; I >•(' f CENTRAL AMERICA GUATEMALA, NICARAGUA COSTA RICA, HONDURAS PANAMA, AND SALVADOR BY W. H. KOEBEL AUTHOR OP "PARAGUAY," "URUGUAY," "MODERN ARGENTINA, "MODERN CHILE," "THE SOUTH AMERICANS," ETC., ETC. WITH 25 ILLUSTRATIONS AND A MAP T. FISHER UNWIN LTD. LONDON : ADELPHI TERRACE First published in igiy \All rights reserved) Digitized by tine Internet Archive in 2008 witii funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/americagucentralOOkoebricli CONTENTS PAOB INTRODUCTION 23 CHAPTER I THE ANCIENT CENTRAL AMERICANS . . .2$ The anthropological problems of America — Questions concern- ing the origin of the Indians — Features which recall the Old World — The four American Indian empires — Some results of the destruction of their social fabric — Influence of the Europeans on the conquered race — Changes in the type — Some ancient records and monuments — Traditions concerning the first arrival of the Central Americans — The founding of the Aztec and Quiche empires — Power of the Quiches — The prevalence of unrest — Circumstances which assisted the campaigns of Cortes, Pizarro, and Alvarado — A remarkable record — Some physical distinctions between the ancient Quiche and the Central American of to-day — Industries of the Quiches — Accomplish- ments and religion — Some peculiarities of belief — The Quiche pantheon — Curious variety of gods — Former erroneous esti- mates of the native civilization of the Isthmus — Result of the destruction of its monuments — Arts and crafts of the Central American Indians — Some varieties of sculpture — Grim features of the Quiche religion — Human sacrifice — Floral appreciation — Feathers and their uses — Curious superstitions — Fate of the early beliefs. CHAPTER II DISCOVERERS AND EARLY COLONISTS . * '37 Columbus and the American mainland — Posthumous part played by the Panama Canal in the triumph of Columbus's genius — The route to the East — A survey of the voyages of the great Genoese — Columbus and his crews — Methods by wj^ich some of the pioneer vessels were manned — Superstitions of the age — Sentiments of tfie pressed men — The 'first acts of colonization ^nd their tragic results — Columbus cruises along the coast of 7 370696 CONTENTS Central America — His warlike welcome at the hands of the coastal Indians — Humility a costly attribute in the natives — Evidence of gold — A settlement is founded on tthe Veragua River — Hostility of the Indians — Surprise and defeat of these — Escape of the chief Quibian — His subsequent revenge — Fate of a boat's crew — Difficulties of communication between the ships and the shore — Perilous situation of the garrison — Abandon- ment of the settlement — Rodrigo de Bastidas — His explorations — Cristobal Guerra — The governorships of Alonzo de Ojeda and Diego Nicuesa — Rivalry between the two — War with the Indians — The results of the ruthless treatment of the natives — Death of Nicuesa^—Desperate situation of Ojeda — Assistance brought by Martin Fernandez de Enciso — Enciso assumes command — His adventures and peril. CHAPTER III BALBOA AND HIS COLLEAGUES . . . .48 The Conquistador and his work — A comparison of the methods of some of the most famous — Differing circumstances in the various parts of the continent — The temptations to ruthlessness — Balboa as a humane pioneer — Official disadvantages under which he laboured — How Balboa set out for the Isthmus — His opportunity — He is chosen as a leader — He founds the first real settlement in Central America — The establishment of new and friendly relations with the Indians — Balboa's native wife — As Governor of Darien he makes preparations for crossing the Isthmus — His treatment at the hands of the Court of Spain — Assistance rendered by the natives in the passage from Atlantic to Pacific — Successful termination of the journey — Some aspects of the achievement — The discoverer plunges into the Pacific — That ocean as the private property of the Spaniards — Pedrarias Davila arrives to take over the governorship of Darien — A jealous and vindictive official — Imposing nature of his expedi- tion — Balboa's loyalty — Despotic and malicious conduct of the new Governor — Cruelties of his officers — The i wanton destruc- tion of Balboa's work — He is made Governor of the countries bordering the South Sea — Pedrarias consents to a truce — Balt)oa prepares to take up his new post — The transport of material — Pedrarias lures Balboa into his power — Judicial murder of Balboa — Some expeditions and discoveries — The conversion of the Indians — Generosity of the chiefs Nicoya and Nicaragua — Intervention of Pedrarias Davila — His death — The governorship of Rodrigo de Contreras — Brief career of an erring official — The revolt of Hernando Contreras — An am- bitious enterprise — The capture of Realejo — Dreams of a new empire — Capture of Panama — Defeat of the rebellion and the death and disappearance of its leaders. "^ CONTENTS 9 CHAPTER IV PAGE EARLY COLONIAL GOVERNMENT . . . .67 The expedition of Pedro de Alvarado— Battles with the Central American Indians — Events of the struggle — Perilous situation of the invaders — Discovery of the Indian plot at Ututlan — Punishment meted out — Arrival of the envoys from Guatemala with friendly proposals — An alliance is formed — Founding of the new province — Alvarado's government — Conduct of his brother when temporarily holding office — Ill-treatment brings about an Indian rebellion — Victory of the natives — Pedro de Alvarado's return — Re-establishment of the Spanish power — Death of Pedro de Alvarado — His widow is elected as his successor — Her death caused by the eruption of a volcano — Details of the catastrophe — A record of the early seismic dis- turbances — Various tragedies caused by these — The volcanoes Fuego and Agua— Abandonment of the first capital and the founding of the second — Fate of this latter — Founding of the third capital — The Audience of Guatemala is established — Various removals of the site of this — An itinerant body — Some regulations concerning its officials — An early conflagration — Adventures and fate of a puma — Epidemics of the first colonial period— Testimony concerning a miracle performed to alleviate one of the chief outbreaks — Connection between the early history of Central America and Peru — Gonzalo Pizarro and Pedro de la Gasca — Part of the drama that took place in the Isthmus — La Gasca succeeds in landing on Central American soil — His influence over Gonzalo Pizarro's officers — Events and intrigues in Panama— Gonzalo Pizarro's officers in Central America desert their rebellious chief and espouse the royal cause — Triumph of Pedro de la Gasca and execution of Gon- zalo Pizarro. CHAPTER V COLONIAL EPISODES . . . . .83 Extension of the Spanish power in Central America — The gate- way of the Pacific Coast— Relations with the Indians— Work and influence of the priests— First tradings with the Indians- Some accounts of the early dealings — Alonso Nino's expedition — The price of pearls — Profitable barterings — Occasional com- mercial enterprise of the Spanish Conqnistador — Secondary uses of the domestic pin — Political divisions of the Audience of Guatemala — Chief cities of the province in the seventeenth century — Commercial importance of the Isthmus — The sailing routes of the galleons — An early eighteenth-century description —Methods of transport— The sharing of the profits— The occu- 10 CONTENTS pation of smuggling — Some details of these enterprises— How the Central Americans were exploited by the Spanish officials — The commercial value of papal bulls — An official revenue by fines — Regulations concerning live-stock — The Latin American prejudice against mares as saddle-horses — Clerical fines — Reverence extended towards the Court of Spain — The in- troduction of pomp and ceremonies — The exaltation of the commonplace — Elaborate procedure attending the establish- ing of the Mint in Guatemala — Reverential reception of the machinery — Ceremonies attending the first coining — Abundance of precious metals in the eighteenth century. CHAPTER VI FOREIGN ATTACKS UPON THE ISTHMUS . . '94 Internal tranquillity of Central America — Consequences of an easy existence — Strategic position of the Isthmus — Its artificial importance during the colonial period — The " gold road " across the province of Panama — How the European goods arrived in Latin America — Route prescribed by the Laws of the Indies — Central America suffers from her position as the gateway of the Pacific — The early English navigators — Hawkins, Drake, and Raleigh — The feat of John Oxenham — The first EngHshman to sail the Pacific — His fate and that of his company — The record of Andrew Barker's expedition — Drake captures the town of Cartagena — A description of Christopher Newport's voyage — Adventures on the coast — Death of Hawkins and of Drake — The buccaneers — Pierre le Grand and Francois I'Ollo- nois — Cruelties of the latter — His death at the hands of the Indians — Other buccaneers — Captain Morgan — His early life — Circumstances which induced him to become a buccaneer — Glamour of the life — Morgan sold as a slave — He throws in his lot with the ** Brethren of the Coast " — His capture of Porto Bello — Some details of the attack — Devoted gallantry of the Spanish Governor — Heroic death of that official — Morgan sets out to capture Panama — The journey across the Isthmus — Sufferings of the most important buccaneer force ever collected — Bitter privations endured — How the pirates fed on leather — Critical situation of the expedition — Signs of plenty in the neighbour- hood of Panama — Preparations for the attack on the town — Power of the Spanish defensive force — Bulls as allies — Progress of the battle — Victory of the buccaneers — Booty yielded by the city — Subsequent career of Morgan — Description of the new town of Panama built near the site of the old — The spot at the beginning of the eighteenth century — Nelson's association with Central America — The expedition against the Spanish forts in Nicaragua — Commissariat and climate annul military success, CONTENTS 11 CHAPTER VII PAGE THE SCOTTISH DARIEN EXPEDITION . . • H? The history of Scottish colonial venture before the Union of that country with England— Difficulties of the Scottish mer- chants at the end of the seventeenth century — William Paterson, the founder of the Bank of England and of the Scottish Darien Company — Circumstances attending the formation of the enter- prise — Opposition of the East India Company — Legislation of the English Parliament discouraging the attempt — Successful flotation in Edinburgh — The Isthmus of Darien as a depository for commercial goods — Theories concerning the industrial centre of the world — Preparations for the enterprise — An account of some of the stores purchased for shipment — Humorous descrip- tion of the type of periwig provided — The sailing of the first fleet from Leith — Ardour of the volunteers — Arrival at Caledonia Bay, on the east coast of Panama — Description of the spot by one of the colonists — The construction of fortifications and dwelling huts — Some enthusiastic first opinions — Optimistic courage in the face of a long death list — Fever victims — The price of an ignorance of the tropics — The question of relations with the Spaniards — Military preparedness of the settlers — Result of the first expedition sent against New Edinburgh — Fate of the snow Dolphin's crew — An English royal proclamation proves fatal to the chances of the Darien Company — Havoc played by the climate — Abandonment of the settlement and departure of the survivors — Disasters of the voyage — Arrival in New York — The sole vessel to return to Scotland — The second Darien Expedition — Dramatic nature of its departure — Arrival at the deserted settlement — The colony is re-established — Defeat of a Spanish attacking force — New Edinburgh is invested by land and sea — Worn out by disease, the colonists accept an honourable capitulation— Return of the scanty survivors to Scotland— A contemporary account of the. affair. CHAPTER VIII ' THE EARLY REPUBLICAN PERIOD . . . . I3I Situation of Central America in the wars of liberation — Its peaceful transition to the status of an independent country — An adaptable Governor— Discussions concerning the future of the nation— The ex- Governor finds himself at the head of a re- publican state— General Iturbide of Mexico— He proposes to incorporate Central America with his empire of Mexico — Arrival of General Filisola, Iturbide's representative, with a force of men — The annexation of Central America proclaimed — Sal- vador's opposition— Filisola is defeated in that province- 12 CONTENTS PAGE Downfall of Iturbide — The independence of the Isthmus is reasserted— Formation of the United Provinces of Central America — Progressive spirit displayed — The rise of political parties— The Centralists and the Liberals— Their respective composition and objects — Attitude of the Indians — Their religion — Their increasing power — Establishment of a Federal Legis- lature — Friction between the two parties leads to an open breach and political chaos — Murder of the Liberal Vice-President Flores — Scene of the tragedy — Salvador intervenes on behalf of the Liberal party — Warfare between the two parties — Temporary success of the Centralists — Don Francisco,..^Morazan — The accepted leader of the Liberals — Triumph of the Liberals — Use made by them of thetr~power — General Morazan named President of the United Provinces of Central America — Recon- struction of the Centralist party — Division of the States — The rise of Rafael Carrera. CHAPTER IX THE PERIOD OF RAFAEL CARRERA I42 Carrera's origin — Early days of an ardent Centralist — His military life and humble civil occupation — Carrera heads an outbreak at Matasquintla — Spread of the movement — Objects of the campaign — Carrera at the head of an Indian army marches on the town of Guatemala — Dread of the inhabitants — His conditions are accepted — Scenes on the entry of the Indian army into the capital — Amazing appearance of the force — Conduct of the Indians in the town — A scene of mutual amazement — Outrages committed on the townsfolk — Interven- tion of the priests — Gallant behaviour of the United States consul — The price of Carrera's departure — Rank and gifts accorded him — Final demonstration of the Indians — Departure of the force — Carrera's personality gains in prominence — The capital is attacked by Morazan — Progress of the battle — Defeat of Morazan — End of the Liberal party — Description of an interview with Carrera — Appearance and manners of the famous chief — He attends a religious festival — Spectacle in the cathedral — Carrera's bodyguard — A grim banner — How he was escorted home — His influence on Central American history — Speculations on what might have been — Honesty of Carrera's intentions. CHAPTER X CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE MOSQUITO COAST . . . 152 Amount of Central American energy expended in political strife — Railways and prosperity the enemies of revolution — Brighter prospects for the future — Affairs of the nineteenth CONTENTS 18 PAGE century— Some manners and customs— The habit of wearing swords — Consequences of this— Cockfighting as a national amusement — Description of a scene in a cockpit — Old-time etiquette concerning boots— Special rates accorded to the unshod — Outward evidence of class distinction — Amusements of the Isthmus — The Indians of the Mosquito Coast — The allies of the buccaneers — Services rendered by the natives — The Indian royalty — Loyalty of the Mosquito Indians to the British — An important offer, and how it was received — Establishment of the British government on the coast — A weak treaty — Fate of the Mosquito Indians— An eighteenth-century bill of fare of the Buffs Regiment at their station on the Mosquito Coast — Quaint document from one of the local kings — Captain Pim's relations with the Indians — A native potentate as guest on a warship — Admonition to this latter— The [port of Greytown as the centre of international complications — Difficulties between Great Britain and Nicaragua — Military measures adopted — The . treaty by which Great Britain surrendered the Mosquito Coast— Situation of the Indians— Sir Gregor M'Gregor and Honduras. CHAPTER XI / POLITICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS .... 162 Progress achieved in transport and industries — Attention now paid to commerce and the professions — Affairs of the present compared with those of the past — Hope for the future — Mexico and Central America — A catastrophe of modern Latin American history — Practical and theoretical methods of reform — The types of population inhabiting Mexico and Central America — The governing classes — Some characteristics — The aristocratic minority — Some examples of the Caciques and Caudillos — The path to power — The work of the secretaries — Mischief worked by the adventurers — The policy of Central America as dis- tinguished from that of Mexico — Stages to be undergone before true democracy can be arrived at — Position of the foreigner in an unquiet State — Methods by which his situation may be estimated — Temperament of the Central American — His supposed and actual tastes — Position of the wealthier classes in times of revolution — Methods by which revolutions have been brought about by a minority of the inhabitants — Some mid-nineteenth century instances — Usual procedui-e of the revo- lutionists — A tragic Government report — Physical characteristics of the Isthmus — Volcanoes as a salient feature — Picturesque beauties of Central America — Some geographical features — Situation of the principal towns — The choice between seismic forces and bad climate— The birth of a volcano— Unique experi- ence of the dwellers on a hacienda. 14 CONTENTS CHAPTER XII PAGE COMMUNICATIONS AND INDUSTRIES I74 Questions of area— Importance of railways— Insignificant length of lines at present available in Central America — The_Guatemala system of railways — Various lines in operation — The railways of Costa Rica — The increase of the "banana lines" — Nicaragua and its system — State of railway development in Honduras — The influence of the banana traffic — Rapid development of this — Attitude of the Honduranean Government towards railway concessions — Justification of the Republic — The railways of Salvador — A slender mileage— The Panama interoceanic line — Progress in the western province of Chiriqui — Products and industries of the Isthmus — Banana plantation — Rise of the in- dustry — Some comparisons with cattle-breeding — Cause of the development of both — Areas where the banana obtains — The market of New Orleans — Work of the United Fruit Company — An enterprising concern — Effect on the planters — The Panama disease — Cocoanut production — The coffee industry — Districts adapted to the growth of the berry — The Central American interests — Tables showing the export of coffee from Central America — The first introduction of the berry into the Isthmus — Tables concerning the banana industry — Early days of the mahogany trade — First introduction of the wood into England — Aspects of the tree — Method of obtaining the timber — Present state of the trade — Dampier on the association of the buccaneers with logwood collection — Two superseded products of Central America — Indigo and cochineal — Methods by which the cochineal insect is bred — Other products of the Isthmus. CHAPTER XIII GUATEMALA IQI Area and population of the Republic — Chief cities — Indian element in the population — The Ladinos — Present tendency of the race — Physical characteristics of Guatemala — The central plateau — A few of the principal volcanoes — Want of navigable rivers — Some of the main streams— Guatemaltecan lakes — Some features of Atitlan — The Esteros — Their value as adjuncts to the inland waterways — Chief products of the Republic — The ports of Guatemala — Puerto Barrios — Trade and sanitation of the spot — The port of Livingston — Increasing importance of the town — Origin of the name — San Jose — The principal port of Guatemala — The anchorage's lack of shelter — Precautions necessary in stormy weather — Champerico — Situation and trade of the port — Ocos — Its future prospects — Tonnage of the steam- ships visiting the: various ports— Industries and products of the CONTENTS 15 PAGE chief inland cities — Guatemala City, the capital of the Republic — Features of the town — Its manufactures — Quezaltenango — Totonicapan, Coban, and Solola — Their respective industries — Details concerning some other towns — Cereals and their ex- change — Situation in Latin America and in Europe — Increase of wheat production in Guatemala — Chicle — The substance from which chewing-gum is made — Method of obtaining the gum — Some little exploited products — Influence of the United States — The grafting of national games — Chinese immigrants — Germans and the coffee industry — Labour conditions — Evils of the peonage system — Its application in theory and practice — The Indian as a labourer — Principal exports — Tables of products. CHAPTER XIV NICARAGUA ....... 