grades, to go into all sorts of inappropriate employments, from a Government Clerkship to a Claim agency. The only one of the Presidents who con- sented to enter Congress after leaving the 38 OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. Executive Chair was John Quincy Adams, but his character stood so high as a man and a statesman, he could afford to do as he pleased, and to die, as he did, in the har- ness of public life. As before stated, the total number of men, who have served the country as law-makers, is about five thou- sand ; of these, the legal profession has sent the largest proportion ; the men of let- ters have numbered only one in every fifty : the eloquent speakers or orators of special note, have not been more than two hundred; less than one-half graduated at- learned in- stitutions: while the balance have been farmers and planters, merchants, and mem- bers of various professions. The total num- ber of men who have held Cabinet appoint- ments is one hundred and eighty-two, of whom one hundred and thirty-three have been Congressmen : of the forty-four Su- preme Court Judges, one half of them served in the Senate or House of Representatives : out of five hundred and twenty-seven for- eign Ministers, one hundred and seventy OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. 39 were members of Congress; and of the seven hundred and sixty-eight State and Territorial Governors, three hundred and forty-nine were Congressmen. The Treaty which has recently been made between the American and English Governments, con- summates a long-wished for condition of affairs, viz : a cordial good-will with all the great Powers of Europe Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Russia and Spain. It is claimed, indeed, by the best thinkers, that the American Government was never more powerful and influential for good than it is at the present time. Intercourse and trade between the two continents, over the Pacific Ocean, are growing rapidly. The friendship of Japan for the United States, and its thorough reciprocation on their part, are universally acknowledged. The latter seem to watch attentively the movements of England and other European Powers in the far East. And while the British Government may deem it wise to use force in its dealings with the Eastern 40 OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. nations, the American policy appears to adhere resolutely to the principles of peace, justice, and equal rights to all, notwith- standing the late unwarrantable operations of the American Navy on the coast of Corea. The changes for good that have taken place in Japan during the last few years, are a matter of wonder and satisfaction to the whole civilized world. The American peo- ple have been, since the memorable visit of Commodore Perry, taking great and spe- cial interest in the affairs of Japan. The President of the United States has justly echoed the prevailing sentiment among the Americans, when he said to the Prince Fushimi, member of one of the Imperial families of the Micado, that he had seen with pride, the young men of Japan com- ing over to receive their education, and that he would take the greatest pleasure in contriving to make their residence in this country, both agreeable and useful to them. There rests upon Japan a great hope, as well as high responsibility, for the success OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. 41 of bringing about a healthy and exemplary civilization, which must take the lead among all the Asiatic nations. P. S. In view of the changes which are constantly taking place among the officials of the American Government, to which al- lusion has been made in the foregoing pages, the writer must express an opinion. They are, beyond all question, a great disadvan- tage to the Republic. They naturally in- terfere with the proper and regular working of the machinery of the Government, and are the primary cause of the bitter political dissensions, which have long prevailed, and continue to prevail, among the American people. And what is more, they lead to all kinds of corruption ; and at the very time of our writing these lines, the people of New York are greatly convulsed over the discovery that the Treasury of the City and State has been robbed to the extent of many millions of dollars, growing directly out of the evils of office seeking, and rota- 42 OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. tion in office from party considerations. On the other hand, it must be confessed that where the people have it in their power, as in America, to regulate the conduct of the men they elect to office, so long as they are truly honest, they can always prevent a long continuance of the evils brought upon them by unscrupulous demagogues. Hence the great importance of their being both virtuous and truly patriotic. PART SECOND. LIFE AMONG THE FARMERS AND PLANTERS. IN the present paper, we propose to give a comprehensive account of the Agricultural population of the United States, and shall speak of Farm Life in New England, (the Eastern,) the Middle, and Western States ; and of Plantation Life in the Southern States. It is now generally acknowledged that the prosperity of America depends chiefly upon its Agriculture, and that it has come to be considered the granary of Eu- rope. The area of land susceptible of cul- tivation has been estimated to be about two thousand, two hundred and fifty mil- lions (2,250,000,000) of acres, more than half of which is owned by the Government, 46 LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. five hundred millions (500,000,000) having been surveyed and is now ready for occu- pation ; while the lands under cultivation amount to more than two hundred millions (200,000,000) of acres. It has also been estimated that seven-eighths of the entire population of the country are engaged in agricultural pursuits, or in the various pro- fessions and trades naturally dependent thereupon. The largest wheat crop ever produced in the States, was in 1869 when the yield amounted to two hundred and sixty-four millions (264,000,000) of bush- els, and as the average price was one dollar and forty cents ($1.40) the total cash value was not less than $369,600,000. The quantity of corn was 1,100,000,000 bush- els; Rye 22,000,000 ; Barley 28,000,000 ; Buckwheat 17,000,000 ; Oats 275,000,000, and Potatoes 111,000,001); Hay 22,000,- 000 tons ; Tobacco 310,000,000 pounds ; Cane Sugar 120,000,000 pounds and Cot- ton 1,767,000,000 pounds, valued at $147,- 380,000. And as to domestic animals, in- LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 47 eluding young cattle, horses, sheep and swine, their value was $978,872,785. With these few leading facts before him, the reader may obtain an approximate idea of the agricultural wealth of the country : and he must remember, that the very numerous unmentioned articles would swell the agricultural supplies to the extent of many additional millions. It is claimed by English fanners, that in some particu- lars, their method of farming is superior to that practised in this country, and that is undoubtedly true, but on the other hand it has been demonstrated, that the leading grains can be produced at a much lower cost in the United States than in England. As this is pre-eminently an agricultural coun- try, it follows that here the most numerous attempts to produce labor-saving implements have been directed to facilitate the labors of the farm. The extent to which new agricultural inventions have been patented, is so great, that in 1869, they reached the number of nineteen hundred (1900) and all 48 LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. of theta for saving muscular power on the farm, and in the household. A particular account of them is as follows : Churns and churning, 130; Corn-shellers and buskers, 40; Cultivators, 1 50 ; Diggers and spaders, 30 ; Fertilizers, 6 ; Forks (hay, manure, &c.,) 100 ; Harrows, drays and pulverizers, 80; Harvesters and attachments, 195; Hay-spreaders, 25; Hoes, 25; Mowing and reaping machines, 30; Planters, 150; Plows and attachments, 255 ; Pruning, 15 ; Rakes, 90; Seeding and sowing, 80 ; Sep- arators and smut-machines, 50 ; Straw, hay and fodder-cutters, 30; Threshing-machines, 35; and Yokes, 15. In the more settled parts of the country, the old-fashioned varieties of the hoe, the spade, and even the plough- share, are now looked upon as barbarous contrivances, and in their place the farmers use what are called Steam ploughs, the Rotary Spade, the Sulky plough, Horse Cultivators, Shovel-ploughs, as well as Reaping, Mowing and Threshing machines of many varieties. The improvements that LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 49 have been made in such tools as the shovel, spade, hoe and forks, are so great that they may almost be considered entirely new in- ventions. With regard to these and many other implements of husbandry in America, lightness, simplicity and comparative cheap- ness are absolute!}' essential to their per- fection. One of the effects, if not the most important, of these labor-saving machines has been, that, while one man has been kept in the field, three have been sent to the great towns to prosecute other enter- prises of profit, or have entered upon the cultivation of other farms. The organiza- tion of Agricultural Societies, which have done much to perfect the science of tilling the soil, was commenced shortly after the establishment of the Government in 1775, and their influence, in connection with an- nual fairs, has been wide-spread, and of the greatest advantage. There is not a State in the Union, which does not boast of one of them, organized for the benefit of all the inhabitants at large. Nor ought the fact 50 LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. to be forgotten, that there are already many Agricultural Colleges in the country, and that they are annually increasing in num- bers and influence. And then again, the agricultural periodicals are numerous and of high repute. But notwithstanding all these facts, ex- perienced men have expressed the opinion, that the condition of Agriculture in this country is not what might be desired. The great trouble is, the want of proper method. The art is as yet imperfectly known and practised, and the American system is full of deficiencies. The domain of the United States, embraces soil capable of yielding the richest and most varied productions, in the greatest abundance ; and it is a pecu- liar feature of the country, that all the lands which have been sold by the Government, or are still owned by the same, are surveyed upon a system of squares and divided into townships of six miles square, sub-divided into sections and quarter sections, whereby the farms are generally regular in shape, LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 51 and disputes are avoided in regard to boun- dary lines. The lands belonging to the Government are sold at the uniform price of one dollar and a quarter ($1.25) per acre, so that for one hundred dollars, a new set- ler can receive a farm of eighty acres ; but under existing laws, a foreigner, if of age, and intending to become a citizen, obtains a homestead substantially as a free gift. The total quantity of land owned by the Government was 1,834,968,400 acres; of which 447,266,190 acres have been sold ; and the amount now for sale is 1,387,732,- 209 acres. That the National Government takes a deep interest in the welfare of the Agricultural population is proven by the fact, that a Department of Agriculture exists in Washington, which annually publishes a very valuable volume of miscellaneous in- formation, and supplies seeds and cuttings for all who may apply for them, while the Postal laws of the country allow their trans- portation through the mails free of expense ; the same laws making only a small charge 52 LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. for the exchange of seeds, cuttings and plants between private parties ; but more than all that, the National Government has recently made a grant of seven millions (7,000,000.) of acres of land for the benefit of Agricultural Colleges, and propositions are now pending for giving away nearly twenty million (20,000,000) acres of land for objects directly or indirectly connected with the farming population of the Repub- lic. The total number of farms in the Uni- ted States is about three millions, which gives a farm for every thirteen of the en- tire population ; and the largest proportion of these farms range from twenty to one hundred acres. And now we propose to give a descrip- tion in general terms of Farm Life in the New England States, (the six Eastern States.) viz : Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Vermont, Connecticut and Rhode Island. In this region the farms are almost universally small, ranging from ten to one hundred acres, and stone fences LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 53 predominate above all other kinds. The Agricultural season is short, winter lasting through half the year. No verdure but that of evergreens resists the annual cold, and an unmelted mass of snow covers the ground for months. The soils, excepting in the more extensive valleys are poor and rocky, and aside from those farms which are given up chiefly to the grazing of cattle or the production of hay, the products of the earth are only obtained by the severest kind of labor. Along the sea shore, kelp and fish are popular manures, but in the in- terior, guano, calcareous manures, and the yield of the barn yards are employed. The owner is, himself, the foremost workman, and his sons, his principal assistants : and all household matters are performed by the females of the family. The farmers live in comfortable frame houses, very frequently surrounded with flowers, use both coal and wood for fuel, and are noted for their fru- gality and neatness. Their barns are spa- cious and substantial. They produce noth- 54 LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. ing for exportation, but a greater variety of crops than the more extensive farmers, and are quite content if they can obtain a plain, comfortable support. In Vermont, the raising of superior breeds of horses has been a specialty, but for farm work, oxen are more popular than horses. If the far- mers happen to have a small surplus of any commodity, they dispose of it in a neigh- boring town ; and thus provide themselves with luxuries, or put aside a little money for a rainy day. In some localities Agri- culture is often joined to other employments such as fishing and shoemaking. The far- mers in New England, as well as through- out the country, are generally a reading people, and profit somewhat by the published theories on the science of Agriculture. Their children have access to the country schools, but the sons are often obliged to help their parents in the field during the vernal months, so that their principal time for study is in the winter. They are a church-going people, and to the extent of LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 55 their means, liberal in furthering the cause to which they may be attached. They take an interest in politics, and are decided in their opinions. They are social in their dispositions, fond of visiting their friends, and on winter evenings, have what they call apple-paring, and bed-quilting frolics, when their homes are cheered by such refresh- ments as mince and pumpkin pies, as well as cider, walnuts and apples. Their amuse- ments are as various as their tastes, but the perpetual struggle with mother earth, for the means of living, makes them careful of their time, and is apt to induce and keep alive the most serious views of life. On farms lying in the vicinity of villages, it is often the case, that certain members of the family obtain positions in the factories or other manufacturing establishments, where- by they are enabled to increase their means of support. As soon as the boys attain the age of manhood, they find their fields of operation circumscribed, and leaving the paternal roof, wander forth into the world 56 LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. to make their own fortunes : some of them to the turmoil and strife of the large cities, and others to the more inviting regions of the great, and not yet fully developed West. In New England, farm life is to-day, very much what it was a generation ago ; and from the very nature of the cold and bar- ren soil, will so continue without any marked progress. The farmers have done their best, in fact all that could be done ; every- thing is finished and they are contented. It is not that the spirit of competition has died out there. That the Agricultural in- terests of New England have reached and passed the period of culmination is undoubt- edly true. The farmers of this region are more truly the yeomanry of the land, than any other class, and a large proportion of them are natives of the soil they now culti- vate, and like the venerable oaks and elms, which adorn many of their farms, they are content to live in the present as in the past, hoping that any family offshoots that may have been planted in more congenial and LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 57 productive soils will be, as they have been in unnumbered instances, a blessing to their descendents. We now pass over into what are called the four Middle States of the Union, viz : New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Delaware, where we shall find a somewhat different condition of affairs, but with the stamp of New England manners and cus- toms everywhere visible. There the aver- age size of farms is between one hundred and one hundred and fifty acres, and gener- ally speaking, the soil is productive. The fences are usually made of rails, and every variety of manure is employed. If not rich, the farmers are in easy circumstances, and count upon annually laying up something handsome in the way of profits. Though well posted in their business, by years of practical experience, they employ a needed supply of hands, who do most of the hard work, while their own time is occupied with the lighter duties of the farm and a general supervision of affairs. Their houses 58 LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. are comfortable and often elegant, and afford ample accommodation for the proprietor, his family and his assistants. While those of New York, where the native American ele- ment prevails, fare sumptuously on the food of their own raising, and have become cele- brated for their superior butter and cheese, the farmers of Dutch descent, located in Pennsylvania are charged with never eat- ing what might be readily sold at the near- est market. It is to the credit of these farmers, that their barns are unequalled in this country, oftentimes better than the houses they live in, and that with them, the profits of their style of farming are always satisfactory. With regard to the cheese business, it has come to be so ex- tensive, that we may allude to it more par- ticularly. The entire produce of last year was about one hundred millions of pounds, three-fourths of which was made in the Middle States, but the largest amount in New York. From time immemorial the Dutch have LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 59 had control of this business, but the exports from this country are now about double of the exports from Holland. Formerly it was the custom of the farmers to make cheese upon their respective farms, but it is now made in regularly established factories, which are supported by the farmers located in their vicinity. The total number of these factories now flourishing in this country is thirteen hundred, and they are supplied with milk from not less than three hundred thousand cows. In New Jersey and Dela- ware and on Long Island, where the chief attention is devoted to fruits and vegetables and where are to be found the most beau- tiful gardens in the country, the hired hands are more numerous than elsewhere, in pro- portion to the size of the farms or gardens, but their positions are not so permanent. Various kinds of berries are here raised in the greatest abundance, and the surplus hands left unemployed after the annual gatherings have to seek other employment. In the great majority of cases, the pro- 60 LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. prietor joins his hired men in the work to be done, whether in casting the seed, driv- ing the machinery employed, or gathering in the harvests ; they all occupy the same platform as citizens, whether naturalized, or natives of the country ; free access to schools and churches is enjoyed by all without re- gard to family or fortune ; and the man who is w r orking to-day as a hired hand, knows full well, that if he continues to be true to himself and his opportunities, he will yet be respected as a proprietor. By means of newspapers and books, they keep up with the spirit of the age ; and, though generally disinclined to participate in the partizan squabbles of the day, they are by no means indifferent to the welfare of the country, and are frequently called upon to fill offices of trust and honor. They rise early, eat a frugal meal at noon, and retire at the coming on of darkness, excepting in the winter, which is their time for visiting and home enjoyments, and this is true of the farming classes generally throughout the LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 61 country. What are called fancy-farmers are probably more numerous in the Middle States than in any other region, but these men are apt to spend more money than they make ; and an idea of the wealth which some of them attain, may be gathered from the fact that there is one family in the val- ley of the Genessee in New York, who own not less than thirty thousand acres of land, and all of it in the highest state of cultiva- tion. It is this class of the more wealthy farmers residing in all the States, who great- ly benefit the country by introducing the best kinds of stock from foreign countries, who have been known to pay twenty thou- sand dollars for a single stallion (horse.) two or three thousand for a heifer, a ram, or a bull, or one hundred dollars for a trio of fowls, consisting of one male and two fe- males. It was one of these extensive far- mers who inaugurated the plan of issuing printed cards with the following regulations for the guidance of his men. " Regularity in hours. Punctuality in cleaning and put- 62 LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. ting away implements. Humanity to all the animals. Neatness and cleanliness in personal appearance. Decency in deport- ment and conversation. Obedience to the proprietor, and ambition to excel in farm- ing." Extensive and various as are the farming interests of the Middle States, and so great are the temptations to go farther west, the demand for farm hands and female servants is always equal to the supply, and while the men receive from fifteen to thirty dollars per month with board, the women receive from eight to fifteen dollars per month for home work, and of these, by far the largest proportion are from England, Ireland and Germany. The secret of the unparalleled growth, and the daily increas- ing power of the United States, is, that the Government in its practical working, is con- fined to the narrowest limits, that it is the Agent, not the Master of the people, and that the latter initiate all changes in its political and social life. It is therefore the condition of the success of a settlement that LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 63 the immigrant relies on his own strength, acts on his own responsibility, and seeks by his own efforts the prosperity which he is sure to find if undisturbed. In spite of obstacles and disappointments, he will make his way and ultimately attain his objects. In the States now under consideration, as well as in all the States of the Union, ex- cepting New York and a few others, a mar- ried woman may not convey her separate real estate, except in a joint deed with her husband, and yet in most of the States, the separate property of the wife is recognized. There is no imprisonment for debt in any part of the Republic ; and, when a farmer has become involved, (in more than half the States,) his homestead is exempt from execution ; and in all of them household furniture to the extent of five hundred dol- lars, wearing apparel, tools and books neces- sary to carry on business, one to five cows, one yoke of oxen, ten sheep, carts and farm- ing implements ; and the uniform and arms of any man who is or has been in the pub- 64 LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. He service, are also exempt from the grasp of the creditor. When the head of a family dies, without making a will, his property is equally divided among his children or their offspring, and when there are no lineal de- scendants, the estate goes to the next of kin. The next division of farm life we have to consider, is that of the Western States. Of these there are sixteen in all, thirteen in the valley of the Mississippi river, and three on the Pacific Ocean. Their extent is so immense, and their products so numer- ous, that it is difficult for the mind to com- prehend their importance and influence. Four of them were, until recently, classed among the Slave States, and because the system of slave labor therein has become greatly modified by free labor, they can hardly be, with propriety, embraced in our present review. Asa wheat-producing re- gion, the Western States have progressed in a manner perfectly amazing, until they now stand unsurpassed by any other region LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 65 of like extent in the world. Although the population has increased about fifty per cent, in the last twenty years, the increase of produce has greatly exceeded that of population. But the relative value of all the other cereals, and other farm produc- tions in these States is quite as extensive and remarkable as that of wheat. That the people who are annually bringing out of the soil such immense wealth, are wide- awake and industrious is self-evident. Gen- erally speaking the farms are much larger than those in the Middle States, and the farm hands very much more numerous. Very many of the farmers with whom we come in contact, seem to have settled in the country with limited means. Some bought land, with no more money than would pay the first instalment on it, and had to work for others to make money to pay the other instalments as they came due. They are able, in this way, in a few years to settle down and cultivate their own soil : and this method of operating is in progress to-day. 66 LTFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. When farms are rented, which is often done, the system adopted is ns follows. If the tenant is not able to provide stock, imple- ments and seed, the proprietor supplies him with all these and then allows him one-third of the grain crops. In this way many a man works himself into a farm of his own. The ordinary rate of interest on borrowed money is ten per cent., but even at this high rate it usually pays a farmer well, and there is every facility given to respectable and industrious men. There are often cul- tivated farms in the market for sale, but persons desiring to purchase cannot always be present; and in buying second hand farms, it is well to be certain, that it has not been previously mortgaged. As is the case in all other branches of business, the man who has the best capacity is likely to be the most successful, and the operations of some of the more famous farmers in the West sound more like romance than reality. For example, there was lately one farm in Illinois which contained about forty thou- LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 67 sand acres, with one pasture Geld of eight thousand acres : its chief production was corn, all of which was consumed upon the farm itself; but in one year the proprietor sent to New York City, cattle enough to bring seventy thousand dollars, while his home stock was valued at one million of dollars ; and yet the man lived in a small house, in the most simple and unpretending style, and habitually sat down at the same table with his hired men. But the farming ex- ploits of this man, were eclipsed subse- quently, by those of another who is now carrying on a farm of fifty thousand acres. With regard to another of the model farms of Illinois, we may state, that it contains thirty-six thousand acres, and last year had one corn field of five thousand five hundred acres yielding two hundred and twenty thousand bushels, three thousand tons of hay, four thousand head of cattle, and gave employment to eighty-five plows, fifteen planting machines and fifteen mow- ing machines. The he^e fencing on this 68 LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. farm measures about one hundred and thirty miles, and contains also about eighty miles of board fencing. There is however still another farm, located in Illinois, which ought to be mentioned in this place, as it is reputed to be one of the most extensive and successful in the world. It is called the Burr Oak Farm and is owned by a man named Sullivant. It embraces sixty-five square miles ; and although the owner com- menced work upon it only four years ago, he has at the present time, growing upon it not less than eleven thousand acres of corn, and five thousand acres besides, planted in miscellaneous crops. The hedges which cross, re-cross and surround the farm, meas- ure three hundred miles, the board fences six miles and the ditches one hundred and fifty miles. The working men employed on this farm are mostly Swedes and Ger- mans, number two hundred and fifty, and are constantly employed from the first of April to the first of January. They work ten hours per day, report to the proprietor LIFE AMONG FAEMERS AND PLANTERS. 69 every evening, and are not allowed the use of any intoxicating drinks. The working animals of the farm consist of three hundred and fifty mules, fifty horses and fifty yoke of oxen, and it is amply supplied with the ordi- nary stock of an extensive farm ; and the leading machinery employed consists of one hundred and fifty steel plows, seventy-five breaking plows ; one hundred and forty-two cultivators ; forty-five corn planters, and twenty-five harrows ; and it has one ditch- ing plow which is drawn by sixty-eight oxen and managed by eight men. The house in which the proprietor resides is a common wooden structure, comfortable, but without the least pretention. It will be understood of course, that farms of this extent are not found in every county or State ; but they give us an idea of the spirit that animates the farming fraternity generally. Let us now on the other hand, look at the operations of one or two small farmers in Illinois. One man, for example purchased eighty acres of prairie land for $360. Spent $500 on 70 LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. improvements, his crops for the first year brought him over $1,500, and at the close of the third year, his form was sold for $2,000. Another man with a capital of only $700, bought one hundred and sixty acres : his annual produce for six years was $2,000, at the end of which time he was worth about ten thousand dollars. And such instances as the above have occurred by the thousand in the great West. As we glance over the immense number of farmers who are toiling throughout the Western States, it is quite impossible to depict their manners and customs with any- thing like accuracy. So many are the nat- ionalities which compose the great mass of inhabitants, the mere mention of these is indeed a kind of description. In Illinois and Ohio, the Germans, Irish and English are about equally divided ; in Wisconsin the English and Germans predominate ; and Missouri is most extensively settled by the Germans. In the States bordering on the Great Lakes and the Upper Mississippi LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 71 several Scandinavian colonies have been established ; and there has been a consider- able immigration of Chinese into California, but this latter class has not manifested any strong predisposition for Agricultural pur- suits. The great variety of nationalities which sometimes congregate in one region was strickingly exemplified a few years ago when the State of Wisconsin was obliged to publish its Governor's message in not less than eight languages. The amount of money sent across the ocean by immigrants, to friends left behind, principally to pay their passage to America, is surprising. From the official returns of Emigration Com- missioners of England, it appears that in 1870 there were sent from this country to Ireland, principally, $3,630,040 in gold, of which 1,663,190, was for pre-paid passage. In the twenty-three years from 1848 to 1870 the amount of money sent was $81,670,000 in gold, being an average of about $3,889,- 047 yearly. But this amount is probably somewhat below the actual amount, as 72 LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. it only includes what has been sent through banks and commercial houses. And these sums, large as they are, are made up by careful savings from the wages of servant girls and farm laborers. In California, Missouri and Ohio, the grape has been so extensively cultivated as to give them the reputation of being the Wine producing regions of the United States ; and among their vineyards we find many of the habits prevailing which are common to the wine districts of Europe. In California a farm is called a Ranch, and one of the most noted ones in that State may be described as fol- lows. It contains eighteen thousand (18,- 000) acres ; and last year sixteen hun- dred (1600) acres were devoted to wheat, eight hundred (800) to barley, two hundred (200) to oats, two hundred (200) to meadow, and about fifteen thousand (15,000) acres to orchards, vineyards and pasturage. The fruit trees number eight thousand (8000,) the grape-vines fifty thousand (50,000) ; and the live stock consists of two hundred LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 73 (200) horses, one thousand (1000) head of cattle, three thousand (3000) sheep and two thousand (2000) swine; and the entire domain is surrounded with good fences. From the above and other facts already narrated, it will be seen that the United States are supplied with all kinds of farm- ers; some cultivating their thousands of acres, and others their half dozen ; and yet they all seem to live comfortably, and the great majority are independent. And there are numerous instances of American women who have been, and are to-day, quite suc- cessful in the management of farms ; and what will be the result of the extensive emigration from China to this country now going on, is a problem, which can only be settled by the future. Our next subject for consideration is the Plantation Life of the Southern States. Only about six years have now passed away, since the close of the civil war, which re- sulted in the emancipation of more than four millions of slaves, and a glance at the 74 LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. condition of the South, before that great event, would seem to be necessary. In 1860 there were fifteen States in which Slavery existed, and all of them, excepting five, made war upon the General Govern- ment four of them having already been mentioned, as among the Western States. They contained a population of 4,334,250, of whom only 383,637 were Slave owners. The number of Plantations under cultiva- tion was estimated at seven hundred and sixty-five thousand, comprehending about seventy-five millions of acres : and as to the cotton and sugar, rice, wheat, corn, and live-stock, which were produced upon them, they can only be appreciated by consulting the publications of the Census Office. The planter was the owner, not only of broad acres, almost without number, but also of, from ten to one thousand menials or slaves, whom he fed and clothed for his own exclu- sive profit, and who. for the most part, did his bidding without a murmur or thought beyond the passing hour. He lived at his LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 75 ease among books and in the dispensation of a liberal hospitality, leaving all the labor on his plantation to the direction of an over- seer, who spent most of his time on horse- back, issuing orders to the working men and women, and watching the regular pro- gress of affairs. According to his wealth, the planter lived in a house, or an elegant mansion, while his slaves were domiciled in rude but comfortable cabins. They re- ceived a supply of provisions, but no com- pensation in money; although it was cus- tomary to allow them the use of a patch of ground for their own benefit, and a fragment of time out of each day or week to cultivate it. But all this is now changed : Slave labor has no existence on the soil of the United States: and the opinion is universal that the suppression of slave labor will ulti- mately add greatly to the national advance- ment of all the States in which it formerly existed. Among the results following the late rebellion, was the fact, that much of the property in the Southern States passed 76 LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. into new hands. Many old plantations were abandoned by their owners and have never been reclaimed, others have been con- fiscated, and others sold at a ruinous sacri- fice. Many of the soldiers, who went South, who had been raised among the rocky hills of the North, became in love with the rich and beautiful fields and val- leys of the South, and thousands resolved to settle in the new country. '1 hey married Southern women, formed new alliances and associations, and have opened up a new ca- reer for the South which is rapidly becom- ing more and more salutary in its influences. The great landed estates which have been cut up, may be purchased by all new com- ers, at a very small cost, while the black race to a great extent have settled upon small patches of land, where they can main- tain themselves in comfort and enjoy an in- dependence of thought and feeling which they did not know under the old order of things. Whole plantations have been set- tled by families, of owners, who were form- LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 77 erly slaves upon the same estates. Men who were formerly overseers or superin- tendents, are themselves settling down upon their own newly acquired farms. Although attempts to obtain laborers from China and Sweden have been made, the principal cul- tivators of the Southern' States are the Freedmen : who, indolent by nature, do as little work as possible, will not hire out for more than a single year, and one of the re- sults of their freedom is, that they will not let their wives work as in the olden times. To retain their services, the planter is obliged to praise and humor them in many ways. The terms upon which the negroes are hired is generally to let them have one- half of what they produce, but when sup- ported by the planter they receive but one quarter of what they produce. When the planters are attentive to their business they almost invariably succeed, and when un- successful as farmers, they are apt to help their pockets by keeping small country stores, and in all the towns are located men 78 LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. who are called warehouse-men, whose busi- ness is to receive, store and sell all the cot- ton or other produce which may be con- signed to their care. What the people of the South now need is help not lands ; and in many of the most fertile regions, every inducement is thrown out to invite emigration from the North. But, after all, it is idle to suppose, that the griefs, the passions and animosities engendered by the late rebellion, will die out while the present generation survives. Too many brave men have perished, too many homes made deso- late, too many families broken up and re- duced to beggary, to expect anything of that sort. Men whom it has impoverished will live and die poor, remembering con- stantly, the cause of their poverty. Widows will long mourn over husbands, children over fathers, slain in battle. A new and happier era is in store for the rising genera- tion ; but its advance will be slow. The people of the North and of the South, it is fondly hoped and believed, will again be- LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 79 come a happy, a united, and prosperous people ! united in interests, in pursuits, in intelligence, and in patriotic devotion to their united country. Of all the products grown in the Southern States the most important and universal is Cotton, and it has been asserted that it was this single commodity which prevented that portion of the Union from relapsing into abject poverty. Everything was sacrificed to Slavery, and Slavery sacrificed every- thing to itself; and as there were not slaves enough to cultivate the soil as it needed, cotton raising was all that saved the coun- try. The principal States where cotton is now grown are Mississippi, Alabama, Lou- isiana, Georgia, Texas, and Arkansas, and in all of them, efforts are being made for the introduction of Chinese labor. The cultivation of rice is limited to three States, South Carolina, Georgia and Louisiana : Sugar cane and its products, in the way of Sugar and Molasses, to Louisiana : In Florida considerable attention is paid to the 80 LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. cultivation of oranges, lemons, and other tropical fruits : Wheat and tobacco have occupied the chief attention of farmers in Virginia and the neighboring States of Tennessee and Kentucky : North Carolina has acquired a reputation for its sweet po- tatoes and ground nuts. Indian Corn is an important product in all the Southern States : while the mountain lands, which in all directions are covered with grass as well as extensive forests, are devoted to the grazing of cattle in great numbers, where they flourish throughout the year without shelter or any special care. In all the States lying directly on the gulf of Mexico the climate is mild, the winters short, open, and delightful, and farm work can be done every month in the year. They begin there to make their gardens in December, and until the following December there is a continuous succession of crops. The peo- ple live easily and produce more for the same amount of labor than in any of the Northern States. Lands are cheap and LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 81 may often be paid for by a single crop. The timber is everywhere magnificent, and the lands are irrigated by numerous streams, and adapted to an unlimited variety of pro- ducts. And for the raising of cattle there is not a region probably, in the world, bet- ter suited for that purpose than the exten- sive State of Texas. In some localities, the cattle maybe counted by the thousand, and it is an amazing fact that droves of them are annually sent by the Stock-raisers as far off as California ; and Texas cattle have even been butchered in the city of New York, and even cargoes of Texas beef have been shipped in ice to Philadelphia. From ten to twelve men are required for a herd of a thousand cattle, with two horses or mules to each man, for day and night duty, the cattle needing to be herded at night to prevent stampedes. For those who have never witnessed its operations, it is difficult to realize the extent of this cattle traffic, and it is sometimes the case that the whole earth seems to bo covered with the 82 LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. herds, as far as the eye can reach over the vast prairies. The class of people common- ly known as the "Texas Cow-boys" are indeed a power in the land, whose exploits and lives of adventure are more like romance than reality. And here, in passing, we may with propriety devote a paragraph to the various modes employed by farmers in Fenc- ing. In those regions where loose rocks are abundant, stone walls are almost universal: where both stone and wood are scarce, they have a fashion of planting trees and shrub- bery : as a matter of taste, wire fences are occasionally employed. In all localities where wood is abundant, they make what are called post and rail and worm fences. It is said that the fences of New York have cost $144,000,000, those of Pennsylvania $120,000,000, Ohio $115,000,000, and South Carolina $20,000,000, while the fences of the whole Union are estimated at $1,300,000,000. These figures are enor- mous, but they tend to exhibit the extent of the farming interests of America. LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 83 Having now taken a general survey of the Agricultural population of America, we shall conclude what we have to say, with a few remarks on their manners and customs, as exemplified by certain amuse- ments, which are for the most, peculiar to this country. And first, as to the Sugar-Making Frolics. In various parts of the Union, large quantities of sugar are an- nually made from the sap of the Maple tree. The moment winter breaks, and the sap begins to ascend in the spring, the trees are tapped, and the liquid thus obtained is boiled down until it becomes a rich syrup or gran- ulated sugar. All this takes place in the dense woods, and most of the work is per- formed at night. At the close of the sea- son the farmers invite their friends and neighbors to a kind of jubilee which is held in the sugar camps, and where, with sump- tuous fare, followed by music and dancing, the entire night is given to enjoyment ; and when the last cauldron of sugar has been made, and daylight has appeared, the com- 84 LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. pany is dispersed, and the sugar utensils are packed away until the coming of another season. Corresponding to the above, in most of the corn-growing regions they have what are called " Corn Hustings" This entertainment occurs when a farmer is anx- ious to prepare for market an unusual quan- tity of the yellow maize ; and in the North or West, when the young men and country lasses have met, they are piloted to the spacious and sweet-smelling barn, and for a stated time all work without ceas'ing, un- til the allotted task is performed ; an ad- journment then takes place to the farm house, where feasting and dancing continue all the night long. When this frolic occurs in the South, the colored people there do the work, and enjoy themselves in their own rude, but amusing ways, while the white people for whom they may happen to be working, act as the hosts, content to enjoy the laughable scenes brought to view. In the New England States, especially those regions bordering on the Sea, they have LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 85 what are called " Clam Bakes." These are usually attended by men only, who con- gregate from various quarters ; for the pur- pose of exchanging political opinions, and having a systematic good time, when speeches are delivered, and large quantities of cheering beverages are imbibed, as well as Clams eaten, after a primitive fashion. The shell fish are roasted in an open field and duly prepared with the desired condi- ments. These affairs take place in the sum- mer after the leading harvests have been gathered in. In the Southern States, cer- tain festivals are common, but more so be- fore the late war than now, which are known as " Barbecues." They are political, and sometimes bring together very large numbers of the planters and their families, and the time is generally devoted to speech- making, happily varied by eating and drink- ing the good things of the land. The prin- cipal food on these occasions, consists of beef or mutton, and the oxen or sheep are roasted entire, over a pit duly prepared and 86 UFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. filled with burning coals. The cooks and caterers are generally negro men and wo- men, and as they have the privilege of in- viting their own friends, the groves where they assemble present a varied and fantastic scene. The young people have it all their own way. and there is no end to the variety of their amusements. Another rural cus- tom is known as a " House-Raising!' This occurs after some farmer has prepared his timber for a new house or barn, when he invites his friends and neighbors to come and help him to lift the timbers and cross pieces into their proper places. This invi- tation is always cheerfully accepted, and most of the time is devoted to downright hard work. But after the task has been accomplished the men have a substantial feast and a good long talk about their farms, their crops and cattle, and commonly sepa- rate with a warm brotherly feeling for each other and for their fellow-men everywhere. In some of the fruit-growing regions, large quantities of apples are stripped of their LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 87 skins, cut into quarter pieces, and hung up to dry for winter use, and in that condition become a source of revenue. Out of this variety of business has grown an Autum- nal festival called an "Apple-Paring." This takes place in the evening, the guests are invited as to an ordinary party, and after a few hours attention to business, the night is given up to feasting and dancing, or the playing of innocent games by the young people who compose the majority. Ball- playing and Sleigh-riding, are two other pas- times in which the Americans indulge w;th rare gusto. By the rural population Satur- day afternoon is usually assigned to the former, on which occasions the young men are as active and expert in throwing and catching, or striking the ball, as if they had been idle all the previous week instead of having had to work in the fields with the utmost energy. Sleigh-riding of course takes place in the winter only, when the ground is covered with snow, and then it is that the young farmers bring out their best 88 LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. horses, fill their Sleighs with lady friends , enveloped in gaily trimmed furs, and to the exhilirating music of the bells, start off on all sorts of expeditions over the neighbor- ing country. From time immemorial it has been the custom among the negroes of the South to devote the last week of the year commonly called Christmas Holidays to every variety of amusement. When slav- ery existed, those prolonged festivities were freely accorded to the slaves, and were full of romantic interest ; but now that they are free, the colored people claim their old privilege as a right, but do not find the same unalloyed enjoyment as of old in their annual frolic. They have not as yet ar- rived at that stage, when they can enjoy the blessing of supporting themselves. About the close of the year they have in various parts of the country what they call "Shooting Matches!'' These are of two kinds, one where turkeys and other birds are tied to a stake, and made a target for men who like to shoot the rifle, and exper- LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 89 ienced shots sometimes win a sufficient quantity of large poultry to supply all their friends. Another kind of match is, when two parties pit themselves against each other, and go upon a hunt for a day or a week, for squirrels or birds of game, when the victors are rewarded with a prize of some kind, paid for by the losing party. And then they have throughout the country such rural jollifications as Sheep-Shearing, Ploughing Matches, and, to the discredit of the participants, Cock-Fightings, which need not be described. But of all rural assemblages none are so generally popular as Country Fairs. They occur in the Autumn in numerous localities, and bring together thousands of the Agricultural population. The first Agricultural fair ever organized in this country by any of the colored popu- lation, was recently carried through with success in the State of Kentucky. Farm products, animals and country fabrics are exhibited to a marvellous extent, in many of these fairs. All sorts of friendly compe- 90 LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. titions are entered into, arid Horse-racing, has become an important adjunct to all these Fairs, whether patronized by the State at large, or confined to the counties where they are held. But the crowning custom, and the one most universally recognized by the American people, is, the celebration of what is known as Thanksgiving Day. It is an annual festival honored by proclamations from the President, and the local Governors, who specify the particular day ; and of all places to enjoy it, none can be compared to the house of a successful farmer. The prim- ary object of this festival is to recognize the goodness of the Almighty in crowning the labors of the field with prosperity, and the occasion is made especially joyous by the gathering together, under one roof, all the scattered members of the family in the old home. There are some other rural customs, which might be mentioned in this place, but as they are of a religious character we shall defer them for a subsequent chapter of this volume. . PART THIRD COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVEL- OPMENTS. THE inland and coast line navigation of the United States, is not surpassed, in ex- tent and character, by any country on the globe ; and the industry and enterprise of the Americans in developing their commer- cial and shipping interests, has been, until within the last few years, equal to their superior advantages. Passing by all statis- tics in regard to the tonnage of the country, let us take a brief survey of the vessels and navigators which have given the coun- try its reputation. By far the largest pro- portion of American vessels are run upon inland waters, and are called small craft, but the sea-going vessels, if less numerous, are generally as large as those of any 94 COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. other nation, and have been constructed on unsurpassed models. The ships called " Liners," which, a few years ago, ran be- tween New York and Liverpool acquired wide celebrity, and have never been sur- passed for beauty and speed. But they have been superceded by steamers, and ships of that class now transact the same business. The burthen of those sailing- vessels was about two thousand tons ; they were splendidly equipped, swift, were com- manded and manned by the best metal, and did an immense business in bringing mer- chandize and immigrants to America. But with the calamities that have befallen the mercantile marine of this country, they have nearly all passed away. During the fiscal year of 1870, there were less than one hun- dred thousand tons of sea-going vessels built in the United States, and less than three hundred thousand tons of all descrip- tions of vessels, which amount was about equalled by the vessels built on the Clyde alone, while the tonnage of steam vessels COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. 95 built all in England, was sixty times greater than that of America. One result of this falling off in American ship-building has been that large numbers of men, who were brought up on the ocean, are seen turning their attention to a variety of pursuits con- nected wholly with the land. The inland waters of the country are most abundantly supplied with steamboats, and all the varie- ties of the smaller sailing vessels ; the coast- ing trade, and fishing interests, are quite as important and extensive as heretofore, but new vessels are by no means now turned out with the rapidit}' that they were a few years ago. It was the late war, also, which helped to put back the carrying trade of America, but with the return of peace and the final restoration of the Union, the old order of things began to be restored. When the Great Rebellion, or rather the British cruisers, sailing under its flag, drove Ameri- can shipping from the seas, and thus trans- ferred the carrying trade to foreign bottoms, the commerce of Philadelphia suffered in 96 COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. common with that of other cities. The substitution of iron for wood, at about the same time, as the material for first-class steamships, left the country not only with- out ships, but behind other nations in facili- ties for making them. Boston, New York and Baltimore soon recovered in good part their former commerce through the help of foreign subsidized steamship lines. But Philadelphia, more thoroughly imbued with American ideas, made little effort to secure such foreign lines, but waited to build a line of her own, which will soon be estab- lished between that city and Liverpool. In 1860 the tonnage of the United States amounted to 5,353,868 tons, and in 1870, to 4,246,507 tons. Notwithstanding the above facts, however, the commerce of the country is very large and flourishing, since it appears that the American imports for 1870, amounted to about six hundred mil- lions of dollars and the exports about four hundred millions. The great variety of na- tive productions exported from America COMMERCIAL LIFE AXD DEVELOPMENTS. 97 gives assurance of the impossibility of fail- ure in the resources of the nation. For ex- ample, from the Sea, they have such pro- ducts as oil, whalebone, spermiciti, and many kinds, in great abundance, of fish ; from the Forest, timber, shingles, staves, lumber, naval stores and furs ; from Agri- culture, every description of corn and vege- table food, and the products of animals, in the way of beef, pork, tallow, hides, bacon, cheese, butter, wool, lard and hams, with horned cattle, horses, and other animals. From the Southern States they Have cot- ton, tobacco, rice, and sugar ; from the fac- tories, every variety of useful goods ; while their exports of specie and bullion, have never been exceeded by any other nation. And as to their imports, they are simply enormous silks and furniture being the most important, and for which there has always been a demand. But the crowning element of American Commerce is its inter- nal trade ; and in this connection, we can- not, perhaps, mention a more remarkable 98 COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. fact than this, that the production of spirit- uous liquors in 1870 amounted to $600,- 000,000, the persons engaged in selling it by retail, numbering not less than one hun- dred and fifty thousand ; while the impor- tation of opium from China amounted to nearly $9,000,000. The distances in Amer- ica are so great that the internal trade and traffic of the country has been, and must always be, a business of vast importance. And the extent of territory implies great diversity of productions. The growths of tropical regions are exchanged for the field crops and forest produce of cooler latitudes; and in another direction, the products of the coast and of extensive interior districts are exchanged. The tide of emigration sets from east to west, while the tide of com- merce flows from west to east ; and we can only obtain an adequate idea of the inland commerce by considering the enormous ex- tent of the inland shipping and the railway facilities of the country. But it is with the social aspect of Amer- COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. 99 ican Commerce that we have to do at the present time. The grand business centre of the nation is New York City. Having direct and constant intercourse with all parts of the world, the nationality of its merchants is as varied, as the countries which they represent. Of the native-born merchants the most numerous and success- ful originated in the New England States, and are distinguished for their intelligence, ability and elevated personal characteristics. They live in elegant houses, and while sur- rounded by all the appliances of prosperity and wealth, are not prone to making a great- er display than their less fortunate neigh- bors ; they are plain in their manners, and hospitable ; and if many of them happen to indulge in keeping up fancy residences in the country, the largest proportion are quite content to spend their summer vacations, by the sea-side, or among the green hills of their native States. They devote them- selves to business with ceaseless activity, and are the men who generally take pleas- 100 COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. ure in expending their surplus capital upon all sorts of benevolent, religious and educa- tional institutions. A type of merchants, allied to these, is also found in all the other cities of the country. Next to them come the English, French and German merchants, who generally deal in the kind of merchan- dize sent out from their several countries. In their modes of transacting business, and of living, they adhere as closely as possible to the customs of their native lands, but with many modifications. The particular men who laid the commercial foundation of New York, were from Holland, but their characteristics have been amalgamated, with those of the various nationalities which have, latterly, made that city the most cos- mopolitan in the country. While a very large trade is carried on between New York and the Oriental nations, the merchants of Boston have long considered themselves the special patrons and friends of the far East, and that city has always been a noted mart for the commodities of India, China, and COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. 101 Japan, in which particular it is now finding a rival in San Francisco. Its coasting trade is also very extensive, and it is the port whence various manufactures are shipped in immense quantities. The whaling busi- ness, which was formerly divided between several cities, is now almost entirely con- fined to New Bedford; the merchants of which city, like those of Boston, are proud of their descent from what is called the Puri- tan stock. In Philadelphia, where the coast- ing trade is almost unparalleled, they have, what is called a Quaker element of popula- tion, which has always been noted for its integrity in matters of business but this city is now vieing with New York in the cosmopolitan character of its merchants, and in the person of Stephen Girard pro- duced one of the wealthiest and most emi- nent merchants in America. With regard to Baltimore and Charleston, Mobile, and New Orleans, all these places are the natural outlets of the entire Southern half of the United States, and in all of them 102 COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. may be found an abundant supply of mer- chants from the four quarters of the globe. And corresponding with the cities just named, there are throughout the interior of the country, very many cities which have grown into centres of trade and commerce, with marvellous rapidity ; among them may be mentioned Chicago, (whose merchants, are now building up a large tea trade with China, by way of San Francisco,) Detroit, Cleveland, St. Louis, and Cincinnati, Louis- ville, Buffalo and Pittsburg, in all of which may be found the principal nationalities of the globe. Looking at the commercial classes, in the aggregate, it is quite impos- sible to give prominence to any nationality ; and it would seem as if, after a brief resi- dence in America, the whole mercantile population, with one exception, becomes permeated with the characteristics of the native-born inhabitants. The exception al- luded to is the Jewish race. They are found in every city, and almost in every hamlet, always engaged in bartering and COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. 103 selling, and never in producing, and they are pre-eminently a wandering people. With them, the one great end of life, would seem to be, to make money, but where they set- tle down to enjoy it has always been a mystery. In America as elsewhere, permanent suc- cess in business is chiefly dependent upon character ; honest and upright men are sure to command the respect of their neighbors, and when unfortunate, always find their fellow merchants ready to assist them ; and when men of bad repute happen to make fortunes, they generally find it convenient to settle down among strangers, to enjoy their ill-gotten gains. One of the effects of the late war in this country, was to enrich a large number of adventurers and unscru- pulous men who made money by imposing upon the General Government, through po- litical intrigues, and it was because of their foolishness in spending their money and putting on airs, to which they were not ac- customed, that they came to be known by 104 COMMEECIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. the opprobrious title of shoddy, in remem- brance of a spurious cloth which some of them palmed off for the use of the army. But the average American merchant of to- day is a man who deserves and receives uni- versal respect. He is intelligent, but not addicted to the profits and pleasures of lit- erature. Engaged all day in the excite- ment of commercial speculation, he has but little time to devote to reading, and improv- ing his mind. He works so hard and so constantly, that work becomes a second na- ture to him, prostrating his energies and making him indifferent to proper recrea- tions ; he considers his word as good as his bond, and, to protect his credit, will make the greatest sacrifice of property ; he is liberal in his feelings and gives freely to all objects which have the sanction of his good opinion; he is hospitable, but would prefer to have his wife and daughters, attend to the honors of his house and table ; and when overcome by reverses, he takes a new start, changes the character of his business, per- COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. 105 haps, and will not acknowledge himself as overwhelmed, and proves his metal by at- taining final success. Perhaps there is no feature in the character of the Americans which is so remarkable as their spirit of enterprise. It is indeed wonderful and is the cause of their success. But it does not follow that this enterprise is all native born ; a portion of it is undoubtedly brought into the country by intelligent men from the leading countries of Europe. But let us now take a glance at some of the phases of their commercial life, or rather at the classes of men who transact the mer- cantile business of the country, and first as to the shipping merchants. To carry on their business a large capital is required, and as individuals or organized companies, they are generally the leading patrons of the great ship yards. They have vessels built to order, and also buy them in open market ; they establish lines of communi- cation between home ports, by way of lakes and rivers, and between the United States 106 COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. and foreign countries ; and they are the men who so frequently obtain valuable con- tracts from the Government for carrying the mails, as in the case of the Pacific Steamship Company, which receives not less than five hundred thousand dollars for conveying a semi-monthly mail from San Francisco to China and Japan. One of the most famous of these men is named Corne- lius Vanderbilt. Another class of shipping merchants are those who simply direct or superintend the business for other parties. They are indeed what might be called, more properly, Brokers. The wealthiest man who ever lived in the country, John Jacob Astor, and who left about $25,000,000, was at one time engaged in the shipping busi- ness, and made a great deal of money by sending his ships to China, but he was pre- eminently a trader in furs. Ihen come the Importing Merchants. They have their agents located in foreign countries, purchase and sell their merchandize only in the bulk, and are the men who give the greatest im- COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. 107 petus to the home trade. Some merchants of this class, engaged in trade with the Ori- ental nations, have followed the same busi- ness for nearly a century ; many of them located in New York and Boston, have ac- quired immense fortunes, and it was the son of one of these, James Lenox, who lately made a donation of a million of dollars for the establishment of a Library and Gallery of Art in New York. With some few of these importers the custom prevails of sel- ling their goods by auction, soon after their arrival, and in this manner whole cargoes of tea from China or sugar from the West Indies were sold within the space of half an hour. But this business has well nigh been absorbed by the class known as Bro- kers. Another important class of merchants are the wholesale dealers or Jobbers. They receive their goods in the bulk from the importers and sell them by the piece or in broken packages. They sell on credit and usually confine themselves to a particular class, or a few classes of goods. One house, 108 COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. for example, will sell only silk goods, another, all sorts of cotton fabrics, another the several varieties of woolen goods, another hardware, and others wooden or fancy goods and groceries of every descrip- tion. And then there are what are called the Retail merchants. They constitute the most numerous class, and are to be found in every city and village of the land. In the larger towns there is no mingling of dry goods and groceries, but in the hamlets, the merchants find it necessary and to their advantage, to keep for sale everything that the people can possibly require from a yard of callico or a piece of ribbon, a paper of buttons or needles, to a pound of tea or coffee or sugar or shot, or a cake of son p. It is sometimes the case, however, that the importing, jobbing and retail trades are carried on by the same firm, and there is one man located in New York City, Alex- ander T. Stewart, who is reputed to be the wealthiest and most influential merchant of this sort, in the world. His establishments COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. 1C9 are on the most stupendous scale ; he em- ploys agents and clerks by the hundred ; and his passion for business is so strong that he is among the first, as well as the last, in his daily attendance at his enor- mous warehouses. This man began his career a poor and friendless boy, and besides building a palace for himself, giving away millions for the comfort of the poor, he is now engaged, at an immense outlay, in founding a model town in the vicinity of New York. The Commission Merchants form another very extensive class of the business men. To carry on their business, less capital is required than for those already named, but it is important that their credit should be unimpeachable. They receive goods or produce, from the manufacturers or farmers, and sell them to the best ad- vantage, receiving for themselves merely a certain per cent, on the amount of sales, in the way of commission, for trouble and ex- penses. With regard to the subordinates, who are employed by the more important 110 COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. \ merchants, they consist of Drummers, who devote their time to hunting up customers ; of Clerks who sell goods and keep the books ; of Porters, who pack the goods and do the manual labor ; and of Draymen, who carry the merchandize to the vessels, of every description, and to the railway stations. But there are certain other classes of busi- ness men in all the commercial marts, whose duties are important and whose influence is extensive. First among these are the auc- tioneers, who sell to the highest bidders, real estate, furniture, books, works of art, and everything in fact, which the owners desire to turn rapidly into money ; then come the Brokers, who usually devote them- selves to one commodity, such as cotton or money, tea and coffee, sugar or grain, who have come to be a numerous and useful class, and who sell only by samples, receiv- ing their pay like the commission merchants. They transact the business which was for- merly performed by one class of auctioneers. The class of men known as Bankers are COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. Ill those who conduct the moneyed institutions of the country, albeit large numbers fol- low the business on private account, many of whom, in all the leading cities, have ac- quired immense fortunes. Of these, per- haps the most successful and celebrated is now a retired citizen of Washington, and who, within the last few years has given away, for purposes of charity and culture many millions of dollars. And still another class of the business men who are very nu- merous and constantly increasing, are known as Insurance men. They are the managers of extensive corporations, who insure in stated sums of money, all kinds of property from fire and marine disasters, as well as the lives of men, who desire to secure a compe- tence for their families in the event of death. From the foregoing statements it will be seen that the machinery of commerce in this country is fully organized and very complete. But, fully to comprehend the extent and range of the commercial interests, we must now turn our attention to the System of 112 COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. Railways as it exists in the United States. This is a subject which increases in inter- est and importance every year. In 1860 this system had already reached a develop- ment which was justly regarded as amazing. It was the product of but a short time ; every mile of road had been built within the recollection of men who had not yet passed middle life, and three-fourths of it all within ten years. Yet there were in operation more than thirty-one thousand miles of road, which, with their equipment, had absorbed of the capital of the country not less than twelve hundred and fifty mil- lions of dollars, or ten per cent, of the en- tire assessed value of property in the United States. There were men, however, who protested that this interest had outgrown the needs of the country, and was the result of speculative and artificial influences; that it diverted capital from more useful em- ployments and tended to retard the pros- perity of the country. Nor have these men changed their opinion. But what a change COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. 113 has taken place in this business? From the official reports we learn that at the commencement of the present year there were railroad lines in operation to the ex- tent of more than fifty-three thousand miles which, with their equipment, cost nearly twenty-seven hundred millions of dollars, or twenty-two per cent, of the entire assessed value of property in the country. Of these more than eleven thousand miles have been built within two years, and at an expendi- ture of four hundred millions of dollars. In other words, the people of America have contributed during the last ten years more than half as much to build railroads as they have paid in taxes for the support of the Gov- ernment, including the conduct of the war, and are now contributing yearly for the same purpose two-thirds as much as the whole revenue of the national treasury. The to- tal earnings of these railroads in 1870 were four hundred and fifty millions of dollars ; and the gross tonnage transported equalled one hundred and twenty-five millions of 114 COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. tons, having a value of more than ten thou- sand millions of dollars. Prior to the late war, the American rail- roads were regarded almost exclusively in their relations to trade, and the comprehen- sive study of them was the concern only of the economist. But they have now become the centres of many forms of power in the hands of corporations whose management is concentrated, secret, and largely irresponsi- ble ; they hold vast accumulations of wealth ; employ a large proportion of the scientific and practical ability of the nation; they exert an immense influence on all the mar- kets, and on the social and material welfare of the whole people. They are also the favorite instruments of speculation, and sources of sudden profit; they wield politi- cal agencies and parties, in many places, and even dictate to the State Legislatures. They thus connect themselves with society, in so many relations, that their growth and influence are becoming an anxious study, not only for the economist and the trader, but COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. 115 for the politician, the statesman, and the moralist. Hitherto, a large part of the capital thus consumed has been borrowed from foreign nations, and the want is not felt in the United States. But it makes part of the debt on which the productive industry of the country must pay the inter- est. The subject, as it has been well said, thus presents important and difficult ques- tions for discussion. But all men must ac- knowledge that the rapid progress of this enormous interest is as wonderful as its present magnitude ; and it is plain that the ultimate extent to which the construction of railroads in America will be carried, no estimate can be formed. Before leaving this subject we must sub- mit a few additional particulars. The av- erage rate of speed, with the passenger trains in America, is thirty miles per hour, and the number of cars in each train, varies from five to fifteen ; while the freight trains, frequently number not less than one hun- dred cars. The locomotives are far more 116 COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. powerful, and much larger than those on English roads, and wood is the common fuel. In front of the engine is generally placed a massive iron grating called a " cow catcher" intended to throw off any animal that may be upon the track ; and in winter they are supplied with immense plows for the pur- pose of cutting through the banks of snow. They are supplied with bells as well as steam whistles, to be sounded when start- ing, or used to give note of coming danger. They are generally managed by three men, one engineer and his assistant, and one fire- man. The passenger cars are large and have from eight to sixteen wheels ; some of them plain and open to all, and others called Palace Cars, are very elegantly fitted up, and occupied only by those persons who are willing to pay an extra fare. On all the trains, are also to be found such conveniences as " Sleeping" and " Smoking Cars." The men who manage the trains while running, are the " Conductors," who collect the tick- ets ; at the end of each car is stationed a COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. 117 brakeman, who helps to regulate the speed ; there are also baggage men ; while boys with books or papers or fruit are permitted to pass through the trains; and upon those which carry the United States mail, there is always an officer of the General Post Office Department. Tickets are purchased before entering the cars, and for every piece of baggage a metal check is given, so that a man may travel a thousand miles or more without casting a thought upon his baggage. The rails are made of iron and steel and single or double tracks are in vogue accord- ing to the necessities of the route ; and the longest continuous line of railway in Amer- ica, running from New York City to San Francisco, is three thousand and two hun- dred miles. As the primary object of commerce is to accumulate money, it is proper that we should conclude this paper with a general Survey of the Finances of the United States, and of the people to whom their management is intrusted. At the close of the last fiscal 118 COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. year the debt of the United States amounted to $2,480,672,427; the reduction, since 1866, when it reached the highest amount, having been $292,563,746. The total Re- ceipts of the Government were $566,935,- 818, while the expenditures amounted to $417,433,346, leaving a balance in the Treasury of $149,502,471. The money spent for the civil service was $19,031.283 ; Foreign Intercourse, $1,490,776 ; Military Establishment, $57,655,675; Naval Estab- lishment, $21,780,229; collecting Customs Revenue, $6,237,137 ; assessing and col- lecting Internal Revenue, $7,234,531 ; Light House Establishment, $2,588,300; Mint Establishment, $1,067,097; Indians, $3,407,938 ; and Pensions, $28,340,202 ; while the balance was devoted to miscella- neous expenditures. Turning from the operations of the National Treasury to the Banking Institutions, we find the following information : The National Banks, which are conducted by private enterprise but made perfectly secure by the General Gov- COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. 119 eminent, number 1627, and have a capital of $436,478,311; the Chartered Banks, which are disconnected from the Govern- ment, number 1882, and have a capital of $503,578,000 ; the Private Bankers repre- sent about $400,000,000 of capital; and the Savings Banks are estimated to hold about $195,000,000. The system upon which all these institutions is managed, is quite uniform each one having a President and Cashier, a Board of Directors, and as many Clerks as may be required. Taken in the aggregate, the bankers of America are as upright and intelligent as any in ex- istence, but no class, from Presidents down to common Clerks, are so liable to go astray, and therefore it is that the papers have oc- casionally to chronicle acts of dishonesty among banking men. On the score of suc- cess, it is also worth mentioning that the Private Bankers have at all times led the way in the more important financial nego- tiations between the United States and foreign countries ; and the late Rebellion, 120 COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. as well as the preceding War with Mexico were both greatly indebted to the skill of two men, whose names as bankers have passed into history, viz : William W. Cor- coran and Jay Cooke. Of the various financial institutions, perhaps the most use- ful and truly American in its character is that known as the Savings Bank, the pri- mary object of which is to keep in safety the savings of the poorer classes, for the use of which the bank pays a regular inter- est. Other banks make it their business to lend money for commercial purposes, but not so with the Savings Banks, which have more to do with real estate in making use of their funds. With regard to the circu- lating medium of the United States, we may remark that it is divided into paper money and specie. The former, which is also called currency is all issued directly from the National Treasury, in denomina- tions ranging from ten cents to one thou- sand dollars, and is a legal tender through- out the length and breadth of the land ; Wf, COMMERCIAL LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. 121 while all the issues under one dollar are called fractional currency. The specie of the country is coined at a national mint, located in Philadelphia, and of course under the direction of the Treasury, and is com- posed of copper, silver and gold ; the copper, forming one and two cent pieces ; the sil- ver, five, ten, twenty-five and fifty cent pieces ; and the gold, one, three, five, ten, twenty, and fifty dollar pieces ; to all of which may be added, what is called gold and silver bullion. While it is true that in all parts of the world money is considered a great power, there is probably no country where the people are so universally imbued with the love of gain, or place so high an estimate on the possession of wealth, as is the case in the United States of America. ERRATA, &c. Page 15, line 11. For ruler read governor. '* 16, lines 1 aud 2. These expenses are incurred in part by the Government and the People. Page 28. line 3. For directly read indirectly. " 51. line 7. Add after foreigner as well as a native. " 62, line 10 For equnl fa read greater than. " 64, liue 5. After offspring add except, that the wife has a life interest of one-third called the widow's dower. Page 73, line 14. After farms add There is an extensive, emigration from China to this country now going on, aud whxt effect if will have on the agricultural and in- dustrial interests is a problem which can only be settled by the future. Page 95. line 1 For all in read in all. " 97, Hue ID. For and Furniture read Woollen-goods Tea, Coffee, and Sugars. Page 106, line 14. Since thi? M-as printed it has been stated that W. B. Astor. A. T. Stewart and Cornelius Tanderbilt are each worth about sixty millions of dollars. Page 118, line 8. The last figure 1 should be 2. 120. line 20. For directly read indirectly. " 120. Strike out l**t two lines after and, and add $356,000,000 being a legal tender. Page 121. It should be stated in this paragraph that there are Branch Mints in operation in San Francisco, Denver, Char- lotte, Carson City, and an Assay Office in New York: and also that nickel is used in some of the smaller coins. PART FOURTH LIFE AMONG THE MECHANICS. IN no way, perhaps, can the magnitude of the Mechanical and Artisan interests of America be better realized, than by walk- ing through the spacious apartments of the Patent Office in Washington, where are to be found over one hundred thousand models of American skill and enterprise. Of these, about five thousand have been deposited within the last three years. It might also be mentioned that the cost of supporting the Patent Office and publishing its records, down to the present time, has been twelve millions of dollars ; that fifty thousand ap- plications for patents have been rejected ; and that no inventions, which are inopera- tive, frivolous or mischievous can ever be protected by the Government. Sixty years ago, the manufactures of the 126 LIFE AMONG THE MECHANICS. country were valued at $200,000,000 ; to- day, they are estimated at $3,000,000,000; while the people who are engaged in this enormous business are also counted by mil- lions. Their character is varied and inter- esting. All labor is respected, but this is especially true of skilled labor. The Amer- ican mechanics are partial to the higher grades of work, and this has a tendency to elevate them in society. They are ambi- tious to succeed, but often fail, because of their attempting too much. As employ- ers, they are faithful and punctual, and they who work as subordinates seldom have cause to complain. As fellow-labor- ers, they are not always considerate, but offences in that direction grow. out of in- dividual dispositions. Their minds are not given to abstract thought, but they are fond of industrial organizations. In deal- ing with men and things, and in surmount- ing obstacles, they are wonderfully ingeni- ous ; and perhaps their chief intellectual distinction is that of inventors. To use the LIFE AMONG THE MECHANICS. 