207 Area and population of the Republic — Some of the principal towns — Climatic zones of the Republic — The influence of the various altitudes — The great lakes — Physical features of Lakes Nicaragua and Managua — A peculiarity of the former — The Nicaraguan volcanoes — Mountain system — Climates of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts — Mineral and agricultural wealth — Chief products — Districts where they flourish — Racial composi- tion of the inhabitants — Wild Indian areas — The Mosquito Indians — Troubled past of the Republic — The career of William Walker — The rapid rise to power of a stormy petrel — His retreat from the scene of his activities — His return and execu- tion — An important pending treaty between the United States and Nicaragua — Mutual benefits likely to be derived from this — Influence of climate on human energy — The Nicaraguan de- partments — Granada — Managua — Some characteristics of the capital — Commercial taxation — Leon — Corinto and some other ports — Rivas — Chinandega, Matagalpa, and Chon tales — The Bluefields department — The headquarters of the Mosquito Indians — Physical characteristics of the district — Industries — Curious example of the want of land communications — Mana- gua, the capital of Nicaragua — Its situation and possibiHties — The cities of Leon and Granada— British and American interests . in Nicaragua — Currency of the Republic — A want of confidence and its results — The Nicaraguan exports — Tables showing these. CHAPTER XV COSTA RICA ....... 223 Costa Rica as a progressive Republic — Political stability of the Republic — Causes and results of a legitimate revolution — Popula- tion — Character of the inhabitants — Influence of the United 16 CONTENTS PAGE States — An instance of fair legal procedure — Some prohibited articles — Climate and physical features — Vegetable products and minerals — Principal industries of Costa Rica — Banana and coffee planting — Respective importance of these industries — Chief centres of production — The provinces of Costa Rica — Situation and products of Guanacaste, Alajuela, San Jose, Heredia, and Cartago — The territories of Punta Arenas and Limon — Fauna — Brilliancy of the birds — The quetzal — Charac- teristics of the bird that has been adopted as a national emblem by Guatemala — Mammals and snakes — The Costa Rica railway — Scenery from the coast to the capital — Variety of the landscape — San Jose — Some features of a pleasant city — A French authority on the women of the capital — Municipal buildings and theatre — The luxury of a pavement — Urban improvements — The introduction of modern sanitation — Inconveniences of the rainy season — Agricultural products of the neighbourhood of San Jose — Some other industrial centres — Curious distribu- tion of the chief towns — Ports on the Atlantic and Pacific — ^ Maritime movements in Limon and Punta Arenas — Tables showing coffee exports. CHAPTER XVI HONDURAS ....... 244 Area and population of the Republic — Distribution of the in- habitants — Composition of the people — Chmate — Physical features — The mountains and the Mosquito Coast — Rivers — Inland communications — The fate of some pioneer motor cars — Minerals — Vegetable products — Departments of Honduras — Chief towns — Date of the establishment of the Republic — Political troubles of the past — Fate of the former capital — Tegucigalpa, the modern capital — The chief ports on the Atlantic coast — The banana and fruit ports, of Puerto Cortes, La Ceiba, and Trujillo — Increasing prosperity of the two former — The characteristics of each — The Pacific port of Amapala — Products, of the Republic in the order of their importance — Situation of the banana trade — The price of land — The influence of new conditions — Products of lesser importance — Natural resources — Honduras as a field for investment — Mining — The Mina de .Sangre — Nineteenth-century account of an extra- ordinary fluid — The islands in the Bay of Honduras — Captain Mitchell's description of the island of Roatan — An instructive account — Appearance, manners, and customs of the inhabitants — The predicament of former slave-owners — Honduranean tobacco — Past and present condition of the industry — Former fame of the tobacco — Possibilities of the growth to-day — Tables showing Honduranean exports and imports — British Honduras — Some details concerning the colony. CONTENTS 17 CHAPTER XVII PA6B PANAMA ....... 260 Reasons for ithe foundation of the State — Justification of the transactions — The Canal Zone — Customs regulations — Popula- tion — Chief towns — Physical features — Mountains — The River Chagres — Historic interest — Forest products — Agriculture — Minerals — Climate — The triumph of modern science — The provinces of Panama — Bocas del Toro — An important centre of banana cultivation — Vegetable and mineral products — Oil-fields — Veraguas — Resources of Code and Los Santos — Colon — Panama — Products of these districts — Population of the Canal Zone — The tourist traffic of Panama — A valuable strategic point as regards tourist routes — Commercial value of globe-trotters — Educational force of easy pilgrimages — The metamorphosis of the Panama Canal Zone — The question of landslides — General Goethals on this subject — Some previous attempts at a water route across the Isthmus — Competition between British and North Americans — The Nicaraguan route — The Panama Rail- way — An American enterprise — DifHculties and dangers of the venture — The fate of matiy Chinese labourers — The Transit Company — Its officials — An early nineteenth-century opinion concerning the Isthmian Canal — The verdict of time on Mr. Squier's forecast — Table showing the nature of recent exports from Panama. CHAPTER XVIII SALVADOR 273 Population of the smallest of the Central American Republics — Type of inhabitants — Difficulties concerned with the census in many of the Latin American States — The three chief towns of the Republic — Climatic zones — Salvador as a land of volcanoes — Other physical features — A progressive State — San Salvador, the capital — Seismic misfortunes of the city — A wooden cathedral — La Union — The chief port — Products of the Republic — Balsam — Origin of its name — Method of gathering — Other industries — Departments of Salvador — Products of each — Principal manufactures of Salvador. CHAPTER XIX SOME NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 280 Descriptions of animals in the days of the Conquistadores — How the creatures fared at the hands of the early voyagers — Aspect of a whale — The sea-wolves — A quaint conception — Some feats 3 18 CONTENTS PAGE of imagination — Description of a marvellous bird — An old account of the first vegetables and fruits introduced by the Spaniards — A description of some of the native fruits and animals — A glance at the fauna of the Isthmus — Beasts of prey — The tapir, wolf, peccary, and deer — Some characteristic creatures of the Americas — Howling monkeys — Peculiarities of these animals — The birds of Central America — Great variety — The vampire bat — Reptiles and fish — The oysters of Fonseca Bay — Insect life of the Isthmus — Pests of the tropics — Flora — Some growths typical of the plains and of the uplands — The pine forests of the interior — The mahogany tree — Other valuable woods — Dye- woods — A strange growth — The acacia and blackberry — Textile plants — Cacti and orchids — Tropical fruits — Maize — The flowers of Central America. CHAPTER XX BRITISH INTERESTS IN CENTRAL AMERIAC (l) . . . 290 Central America as a market for British goods — Distinctions between the Isthmus and the Southern Republics — Influence of the geographical situation — Advantages enjoyed by the United States — Industrial metamorphosis of the latter Republic — An importer instead of an exporter of chilled meat — The export of manufactures — Present sympathies between the Americans of the North and the South — How this affects commerce — Necessity of more strenuous British enterprise — The international policy of Central America — The adoption of the cause of progress — British commercial travellers required for the Isthmus — Type of man required — The advantages of a knowledge of Spanish — Opportunities which will occur — Position of the British trade with Central America — The present-day value of consular reports — Past frame of mind of the British industrial world — Proportion of the trade of Central America obtained by the United States, Great Britain, and Germany — Figures showing the respective exports of each to the Isthmus. CHAPTER XXI BRITISH INTERESTS IN CENTRAL AMERICA (ll) . . 30O The United States as the chief exporter to Central America — German methods in Latin America — The achievements of a State-aided commerce — Results of official backing and intrigue — Diplomacy and orders — Methods employed — The United States as a competitor — Similarity of British and North American methods — Relations between the United States and the Latin Americans — Misunderstandings in the past — Causes CONTENTS 19 PAGB of the distrust — Result of the part played by the great Republic in the world's struggle — The ethics of Latin America — Con- victions and ideals as the causes of political unrest — Good faith shown by the United States in her recent dealings with the Central Americans — President Wilson's striking action — British shipping concerned with Central America — Competition of the American and German commercial fleets in the past — Origin of the American passenger traffic — Methods employed by the German ship-owners — Satisfactory enterprise of the British lines — An excess of broadmindedness in some travellers — Desirability of supporting the Red Ensign — A former appeal of the author's brought up to date. HISTORICAL APPENDIX ..... 315 An old account of Santa Cruz del Quiche — Some habits and customs of the early Guatemalans — The ruins at Copan, as described by the Licenciado Palacios in 1576 — A letter from the King of Spain to Vasco Nunez de Balboa — John Chilton's account of some early voyagings off the Central American coast — John Esquemehng's relation concerning the Mosquito Indians — Captain Basil Hall's description of Panama in 1822 — A de- scription of the city of Old Guatemala — An account of the earthquake of 1854 which destroyed the city of San Salvador. COMMERCIAL APPENDIX ..... 347 Tables detailing the nature of all the imports into the Central American-States — Currency of the various Republics — Weights and measures — Quotation from the 1913 consular report on Honduras. INDEX . . . . . . . 379 ILLUSTRATIONS THE CATHEDRAL, GUATEMALA CITY SUGAR-CANE PLANTATIONS . . . GOLD-MINING IN CENTRAL AMERICA COLON. STATUE OF COLUMBUS INSTITUTION FOR GIRLS, GUATEMALA, SHOWING TYPE OF ARCHITECTURE RUINS OF QUIRIGUA A NATIVE VILLAGE, GUATEMALA . EL SALTO. VIEW GOING UP TO THE FALL A CENTRAL AMERICAN PLANTATION COFFEE ESTABLISHMENT MAHOGANY ..... Frontispiece FACING PAGB . 22 . 38 SPANISH . 112 . 156 . 162 . 174 . 184 . 186 ESTRADA CABRERA, PRESIDENT OF GUATEMALA 1898 . GUATEMALA CITY .... GENERAL VIEW OF GUATEMALA CITY SINCE 191 192 194 gUEZALTENANGO, GUATEMALA. THE PLAZA, OR SQUARE . I96 THE TOWN OF CANTEL, SHOWING FACTORY OF SPUN AND WOVEN FABRICS ..... I98 SUGAR FACTORY 212 31 22 ILLUSTRATIONS PORT LIMON, COSTA RICA A WEDDING . COFFEE FINCA CUTTING SUGAR-CANE COLON PLAZA AND CATHEDRAL, PANAMA GUATEMALA. TEMPLE OF MINERVA. CADETS FACING PAGE . 223 . 242 . 250 . 262 . 266 . 304 The author desires to acknowledge the courtesy of Mr. D. Bowman, Consul-General of Guatemala, and Messrs. Chalmers, Guthrie & Co. Ltd, in supplying many of the illustrations for this book. INTRODUCTION It may be considered that, in dealing with the nineteenth -century history of Central America, too much stress has been laid upon the doings of the British and North Americans in the various States, somewhat to the exclusion, perhaps, of the space that should have been devoted to the Central Americans themselves. There is, however, some reason for this. As 1 have pointed out in later pages, the situation of Central America during the nineteenth century differed widely from that of the larger Latin American States. The Latin American historians are now themselves the first to admit that, owing principally to the lack of educational facilities that prevailed in the colonial days, not one of the present-day Republics was pre- pared for self-government, so far as the bulk of its populace was concerned, when the ties with the mother- country were snapped. The chaos which ensued is a matter of common history. The great South American Republics began to attain to a condition of real stability towards the middle of the nineteenth century. The achieving of this object in Central America, however, has taken longer — and even now cannot be said to have been universally achieved — and the political discords of practically the whole of the nineteenth century have absorbed much of that energy that would otherwise have gone towards assisting in the industrial development of the various States. There is no need to regard the future of the States of Central America with gloom on this account. 24 INTRODUCTION for at the present time there are sympitoms in plenty that a distinct improvement is at hand. But in the nineteenth century, notwithstanding the efforts of numerous patriotic and enhghtened Central Americans, the almost ceaseless political unrest allowed little opportunity for industrial progress on any large or combined scale. It is largely on this account that the British and Americans appear in the limelight to a far greater extent in Central America than elsewhere in the Latin New tWorld, and if the non -Spanish element seems to figure too prominently here, it is the fault of these events. The circumstances of Central America differ very widely from those of the majority of Latin American States in that foreigners have played a much wider part in the internal politics of the former than of the latter. This has been principally due, of course, to the near neighbourhood of the North Americans and of the numerous British subjects in the West Indies. Another circumstance that has been the cause of a great influx of foreigners is the geographical situa- tion of the Isthmus. The object of the Spaniards, who were bent on guarding the privacy of their colonies, had been to frustrate the opening up of any new routes which might benefit the world at the expense of the monopolies of transport which had for centuries enriched those who controlled them, and the Spanish mercantile world in general. Although they were anxious to obtain water communication between the Atlantic and Pacific, it was against their policy to call in outside assistance in the matter. The achievement of independence, which, of course, removed the centre of commercial gravity from Spain to Central America, reversed this situation, and gave the first impetus to that spirit of enterprise which, already evident to-day, will be a marked feature of the Isthmus of to-morrow. CENTRAL AMERICA CHAPTER I THE ANCIENT CENTRAL AMERICANS The anthropological problems of America — Questions concerning the origin of the Indians — Features which recall the Old World — The four American Indian empires — Some results of the destruction of their social fabric — Influence of the Europeans on the conquered race — Changes in the type — Some ancient records and monuments — Traditions concerning the first arrival of the Central Americans — The founding of the Aztec and Quiche empires — Power of the Quiches — The prevalence of unrest — Circumstances which assisted the campaigns of Cortes, Pizarro, and Alvarado — A remarkable record — Some physical distinctions between the ancient Quiche and the Central American of to-day — Industries of the Quiches — Accomplish- ments and religion — Some peculiarities of belief — The Quiche pantheon — Curious variety of gods — Former erroneous estimates of the native civilization of the Isthmus — Result of the destruction of its monuments — Arts and crafts of the Central American Indians — Some varieties of sculpture — Grim features of the Quiche religion — Human sacrifice — Floral appreciation— Feathers and their uses — Curious superstitions — Fate of the early beliefs. The early history of the inhabitanfs of Central America is shrouded in the same mystery that attaches to that of the remaining peoples of the New World. It would be useless to attempt to enter here at any length into the vexed question of their remote origin. The problem is one which has puzzled scientists for many generations ; but an absolutely convincing solution does not yet seem to have been arrived at. From *the purely practical point of view it is 25 26 CENTRAL AMERICA probably of no very great consequence where the American Indians originally hailed from. It is, how- ever, not a little curious to find that in those American countries where the civilization attained to its highest point the resemblances to the world of the East were most close. This was evident not only in features but — although in a far lesser degree — in works. In the former of these respects the resemblance was not a little remarkable, although in neither do the circumstances of the past hold good at the present day. For the influx of the Europeans has had a radical effect on both the men and the matter of the ancient American civilization. Not only are the towns and temples dead and prone, and for the most part reverently buried under the enormous green waves of the tropical forest, but the human features typical of the ancient race have largely disappeared as well. This latter circumstance is due to two reasons. In the first place, the overthrow of the four American Indian empires had the result of destroying the strict native social barriers that had persisted until then and of flinging together in a confused mass the upper and lower grades of the race. There were many greater and lesser differences between the Incas of Peru, the Aztecs of Mexico, the Chibchas of Colombia, and the Quiches of the Isthmus. But each of these States had this in common : that it possessed an aris- tocracy, a ruling and priestly caste that was rigidly separated from the masses of the plebeians, and that had in the natural evolution of things come to possess one of those types of features that are common to the ruling classes in countries where civilization is sufficiently high to inspire the upper ranks with a sense of intricate power and responsibility. So far as the Indians themselves were concerned, one of the most important results of the Spanish conquest was the disappearance of this class. Indeed, the Indian princes, and even the lesser chiefs, vanished ANCIENT CENTRAL AMERICANS 27 into nothing beyond historical memories — and rather faint ones at that — ^with an extraordinary promptness. Their fate, in fact, curiously resembled that of some of the finer fragments of sculpture that lay in the American soil, buried and inextricably ground together with the shattered pieces of what had once been common blocks of stone. It was only natural that this process should have exercised a marked influence on the appearance of the conquered race. The transformation of this latter, however, did not end with this. It was the turn of the Europeans to impress their stamp upon the native peoples, and this they did in the first instance with a complete lack of consideration for the sentiments of the subjugated folk that has probably never been equalled in later history until die period of to-day, when the policy of some branches of the Central European Powers provides a parallel. When the blood of the two races had been intermingled for half a dozen generations or so, the physical aspects of the Americans had already undergone a distinct alteration. All this, of course, has resulted in a diminution of the resemblance between the Americans and the Asiatics, which was once so marked, more especially in the case of the higher classes of the American Indians. The features of many of these were of the type that is usually known as " celestial," the almond eyes of the Chinese being particularly noticeable. This peculiarity, it may be said, has been evident in the death-masks, many of them extremely ancient, that have been found scattered about some of the ancient ruins in South America. In these it has been clearly reproduced. So much for some of the physical characteristics of the American Indians. The resemblance between their architecture and works and those of the Asiatics is, as has already been said, far less marked. Indeed, 28 CENTRAL AMERICA the ruins met with in Mexico and Central America recall the monuments of the Egyptian past rather than the architecture and sculpture