127 language of another, their moral qualities are not striking but generally sound. They are a good-natured people, and treat stran- gers with kindness. Fairness and honesty prevail among them. Discipline is weak. They respect their institutions and deserve to be called a law-abiding people. Their homes re generally well-ordered, and their domestic virtues are above the average among European nations. They are fond of amusements, but perhaps too willing to break through the rules oi a wise restraint. Different sections and pursuits, however, bring about different results; and what is true of one neighborhood is not always true of another, and of course the inhabitants of the newly settled regions, are not generally as far advanced in culture as those located in the older cities and towns. A single brick or block of stone may give us a faint idea of the house to be built of that mate- rial, and in like manner, we may partially become acquainted with the manufacturing population, by considering a few of its lead- 128 LIFE AMONG THE MECHANICS. ing classes, who come under the head of mechanics or artisans. And, first, as to the very extensive num- ber of persons engaged in the production of flour and meal, the millers of the country. They are to be found in every part, and the business of transforming the various cereals into flour is carried on by steam mills, as well as those propelled by water and wind power. The mills which are run by water power are the most numerous, and it is only in a few level districts that the old-fashioned wind-mill is in vogue. Many of the mills in question are of limited capac- ity, and only intended to grind the grain which is sent to them from the immediate vicinity ; but in various parts of the coun- try are located very extensive establish- ments which send their brands of flour to various quarters of the globe. In these larger mills, which run both day and night, and employ two sets of hands, they grind and turn out from three hundred to one thousand barrels of flour in each twenty- LIFE AMONG THE MECHANICS. 129 four hours. Wheat is always a cash article, and to carry on the business, a large capital is required. Besides the regular millers and their immediate assistants, these estab- lishments give employment to large num- bers of coopers, who manufacture the bar- rels that are used; but within the past year, complaints have been made against these millers, that they were in the habit of using old barrels, which had been used for other purposes. This kind of dishones- ty, however, is not common, and will un- doubtedly be remedied. The weight of a barrel of flour is always one hundred and ninety-six pounds, and it is universally in- spected by a public officer before shipment from the place of its manufacture ; so that the several classes through whose hands each barrel of flour is obliged to pass, are the proprietors, the millers and their assist- ants, the coopers, the inspectors, and fin-il- ly the book-keeping and shipping clerks. In the larger mills, moreover, regular mill- wrights are also permanently employed. 130 LIFE AMONG THE MECHANICS. Excepting agriculture, there is no branch of American industry which gives employ- ment to so many people as that of boot and shoe manufacturing. The New England States take the lead in this business, and Massachusetts is in advance of all the other individual States, the largest single estab- lishment in that State, giving employment to fourteen hundred persons, and paying out, in the way of wages, nearly one hun- dred thousand dollars per annum. And it is reported of one town, that it turned out in one year, boots and shoes enough to amount to five millions of dollars. The States of New York and Pennsylvania come next to New England, and it is esti- mated that the product of the whole United States is very much more than one hundred millions of dollars per annum; while the raw material in the way of leather, has reached a similar amount. The finer qual- ities of boots and shoes are usually made in the cities, and chiefly by Germans, and the more ordinary varieties in the country LIFE AMONG THE MECHANICS. 131 towns and villages. In some of these, al- most every house has attached to it a shop for making shoes, and all the members of the family, when not engaged in household affairs, or in cultivating a garden, take part in the manufacture. Within the last year, quite a colony of Chinese shoemakers have found employment in New England, and every inducement is given to encourage their coming in greater numbers. Where the sewing machine is employed, large num- bers of shoes are turned out by some fami- lies, which are paid for on being delivered to the local dealers, who ship thetn to the wholesale merchants in the cities. A large proportion of the shoes made, are fastened on the bottom by wooden pegs, thereby creating peg factories, in many of which shoe lasts are made, the combined business amounting to many hundred thousand dol- lars. About one-third of the people en- gaged in making shoes are women, and it is said that the aggregage amount now paid to the shoemakers as wages is not far from 132 LIFE AMONG THE MECHANICS. fifty millions of dollars. With regard to the leather used in this enormous business, it is chiefly manufactured in the country, and its annual production reaches very nearly one hundred millions of dollars. The manufacture of Clothing for men, hoys, women and children, has become a business of late years, of great magnitude. It is confined chiefly to the large cities, and gives direct employment to nearly one hun- dred and fifty thousand hands, the largest proportion of whom are women. Accord- ing to the latest published returns of the Census Office, they received in one year nearly twenty millions of dollars in wages, and produced merchandize which sold for about ninety millions of dollars. The gen- eral distribution of wealth in America ena- bles the people of all classes to be comfor- tably and respectably attired, and it is sel- dom that one class is compelled to wear the cast-off clothing of another class. Out of this fact has grown the vast demand for ready-made clothing of moderate cost, which LIFE AMONG THE MECHANICS. 133 has developed into an immense and grow- ing trade, giving employment to multitudes of women in the larger cities, who would otherwise find it difficult to support them- selves in comfort. The cutters of common clothing are principally Americans, while the Germans and Irish are chiefly employed in the other branches of the business. The wages, both for men and women are larger than those paid in Europe. The American women are noted for their fondness for dress, and carry the custom of clothing their children to a preposterous extent ; and hence the demand for fancy articles of dress is probably greater than in any other civilized country on the globe. And while that wonderful invention called the Sewing Machine has not only greatly increased the means of producing, it has at the same time created an increased demand for every vari- ety of clothing. Of the class of artisans who are engaged in the manufacture of machines, the num- ber is not far from fifty thousand. The 134 LIFE AMONG THE MECHANICS. machines made by them are well-nigh count- less in numbers and variety, ranging from Steam Engines and Locomotives down to Printing Presses and Sewing Machines. There is no country in the world where hydraulic machinery or water mills are so abundant as in America, and its water power is practically unlimited. Taken as a whole, the machinists of the country are noted for their superior intelligence, and turn their attention more to what is useful than to what is ornamental. Among the articles which they produce of special im- portance may be mentioned clocks and watches, fire arms, cabinet furniture, cut- lery, and all sorts of implements and tools, musical instruments, including organs and piano fortes, carriages, soap and candles, bricks, tobacco in all shapes, with articles of unnumbered varieties made of iron, cop- per, brass, glass and wood. Within the bounds of the Republic may be found the raw material for almost every branch of manufacturing industry. The intellectual LIFE AMONG THE MECHANICS. 135 power and skill of the American mechanic may be partly appreciated by the fact that the manufactories of the country when last officially published, numbered one hundred and forty-one thousand, besides the machine shops of great value and capacity, yielding products to the value of two thousand mil- lions of dollars. These immense results, which include the products of the cotton and wool manufactories, whilst measurably affected by the wealth of the soil, and its successful cultivation, are yet traceable to the artisan skill, energies and industry of the American people. It has been said that the manufacturing and mechanical capacities of the Northern States of America were the primary cause of their success in the late Rebellion, and that a more striking illustra- tion of the power and value of such resour- ces is not to be found in history. In look- ing over the official lists, we find that the mechanics and artisans of the United States might be arranged in classes which number about one hundred, and of course in a paper 136 LIFE AMONG THE MECHANICS. like the present, it is impossible to describe them with minuteness. But let us now take a glance at the sub- ject of compensation. Common laborers in America earn from one to two dollars per day, without board. The wages for skilled labor are considerably higher, but they can- not be precisely specified, because the work- men make their own contracts with their employers, the prices being regulated by ability, the season, and the nature of the business. By way of illustration however, we append the following selection, as about the rate of full monthly wages in vogue at the present time, viz : Bakers, fourteen dol- lars ; blacksmiths, ninety dollars ; Brick- layers, one hundred and twelve dollars ; book-binders, eighteen dollars; butchers, twenty dollars ; cabinet makers, ninety dol- lars ; carpenters, one hundred and twelve dollars ; cigar makers, sixty dollars ; con- fectioners, forty dollars ; coopers, one hun- dred dollars ; engineers, ninety-two dollars ; machinists, ninety-two dollars ; masons, one LIFE AMONG THE MECHANICS. 137 hundred and twelve dollars ; millers, ninety- two dollars; painters, sixty dollars; print- ers, ninety-two dollars ; harness and sad- dle makers, sixty dollars ; shoemakers, sixty dollars ; tailors, eighty dollars ; stone cutters, one hundred and twelve dollars ; watchmakers, eighty dollars; wheelwrights, eighty-four dollars ; wagon makers, ninety- two dollars ; spinners and weavers, forty- eight dollars; and wood carvers, eighty dollars. The above are only about one- fourth of the trades followed in America, but they are among the most important. Generally speaking the lowest wages are paid in the cities along the Atlantic sea- board, and they increase as the immigrant passes westward, reaching their highest point on the Pacific. We come now to speak of some of the incidental circumstances connected with that portion of the laboring population devoted to mechanical employments. The hours for beginning and ending a day's work, vary ac- cording to the seasons of the year. Hith- 138 LIFE AMONG THE MECHANICS. erto, it has been customary to labor ten hours, but this has generally been regulated by agreements between the employer and his hired men. Within the last two years, however, this business has been mixed up with politics, and Congress has been induced to pass a law limiting a day's labor to eight hours so far as the public service is con- cerned. Whether these regulations have resulted to the advantage of the employed or the employer is not yet settled. It is alleged that they have tended to make dis- cord in the more important establishments, causing the employers to lower the wages paid, and at the same time making the em- ployed restless and more disposed than for- merly to demand unreasonable terms. Look- ing at the mechanics of the United States in the aggregate, it may safely be said that they live in comfortable houses, have the best of plain food, husband their money with care, and are less addicted to intem- perance, than are certain classes who think themselves their superiors. They are not LIFE AMONG THE MECHANICS. 139 so driven in their employments, that they cannot enjoy a suitable amount of recreation, and their amusements or entertainments dif- fer according to their nationalities. If the Germans have their gardens, where they congregate at stated times to play games and drink beer ; the Irish have their festi- vals in honor of their patron saints, as well as their wakes or hilarious funerals ; while the native-born inhabitants amuse them- selves with pastimes peculiarly American, including pick-nicks, steamboat excursions and athletic games but seldom omitting to read the daily papers, or have something to do with politics. While it is true that there may here and there be found artisans who have a hard struggle to get along comforta- bly, yet a large proportion, who are indus- trious and frugal succeed in laying up money and surrounding themselves with the elegancies of life. Indeed, in many parts of the country very marked changes are go- ing on among the people, and successful mechanics are pushing aside the older and 140 LIFE AMONG THE MECHANICS. more aristocratic families, and giving tone to society. If called upon to say from what sphere the largest number of moder- ately wealthy men have arisen, our obser- vation would incline us to answer, the me- chanical and artisan classes. There are men in all the larger cities, who were once engaged in the most ordinary employments, but who have amassed fortunes that are truly regal, and who are using their wealth, in helping the poor, building hospitals and founding institutions of learning, thereby proving that all the wisdom and benevolence are not possessed alone by the cultivated and intellectual classes. By way of illustrating the wonderful changes that have taken place, in mechani- cal employment, through the inventions of machinery, we may direct attention to the simple affair called a button. The first manufacturer in America, of these useful articles, was one Samuel Williston. He was a country merchant, and while selling buttons made of wood, he conceived the LIFE AMONG THE MECHANICS. 141 idea of covering them with cloth, and he invented a machine for that purpose, which was the first one invented in the United States. From this humble beginning, sprung up a factory, until this man was found to be making one-half of the buttons made in the whole world. Several factories which he established, are coining wealth for their proprietors and are known to the dealers in all climes. This man Williston, is now nearly eighty years of age and is worth about five millions of dollars ; he is also a very liberal man, and has endowed several institutions of learning with more than a million of dollars, one of them being Amherst College, where several Japanese students are at the present time receiving their education. The inventive talent of the Americans, is universally recognized, and its special power is derived from the existing facilities for education. Among these, the most impor- tant undoubtedly, are those afforded by the great mechanical exhibitions, which take 142 LIFE AMONG THE MECHANICS. place in some of the leading cities every year. One of them, which occurs in New York, has come to be considered as a national institution. The total number of laboring-men, women and children in the United States, has been estimated at thir- teen (13,000,000) millions; and it is said that the steam machinery of the country is equal to two (2,000,000) millions of horse power, or twenty-eight (28,000,000) millions of grown men ; so that while one- third of this work is done by laboring-men, two-thirds are performed by laboring ma- chines. According to the opinion of a lead- ing British Statesman there are few coun- tries in which the working man is held in such repute as in the United States. The laboring classes may be said to embrace the entire American nation. American artisans prefer those occupations in which the exer- cise of brain is in greater demand than that of the elbow, and their chief ambition is to attain the positions of master workmen. Being educated, they perform their duty LIFE AMONG THE MECHANICS. 143 with less supervision than is required, when dependence is to be placed upon uneducated hands. It rarely happens that a workman, who possesses superior skill in his craft, is disqualified to take the responsible position of superintendent by the want of education and general knowledge. The true mechanic toils at his trade under the conviction that manual labor, to be effective, must adapt itself almost wholly to the direction of science; and that under that direction un- skilled labor necessarily becomes skilled, and limited trusts enlarge into influential responsibility. As already intimated in this paper, the records of the Patent Office bear witness to the effects of general education in the de- velopment of mechanical ingenuity in the American people. No where in the world, has it been justly said, does it exist to the same extent ; and yet, in some of the most important departments of manufacture, the people are now nearly stationary, while in others they make but little progress. A few 144 LIFE AMONG THE MECHANICS. years ago, Germany sent to Massachusetts for machinery to manufacture woolen cloth ; but to-day there is scarcely any broadcloth made in any of the United States. Many of the most important improvements in the cotton manufacture are of American origin; and yet the amount of cotton wool now con- sumed, hardly exceeds that which was re- quired eight years ago. The same is true of various other articles of manufacture. In the last ten years the population has increased about nine millions ; and yet the number of persons engaged in many of the manu- facturing establishments is not now greater than it was then. The whole increase, therefore, is forced into agriculture and trade; and a new class of men, called "mid- dle men " who neither produce, nor sell at their own risk has sprung into exist- ence, whose influence upon the prosperity of the country is thought to be of doubtful character/ PART FIFTH RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. UNDER this head we propose to submit a general account of religion in the United States. There is no State Religion, and the Gov- ernment undertakes only to maintain order and administer justice to all, and they are entirely free to choose any kind of religion, save those which are contrary to its civil laws. Men associate themselves according to their preferences under separate organi- zations called churches. They all believe in one eternal and incomprehensible Deity, and in the immortality of the soul. All these churches have a book called the Bible. This book is believed to be a revelation from the Deity or God, and is divided into the Old and New Testaments, the former being called the Hebrew Scriptures, and 148 RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. the latter the Greek Scriptures. They claim that the Old Testament contains the most ancient writings known, and gives a history of the world and of man from the creation, and also prophesies the coming of Christ at a given time, which is fulfilled in the New Testament, wherein there is a his- tory of the birth and ministry, death and resurrection of Christ, contained in its prin- cipal portion called the Gospel, the mean- ing of which word is " good news," and is applied to the story of Christ. Christ is believed to have been " God manifest in the flesh," and all who believe in Him are called Christians. As specimens of each of these parts of the Bible we quote here some of its leading features. From the Old, the "Decalogue" containing the Ten Commandments or pre- cepts, written on two tables of stone, claimed to have been delivered by God to an in- spired man called Moses, at Mount Sinai, in Asia ; they will be found in the follow- ing words : RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 149 "And God spake all these words saying, I am the Lord thy God which have brought thee out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage. (1) Thou shalt have no other gods but me. (2) Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in the heaven above or in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth ; thou shalt not bow down thyself to them nor worship them ; for I the Lord thy God am a jealous God, visit- ing the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth genera- tion of them that hate me, and shewing mercy unto them that love me and keep my commandments. (3) "Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain, for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh His name in vain. Remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy. Six days shalt thou labor and do all thy work ; but the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord thy God ; in it, thou shalt not do any work, thou, nor thy son, 150 RELIGIOUS LIFE ANI> INSTITUTIONS. nor thy daughter, thy man-servant, nor thy maid-servant, nor thy cattle, nor thy stran- ger that is within thy gates ; (4) " For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh day: where- fore the Lord blessed the seventh day and hallowed it. (5) " Honor thy father and thy mother : that thy days may be long upon the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee. (6) " Thou shalt not kill. (7) " Thou shalt not commit adultery. (8) " Thou shalt not steal. (9) " Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor. (10) " Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's house, thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's wife, nor his man-servant, nor his maid-ser- vant, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor anything that is thy neighbor's." From the New Testament we quote a part of Christ's Sermon on the Mount, as follows : RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 151 " Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. " Blessed are they that mourn ; for they shall be comforted. " Blessed are the meek ; for they shall inherit the earth. " Blessed are the merciful ; for they shall obtain mercy. " Blessed are the pure in heart ; for they shall see God. " Blessed are the peace-makers ; for they shall be called the children of God. " Blessed are they which are persecuted for righteousness' sake ; for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. " Blessed are ye when men shall revile and persecute you and shall say all manner of evil against you falsely for my sake." After thus declaring who are blessed, he goes on to say who are the salt of the earth, the light of the world ; and that he came to fulfil the law ; what it is to kill, commit adultery, and to swear. He exhorts man to suffer wrong ; to love even his enemies ; 152 RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. to labor after perfectness ; to give alms ; teaches him how to pray, how to forgive, how to fast, where to lay up treasures, how to serve God, and not to serve mammon, not to be careful for worldly things, to seek God's kingdom. He reproves rash judg- ment, forbids to cast holy things to dogs. He warns them to beware of false prophets; to be doers of the word, and to be like houses built upon a rock. He then teaches the following prayer : " Our Father which art in Heaven, Hal- lowed be thy name, Thy kingdom come, Thy will be done in earth as it is in heaven; give us this day our daily bread ; and for- give us our debts, as we forgive our debtors, and lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil, for thine is the kingdom, and the power and the glory, forever. Amen." In another place he says : " Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind. This is the first and great command- ment, and the second is like unto it : Thou RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 153 shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. On these two commandments hang all the law and the prophets." And still in another part of the Gospel we find this assertion : " Not every one that saith unto me, Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven ; but he that doeth the will of my Father which is in heaven." In view of the fact that Christ was cru- cified on a cross, and the same has ever been considered a symbol of suffering, we quote the following mandate : "And when he had called the people unto him with his disciples, also, he said unto them Whoso- ever will come after me, let him deny him- self and take up his cross, and follow me. For whosoever, will save his life, shall lose it ; but whosoever shall lose his life, for my sake, and the Gospel's, the same shall save it. For what shall it profit a man, if he shall gain the whole world and lose his own soul ? or what shall a man give in exchange for his soul? Whosoever, therefore, shall 154 EELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. be ashamed of me and of my words in this adulterous and sinful generation, of him also, shall the Son of man be ashamed, when he cometh in the glory of his Father with the holy angels." What is called the " golden rule " is con- tained in the following words : " Therefore all things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them : for this is the law and the prophets." These specimens will show how the Christian religion accords with the Bible. Both the Old and New Testaments con- tain, as most of such books do, many won- derful and strange stories, hard ,to be com- prehended. The present writer deems it best not to allude here to any of them, as they appear to him to be of no grave im- portance, in regard to their real religious essence. The increasing influence of the Bible is marvellously great, penetrating everywhere. It carries with it a tremend- ous power of freedom and justice, guided by a combined force of Wisdom and Goodness. RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 155 Education, Industry and Benevolence are also other strong agents of the Bible influ- ence. The believers in it have schools, and preaching, and missionary enterprises. For the care and help of all the unfortunate they have Institutions. These are of three general kinds : First. Schools for the masses, supported by the State, though this does not exclude schools supported by those directly partak- ing of the benefit. Second. Institutions of Mercy, Asylums for the Blind, the Deaf and Dumb ; and the Insane. These, because of the great ex- pense attending them are general and are supported by the State, while hospitals and infirmaries and lying-in establishments are denominational or belong to churches, and are supported by charitable contribu- tions. Third. Penal Institutions, which include houses of correction for young persons, jails and penitentiaries. All these being conduc- ted more upon the principle of reforming 156 RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. the evil-doers than upon the principle of punishing them. Having now given a general outline of the system of religion, we will give a few particulars connected with the separate organizations. There are three great divisions of the Christian Church throughout the world, Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Greek Church, the latter being organized in the United States only to a limited extent. The name Protestant was first given in Germany to those who under the leader- ship of Martin Luther, an Augustine monk, protested against a decree of the Emperor Charles V, to support the doctrines of Rome. The Pope, Leo X, had granted indulgences for sins, on the payment of certain sums of money into the church treasury, and this was deemed wrong by Luther, who soon found- ed a religion in opposition to such teach- ings, arid the name Protestant now compre- hends chiefly all those Christians, who are opposed to the Roman Catholic church. RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 157 Numerous denominations or sects have since sprung up among the Protestants, and they may be named as follows : Methodists, Presbyterians, Congregation- alists, Baptists, Episcopalians, Lutherans, Moravians, Quakers, Dutch Reformed Church, Universalists, Unitarians, and a few others. The sacred volume or Bible, in which all these sects believe, although some of them interpret it differently from others, is chiefly printed and circulated by special Bible Societies, which, in connection with other Societies established in Europe, have issued the book or parts of it in one hundred and sixty-five different languages, and cir- culated it to the extent of one hundred and one millions of copies during the present century. With regard to the leading prin- ciples just mentioned, the great multitude of Protestants are agreed, but the sects, in their modes of worship, are somewhat differ- ent from each other, and must be mentioned separately. Of these, the most extensive class are the Methodists. 158 EELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. This sect was founded in England and is known by the names of Methodist Episcopal and Methodist Connection. It receives its name Methodist from the fact that its mem- bers profess to be guided in their living by the methods laid down in the Bible, and the name of Episcopal marks that branch whose power is vested in bishops. They have arranged their doctrines of belief into twenty-five articles ; they recognize the two great sacraments of Baptism and the Lord's Supper, in common with all Protes- tants. They are ruled by what is termed a Conference, and their principal officers are called Bishops, Preachers, Deacons and Elders. Their churches are plain, and usually built without steeples or towers. Many of the Preachers spend their time in travelling from one part of the country to another as missionaries. They own an extensive book establish- ment, and annually give large sums of money for the support of missionaries in various parts of the world. In 1870, their Preachers RELIGIOUS LIFE AXD INSTITUTIONS. 159 numbered 19,170 ; regular members 2,623,- 201 ; Colleges, 23 ; Academies and Semi- naries of learning, 85 ; while the total amount of their property was about seven millions of dollars. Presbyterians are governed by presbyte- ries or associations of Ministers and Ruling Elders; several adjoining presbyteries meet under the name of Synod, and their General Assembly, which is their highest tribunal, is composed of delegates from each presbytery; this body meets annually and attends to the interests of their church throughout the country. Although known in various parts of Europe, this sect was introdujed into America from Scotland, where it is the Established Church. The doctrines which they profess are purely evangelical on all points. They give the name of bishop to each minister, and hold them equal in power; the meaning of the word bishop being over- seer. In 1870, the total number of minis- ters was 4,877 ; the churches, 5,342 ; and the members or communicants, 521,945. 160 KELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. The amount contributed and expended for church and missionary operations was about $8,000,000. One of their customs is to have protracted meetings, which continue for several days at a time, and often terminate in what are called revivals of religion, usu- ally bringing many new members into their congregations. Closely allied to the above is the sect called Congregationalists. It is the same as that known in England as the Indepen- dents, and they have been identified with America ever since 1620, when the Pilgrims first landed on the shores of New England. The essential peculiarity of this church is that it maintains the independence of each congregation. It is associated with Pres- byterians in missionary and publishing en- terprises ; its colleges are numerous and its chief strength lies within the New England States; its ministers number 3,043; church- es, 2,341 ; its members, 306,518; and in the last forty years it has expended for religi- ous purposes nearly six millions of dollars. RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 161 Next to the Methodists, in point of num- bers, are the Baptists. They differ from all other sects in regard to the rite of Bap- tism; they not only exclude infants from the rite, but in case of all adults, insist upon immersion, or subjecting the entire body to the influence of water ; hence they have in most of their churches a large tank or basin, built behind their pulpits, in which the cere- mony is performed ; but in some parts of the country it is quite common to perform the rite in rivers or natural pools of water, and at such times, the congregated specta- tors 'help to make the scene impressive; the officiating pastor leads the person to be bap- tized into the water and dips the head un- der, while pronouncing the necessary form of words. There is a loose dress worn on the occasion by the pastor and the person to be baptized. They do not use the title of Bishop, and they recognize no officials higher than Pastors and Deacons. One branch of this sect call themselves Close Communion Baptists, and will not allow 162 RELIGIOUS LIFE A'ND INSTITUTIONS. members of other denominations to com- mune with them ; another branch are called Seventh Day Baptists, because they con- sider Saturday, or the seventh day of the week, the true Sabbath. Still another branch are called Free-Will Baptists, be- cause of their more liberal opinions. Ac- cording to the latest records the members of this church number 1,221,349; the churches, 15,143; and ministers. 8,784. They publish thirty -five periodicals ; and support twenty-five Colleges and fourteen Seminaries of learning. We now come to the Protestant Episcopal Church. It consists of thirty-nine confed- erated dioceses under the care of Bishops to whom their priests and deacons are sub- ordinate. Each bishop has charge of a dio- cese or circuit which is the extent of his jurisdiction and generally comprises one State. These representative bishops meet in a general convention, composed of the " House of Bishops," consisting of all the diocesan and missionary bishops, and of the RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 163 " House of Clerical and Lay Deputies," consisting of four laymen from each diocese. This Convention meets triennially. Each diocese has its Annual Convention, com- posed of its Bishop and assistant Bishop, if there be one, and the priests, deacons and laity from each congregation, and all disputed questions are referred to the House of Bishops. This sect has a written form of worship called a Liturgy, which is em- bodied in a book called the " Common Prayer ;" it is founded upon the one used by the Church of England, with such alter- ations as were deemed expedient upon its adoption in the United States. There have been several dissensions in this church grow- ing out of the use of this book, and these have caused the division of the sect into High and Low Church. They are the only Protestants, excepting the Dutch Reformed, who wear robes or gowns while performing their priestly office. This gown is of black silk, fitting loosely, and is worn while preaching and at funerals. A white gown 164 RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. is used for ail other services, which is made of white muslin ; Bishops wear only the white gown. They have 52 bishops, and their priests and deacons number 2,786 ; their parishes, 2,605 ; and members or com- municants about two hundred and twenty thousand. The denomination known as Lutherans, claims to be more especially Protestant than any other, and takes its name from Martin Luther, although that celebrated reformer was opposed to its use in that con- nection. Another name for this church is that of the United Evangelical Church. They believe in the actual salvation of in- fants, dying unbaptized. In other respects the Lutherans substan- tially agree with all the denominations hitherto mentioned. It has long been an influential body in America; its ministers number 1,933 ; its churches, 3,417; and members, 387,746. Closely allied to the sects already mentioned are those known as the Dutch Reformers and the Moravians. RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 165 The first of these has its seat of power in New York; its ministers number 974 and its members, 175,091. The Moravians, though not numerous, have also been noted for their devotion to missionary labor, especially in the northern parts of North America. All the denominations described above, are commonly styled as Orthodox or Evan- gelical. The following are those which in some degree are in opposition to the others in both faith and principle. They are re- garded very liberal and broad in their views. The sect known as Universalists, claim that their doctrines were preached in the United States, as far back as one hundred years ago. They reject the doctrine of the Trinity, giving to Christ the second place and making him subordinate to the Father ; and while declaring that God is infinite, they believe in the final destruction of evil and the restoration of all human souls through Jesus Christ. They do not believe that any of the human race will be finally 166 RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. lost. Their government is representative and ecclesiastical; and they have 1279 societies, 998 churches and 724 preachers ; publish about twenty periodicals, and hold property to the value of about eight hun- dred thousand dollars. And next corae the Unitarians. They oppose the doctrine of the Trinity, which is held by the great majority of Protestants, arid believe in the absolute unity of God. They do not reject the existence of Christ, but believe him to have been only a man. The manner of their worship is simple, and each church manages its own affairs separately. This sect originated in the United States in 1825, and is more popular in Massachusetts than in any other State of the Union. The number of societies, which they support, is 334, and they have 396 ministers, a large proportion of whom are not permanently settled. They support two Theological Seminaries ; seven or eight periodicals ; and fifteen charitable Institutions. The population connected with this denornina- RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 167 tion is variously estimated at from fifteen to thirty thousand. Within the last few years they have accepted the co-operation of the Universalists in their efforts to do good ; and they have made the following agreement : " Reaffirming our allegiance to the Gos- pel of Jesus Christ, and to secure the largest unity of the spirit and the widest practical co-operation, we invite to our fellowship all who wish to be followers of Christ." Having now given a general description of the various Protestant denominations, it is proper that we should be a little more explicit in regard to the sacraments of the Evangelicals. They admit as essential to membership only two sacraments, which are considered of Divine Institution. These are the rite of Baptism, and the Lord's Supper, called the Communion. Baptism is a representation or seal of the new cove- nant, and is the appointed ordinance for their introduction into the church, and is a sign of profession, whereby the promises 168 RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. of remission of sins and adoption into the family of Christians, are said to be visibly sealed by the Holy Ghost. All the denom- inations mentioned above, excepting the Baptists, believe in the efficacy of infant Baptism, and that it has an influence on all the periods of life, and all administer the rite, by sprinkling with water the face of the child or adult believer, and sometimes, as in the Episcopal church, making the sign of the cross on the forehead, while the minister pronounces the words, " I baptize thee in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost," showing by these words that the person baptized, or the per- son bringing the child, believes in the Trinity, or Triune God, the Father as Crea- tor, the Son as Redeemer, and the Holy Ghost as Comforter. The water is used as an emblem of purity, and it is not generally supposed that tne outward sign will profit those who live and die without the inward grace, but is to be an adoption into the family of God, by being consecrated to his KELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 169 service, and is a safeguard from evil, so far as the remembrance of this consecration has its influence. Baptism therefore, is sup- posed to commemorate the fact that Jesus Christ revealed God to be the Father, him- self the Son, and the Spirit the Holy Ghost, or three persons in the one Godhead, all of which are acknowledged by them, to exist as a mystery, understood by God alone. The Holy Communion, or Sacrament of the Lord's Supper, commemorates the fact that Jesus Christ lived and died, and it de- rived its institution from the fact that on the evening before his death, he had a sup- per, commonly called the Last Supper, and he gave bread and wine to his disciples, saying " Take and eat this bread in remem- brance of me, and as often as ye drink this cup ye do show forth the Lord's death un- til He come." These words are found re- corded in their Bible and are believed by all Protestants ; so that this Sacrament is revered by all who believe in Christ's sac- rifice on the cross to atone for the sins of 170 RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. the whole world. The Episcopalian arid the Methodist form of partaking of the Lord's Supper is by kneeling around the chancel in front of the pulpit, while the minister passes before them, first with the bread, which he gives to each one saying : " The body of our Lord Jesus Christ which was given for thee, preserve thy body and soul unto everlasting life. Take and eat this in remembrance that Christ died for thee arid feed on him in thy heart by faith, with thanksgiving." He then gives the cup to each one saying, " The blood of our Lord Jesus Christ which was shed for thee, preserve thy body and soul unto everlast- ing life. Drink this in remembrance that Christ's blood was shed for thee, and be thankful." Right here we may pause for a moment to look at a passage in the New Testament, wherein Christ declares himself to be the bread of life to all believers, and addressing himself to the doubting Jews : "'Ihen Je- sus said unto them, ' Verily, verily I say RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 171 unto you, except ye eat the flesh of the Son of man, and drink his blood, ye have no life in you. Whoso eateth my flesh, and drinketh my blood, hath eternal life ; and I will raise him up at the last day. For my flesh is meat indeed, and my blood is drink indeed. He that eateth my flesh, and drinketh my blood, dwelleth in me, and I in him. As the living Father hath sent me, and I live by the Father ; so he that eateth me, even he shall live. This is that bread which came down from heaven ; not as your fathers did eat manna, and are dead; he that eateth of this bread shall live forever/ " The Presbyterians partake of the Sacra- ment sitting either around a table, which is placed in some churches, or in the pews of the church ; the bread and wine being hand- ed to them by the Elders of the church ; the minister at the same time repeating words nearly allied to those used by Christ at the Last Supper. The Congregational- ists and Baptists use nearly the same forms. 172 RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS, The next rite of importance is that of marriage. It is considered by all Christians to have been ordained by God, and there- fore, it is a holy rite, not to be engaged in without the sanction of the proper authori- ties, which make the tie binding and law- ful. The ceremony, after a license has been granted, is performed either in the church or at the home of the bride, al- ways by a clergyman, if one can be pro- cured, but in some cases of emergency it can be solemnized or performed by a Jus- tice of the Peace. The Episcopalians have a written form contained in their Prayer Book, and the other denominations use also a set form of words, although every one in conclusion makes use of the Bible text : " Those whom God hath joined together, let no man put asunder," which was the injunction used by Christ at the institution of the ordinance. The burial service for the dead is also a written form with the Episcopalians and Methodists, and is generally performed at RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 173 the house of the deceased, but members of the church are frequently buried from the church, where the body is carried, for the purpose of having the burial service per- formed. It is then borne out of the church by persons selected by the family, called pall-bearers, and followed by the relatives and friends to the grave, which has been previously prepared, and is there committed to the earth by the clergyman, lowered into the grave by the pall-bearers, and the earth thrown upon the coffin, and the grave is then closed. But there are some other religious classes that must be mentioned, who are noted for their peculiarities. The sect called Quakers or Friends was founded in England by a man named George Fox, and the recognized head in the United States was William Penn. The epithet Quaker was given to them because they of- ten trembled under an awful sense of the infinite purity and majesty of God. While professing to be guided by the Protestant 174 RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. Bible, they have the following peculiarities : They are very plain in their manner of dress, and in their church buildings ; have no special reverence for the Christian Sab- bath ; speak in public assemblies only when prompted by the Spirit; and they allow women to speak at their meetings. They are to some extent Unitarians in belief, have always been opposed to slavery, and also to war, and never participate in military affairs; and in consequence of a division that once took place among them, a portion of them followed the lead of a man named Elias Hicks, and became known as Hicks- ites. The city of Philadelphia was founded by them, and Pennsylvania and New York have been their principal fields of labor. Of late years, they have increased in numbers in the Western States of the Union, and the sect now claims about one hundred and thirty-five thousand members, while they have four colleges, and quite a number of large boarding schools. The people called Shakers originated in RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 175 England about one hundred years ago, but are now confined to the United States. The order was founded by two women named Ann Lee and Jane Wardley, the former having professed to receive divine light directly from heaven. They believe that God is dual, there being an eternal Father and Mother in the Deity ; and the same of Christ. They are ascetics ; live in secluded communities ; take no part in earthly governments, and are virtually op- posed to the marriage relation. They look upon idleness as sin, and are noted for their neatness and plainness of dress. There are twelve societies or settlements of them in the United States, and they have not in- creased in numbers in the last fifty years, their total number being less than two thou- sand. They are famous for their knowledge of gardening, and in their principal commu- nity called Mount Lebanon in New York, which they own in common, they carry on an extensive business in the way of selling seeds and certain articles of domestic manu- 176 RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. facture, often yielding an annual income of fifty thousand dollars. In their religious services they frequently resort to dancing, and they believe that their members have the power of healing diseases by means of prayer and abstinence from food. Another class of religionists are called the New Jerusalem Church and was brigna- ted by Emanuel Swedenborg of Sweden, whose name it sometimes bears ; its doc- trines are founded upon the Bible, but are considered by Protestants as very symbol- ical. Its followers in America are not num- erous, but generally cultured people. An- other sect is known as Mormon, whose founder was Joseph Smith, and whose dis- ciples have built up a city in Utah ; they are the advocates of poligamy, which they practice to a large extent, and Brigham Young is the name of their present leader, but who, within a short time, has been pros- ecuted by the General Government as an offender against the criminal laws of the country. RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 177 Next come the Millerites or Second Ad- ventists, founded by one William Miller, who preached that the world was to be de- stroyed on a particular day, when his disci- ples dressed themselves in white robes and waited for the great event in open fields ; and although the predictions of this pretend- ed prophet were not fulfilled, the sect still survives to a small extent. And then there are the Tunkers or Harmless People, who profess to be animated in their religion by fraternal love; the Spiritualists, so-called, who boast that they are infidels and here- tics; the Perfectionists, who advocate a new and perfect way of Society ; the Social- ists, the Fourierites, the Trappists, who be- lieve in a " community of goods," and final- ly the Female Seers, who claim that women are superior to men, and that some of their sect have been ordained to be prophetesses and seers. The Roman Catholic church comprises that society of Christians whose members acknowledge the Pope as the visible head 178 KELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. of the church. Its followers claim it to be co-eval with the commencement of the Christian Era, although it does not appear to have been fully organized, until the fourth century. The Pope is also called a sover- eign pontiff, and the word pontificate is used to denote the reign of a Pope. He resides in Rome, and his power extends over all his followers, wherever they may exist, and all the churches of this sect in the world are under his supervision. All rules for government and discipline emanate from him and he is supposed by them to be the present representative of St. Peter, one of Christ's Apostles, from whom the popes have in a successive line proceeded ; thus founding their belief in Apostolical succession. After the Pope, the next in order of rank or power, is the Archbishop who presides over the bishops of the dioceses over which he has jurisdiction ; then follow the Bish- ops, Priests, Deacons, and Sub-Deacons, with similar powers to those mentioned in the Episcopal Church. RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 179 But that which chiefly distinguishes Ro- man Catholics from Protestants, is their be- lief in the Virgin Mary as an intercessor between God and man, and also in the in- tercession of the Saints or the good persons who have died and are supposed to be in the enjoyment of heaven. These, they think, can hear and transmit the prayers of the faithful on earth, to Christ, and that the prayers of the Virgin Mary are especially efficacious with her son Jesus Christ. They believe in the use of images and relics of Saints and the Virgin, and generally wear these and the crucifix, or image of Christ, about their person as a supposed safeguard from evil, and as reminders of their depen- dence upon these persons for salvation. Roman Catholics also believe in the prayers of the church for the dead, and what is called High Mass is said in the church, after death. These prayers are said for the dead, believing that there is a middle state, called Purgatory, between Heaven and Hell, into which persons pass 180 RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. for purification before entering Heaven, and therefore that the prayers of the church, and good people, will avail to get them from the transition state into Heaven. Their chief reliance for salvation is in the blood of Christ, but they believe that their good works of prayer, fasting and almsgiv- ing are meritorious. They believe in the saving grace of baptism, and that after the form has been used, the person is regene- rate, and delivered from all sin ; besides the use of water, they anoint with oil and use salt, and the rite is performed somewhat after the following manner : The priest blows three times upon the face of the person, saying, " Depart out of him, Unclean Spirit, and give place to the Holy Spirit, the Comforter ; " he then makes a sign of the cross on the forehead and breast, and a grain of salt is put into the mouth of the person, and he is admonished to keep the soul from the corruption of sin. Oil is used to anoint the breast and between the shoulders, and water is then poured upon RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 181 the head three times in the form of the cross saying, " I baptize thee in the name of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost;" then a white linen cloth is put upon the head, and a lighted candle is placed in the hand, the priest saying, " Keep the light of faith ever burning by the oil of good works." He finally pro- nounces the blessing: "Go in peace; the Lord be with thee." They believe in the sacraments of confir- mation, marriage, penance, extreme unction, and holy orders, but that of the Lord's Supper, or Eucharist, as they call it, and Baptism, are the only ones held in common with Protestants, and we will only give these to show how they differ from that body of Christians. They believe in the Real Presence of the body and blood of Christ in the Lord's Supper; or that the bread and wine are changed by the cpnse- cration of the priest into the real body and blood of Christ; this they term Transubstan- tiation, or the change of the substance from 182 . RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. bread and wine into flesh and blood. In performing this sacrament the priest blesses the bread, or wafer, as they call it, and then the people go up to the rail before the altar and kneel down, holding a towel, or white cloth, before their breasts so that if a particle of the bread should fall it may be received into the towel and not fall to the ground. Then the priest distributes it to them, making the sign of the cross with the con- secrated bread upon each one, saying, "The body of our Lord Jesus Christ preserve thy soul unto everlasting life." They do not give the cup to the people, but the priest takes all the wine, believing that after con- secration, the whole body, and blood and divinity is substantially contained in the wafer or in the wine, and that it is not nec- essary to give both, and the bread is distrib- uted instead of the wine, as there is danger of spilling the blood of Christ if all receive the cup. Their church service is called the mass, and it is in the form of a liturgy or manual. RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 183 It is read in Latin, that being the original language in which it was written, and the translation accompanies each part, and is thus comprehended by those who can read, while the ignorant accept the form and hear it in a devout manner, believing in the power of the priest to present it to God for them, although they may not under- stand the words. Their faith in the priest- hood is extreme, and they have frequent access to them for spiritual advice, the spe- cial guide of each individual is the priest, who presides over the congregation of which he is a member, and according to his dicta- tion are performed outward acts of contri- tion, satisfaction and confession, called pen- ances, by which those sins into which they may have fallen after baptism can be remit- ted ; some of these penances are very se- vere, sometimes requiring much bodily suf- fering and great sacrifices of time and pleas- ure, and often much fasting before absolu- tion is given by the priest. They have what is called the confessional, and the 184 RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. apartments devoted to this purpose are small closets or curtained places in the church or chapel wherein the priest stands, outside of which the person who confesses kneels with head covered, and repeats his sins and receives the admonitions of the priest; it is not necessary that the individ- ual be known personally to the priest; all that the priest is required to do, is to hear and absolve as he may deem proper. This constitutes one great hold which the priest- hood have upon the people, and they are will- ing to accept from them all advice upon mat- ters of conscience. The priests wear robes and vestments while officiating in the church , and these are sometimes very elaborately embroidered and enriched by lace and other materials. This sect denounces as heretics all who do not believe in their teachings, and they believe that none can be saved outside of their church, excepting by a spe- cial providence of God in cases of ignorance of their doctrines. The Bible is interpreted by their priests RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 185 for the people, and Roman Catholics are said to be opposed to the Free Schools of America, because the Bible is permitted to be read and taught in these schools. They exclude it from their own schools, as a whole, believing it to be wrong to place it in the hands of those who may be led to interpret it for themselves. That portion of it which they allow for general use con- tains only the New Testament, the Old Testament being given in the form of a Bible History which hns been compiled for this purpose. This question has caused a great deal of discussion in the political world, as Free Schools are a government institution, and it has influenced many political elections throughout the country, when it has been made a test question, whether the candidate under consideration would vote for or against Free Schools. This plan of interpreting the Bible is another bond of Union for Ro- manists, all being made to adopt the inter- pretation of this church before becoming a member of the same ; while Protestants 186 RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. differ and are divided into sects just as men will naturally differ on any subject they are allowed to discuss freely. While the Roman Catholics are all united under one head, there is however a secret society among them know r n as Jesuits, whose spe- cial object is for its propagation. It was this Societjr, as our readers will remember, who established themselves in Japan in 1549, but who were destroyed or driven from the Empire in 1595. This sect had in 1870 seven archbishops; forty-five bish- ops; seven vicars-apostolic; thirty -five hun- dred and five priests, and according to ttie best authorities, three millions, three hundred and fifty-four thousand members. The most devoted people in this denom- ination think it incumbent upon them to make certain sacrifices of time and service, and voluntarily go into entire seclusion from the world. For this object they have institutions called Nunneries, to which the women retire and take certain vows, and live within their enclosures during the re- RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 187 mainder of their lives; of course, these women Lever marry. There are also Mon- asteries where the men retire from the world and also take the vow of celibacy, which means never to marry ; they devote themselves, generally, to teaching young men, and there is a college for that purpose connected with most of these institutions ; as there are also female academies connect- ed with the Nunneries. Another class of religious people who occupy a position peculiar to themselves, are the Jews or Israelites, whose history is identified with ancient and modern times, and more replete with incidents than any other. Although unable to give the extent of their population in America, we may safely state that they are to be found in almost every city and town in the country, and they claim to have about two hundred congregations. Though standing alone in their religious beliefs, they have the credit of manifesting great energy in prosecuting works of charity in behalf of the sick, the 188 RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. needy and the widows and orphans of their own people. A large proportion of them are wedded to the doctrines of their illus- trious father, the patriarch Abraham, with whom the recognition of one Supreme Being originated, and has been cherished to the present day by Bible believers. A party has sprung up among them, of late years, called the Reformed or Christian Jews, and they advocate a religion of progress, in which they have been somewhat successful. They never intermarry with people not of their own race, and from time immemorial have been noted for their sagacity in accumulat- ing money. Their history, which occupies a large space in the Bible, is considered the most wonderful in the annals of religion throughout the world. Of all the rites or ceremonies which are practiced by the Jews, the most strict and solemn is that which annually occurs on what they call the Day of Atonement. It is marked by a rigid fast, which commences at sunset on one evening, and ends with RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 189 sunset on the following day, during which time the more faithful of the sect will not permit a morsel of food or water to pass their lips. During all this period they offer up prayers, clad in such garments as are used in burying the dead ; and until the close of this special season for religious worship their synagogues are crowded with worshippers, who, like the Quakers, inva- riably wear their hats in all public assem- blies. In looking at the people of the United States in the aggregate, it has been esti- mated that about seven-eighths of them are either allied to the Protestants have no religion at all, or come under the head of miscellaneous sects, while the remainder are Roman Catholics. Nearly all the de- nominations are amply supplied with theo- logical institutions, which number more than one hundred, and those who are edu- cated in them are always expected to be- come the advocates of the doctrines in which they have been instructed. As to 190 RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. the benevolent institutions for the relief of suffering humanity, they are to be found in nearly all the individual States, and are chiefly supported by the Protestant sects or by the people through their legislatures. In their internal arrangements all these asylums and hospitals are in keeping with the advanced improvements of the age. By means of raised letters the blind are ena- bled to read ; by wise treatment the insane are made docile, and contented with their unhappy condition ; and by personal kind- ness and sign-alphabets the deaf and the dumb are instructed and made to forget their misfortunes. The total number of these unfortunates in the United States is nearly one hundred thousand. To give an account of the hospitals the homes for the orphan and widow and other charitable institutions of the country, would occupy more space than can be afforded in this work, but we can state that they are very numerous, liberally endowed and as efficiently conducted as any in the world ; RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 191 and when necessary, people from every clime can find a convenient place where they may be cared for, whether their trou- bles are the result of poverty, of accidents, of sickness or any other misfortunes. Of all the visible evidences of prosperity among the religious people of America, the most impressive and extensive, are the Churches or Temples of Christian worship. Not only are they to be found on almost every street in the larger cities, but they are the leading architectural attractions in the towns and villages of the whole country. Bricks and every variety of stone are em- ployed in their construction ; every school of architecture is called upon to beautify them with their designs ; and the money expended in building them, ranges from ten or twenty thousand, to one or two millions of dollars. The current expenses of these churches are paid by voluntary subscrip- tions, or with the money received through the renting or sale of pews or seats. The ministers who preside over these 192 RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. churches, excepting the Roman Catholics, who are supported in a different manner, receive by way of compensation from five hundred to ten thousand dollars, according to the wealth of the congregations. These churches are open for public worship twice on every Sunday, and occasionally on week days ; are never used for mere secular pur- poses ; and in many of them, elaborate music, consisting of singing combined with magnificent organs, forms an important part of the services. It is from these churches, moreover, that the money goes forth for the support of charitable and benevolent institutions, and for spreading the religion of the Bible, by means of missionaries, throughout the world. There is also at- tached to most of these congregations what are called Sunday Schools in which children, both rich and poor, are instructed in the ways of Christianity. While it is true, as we have already stated, that there is no State religion in America, it is also true, however, that the religious denominations RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 193 of the country, occasionally exercise a de- cided influence in public affairs ; and when a man of mark puts himself forward as a candidate for an elective office, his chances of success very frequently turn upon the nature of his religious belief, and hence, we find a perpetual warfare going on in America, between the Protestants and Roman Catho- lics, which is anything but creditable to the parties, an honor to the country, or a bless- ing to the world. Although only indirectly connected with the foregoing subject we deem it quite proper to append in this place a few words in regard to the noted Secret Societies known as Free Masons and Odd-Fellows. The first, which is identified with the his- tory of architecture, is claimed to have orig- inated in the religious mysteries of the an- cient world and especially in Asia Minor. Members of the fraternity are found in every quarter of the globe, but it is perhaps more flourishing in the United States than else- where. They have what they call a Grand 194 RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. Lodge in all the States of the Union, and many of the most distinguished men in this country have been members of the Order. Their highest officer is called a Royal Arch Mason ; in the exercise of charity, particu- larly towards their fellow-members, they are eminently liberal; and their houses, which are called temples, are numerous and often very handsome ; and their publications are highly respectable, if not abundant. The fraternity known as Odd-Fellows, bears a general resemblance to the Free Ma- sons, traces its origin to the fourth Century, and has until recently been confined to Great Britain and the United States, in which latter country it is exceedingly prosperous. Like the Free Masons, they have their Lodges and many officers, and it is said that in the last forty years they have expended for charitable purposes not less than fifteen millions of dollars. The relief furnished to its members during sickness, and to their families after death, is accorded to them as a right. Connected with this Order is an RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 195 institution which they call the Grand En- campment, whose members are known as patriarchs and priests, and which consists of past officers of the several subordinate Encampments. The State Grand Lodges consist of the past officers of the subordi- nate Lodges ; and the Grand Lodge of the United States, which is the highest body of the Order in this country, is formed of Representatives elected by the several State Grand Lodges. Some years ago, by the action of the present Yice-President of the United States, Schuyler Colfax, (who is a distinguished member of this Order,) women were admitted to a partial fellowship in it; and since then, at stated periods, the differ- ent subordinate Lodges confer upon such wives and widows of Odd-Fellows who may desire it, what is termed the " Degree of Rebecca." But there is one feature connected with religion in America, which is peculiar to this country, and must not be forgotten in this summary. We allude to the Young 196 RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. Meris Christian Associations. There are one thousand of these Societies in the United States, and they are conducted by an active element in the various churches, and with- out any denominational distinctions. They are supported by the free-will contributions, on the part of their members, and their buildings in the larger cities, are frequently quite splendid and beautiful. They are generally so arranged as to afford under one roof, a library of the best books, a Read- ing Room supplied with the leading news- papers and periodicals of the day, a General Receiving Room, where religious services are held for those who wish to attend them, and a Lecture Room, where able men are invited to lecture. To all of these privileges excepting the Lectures, the public are ad- mitted without any charge, and the good which these associations have already ac- complished in elevating the tone of Society, is considered in the light of a national bless- ing. It is proper, before concluding this chap- RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 197 ter, that the writer should submit a few par- ticulars respecting its' arrangement, which are somewhat personal to himself. Af- ter his return to Japan from Europe, some years ago, he was frequently questioned by his countrymen as to his opinions about the Christian Religion. In his replies, he took the ground, that, so far as he could understand it, the Bible was a good and a wise book, but that it contained many things he did not understand. That while the peo- ple, who called themselves Christians claim- ed to have the only true religion and pre- tended to be better than all other men, they did not, in that particular, differ from the Chinese or Japanese, who assert the same claims for their religions. He thought it advisable that those who desire to form any opinion on Christianity, should acquaint themselves with it by close and attentive study, and then to judge for themselves. Hence, in the present chapter his desire has been simply to give facts, and in the plain- est possible terms. Whatever may be his 198 RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. private opinions, on matters of such great importance, he has not thought it proper for him either to oppose or advocate them. According to his observations, a very large proportion of the American people are known by the name of Christians, and yet a great many things are said and done by them, which do not accord with the principles of their own Bible ; but, is not this true of every nation upon the earth ? Where men think that they know everything, and boast of their superior wisdom, the presumption is that they have yet much to learn ; and all human experience as well as the Bible of the Christians, inculcate the idea that before men can be wise and good, they must be humble. It w r ould be a very won- derful thing, should the time ever arrive, when the so-called Christians, who profess the faith, but do not live up to it, shall cease to boast of the superiority of their religion, and regard themselves as worse than all other people, because of their guilt in mak- ing insincere professions. True Chris- RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 199 tianity may not be considered as identical with the general sense of civilization in which the good and the bad participate, but true philosophy would seem to teach that it should be a leading element in such civilization. PART SIXTH. LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. THE term factory, as employed in Amer- ica, means a place where men and women are engaged in fabricating goods. In this paper, it is proposed to speak of those es- tablishments, especially, where the staples of cotton and wool are turned into the woven fabrics, commonly known as calicos, sheetings, carpetings, cloths made of both materials, as well as hosiery and worsted goods, blankets, shawls, table covers, felted cloths and bedspreads. The largest amount of cotton ever pro- duced in this country, in one year, was in 1860, the year before the late Rebellion, when the figures reached 4,669,770 bales, each bale weighing 465 pounds ; and the factories numbered 1091. According to the last published statistics, the supply of 204 LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. cotton reached only 2,500,000 bales ; the number of cotton mills or factories is 831, of which 444 are in New England ; 86 in the Southern States ; 220 in the Middle States, and the balance in the Western States. The total value of the cotton crop was $270,000,000, and it is said that the people producing it, sold and exported the whole of it, excepting the value of $10,000,000 kept for home consumption. But, however we may arrange the cot- ton statistics of America, the fact remains that its cotton manufactures, though still very large, have declined of late years, and are greatly excelled by those of England. The annual production of wool in the United States is estimated at about one hundred millions of dollars, while that of Great Britain in 1868, was in pounds 260,- 000,000; Germany, 200,000,000; France, 123,000,000; Russia in Europe, 125,000,- 000 ; Spain, Italy and Portugal, 119,000,- 000 ; Austria, South America and South Africa, 157.000,000 ; British North Ameri- LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. 205 ca, 12,000,000; North Africa, 49,000,000 ; and Asia, 470,000,000 ; making the aggre- gate of wool produced in the world, 1,610,- 000,000 pounds or one pound and a quarter to each inhabitant on the globe on the supposition that the total population is twelve hundred and eighty-five millions. As is the case with cotton, the most numer- ous woolen factories of America are found in New England. With these few particu- lars in view, we may proceed to speak of the peculiarities of factory life in the Uni- ted States, which of course must be done in very general terms. Wherever in the northern portions of the country, is to be found the best supply of water, suitable for running machinery, there do the manufacturing establishments mostly congregate. And it is because New Eng- land is rocky and not well suited to agri- culture, and also because its rivers are numerous and well adapted for mills, that its manufactures have become especially celebrated. The villages which have 206 LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. sprung up out of this kind of business, are to be found in every part of the land ; and while some of them consist only of the houses collected around one factory, others contain a number of factories, and are pro- portionally large. In one place the owner- ship may be vested in one man ; at another place in an organized company of men ; and then again, a single man or family may be the proprietor of several factories, employ- ing thousands of hands to carry them on, and requiring millions of money for their support. In this connection a few such men as Amos and Abbot Lawrence and William Sprague have acquired national rep- utations. In many instances the small villages alluded to are located in the midst of beautiful scenery, and the necessary sur- roundings of the mills, which give them ex- istence, are pleasant little churches, com- fortable school houses, shops for the sale of household merchandize, and appropriate houses for the shelter of the operatives. Men, women and children are all employed LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. 207 in these factories, and generally speaking, they absorb all the laboring population to be found in the country immediately sur- rounding them, as well as many persons from abroad. The idea of strict discipline is recognized and carried out, from the overseer down to the humblest workman, and it is in these small villages that a greater amount of comfort is enjoyed by the persons employed, than in the larger manu- facturing cities. Of course the facilities for obtaining the raw materials of cotton and wool and for transporting the manufactured goods to market, are commensurate with the necessities of the case ; and the establish- ments where the goods are sold, are gene- rally located in the larger cities. But a truly comprehensive idea of fac- tory life in America cannot be had without considering its character as we find it in the larger towns or cities, and no better ex- ample can be selected for that purpose than the city of Lowell in Massachusetts. What may be said of this place, is also true, only 208 LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. in a different degree, of all the factory towns throughout the country, and especially such places as Lawrence, Providence, Norwich, and Worcester ; and it may safely he said, that the aggregate number of persons who obtain their living hy means of the cotton and woolen factories of the country, is not less than three hundred thousand. The growth and prosperity of Lowell as a manu- facturing town, are without any parallel in America. It lies on the river Merrimack, and the water power is formed hy dams that are thirty feet high. It has not less than fifteen manufacturing corporations, with about sixty mills, which employ a capital of fifteen millions of dollars, and support about fifteen thousand hands, from the be- ginning to the close of the year, while the entire population of the city is nearly fifty thousand. All the mills are heated by steam and lighted by gas. The women who work in them far out-number the men; and although, a few years ago, much the larger proportion of these were native Amer- IN THE FACTORIES. 209 kans, so great a change has taken place in this particular, that the majority are now foreigners and chiefly Irish. The men are without ambition, and the women work for the sole purpose of making money, and not because they like the employment. Wid- ows are there, toiling for the education of their children; and daughters are there, hoarding up their wages to pay the debts of improvident fathers. The labor of the women is essentially on an equality with that of the men ; but while the former receive from two to three dollars per week, in addi- tion to their board, the latter receive from four to six dollars for the same period. The time for labor ranges from ten to twelve hours per day, and extra sets of hands are often employed for night work. The hands are summoned to their work by the ringing of bells ; a brief time only is allowed for meals; and the only opportunities which the operatives have for recreation or study are at night, when worn out with the fatigue engendered by the jar and whirl of the ma- 210 LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. chinery in the mills. When the American element prevailed in these factories, an ear- nest effort was made to elevate the minds of the thousands of girls employed, and for a time, these efforts were successful. A monthly periodical was established called the "Lowell Offering," which was supported entirely by the productions of females work- ing in the mills, and in which, many valua- ble papers were published. For a time this magazine was very successful, and excited much wonder and comment among the fac- tory people of New England, but the novel- ty soon wore off, and the work was sus- pended. A leading American writer, while mourning over this fact, and also over the fact that there was so little comfort to be found in these large manufacturing towns, said, that the patron Saint of Lowell was Work; that the "Factory Girls" might be counted by the acre ; that the motto over the gateways should be, "Work or Die;" and that the fifty factories in the city were each larger and more imposing than the LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. 211 temples of worship in Japan and China. In the largest of these mills from one thousand to fifteen hundred women or girls are con- stantly employed, and from three hundred to five hundred men. Each manufacturing company owns from twenty to thirty dwell- ings, which are leased to responsible persons as boarding houses for the exclusive bene- fit of the hands employed in the factories. These dwellings are large enough to accom- modate from forty to fifty inmates, and the sexes are kept entirely separate. The Cor- porations also provide hospitals in which the work-people find attendance in sickness, for which, if they be unable to pay, the employers are responsible. While it is true that the young people, who are obliged to work in the factories, have little or no time to cultivate their minils, the younger chil- dren of the married people have every facil- ity afforded them to obtain knowledge ; the common schools of the city are numerous, well conducted, and chiefly under the direc- tion of competent female teachers. There 212 LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. is also a good library in the city, where all who are fond of reading, no matter how poor, can be furnished with useful and en- tertaining books : and the religious privi- leges enjoyed by all, by means of numerous churches, and the weekly day of rest which is called Sunday, are all that could be de- sired. But notwithstanding these many advantages, recent writers on this subject have declared that the extinction of the educated American operative has become an accomplished fact, and the mills of Low- ell, as well as those of the Atlantic States generally, are now worked, as already sta- ted, by immigrants from Europe from Ire- land, Wales and Germany. But these, as they grow in intelligence and begin to go westward, like their predecessors, demand higher wages, shorter hours for work, and more freedom. They have learned the European lesson of fighting employers by combinations, and altogether, the problem has become so confused, that the manufac- turers are beginning to look for relief to the LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. 213 Chinese, a number of whom have already been induced to enter the factories of New England. American girls are said to be growing dissatisfied with the restraints of factory life, where they have to compete with the more rugged and experienced women from European countries ; hence they go to the larger cities and become do- mestic servants; but that kind of employ- ment they find irksome, and so they make another effort to succeed according to their wishes, and emigrate, as best they can, to the Western States. In the further elucidation of this subject, it is proper that we should consider the opin- ions of the manufacturers themselves. They assert that the opprobrious epithet of "white slavery," which has sometimes been applied to the labor in the New England fac- tories is wholly unwarranted. They claim to have purged it of every element of feud- alism ; that they have avoided the English plan of employing whole families in the mill, often including children, who should 214 LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. have been at school, the families being kept in a state of absolute dependence upon the mill, and exposed to suffering when- ever business was not prosperous. They claim also to have abolished the custom of payment by orders on a factory store, which tended to involve the work people in debt, and they instituted the practice of weekly payment of wages in money; and that they have done all that could be done, to secure the independence as well as comfort of the American operatives. And here it occurs to us, we may furn- ish a further illustration of factory life in America by submitting a brief description of what may be termed a model New Eng- land establishment, as follows : It is located in the city of Lawrence ; is a joint stock company, with one hundred and fifty stock- holders and nine directors ; has one hun- dred thousand spindles ; and has a capital of $2,500,000, while its property is valued at a considerable advance on that sum. The manufactured goods, consisting chiefly LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. 215 of fabrics for the wear of women, made both of cotton and wool, which are annually sold, amount to about $7,500,000 ; and the to- tal dividends, declared, during the last twelve years, was more than three millions of dollars. The total number of work-people em- ployed in this factory is thirty-six hundred, of whom the men number 1680 ; women, 1510 ; boys, between ten and twelve years of age, 80, and between twelve and eigh- teen, 140 ; girls, between ten and twelve, 40, and between twelve and eighteen, 150. The lowest weekly wages, according to gold rates, are as follows: for men, $6.75; wo- men, $2.48 ; boys, $2.85 ; and young girls, $1.82 ; while spinners, weavers and a few others, receive according to the quantity of goods produced, and some of them large wages. Very many of the operatives are frugal with their money, and have invested their earnings in the stock of the company itself, deposited it in Saving's Banks, or purchased the bonds of the General Gov- 216 LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. ernment ; some of them have been so suc- cessful as to be elected members of the City Government ; and not a few are the owners of comfortable houses. Where men are obliged to hire houses, they pay only one- eighth of their wages for rent ; and for the comfort and accommodation of the unmar- ried females, a large building has been erec- ted, holding not less than eight hundred persons, who pay, for food, lights and wash- ing, only one-third of their regular wages. Connected with the establishment is what they call a " Relief Society," organized for the care and support of the sick among the work people. Every possible attention is paid, both to the morals, and intellectural culture of the operatives. No men are em- ployed who are intemperate in their habits, and the use of profane language and the ill treatment of subordinates strictly prohibi- ted. All females are compelled to be at their lodgings by ten o'clock at night, and none of them are permitted to attend im- proper places of resort. No child under LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. 