of Asia. The picture- writing of the Quiches of Central America, carved so carefully and liberally on the surviving stonework, is reminiscent of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, and the pyramids which obtain in the sites of all the ancient American empires recall Egypt even more closely. Although a certain amount has been written on each of the four extinct American empires, I do not think that any writer has yet undertaken the task of com- paring the history, records, and monuments of the one with those of the other, at all events to any exhaustive extent. Were this accomplished and the historical harvests of the four placed side by side, it is by no means improbable that some surprising discoveries and results might ensue. However this may be, it is certain enough that there is no space for even the most cursory attempt of the kind here. We must now, indeed, forsake the topic of the Latin American Indian civilization in general for that of the Central American in particular. The Central American civilization was sandwiched in between the empire of the Mexicans to the north and that of the Chibchas to the south. The habits and customs of the Guatemalans, however, resembled far more closely those of the Mexicans than those of the Chibchas. With these latter, indeed, they do not seem to have come in contact. This strengthens the theory that the inhabitants of the central empire of ■ the Americas came into their country originally by way of Mexico. Nearly all of the accounts that exist of the advent of the Guatemalans are legendary, although there is no reason to suppose that a certain amount of the tradition is not based on solid historical fact. Seeing , that nothing else exists, these early tales may as well be rapidly reviewed here. ANCIENT CENTRAL AMERICANS 29 It is said that the pioneers of the aboriginal civilization of Central America came from somewhere out of the dim and mysterious north, and landed in Tabasco, in Mexico. Led by a chief of the name of Votan, these newcomers soon subdued the savage tribes that existed in Mexico at the time, and founded an empire known as Xibalba or Xibalbay — which was really the first home of the Quiches 'or Maya-Quichds in these parts. It is Votan who is supposed to have founded the city of Palenque, the remarkable ruins of which still exist. After a time a new and powerful people came upon the scene to dispute the supremacy of the men of Xibalba. These were the Nahuas, whose chief, puetzalcohuatl, was known to the Guatemalans by the name of Cucumatz. It was from the Nahuas that the Aztecs subsequently sprung. Warfare broke out between the Nahuas and the Xibalbans, and, after 3l fierce struggle, the latter were defeated. They were scattered, and forced to emigrate from the former centres of their rule. Some, under the guidance of the chief Huitziton, went north and founded the empire of Toltecas. Others marched to the south- east and settled in Yucatan, while yet others proceeded in a more southerly direction and established their communities of Toltec civilization in Guatemala. In the course of time, it has been said, the Toltecs of the north became powerful, and, joined by other tribes, marched to the south again, and, overcoming the descendants of the Nahuas who had originally conquered them, came down to join their brethren who had settled in Guatemala. But this, to say the least of it, is a theory of very doubtful weight. Three kingdoms were now established in Guate- mala. That of the Quiches was the most noteworthy of the three. These people established themselves in the region extending from the Sierra Madre to the 30 CENTRAL AMERICA coast of Suchitepequez, and founded the city of Utatlan, which to-day is known as Santa Cruz del Quiche.* The other kingdoms were those of the Zutuhiles, who established themselves to the south of Lake Atitlan, and the Cackchiqueles; who occupied the terri- tories to the north and east of the same lake. These, in common with some lesser States, appear to have been subservient up to a certain point to the powerful Quiche nation, which to all intents and purposes may be regarded as ruling Central America, though not to the same extent that the Aztecs ruled Mexico and that the Incas governed Bolivia and Peru. For the descendants of the Nahuas established themselves firmly in some of the territories adjoining the Pacific Coast, and constituted a continual menace to the Maya -Quiche empire. This latter empire, it may be said, did not only comprise the majority of the lands which at present go to make up Central America, but such parts of Mexico as the province of Chiapas and other districts which are to be met with in the south of the modern Republic. The Quiche empire is supposed to have been governed by a succession of twelve kings up to the time of the advent of the Spaniards. The djniasties and the names of the various rulers, as well as the events of their reigns, are given with much detail by several Central American writers ; but the exact nature of many of these happenings is inclined to be hazy. It is certain, however, that civil war was frequent. It is, indeed, a most curious thing that in this respect Alvarado, who was the first Spaniard to enter Guatemala, met with almost exactly the same train of circumstances as had so greatly assisted Pizarro in Peru and Cortes in Mexico. In Mexico, who knows what might have been the ultimate fate of Cortes and his daring little band of Spaniards but for the assistance which the warlike * See Appendix. ANCIENT CENTRAL AMERICANS 31 inhabitants of the free republic of Tlaxcala, at mortal feud with the Aztecs, lent him in his battles? Pizarro, for his part, might well have left his bones on the metal-bearing soil of Peru, but for the confusion into which the strife between the rival royal Incas had thrown the great Inca empire of the west. As will be seen later, Alvarado, founding a smaller colony, discovered a similar state of civil strife in Guatemala, and met with the same good fortune that had attended the two greatest Conqidstadores of the Americas. This is a somewhat remarkable record. If the history of Latin America has from time to time shown itself unusually tumultuous, the pre -Spanish history of the continent would almost seem to absolve the Spaniards from having brought at all events the entirety of germs of unrest with them. That at the time of the advent of the Spaniards the three civi- lized empires of North, Central, and South America should have been simultaneously convulsed by internal war is surely eloquent of a restlessness in the American atmosphere that is, in accordance with the enlightened views of to-day, being turned in the direction of enterprise and production. Having dealt thus roughly with the early history of the Central Americans, we may cursorily survey them as individuals. According to some authorities, the Quiche type has altered considerably in the course of the last six or seven centuries. Instead of the short, sturdy frame, prominent nose, and low forehead of the majority of the people of Central America of to-day, the skeletons of the old Quiches reveal tall men with high foreheads, prominent cheekbones, and well-marked chins. The form of government of the Quiche empire differed from the electoral system of the Aztecs. The chief of the State was an hereditary monarch, who appears to have been served by a certain number of counsellors. The people were divided into two classes, 32 CENTRAL AMERICA "which corresponded more or less to the upper and lower classes as understood in Europe. The great majority of the inhabitants were, of course, agriculturists. The chief growths cultivated by them were maize, cocoa, bananas, and cotton. They wgre acquainted with the dye properties of the indigo shrubs, which grew in abundance, and they made a species of paper from the bark of a tree, on which they would inscribe the curious hieroglyphics which served them for writing. The manner in which they handled their clay showed them to be expert potters, and they were, moreover, skilled in the working of copper. With probably a !deeper wisdom than they knew, they were content to let cocoa beans serve as their simple coinage, the ** unit of coinage " being, it is said, a " zontle " of four hundred beans. Their religion had this in common with that of the Aztecs, that it does not seem to have been worthy of the elaborate temples which they were wont to erect for its service. The gods worshipped by them were almost innumerable, and their pantheon was a strangely confused one. Indeed, it would be out of the ques- tion to attempt a description of the almost innumer- able collection of their major and minor deities. Not only did this include personal gods, such as the spirits of many of their old chiefs, but such things as mountains, corn, and even cemeteries were included in their pantheon. Needless to say that the sun god, that object of supreme reverence throughout all the American Indian empires, received its due share of devotion. It is known that the costume of the priest of a district that is now included in the Republic of Salvador included a long blue dress and a species of mitre from which hung bunches of brilliant feathers. The priests were considered as oracles in national affairs, and were consulted in matters that involved a decision between peace and war. , , ANCIENT CENTRAL AMERICANS 33 In some respects, however, the old inhabitants of Central America had attained to a fairly high civi- lization. This was not generally acknowledged among Europeans until the nineteenth century, for the religious fervour of the priests accompanying the Spanish Conqalstadores took the form of attempting to do away with the buildings and influence of the old religion of the Indians in such haste that any intimate knowledge of the religion, manners and customs of the natives was lost— which, as a matter of fact, was pre- cisely the object of the wholesale destruction that was wrought in the early sixteenth century 1 It is now clear, however, that in many of the arts and crafts the Quiches were highly advanced, and in some respects they can almost challenge com- parison with the ancient Egyptians. The ruins of many of the old cities reveal numerous edifices of an astonishing extent, and the remnants of many of the stone pyramids are of great size. The overwhelming growth of the tropical forests has played its part in assisting the destruction planned by the sixteenth -century Europeans, and there is no doubt that the vegetation still conceals more of the Quiche relics of civilization than are at present known to the comparatively few travellers who have visited them. Of the sculptured fragments which remain, however, many are of the greatest interest. Some of the most typical of these are monuments- great blocks of stone, which are usually twelve feet or so in height, but which occasionally are far loftier. These are for the most part very richly carved, and their centre is usually occupied by the sculptured portrait of some long-dead magnate or notability. This is surrounded by a rich profusion of scrolls and lesser faces, and is frequently orna- mented by the carved picture-writing of the Quiches. The allegorical figures or idols which have been found to abound among the ruins are of two types, 3 34 CENTRAL AMERICA the former having benevolent, peaceful, and mild features, which are sometimes carved as though to resemble sleep, the latter being given a diabolically malignant cast of Countenance. The precise mean- ing of this is not known ; but it is supposed that the second were demons, or, at all events, idols of a terrifying nature. In any case, it is clear that the religion of the Quiches possessed grim features and ceremonies similar to those of the ancient Mexicans. Human sacrifice, for instance, figured very prominently among the rites, and on the death of one of the famous chiefs many lesser spirits were separated from their bodies on earth in order to accompany their dead leader on his journey to a better world. But such immolations are said to have been for the most part voluntary. This was, however, not the case with the more general rites of human sacrifice. It is believed that the principal ceremonies of this kind occcurred at the summer and winter solstices. The majority of the victims on these occasions were illegitimate children of from six to twelve years of age. The method of killing was the same as that employed in Mexico in like circumstances. The heart was torn out from the breast and the blood scattered to the four points of the compass. It is not a little curious to find that side by sidq with the horrible rites practised by the ancient Central Americans was a marked appreciation of the beauties of flowers. The varied and magnificent blossoms of the Isthmus played an important part in many of the ceremonies, and must have contrasted in an extra- ordinary fashion with the bloodthirsty sacrifices that so many of the stone altars witnessed. The high esteem in which the feathers of birds were held is far less astonishing ; for these have always been accus- tomed to serve as the ornaments of even the most barbarous races. In Central America rank and im- ANCIENT CENTRAL AMERICANS 35 portance were denoted by the colour of these feathers, green being the hue affected by the principal personages of the country. Indeed, the use of feathers appears to have been more widely extended in the American Isthmus than in most countries of the kind. Some varieties, for instance, were made to serve as currency, and in con- sequence of this the killing by an unauthorized person of the birds that grew these particular feathers was held a crime. The following paragraph from the Libro Azul of Guatemala gives some interesting information con- cerning some of the lesser known beliefs of the (Juich^s : — *' As a rule, the people were, for many reasons, extremely superstitious, so that they classified their days into good and bad ones. In every new house which they built there was buried under the floor a skeleton, and they practised * Magualism,^ which word Mr. Charney explains as follows: * It is a form of ^' Zoolatry " very much in vogue in certain parts of the New World ; a sort of consecration from man to Magual, or the incarnated divinity, so to say, repre- senting an animal.' The early historians, according to Milla, encountered in Magualism, as well as in many other superstitious beliefs of the Indians, the interven- tion of the Devil — a simple explanation given when they could not understand the ideas, ceremonies, and traditions of anything. It is said that the Indian who had to choose a Magual, which was translated as meaning a companion or guardian, went to 3 lurking- place in the woods near a river or a lonesome hill. There, invoking, with tears in his eyes, the surrounding objects, begging the Devil for the goods possessed by his father, he offered sacrifice of a dog, or some bird, and then fell asleep. He believed that in his sleep he would see his enemy take the shape and form of a lion, tiger, coyote, or snake. It is said 36 CENTRAL AMERICA they often asked favours of these enemies, and the animal would speak to them in their sleep as follows : * Such and such a day you shall go hunting, and the first animal that you see shall be me. You shall kill me, and I shall be for ever afterwards your companion.' " It was with curious and bizarre superstitions such as these that the Christian religion was brought into contact when the Spaniards penetrated into the mountainous and woodland country of Central America. The interpretation of Christianity by the priests who accompanied the Conquistadores — though there are some notable examples to the contrary—was in itself generally crude enough. But in any case the old beliefs were to all outward seeming shatteijed, although many in the end grafted themselves on | to the religion which became established in the counttry, and which in the remoter districts was Christian' by profession rather than by deed, or even by ceremonial. It was not with this section of the Central American population, it should be explained, that Columbus and the first flight of the discoverers were brought into contact. They, for their part, met with nothing beyond some tribes of coastal Indians who had very little to do with the civilization of the Isthmus, such as it was. , CHAPTER II DISCOVERERS AND EARLY COLONISTS Columbus and the American mainland — Posthumous part played by the Panama Canal in the triumph of Columbus's genius — The route to the East — A survey of the voyages of the great Genoese — Columbus and his crews — Methods by which some erf the pioneer vessels were manned — Superstitions of the age — Sentiments of the pressed men — The first acts of colonization and their tragic results — Columbus cruises along the coast of Central America — His warlike welcome at the hands of the coastal Indians — Humility a costly attribute in the natives — Evidence of gold — A settlement is founded on the Veragua River — Hostility of the Indians — Surprise and defeat of these — Escape of the chief Quibian — His subsequent revenge — Fate of a boat's crew — Difficulties of communication between the ships and the shore — Perilous situation of the garrison — Abandonment of the settlement — Rodrigo de Bastidas — His explorations — Cristobal Guerra — The governorships of Alonzo de Ojeda and Diego Nicuesa — Rivalry between the two — War v»/ith the Indians — The results of the ruthless treatment of the natives — Death of Nicuesa^ — Desperate situation of Ojeda — Assistance brought by Martin Fernandez de Enciso — Enciso assumes command — His adventures and peril. It is inevitable that the history of all the Americas should begin with the name of the great Columbus. Every single item of that astonishing march of pro- gress, it is true, hinges on the prime fact of the discovery of the New World by the man on whom Fate showered all her gifts from the same basket, and with a rapid and prodigal abundance that left little beyond sorrow for the future to add. Yet Columbus's connection with the mainland of America was very slight. He caught many fleeting glimpses of it, and landed here and there ; but on those territories which now constitute the greatest 3T 38 CENTRAL AMERICA republics of the North and South he never set eyes — not even on the near soil of Mexico, for his particular, and rather malicious, star caused him on one occasion to turn the bow of his vessel when only a few more leagues of sailing on his original course would have brought him' to the shores of the land whose great stores of gold eventually passed into the hands of Cortes and his fellow-adventurers. That part of the Americas, as a matter of fact, which Columbus actually discovered was the narrow neck of land which joins the two great continents, and a small part of the northernmost coast of South America. Looking for the shores of India, he sailed to and fro for a time off that coast which is now pierced by the canal which links the Atlantic with the Pacific. The cutting^ of this canal had a further - reaching effect than is imagined by most people. Columbus was searching for the road to the Far East. For centuries it has been taught that he failed in this, although his failure was a trivial matter by the side of the gigantic discovery that it involved. After more than four hundred years the opening of the Panama Canal has stultified this teaching, and justified the extraordinary instinct and reasoning of the famous Genoese. For Columbus not only achieved the greater feat ; he performed the lesser as well. Who will say now that it is not by way of Panama that the shortest route to the Far East lies? And was it not in the direction of Panama that Columbus drove the bluff bows of his small vessels? I may be accused of casuistry or special pleading ; but there is consider- able truth in the theory for all that. The story of Columbus has been told so many thousand times that a very few words will suffice to sketch the associations of the great mariner with Central America. These, as has already been said, are slighter than is popularly supposed ; for it was not until eigiht years after he had made his first famous COLON. STATUE OF COLUMBUS. To face p. 38 DISCOVERERS AND COLONISTS 39 voyage to the New World that Columbus set eyes on the mainland. Central America, however, can lay claim to the distinction that it was one of the few coasts of the continent itself off which the discoverer of America actually cruised, and where he landed. Most of the salient facts of Columbus's voyagings, as a matter of fact, had occurred before the dis- covery of Central America. It was in 1492 that he set out from the small Andalusian port of Palos, sail- ing on the 3rd of August with his little fleet, com- prising the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Nina. It was a crazy and cranky little fleet, and Columbus found it necessary to refit in