217 ten years of age, according to law, is allowed to work in the factory, and all the boys and girls must be furnished with from eleven to sixteen weeks of schooling, in each year, and all the schools are paid for by the Com- pany. Of the persons employed, less than fifty in every thousand, are unable to read, and for the benefit of all there is a well conducted Library, with pleasant reading rooms for both sexes, and every facility is afforded for attending lectures, and places of profitable amusement. A week's labor in this establishment will produce more yards of cloth, than is produced in any European mill, but it is claimed that a yard of cloth costs less in Europe, which latter point, however, is not conceded by the Ameri- cans. But let us now look for a moment, at some of the local results of the cotton and woolen manufactures of recent times. It has been said, that where one person, a cen- tury ago, consumed one yard of woven goods, the consumption per head, has since 218 LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. risen to about twenty-six yards. This vast difference in the comforts of every family, by the ability which they now possess of easily acquiring warm and healthful cloth- ing, is a clear gain to all society, and to every individual as a portion of society. It is more especially a gain, they say, to the females and the children of families, whose condition is always degraded when clothing is scanty. The power of procuring cheap clothing for themselves, and for their chil- dren, has a tendency to raise the condition of females more than any other addition to their stock of comfort. It cultivates Jiabits of cleanliness and decency, which are con- sidered in America, great aids to virtue, if not actual virtues themselves. There is little self-respect amid dirt and rags, accord- ing to the American belief, and without self-respect there can be no foundation for those qualities which mostly contribute to the good of society. The power of procur- ing useful clothing at a cheap price has tended to raise the condition of women in LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. 219 America, and the influence of the condition of women upon the welfare of a community can never be too highly estimated. If there be one thing more remarkable than another in the visible condition of the peo- ple of the United States, it is the univer- sality of good clothing. The distinction between the rich man and the artisan, or between the lady and her maid, is oftentimes almost imperceptible. Perhaps the absence of mere finery, and the taste which accom- panies good education, constitute the chief difference in the dress of various ranks ; and this feature of the present time is a part of the social history of America. The history of the cotton and woolen manufactures has occupied the minds of many of the ablest men in the world, and their developments are of vital interest to the whole human family. The arts of spinning and weaving were slowly devel- oped from the time of the simple distaff, and it was just as they had reached something like completion, that an American named 220 LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. Eli Whitney, invented the cotton gin in 1793, which at once gave a new character and impulse to the growth, as well as the manufacture of cotton. This invention was the final step by which the whole process of manufacturing cotton into cloth, was ef- fected by machinery ; and just about that time, steam was introduced to the world as an agent of limitless power, in driving ma- chinery of every kind; new channels of internal communication were opened be- tween the different parts of the world ; chemistry furnished the means for rapidly bleaching the fabrics produced from cotton ; and all the resources of science and skill, of invention and industry, seemed combined to create an immensely increased demand for the raw material upon which all these labors were to be expended. And if some- thing like this enterprise can be transported to Japan, what may we not expect, in the future, from that Empire ? There are many wonderful inventions connected with the manufacture of cotton, LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. 221 but nothing is perhaps more astonishing than the rapidity with which some portions of the machinery is employed. Notice the fact for example, that the very finest thread which is used in making lace is passed through the strong flame of a lamp, which burns off the fibres, without burning the thread itself. The velocity with which the thread moves, is so great that the motion cannot be perceived. The line of thread, passing off a wheel through the flame, looks as if it were perfectly at rest ; and it ap- pears a miracle that it is not burned. The primary object of the extensive and com- plicated machinery employed in the manu- facture of cotton has been of course cheap- ness of production, and in that particular the advance, from the time of the distaff, has been wonderful and success, complete. Nor has this been done at the expense of the working classes. Ten years after the introduction of the machines, the people employed in the trade, spinners and weav- ers, were more than forty times as numer- 222 LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. ous as when the spinning was done by hand. It was thought that the newly discovered power might supersede human labor alto- gether, but such was by no means the case. It only gave a new direction to the labor that had previously been employed at the distaff and spindle ; but it increased the quantity of labor, altogether employed in the manufacture of cotton, at least a hun- dred fold. What is here said of the ma- chines for manufacturing cotton, is also true of those employed in the woolen, the silk, and the linen manufactories, and to the un- educated eye and understanding they are all wonderful, and of incalculable value to the commercial world. But there is another curious machine which we may, with propriety, mention in this place, and that is one for making needles. Hitherto, the largest number of needles used in America were made in Eng- land, but there is a machine in New Haven in which the whole process is performed without the manual labor of a single person. LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. 223 A coil of steel wire is put into it ; then the machine cuts it off at the required lengths, punches the eye holes, countersinks the eyes, and then sharpens the needle, when it drops out a perfected thing. They are also arranged and put up in paper by ano- ther machine ; and the number of needles thus manufactured per day by each ma- chine is about forty thousand. But before dismissing the subject under consideration, we would submit to the Jap- anese reader a few remarks on the art, whose object is merely to beautify the very numerous fabrics which are made in the various factories already alluded to, the art of printing cloth in colors. It applies to the most common as well as to the finest productions of the loom ; and the science of the dyer, the beauty of his patterns, and the perfection of his machinery, have become universally celebrated. As an ex- perienced writer has said, there is a strik- ing, although natural parallel, between printing a piece of cloth and printing the 224 LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. sheets of a book or newspaper. Block printing is the impress of the pattern by hand, as block-books were made four cen- turies ago. There are no block-books now, for machinery has banished that tedious process. But block printing is used for costly shawls and velvets, which require to have many colors produced by repeated impressions from blocks covered with dif- ferent colors. Except for the most expen- sive fabrics, however, this mode is super- seded by block printing with a press, in which several blocks are set in a frame. Then again they have what they call cyl- inder-printing, which resembles the rapid working of the book printing machine, each producing with great cheapness. As the pattern has to be obtained from several cyl- inders, each having its own color, there is great nicety in the operation ; and the most beautiful mechanism is necessary for feed- ing the cylinder with color; moving the cloth to meet the revolving cylinder; and giving to the machine its power of impress- LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. 225 ion. But those who witness this operation can hardly realize the ultimate effect sub- sequently obtained by the process of dyeing. Fast colors are produced by the use in the patterns of substances called mordants; which may be colorless themselves, but re- ceive the color of the dye-bath, which color is only fixed in the parts touched by the mordants, and is washed out from the parts not touched. Other processes are also employed, which enhance the beauty of the fabrics. It is thus seen that the chemist, the ma- chinist, the designer and the engraver, set the calico-printtng works in operation, so that the carrying on of this complicated business can only be profitably done on a large scale. Very numerous also are the employments required merely to produce the dyes, with which the calico printer works. The mineral, vegetable and even the animal kingdom, combine their natural productions in the colors of a lady's dress ; there is the sulphur from Sicily, salt from 226 LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. Austria or Turk's Island, peculiar woods from Brazil, indigo from the East and West Indies, madder from France, and insects from Mexico. The discoveries of science, in combination with experience and skill, have set all this industry in motion, and given a value to innumerable productions of nature, which would otherwise be use- less or unemployed ; and they also create modes of cultivation which are important sources of national prosperity. But of all the discoveries of chemistry, in this connec- tion, was that of chlorid of lime, which has become the universal bleaching powder of modern manufactures. What was formerly the work of eight months, is now accom- plished in an hour or two, so that a bag of raw dingy cotton, may now be converted into the whitest cloth within the space of a single month. As an appropriate conclusion to the fore- going remarks, we may now submit a few general facts on the American Tariff of duties on imported merchandize. This has LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. 227 been the means on which the Federal Gov- ernment has chiefly depended for its sup- port, ever since it came into existence. It has also been amply sufficient for affording money to extend its territory, carry on wars, execute treaties and accumulate a large property in lands, buildings and ma- terials for war. From the earliest times however, the people have been divided into two great political parties on this subject, and yet the friends and opponents of the measure have in the main admitted that it is the best means for raising the public revenue, inasmuch as direct taxation has been thought impolitic for Federal revenue. There is a large class of people moreover, who believe that the levying of duties is detrimental to the agricultural interests. These, and numerous questions of a similar character, have long occupied the minds of the leading statesmen of the United States, and they remain unsettled to this day. As the political parties have gained ascen- dency, so have the tariff rates been changed 228 LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. or modified, from time to time, and in look- ing back over the forty years prior to the late civil war, we find that the rates of duty have varied from eighteen to forty-eight per centum, and that the largest receipts from customs during the period in question were in 1854, and amounted to $64,224,- 190, when the free imports reached $33,285,821, and the dutiable imports $271,276,560. The total imports at the port of New York in 1870, amounted to $315,200,022; and the exports, to $254,- 137,208 ; while the figures for all the States for the same year, were imports, $373,894,- 980 and the exports, $328,072,226 ; and for 1869, imports, $463,461,427, and ex- ports, $394,644,335. That these enormous figures have an important bearing upon the success, or want of success of the factory system in the United States, must be ap- parent to all men, who investigate these subjects. In accounting for the excess of imports over the exports, it may be stated that the LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. 229 difference arises chiefly from the importa- tion of articles of luxury. The American people are practical, and while they confine themselves, chiefly to producing the neces- saries and comforts of life, and to accumula- ting money, they are quite willing to obtain their fashions and articles of luxury from Europe. Notwithstanding the immense im- migration from abroad, the American people have always had enough to feed all who come to their shores, and to provide employ- ment for all ; and the strength of the nation is shown by the fact that in spite of the large amounts which are expended for the mere elegancies of life, which the rich bring over from Europe, the country is constantly prospering. But again. Statistics show that the trade of the United States has been regularly progressing, until interfered with by the late civil war. Generally speaking, the ex- ports have exceeded the imports, and the balance of trade has been in favor of Amer- ica. The export of grain does not depend 230 LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. upon the state of the crops, so much as upon the wants of other countries. The great variety of the native productions exported gives assurance of the impossibility of fail- ure of the resources of the nation. Figures also show that there is no industrial pursuit in which the people of the United States do not regularly progress, and that there is little demand for any class of produce which they are not able to supply. As the revenue of the country depends in a great measure upon the customs du- ties, so does its prosperity chiefly depend upon the amount of its exports of bread- stuffs and all sorts of merchandize ; but as the theories which have been brought to bear upon this subject are widely different and have occupied the minds of the ablest writers, they cannot be entered upon in this chapter. Upon one subject, however, all men are agreed, viz : that the extension of commerce will do more than anything else to diffuse the blessings of civilization, to bind together the universal society of na- LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. 231 tions, by sharpening, and at the same time gratifying their mutual wants and desires, and to maintain undisturbed that tranquility so indispensable to its full development. P. S. Since the foregoing chapter was sent to the printer, we have received from the Bureau of Statistics and the Census Bureau some interesting particulars bear- ing upon the Factory, Mechanical and Farm life of the United States, which ought not to be omitted in this place. The following have reference to 1 869. The hours of labor per week were sixty-six; and omitting overseers, the average weekly earnings of operatives in the cotton mills was $5.56 in gold. The wages in the woolen mills ranged from five to seventeen dollars per week, including overseers ; in the paper mills from four and a half to twenty-six dollars ; in establishments for making musical instru- ments from fifteen to thirty-one dollars; in foundries and machine shops from eight to twenty-four dollars ; and in leather estab- 232 LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. lishments from nine to twenty-five dollars per week. In 1870, the average daily wages were for blacksmiths, $4.85 ; masons, $5.66 ; cabinet makers, $4.99 ; carpenters, $5.03; coopers, $4.30; painters, $5.36; plasterers, $6. 51; shoemakers, $4.49 ; stone cutters, $6.10; tailors, $4.58; tanners, $3.97 ; tinsmiths, $4.96 ; and wheelwrights, $5.37. The wages for farm labor in the Eastern States, ranged from 73 cents to $1.49 per day, but on the Pacific States and Territories from $1.35 to $2.97 per day. As a subject of general interest, we also submit a list, showing the average re- tail prices, for the leading necessaries of life in 1869, as follows : Flour, $7.36 per barrel ; beef, veal, mutton and pork, nine to twenty-two cents per pound; butter, 38 cents per pound ; dried fish, thirteen to fif- teen cents per pound ; potatoes per bushel, 75 cents ; rice per pound, thirteen cents ; beans, eleven cents ; milk, nine cents per quart ; eggs, 29 cents per dozen ; tea, $1.40 per pound ; coffee, 28 to 35 cents ; LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. 233 sugar, fifteen to seventeen cents per pound; coal, $10.80 per ton ; and wood per cord, $3.98 to $4.98. The prices for plain house rent, ranged from ten to fifteen dollars per month ; and plain board from $4.14 to $4.80 per week. And finally, for the want of a better place to print them, we submit the following aggregate of returns for the year 1870, respecting the agricultural re- sources of the country : Acres improved, 188,806,761 Acres woodland, . . -. . . . . 158,908,121 Acres unimproved, . ... . . 59,366,633 Cash value of farms, $9,261,775,121 Cash value of agricultural implements, $336,890,871 Wages paid, ....... .$310,068,473 Farm products, $2,445,602,379 Value of live stock, $1,524,271,714 Wheat, bushels, . . . . . . . 267,730,931 Rye, bushels, .,. . . . . . 17,000,000 Indian corn, bushels, . . . . . . 760,963,204 Oats, bushels, . . . ....'.. 282,095,996 Barley, bushels, ........ 29,761,267 Buckwheat, bushels, 9,821,662 Rice, pounds, 73,635,021 Tobacco, pounds, 262,729,640 234 LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. Cotton, bales, 2,999,721 Wool, pounds, 102,053,264 Potatoes, bushels, 143,230,000 Sweet potatoes, bushels, 21,634,000 Wine, gallons, 3,096,000 Cheese, pounds, 53,492,000 Butter, pounds, 514,002,460 Milk, gallons, ........ 236,500,000 Hay, tons, " .* . \ . . . . . . 27,416,000 Hops, pounds, 28,456,669 Sugar (cane,) pounds, 87,043,000 Sugar (maple,) pounds, 28,443,000 Molasses (cane,) gallons, . . . . 6,600,000 Molasses (sorghum,) gallons, . . . 16,041,000 PART SEVENTH. EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTI- TUTIONS. ALTHOUGH the cause of Education in America has always been considered of primary interest and importance, there does not, after all, exist a regular and uniform system of instruction. The diversity of plans is almost as various, as the several States of the Union are numerous, for each State, in its sovereign capacity, has a right to devise and execute, and does execute such provisions for the education of the people as are deemed expedient. Setting aside, therefore, a detailed account of all the existing plans, we can only consider in this place the characteristics of the school systems of the States in their collective capacity. It should be remembered, how- ever, that the Federal Government is a 238 EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. most liberal patron of the schools in all parts of the country, and that a majority of the States have received large grants of land to be used for the support of educa- tional institutions, and that they have ap- propriate officers to look after, and expend, the revenue derived from the sale of those lands. Ten years ago, the aggregated amount of money realized from the liber- ality of the general Government was about fifty millions of dollars, but this amount has been annually increased since then; and when to this fund we add the appro- priations regularly made by the State Leg- islatures, we find that the total amount of money spent for educational purposes is truly enormous, and that in this particular, if not in any other, the States of America are unequalled by any other nation. Hence it is, that there is ample provision made by the authorities alone, without including the munificent gifts of private individuals, to furnish every child in the land with a good education, and the black race or Freedmen, EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 239 have the same privileges which are enjoyed by the whites. Prior to the late Rebellion there existed no provision for the education of the colored race, but as soon as they be- came free, measures were taken for their education, and in 1869 the total number who were known to be in attendance upon day, night, or sunday schools, under the auspices of the Freedmen's Bureau, was up- wards of 250,000, and the Freedmen paid out of their own earnings about $200,000 for tuition and $125,000 for school build- ings. But we must now proceed to submit a general account of the educational systems of the United States, and we begin with the Common Schools, the principle of which is the free elementary education of every child in the community, and which under- lies the whole intellectual fabric of the American Republic. The system as for- merly practiced, originated in New England at the commencement of the present cen- tury, and was based upon the following 240 EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. ideas : 1, the instruction of all the children in the State in the rudiments of an English education, viz reading, writing, elemen- tary arithmetic and geography, and gram- mar, this to be accomplished by schools in every district ; 2, each district to be inde- pendent of every other in all financial mat- ters, and management ; 3, that there should be a superintendent or board of visitors in each town, generally consisting of profes- sional men arid especially clergymen, to examine teachers, inspect the schools, and prescribe text books ; 4, the support of these schools by taxation; and 5, the power of compelling attendance on the part of the town authorities. After an experience of nearly twenty years, it was found that the condition of the schools was not up to the demands of the time, and a revival in the cause of education took place which result- ed in greatly increasing the efficiency of the old system, until it was brought to a state of rare excellence, through the efforts of such men as Horace Mann and Henry Bar- EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 241 nard. The school system was again regen- erated, and now possesses all the elements of the highest efficiency, the leading features of which are as follows : First, a system o f graded schools for each town, embracing primary schools for the younger pupils ; grammar schools for the older, in which are taught, in addition to the common branches, philosophy, chemistry, history, drawing, music, algebra, geometry, and the French language ; high schools for the more advanced, in which are taught the studies necessary for a business education, as well as the languages and the higher mathema- tics. Secondly, the employment of regular visitors, who are paid for their services. Thirdly, the enforcement of uniformity of text books and regularity in attendance. Fourthly, regular and frequent public ex- aminations. Fifthly, the establishment of school libraries in connection with all the schools. Sixthly, the introduction of black boards, globes, maps, charts, and other ap- paratus for instruction. Seventhly, the pro- 242 EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. per construction of school houses. Eighth- ly, the establishment in every State of nor- mal schools for the instruction of regular teachers. Ninthly, the organization of State associations for comparison of meth- ods of teaching, and the establishment of school periodicals. And tenthly, the ex- tension of the privileges of these schools to all the children of the school age in each State either by supporting the schools en- tirely by taxation and the income of funds where they exist, or by taxation and small rate bills, which are abated where they are unable to pay, and the furnishing of neces- sary books to the children of the poor. That the above is a noble ground-work for the education of the masses must be acknowledged by all, and yet we find it a subject of serious complaint that the teach- ers in the common schools are not what they should be. In the great majority of cases, they are said to be too young and inexperienced, and that both the young men and young women employed look upon EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 243 the office merely as a stepping-stone to bet- ter positions or more agreeable employ- ments, and not as a permanent business. An office under the Government, or a pro- fession, will allure the young man from the school room ; and so also, will an offer of marriage, the young woman. Of course there are many teachers whose knowledge, discipline, and nobleness of character, emi- nently fit them for their responsible posts, but they are not sufficiently numerous to form a class ; and it was this fact which caused a prominent writer on the subject to suggest that all badly managed schools should be closed, and that the houses should bear this inscription "Poor teachers worse than no teachers." In the one particular to which we have alluded, it is confessed by leading Americans, that Prussia is far in advance of the United States. But not- withstanding this drawback, the common schools of the country are a great national blessing. They are free and open to the poorest children in the community; but 244 EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. because these advantages are not always accepted by the people, in some of the States of the Union, laws have been passed compelling a certain attendance at school. The houses are comfortable and convenient- ly located in every district where they are needed. The teachers are generally intel- ligent and circumspect in their lives and morals, and where they make teaching a regular profession, are all that could be reasonably expected or desired. With re- gard to their compensation there is no uni- formity, but it is estimated to range from thirty-nine to fifty-seven dollars per month for male teachers, with board, and from twenty-seven to thirty dollars per month for female teachers, with board. But, per- haps a better idea, on this head, may be obtained by looking at the average of the annual salaries which have recently been paid in some of the leading cities, as follows: Boston, $798 ; Cincinnati, $769 ; New Ha- van,$577; New York, $649 ; New Orleans, $675; Philadelphia, $415; San Francisco, EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 245 $829 ; and Washington, $507. Nor is there, as we have already stated, any uniformity in the management of the schools by the State authorities, and so with a view of at- tempting to give a general idea of their condition, we submit the following figures in regard to four of the representative States of the Republic : The number of scholars who attend school in the small State of Connecticut is 124,000 amount expended in 1870 for school purposes, $1,- 269,152, and its school fund is $2,046,108; in New York there are 1,000,000 children in the common schools, and 120,000 in the private schools, the school houses are val- ued at $20,500,000, the amount paid to teachers is $6,500,000, amount expended in 1870 for instruction nearly $10,000,000, and the school fund is $11,300,000; in Pennsylvania, the scholars are 900,753, schools 14,212, teachers 17,612, school property $14,045,632, and annual expenses about $7,000.000 ; and in Ohio the schol- ars are 740.382, and the school expendi- 246 EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. tures in 1870 amounted to $7,771,761. Total amount of school fund in all the States is estimated at fifty millions of dollars. We give no figures in regard to any of the Southern States, first, because the system of common schools has never flourished in that region of the country, and secondly, because the late war has so deranged all public matters in those States, that no statements at this time would do them full justice. Notwithstanding all that has been done in the United States for the cause of Education, it has been estimated that the illiterate people of the country number about six millions. With regard to the much discussed sub- ject of the Bible in common schools, we may submit the following remarks by a dis- tinguished professor of Harvard University: "To banish the Bible, was to garble history, for there was much history, of which it was the only source. Christianity is the great factor in the history of the world. If moral philosophy is to be taught, it must be chris- EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 247 tian ethics. For the culture of the taste and imagination, the Bible transcends all other literature. Our English Bible has rendered important service in preserving our language. It is the key to the best English diction and has helped to form the diction of every child. Our children should not be kept in ignorance of the fact that we are a Christian people. Sectarian relig- ion should be excluded; but this can be done only by giving an unsectarian book, and the Bible is such a book. The Roman Catholics, in opposing the introduction of the Bible in common schools, do not so much object to the book itself, but rather desire that the school funds should be sep- arated, which course, the Protestants think would be detrimental to the welfare of the whole system." With a view of enhancing the efficiency of the common schools in the United States, there have been organized, within the last few years, a large number of Normal schools, the sole object of which is to educate a class 248 EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. of persons solely for the business of teach- ing, whereby very great good has already been accomplished in elevating the tone of instruction. At the present time there are fifty of these schools in successful operation in the Northern States, which are supported by the City or State governments, and not less than thirty in the Southern States, for the benefit of the freedmen ; and the num- ber of teachers already educated by them, including males and females, is estimated at two hundred thousand, and the pupils now being instructed about nine thousand. While there is no special uniformity in the management of these schools, we may ob- tain a general idea of their character by glancing at the features of a single one of them which has been particularly success- ful, viz the Normal University of Illinois. Candidates for admission to this institution, whether male or female, must have attained the age of sixteen ; must produce certificates of good moral character; must sign a declar- ation that they intend to devote themselves EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 249. to school-teaching in Illinois ; and must pass a satisfactory examination in reading, spell- ing, writing, arithmetic, geography, and the elements of English grammar. The neces- sary annual expenses, for each pupil, range from ninety-seven to one hundred and eighty-eight dollars. There are five profes- sors, and the term of study is the usual one of three years : and the course of instruc- tion embraces the following subjects : Met- aphysics; history and methods of educa- tion ; constitution of the State and the Uni- ted States ; school laws; English language; arithmetic; algebra; geometry; natural philosophy ; book-keeping ; geography ; his- tory; astronomy; chemistry; botony; phys- iology; geology; vocal music; and writing and drawing. The total number of pupils is three hundred ; and there is an append- age to the institution called a model school, which contains five hundred pupils, whose tuition is free, although they have to sup- port themselves. While the Americans confess that their common schools are not 250 EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. equal in efficiency to those of some other countries, they claim that this state of things cannot continue, and that their Nor- mal schools, as at present organized, are unsurpassed. Before an American youth can pass from a common school into a college, he is obliged to go through a course of studies, in what is called a High School or Academy. These institutions are exceedingly varied in char- acter, quite numerous, independent in or- ganization, and very frequently originate in the liberality of private individuals. Al- though the instruction afforded by them is not gratuitous, the expenses are generally moderate. In some of them, however, pro- vision is made by public appropriations for the education of such pupils as are too poor to pay. It often happens, however, that when young men are about to leave the academy, or High School, they conclude that their education has been sufficiently ad- vanced for all practical purposes, and so re- linquish the idea of passing through college. EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 251 And here, before describing the Colleges and Universities of America, we may with propriety allude to the present condition of the miscellaneous schools of the country. Of distinct schools of Science, unconnected with colleges, there are none of any import- ance ; but the Sheffield Scientific School, which forms a part of Yale College, and the Lawrence Scientific School, connected with Harvard University, are both flourish- ing institutions, and are doing much to meet the wants of the age ; while there are de- partments, standing on nearly the same basis, belonging to Brown University, Rut- gers College, and the University of Michi- gan. As to Industrial Schools, there is also a great dearth of these in the United States ; especially is this true in regard to Engineering, and Navigation ; and about all that is accomplished in the country, in the way of art instruction, is accomplished by the National Academy and Cooper Insti- tute of New York, the Athenaeum in Bos- ton, the Academy of Arts in Philadelphia, 252 EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS, and the Peabody Institute in Baltimore. In Massachusetts, New York and Pennsyl- vania, they have Institutions of Technol- ogy : in California, a College of Mining and the Mechanic Arts, associated with Agri- culture ; and attached to Columbia College, in New York, they have a School of Mines. As to the advantages afforded by Agricul- tural Colleges, they are quite numerous, and well-endowed institutions are to be found in the States of Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, (where there are several Japanese students,) Michigan, Min- nesota, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Ver- mont, West Virginia and Wisconsin. In none of the public schools of America are the foundation principles of commerce taught, and hence there have been estab- lished by private individuals what is called a " Chain of Commercial Colleges ;" they number not less than forty, and extend from Maine to Louisiana ; their course of instruc- tion is very complete, and covers all that EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 253 is necessary for a commercial life ; and be- cause this association is under one head, the regulations are such, that a student, af- ter completing a course of studies in one, may again take them up and pursue them at another school of the Chain, without ad- ditional expense. With regard to the theo- logical institutions, they have already been mentioned in a previous part of this volume ; and on a page which is to follow, we shall speak of the Army and Navy Schools of the country. The only Schools remaining to be mentioned under this miscellaneous head are those devoted to the study of Medicine and Law. The Medical Colleges and Schools of the country number fifty -one, and, first and last, as a competent writer has said, there have stood at the head of them, men of learning, genius, and eminent distinction. And so, there have also been in the ranks of the profession, many physicians and sur- geons of great ability and skill. But hard- ly any one, who is acquainted with the status of medical education in America, will 254 EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. claim that either the distinguished profes- sor, author'or practitioner, has owed his suc- cess, in any considerable degree, to the training of the schools ; for, as compared with the European standard, the training in America has been unsatisfactory to the last degree. The Law Schools of the Uni- ted States number twenty-two ; and it is said that, in at least one respect, they are superior to those of England : in that, what tliey assume to do at all, they do more tho- roughly and well. But it is no less true, that they undertake very little in compari- son with what is both attempted and ac- complished in several of the European coun- tries. In the form of departments, there are schools of law connected with many of the leading colleges ; and in all of them the term of study is two years, the courses of instruction being so arranged that a com- plete view is given during each year of the subjects embraced within it. The profes- sors number from one to five in each of these schools ; a majority of them, in many in- EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 255 stances, being judges of the Supreme Courts and resident lawyers in regular practice, whose services are gratuitous or partially compensated. The terms of admission are simply good morals and the age of eighteen years, and the fees, payable in advance, amount to one hundred dollars. The law- yers of the United States, as heretofore mentioned, have much to do with the mak- ing of the national laws, and the affairs of the General Government ; and a competent American critic has said how few of them have been students of political economy, of civil polity, and of universal history, is painfully manifest from the legislative dis- cussions they hold, and the laws they enact. We come now to speak, in general terms, of the Collegiate Institutions of the United States, known as Universities, Colleges, Seminaries and Institutes, and which num- ber in the aggregate not less than two hun- dred and eighty-five, exclusive of eighty- two, in which theology is alone studied. While their courses of instruction embrace 256 EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. all branches of learning, it is almost invari- ably the case that something like a secta- rian element pervades each institution, the only exceptions to this rule being those which are supported by the State Govern- ments. The number of institutions in Amer- ica, bearing the title of university, is larger than in any other country, and a less num- ber of them is said to have really any sort of claim to the title. On the other hand, there are several Colleges which, though bearing that more modest name, are really entitled to be called universities. And then again there are Seminaries and Insti- tutes, which would seem, from their extent .and high character, to be worthy of being called Colleges. The precise meaning of the term University, is a universal school, in which are taught all branches of learn- ing, or the four faculties of theology, medi- cine, law, and the sciences and arts; a College is a school incorporated for purposes of instruction, where the students may ac- quire a knowledge of the languages and EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 257 sciences; the idea of a Seminary or an Academy, is allied to that of a college, only that the former are more especially designed for a younger class of students ; and an In- stitute is a literary or philosophical society, formed by persons for their mutual instruc- tion and advantage in all matters connected with intellectual culture. The so-called Universities of America number one hun- dred, while the other collegiate institutions are about equally divided between the three remaining classes. To give an account of all, is of course not to be expected in this paper, but the reader may obtain a general idea of their character by glancing at a few of the more influential and prominent insti- tutions. Harvard College, located at Cambridge, in Massachusetts, and founded in 1636, is the oldest institution of learning in A mer- ica. It has twenty-eight professors and about five hundred students ; and although it has hitherto had a Liberal divinity school, .arrangements have recently been made for 258 EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. incorporating in it an " Episcopal Theolog- ical School." It has a Law department with three professors ; a Medical depart- ment with eleven professors ; a School of Astronomy with two professors; a Den- tal school with seven professors ; a Muse- um of Zoology with lectures by four pro- fessors ; and the Lawrence Scientific School and School of Mining and Practical Geol- ogy with seven professors. Its general and special libraries comprise one hundred and fifty thousand volumes, and its scientific collections are extensive and of great value. It is managed by one President, five Fel- lows, and one Treasurer, and by thirty over- seers chosen by the State Legislature ; its endowment fund, derived from numerous individuals and corporations, and indepen- dent of the college grounds, buildings, libra- ries and collections, is somewhat over two millions of dollars ; and its annual income is about one hundred and eighty thousand dollars. The term of study in the law school is two years ; in the divinity school, EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 259 three; and candidates for the degree of doctor of medicine, must have studied three years, and attended two courses of lectures. The next oldest institution of learning in America is Yale College, founded at New Haven, Connecticut, in 1700. It has about sixty professors, and usually seven hundred students. Besides an Academical depart- ment, it has five others, devoted to philos- ophy, theology, law, medicine, and the fine arts. Its miscellaneous collections are ex- tensive and very valuable, and its libraries comprise about eighty-five thousand vol- umes. The total amount of its funds avail- able for the support of the college is some- thing over one million of dollars. This col- lege differs from Harvard chiefly in the con- stitution of its department of philosophy and the arts, which has come to be known as the Sheffield Scientific School. Candi- dates for admission are obliged to be six- teen years of age, and to undergo a two-fold examination first in mathematical studies, and secondly in elementary literary studies. 