the Canaries, from which islands he set sail again for the west on the 4th of September. The difBculties that he experienced with his crew are a matter of the commonest history. It has always seemed to me that the attitude of this latter has been rather too severely condemned by the average historian. Only a certain proportion of them were volunteers — each of whom, for a purpose of this kind, was un- doubtedly worth three of his pressed brethren— for the Court of Spain had a drastic and unsympathetic method (so far as the sailors were concerned) of providing the hands necessary for a voyage which might end in this world or in the next. For the superstitious folk of an age that pictured the mouth of hell as gaping, wide and fiery, some- where across the unknown waters, and that saw in the steady rush of the Trade Winds an irresistible force sent by the Devil to sweep the wickedly daring vessel thither, naturally endowed ' these voyages with the most acute terrors. That which brought into being the mutinous spirit among Columbus's men was not at bottom ill-will or even obstinacy. It was nothing less than the frightened conviction that the admiral's daring was sending them not only to certain death, but to a possible spiritual damnation— if for no other 40 CENTRAL AMERICA reason than the Divine punishment that many held was to be meted out to those whose irreverent curiosity- caused them to persist in trying to find out about things which it was not intended thafr they should know. Small enthusiasm, therefore, was to be expected from the rank and file of the fleet's hands. In the same way that many a Portug;uese criminal was set ashore from a discoverer's ship in order to test the good or bad nature of the ^Indians, a certain propor- tion of these crews played an heroic part principally for the reason that they ha3 no choice in the matter. As for the glory of these first enterprises, it naturally went to the officers — to whom, indeed, it was due. The tension was eased on the i ith of October, when land was discovered, and with the first glimpse of the New World it became plain to the rank and file of the expedition that it was not an irreverent madman but a man of genius against whose authority they had been growing more and more rebellious. The island thus discovered by Columbus was christened by him in gratitude San Salvador. It was known later as Cat Island, and lay a few leagues to the west of Wat ling Island. After this comes the well-known story of the dis- covery and colonization of Hispaniola or Haiti, Cuba, and the neighbouring islands, and the tragic conse- quences of the European advent to the Indians, who, hunted, slain, and forced to labour at a fatal pressure, became practically exterminated in the course of a generation or two. It was not until 1498 that Columbus caught his first glimpse of the American mainland. Then, sail- ing past the island of Trinidad, he coasted along the Venezuelan shore, and landed on the promontory of Paria, mistaking it for an island. In 1502 he sailed along the coast of Honduras, and had some traffic with the inhabitants of the island of Guanaga, situated a few leagues from the main- DISCOVERERS AND COLONISTS 41 land. After this he went southwards along that portion of the Mosquito Coast which now forms part of Nicaragua, in the course of which voyage he had various interviews with the Indians, which were marked by a mutual distrust. He next proceeded to the south-east, along the coast of what is now Costa Rica, a name that is again significant of the many high hopes that were not destined to be realized in the lifetime of the discoverer. For here the expectations of Columbus and of his people were raised to a keen pitch by the sight of the numerous gold ornaments which the natives displayed on their swarthy bodies. Still in search of the coral strands of East India, the great discoverer continued his progress along the coast to the east, the fierce native^, of Carib origin, showing themselves in a bellicose mood as they saw for the first time the waters yielding to these strange prows. Washington Irving has admirably described the scene of this when he says that — '* At sight of the ships, the forest would resound with yells and war-whoops, with wooden drums, and the blast of conches, and on landings the shores would be lined with savage warriors armed with clubs and lances and swords of palm-wood." It may be remarked here that, thanks to their fierce tem|>erament and militant enthusiasm, these Indians of the Isthmus were destined never to be enslaved. Humility and a peaceable nature proved costly attri- butes to those Indians who possessed them when Fate brought the Conquistador es to the New World. Columbus arrived off the Veragua coast after his ships had been battered by many storms. He sus- pected not in the least how narrow was the necl^ of the peninsula he was exploring, and how very few were the leagues of land which separated him from the Pacific Ocean, and thus from the eastern grates of those Indies which were the object of his cease- less search. He was, however, overjoyed at the 42 CENTRAL AMERICA specimens of gold that he obtained from the Indians, whose truculence was only overcome with difficulty, and who only consented with reluctance to embark in some minor and spasmodic tradings. Columbus drew some geographical conclusions from the presence of the gold that may seem far-fetched in the light of later knowledge, but that were by no means so unreasonable in the imaginations of those days, heated as they were by the sudden lifting of the curtains of the New World. He was convinced that he had arrived at the Chersonesus, whence the gold for the temple of Jerusalem was said to have been obtained. It was decided to found a settle- ment here on the banks of ^jhe_^yerg.gUfiUiliver, and housing accommodation was prepared for eighty men. Adventures were destined to fall thick and fast on the expedition at this spot. Columbus had intended to weigh anchor and set out on further discoveries soon after the erection of tlie huts. A fall in the river prevented this ; for it was found that the water had sunk too much to permit his ships to cross the bar. It was as well for those whom it had beeil intended to leave behind that this occurred. For the Cacique of Veragtia, a high-spirited Indian warrior, alarmed at the sight of preparations which seemed to betoken a permanent occupation of his country, had in the meantime been making secret plans to attack the strangers . Diego Mendez, one of the most enterprising of Columbus's officials, found reason to suspect the existence of this plot. Determined to put the matter to the test, he penetrated boldly to the headquarters of Quibian, the Cacique himself, in order to spy out what was afoot. Though he barely escaped with his life, he obtained confirmation of his suspicions. Bartholomew Columbus, who had been given com- mand of the settlement by his brother, assembled seventy -four men, and set out up the Veragua River DISCOVERERS AND COLONISTS 43 in boats in order to surprise the Cacique before the latter 's blow could be struck. This first military expedition on the soil of the new continent was successful. The Indian village was surrounded, and Quibian and a number of his men were captured. The boats now proceeded down- stream with the prisoners. Quibian himself was placed in charge of Juan Sanchez, the chief pilot of the expedition. The Indian's loud complaints at the pressure of his bonds caused Sanchez to loosen these, but he still held in his hand the end of the rope with which the chief was bound. Quibian 's behaviour had been a ruse. As the boat ' glided down the river through the night the Cacique suddenly sprang overboard, and the rope slid through the unsuspecting hands of Sanchez. No more was seen of Quibian just then. He was not drowned, however, as was at first thought probable. As skilled as an eel in the water, he made his way to the land and escaped, to become an embittered enemy of the Spaniards. With this defeat of the Indians the aflfairs of the new settlement promised to proceed more smoothly, and Christopher Columbus, taking advantage of a rise in the river, hoisted sail on three of his caravels and took them across the bar, leaving the fourth for the use of the people ashore. He then anchored two or three miles from the coast, awaiting a favourable wind for Hispaniola. But the affairs of the small and solitary colony were very far from being settled. It was only a very short time after Columbus's ships had crossed the bar that the menacing sound of the conches and drums was heard in the forest, and from out of the under- growth leaped a host of Indians, led to the attack by the enraged Quibian. On this occasion the advantage of surprise lay with the natives. It was only after a severe struggle that the Spaniards, ably 44 CENTRAL AMERICA led by Bartholomew Columbus and Diego Mendez, drove the Indians back to the forest. In this conflict, however, the Spaniards were not destined to have matters all their own way. The success was immediately followed by a tragedy. Whilst the fight was actually in progress a boat from the squadron anchored outside came ashore. Its commander seems to have made light of the Indian peril, for when the fight around the settlement was over he insisted, despite all advice to the contrary, in proceeding up the river in completion of his mission, which was the obtaining of fresh water. Some hours after the boat had disappeared on its course up-stream along the forest -covered banks a solitary Spaniard made his appearance at the settle- ment, exhausted and covered with wet mud. He was the only survivor of the boat's crew. The littfe craft had been ambushed, and every one but himself had been slain by the furious Indians, exulting in their revenge. His own escape was due to the fact that he had dived into the river and, having swum under water for some distance, had thus escaped unnoticed. The Spaniards in the new settlement now began to realize how deep was the spirit of animosity they had aroused in the dwellers of Veragua. In view of this last tragic episode, it seemed to them now that to remain on the spot was only to court death. They determined to abandon the settlement, and persisted in their preparations, notwithstanding the protests of Bartholomew Columbus, whose courage and loyalty in seconding his brother's efforts do not seem to have been damped by the grim prospect that the future now offered the little colony. The eagerness of the men to leave the spot was not to be denied by any effort of Bartholomew Columbus. Nevertheless, Nature took upon herself to intervene for a time where leadership had failed. A tremendous sea was rumiing, and the heavy surf which DISCOVERERS AND COLONISTS 45 was breaking on the bar and on the shore cut the unfortunate settlers off from any communication with the ships of the admiral that lay outside, rolling heavily in the swell. Day after day the situation con- tinued unchanged. To add, moreover, to the terrors of the stranded men, the mangled bodies of Diego Tristan and of his murdered crew came floating down the stream on their melancholy way to the outer ocean, each corpse the prey of a flock of carrion birds that closely escorted it, while from the dense interior of the forest sounded the sinister accompaniment of conches and drums. Nothing remained for the tentative settlers in this fierce land but to barricade themselves on the beach and to pray that the sea might go down. By means of their fire-arms they managed to keep the natives at a distance, though these showed themselves con- tinually disposed towards fresh attacks. On the ninth day of their sufferings and anxieties the sea abated, and with the dying away of the swell the end of their troubles was at hand. They were rescued in one of the worn and leaky boats that still remained to the squadron, and thus ended one of the first attempted settlements on the mainland of America. It was this voyage which marked, too, the con- clusion of Columbus's comparatively insignificant con- nection with the actual continent. By this time, as a matter of fact, Columbus had rival explorers at hand, and not only in the great islands of the Caribbean. The stream of vessels was already definitely setting in from Spain to the south-west. One of these pioneer ventures was that of Rodrigo de Bastidas, who in 1500 set out from Cadiz on an exploring expedition, and who is said to have numbered the famous Vasco N^^fiez de Balboa among his com- pany. Bastidas expluied the coast of the mainland from what is now Venezuela as far as the Gulf of Darien. 46 CENTRAL AMERICA On his various landings Bastidas appears to have come into contact with a number of Indian tribes, and these he treated with consideration. At that period, however, there were other navigators plying their vessels along the Central American coast who were less amicably disposed. One of these latter was Cristobal Guerra, who marked his first introduction to the Indians of the coast by dragging them off into slavery, thus stirring up an amount of bad blood between the two races that bore grim fruit for many generations afterwards. In 1508 the new countries of the mainland were considered ripe for a settled administration, and in that year Alonzo de Ojeda was made governor of the coast from Cape de la Vela to the Gulf of Uraba, while to Diego Nicuesa was allotted the coast to the west, extending from the Gulf of Uraba to Cape Gracias a Dios. Although there was so much more room in the new lands than could cossibly be filled by the ^Htf^s of eitl^r. it tj^s ofltj|Mk:ordance with the temperamem!'a^S^S^u|jMj^j[in^^9«^///5 ta - dores that a fierce j^|(Bus^^hoild have sprung up between Ojeda and Nicuesa. The enterprises of neither of these were successful. In 1 5 1 o Ojeda landed with a force of men at the site of the later ^ town of Cartagena, and established a settlement which*" in the first insiance was known as Calamar. The ill-treatment began to mete out to the natives and in a pitched battle which resulted the Spaniards were worsted. Many of their number were killed, and Ojeda himself only just escaped with his life to his vessel. This disaster drowned for the time being the jealousy betw?;^ the two Conqaist adores. Nicuesa came with his men from the west to the assistance of Ojeda, and the combined Spanish forces surprised the Indians at Turbaco, the action ending in a great irst in^ance was known nt wlftwFhe im^di^fc" ^es caused tMlml^a revUft, DISCOVERERS AND COLONISTS 47 massacre of the natives. After this Nicuesa returned to the scene of his own government. But he never succeeded in setting this on a firm footing, and eventually abandoned the enterprise. He returned to Uraba, and eventually set out for San Domingo. But his vessel was lost at sea, and Nicuesa perished with her. , i i j Ojeda, for his part, had founded his settlement on the west side of the Gulf of Uraba. Here, again, his ruthless methods of treating the Indians aroused inevitable hostility, and eventually the Spaniards found themselves besieged in their fort on the sea- shore. Seeing that the position of his force was desperate, Ojeda set out in one of his small vessels to seek help from San Domingo, leaving his men and a number of those who had belonged to Nicuesa's company in charge of Francisco Pizarro. Assistance, however, was nearer than Ojeda had dared hope. When only a short distance from Carta- gena the^jMM^o sliM, ^ under the coaamand of Martin FJJBB^Sr^e Enciso, that were coming to his assistance, having 'lieard the news of the disaster. The three vessels returned in company to the harassed settlement, of which Enciso now took charge. In his first dealings with the Indians Enciso proved himself humane, and the natives welcomed him in a friendly spirit. After a time, however, the sight of the gold ornarffertts worn by the natives overcame Efl|^'s*p(:5icy of consideration. Exchanging this for the rapacious oppression born of avarice, he in turn fell foul of the Indians on one of his expeditions. On returning to Uraba, shipwreck and Indian attack reduced the expedition to two small ships and a hundred men. The situation had again grown desperate. It was at this crisis that Vasco Nunez de Balboa came to the fore. CHAPTER III BALBOA AND HIS COLLEAGUES The Conquistador and his work — A comparison of the methods of some of the most famous — Differing circumstances in the various parts of the continent — The temptations to ruthlessness — Balboa as a humane pioneer — Official disadvantages under which he laboured — How Balboa set out for the Isthmus — His opportunity — He is chosen as a eader — He founds the first real settlement in Central America — The establishment of new and friendly relations with the Indians — Balboa's native wife — As Governor of Darien, he makes preparations for crossing the Isthmus — His treatment at the hands of the Court ' of Spain — Assistance rendered by the natives in the passage from Atlantic to Pacific — Successful termination of the journey — Some aspects of the achievement — The discoverer plunges into the Pacific — That ocean as the private property of the Spaniards — Pedrarias Davila arrives to take over the governorship of Darien — A jealous and vindictive official — Imposing nature of his expedition — Balboa's loyalty — Despotic and malicious conduct of the new Governor — Cruelties of his officers — The wanton destruction of Balboa's work — He is made Governor of the countries bordering the South Sea — Pedrarias consents to a truce — Balboa prepares to take up his new post — The transport of material — Pedrarias lures Balboa into' his power — Judicial murder of Balboa — Some expeditions and dis- coveries — The conversion of the Indians — Generosity of the chiefs Nicoya and Nicaragua — Intervention of Pedrarias Davila — His death — The governorship of Rodrigo de Contreras— Brief career of an erring official — The revolt of Hernando Contreras — An ambitious enterprise — The capture of Realejo — Dreams of a new empire — Capture of Panama — Defeat of the rebellion and the death and dis- appearance of its leaders. Each of the principal territorial divisions of Latin America would seem to have been provided with its own prominent personality in the way of a Conquistador, one of those formidable human figures who are usually recognized in history as founders of nations, but whom 48 BALBOA AND HIS COLLEAGUES 49 the humane Bishop Las CasaS preferred to know as the destroyers of the Indian peoples. As is so often the case in such matters, there is something to be said for either verdict. The destruc- tive agency of the two most dramatic figures of all is at the very least on a par with their creative feats. Of these two, the personality of Pizarro of Peru comes out as an even grimmer figure than that of Cortes of Mexico. In comparing the achievements of the two it is necessary to take into consideration the character of the peoples with which they had respectively to deal. By the side of the fierce conquests and cruel and bloody sacrifices of the Aztecs the rule and the laws of the Inca empire of Peru were singularly mild and beneficent. By so much more surely, then, were the holocausts of Pizarro to be condemned than the slaughterings of the more diplomatic Cortes. Almagro of Chile stands for a rather milder order of events, as do Pedro de Mendoza of the Rio de la Plata, and Irala of Paraguay. At the same time, it must be admitted that the circumstances of these southern areas of conquest placed far fewer temptations to out- rage in the path of the Conquistador es than did the lands where gold and comparatively helpless Indians abounded, and where it was part and parcel of the Spanish creed of the day to separate the one from the other with an enthusiastic haste and thoroughness that took not the least account of the lives and sufferings of the Indians. It would be unfair to lose sight of the greatness of the deeds of these pioneers'' in the harshness of their measures. It was a callous age, where a studied policy of ruthlessness in a pioneer was usually found the simplest and the most profitable. It is all the more remarkable, therefore, to find in the first years of the sixteenth century a man who combined the determination and daring inseparable from a Conquis- tador with a humane and progressive policy that was 4 50 CENTRAL AMERICA all too rare in the period and region, and which bloomed for all too short a space. The personage in which these merits were blended was Vasco Nunez de Balboa. Balboa stands as the most prominent figure of early- Central America. That which he achieved, moreover, was not the result of a high and isolated colonial office which encouraged a power of despotism that the most arbitrary of the Cassars might well have envied. On the contrary, Balboa's colonizing feats were achieved for the most part in circumstances which gave him little official encouragement, and, indeed, in the face of jealousies and intrigues on the part of crass superiors which eventually brought about his death. Vasco Nunez de Balboa was born in 1475. Very little seems to be known about his youth, except that he sailed to the new lands of the South at an early age, forming one of Rodrigo de Bastidas' expedi- tion in 1500, as has been seen. His first public appearance was in 1 5 1 o, when he accompanied the expedition of Martin Fernandez de Enciso, sailing to the relief of the remnants of Ojeda's expedition, with which they fell in near Cartagena. This first appearance of Balboa on the scene of his future triumphs was far from an imposing one. He was taken on board ship in a cask, and thus escaped the vigilance of a pack of relentless creditors. In this undignified home he remained, an itinerant Diogenes, until the palms of San Domingo diminished in the distance and the vessel was well out in the blue of the Caribbean Sea. It was the olf:casion of the shipwreck on the shores of the Culf of Uraba that gave Balboa his oppor- tunity. With the loss of the greater part of the provisions and of much else that was of primary im- portance to the success of the expedition, the situation of the Spaniards was critical, more especially in view BALBOA AND HIS COLLEAGUES 51 of the fact that the hostility of some of the coastal tribes had been wantonly aroused. It is a remark- able testimonial to the strength of Balboa's character, and to his natural gift of leadership, that the expedi- tion should have unanimously turned to him for guidance, though it numbered among its members no less a personage than Francisco Pizarro himself, who was shortly afterwards destined to prove in no uncertain fashion his own stern and consummate talent as a governor of men. \ A certain amount of disorganization had already set in among the remnants of the two Spanish expeditions. Instead of having maintained themselves in a com- pact body, as the peril of their situation demanded, many of them were scattered more or less at haphazard along the coast in a fashion that would have left them entirely at the mercy of an Indian attack. Balboa set himself first of all to remedy this. He collected the units together from the spots where they had established themselves, whether it was in small groups along the coast or among the dusky people of a complaisant Indian chief. Then, having collected them together in the Gulf of Darien, he established the first real Spanish settle- ment in Central America. Until then the efforts of the pioneers on the mainland had been restricted to desultory scourings of the coast in search of gold. They had passed hastily from one point to another, urged onwards by the fever of the restless search, and their harsh relations with the Indians had usually culminated in the outbreak of hostilities, frequently involving a massacre on the one side or the other. Balboa changed all this. In the first place he taught his men to regard the soil of Darien in another light from that in which the modem traveller looks upon the platform of the railway-station at which he is impatiently waiting — for it was in just such a fashion as this that the Spanish pioneers had grown to regard 52 CENTRAL AMERICA those lands which lay between the gold -producing centres. Balboa, on the other hand, established a real settle- ment. He induced his men to construct rough but serviceable houses ; he persuaded them to cultivate the ground, and he set himself to establish cordial relations with the neighbouring tribes of Indians. In this latter effort he succeeded as well as in all the rest. Indeed, so consistently and conscientiously did he himself follow this policy that he fell in love with the daughter of Careta, one of the principal chiefs of the neighbourhood, and it is said that his affection for the dusky beauty — for such she was reputed in the accepted and conventional fashion of the period — lasted until the day of his tragic and premature death. In due course Vasco Nuiiez de Balboa was named Alcalde Mayor, or Governor, of his new province by Diego Columbus, son of the great Christopher, at the time Admiral of the Indies. He now began to make plans for the crossing of the Isthmus and for the exploration of that unknown South Sea, about which he was wont to hear so many tales from his Indian friends. Nine months or so, however, before he actually embarked on this venture he sent a letter to the Emperor in Spain, giving the details of his work in the colony and begging the imperial sanction for his post of Governor. There are countless instances in the Latin American history of this period of the disservice which a request of the sort was wont to render its maker. In the first place it had the result not only of drawing the royal attention to the applicant (as had been hoped), but of attracting the avaricious eyes of the many place-seekers about the Court. And as the Emperor had no interest in the unknown applicant on the remote side of the Atlantic, and as the office-seekers — buzzing like bees at the news of a new land to be governed BALBOA AND HIS COLLEAGUES 53 — were so very near at hand, the result of any such honest and incautious petition was often fatal to the claims of the deserving person who had under- gone dangers and privations in order to place himself in a rightful position to make it. Francisco Pizarro understood these things better, and had Balboa contented himself with consolidating his position until his clear supremacy in his own American lands permitted him to defy, as Pizarro did, any attempt at even royal interference, his fate would almost certainly have been very different, and Pizarro 's opportunity would in all probability have never come. ' In the meantime Balboa, knowing nothing of what was before him, continued his preparations for the crossing of the Isthmus. It was here that the presence of his Indian wife and his friendship with the tribes of the vicinity stood him in good stead. Instead of undertaking the enterprise in the face of the opposi- tion of hostile Indians, as was so often the lot of the Conquistador, Balboa found himself provided with native allies, who busied themselves in assisting him in his preparations. On September i, 15 13, Balboa struck out on the march that was to give the first glimpse of the Pacific Ocean to European eyes. That memorable journey has been too often described to need any repetition of its details here. Pizarro was one of his company, and it was then that this famous Con- quistador began to be inspired with visions of the vast stores of wealth that might — and actually did — border the shores of this new sea. When Vasco Nunez de Balboa came out from the forest land on to the shore of the glittering Bay of San Miguel (which is situated in what is now the eastern extremity of the Republic of Panama) he must have felt a new sense of astonishment, one that even Columbus had never known. For Columbus had set 54 CENTRAL AMERICA out to discover a new continent, and had found it. But here was a new ocean beyond this new continent, and here were all the attributes of a second New World opening out at the back of the first one, which itself had not been suspected to exist a little more than a score of years before ! It was in a sense the supreme moment of the age of discovery, when the last and greatest of the earth's secrets was un- folded—leaving nothing but the comparatively minor feats of exploration for later mankind to achieve. For, alas ! the heroic age of the explorer can occur only once on this limited earth. On arriving at the edge of the waters Balboa com- ported himself according to the spirit of the age, which set a high value on symbolic action in the acquisition of new territories. On such an occasion it was customary to strike at a tree of the new country with a sword, and thus to brand it as the property of its discoverer's nation. Occasionally no tree would be forthcoming, as in the alluvial plains of the Rio de la Plata, where Juan de Garay had to content himself with mowing down a few swathes of the natural pasture with his keen blade. It was in this spirit that Balboa plimged into the waters of the Pacific, waving the standard of Castile above his head. There are some historians who assert that he performed the action on horseback, but this does not seem to be generally corroborated. In any case the action was accepted at its full value by the Spanish authorities, and when, long after Balboa had died at the hands of a sufficiently villainous superior, the intruding foreigners began to turn the bows of their vessels towards the Spanish Americas, they were sternly warned off not only from the Spanish colonial soil, but from the actual waters of the Pacific, or South Sea, since this, according to Castilian tenets, was the private property of the empire quite as much as Peru, New Granada, New Spain, or any other solid portion of the Spanish American possessions. BALBOA AND HIS COLLEAGUES 55 Having made his great discovery, Balboa returned to his own colony of Santa Maria la Antigua. There he continued his labours for the improvement of that settlement, while he meditated upon the best methods of beginning the colonization of the newly discovered Pacific coast. Less than nine months after he had returned from his visit to the Bay of San Miguel, Balboa received from the King of Spain what he took to be the answer to his petition for the royal confirmation of his governorship. It materialized in the unannounced and unexpected arrival of Pedrarias Davila, an elderly, mean, jealous, and vindictive official, who arrived from Spain with full powers to take over the governor- ship of the province which Balboa had succeeded in founding with such ingenuity and pains. As Balboa's ill -fortune would have it, Pedrarias had set out from Spain before the famous Conquistador's letter explain- ing his journey and what he had achieved arrived in Europe. » The fashion of Pedrarias' arrival was very different from that of Balboa's first coming to the coast. The episodes attending this have been very ably described by William Robertson, and I will quote a couple of his paragraphs that deal with it : — *' Notwithstanding Balboa's recent services, which marked him out as the most proper person to finish that great undertaking which he had begun, Ferdinand was so ungenerous as to overlook these, and to appoint Pedrarias Davila Governor of Darien. He gave him the command of fifteen stout vessels and twelve hundred soldiers. These were fitted out at the public expense, with a liberality which Ferdinand had never displayed in any former armament destined for the New World ; and such was the ardour of the Spanish gentlemen to follow a leader who was about to conduct them to a country where, as fame reported, they had ^ See Appendix, 56 CENTRAL AMERICA only to throw their nets into the sea and draw out gold, that fifteen hundred embarked on board the fleet, and if they had not been restrained, a much greater number would have engaged in the service. " Pedrarias reached the Gulf of Darien without any remarkable accident, and immediately sent some of his officers ashore to inform Balboa of his arrival, with the King's commission, to be Governor of the colony. To their astonishment they found Balboa, of whose great exploits they had heard so much, and of whose opulence they had formed such high ideas, clad in a canvas jacket and wearing the coarse hempen sandals used only by the meanest peasants, employed, together with some Indians, in thatching his own hut with reeds. Even in this simple garb, which corre- sponded so ill with the expectations •. and wishes of his new guests, Balboa received them with dignity. The fame of his discoveries had drawn so many adven- turers from the islands that he could now muster four hundred and fifty men. At the head of those daring veterans he was more than a match for the forces which Pedrarias brought with him. But though his troops murmured loudly at the injustice of the King in superseding their commander, and complained that strangers would now reap the fruits of their toil and success, Balboa submitted with implicit obedience to the will of his sovereign, and received Pedrarias with all the deference due to his character." Pedrarias' line of conduct was made clear in one of his first acts. This was to appoint a judicial inquiry into the conduct of Balboa during the expeditions of Nicuesa and Enciso. As the result of alleged irregularities — but really with the object of lessening his prestige in the colony- — Balboa was sub- jected to a heavy fine, a wanton injustice which he resented with all the fervour of a high-spirited man. Worse was to come.' Very soon the men who had accompanied Pedrarias began to suffer from the BALBOA AND HIS COLLEAGUES 57 diseases which were almost inevitable in the case of those new to the climate and to the food of the tropics. Pedrarias determined to find them work in order that, their minds being occupied, they might have less time to brood over their afflictions. The inspira- tion was an unusually sound one for a personage of Pedrarias' temperament, but the manner in which he carried it out was more in keeping with what might have been expected of him. The occupation that the new Governor found for his men's minds was the sallying out to gather in gold from the Indians of the neighbourhood. The manner in which this was effected will be made clear from a single instance. „When Caspar de Morales, having burned, destroyed, slaughtered women and children, and caused chiefs to be mauled to death by bloodhounds, was returning from his infamous work, bearing a number of Indian captive women back with him to Santa Maria la Antigua, the natives, driven to desperation by the inhuman cruelties of which they had been the victims, hung upon his rear, endeavour- ing to avenge their wrongs and to rescue their women- folk. Caspar de Morales had a simple way of dealing with a situation such as this. As his force marched on he caused the women to be slain one by one and their bodies to be left in the track of the advancing Indians, just as the traveller in other parts of the world might have flung out stray bundles to delay the pursuing wolves. It was Balboa's bitter fate to have to stand by as a spectator of the wanton destruction of his work, and to watch the turning into furious hostility of the friendship that he had been at such pains to cultivate with the Indians. His protests to the Court of Spain at length bore some minor fruits. A welcome messenger brought him the official appointment of Adelantado, or Covernor, of the countries bordering on the South 58 CENTRAL AMERICA Sea that he had discovered. His persecution at the hands of the malignant Pedrarias — who had actually- visited with imprisonment his attempts to initiate the colonization of the coast of the new sea — had left his finances in no condition to assume the post that he coveted. It was (Juevedo, Bishop of Darien, whose kindly diplomacy put an end to the deadlock. Employing the wisdom of the serpent in his conversations with the petty-souled Governor of Darien, he pointed out to him how the great work of Balboa might be made to redound to Pedrarias' own credit. This was the style of argument in which Pedrarias had always shown himself remarkably open to conviction, and, stirred by the glamour of the new vista held out to him, he not only consented to cease his persecution of Balboa, but he even declared himself ready to betroth his daughter, who at the time was residing in Europe, to the man whom he had so single-heartedly attempted to ruin. Whatever Balboa, who had remained devoted throughout to his Indian wife, thought in his own heart of this latter proposal, he was, at all events, free to proceed with his arrangements for the estab- lishment of his province on the shores of the South Sea. The work was one which would have tried modern ingenuity, to say nothing of the primitive appliances of those days. Balboa first of all formed a small settlement at Ada, on the Atlantic coast, which he established as his base of supplies. To this point he brought his stores from Cuba, and from here it was necessary to transport them across the forest -covered mountains to the Pacific coast. One of the first objects which it was necessary to take into consideration was a fleet of ships to navi- gate the virgin waters of the South Sea. On the shores of that ocean was an abundance of timber that would serve for the hulls themselves. But the BALBOA AND HIS COLLEAGUES 59 ironwork, spars, and all else had to be transported across the dense forests and difficult country of the Isthmus. Balboa's friendship with the Indians stood him in good stead once again here. The materials were toil- fully but safely carried across the neck of land, the shores of the glittering South Sea began to resound to the first noise of hammering that ever disturbed their peace, and soon four ships were ready to begin their task of navigating the new ocean. Everything being now in readiness, Balboa pre- pared himself to march across in his turn, and to begin his governorship of the lands bordering on the Pacific. But once again Fate intervened, and this time in the cruellest fashion of all. There are numerous minor discrepancies in the various accounts of the tragedy that followed. The following is Sir Clements Markham's version in his work. The Con- quest of New Granada, which seems as fair as any : — *' The news arrived that a new Governor, named Lope de Sosa, was appointed, who might stop the expedition. A messenger, named Botello, was sent to Ada to ascertain the truth. In the same evening Vasco Nunez had a conversation in his hut with his friend the Licentiate Valderrabano. Their conclusion was that if the new Governor had arrived the expe- dition should start at once, but that if Pedrarias was still Governor they should wait for some stores that were due. It was raining, and a rascally sentry had taken shelter under the eaves and was listening out- side the wall of canes. He quite misunderstood what was said, and thought, or pretended to think, there was a plot against Pedrarias, so he went off next day to report it and get a reward." Whether he believed the tale or not, Pedrarias was quick to see his opportunity to end matters once and for all with a man whom he hated, and in a far simpler and quicker fashion, moreover, than by the round- 60 CENTRAL AMERICA about and diplomatic methods that he had had in mind. He sent for Balboa, asking him to meet him at Ada. When Balboa came, suspecting no evil', he found himself met by his former friend, Francisco Pizarro, who, at the head of a strong guard, arrested him. That which followed was the murder of Balboa by Pedrarias under the very thinnest cloak of judicial procedure. Notwithstanding the protests of the minor officials, the great Vasco Nunez de Balboa himself, together with three of his friends, including Valderrabano, were beheaded on the trunk of a tree, and it is said that Pedrarias watched the operation with a dastardly satisfaction through a chink in a wall, behind which he was concealed. It is a matter for poetical regret that the abuse of the colonial laws of the period should have permitted the escape from justice of one whose villainy prematurely closed the career of the greatest Spaniard in the early history of the American mainland. In the year 1 5 1 6, shortly after the death of Balboa, Pedrarias Davila sent out an expedition under Heman Ponce and Bartolom^ Hurtado. In the course of this was discovered the Gulf of Nicoya, that at the time was named the Gulf of Chira. Six years later Gil Gonzalez Davila arrived upon the scene, and with his pilot, Andres Nino, coasted to the westward from the Gulf of San Miguel. Land- ing in order to Careen their ships, they came into contact with several of the Indian Caciques. The first one af importance that they met with was named Nicoya. Nicoya appears to have readily consented to receive baptism. Moreover, as the influences of war, religion, and commerce were so curiously blended at that period, he proved a profitable convert. Gonzalea Davila was doubtless honestly and legiti- mately gratified at the alacrity with which this Indian chief became a convert. But his joy was assuredly BALBOA AND HIS COLLEAGUES 61 not lessened when Nicoya, in proof of his sincerity, presented him with much gold, including six golden idols, for which, he explained, he would now have no further use. The Spaniards after this sent an embassy to a neigh- bouring chief, Nicaragua, whose territories were far more extensive that those of Nicoya. Nicaragua invited the Spaniards to his capital, and, according to con- temporary accounts, he showed a most marked curiosity concerning the religion of the white men, and readily entered into theological discussions. In the end he became a convert, and nearly ten thousand of his people followed his example. Nicaragua, too, marked his conversion by an