260 EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. The charge for tuition is one hundred and twenty-five dollars, but students of chemis- try have to pay an additional sum of sev- enty-five dollars. The term of study in each of the courses is three years ; and in the divinity school no charge is made for tuition. Another college of note and influence is Columbia College, founded in the city of New York in 1754, but prior to 1787 it was known as King's College. Its funds, derived chiefly from donations, amount to two millions of dollars ; its professors about fifty, and the usual number of students is nine hundred. It has four departments, devoted to Letters and Science, Mines, Law, and Medicine. The charges for tuition range from one hundred to one hundred and sixty dollars per annum ; several societies and municipal corporations are entitled to several scholarships free of charge ; every religious denomination in the city of New York is entitled always to have one student free of all charges for tuition; and every EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 261 school from which there shall be admitted four matriculants in any year, is also allow- ed to send one pupil free of charge. The College of New Jersey, located at Princeton, is another of the venerable insti- tutions of the United States. It was foun- ded in 1746 ; has about twenty professors, and nearly three hundred students; is sup- ported by the Presbyterians, and has edu- cated nearly nine hundred men for the Min- istry ; charges a tuition fee of seventy dol- lars ; and has a choice library of twenty- five thousand volumes. In Georgetown, District of Columbia, there is a Roman Cath- olic College, founded in 1792, with twenty professors, two hundred students, and a library of thirty thousand volumes; in Brunswick, Maine, is located Bowdoin Col- lege, founded in 1802, and possessing a library of thirty-seven thousand volumes ; in New Hampshire they have Dartmouth College, founded in 1769, supported by the Congregationalists, and with thirty-eight thousand volumes in its library ; in Penn- 262 EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. sylvania, Dickinson College, founded in 1783, supported by the Methodists, and with twenty-five thousand volumes ; in Rhode Island, Brown University, founded in 1764, supported by the -Baptists, and having a library of thirty-eight thousand volumes ; and in Virginia, a State Univer- sity, founded in 1819, with thirty-five thou- sand volumes. But these several institu- tions, which have more recently been found- ed, and which are growing with great rap- idity and exercising a paramount influence in the educational world, viz : the Univer- sities of Michigan, Kentucky, and Illinois, and the Cornell University in New York. But there is another institution which de- serves special mention, because of its ex- tent and peculiar character, viz : Vassar College, located at Poughkeepsie, New York. It was founded in 18-61 through the liber- ality of one man, Matthew Yassar, and is wholly devoted to the education of women. The buildings are extensive and beautiful; the school offers the highest educational EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 263 facilities to females at moderate expense, and admits as beneficiaries those who are unable to pay even that expense. Special attention is devoted to the fine arts, and it has a corps of instructors in the English language and literature, the modern lan- guages of Europe and their literature, an- cient languages, mathematics, all the branch- es of natural science, including anatomy, physiology, hygiene, intellectual and moral philosophy, political economy and the sci- ence of government, domestic economy, and the study of the Scriptures, without secta- rianism. Notwithstanding the fact that the educa- tional records of the United States are very complete, and the amount of money annu- ally expended in the cause is very large, it would seem that the requirements of the age and of America have not as yet by any means been attained. An American writer, in an elaborate report on this subject, pub- lished at the National expense, has summed up his opinions in a single paragraph, as 264 EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. follows : To tell the plain truth, he says, the very best of our many universities are but sorry skeletons of the well-developed and shapely institutions they ought to be and must become, before they will be fairly entitled to rank among the foremost univer- sities of even this present day. And if we are not content always to suffer the con- tempt of European scholars, who properly enough regard us as a very clever, but also a very uncultured, people, it is time that all true lovers of learning, as well as all who desire the highest prosperity and glory of America, should awake to the importance of at once providing the means of a pro- founder, broader, and higher culture in every department of human learning. As the education of women is a subject which possesses a peculiar interest for the people of Japan, we here submit a few observations in that connection. In Amer- ica, females possess precisely the same ad- vantages for education that are possessed by the males. Boys and girls are admitted EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 265 to the same schools ; and the gentle influ- ences of the latter are counterbalanced by the elevating influences of the former, whereby it is thought that both classes are improved. At the same time, there are thousands of schools in which the two sexes are instructed separately. The idea is uni- versal that the women of the country are capable of receiving, and should receive the highest kind of education ; and as to the question of their right to take part in poli- tics, by voting, which has been extensively discussed in America, it seems to be one of those problems which the future alone can establish. The important part which the women of America take in educational affairs is shown by the following facts, that they are educated at the Normal schools for the express purpose of becoming teach- ers, that they officiate as teachers in thou- sands of the common schools, that Semi- naries for the education of young ladies are to be found in every part of the country, that they are admitted into several of the 266 EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. American Colleges as regular students, and that a number of institutions of the highest character are exclusively devoted to the education of women, the most extensive and interesting, Vassar College, having already been mentioned. Not only are the libraries of the country regularly visited and used by ladies, (in some of which they are employed as librarians,) but in the leading cities are to be found libraries and reading rooms, designed for their use exclusively, and all of them in harmony with the idea of Amer- ican civilization. PART EIGHTII. LITERARY, ARTISTIC AND SCIEN- TIFIC LIFE. UNDER the head of literary life, we pro- pose to submit some information on the book-publishing and newspaper interests of the United States. When an author has written a book, whether large or small, and desires to profit by its publication, he is obliged to take out a copy-right, by which the Government promises to protect his rights, for a term of years, in the profits of the work, as his own property. The doc- ument in question is issued, under the law, by the Librarian of Congress, and two copies of every book or pamphlet published, have to be deposited in the National Library, whereby the collection of volumes belong- ing to the Government, is annually increased 270 LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. to a large extent. The books printed and the authors who write them, are so nume- rous that it would be quite impossible even to name them in this place. The best and most comprehensive work ever published on the authors who have written in the English language, was written by an Amer- ican, named S. Austin Allibone ; it is called a "Dictionary of Authors," and contains the names of not less than forty-six thousand authors, with an account of their publica- tions. As to the subjects upon which books are written, they are of course very numerous, the general heads under which they are arranged being as follows : Theology and Religion, Poetry, History, Biography, Geo- graphy and Travels, Philosophy, Science, Social Reform, School Books, Useful and Fine Arts, Fiction, Literature, Miscellane- ous Books, Republications and Translations from Foreign authors. With many men, as well as women, the writing of books is a special business, and then again there are LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 271 thousands of books written merely as a pas- time by their authors, or from motives of personal vanity; generally speaking, the writers do not find the business profitable ; but then again, there are authors who make a great deal of money by writing espe- cially is this the case with school books, novels, and national histories. The men who print and sell the books, which are written, are called publishers, and in all the principal cities are to be found establish- ments which do business on a very large scale. Some of them give employment to large numbers of people, such as writers, paper makers, printers, binders, artists of various kinds and machinists, as well as clerks and common workmen, and not a few have acquired very large fortunes by this branch of industry. They usually sell books by the quantity alone, and the retail merchants, who purchase of them, are to be found in every town and village in the whole land. When an author has written a book, he either sells his copy-right to the 272 LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. publisher for a specific sum of money, after which he has nothing to do with his work, or else, he allows the publisher the privi- lege of printing and selling his book, charg- ing for the same a certain per centum on the price of each volume, retaining the ownership of the work in his own name. While many of the books published are so interesting or valuable as to be purchased by everybody interested in the subject, very many of them can only be sold by means of extravagant notices in the news- papers, and hence the custom prevails of sending most of all the new books to the newspapers, which pretend to give impar- tial notices, but often do the very reverse. The custom of reading books among the people of America is almost universal, far more so, it is said, than is the case in Eng- land or France ; and in every home, from that of the rich merchant, down to the poorest farmer, may generally be found such collections of books as they desire or can afford to buy. And for those who can LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 273 not afford to purchase all they may wish to read, in the cities and towns everywhere, they have circulating libraries, where for a small consideration, books may be read, or borrowed, to be read, at home. In most of the leading cities, collections of this sort, have been established which are very ex- tensive and valuable. The good which these libraries accomplish by furnishing the people with information on every conceiv- able subject, cannot be estimated; the money which some of them have cost would reach a million of dollars ; and the largest in the country, which is called the National Library, and located in Washington City, contains not less than two hundred thousand volumes, and is entirely free to all who may desire to consult its treasures. In 1860, there were 27,730 libraries in the country, in which were collected nearly fourteen millions of volumes. But the most striking feature connected with the literature of America, is the uni- versal circulation of newspapers and maga- 274 LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. zines which are read by all classes of the people, and so conducted as to form, to a great extent, a substitute for books. Ac- cording to the latest accounts, the whole number of periodicals issued in the United States and its Territories is 6,056; of these 637 are published daily; 118 tri-weekly ; 129 semi-weekly; 4642 weekly; 21 bi- weekly; 100 semi-monthly; 715 monthly; 14 bi-monthly ; and 62 are issued quarter- ly. Of this large number it is estimated that about four-fifths are political journals, the remainder being religious or literary. It is through these numerous publications that the mind of the nation is chiefly ex- pressed, and its intellectual pulse may gen- erally be measured, by the success of the several journals. While very many of thes e have a circulation, which is confined to their particular religious sect or political party, there are a few whose circulation is im- mense, and their influence proportionably extensive. For example, there is one week- ly paper published in New York, which has LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE, 275 a circulation of 175,000, and if we estimate that each paper is read by five persons, which is not unlikely, we perceive, that each issue has the teaching of 875,000 minds ; and then again, there are some daily papers, which issue every morning from one hundred thousand to two hundred thousand copies. As far back as 1860, it was estimated that the circulation of the newspapers alone amounted to 100,000,000. Hence we perceive that the power of the Press is enormous, and it is a matter of the utmost importance that it should be con- ducted with honesty and wisdom. That portion of it which comes under the head of newspapers, is by far the most profitable, so far as making money is concerned, but the profit does not come from selling the paper alone. In all of them certain columns or pages are filled up with advertisements, and as these are paid for on liberal terms, they become a source of profit. The own- ership of these papers is generally vested in a company of men, who are the printers 276 LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. and publishers ; and as some of these great establishments send forth books, as well as newspapers and periodicals, we can only obtain an idea of the extent of their busi- ness by resorting to figures. According to the latest published statements the capital invested in printing and publishing is about $20,000,000; cost of raw material used, $13,000,000 ; cost of labor per annum about $8,000,000; number of hands employed more than 20,000 ; and the value of books, periodicals, and daily journals nearly $32,- 000,000. With these figures before us, we cannot wonder that what is called the Press of America should be considered an element of almost incalculable power. As has well been said, it records with fidelity the pro- ceedings of Congress, of all State and Ter- ritorial Legislatures, and of Judicial tribu- nals, holds the pulpit to a just responsibili- ty, reviews the doings of business and social life, and watches with sleepless vigilence over the concerns of the people. It is the great representative of the people, a conser- LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 277 vative power held by them to guard both public and industrial liberty ; reflecting their opinions and judgments in all matters respecting the public weal, exposing wrong, and vindicating and encouraging the right. In writing for the newspapers of America, many of the ablest men are employed, and the leading writer for each journal is called an Editor. He is frequently the sole pro- prietor, sometimes only owns a few shares in the enterprise, and then again he may be hired to perform a specific editorial duty. He is responsible for the opinions expressed, and when necessary, as is always the case in the larger establishments, he is assisted in his labors by sub-editors, who look after all matters connected with commerce or literature; by reporters, who prepare the proceedings of public assemblies ; and by correspondents, who furnish information on every subject of public interest. Weekly papers are commonly published on Saturday of each week, and daily papers in the morn- ing or evening ; and as most of the latest 278 LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. news is received through the telegraph, it is frequently the case that an evening pa- per will publish information of an event which may have taken place in Europe, on the morning of the same day. With regard to what is called the liberty of the press, in times of peace, it is quite unbounded ; so much so, indeed, that the rights of pri- vate citizens are not always respected ; but while an editor may not be interfered with by the Government, for expressing his opinions, provided they are not immoral, it is too often the case that his real indepen- dence is materially affected by the allure- ments or dictation of the political party to which he belongs. And then again, the habit of dealing in personalities is perhaps more prevalent among the newspaper wri- ters of America, than among any other peo- ple ; the excesses in this direction, some- times lead to bitter conflicts and even to untimely deaths ; but it is certain, that all the more notorious abuses of the press are frowned upon by the better classes in every LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 279 community. Notwithstanding its many drawbacks, the conclusion is inevitable, that the press of America is the leading civilizer of its multifarious population, and the particular engine which has brought about the present prosperous condition of the Republic. Our next topic for consideration is the artistic life of America, as we find it devel- oped in the pursuits of painting, sculpture, and architecture. The number of persons engaged in these various employments is not large, but they are necessarily men of culture ; exert a great influence in devel- oping the taste of the people generally ; and they congregate and find employment chief- ly in the larger cities. The painters are of several kinds, viz : Portrait painters, His- torical painters, Landscape painters, and various subordinate classes who produce miscellaneous pictures. The materials most commonly used are oil colors and canvas ; and while the majority of these artists man- age to support themselves in comfort, those 280 LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. who happen to become fashionable or pos- sess extraordinary ability, frequently meet with great success. While it is true that good portraits may be obtained for fifty or one hundred dollars, it is also true that five thousand dollars is not an uncommon price for very superior portraits ; and, according to circumstances, the prices paid for pic- tures of Scenery, range from fifty dollars to ten thousand dollars. In these two de- partments, the American artists are perhaps equal to those of Europe ; but with regard to historical painting, the English, French and German artists are all in advance of the Americans. Generally speaking, be- fore a man can become expert in the art of painting, he has to acquire a knowledge of drawing, and this study has come to be so common and popular that many artists confine themselves to drawing alone and hence the kind of pictures known as en- gravings, which are merely copies of draw- ings as well as paintings, have almost a universal circulation. They are executed LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 281 on steel, on copper, on stone, and on wood, and used extensively in books and weekly and monthly periodicals. To what extent this is true, is shown by the fact that a sin- gle illustrated journal published in New York, is said to have a circulation of three hundred thousand copies. And then again, large numbers of engravings are prepared and published, which are used for the adorn- ment of the houses of the people, as is the case with paintings, as well as photographs, and chromo-lithographs, which latter class- es of pictures have come to be more popu- lar than any others. The custom of hang- ing pictures on the walls of the houses is a leading characteristic among the Ameri- cans ; and while the poor mechanic or far- mer may be content with a few cheap en- gravings or photographs, men of wealth are very much in the habit of spending thou- sands upon thousands of dollars, for works of art of the highest order. Many of the private collections thus formed are really of a princely character ; and then, in all the 282 LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. leading cities, they have extensive public collections of pictures, with which are com- monly associated certain schools for impart- ing a practical knowledge of the fine arts. The extent to which the General Govern- ment patronizes the art of painting is limi- ted to a few historical productions, includ- ing compositions and portraits to be found in the Capitol and Executive Mansion. As the art of sculpture is far less popu- lar among the people, than that of painting, we find the sculptors reduced to a small number. Among them, however, are to be found some few men of great abilities and extensive reputations. It is claimed, in- deed, that the United States has gained, in sculpture, a far higher rank than in any of the fine arts. The works here produced, are generally executed in white marble, though sometimes in bronze, and in the great majority of instances represent the busts or full length figures of distinguished men. This style of art is always expensive, and it is only the rich who can afford to LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 283 perpetuate the features of their family friends in this manner. When intended for exhibition in private dwellings, or in galleries of art, these productions are usu- ally of the size of life, but when intended for the adornment of private gardens or public grounds, they are of colossal size, and noted military men are occasionally represented mounted on horses. The chief patrons of this kind of art are the National and State Governments, and hence busts and statues are to be found, stationed to some extent, in the public buildings in Washington and in the capitals of the sev- eral States. In the National Capitol, a large and handsome hall has been appropri- ated entirely to the reception of busts and statues of celebrated statesmen and mili- tary and naval commanders ; and in this connection, a law has been passed, granting the privilege to each State in the Union, to send to this central exhibition-place, a por- trait in marble, of any two men, which the State authorities may choose to honor in 284 LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. this manner. When copies of marble or bronze productions are desired by private individuals, and the means of the person wanting them are limited, it is frequently the case that a kind of white plaster is used as a substitute for the more enduring ma- terials ; and this composition is employed, to a great extent, in reproducing the ancient and more celebrated works of sculpture in Europe, which are brought to America to serve as models in the art schools of the country. We come now to speak of what has been done in the United States in the way of architecture. In the early years of the country the abundance of wood, and the ease of preparing it, made it the universal building material, and for a long time hard- ly anything else was used, although for buildings of importance brick was brought from England. The haste to get shelter, and the availability of wood, make this still the common material almost the only one used in the new cities of the Western LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 285 States and Territories. The recent terrible fire at Chicago, is an illustration in part, of this fact, and of the evils of building with wood alone. But within the present cen- tury much brick has been made, and stone quarries have been opened all over the country. In the older cities, brick and stone in connection with iron, are now al- most entirely employed, certain varieties of stone being used for all the most important buildings. The New England States furn- ish a great deal of granite and sienite, which are very strong and durable stones, but too hard and rough for finely cut or orna- mental work. There is much sandstone in the Middle States, and in the West are many kinds of sand and limestone which are easily cut, and receive readily the rich- est ornamentation. There is also through- out the United States a great variety of white and colored marbles, much used in ornamental and decorative work; and many elaborate buildings are built of them. Before the present century architects 286 LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. were few in America and of little skill ; buildings were designed, for the most part, by the men who built them. But the gain of the community in wealth and leisure has greatly developed the profession in the. present generation. The earlier architects worked only by English traditions, which were, in their turn, derived from the Italian architects of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The earlier architects of this country usually obtained their professional education in Europe, where the advantages were numerous ; at the present time, how- ever, young Americans find excellent op- portunities in the offices of the better trained architects at home. The multiplication of prints, photographs and casts in plaster from the best old examples, have greatly facilitated study; schools of architecture have been established in several of the educational institutions of the country; and in New York, they have an American In- stitute of Architects, which is represented in all the leading cities of the country by LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 287 what they call " Chapters," and which are said to exercise an important influence within their proper sphere. The styles of architecture employed in America are as various as possible, but perhaps the kind of buildings in which the United States architects are most successful, is that of wooden villas, which are often both beauti- ful and convenient. It has been charged against the Americans, that in regard to architecture, if nothing else, they lay more stress upon the idea of a conventional beauty, than upon substantial usefulness. A church may be beautiful to the eye, but filled with uncomfortable seats and a per- petual darkness ; a public building may be very ornamental, but badly ventilated; and a dwelling may appear like a palace, and in reality be without a single comfort. Notwithstanding the immense amounts of money which are annually expended in America upon fine buildings, it is claimed that there is much room for improvement ; and it is a creditable truth, that a great im- 288 LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. petus has recently been given to the art of architecture by the patronage of the Gene- ral Government, whose buildings are nume- rous, and among the most extensive and imposing in the Republic. In this connec- tion one fact which seems amazing, and is indeed a subject of remark, is this : that there now stands in the city of Wash- ington a monument to the memory of George Washington, who is called the Father of his Country, which was commenced a quar- ter of a century ago, and is yet unfinished, and a painful spectacle to all the world. We come now to speak of science in America, but before doing so it may be proper to make some remarks in regard to science in general. The term science, in its more restricted sense, is a knowledge of the laws of nature, or how the changes in the natural world are produced. In a more general sense, it is used to include descriptive natural history, from which it differs in this, that the latter classifies and describes things or objects in nature, as they LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 289 exist, without considering their origin or the changes to which they are subjected. Science, then, although founded on the re- sults of experiments and observations, does not consist in collections of isolated facts but in general principles from which spe- cial facts can be deduced when certain con- ditions are known. Thus the phenomena of astronomy are all referred to principles which are denominated the laws of force and motion. By means of these laws, if the relative mass, position and velocity of the heavenly bodies are known at a given epoch, their relative position for all times, in the remotest past as well as in the distant future, can be calculated. Other phenom- ena are referred to other laws, such as those of light, heat, electricity, navigation, chem- ical action, life and organization. These laws are generally expressed in the form of theories, by which they can be more readily understood and applied, either in the way of practical inventions or in the discovery of new truths. The knowledge of a law of 290 LITEEAEY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. nature enables the savant to explain, pre- dict, and in some cases to control the phe- nomena to which these laws pertain. These characteristics of science afford the means of clearly distinguishing between the ex- pressions of real truths or laws, and the mere vague speculations with which the principles of science are often confounded. It is by the discovery and application of these laws that modern civilization differs essentially from that of ancient times, and also from the civilization of China and Ja- pan. In these countries the arts of life are based upon facts accidentally discovered, which lie, as it were, on the face of nature, are few in number and soon exhausted. While in Europe and North America the various inventions which add so much to the material well-being of man, are derived from the endless stores of facts deduced from scientific principles. It is by a know- ledge of the law of gravitation, heat, elec- tricity and chemical action that these powers are rendered obedient and efficient slaves LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 291 by which man emancipates himself from the bondage of brute labors, to which in ancient times he was universally sub- jected; while by a knowledge of the laws of light and of sound, the infirmities of age are remedied, and the range of human senses indefinitely extended. By the con- stant study of the phenomena of nature, irrespective of the use which may flow from them, our knowledge is continually increas- ed, while from the discovery of every new principle in science, many applications in art usually follow. It is this which is under- stood by the Baconian aphorism " Knowl- edge is power." There are at the present time in all parts of the civilized world men who are devoting their thoughts and time to the investigations of the various phe- nomena of nature, and through the inter- course which is established between all parts of the world, the discoveries made by each, become the knowledge of all, and in this way science is rapidly increasing. Moreover, whatever is discovered in one 292 LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. portion of the domain of nature, as a gene- . ral rule, tends to reflect light on various other portions, and also to furnish instru- ments for more extended and varied re- search. It is evident, from the foregoing remarks, that the country is most highly civilized, at least in one direction, which makes the best provision for the investigation of ab- stract science. Of all nations at present existing, Prussia appears to be the most advanced in this respect. Whenever an individual is found capable of making orig- inal discoveries in that country, he is at once consecrated to science. He is elec- ted a higher professor in one of the Univer- sities, receives a liberal salary, is supplied with all the implements necessary for re- search in his special line, and is allowed full time for his investigations; being re- quired to give but few lectures on higher subjects, while the teaching arid the drill- ing of pupils are performed by men of infe- rior talents. In the United States, where LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 293 so much is to be done in the way of subdu- ing nature, and developing the resources of a new country, there has been consequent- ly, a great demand for the application of science, and less attention has been given, until of late, to encourage and sustain orig- inal investigation. One effect of the general diffusion of edu- cation in the United States, especially in New England, has been to render the peo- ple impatient, as to mere manual labor, and hence, from the scarcity of laborers, and the great demand for them, a large amount of talent has been devoted to the invention of labor-saving machines. There are no people in the world who make so many in- ventions as the Americans, which fact is evinced by the number and variety of mod- els in the Patent office. There is, however, a growing inclination on the part of the Government and of wealthy individuals to endow establishments for the advance of pure science. The Government has estab- lished the National Observatory, which is 294 LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE, supported at an annual expense of not less than seventy-five thousand dollars, and in which the motions of the heavenly bodies are continuously studied, new facts ob- served, and new deductions from them con- stantly made. There has also been estab- lished a Bureau for the calculation of a Nautical Almanac, the object of which is to furnish mariners with the means for de- termining their position on the ocean, while it also contributes to the advance of science by original mathematical deductions from facts which have been observed. An ex- tended work called the Coast Survey has likewise been established, the object of which is to furnish accurate maps, by means of astronomical determinations, of the whole coast of the country, but which also, is developing, in its operations, new facts of the highest interest to science. Among those are the laws of the variation, direc- tion and intensity of terrestrial magnetism the form and dimensions of the earth the variation of the force of terrestrial gravita- LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 295 tion on the different portions of the earth's surface the knowledge of organized beings which live at the bottom of the ocean, within soundings and the temperature, motion and magnitude of the Gulf stream, which, in passing across the Atlantic ocean, moderates the temperature, and gives a genial climate to the north of Europe. An- other of the Government establishments which advances science is the office of Weights and Measures, in which a series of investigations are carried on, for deter- mining the expansion of bodies and the best manner of making accurate standards of measure, of length, weight and capac- ity. The Government also has its schools of applied science ; one, at West Point, for the education of officers of the Army in all things pertaining to military life and operations; and another at Annapolis, for the education of Naval officers in all mat- ters connected with the naval service. Of late years, moreover, numerous surveys and explorations have been made at the ex- 296 LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. pense of the Government across the Conti- nent, which have tended, not only to de- velop the resources of the country, but have afforded means for the critical study of the geology, mineralogy and natural his- tory of the regions traversed, and which have resulted in the construction of the celebrated railroad between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. In many of the older States of the Union there have been insti- tuted geological surveys, which, while they have served to discover the peculiar mine- ral treasures, within the State limits, have greatly added to the science of Geology as well as to Natural History. The ostensi- ble object of all these establishments of the General Government, as well as those of the separate States, is practical utility, although abstract science is greatly advanced by means of them. In various parts of the country astronom- ical observatories have been erected in con- nection with some of the principal Univer- sities and Colleges, but in them, with but LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 297 few exceptions, original investigations are subordinate to the business of education. There are also connected with the higher institutions of learning, scientific schools, the object of which is generally to teach the principles of science, as far as they are applicable to civil and mining engineering, and the various manufactures which depend upon a knowledge of chemistry and physics. The professors in Universities and Colleges are the principal contributors to the scien- tific journals of the day, in which the pro- gress of science is recorded. There is no civilized country in which there appears to be a greater taste for a knowledge of gen- eral scientific results or in which a greater number of popular scientific works are read than in the United States. At the same time, there is scarcely any country in which original talents, applied to pure scientific investigation, meet with less reward. In France and other European countries, there are Academies of Science, consisting of a limited number of the most distinguished 298 LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. individuals, and supported by Government, each member receiving a salary besides marks of social distinction. To become a member of one of these academies is an ob- ject of the highest ambition, to which is directed the best mind of the community. In Great Britain there are no such acade- mies, yet the Government makes yearly grants for scientific investigations, and in- dividuals, distinguished for their scientific discoveries, not only receive pensions, but are honored by the titles of barons and knights. No adequate inducements are yet held out in the United States, as a stimulus to scientific investigation, but for scientific invention or the application of science to useful arts, there is frequently an abundant remuneration. Notwithstanding these draw- backs, much has been done and is doing, in the way of advancing science, as is evinced by the Transactions of the American Phil- osophical Society of Philadelphia, of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences of Boston, the publications of the Smithsonian LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 299 Institution, and of the Natural History Societies and Academies of Boston, Salem, Philadelphia, Chieago, San Francisco, and Xew Orleans. All these institutions were established and are sustained by private in- dividuals. To the above may be added the American Journal of Science in New Haven, and the Journal of the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia. A large portion of the scientific labor of the United States has been devoted to de- scriptive natural history, to which attention was invited by the almost unbounded field which was presented for study in the mineral, vegetable and animal kingdoms, and because a knowledge derived from these was intimately connected with the devel- opment of the wealth and prosperity of the country. Science should, however, be stu- died for its own sake, without regard to its immediate application, since nothing tends more to extend the bounds of thought, to add to the intellectual powers of man, and to raise him in the scale of intelligence 300 LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE. than 'the study and contemplation of the operations of nature ; and we are happy to think that, as we have said before, there is in this great country a growing apprecia- tion of the importance of abstract science, and that many institutions in various parts of it will be established through the en- lightened policy of wealthy individuals for its cultivation and advancement. A conspicuous example of what has been done in this line is the Smithsonian Institution, founded in Washington by James Smithson, of England, for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men. The founder was devoted to scientific investigation, and under the impulse of his ruling passion, bequeathed his entire property for a similar purpose. It is as yet the only well en- dowed institution in America which is in- tended exclusively for the advancement of abstract science. But through the influ- ence which it has attained, by the perse- vering effort of its director, Prof. Joseph Henry, and the example which it has set, LITERARY, ARTISTIC, SCIENTIFIC LIFE.- 301 it is thought that other institutions of a similar character will be founded. Indeed, several wealthy individuals have already, independently of each other, made appro- priations for scientific investigations. Fore- most among these in liberality, and more especially as a man of science, may be men- tioned Prof. A. D. Bache, the late Super- intendent of the Coast Survey, who left the sum of fifty thousand dollars for scientific experiments and observations, the first pro- ceeds of which are now being devoted to a magnetic survey of the United States, the results of which will be published and dis- tributed to all parts of the world. PART NINTH LIFE AMONG THE MINERS. IT is now generally acknowledged that the mineral resources of the United States are more extensive and varied than those of any other country in the world. Indeed, to give anything like a minute account of them, would fill many volumes, and there- fore, with a view of being brief, we propose to submit a few facts on the leading mine- ral productions of the country, beginning with the precious metals. Gold has been found in about one half of the States of the Union. Prior to the year 1848 this metal, as well as silver, was chiefly obtained from Virginia, Tennessee, the Car- olinas and Georgia; at the present time the States of California, Oregon and Nevada 306 LIFE AMONG THE MINERS. and the Territories of Washington, Idaho, Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Montana, Dakota and Wyoming, are by far the most productive gold-fields on the globe, and throughout all this region, many other val- uable minerals are found, but silver is the most important. At the time of the great discoveries in California, the annual pro- duction of the whole world was only twenty millions of dollars, but in seven years from that time, California alone yielded sixty millions, and its recent annual production has been fixed at eighty millions of dollars. The total gold and silver product of the United States down to the year 1868, was estimated at $1,255,000,000, and never be- fore in the history of the world have so few people established so extensive a business. The region where gold is found covers an area of one million square miles and is chiefly the property of the nation. Hand- washing, as we have been informed by a man of experience in these matters, was the earliest mode of collecting gold, and LIFE AMONG THE MINERS. 307 the pan and the rocker were the first im- plements used in California mining. Quick- silver was soon employed to collect the fine particles, often lost in hand-washing. Hy- draulic mining, now largely used in Cali- fornia, is done by throwing currents of water, from hose and pipes, with enormous force against banks of earth, cutting away whole hills. Down the face of the hills, also, pour artificial streams. At the foot, the waters all pass away in long flumes or wooden troughs, carrying the earth and stones with them. Slats on the bottom of the flumes catch and retain the gold ; and where gold is found in hard quartz, the stones are ground to powder by machinery and stamp-mills, and the gold thus comes to the light, and quicksilver separates it from the dust. Silver is never found like gold, in grains among the sand, but in ores or quartz, from which it has to be reduced by stamping or grinding or by smelting. It is found in a variety of ores, usually associated with gold, copper or lead. Pure 308 LIFE AMONG THE MINERS. masses are occasionally found among the copper mines of Lake Superior, and also in Nevada and Idaho. The discovery of the rich deposits of gold and silver in California gave new impetus to the movements of population everywhere, stimulated all de- partments of industry, brought together into the same communities people from every part of the globe, settled the vast territories of the United States, facilitated intercourse between the nations, and, with the mining operations in Australia, has steadily changed values throughout the world. But, notwithstanding the immense amount of treasure that has been taken from the soils and rocks of California and other Pa- cific States, the business of mining has not been profitable with the majority of miners. Indeed it is said that during the last fifteen years, the farmers of Illinois have more frequently made fortunes than have the gold hunters of the West. In 1865 a miner of California named Jules Frieot realized LIFE AMONG THE MINERS. 