important present of gold, as well as of magnificent feathers, and Gonzalez Davila responded with a silk cloak, a scarlet cap, and some other ornaments. After exploring extensive districts of Nicaragua, Gonzalez Davila returned to Panama, and from thence went to Hispaniola. In his absence Pedrarias Davila claimed the right to colonize Nicaragua, owing to the circumstance that it was his officers who had discovered it in 1516. In 1523 he sent Francisco Fernandez de C6rdoba with some troops to that country. C6rdoba founded a township on the shores of the Gulf of Nicoya, which was dismantled four years later, marched inland to establish the city of Granada, and then turned to the north-west and founded the city of Leon, forti- fying it strongly, as he heard that Gonzalez Davila, who had now returned from Hispaniola, intended marching against him. From this time onwards Nicaragua definitely took its place as a Spanish colony. Pedrarias, the first Governor of Nicaragua, died in 1 531. In 1534 his son-in-law, Rodrigo de Contreras, succeeded to the governorship of the province. As a Governor Pedrarias Davila had shown himself petty -minded, jealous, and revengeful to a degree. During the brief period that his tenure of 62 CENTRAL AMERICA office lasted, Contreras had only time to reveal a few of his governmental tendencies, which were of a rather different order from those of his deceased father-in-law. But from the little it was given him to effect, it seems very improbable that he would have proved a better official than Pedrarias — indeed, if such a thing can be conceived, he might even have made a worse. It was unfortunate for Contreras that, very shortly after he entered into his office, the notice arrived from Spain of the wise precautionary law which forbade any governor or officer of the crown to hold Indians as his private property. Now, seeing that he had provided himself in a most munificent fashion with these convenient and profitable human chattels, these new regulations came as a severe blow to the new Governor of Nicaragua. But Contreras was a man of resource. After a certain amount of cogitation he bethought himself of a plan which is by no means uncommon among financiers of our own day. He made over all his slaves to his wife, and, incidentally, to his sons as well. Whether, in the entire history of the world's finance, he was the first to hit upon this happy expedient I do not know ; but it is certain that he must be classed amongi the pioneers. The court of the Indies, cumbrous and un- wieldy though its machinery was, viewed the trans- action with a most active lack of sympathy. One of its judges arrived to investigate the matter on the spot, with the result that all those slaves which Contreras had taken such pains to transfer to his wife and family were ruthlessly confiscated to the crown. Moreover, since Herrera, the judge, was now thoroughly investigating the innumerable complaints which the people of his government had already found cause to bring against the erring official, Contreras began to find his position embarrassing. He set out for Spain, therefore, in order to lodge a despairing personal appeal. His forlorn hope failed entirely, and, BALBOA AND HIS COLLEAGUES 63 indeed, the story of Contreras provides one of those instances that go to prove that Spanish colonial justice, though frequently misapplied, was by no means incapable of moving with a profound and majestic equity. This was not the view, however, of Hernando Contreras, the son of Rodrigo, who had remained behind in Nicaragua. Embittered by the verdict, he prepared to raise the flag of revolt. As fate would have it, a few wild and reckless soldiers who had served with Pizarro in Peru chanced to be in Nicaragua just then. They were only too willing to join Hernando in any outbreak he chose to suggest, providing that sufficient booty Were to be had for the trouble. Thus encouraged, Hernando Contreras started the revolution, which was begun by the murder of the Bishop Antonio de Valdivieso. After this the Government chest and the episcopal funds were pillaged, and the rebels marched out of the town of Leon with the improvised and somewhat insincere battle-cry of " Liberty I Liberty ! Long live Prince Contreras I " This was hastening the social promotion of the younger Contreras with a vengeance I In the beginning Fate smiled on the enterprise, and its scope widened rapidly. Free-lances flocked in to join him : he sent trusty messengers to Granada, who gave glowing accounts of the rising, and obtained a number of further promising recruits from that place. Hernando Contreras now considered that the time had come to make a bold bid for wider authority. He marched his force to the port of Realejo, and seized two ships that were in the harbour there. The rebels had now not only a land force, but the beginnings of a navy. The visions of an actual empire began to dawn upon them. Carried away by these, they soon attempted to put into effect one of the wildest plans that had ever been conceived even 64 CENTRAL AMERICA by these amazing Spanish pioneers in America. They would take Panama and Nombre de Dios, and from these strategic points they would descend upon Peru itself ! In fact, they planned to wrest all Latin America from its first Conquistador es and to found there an empire of their own. Needless to say that Hernando Contreras was to be its ruler ; his brother, Pedro, was to be an important prince, second in rank only to Hernando, while it stood to reason that every one of the soldiers was to reap untold sacks of gold from the venture. At that period, with the feats of Pizarro and Cortes before their eyes — feats which had made so many mountains of imperial bricks with such a ludicrously small amount of straw — there was scarcely a venture on earth that could be called too madly daring. So it was with sanguine and determined hearts that the Contreras and their men set out in their two ships. Luck continued to favour them. On their way to Panama they captured several more vessels, and when they sailed into Panama harbour they found further ships there, of which they took possession. The town itself, moreover, fell into the hands of the triumphant adventurers ; the bishop and the officials of the city were taken prisoners ; a grati- fying amount of plunder was forthcoming, and altogether the prospects of ultimate complete success began to glow with a rosy hue that seemed to justify the predictions of even the most optimistic of the whole company. The next achievement marked down on the chart of the revolution was the capture of Nombre de Dios. Leaving his brother in command of the fleet, Hernando Contreras placed himself at the head of the land forces. They marched out of the town in triumph. This, however, was shortlived, for the expedition had taken its success too much for granted, and was now about to pay the price of its over -confidence. BALBOA AND HIS COLLEAGUES 65 The town of Panama, although it had yielded to the sudden attack upon its unprepared walls, was by no means cowed. Juan Bermejo, one of Contreras' lieutenants, found this out on the night of the very day on which the expedition had marched. Return- ing to the town with a body of troops, he found the gates closed against him, and he endeavoured in vain to force an entrance. Failing in this, he took up his position in the neighbourhood. Here he was attacked by a force of royal troops. After a fierce struggle he succeeded in repulsing them. The King's forces, however, were not to be denied. They advanced again to the charge, and this time were entirely victorious, Bermejo himself with eighty-two of his men being killed, and the rest being taken prisoners or dispersed. When the news of this was l>rought to Hernando Contreras he realized that it was not to be his fate, after all, to play the part of a Pizarro or a Cortes. His pack of imperial cards was in the act of falling, and he endeavoured to escape from under the ruin by flight. In this he failed, being found dead in a swamp. Pedro Contreras, who was still in command of th^ rebel ships in Panama harbour, put out to sea, and stood away in flight. . It is probable that his men were for the most part amateur sailors, and that when they found themselves closely followed by four ships from Panama they realized that their chances afloat were small. So they landed in haste at Point Iguera. But the men from the Panama ships landed close on their heels, and, pursuing fiercely, soon came up with the remnants of what was to have been the naval force of a new empire. All of these were captured, save less than a dozen, who escaped into the forest, led by Pedro Contreras. Curiously enough, none of these were ever heard of again. It is possible that they may have died, lost in the confusing recesses of the tropical forest^ or 5 66 CENTRAL AMERICA that they may have been slain by hostile Indians— for the conduct of a number of the Spanish leaders had made implacable enemies of several tribes of these. On the other hand, it is just possible that, having found shelter among some friendly dusky groups of humanity, they may have assisted in the creation of those fair -skinned Indian forest tribes of which so many accounts were given by travellers for many generations, and for whose presence a number of deserters from Drake's fleet have been held largely responsible. CHAPTER IV EARLY COLONIAL GOVERNMENT The expedition of Pedro de Alvarado — Battles with the Central American Indians — Events of the struggle — Perilous situation of the invaders — Discovery of the Indian plot at Utatlan — Punishment meted out — Arrival of the envoys from Guatemala with friendly proposals — An alliance is formed — P'ounding of the new province— Alvarado's government — Conduct of his brother when temporarily holding office — Ill-treatment brings' about an Indian rebellion — Victory of the natives — Pedro de Alvarado's return — Re-establishment of the Spanish power — Death of Pedro de Alvarado — His widow is elected as his successor — Her death caused by the eruption of a volcano — Details of the catastrophe — A record of the early seismic disturbances — Various tragedies caused by these — The volcanoes Fuego and Agua — Aban- donment of the first capital and the founding of the second — Fate of this latter — Founding of the third capital — The Audience of Guatemala is established — Various removals of the site of this — An itinerant body — Some regulations concerning its oflicials — An early conflagration — Adventures and fate of a puma — Epidemics of the first colonial period — Testimony concerning a miracle performed to alleviate one of the chief outbreaks — Connection between the early history of Central America and Peru — Gonz;aIo Pizarro and Pedro de la Gasca — Part of the drama that took place in the Isthmus — La Gasca succeeds in landing on Central American soil — His influence over Gonzalo Pizarro's officers — Events and intrigues in Panama — Gonzalo Pizarro's officers in Central America desert their rebellious chief and espouse -the royal cause — Triumph of Pedro de la Gasca and execution of Gonzalo Pizarro. In the year 1523 Cortes, now that the comparative settlement of the affairs in Central Mexico gave him breathing space to survey an even wider field, began to listen with no little eagerness to the tales that were brought him concerning the province of Guatemala. Not only were there importarit towns there, according 67 68 CENTRAL AMERICA to all accounts — promising storehouses of wealth— but more alluring still were the stories of the rich mines that were alleged to abound in the unknown country — unknown, that is to say, so far as Europeans were concerned. Cortes sent out official invitations to the people of Guatemala to come to his headquarters and to tender their submission. But the Guatemalcos would have none of this, and, as they refused to come to him in peace, the great Conquistador determined to send an expedition to enforce his ignored request. Pedro de Alvarado was placed in command of rather more than three hundred Spanish infantry and one hundred and thirty-five horsemen, as well as about two hundred Tlaxcalan and Cholulan auxiliaries, and was entrusted with the task of bringing these obstinate southern people to reason. Pedro de Alvarado set out on the 13th of Novem- ber 1523, and marched across the rocky hills of Tehuantepec— subduing a revolution of the newly conquered Indians there on his way — to Soconusco, where he was well received. From this point onwards, continuing on his journey towards the province of Guatemala, he found himself subjected to numerous Indian attacks. Here is the account of one of these engagements as given in a most valuable transla- tion by Professor Maudslay for the Hakluyt Society of The True History of the Conquest of New Spain, by Bernal Diaz de Castillo, one of its Conquerors : — ** From Zapotitlan the road led to a strong pueblo named Quetzaltenango, and before reaching it he had other encounters with the natives of that pueblo and with others from a neighbouring pueblo called Utatlan, which was the capital of certain pueblos which in their turn are in the neighbourhood of Quetzaltenango, and they wounded some soldiers and killed three horses, although Pedro de Alvarado killed and wounded many of the Indians. Then there was a bad ascent for more EARLY COLONIAL GOVERNMENT 69 than a league and a half through a defile. With the musketeers and crossbowtnen and all his soldiers in good order he began the ascent, and at the top of the pass he found a fat Indian Woman who was a witch, and a dog (one of those they breed because they are good to eat and do not know how to bark) sacrificed. Farther on he came upon a vast number of warriors who were lying in wait for him, and they began to surround him ; as the track was bad and amongi mountains, the horsemen were not able to g^allop or turn swiftly, nor to make use of their mounts, but the musketeers and crossbowmen and soldiers with sword and shield fought stoutly with them hand to hand, and they went on fighting from the hill and pass downwards until they reached some barrancas, where they had another but not very severe skirmish with other squadrons of warriors which were waiting for them in those barrancas. This was ov/ing to a stratagem which they had arranged among them- selves in this manner : that as Pedro advanced fight- ing they should pretend to retreat, and as he would go on pursuing them to where over six thousand warriors, men from Utatlan and other pueblos subject to them, were lying in wait, there they intended to kill them (the Spaniards). Pedro de Alvarado and all his soldiers fought with them with the highest courage, and the Indians wounded twenty-six or twenty -seven soldiers and two horses ; nevertheless he (Alvarado) put them to flight ; but they had not gone far before they rallied with other squadrons and turned to fight again, thinking to defeat Pedro de Alvarado. It was near a spring that they awaited them so as again to come hand to hand, and many of the Indians would lie in wait by twos and threes near a horse and try by force to pull it down, and others caught them by the tail. And here Pedro de Alvarado found himself in great straits, for the enemy were so numerous they were not able to bear up 70 CENTRAL AMERICA against the squadrons who attacked them from so many directions. Then he and all his men, as soon as they saw that they had either to conquer or die, fearing that they might not defeat the enemy, on account of the cramped position in which they found themselves, made a bold attack with the muskets and with sturdy sword cuts, and obliged them to draw back somewhat. Then the horsemen were not slow in spearing the enemy and trampling them down and passing through them until they had them routed, so that they did not assemble again for three days.'* This remarkably graphic account may be taken as typical of the countless engagements and perils that Pedro de Alvarado and his men underwent in the course of their journey to Guatemala. Although his caution was a match for the enemy's guile, he and his daring little band were on one occasion on the very verge of destruction. Under the pretext of friend- ship and the offer of a comfortable lodging, the small force was lured into the town of Utatlan. It was not long, however, before Alvarado became suspicious. " When he had made his entry, he saw what a stronghold it was, for it had two gateways, and one of them had twenty -five steps before entering the town, and the other entrance was by a causeway that was very bad and broken in two places, and the houses were close together and the streets narrow, and there were neither women nor children in any part of the town, which was surrounded by barrancas, and no food had been provided except what was bad, and (that came) late, and the chieftains were very shifty in their speeches." Some friendly Indians revealed the plot. Hosts of warriors, it appears, were already massing behind the shelter of the barrancas. That night it was intended to set fire to the town and, under cover of the smoke and flames, to massacre the Spaniards, trapped in the confusion of the narrow streets. Without losing a EARLY COLONIAL GOVERNMENT 71 moment Alvarado collected his force and extricated it from the town, explaining to the chagrined chief that his horses would be the better for the pasture outside the walls. Once out in the open, he dealt with the treacherous Indians in the stern and remorse- less fashion of that day. The chief himself was burned to death as a punishment, and his office was given to his son — ^w^ho must have received the gift with mixed feelings. Shortly after this Pedro de Alvarado was agreeably surprised by the arrival of a body of envoys from the province of Guatemala, who explained that the people of U tatlan were their enemies, and who offered to assist the cause of the Spaniards, and, indeed, to become the vassals of the King of Spain. Much relieved, Alvarado sent a courteous message in reply, and requested an escort of soldiers and carriers who might show them the way to the town of Guatemala, and thus help to frustrate the continuous and annoy- ing ambushes which the hostile folk of U tatlan were setting in the path of his men, ignorant of the country as they were. This was done, and Alvarado, after having bestowed further punishment on the hostile natives, marched to the town of Guatemala, where he met with a cordial reception. Common cause was made against the enemies of both the Spaniards and the Guatemalcos, and the foundations of the Spanish power in Guatemala were securely laid. From this period onwards we are able to deal with Guatemala and with Central America in general (the whole of which, as will be seen, was soon to be known as Guatemala) as an actual colony of Spain, and no longer as an Indian country which had been pierced at one or two points by daring and itinerant bands of Spaniards. The capital of the new province was established at this town of Guatemala. The spot was pictur- esquely situated, and jealously watched over by two 72 CENTRAL AMERICA mighty volcanoes. These magnificent mountains were destined to play a terrible part in the future of the city ; but of this the Spaniards naturally had no inkling when they marched in triumph to the spot. Alvarado governed Guatemala from the year 1524 until the day of his death, which occurred in 1541. He had been entrusted in the first instance with this post by Cortes, who at the time was acting practically as Viceroy of Mexico and Central America. On the 1 8th of December 1527, however, a commission was made out to him direct from the Emperor Charles V, appointing him Governor and Captain-General of the kingdom of Guatemala. The first part of Alvarado 's rule was marked by not a few uprisings of the Indians. It would seem that the blame for this is to be attributed to the Conquistador's subordinates rather than to Pedro de Alvarado himself. In 1526, for instance, the latter, when summoned away to attend the great Cortes, left his brother Gonzalo in charge of Guatemala, to the no small hurt of the province. Gonzalo de Alvarado, doubtless assuring himself that he had not journeyed to Central America merely for the good of his health, proceeded to improve the occasion from the financial point of view. Among the other spots which he fixed on as suitable fountains of wealth was the village of Patinamit. This was a fairly important centre, and Gonzalo de Alvarado, scent- ing riches in its neighbourhood, gave orders that the people were to choose eight hundred men out of their number, each of whom was daily to bring to the temporary and avaricious Governor a reed of the size of his little finger filled with fine gold. Failure in the regular supply of this, he announced, would involve a condition of servitude on the part of those who failed. The task was found to be impossible, but Gonzalo de Alvarado, unwilling to admit this, insti- tuted measures of such severity against the unfortunate EARLY COLONIAL GOVERNMENT 73 natives that very soon, goaded beyond endurance, the greater part of the Cachiquel nation rose in revolt, and more than twenty thousand men marched to the town of Guatemala, taking it by surprise. The result was a complete victory for the Indians, and the Spaniards, after suffering a number of casualties, were obliged to evacuate the town. It was in this chaotic condition that Pedro de Alvarado found his province on his return. The situation might have dismayed a less resolute leader ; but Pedro de Alvarado braced himself to the task, and, after a severe campaign, he finally brought back the Cachiqueles to subjection on the 22nd of November. As this was St. Cecilia's Day, the saint 'was declared patroness of the city, and the anniversary of the day was celebrated with great religious and secular pomp. Pedro de Alvarado died in 1 5 4 1 . As nearly always proved the case at that period, the death of the Governor left the subordinate officials of the province rather at a loss. They met together in the city of Guatemala in order to elect a temporary chief, who should hold the reins of government until the Court of Spain should have time to select a permanent Governor. The result of the conference was that the post of temporary Governor was offered to Pedro de Alvarado 's widow, Beatrice de la Cueba. This courtly and sympathetic action affords in itself a sufficiently weighty tribute to the affection that Alvarado must have inspired among the people of his province. This honour was conferred on Beatrice de la Cueba on the 9th of September 1541. But that unfortu- nate lady was fated to hold this unusual feminine rank for no more than two days. Pedro de Alvarado, as a matter of fact, was destined to have one of the most vast and terrifying funeral pyres that ever marked the death of a man. It had started to rain on the day previous to the 74 CENTRAL AMERICA nomination of Dona Beatrice, and the downpour con- tinued without cessation until the morning of the eleventh, the deluge occasionally seeming to attain to the force of a waterspout. On the night of the tenth violent lightnings began to play about the volcano, at the base of which stood the city of Old Guatemala, and the noise of the thunder was such that the in- habitants shrank in dismay from the phenomenon. Then the fiery glow began to illuminate the cone of the volcano itself, and as the eruptions proceeded the people of the town found themselves flung violently down on to the quaking earth, on which they in vain endeavoured to stand. In the end, curiously enough, it was not from fire, lava, or from direct eruption that the town sufi'ered. A tremendous body of water is said suddenly to have rushed down the mountain -side, bearing down upon the unfortunate town great fragments of rock and large trees. This was at two o'clock in the morning of the eleventh, and when the sun rose on the stricken spot, the numerous wrecked houses and still bodies told their own tragic tale. Among the corpses was that of Beatrice de la Cueba, who had thus tragically ended her two days* tenure of the governorship of Guatemala. The damage suffered by the unfortunate inhabitants of the capital from the volcanoes Agua and Fuego, between the two of which it lay, as well as from earth- quake, affords a long category of disaster. After the calamity of 1542 the citizens could no longer bear to remain among the ruins of their town, overwhelmed as it was by mud, stone, and debris. They moved the site of the town to a spot about a league and a half to the north-east, and the original spot was then known as Ciudad Vieja. For more than a score of years the i ith of September was observed as a day of fasting and penitence, and on this day a solemn religious procession would proceed sadly from the new EARLY COLONIAL GOVERNMENT 75 rity of Guatemala to Ciudad Vieja, a custom that was continued for rather more than a score of years. The seismic forces, however, had by no means done with the town. Severe shocks were experienced in 1565, in the course of which many important buildings were damaged. Ten years later an equally disastrous disturbance caused havoc in the city, while, as though this were not enough, the catastrophe was repeated in each of the two following years. For rather more than three years after this the city of Guatemala enjoyed comparative peace, so far as the forces of Nature were concerned. Then the Fuego volcano began to wreathe itself in smoky pre- paration for trouble. In 1581 it burst into real activity. Enormous flames shot upwards i from its crater, and a curtain of ashes rose sufficient to obscure the rays of even the tropical sun and to leave the terror-stricken inhabitants in semi -darkness. The streets were filled with people confessing their sins and imploring the Divine mercy. After a time the peril passed. A northerly wind sprang up ; the great cloud of ashes was dispersed over the Pacific Ocean, and the sun shone again on the reprieved city. Four years later the same ghastly commotion began again, and in 1586, the succeeding year, it is said that the earth shook with such violence that the tops of the high ridges were torn off and deep chasms formed in various parts of the level ground. But it is impossible to go in detail into the innu- merable disasters of the kind suffered by the inhabitants of the city of Guatemala from earthquake and from that all too violent volcano Fuego, an apt colleague in disaster of Agua. It is only feasible here to mention a qouple of the most noteworthy of these occurrences. Thus it is related that on the 18th of February 1651, ** a most extraordinary subterranean noise was heard, and immediately followed by three violent shocks, at very short intervals from each 76 CENTRAL AMERICA other, which threw down many buildings and damaged others ; the tiles from the roofs of the houses were dispersed in all directions, like light straws by a gust of wind ; the bells of the churches were rung by the vibrations ; masses of rock were detached from the mountains ; and even the wild beasts were so terri- fied that, losing their natural instinct, they quitted their retreats and sought shelter among the habitations of men. Among these a lion of great size and fierce- ness entered the city on the southern side and advanced into the middle of it ; he tore down a paper fixed against one of the consistorial houses, and retreated by the streets on the north side. These shocks were repeated frequently until the 13th of April." For more than a century the volcano continued its threats. From time to time the smoke rose ; the flames leaped upwards from the cone, and showers of stones came hurtling upon the town, while occa- sionally the cloud of floating ashes would plunge the city into night. At such times the images of the saints went along the quaking streets in procession, and the people devoted themselves wholesale to peni- tential ceremonies. Notwithstanding all its terrors, the people clung to their town. It is true that on one occasion, when the earth had been more than usually unruly, the inhabitants petitioned the Council of the Indies for permission to remove to a less tortured neighbourhood ; but when the tardy licence arrived they had recovered from their panic, and decided to remain where they were. In 1773, however, the town received its final quietus at the hands of the mountain. Simultaneously with the threat from above came the upheaval from earth- quake below, and it was this that finally wrecked the city. Even then there Were a number of conservative folk who endeavoured to cling to the ruins of the ill- fated city, arguing that from a seismic point of view nearly every other district of Guatemala was equally EARLY COLONIAL GOVERNMENT 77 unsafe. These sentimental pessimists were outvoted, and various neighbourhoods were carefully surveyed by the clerical and the lay authorities. In the end the Valley of Las Vacas was chosen as the site of the new capital, and to this neighbourhood the officials and townsfolk repaired in the year 1777. With the springing up of this new town the second capital of Guatemala became in its turn extinct, and, just as the abandoned first town had been called Ciudad Vieja, this was now known as Antigua. All this, however, has led us a long way past the point at which we left man-made history for that of volcanoes. After the death of Beatrice de la Cueba a fresh election was held, when the temporary governor- ship was entrusted to the bishop, Francisco Marroquin, and to the Licentiate Francisco de la Cueba. On the 17th of May 1542 the Licentiate Alonso de Maldonado arrived from Mexico to take over the chief office, and in the same year his appointment was con- firmed by the King of Spain, who made him President of the Ro^l Audie nce of Guate mala^^iKi-Nicarag:ua. This Audience^ jwas foun ded , in Nnvpmh er 1442, and, by the royal decree, there was to be a Royal Audience *' established within the confines of Guate- mala and Nicaragua ; to consist of four learned judges, one of whom shall be the President." This Audience had authority separate from that of the Mexican Viceroyalty. The vicissitudes concerning its geographical situa- tion undergone by this body were not a little remark- able. It was originally established at the town of Valladolid de Comayagua;, from which spot, being found inconvenient, it was removed in 1544 to Gracias a Dios. Iruj 54^ it was translated to Guatemala City, and in 1550 it was moved again to Panama. The movements of this strangely itinerant body were not yet at an end, for in 1569 it was carried across, bag and baggage, once again to Guatemala, Here 78 CENTRAL AMERICA it became permanently established; and a little later its importance was increased by its promotion to the status of a prsetorial court, its officers being now a President, Governor and Captain-General, five judges, a fiscal, and a chief alguadl. Until 1546 the circum- stances of this Court — as perhaps became its itinerant character — were of the simplest, and there was nothing in the costume of its officers to distinguish them from the ordinary settlers. In 1546 the first foreshadow- ings of some future modest pomp reached them, when a decree arrived from' the Spanish Court ordering them to carry wands similar to those used by the alcaldes of the royal household. In 1549 it was decided that they should wear the costume of doctors, and in 1589 they were more majestically clothed in robes, a costume that they retained until the Court ceased to exist in the days of the new republicanism. It was not only from the dangers of eruptions and earthquakes that the early cities of Guatemala suffered. In 1536 a spark from a blacksmith's forge flew up into the straw thatch of the building, and as the rest of the buildings were thatched with the same in- flammable material, half of the town went up in flames. After this no forge was allowed to work within the limits of the city. Four years previous to this some events had occurred in the neighbourhood of the city which, although of much less importance, were by no means without their exciting side. These were caused by what is described as a lion of uncommon magnitude and ferocity that preyed in so wholesale a manner upon the newly im- ported cattle as to become a source of serious loss to the settlers. This animal was presumably a puma, as these creatures have always been known as lions in Latin America. The puma, moreover, notwithstanding its reluctance to attack man, is addicted to prey remorselessly upon cattle. However this may be, the depredations of the animal EARLY COLONIAL GOVERNMENT 79 attained to such a pitch that a reward was put upon its head, and the town council announced that twenty -five gold dollars and one hundred bushels of wheat would be handed over to the destroyer of this creature with the abnormal and inconvenient lust of slaying. The puma, however, persisted in surviving. Even Alvarado himself, the conqueror of so many tens of thousands of Central Americans, found himself baulked by this single elusive beast, although he set out in quest of it at the head of a gigantic hunting party, composed of every able-bodied inhabitant of the town. The end of the creature was characteristic of that of many other more important beings, for, after having trium- phantly withstood all' such organized and imposing attacks, it fell a victim in an ungjuarded moment to a humble herdsman, who received the reward with no little joy. A far more serious affliction occurred in 1601, when there raged what has been described as a ** pestilential distemper." Very few of its victims survived for more than three days after being attacked. In 1686 occurred another visitation of the kind which decimated the town : *' no remedy was discovered that could check its destructive progress, although many of the deceased were opened, to endeavour by that means to come at the cause of the disorder. So great was the number of the infected that there was not a suffi- cient number of priests to administer to them the religious rites. The bells were no longer tolled for the dead individually, and the corpses were buried en masse in a common grave. From the capital the pestilence spread to the neighbouring villages, and thence to the more remote ones, causing dreadful havoc, particularly among the most robust of the inhabitants." Here is one account, which doubtless received full credence at the time, of how the end was brought about of this decimating pestilence : — '* The inhabitants, being grievously alarmed at the 80 CENTRAL AMERICA frightful havoc among them, resolved upon the ex- pedient of addressing public prayers to the Virgin for her interference ; they carried the image that is worshipped in the village of Altnolongo, thence to the church of Calvary, in the city, in solemn proces- sion : the rogation continued three days ; on the last day, about two, the face of the sacred effigy was perceived to be in a profuse perspiration for a long time : this prodigy was immediately certified officially by a couple of notaries who were .present. In the evening the image was restored to the village with becoming solemnity, and from that day the pestilence ceased, no more persons were infected, and those who were sick recovered immediately." Although its early days were so closely associated with those of Mexico, it is frequently difficult to separate the history of Central America from that of Peru, for the simple reason that the ports of the province that was then known by the name of Guatemala were those used by the Spaniards arriving from Europe on their way to Peru, and for three centuries or so Central America represented little beyond an ante -chamber to the great viceroyalty on the Pacific. When Gonzalo Pizarro, having; exceeded his authority and made short work of the royal officials who attempted to oppose him, was at the height of his power, indeed, the history of the two territories becomes inextricably blended. Thus when Pedro de la Gasca — sent out from Spain to supersede this Gonzalo, the brother of the great Francisco— arrived at Nombre de Dios, he found the evidence of the Peruvian power awaiting him as far afield as that port, where one of the Peruvian officers was posted with a strong body of men in order to prevent the landing of the royal official. Had the temperament of Pedro de la Gasca been Other than it was, the history of this period of South EARLY COLONIAL GOVERNMENT 81 America might well have been endowed with an addi- tional chapter of the bloodthirsty drama of which such a surfeit loads the pages of Peru. But La Gasca was no ordinary official, and his dignity, restraint, and tact exercised an irresistible influence even in a land where at that time the sword seemed to supply the only argument of any weight whatever. It was, therefore, thanks entirely to La Gasca's own personal merits that he was allbwed to land in peace at Nombre de Dios, for it was significant that he had brought no force with him from Spain. Once ashore, he explained that he came as a messenger of peace, not as an instrument of vengeance for the turbulence and lawlessness that had flourished so redly under the rule of the Pizarros. So impressed was Gonzalo Pizarro's officer, Hernan Mejia, with the personality of this high royal official against whom he had been sent to rebel, that he attempted to impose no restrictions whatever on the movements of the newcomer. As a result of this La Gasca proceeded to Panama, where he was received with similar respect by Hinojosa, who 'was commanding that town in the interests of Gonzalo Pizarro. Meanwhile the rebellious Conquis- tador, in his capital in Peru, was waiting to learn of the repulse and the dismissal from America of the official that the very distant Court of Spain had sent to supersede him. iWhen the news was brought to him that La Gasca, far from having been sent back to Spain, was firmly established in Panama, and was apparently on the best of terms with those very officers who should have opposed his landing, his rage knew no. bounds. Messengers were sent hotfoot northwards to Panama. La Gasca was told that he tnust depart at once, for it was Gonzalo Pizarro's intention himself to hold the office that La Gasca had come out from Spain to assume. There was another message, too, to Hinojosa, and this was eloquent of the desperate state of mind 6 82 CENTRAL AMERICA in which Gonzalo Pizarro now found himself. Hino- josa was to offer La Gasca a bribe of fifty thousand dollars to shake the dust of the Americas from his feet. If he refused, Hinojosa was to employ the final alternative— poison . It was neck or nothing with Gonzalo Pizarro now. If he had shown himself rebelhous before, this was plain revolt, unpardonable if defeated. The fatal con- sequences of the move did not delay in manifesting themselves. Hinojosa, Mejia, and the other officers in Panama, now that the choice had to be definitely faced, threw in their lot with the royal official, and La Gasca found himself surrounded and faith- fully served by a number of men who had previously acknowledged allegiance to Gonzalo Pizarro. The latter now took the only step that re- mained to him, and declared open war. To this, seeing that there was no other way, La Gasca responded by collecting troops from Nicaragua, Cartagena, and the other settlements of Central America. With these he marched southwards into Peru, and it was well outside the boundaries of the Isthmian lands that the final drama was enacted, and that the luckless Gonzalo Pizarro, deserted by his people, was captured and executed. N CHAPTER V COLONIAL EPISODES Extension of the Spanish power in Central America — The j*ateway of the Pacific coast — Relations with the Indians — Work and influence of the priests — First tradings with the Indians — Some accounts of the early dealings — Alonso Nino's expedition — The price of pearls — Profitable barterings — Occasional commercial enterprise of the Spanish Conquistador — Secondary uses of the domestic pin — Political divisions of the Audience of Guatemala — Chief cities of the province in the seventeenth century — Commercial importance of the Isthmus — The sailing routes of the galleons — An early eighteenth-century description — Methods of transport — The sharing of the profits — The occupation of smuggling — Some details of these enterprises — How the Central Americans were exploited by the Spanish officials — The commercial value of papal bulls — An official revenue by fines — Regulations concerning live-stock — The Latin American prejudice against mares as saddle-horses — Clerical fines — Reverence extended towards the Court of Spain — The introduction of pomp and cere- monies — The exaltation of the commonplace — Elaborate procedure attending the establishing of the Mint in Guatemala — Reverential reception of the machinery — Ceremonies attending the first coining — Abundance of precious metals in the eighteenth century. It ft not necessary to attempt to follow here the gradual extension of the Spanish power in Central America. When the tremendous upheavals caused by the turbulent factions attaching to the great Conquis- tadores of Peru and Chile had died down, the Isthmus was left in comparative political peace. But it still remained the gateway of the Pacific coast, and the road by which most of the treasures of the continent were conveyed to Europe still lay through its territories. After a time the relations with the remoter Indian tribes naturally grew more intimate, and here the 83 84 CENTRAL AMERICA priests were undoubtedly of the greatest service, though it must be admitted that the species of faith which the natives drank in from these missionaries was often of the crudest order. Possibly, considering the native temperament of that period, it could not have been otherwise. But in any case the influence gained by the priests was enormous, and after a time the Indians grew to regard these as their natural leaders in all spiritual and earthly things. There is no doubt that this state of affairs was made the most of by many of the less conscientious priests. Even among the laymen the pioneers were by no means averse to getting the better of the primi- tive Indian in a bargain — a circumstance that has not been confined to Central America I The first tradings with the Indians, when they could be brought about, were undoubtedly extraordinarily profitable. That which was obtained in exchange for whistles, small knives, ribbons, looking-glasses, strings of glass beads, and other valueless trifles of the kind sufficed to make the most insatiable trader's mouth water. Alonso Nino, for instance, is actually alleged to have obtained one hundred pounds' weight of pearls at the cost of a small' selection of articles such as these. It was after this transaction that he " per- ceiv'd that these people were gfentle, simple,, peaceable and lovers of Strangers, and therefore resolv'd to go to their Towns, where they receiv'd him veiy lovingly." Some of the details of Alonso Niiio's expedition, indeed, are refreshing in that they reveal the com- mercial side of the early dealings with the natives, and show the enterprising spirit of barter into which the Conquistador es could enter when it so pleased them. Thus, in connection with these same Indians, for instance, we learn that— ^' " All the while the Spaniards continu'd among them, they fed Daintily and very cheap ; for they gave but COLONIAL EPISODES 85 four pins for a Peacock, and two for a Pheasant ; but they traded as the Women do in Europe when they buy any Commodity. They enquired by Signs, what use they could make of Pins, being all naked 5 and were answered in the same Manner, that they might have Occasion to pick their Teeth, and to draw Thorns out of their Feet. From that time forward, they began to put a great Value upon them ; but they esteem Whistles above all other Things, and would give any Thing they had, tho' of never so much value, for one." This shows the Spanish pioneer in his quieter tnoments ; when in peace there was never lamb more mild. It is a sufficiently entertaining picture this, that shows the hardy adventurers devoting their imagination to the instruction of the guileless natives in the secondary uses of the domestic pin I Never- theless, had there been more pictures of this kind, and fewer scenes of bloodshed and slaughter, there is no doubt that the Indian, for his part, would have been more content, even though he had to pay an exorbitant price for objects of which he had not the least idea that he stood in need ! As the area of the Spanish colonization extended, and the greater part of Central America, as it is at present known, began to come within its sphere, it was necessary to amend the first tentative forms of government which had been established. Central America, or Guatemala, as has already been seen, was raised to the status of an Audience, with its proper charters, sets of officials, and subdivisions. After some more elaborate attempts at territorial partition which only held g^od for a short time, the Audience of Guatemala was divided into the six provinces of Vera Paz, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Veragua. In a present- day map the northern province of Vera Paz is no longer represented ; Salvador, on the other hand, ha3 36 CENTRAL AMERICA come into being to cut off a piece from Guatemala and Honduras respectively, while British Honduras has made its appearance on the north and west of the Gulf of Honduras. i With the exception of these alterations in the frontiers, the provinces of the Audience of Guatemala corresponded more or less to the present Republics of Central America. In the seventeenth century the principal towns were : Vera Paz and San Pedro in Vera Paz, Santiago de Guatemala (moved from its original situation between the two volcanoes, of which an old chronicler remarks that '* out of one of which issues water, and out of the other fire "), Sonsonate, a Pacific port, San Miguel, and Amapalla— all of which latter three cities are now to be found in Salvador. In Honduras were Comayagua or Valla- dolid, Trujillo, and Gracias d -Dios. In Nicaragua were Leon, Realejo, Granada, and San Juan ; while in Costa Rica were Nicoya and Cartago. In Veragua were Santa F^, Concepcion, Puebla Nova, Chiriqui, and La Villa. Porto Bello and Panama ^ere included in the province of Darien. The commercial importance of the narrow neck of land that joins the two great continents was supreme in the days when Latin America was governed by the royal Council of the Indies. The great fairs of Porto Bello had an intercontinental significance then, and the tall galleons of the flota were familiar sights in the sparkling waters here, as they deposited their cloths, silks, and articles of general armament and necessity, and sailed away laden down with the gold, silver, jewels, and other precious objects of the Americas . Here is an early eighteenth -century description of the ways of these galleons, which smacks rather pleasantly of the salt sea : — " The Galeons, on their going out, sail to the South- West, and get into the Way of the Trade -Wind as COLONIAL EPISODES 87 soon as they can > which cariftes them into 1 1 or 1 2 degrees of North Latitude ; then, bending their course directly West, they leave the Carlbbee Islands on their right, or Starboard quarter, and continue their Course to the Westward, till they arrive at Rio de la Jiacha^ where they come to an Anchor, and Expresses are immediately dispatched to Carthagena^ Panama^ Porto Bello, Vera Cruz, etc., to prepare the King's Treasure for the Galeons to take on Board at their Return. After which, the greater part of the Fleet sails to Carthagena and Porto 'BeLlOj and the rest to Vera Cruz ; the whole joining together usually, in their Return, at the Havanna, in the Island of Cuba ; and, sailing from thence to Spain in Com- pany, take a very different Course from that by which they came from Europe ; for in their Return they sail North through the Gulph of Florida, and, con- tinuing their Course to the North-East till they come into the Latitude of 36 or 40, where they meet with variable Winds : They then shape their Course as near to the East as the Winds will permit them, till they come upon the Coast of Spain ; and are usually six or eight Weeks in their Passage. These Fleets, 'tis said, have sometimes brought' home near the value of Sixteen Millions of Pieces of Eight (amounting to twelve or fifteen Millions Sterling) in Gold and Silver only ; of which the King has a Fifth, and great part of the Remainder is distributed among the Factors of the several trading Nations above-men- tion'd ; the least Share perhaps coming; to the Subjects of Spain." In those days, when the Laws of the Indies circum- scribed the commerce so rigorously as to leave remark- ably small opportunities for the enterprise of the colonists themselves, some outlet for the wider activities of these latter became essential. This found vent in the occupation of smuggling, a traffic which, after a time, grew to very important dimensions. The 88 CENTRAL AMERICA following account of these transactions was written in 1739, by which period they had attained to their height :-^ '* I have already taken notice, that the Spaniards do not send more than thirty or forty Ships annually from Old Spain to their Territories in America, with the Produce and Merchandize of Europe ; which is far from being sufficient to supply their extensive Dominions in the New World. Indeed, most part of the merchandize carried over in the Galeons is sold at the Fair of Porto Bello, and bought up at extravagant Rates, to be transported again by the South Sea to Peru ; so that many of the Spanish provinces upon the North Sea would be destitute of necessary Cloathing and Furniture, and even Provisions for their Tables, if they were not supplied with them by Foreigners. The English therefore from New- England, New-York, Jamaica, etc., the French from Hispaniola, and the Dutch from' Curassaw, fit out sloops, with all manner of provisions and necessaries, which they know are wanting on the Coast of Mexico, in order to trade with the Mexican Spaniards, who are no less ready to receive the Goods of these Foreigners, than they are to sell them, giving Pieces of Eight' for what they buy ; which makes this a very beneficial Trade to the English, French, and Dutch. But then, if the Barlavento Fleet, or the Spanish Guarda de Costa's, meet with such Trading Sloops and Vessels, they never fail to make them all Prize ; and sometimes seize on ships that have never been concerned in this clandestine ' trade on suspicion, and, finding Pieces of Eight on board, have frequently procured them to be condemned ; which has been the occasion of those many complaints our merchants have made of the Spanish Guarda de Costa's, to the Parliament and Board of Trade ; and which it is high time was settled, that oiir trade and navigation in the West Indies may not be inter- COLONIAL EPISODES 89 rupted, and the fair trader brought under such hard- ships as may discourage him from carrying on a trade to our Plantations, which is, of all others, the most advantageous to Britain." The Central Americans were exploited by the Spanish officials in a precisely similar fashion to the Mexicans and the South Americans. It must be admitted that the Church of Rome was very far from being guiltless in the matter. The income derived from the sale of the papal bulls, for instance, in the Americas was not to be sneezed at. The price of the bull, it appears, depended not on the bull, but on the wealth and social standing of the person to whom it was sold. This system, after all, need not be considered very unreasonable, since it is employed to-day by medical men in the business side of their physical cures. Some statistics are available that would seem to prove that no one was anxious to pay more than was necessary. Thus it appears that within a certain time there were no less than 2,649,325 bulls issued for New Spain alone. Of this number four only were priced at ten pesos each : over twenty thousand were issued at two pesos each, over one hundred and sixteen thousand at one peso each, and nearly two and a half million at the lowest accepted price of two reals each — all of which leads one to wonder whether the sixteenth -century Church were profusely generous, or whether its parishioners were unduly stingy I Something of a science was made of the system of fines by the Spanish authorities, and quite a con- siderable revenue must have been derived from these, if it was customary to enforce the penalties strictly, that is to say. Thus, in Ciudad Real it was enacted as early as 1528 that any person driving mares, colts, or hogs through the streets of- the town should be fined a gold dollar, which was to go towards the expense of building the church, or, if he were 90 CENTRAL AMERICA not able to produce this coin, the animals were to be conjfiscated. This regulation was a very reasonable one, since it was framed in the interests of cleanliness and public health. It may be wondered why the law was applied only to mares and to colts, and why geldings and stallions should have been excluded. But the explana- tion of this is found in the prejudice in Latin America — a prejudice which has lasted until quite modem times — against riding mares. This was a quite unheard-of proceeding from Mexico to the Magellan Straits, and a mare was thus regarded as a mere creature to be herded and to be killed in due course for the sake of its hide and the tallow and the other matter to be obtained from the body. There were other regulations and fines concerning the deposit of refuse in the streets, and as a protection to the property of the Indians it was laid down that any one might kill a pig discovered in the maize- fields of the natives. Indolence in the priesthood, moreover, does not seem to have been encouraged, for We read of an admonition to a cura to the effect that if he neglected to celebrate Mass every day his stipend would be stopped. But not all early regulations exhibited such sound common sense as these. Some were of a dis- tinctly arbitrary nature. In 1537, for instance, it was ordered that a penalty of ten dollars should be inflicted upon every man who should absent himself from church during the Easter celebrations, while in addition to this every Spaniard found out of church after the gospel had been read was condemned to suffer a fine of three dollars. The reverence with which the Court of Spain and all its attributes were treated by the bulk of the popu- lace was almost as deep as that rendered to a divinity. The Court of the Indies is perhaps scarcely to be blamed, according to the ethics of the day, if it did COLONIAL EPISODES 91 all in its power to encourage this reverence that gave all the more weight to its laws. This it did by means of the introduction of pomp and ceremonies which were designed to maintain the exalted and awe- inspiring impression produced by the conception of the distant Court in the minds of those who were never destined to set eyes on its actual officials, buildings, and circumstances. This policy was made to apply to official acts of the most commonplace order, as will be evident from the following events of a later period than that with which we have been dealing. In 1733 the Royal Mint was built in the city of Guatemala, and two years later the preparations were completed for putting this institution into operation. The ceremonies which marked the initiation of the Gautemalan coinage were conducted on a scale suffi- ciently imposing to have celebrated the advent of something less prosaic than the mere dies and other implements for the coinage of money. These arrived from Mexico on the 1 7th of February 1733, and were received with an amount of reverential state which was doubtless largely due to the circum- stance that this machinery was connected with the manufacture of the Emperor's effigy, which in those days was hedged about with an awe that raised its status almost to that of a sacred thing. So when it was announced that the minting machinery had reached the neighbourhood of the town of Guatemala, a bustle immediately ensued among^ the Fathers of the city. The chief officials, the nobility, an escort of cavalry, and several coaches, including that of the President, went in stately procession as far as the village of Jocotenango. There they met the much -honoured machinery, which was already being escorted by the magistrates of all the neigh- bouring villages. It was placed in the President's coach, the cavalry formed up round it^ and, accom- 92 CENTRAL AMERICA panied by the entire party, includingi the original escort, it was taken in state to the city. On the arrival of the dies in the Plaza the ceremony reached its culminating point. Amid the ringing of bells and the crashing of artillery the President and his officials came forward to take charge of the objects and to put them in the place prepared for them. As the Mexican authorities had, somewhat thought- lessly, arranged for the transport of the dies in two consigmments, it was necessary for a similar ceremony to be performed when the second consignment arrived. A month later the first Guatemalan money was coined. On this occasion five doubloons were pro- duced. They bore on one side the King's bust, sur- rounded by the legend : " Philipus V, Dei Gratia Hispaniarum et Indiarum Rex." On the reverse were the arms of the kings of Spain, with the motto : ** Initium Sapientise est Timor Domini,.'* At the im- pression of these first five coins not only did all the civil officials of Guatemala take part in the ceremonies, but the Bishop and all his clerg'y were in attendance as well. When it was seen that die coins had been well and properly made, the whole body of clerical and lay officials, accompanied by the majority of the resi- dents of the town, repaired to the cathedral, where a Te Deum was sung. This was followed by a general salute, rendered by the ringing of bells, the firing of cannon, and volleys of musketry, while in the evening the city was illuminated, and the next day a resounding proclamation gave official currency to the new coins. If all this were concerned with nothing beyond the five dollars so triumphantly coined, the whole pro- ceeding would be suggestive of the classical mountain that was in labour and that brought forth a ijiouse. But the chief importance of the afTair was, of course, of a symbolic nature — although at this distance of time it i^ not easy to realize ho\y the association^ COLONIAL EPISODES 93 connected with the mere striking of a new coin could have inspired ceremonies attaining to such a pitch of pomp. In any case, the amount of gold and silver coined was quite insignificant compared with that which was exported in bulk to Spain. Thomas Gage, an English friar who spent a dozen years in Guatemala about the middle of the seventeenth century, has borne some striking testimony on this point. According to him, the yield of metal in that century must have been prodigious. He tells, for instance, of a hundred mules, laden with gold and silver, entering the city of Granada. And this, moreover, represented nothing beyond the King's share of a certain district. CHAPTER VI FOREIGN ATTACKS UPON THE ISTHMUS Internal tranquillity of Central America — Consequences of an easy existence — Strategic position of the Isthmus — Its artificial importance during the colonial period — The " gold road " across the province of Panama — How the European goods arrived in Latin America — Route prescribed by the Laws of the Indies — Central America suffers from her position as the gateway of the Pacific — The early English navigators — Hawkins, Drake, and Raleigh — The feat of John Oxenham — The first Englishman to sail the Pacific — His fate and that of his company — The record of Andrew Barker's expedition — Drake captures the town of Cartagena — A description of Christopher Newport's voyage — Adventures on the coast — Death of Hawkins and of Drake — The buccaneers — Pierre le Grand and Frangois I'OUonois — Cruelties of the latter — His death at the hands of the Indians — Other buccaneers — Captain Morgan — His early life — Circumstances which induced him to become a buccaneer — Glamour of the life — Morgan sold as a slave — He throws in his lot with the "Brethren of the Coast " — His capture of Porto Bello — Some details of the attack — Devoted gallantry of the Spanish Governor — Heroic death of that official — Morgan sets out to capture Panama — The journey across the Isthmus — Sufferings of the most important buccaneer force ever collected— Bitter privations endured — How the pirates fed on leather — Critical situation of the expedition — Signs of plenty in the neigh- bourhood of Panama — Preparations for the attack on the town — Power of the Spanish defensive force — Bulls as allies — Progress of the battle — Victory of the buccaneers — Booty yielded by the city — Subsequent career of Morgan — Description of the new town of Panama built near the site of the old — The spot at the beginning of the eighteenth century— Nelson's association with Central America — The expedition against the Spanish forts in Nicaragua — Commissariat and climate annul military success. During the time that Guatemala was a province of Spain, remarkably little seems to have occurred in the way of domestic politics that is worthy of note. So far as internal aflF,a,irs were concerned, one Captain- 94 FOREIGN ATTACKS 95 General appears to have succeeded another, for the most part with a regular and tranquil monotony that might well have been envied at some earlier and some later periods : the affairs of the colony pro- ceeded in their even and languid fashion, and such taxes as were due— sor, at all events, a passable pro- portion of these— :were remitted to the King of Spain at the proper seasons, provided that the Vessels of other and unfriendly nations were not haunting the route to Europe on the look-out to snap up prizes just such as they. The produce of Central America came very easily to hand, consisting as it did of tropical prod.uce that merely demanded the gathering. As seems in- evitable under such conditions, the bounty of Nature produced a corresponding inertia on the part of the inhabitants, who, enjoying the plentiful fruits of the earth, lacked all incentive to wider and more ambitious aims. After all, it is the more difficult and less prolific countries that are responsible for the great works of mankind ; the atmosphere of the soft tropical gardens that hold their fruits out ready for the plucking has never been one which has given encouragement to the spirit of energy and industrial enterprise in its dwellers* The chief excitement vdthin its own frontiers was wont to be provided by Nature. This from