309 the sum of $182,511 by quartz mining, and since then a man named James P. Pierce, from placer mine obtained in one year the sum of $102,011, but these were excep- tional cases. The cost of living at the mines is always expensive and the accom- modations anything but comfortable. At the general eating houses which are established among the mines, they commonly charge one dollar for a single meal, and twelve dol- lars per week for board, the sleeping ac- commodations being a bare floor and a pair of blankets. According to the latest au- thentic data, the number of miners in Cali- fornia alone was 46,550, of whom 20,800 were Chinese, and the wages of these men ranged from three to five dollars per day. The national laws bearing upon the mining region of the Pacific Slope are not, as yet, what they should be; but those which have been enacted provide for two classes of miners, those who are licensed to work upon the public domain, and those who be- come actual proprietors by purchase from 310 LIFE AMONG THE MINERS. the Government. The right is also granted to men, to purchase and work such mines as they may discover ; and as to the min- ing customs, mandatory edicts are passed, at twenty-four hours' notice by from five to five hundred men, which, for the time being, are the law of the land. And now, in closing these remarks, let us glance at what has been said in regard to the distribution of the precious metals. The drain of them has hitherto been toward the East, where they are used for hoarding and for ornaments, rather than for money. This is particularly true of silver. Between the years 1850 and 1864, there were ex- ported to Asia from England and the Med- iterranean more than $650,000,000. The total amount of silver in the world is esti- mated at $10,000,000,000, or only enough to pay the debts of three or four of the leading nations of the present time. The coining of gold and silver, as well as cop- per, was commenced by the United States in 1793, and the total product of each metal, LIFE AMONG THE MINERS. 311 down to the middle of 1870, was as follows: Gold, $971,628,046 ; silver, $143,760,4 74; and copper, $11,009,048, or a grand total of $1,126,397,569. Of the baser metals, which have hitherto been employed in the coining of money, copper is the most important. Its most valuable alloy is brass, out of which a very large number of useful things are manufac- tured. Another alloy, known as " French Gold," is extensively used in the manufac- ture of cheap jewelry and watches. Cop- per is found in ores and in a metallic state, and was first mined on the American Con- tinent in New England. It has been work- ed in seven or eight of the United States, but, practically, all the copper product of the Union, comes from Lake Superior, which was almost an unknown wilderness as late as the year 1843. It is found in a ridge of trap rock, on the shores belonging to Michigan, and masses of the solid metal have been discovered weighing several tons. The mines were opened there in 1845, 312 LIFE AMONG THE MINERS. since which time the total yield has been not far from one hundred and fifty thousand tons. It is extracted from its ores by smelting and calcination, and prepared for the market in ingots, which are converted into sheets by rolling mills established chiefly in the Atlantic States. Situated as are the copper mines of Michigan, in a re- gion where the winters are long and the sum- mers short, the miners are subject to many hardships from the cold, and to many pri- vations in the way of bodily comforts. A large proportion of them are men who have had experience in the mines of Great Brit- ain and other countries, and their compen- sation is not on a par with their habits of industry and their experience, but the quan- tity of metal which they obtain from the earth and send to market is very large. Next in importance to the precious metals, come the coal productions of the United States, the two prominent varieties of which bear the names of Anthracite and Bitumin- ous. The largest producer of both, is the LIFE AMONG THE MINERS. 313 State of Pennsylvania ; and in the produc- tion of the former, Rhode Island stands sec- ond ; and Ohio occupies the second posi- tion in regard to bituminous coal. The area of workable coal-beds in the Uni- ted States, excluding Alaska, is estimated at two hundred thousand square miles, which is said to be eight times as large as the available coal area of all the rest of the world. The coal veins are usually reached by vertical shafts, but when found in hills, are worked by horizontal galleries. Not- withstanding the fact that perpendicular shafts are employed to secure thorough ventillation, and safety lamps are used to prevent the ignition of the fatal fire damp, many serious accidents have happened in the mines of Pennsylvania. The first rail- way for the transmission of coal from the mines was built in 1827, and the coal mines now give employment to more than forty railroads and canals. It is a common occur- rence for a train of one hundred cars to en- ter the city of Philadelphia, loaded with 314 LIFE AMONG THE MINERS. anthracite, and the same may be said of Baltimore, which is the principal exporting place for bituminous coal. The total pro- duct of the United States for the year 1868 was about 19,000,000 tons, valued at $26,- 000,000, since which time these figures have been increased, and are still increas- ing. It is now seventy years since anthra- cite coal was used as fuel in this country, and about forty years since it began to be extensively mined in the United States; and it has been stated by authentic writers on the subject, that the Coal Fields of the United States are thirty-six times greater than those of Great Britain, while the annual production, of Britain is five times greater than that of the United States. The reasons for this great difference are apparent. In many of the States of the Union, the climate is so mild, that no coal is needed for domes- tic purposes, and when fuel is demanded for manufacturing purposes, there is always to be obtained an abundant supply of wood. And then again, excepting the New Eng- LIFE AMONG THE MINERS. 315 land, the Middle, and some of the Western States, where prairies abound, the forests are so numerous that it must be many years before coal will become a necessity among the people. Indeed, the very remarkable fact has been chronicled, that in some of the Western States, where agriculture is the chief source of wealth, the article known as maize or Indian corn, has been employed as fuel. If, however, we find that a large proportion of the inhabitants in America, have no immediate interest in the produc- tion of coal, it is at the same time true, that a very large part of the population are con- sumers of what is called coal oil or petro- leum. Although long known to the scien- tific world, this article did not become known to the commercial world until 1858. It is found in various parts of the country, but more extensively in Western Pennsyl- vania than in any other region, where very large fortunes have been made by persons engaged in drawing the precious liquid out of the earth. It is obtained by means of 316 LIFE AMONG THE MINERS. artesian wells, which are sunk from one hundred to six hundred feet into the earth, and some of which have yielded with the aid of forcing pumps, as much as two thou- sand barrels of oil in a single day. The applications of petroleum are chiefly limited to purposes of illumination and lubricating machinery, and for the latter purpose the consumption is very large on the railroads and in the manufactories. A distillation of this oil is also used in the manufacture of certain kinds of leather, and in the pre- paration of paints and varnishes. This trade in rock oil has become very extensive, and is every day becoming more and more highly appreciated, as a servant of civiliza- tion; the revenue which it produces being of great magnitude, and the number of peo- ple which it supports very numerous. The next important mineral product that we have to notice is iron, recognized as the most useful known to man. It is more widely distributed throughout the United States than any of the important metals ; LIFE AMONG THE MINERS. 317 is found in abundance in New York, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Maryland and Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, Oregon, Virginia, the Carolinas, Alabama, and Missouri ; but is chiefly mined in Penn- sylvania and New Jersey, where the yield is more than one-half of the whole product in the United States, or about seven hundred tons per annum, from one hundred and thir- ty establishments. In Missouri it is found in great abundance, where there is a hill called "Iron Mountain," which is more than two hundred feet high, and is supposed to contain two hundred and fifty millions of tons of pure metal. Another, well nigh solid iron mountain is called " Pilot Knob," nearly six hundred feet high, and it is thought would furnish one million tons per annum for two hundred years. These two moun- tains, with another called Shepherd's moun- tian also in Missouri, are considered among the curiosities of America. And yet with these figures before us, the astounding fact is proclaimed that nearly half a million tons 318 LIFE AMONG THE MINERS. of iron were imported from Great Britain in 1868, while the yield of the United States was about sixteen hundred thousand tons. But the fact that there should be any iron imported from England, grows out of the operations of the American Tariff. The great magnitude and importance of the iron interest, which can only be fully treated in elaborate volumes, is rendered difficult to notice in a paragraph like the present. The processes by which the ores are turned into metallic iron are as follows : in what are called Bloomeries and Forges the ores are converted directly into mallable iron with- out passing through the intermediate stage of cast or pig iron ; and by means of Blast Furnaces, the ores are decomposed as they fuse in vast quantities at a time and pro- duce the cast or pig iron ; and then they have what are called Rolling Mills which convert the iron into sheets and plates. With regard to the uses to which iron is appropriated in the United States, they are well-nigh infinite ; and we can only obtain LIFE AMONG THE MINERS. 319 1 an idea of the extent of its consumption, by reflecting upon the quantity of it which is transferred into steel, for cutlery and machinery; upon the extensive lines of railway in the country and the great num- ber of locomotives employed; and upon manifold uses in connection with shipping and house-building throughout the length and breadth of this immense country. We come now to speak of the production of lead in] the United States. The two most prominent deposits of this useful min- eral are to be found in the States of Mis- souri and Illinois. The working of the former was commenced in 1854 and the latter in 1788. The largest supply comes from those two States, although it is also found in abundance in Wisconsin and Iowa. The American lead is remarkable for its softness and purity, and although obtained with comparative ease, excepting what is mined in Illinois and Iowa, it is not easily transported to market. The total produc- tion of the Union, during the year 1869, 320 LIFE AMONG THE MINERS. was estimated at thirty-eight millions of pounds, while Spain produced about sixty- seven millions, and Great Britain more than one hundred and fifty-three millions of pounds ; and the imports into the Uni- ted States greatly exceed the domestic product. The uses to which the metal is applied are very numerous and highly im- portant. One of the most useful applica- tions of lead is in the manufacture of the carbonate, which is extensively used as a white paint, and also as a body for other colors. The smelting of lead and the man- ufacture of the white paint therefrom, are considered prejudicial to health, and the workmen suffer much from colic and par- alysis. Another of the more important minerals found in the United States, in almost inex- haustable quantities is Quicksilver. It is chiefly mined in California, where the annual product is considerably more than half the yield of the whole world beside, the total annual yield having been about six hundred LIFE AMONG THE MINERS. 321 thousand pounds. Until recently the mines of Spain controlled the Chinese market, but the miners of California shipped a large amount to Hong Kong, where they sold it far below cost, and the supply from Spain was driven back to that country. The Eng- lish market is now supplied by Spain and the Chinese market by California. Besides the countries named, Austria and Peru furn- ish a small supply of this valuable mineral. The chief demand for it is for mining pur- poses, and for the manufacture of calomel and vermillion. With regard to the metals known as tin, zinc, platinum, nickel, antimony, cpbalt, and other minor metals, they are all found in various parts of the United States, but none of them have as yet been mined to any great extent. With the increase of population and railways, it is supposed that the business of mining will grow into a gigantic national interest, and that America will lead the world in the value and variety of her mineral products. The National 322 LIFE AMONG THE MINERS. Government, within the last few years, has done much to develop the hidden resources of the land, by sending forth competent scientific expeditions, and publishing their results for the benefit of the public ; and the people themselves have manifested their interest in the subject by establishing and supporting a number of well-conducted jour- nals devoted wholly to Mining Engineering. In taking a general survey of the mining population of America we cannot but con- clude that they are noted for their intelli- gence, and in view of the hardship and privations which they undergo, are not as well paid as they should be, although better paid than the mining people of other coun- tries. A very large proportion of them, however, are foreigners, and as they have generally improved their condition by emi- grating to this country they are contented with their lot. Those of them who are engaged in mining coal, iron, lead, and cop- per, in the older States of the Union, have facilities for the education of their children LIFE AMONG THE MINERS. 323 at common schools, but in the frontier States and Territories, where the precious metals are chiefly found, family men are not abundant, and the opportunities for making them comfortable, and educating the young, are few and far between. PART TENTH. LIFE IN THE ARMY AND NAVY. THE standing army of the United States began with the foundation of the Govern- ment in 1789, but when necessary it has always been customary to employ what is called a volunteer force or army. During the war of the Revolution the number of soldiers employed was 275,000; in the war of 1812 the combined troops numbered 527,631 ; during the Seminole war of 1817, 5,611; Black Hawk war of 1832, 5,031; Florida war of 1842, 29,953; war with Mexico in 1846, 73,260; miscellaneous troubles, about 20,000 ; and during the late Civil war the forces in the field, at one time, numbered 2,688,523. The total amount of money expended by the United States in 328 LIFE IN THE ARMY AND NAVY. carrying on its various wars was $3,308,- 352,706. The Regular Army of the United States is at present constituted as follows : 1 General; 3 Major-Generals ; 16 Brigadier-Generals ; 68 Colonels; 83 Lieutenant-Colonels; 271 Majors; 36 Aides-de-Camp ; 532 Captains; 40 Adjutants, (extra Lieutenants;) 40 Reg- imental Quartermasters, (extra Lieuten- ants;) 682 First Lieutenants; 455 Second Lieutenants; 34 Chaplains; 29 Military Store-keepers ; 5 Medical Store-keepers ; 40 Sergeant-Majors ; 40 Quartermaster- Sergeants ; 40 Chief Musicians ; 60 Princi- pal Musicians ; 10 Saddler-Sergeants ; 10 Chief Trumpeters; 151 Ordnance-Sergeants; 362 Hospital Stewards; 430 First Ser- geants ; 430 Company Quartermaster-Ser- geants ; 1947 Sergeants; 1837 Corporals; 240 Trumpeters ; 654 Musicians; 240 Far- riers or Blacksmiths ; 620 Artificers ; 120 Saddlers ; 430 Wagoners ; 300 Privates of the 1st Class, (Ordnance and Engineers ;) 299 Privates of the 2d Class, (Ordnance LIFE IN THE ARMY AND NAVY. 329 and Engineers ;) 22,100 Privates ; also one Battalion Sergeant-Major and one Battalion Quartermaster-Sergeant ; making the whole number of commissioned officers 2,263, and the whole number of enlisted men 30,000. There are besides at the United States Military Academy, 8 Professors and 241 Cadets, making the total commissioned and enlisted, 32,512. The Army is sub-divided into 10 regiments of Cavalry, 5 regiments of Artillery, 25 regiments of Infantry, and the Engineer Battalion. Each regi- ment of Cavalry has 1 Colonel, 1 Lieu- tenant-Colonel, 3 Majors, 1 Adjutant (ex- tra Lieutenant,) 1 Regimental Quartermas- ter, (extra Lieutenant,) 12 Captains, 12 First Lieutenants, 12 Second Lieutenants, 1 Sergeant-Major, 1 Quartermaster-Ser- geant,! Chief Musician, 1 Saddler-Sergeant, 1 Chief Trumpeter, 12 First Sergeants, 12 Company Quartermaster Sergeants, 60 Ser- geants, 48 Corporals, 24 Trumpeters, 24 Farriers and Blacksmiths, 12 Saddlers, 12 Wagoners, and 804 Privates. The whole 330 LIFE IN THE ARMY AND NAVY. number of commissioned officers to the reg- iment is 44, and whole number enlisted is 1,013, making the aggregate 1,057. The regiment is sub-divided into 12 troops, each troop having 1 captain, 1 first lieutenant, 1 second lieutenant, 1 first sergeant, 1 com- pany quartermaster-sergeant, 5 sergeants, 4 corporals, 2 trumpeters, 2 farriers and blacksmiths, 1 saddler, 1 wagoner, 67 pri- vates ; total commissioned, 3 ; total enlist- ed, 84 ; aggregate, 87. There are 5 regiments of Artillery, each regiment having 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant- colonel, 3 majors, 1 adjutant, (extra lieu- tenant,) 1 regimental quartermaster, (extra lieutenant,) 12 captains, 24 first lieutenants, 13 second lieutenants, 1 sergeant-major, 1 quartermaster-sergeant, 1 chief musician, 2 principal musicians, 12 first sergeants, 12 company quartermaster-sergeants, 50 ser- geants, 48 corporals, 24 musicians, 24 arti- ficers, 12 wagoners, and 562 privates ; total commissioned, 56 ; total enlisted, 749 ; ag- gregate, 805. To each regiment there are LIFE IN THE ARMY AND NAVY. 331 12 companies, one of which is mounted and is called a Light Battery. A company of Artillery consists of 1 captain, 2 first lieu- tenants, 1 second lieutenant, (Light Bat- tery has 2,) 1 first sergeant, 1 company quartermaster-sergeant, 4 sergeants, (Light Battery has 6,) 4 corporals, 2 musicians, 2 artificers, 1 wagoner, 45 privates, (Light Battery has 67;) total commissioned 4, (Light Battery 5 ;) total enlisted 60, (Light Battery 84 ; aggregate, 64, (Light Battery, 89.) There are 25 regiments of Infantry, each having 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 1 major, 1 adjutant, (extra lieutenant,) 1 reg- imental quartermaster, (extra lieutenant,) 10 captains, 10 first lieutenants, 10 second lieutenants, 1 sergeant-major. 1 quarter- master-sergeant, 1 chief musician, 2 princi- pal musicians, 10 first sergeants, 10 com- pany quartermaster sergeants, 40 sergeants, 40 corporals, 20 musicians, 20 artificers. 10 wagoners, and 450 privates ; total commis- sioned, 36; total enlisted, 605; aggregate, 332 LIFE IN THE ARMY AND NAVY. 641. Each regiment has 10 companies ; to each company there are : 1 captain, 1 first lieutenant, 1 second lieutenant, 1 first ser- geant, 1 company quartermaster-sergeant, 4 sergeants, 4 corporals, 2 musicians, 2 art- ificers, 1 wagoner, 45 privates ; total com- missioned, 3 ; total enlisted, 60 ; aggregate, 63. Another branch of the service is the En- gineer Battalion, which has 1 major, 1 ad- jutant, 1 quartermaster, 5 captains, 5 first lieutenants, 5 second lieutenants, 1 sergeant- major, 1 quartermaster-sergeant, 50 ser- geants, 5 corporals, 10 musicians, 119 pri- vates of the first class, 119 privates of the second class ; total commissioned, 16 ; total enlisted, 350 ; aggregate, 366. > In the Bat- talion there are 5 companies, each having 1 captain, 1 first lieutenant, 1 second lieuten- ant, 10 sergeants, 10 corporals, 2 musicians, 24 privates first class, 24 privates second class ; total commissioned, 3 ; total enlisted, 70 ; aggregate, 73. The President is by law Commander-in- LIFE IN THE ARMY AND NAVY. 333 Chief of the Army. To assist him in the ex- ecution of the laws in so far as they relate to the army in its control, subsistence and supply, a Secretary of War is appointed by him, through whom he exercises a gen- eral supervision. To facilitate this a De- partment of War has been established, which is sub-divided into the following staff departments or corps : 1. Adjutant General's Department. 2. Inspector General's Department. 3. Bureau of Military Justice. 4. Quartermaster's Department. 5. Subsistence Department. 6. Medical Department. 7. Pay Department, 8. Signal Officer. 9. Chief of Staff to the General of the Army. 10. Corps of Engineers. 11. Ordnance Department. The general staff is the central point of military administration. It comprises all the officers concerned in regulating the de- 334 LIFE IN THE ARMY AND NAVY. tails of the service, and furnishing the army with the means necessary for its subsist- ence, comfort, mobility and action. All general orders which emanate from the headquarters of the army, the orders of detail, of instruction, of movement, and all general regulations for the army, are com- municated to the troops through the office of the Adjutant General. The Adjutant General is charged with the record of military appointments, pro- motions, resignations, deaths and other cas- ualties ; with the, registry and filling up of commissions, and with their distribution; with the records which relate to the per- sonel of the army, and to the military his- tory of every officer and soldier ; with the duties connected with the recruiting ser- vice ; the registry of the names of soldiers; their enlistment and descriptive lists, and of deaths, desertions, discharges, &c. ; with the preservation of monthly returns of reg- iments and posts, and the muster-rolls of companies ; with receipts and examination LIFE IN THE ARMY AND NAVY. 335 of applications for pension, previous to their being sent to the Pension Office, and of in- ventories of the effects of deceased soldiers. The annual returns of the militia of. the several States and Territories ; of the ord- nance, arms, accoutrements, and munitions of war appertaining to the same, required by law to be made to the President of the United States, are filed, and the general returns of the militia annually required to be laid before Congress, are also prepared and consolidated in this ofjice. The Inspector General's Department is charged with the duty of inspecting and reporting upon the condition of the forts with their armaments, of the state of dis- cipline of the troops in short, upon the whole " material and personel" of the army, and to report whether or not the prescribed rules, regulations and orders for its govern- ment are properly carried into effect. In the office of the Judge Advocate Gen- eral, under whose charge is the Bureau of Military Justice, the proceedings of all 336 LIFE IN THE ARMY AND NAVY. courts martial, courts of inquiry and mili- tary commissions are received, revised, re- corded and reported upon. It is the duty of the Judge Advocate General to report at once for the action of the Secretary of War, all fatal irregularities in proceedings, and illegal or unusual sentences. When called upon by the proper authority, he gives an opinion on questions of construction of mil- itary law ; and through him all communi- cations pertaining to questions of military justice should be addressed. The Quartermaster General's Department furnishes to the army its transportation, of whatever nature, quarters, fuel, stationery, &c., and pays for rent of quarters and for all materials to be used in the construction of buildings for its use. To that office are sent all reports and returns of property purchased, issued, worn out in service, lost, sold, destroyed or remaining on hand, and there are approved all contracts for pur- chases connected with the above. The Subsistence Department, as its name LIFE IN THE ARMY AND NAVY. 337 implies, has charge of the furnishing of subsistence to troops, all reports and returns necessary to the end that stores may be properly accounted for, are made to this office, and here all contracts for their pur- chase are approved. The Medical Department or Surgeon General's Office has charge of the selection of medical officers for detail, and to it all returns and reports in regard to sick and wounded officers and soldiers, and medical stores, are made. With regard to the other bureaus or officers which have been men- tioned, their duties are described by their titles. We may further remark, in brief, that the American army is divided into Divis- ions and Departments commanded by Gen- erals ; that, in times of peace it is chiefly employed in occupying the various forts and defences of the country and in keeping peace with the Indians on the frontiers ; that, after forty years of service, the officers of the army may at their own request be 338 LIFE IN THE ARMY AND NAVY. retired, receiving seventy-five per cent, of their pay ; that members of Congress desig- nate the largest proportion of those who are admitted to the West Point Academy, which is the regular school for the educa- tion of officers for the arrny. When, in time of war, it is necessary to have volun- teers, they are called for by Proclamation of the President, and the State Governors immediately answer the call, and send the proportion assigned to them, which are chiefly composed of the militia or State troops ; and after the war, these volunteer troops are disbanded and return to the or- dinary avocations of life, which fact has been considered by foreigners as one of the marvels of the American Government. The regular army is supplied with soldiers by enlistment, and after entering the service, no man can leave it without the consent of Government, nor without sufficient cause. With regard to the pay of the army, which is always enhanced by long service, we sub- mit the following : General, $13,500 ; Lieu- LIFE IN THE ARMY AND NAVY. 339 tenant-General, $11,000 ; Major-General, $7,500; Brigadier-General, $5,500; Col- onel, $3,500 ; Lieutenant-Colonel, $3,000 ; Major, $2,500 ; Captains, $1800 and $2000; Regimental Adjutant and Quartermaster, each $1.800; First Lieutenants, $1500 and $1600; Second Lieutenants, $1400 and $1500; and Chaplains, $1500. The pay of the common soldier is thirteen dollars per month with rations. There are twenty- five armories and arsenals in the country, all in command of competent officers, and the military Departments of the Govern- ment number fifteen, and embrace the whole Union. The amount required for support- ing the military establishment during 1872 is about twenty-nine millions of dollars. As the War Department is the centre of the Army, so is the Navy Department the fountain head of the Navy. The duties of this Department are distributed through the Secretary's office and eight bureaus, name- ly : Bureau of Yards and Docks, which has charge of the navy-yards, including the 340 LIFE IN THE ARMY AND NAVY. docks, wharves, buildings and machinery, and also of a Naval Asylum; Office of Navi- gation, which has charge of the maps, charts, flags, signals, &c., and also of the Naval Academy, Naval Observatory, and Nautical Almanac; Office of Ordnance, which has charge of ordnance and ordnance stores, the manufacture and purchase of cannon, guns, powder, shot, shell, &c. ; Office of Construc- tion and Repair, having charge of the con- struction of vessels of war ; Office of Equip- ment and Recruiting, which has charge of the enlistment of men for the Navy, the equipment of vessels, anchors, cables, rig- ging, sails, coal, &c.; Office of Provisions and Clothing; and Office of Steam Engineering ; Office of Medicine and Surgery, the duties of which last two are described by their titles. There is attached to the Navy Department what is called the Marine Corps, whose du- ties are allied to those of the Army, only that they are performed on board ship or at the navy-yards ; also a National Obser- vatory which has earned a world-wide rep- LIFE IN THE ARMY AND NAVY. 341 utation ; and also an Hydrographic Office, which with the Observatory annually pub- lishes volumes of scientific information of great value. The largest vessel in the United States navy has a displacement of 5,440 feet, car- ries 12 guns, and like the majority in the service is a screw steamer. Some other ships, however, carry 45 guns. Of those ranking as first rates there are five ; second rates, forty ; third rates, forty-three ; fourth rates, ten ; to which may be added the iron clads, receiving and practice ships, supply vessels and tugs, making in all one hundred and seventy-nine, and carrying in the aggregate 1,390 guns. The offi- cers of the navy, to which we affix their "at sea" salaries, are as follows : 1 Admi- ral, $13,000; 1 Vice Admiral, $9,000; 12 Rear Admirals, $6,000 ; 24 Commodores, $5,000; 50 Captains, $4,500; 89 Com- manders, $3.50U; 164 Lieutenant Com- manders, $2,800; 201 Lieutenants, $2,400; 75 Masters, $1,800; 68 Ensigns, $1,200: 342 LIFE IN THE ARMY AND NAVY. 113 Midshipmen, $1,000; 150 in Medical Corps, whose salaries are widely various ; 134 in the Pay Corps, with various salaries ; and 241 in the Engineer Corps, together with an ample supply of Naval Construc- tors, Chaplains, Professors of Mathematics, and Civil Engineers, whose salaries range from seventeen hundred to four thousand four hundred dollars, and are increased with length of service. The pay of com- mon seamen is twenty-one and a half dol- lars per month, and while the subordinate grades in the service number fifty-seven, their pay ranges from eight to fifty-six dollars per month. The Academy where young men are fitted for service in the Navy is located at Annapolis, and is un- der rules, in regard to admission, allied to those of the Military Academy at West Point. Of complete Navy Yards there are eight in the United States ; five fleets are now doing duty in various quarters of the globe ; and within the last year several scientific expeditions have been LIFE IX THE ARMY AND NAVY. 343 fitted out as follows, viz : one to survey the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and another to survey the Isthmus of Darien, both of which have in view the making of a canal between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans ; and an ex- pedition has also been fitted out for explor- ations towards the North Pole. Indirectly connected with the Navy is a bureau called the Light-House Board, with which, as an active member, has hitherto been connected Adm\ral Thornton A. Jenkins, but who has recently been assigned to the fleet in the waters of China and Japan. Without going more fully into the subject, for want of space, it only remains for us to add in con- clusion, that the sum of money which will be required to support the American Naval Establishment during the year 1872 will be about twenty millions of dollars. PART ELEVENTH LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. THE total number of incorporated cities in the United States is four hundred and nine, but many of them do not contain more than two thousand inhabitants. By far the largest proportion of foreigners who come to this country across the Atlantic ocean, enter the country at the port of New York, which is the largest city in the Wes- tern Hemisphere. It was founded by the Dutch, and called by them New Amster- dam. It occupies the greater part of an island called Manhattan, which is thirteen and a half miles long, and contains an area of twenty-two miles. The cities of Brook- lyn and Jersey City, and several other towns, although having each a government 348 LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. of its own, are in reality portions of New York, and their combined population is not far from one and a half millions. Accord- ing to the last census, the population of New York by itself, was 942,292 ; of whom 523,198 were born in the United States, and 484,109 in the State of New York. Within eight miles of the commercial me- tropolis, in New Jersey, is a city called Newark, of one hundred thousand people, but it is so closely identified with the for- mer in its business and social interests as almost to be considered a suburb of New York. During the last fifteen years the number of emigrants arriving there from various parts of the world, was about 2,341,- 000, the arrivals for 1870 alone having been 211,190, and it is estimated that about four-fifths of these foreigners found perma- nent homes in the various States of the interior. The principal street of New York, which runs through its entire length like a back-bone, is called Broadway, and for sev- eral miles is completely lined with iron and LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. 349 marble buildings, devoted chiefly to busi- ness pursuits, and winning for it the repu- tation of being one of the handsomest and wealthiest streets in the world. But much of this splendor is also found in all its sub- ordinate streets and avenues, where the houses are generally built of brick ; and as a street for private residences, its Fifth Avenue is claimed to be unsurpassed. Pro- jecting, as this city does, into a splendid har- bor, where the fortifications are strong and imposing, it is perpetually surrounded with a forest of shipping, which gives the stran- ger an adequate idea of its very extensive commerce. The value of its real and per- sonal estate has not been definitely settled, but has been estimated at nearly eight hun- dred millions of dollars, and the rate of tax- ation is two per cent, per annum. It is supplied with pure water by an aqueduct which cost more than fifteen millions of dol- lars, the water pipes of which measure some two hundred and seventy miles. It has one hundred miles of sewers and more 350 LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. than two hundred miles of paved streets. Its temples for religious worship are numer- ous and many of them very beautiful, the church property of the city reaching in value nearly fifteen millions of dollars. Its principal park known as Central Park is said to be equal to the best in Europe, and its principal financial street, known as Wall street, although not more than half a mile in length, has a power which is felt in the remotest corners of the earth. Its hospitals and other benevolent institutions are num- erous and liberally conducted in every par- ticular ; and the same may be said of its institutions of learning, ranging from first- class colleges to the best of district or com- mon schools. It is abundantly supplied with libraries, many of which are very large, and all of them are conducted on the most liberal principles. Its manufacturing establishments are numberless ; its fire department is noted for its efficiency and is founded on the voluntary system; and there is a lively military spirit among its LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. 351 young men, and its militia regiments rival veteran regulars in their drill. Its police force is of the first order and is managed by commissioners. Policemen are appointed during good behavior, and officers rise from the ranks. Patrolmen are paid eight hun- dred dollars per annum, sergeants nine hundred, captains twelve hundred, inspec- tors two thousand, and a general superin- tendent five thousand dollars a year. There are about seven hundred police stations, four hundred and twelve miles of streets, and eleven miles of piers in the city. Its newspapers are abundant and taken in the aggregate are probably more influential for good or evil than any similar number on the globe. Its markets for the necessaries of life are fully supplied with everything that can be desired, in the way of meats, flour, fruit and fish. Its government, al- though resting upon the most liberal pro- visions, has for many years been a kind of political arena, in which unworthy men have obtained and exercised the most dan- 352 LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. gerous powers, and at the moment of writ- ing these lines, a number of men who were lately at the head of the city government, are confined in a common prison for robbing their fellow-citizens to an enormous extent. While it is true that New York is very much of a cosmopolitan city, it has been estimated that two-thirds of its inhabitants are natives of the United States. It is, however, pre-eminently a commercial city, and in several respects is equal to London. The post office of New York is the most important in the country ; and its customs receipts amount to about three-fifths of the total in the United States. The manufac- tures of the city constitute a leading element of its prosperity and wealth. The most numerous class of workmen are those en- gaged in making wearing apparel ; next to whom come the workmen in iron and met- aJs ; then the chemists ; workmen in leather, steam machinery and lumber ; navigators ; workmen in fibrous substances, glass and pottery ; and the manufacturers of cars and LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. 353 wagons; so on, to an almost unlimited extent. Nowhere is the habit of eating away from home, so general as in New York, owing to the great distance between the dwelling houses and the places of business ; and this habit has made eating houses, lunch rooms, refectories, oyster cellars, and bar-rooms, a prominent feature of the town. Its hotels are quite magnificent, and its boarding houses as comfortable as any in the world. The eating houses are found everywhere, and are frequented by the millionaire as well as the vagabond. The city government is vested in a Mayor and Boards of Aldermen and Councilmen, who are annually elected by the people. While it is true that in times of high political ex- citement, it is sometimes afflicted with mobs and riots, the din of business always ceases on the approach of the Sabbath, and that day is observed as a day of rest, of church- going and of recreation by its teeming thou- sands. The spring and autumn, are the two great seasons for business ; winter, the 354 LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. special season for amusements and all sorts of gaiety; while the summer is compara- tively sluggish, although even then, the turmoil of business is far from being dead. The second largest city in the United States is Philadelphia, which was founded by William Penn in 1682, and contains 674,022 inhabitants, of whom 490,398 were born in the United States, and 428,250 in Pennsylvania. It stands on a plain between the rivers Delaware and Schuylkill, and has several suburban cities, the whole of which form one municipality, containing 120 square miles. The streets of the city proper are laid out in regular order, and the houses are more distinguished for their neatness and comfort than for their rich- ness or extravagance, and in this particular are in keeping with the character of the population. The city is well supplied with parks, one of which, for its collection of trees and scenes of beauty, is considered a successful rival of the great Central Park of New York. Its public buildings are nu- LIFE IX THE LEADING CITIES. 355 merous and beautiful ; one of them, called Girard College, was built and the institu- tion endowed by one of its citizens alone ; but the chief boast of the inhabitants is In- dependence Hall, which was the meeting place of Congress during the earlier history of the American Republic. The churches are also numerous, all the religious denom- inations being well supplied, but this is es- pecially the case in regard to the Quakers, who have hitherto been so numerous and influential, as to have given to their city the name of Quaker City. * The literary and scientific institutions of Philadelphia have always occupied a high position, and the cultured character of its inhabitants has always been manifested by its rich libraries and galleries of art, and by the upright character of its press. It was here that Benjamin Franklin lived, and worked as a printer, and won his great fame as a philo- sopher. From the earliest times the central mint of the United States has been estab- lished here, and the city has borne an im- 356 LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. portant part in the financial history of the country. Because of its remoteness from the Atlantic ocean, it may not compete with New York in its foreign commerce, but it carries on an immense trade with the interior country, and is a noted terminus for unnumbered railroads and canals. As a depot for the exportation of coal it is without a rival; and it has always been famous for the extent of its book-publishing business. Within the last few years Phil- adelphia has greatly increased its manufac- turing establishments, until its inhabitants now claim that they can now produce every- thing that may be required for the comfort or convenience of man ; indeed, in the vari- ety and extent of its manufactures it is said to be unequalled by any other city in the Union. On this point, we submit one illustration, which is, that it contains the two largest establishments in the world for the manufacture of locomotives, which give employment to about four thousand hands, and can build one of those wonderful en- LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. 357 gines in a single day. The capital invested in its manufacturing establishments is esti- mated at $300,000,000. While the inhab- itants of this city are noted for their peace- ful disposition and for their love of order, it is also true that it has been the scene of many political or religious disturbances, but which in these latter days have been quite unknown. Another of the character- istics of this city is the total absence of tenement houses, and the existence of com- fortable homes for the laboring population. As one of her public men informs us, every laborer, who has a family, dwells under a separate roof, which is most frequently his own in a house lighted by gas, and sup- plied with an abundance of pure water. As this city is pre-eminently a producing city, so are its native and foreign inhabi- tants distinguished for their industry, and there is not in the whole land, probably, any other crowded city where among the working classes more genuine comfort and contentment can be found. 358 LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. The next city on our list is Boston, which contains 250,526 inhabitants, of whom 172,450 were born in the United States, and 127,620 in*the State of Massa- chusetts. If, however, we should add to it the various towns which adjoin it, the population would be nearly double. It was first settled in 1630 by the Puritans, and is the leading city of New England, upon which it has always exerted a para- mount influence. It bore a very important part in the history of the American Revo- lution, and events of great importance have transpired within its limits and in its vicin- ity. Formerly it was more closely identi- fied with the commerce of the East, than any other American city, and at the pres- ent time ranks next to New York in the extent of its foreign commerce. The city is chiefly situated on a peninsula, and some of the adjacent parts, with which it is con- nected by numerous bridges, rise to the height of one hundred and thirty feet above the level of the harbor, which is deep, con- LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. 359 venient and secure. The streets were origi- nally laid out upon no systematic plan, and being accommodated to the unevenness of the surface, many of them are crooked and narrow, but these defect are being annually remedied. Many of the public buildings are handsome, but some of them are more fam- ous for their associations than their impos- ing appearance. The State house occupies the apex of the city, and presents a com- manding view from the sea and surround- ing country ; and its Faneuil Hall is univer- sally known as the " Cradle of Liberty," because it was here that the orators of the Revolution fired the hearts of the people against England. One of its leading land- marks is the monument of Bunker Hill, where was fought a famous battle. Its wharves and warehouses are on a scale of magnitude surpassed by no other city of the same size. Its churches are numerous and many of them beautiful, the largest number of them belonging to the Unitarian denomination. It has an extensive park 360 LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. called " Boston Common," which is a de- lightful resort for the inhabitants during the vernal months. With regard to literary, scientific and educational institutions, the city is most abundantly supplied. Its schools have a high reputation and it pub- lishes more than one hundred periodicals. Among its many libraries is one, the largest, which is entirely free to all who may desire to enjoy its advantages ; and the fact that the famous Harvard University is located in one of its suburbs, called Cambridge, has greatly tended to give to it its high reputation as a seat of learning. Its be- nevolent institutions are also numerous and richly endowed, and it has taken a promi- nent part in providing for the wants and intellectual elevation of the blind and the comforts of the insane. Its infirmaries have always borne a high reputation. The ice trade is a Boston invention and is said to have secured for it, the important trade which it enjoys, with Calcutta, and other portions of the East. On the score of en- LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. 361 terprise and culture the inhabitants of Bos- ton, have no superiors, and that circum- stance has tended to make them somewhat clannish, or exclusive in their manners and conversation and their modes of doing busi- ness, and hence it it that the outside world, especially the cosmopolitan citizens of New York, occasionally indulge in a little ridicule at the expense of the Bostonians. It is a thriving city, and by means of seven or eight great lines of railway, carries on an important trade in manufactures, with the interior country. It is a poor place for idlers and beggars, and yet the most liberal provision is made for the deserving poor. While this city does much to promote the fine arts, it claims a reputation of its own, for what it has done in developing the art of music, and it boasts of an organ which is the largest in the world. Another of the leading cities of America is Baltimore, which has a population of 267,354, of whom 210,870 were born in the United States, and 187,650 in the State 362 LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. of Maryland. It was founded by the Ro- man Catholics in 1729 ; is admirably situ- ated both for foreign and internal trade, having a spacious and secure harbor, and occupying a central position as regards the Atlantic coast of the United States. The site of the city is picturesque, covering a number of eminences; and although con- nected with the Northern and Western States, by its business ramifications, it has hitherto been considered a representative of the Southern States. It was here that the first gun was fired, by a mob, at the commencement of the late Civil War, when a regiment of troops from Massachusetts was assaulted, on their way to Washington. Its proximity to the Seat of Government, from which it is only thirty-eight miles dis- tant, has added to its importance and made it popular with the officials of the nation. From the number and prominence of its Monuments it has been called the "Monu- mental City." The most imposing of these is surmounted by a statue of George Wash- LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. 363 ington, which stands three hundred and twelve feet above the adjacent harbor ; and the city contains a shot-tower which is two hundred and fifty feet high, the highest in the world. The churches of this city are numerous, and many of them beautiful and imposing; and it boasts of one large Park, which is remarkable for the beauty of its scenery, and is a successful rival of those in New York and Boston. The manufac- turing facilities of Baltimore are uncommon and quite equal to its commercial advan- tages. In its benevolent and educational institutions it is behind none of its sister cities, and its name is associated with many men of culture, connected with literature, science, and the fine arts. It was here that the famous George Peabody first established himself in business, and where he founded one of the largest educational institutions associated with his name. Among the representative cities of Amer- ica is New Orleans. It was founded by the French in 1717, and has a population of 364 LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIE8. 191,418. Its site is on the eastern bank of the great Mississippi river, about one hundred miles above the mouth of that stream, and as it forms a half circle, has been called the Crescent City. Many parts of it are so low and flat that the waters are kept from overflowing it only by arti- ficial embankments. It possesses unrivalled natural advantages for internal trade, and it is visited by vessels from every quarter of the globe. Every description of craft is employed in transporting to it the rich products of the Mississippi and its many tributaries, whose navigable waters are not less than fifteen thousand miles in extent, and embrace every variety of climate. Not only is it the receptacle of countless varie- ties of produce from the interior, but is considered the largest cotton market in the world. The particular spot where all this merchandise is received, and from which it is shipped to foreign ports is called the Le- vee ; it extends along the river for miles, and because of the strange commingling of LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. 365 ships and steamboats and other kinds of vessels, and also on account of its vast pro- portions and never-ceasing bustle has been pronounced by travellers as one of the won- ders of America. It abounds in handsome buildings, and its various public institutions rest on liberal foundations. On account of its low situation and warm climate it is sub- ject to annual visitations from the yellow fever, which is frequently fatal to strangers. Any description of this city would be in- complete without a notice of its cemeteries. Each one is enclosed with a thick brick wall of arched cavities, made just large enough to admit a single coffin, and rising to the height of twelve feet. Within the enclos- ure are crowded the tombs, which are built wholly above the ground, and are from one to three stories high. This method of sep- ulture is a necessity, for the earth is so universally saturated with water, that none but paupers are consigned to the earth. The population of the city is exceedingly varied; its chief resident inhabitants are 366 LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. known as Creoles or the native population ; and those who are engaged in mercantile pursuits, and are successful, usually remain there during the winter or business months, spending their summers among the high- lands of the interior country. It is also thickly inhabited by colored people, who were once in slavery. It was the scene of quite a famous battle in 1815, between the English and the Americans under Andrew Jackson, who was victorious and subse- quently became President of the United States. The prevailing religion is Roman Catholic, and many churches are modeled upon those of European countries ; and not- withstanding the fact that this city is some- times called the " Wet Grave " and the " City of the Dead," it is celebrated for its continuous round of gaieties, from the be- ginning of the year to its close. On leaving New Orleans, if we pass up the Mississippi river about twelve hundred miles, we come to the city of St. Louis, which contains 310,864 inhabitants. It LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. 367 was founded by the French far traders, and possesses the peculiarity of being located at the geographical centre of the North American Continent ; and its advantages as a commercial emporium, are probably not surpassed by those of any inland port in the world. The business transacted here by means of steamboats and railroads is enormous ; the people are cosmopolitan in their character, and not behind the cities of the Eastern States, in their industry, lib- erality and intellectural culture. And what we say of St. Louis, is also true of Cincin- nati, on the Ohio, with its 216,239 inhabi- tants ; of Louisville on the same river, with its 100,753 inhabitants; and of Chicago, on Lake Michigan. With regard to the last named place, we may remark that its rapid growth, in twenty-five years, from a village to a city of nearly three hundred thousand, is one of the marvels of the age. But, since the first pages of this volume were sent to press, Chicago has met with a calamity by fire, which has been pro- LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. nounced quite unprecedented. It occurred in October, 1871. and resulted in the total destruction of all the business portions of the city. More than a hundred lives were also lost, eighty thousand persons, includ- ing merchants and mechanics, were thrown out of employment or reduced to beggary in a single night, and the total loss of prop- erty was estimated at two hundred millions of dollars. It is said to have been the most extensive fire that ever occurred in any country, and the sympathy felt for the suf- ferers, called forth subscriptions of money from every quarter of the globe, amounting in the aggregate to many millions of dollars ; and what was still more wonderful was the fact that the regular business of the city was again in successful operation in a very few weeks, although it had to be transacted under many and great disadvantages. Having elsewhere touched upon the characteristics of Washington, the metrop- olis of the United States, with its 120,000 inhabitants, we conclude our list of the lar- LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. 369 ger cities, with an allusion to San Fran- cisco, which contains about 150,000 inhabi- tants. The rapidity of its growth, can only be compared with that of Chicago; and while the former was chiefly built up by the gold mines of California, the latter owes its prosperity to the agricultural develop- ment of the wide and fertile region of which it is the centre. The fact that San Fran- cisco is the largest American seaport on the Pacific ocean, and that it is at the terminus of the Pacific Railroad, gives it command of the commerce of all the Eastern nations, by which advantages it will probably become a city of vast importance and influence. From the nature of its position, its social characteristics are quite different from those of the Atlantic cities, and it is not behind them in any of those qualities which give power and dignity to a city, yet it stands quite alone in regard to its Chinese popula- tion. The high rates of labor in this city generally, and its dependence on importa- tion for all its iron, brass, cotton, hardware 370 LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. and most of its wool, leather and hard wood lumber, prevent the establishment of fac- tories, and all the cutlery, fine tools and machinery, glass, porcelain, clothing and shoes are necessarily obtained from abroad at a great expense, thus giving employment to a large amount of shipping. In our remarks thus far, we have only spoken of those American cities which con- tain more than one hundred thousand in- habitants. But there are many smaller cities, which have a world-wide fame on account of their beauty, business character- istics or historical associations. Among these may be mentioned Charleston, which has about fifty thousand inhabitants, is the centre of the rice producing country of South Carolina, and in whose harbor, at Fort Sumter, was made the first regular assault upon the national forces at the com- mencement of the late civil war, when the city was a great sufferer; Savannah, the chief seaport of Georgia and the rival of Charleston, having a population of nearly LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. 371 thirty thousand; Richmond, in Virginia, with more than fifty thousand inhabitants and famous for its beautiful location, its flour and tobacco trade, and for having been the headquarters of the late rebellion ; Mo- bile, in Alabama, with thirty-two thousand inhabitants, possessing characteristics simi- lar to those of New Orleans ; Detroit, in Michigan, with nearly eighty thousand in- habitants, beautiful for situation, and the commercial gateway to the Great Lakes of Huron, Michigan and Superior ; Milwaukie, in Wisconsin, with seventy-one thousand in- habitants, the counterpart of Chicago and its unsuccessful rival; Cleveland in Ohio, with ninety-three thousand energetic inhabi- tants ; Buffalo, at the Eastern end of Lake Erie, with a population of one hundred and fifteen thousand souls, near which are the Falls of Niagara; Pittsburg in Pennsylvania, with a population of eighty-six thousand, almost entirely devoted to the coal and iron interests ; Albany in New York, the head of navigation on the Hudson and famous for 372 LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. its Dutch history and as being the Capitol of the Empire State, with seventy thousand people ; Rochester and Troy, in the same State, with sixty-three thousand souls; Indianapolis, in Indiana, with forty-eight thousand people and famous for its sur- rounding agricultural country ; Portland, in Maine, which has thirty-two thousand souls and one of the best harbors in Amer- ica; and the cities of Cambridge, Massa- chusetts, and New Haven, in Connecticut, where are located two of the leading Col- leges of the United States. PART TWELFTH FRONTIER LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. THE frontiers of America are so exten- sive and the pursuits of their inhabitants so various that an entire volume would not suffice to describe them with minuteness. In taking a bird's-eye view of the domain in question, (and a similar view of other subjects is all that has been attempted in the foregoing chapters.) we propose to speak of the four following characteristics, viz : the Indians, the Pioneer Farmers, the Fur Traders and Trappers, and the Lumber- men. It is now a settled fact that the Red race or Native Indians of America, are gradually passing away under the march of civiliza- tion. According to the most authentic 376 FRONTIER LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. data, the number of Indians who recognize the President as their Great Father, is about three hundred thousand. Of these, the Creeks, Cherokees, Choctaws and Chick- asaws, who live on the head waters of the Arkansas, number some fifty-four thousand; and excepting 4000 of the Six Nations in New York, 1000 Cherokees in North Caro- lina, 600 Penobscots in Maine, and 41,000 of various tribes still holding reservations on the Great Lakes and the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, they are the only tribes that have made any satisfactory advances in acquiring the arts and comforts of civili- zation. It would thus appear that the number of wild Indians who live entirely by the chase, and inhabit the American ter- ritories, excluding Alaska, number two hun- dred thousand souls. Although nominally obedient to the laws of the United States, these hunting tribes are in reality as free to roam, as if there were no central govern- ment. But with those who are partially civilized the case is quite different. Their FRONTIER LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. 377 wealth has been estimated at $3,300,000, while they support about seventy schools, nearly the same number of teachers or mis- sionaries, and cultivate nearly one thousand acres of land. The names by which they are known number one hundred and fifty, and their geographical condition is co-exten- sive with the area of the United States and Territories ; and it is a remarkable fact that of all the races or classes of people who inhabit the United States, the Indians are the only people who are not recognized as citizens by the General Government. On leaving the hunting grounds of the Red-Men for the haunts of opening civiliza- tion the first thing which attracts attention is the cabin of the pioneer or frontier far- mer. Though born and bred in a settled country, this man, who represents a large class, has been tempted by the spirit of enterprise to purchase a few hundred acres of land at the low Government price, which he is clearing away as rapidly as possible, and in the midst of which he has fixed his 378 FRONTIER LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. home. It is built of logs, small and poorly furnished, and but for the smoke issuing from its rustic chimney, could hardly be distinguished from the stable or barn, where he shelters his horses and oxen and cows. Hard work and rough fare are the lot of this poor yoeman, but his mission, as a man, commands the highest respect. He has a growing family about him, and in their wel- fare are centred all his hopes. Though far removed from schools and churches and the refinements of life, he plods on year after year, giving his boys the best education he can, thankful that they are approaching man's estate, and cheered with the prospect that, like many of his predecessors in a new country, he will acquire a fortune and spend his old age in a large frame or brick house, and end his days in peace. Five, ten, or it may be fifteen miles from this man's cabin is another, built on the same model, and whose owner is a counterpart of him- self. Farther on, still another log cabin comes in view, and so on do they continue FRONTIER LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. 379 to appear, encompassing the entire frontiers of civilization. The ancestors of many of these men. were among those who originally fought on the battle-field for the indepen- dence of their country, and they themselves, with their brothers and sons, flocked by thousands to its rescue, during the late Civil War in America. These men embody ' the true spirit of the land in which they dwell, and in history they will be long re- membered with honor and gratitude, for what they have done, and are doing, to make clear the pathway of empire. We come now to speak of that class of people, living on the frontiers, known as Fur Traders and Trappers. The business of collecting and selling furs and peltries, was commenced immediately after the first settlement of the country, and for about two hundred years, was eminently lucrative and gave employment to large numbers of enterprising men. Representatives from France and England as well as the United States participated in the trade, and sev- 380 FRONTIER LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. eral companies of great magnitude and influ- ence were the outgrowth of this trade, viz : the Hudson's Bay Company, the North- west Company and the American Fur Com- pany. Of late years, however, the fur busi- ness has greatly declined on the American Continent, but is not yet extinct. The men called traders are those who locate themselves on the borders of the wilderness, and keep for sale ample supplies of all such articles as may be needed by the Indians or trappers, who pay for what they pur- chase with furs and peltries. The more common articles required are blankets, guns and ammunition, flour and pork, tobacco, knives, as well as trinkets and the baneful firewater, while the articles for which they are exchanged, are buffalo robes and the skins of the deer, the beaver and otter, the sable, the mink, the bear and the wolf, for all of which there is always a demand in the cities of the Atlantic States. The men known as trappers, are either white men or half breeds, (so-called, because they are the FRONTIER LIFE AND ^DEVELOPMENTS. 381 offspring of French fathers and Indian moth- ers,) and they are the successful rivals of the native Indians in hunting or trapping wild animals. Those who reside in the prairie countries or among the Rocky Mountains, chiefly employ the horse in travelling, while those who reside in the densely wooded regions, where rivers and lakes abound, employ the bark canoe in their operations. In the earlier times, when America was yet a wilderness, this latter class of men rendered important ser- vice to the English and French nations, by acting as guides and assistants in the ex- ploring expeditions, and they became uni- versally known as voyageurs. While there are many American towns and cities which owe their origin to the existence of the fur trade, the two most noted of these are St. Louis on the Mississippi river, and Mon- treal in Canada, which lies on the river St. Lawrence, but both of these noted cities are rapidly losing their former reputations, and have really become cosmopolitan in 382 FRONTIER LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. their character, as well as cities of great magnitude and importance in the history of commerce. But, by far the most important phase of frontier life in the United States, is that connected with the lumbering business. There is no country on the globe which equals America in the extent of its valua- ble forests, and there is a great and con- stantly increasing demand, for every vari- ety of lumber, for the building of houses and the countless other things which are made of wood and indispensable for the comfort of mankind. The manufacture of lumber is of the utmost importance, and is a prominent source of wealth in America, the aggregate value of the trade amounting to more than one hundred millions of dollars, and giving employment to nearly one hun- dred thousand persons in its various depart- ments. The variety of forest trees which are cut down and transformed into lumber is very great, but the pine is most abun- dant, next to which may be mentioned the FRONTIER LIFE AND^ DEVELOPMENTS. 383 fir, spruce and hemlock, all of which are found in the Eastern, Northern and North- western States. The various marketable articles, which are manufactured out of these several woods are known as timber, staves, shingles, boards of every thickness, scantling, masts and knees for shipping; and the uses to which these productions are applied, are endless and of vast impor- tance to the people in every sphere of life. In North Carolina, they have a peculiar kind of pine, which they not only manu- facture into lumber, but from which the in- habitants obtain large quantities of tar, pitch and turpentine. In Alabama and Mississippi, they have still another variety of pine, which is worked into spars and masts by the ship-builders of the country. In Florida, an extensive business is done in preparing the live oak of that region for use in building the Naval vessels of the country, the Government retaining the monopoly of that valuable product. In many of the Western States, there is a tree called the black- walnut, which is employed 384 FRONTIER LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. to a great extent in the manufacture of ele- gant furniture, and has competed success- fully with the imported wood called ma- hogany. With regard to the various classes of people engaged in the lumbering business, throughout the Union, the most numerous are called lumbermen. In all those regions where the white pine and spruce and fir prevail, they form extensive parties and spend the winter in the dense forests, cut- ting down trees and dragging the logs to the banks of the streams; and when spring comes, and the streams become full of water, they drive the logs down the rivers, and in immense quantities, all arranged in rafts, deliver them at the saw mills at the mouths of the streams and on navigable waters, where the logs are turned into all kinds of lumber, and thence shipped by vessels to various parts of the United States as well as to foreign countries. Many of the mer- chants or companies who employ these lum- bermen do business on a scale of great mag- nitude, and they not only control the vari- FRONTIER LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. 385 ous operations in the interior, but are also the owners of the mills where the lumber is made, as well as many of the vessels em- ployed in the carrying trade. The mills to which we have alluded, are generally so located as to be driven by water-power, and as they are very numerous and extensive, they give employment to workmen of many grades, who form a class quite distinct from that of lumbermen. They are for the most part an intelligent and hardy race of men, and fail not, when elections take place, to exert an important influence on the affairs of their own State or those of the General Government. As we pass into the pine forests of Caro- lina, we there find quite another state of affairs. In that region, the manufacture of lumber is carried on, as already stated, in conjunction with the production of tar, pitch and turpentine, and by far the largest proportion of the men employed, were for- merly the colored people called slaves, but now known as freedmen. There, as well as elsewhere, the prevailing business is 386 FRONTIER LIFE AND DEVELOPMENTS. conducted by organized companies or by men of ample means, who give employment, and a good support, to large numbers of hardworking men. As to those who live in the States bordering on the Gulf of Mex- ico, especially in Florida, and who prepare the live oak timber for use at the Navy Yards, they are mostly men from the north, with northern habits and constitu- tions, and are exclusively employed by the General Government. They also pursue their arduous labors in the winter months, and, like the lumbermen of New England, live in tents or cabins and on the plainest fare. As to the business of spar-cutting in Alabama and Mississippi, it requires so little sagacity, that it is chiefly carried on by those who own the forest lands; but when we pass on to the Northwestern States, where the black-walnut prevails, we there find the business of lumbering fully organ- ized, and the durable and rich looking wood carefully prepared for transportation by steamboats or railroads to the markets on the Atlantic coast. PART THIRTEENTH. JUDICIAL LIFE. THE Constitution provides that " the ju- dicial power of the] United States shall be vested in one Supreme^Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish." The Constitution further defines and limits the judicial power as follows "1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; to all cases affecting ambassa- dors, other public ministers and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime juris- diction ; to controversies to which the Uni- ted States shall be a party ; to controver- 390 JUDICIAL LIFE. sies between two or more States, between a State and citizens of another State, be- tween citizens of different States, between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and be- tween a State or the citizens thereof and foreign states, citizens or subjects." " 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate juris- diction both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations, as the Congress shall make." The Supreme Court being established by the Constitution, Congress has from time to time established the following additional " inferior courts " of the United States, viz : the Circuit Courts, the District Courts, the Court of Claims, the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia, the Territorial Courts, with the Supreme Court, constitute the JUDICIAL LIFE. 391 Judiciary of the United States. The out- lines of their powers, jurisdiction, &c., will be briefly presented as follows : I. The Supreme Court. The original ju- risdiction of the Supreme Court is defined in the Constitution, as quoted. Its appel- late jurisdiction is also there defined, but is provided to be subject to exceptions and regulation by Congress. This power Con- gress has exercised in the following instan- ces. Appeals from these Circuit Courts to the Supreme Court, in civil actions, equity cases, and admiralty and prize cases, are restricted to those in which the matter in dispute exceeds the sum or value of two thousand dollars exclusive of costs. But this restriction does not apply to patent copyright, or revenue cases ; nor does it affect a-ppeals in criminal cases. Congress has also provided that the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction from judg- ments or decrees of the highest courts of the several States in suits where is drawn in question the validity of a treaty, or stat- 392 JUDICIAL LIFE. ute of, or an authority exercised under, the United States, and the decision has been against their validity ; or where is drawn in question the validity of a statute of, or an authority exercised under, any State, on the ground of their being repugnant to the constitution, treaties, or laws of the United States, and the decision is in favor of such validity ; or where any title, right, privilege, or immunity is claimed under the constitution, treaties or laws of the United States, and the decision is against the title, right, &c. But from the operations of these provisions are excepted cases of persons held in the custody of the military authori- ties of the United States, charged with mili- tary offences, or with having aided or abet- ted rebellion against the Government. The Supreme Court sits at Washington, and holds one annual session, commencing on the first Monday in December, with such adjourned or special terms as may be found necessary for the despatch of busi- ness. It consists of a chief justice and JUDICIAL LIFE. 393 eight justices, who, in common with all the United States Judges, hold their offices during good behavior. The salary of the Chief Justice is $8,500 ; that of each of the justices eight thousand dollars, per an- num. Six of the nine constitute a quorum. II. The Circuit Courts are nine in num- ber ; the United States being divided into nine circuits, each comprising three or more districts. Justices of the Supreme Court are allotted by that Court, to the several circuits, to assist in holding the Circuit Courts. Each circuit has besides a circuit judge with a salary of six thousand dollars ; with the same power and jurisdiction as the justice of the Supreme Court allotted to the circuit. The Circuit Court in each circuit is held by the justice of the Supreme Court, or by the circuit judge of the circuit, or by the district judge of the district sitting alone; or by the justice of the Supreme Court and circuit judge sitting together ; or (in the absence of either of them,) by the other and the district judge. Where two 394 JUDICIAL LIFE. judges hold a circuit court, and differ in opinion, the law provides for a special ap- peal to the Supreme Court. There are two annual sessions of each circuit court, with special sessions for the trial of criminal cases. The jurisdiction of the Circuit Courts is as follows : They have concurrent jurisdiction, with the State courts, of civil suits at common law and equity where the matter in dispute exceeds, exclusive of costs, the sum or value of five hundred dol- lars, and where the United States are plain- tiffs or petitioners, or an alien is a party, (but not where both parties are aliens ;) or where the suit is between a citizen of the State in which the suit is brought, and a citizen of another State. They have exclu- sive jurisdiction of all crimes and offences cognizable under the authority of the United States, except of such as are within the jurisdiction of the District Courts, and of those they have concurrent jurisdiction. They have also original jurisdiction in all patent and copy-right cases, and their juris- JUDICIAL LIFE. 395 diction also extends to all cases arising un- der the revenue laws. They are also in- vested with jurisdiction of certain classes of cases removed to them, under special stat- utes, from the State Courts ; including suits between citizens of different States, suits against aliens, and suits and prosecutions against military and other officers of the Government. The Circuit Courts entertain appeals from the District Courts in criminal cases, and in civil cases where the matter in dispute exceeds the sum of fifty dollars. III. The United States is further divided into districts, for the holding of U. S. Dis- trict Courts therein. A district usually in- cludes a single State; but the larger States are divided into two or sometimes three districts. For each district, there is a Dis- trict Judge, who holds four regular sessions of the district court annually. The sala- ries of the District Judges are different in different parts of the country. The Dis- trict Courts have original, and exclusive jurisdiction of admiralty and maritime cases, 396 JUDICIAL LIFE. of cases of seizures on land and water un- der the laws of the United States, and of suits brought for penalties and forfeitures incurred under said laws. They have also jurisdiction, exclusive of the State Courts, of suits against consuls, vice consuls, &c. They have also concurrent jurisdiction with the Circuit Courts in cases of crimes and offences, not capital, committed under the laws of the United States. Also concur- rent jurisdiction with such courts and the State Courts of suits at common law in which the United States, or any officer thereof may sue, under the authority of any law of the United States. Also a simi- lar jurisdiction of all suits by aliens, on ac- count of torts in violation of the laws of na- tions or a treaty of the United States. IV. The Court of Claims sits in the Cap- itol at Washington^ and commences its regu- lar annual session on the same day as the Supreme Court, viz : the first Monday in December. It consists of a chief justice and four justices, with salary of four thou- JUDICIAL TIFE. 397 sand dollars each. It has jurisdiction of " all claims founded upon any law of Con- gress, or upon any regulation of an execu- tive department, or upon any contract, ex- press or implied, with the Government of the United States, which may be suggested to it by a petition filed therein, and also all claims which may be referred to said court by either House of Congress; " also juris- diction of all counter claims and demands on the part of the United States, against any persons making claim against the Gov- ernment in said court; also jurisdiction of claims to property captured or abandoned during the rebellion ; also jurisdiction of the claims of disbursing officers of the United States for relief from responsibility on account of losses of public property by capture or otherwise while in the line of duty ; and of some other claims of less gen- eral importance. The court is precluded from passing upon claims for supplies taken, injuries done, &c., by United States troops during the rebellion, and from rendering 398 JUDICIAL LIFE. judgment in favor of any claimant, who has not been loyal to the United States, Ap- peals may be taken by the United States to the Supreme Court in all cases where the judgment is adverse to the United States ; and by the claimant where the amount in controversy exceeds three thou- sand dollars. This Court is the only court of the U. S., in which the United States cau be directly sued as a defendant. V. The Supreme Court of the District of Columbia consists of a chief justice and three other justices, and holds its sessions at the City Hall in Washington. The salary of the chief justice is four thousand five hun- dred dollars, and of each of the other jus- tices four thousand dollars. This court combines the general powers and jurisdic- tion of a circuit court and a district court. Any siogle one of its judges is authorized to hold a district court. Its jurisdiction extends only to civil proceedings instituted, and crimes committed in the District of Columbia ; and to cases of seizures on land and water made, and penalties and forfei- JUDICIAL LIFE. tures incurred, under the laws of the United States within the same limits only. It en- tertains appeals from the local justices of the peace and police court; and its final judgments, orders and decrees are subject to be appealed from to the Supreme Court of the United States. VI. Territorial Courts. When a terri- torial government is organized by Congress x for any Territory, a judiciary is provided, consisting generally of a Supreme Court of three or more judges, district courts' to be held by the judges of the Supreme Court sep- arately, probate courts, and justices' courts. The district courts are invested with the jurisdiction of the circuit and district courts of the United States; and an appeal is given from the district courts to the Su- preme Court. An appeal is also provided from the Supreme Court to the Supreme Court of the United States, in the same manner as from a circuit court. When a Territory is admitted into the Union as a State, these courts cease to exist, being supplanted by the State Courts. ADDITIONAL NOTES, -AFTER the foregoing chapters on Reg- ious and Educational Life had been printed, we obtained some later official information on those subjects, which we append in this place. In 1870, three States of the Union passed laws compelling the education of all children with sound minds and bodies. The total number of Colleges in the coun- try is 368, of which 261 are supported by the different religious denominations. In these institutions there are 2,962 instruc- tors and 49,827 pupils ; in 99 of them males and females are instructed, while the balance are confined to males ; and besides these there are 136 institutions for the superior instruction of females alone, in which there are 1,163 teachers and 12,841 402 ADDITIONAL NOTES. pupils. Of Medical Schools, there are 57 ; Theological Schools, 117 ; Law Schools, 40 ; Normal Schools, 51, and Business Schools, 84. Connected with these various institutions, there are 180 Libraries with 2,355,237 volumes. The benefactions to educational objects by private citizens were quite unparalleled in 1870, amounting in the aggregate to $8,435,990. With regard to the effect of education upon crime, we find that there was one homicide to every 56,000 people, one to every 4000 thousand in the Pacific States, and one to every 10,- 000 in the Southern States. At least 80 per cent, of the crime of New England is committed by those who have no education ; in all parts of the country, 90 per cent, of the criminals were illiterate ; 75 per cent, were foreigners ; and from 80 to 90 per cent, connected their career of crime with intemperance. From these figures the con- clusion is inevitable, that ignorance breeds crime and education is the remedy for the crime that prevails. ADDITIONAL NOTES. 403 In further illustration of the preceding article on agriculture, we append the follow- ing statement. The total value of farm products in the United States and Terri- tories, during the year ending June 31, 1870, according to the Census, was $2,445,000,000. The largest product was in the State of New York and the second largest in Illinois. Now that this little book is finished, the mind of the Compiler naturally turns to take a single comprehensive view of the great country which has been briefly de- scribed. It is indeed one of the wonders of the century and of the world. The ex- tent of its domain and its unbounded re- sources, the peaceful blending of its many nationalities, the well-nigh unlimited dif- fusion of intelligence and knowledge, and the free, cosmopolitan character of its peo- ple, combine to give it a conspicuous posi- tion among the nations. At the very moment when these closing lines are being written, a Diplomatic Embassy from the 404 ADDITIONAL NOTES. Tenno of^Japan, is on the point of visiting the City of Washington, and the fact can- not but have made an impression on their minds, that, after landing on the soil of America, they have been compelled to travel more than three thousand miles be- fore reaching the metropolis. But when the Ambassadors, and the other high officials who accompany them, are informed as to the warm welcome which is in store for them from the Government of the United States, and many of the leading men and corporations throughout the Union, and when they shall have experienced the un- bounded hospitality of the American peo- ple generally, they will undoubtedly be deeply impressed, and effectually convinced, that America and Japan are strongly bound together by the cords of sincere regard and unselfish affection. ERRATA, &c. Page 15, line 11. For ruler read governor. * 16, lines 1 and 2. These expenses are incurred in part by the Government and the People. Page 28, line 3. For directly read indirectly. " 51. line 7. Add after foreigner as well as a native. " 62, line 10. For equal to read greater than. " 64, line 5. After offspring add except that the wife has a life interest of one-third called the widow's dower. Page 73, line 14. After farms add There is an extensive emigration from China to this country now going on, nud what effect it will have on the agricultural and industrial interests is a problem which can only be settled by the future. Page 95, 1'ne 1. For all in read in all. " 97, line 19. For and Furniture read Woollen-goods Tea, Coffee, and Sugars. Page 106, line 14. Since this was printed it has been stated that W. B. Astor, A. T. Stewart, and Cornelius Yunderbilt, are each worth about sixty millions of dollars. Page 118, line 8. The last figure 1 should be 2. * 120, line 20. For directly read indirectly. u 120. Strike out last two lines after and, and add $356,000.000 being a legal tender. Page 121. It should bo stated in this paragraph that there are Branch Mints in operation in San Francisco, Denver. Char- lotte, Carson City, and an Assay Office in New York; and also that nickel is used in some of the smaller coins. M277094 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY h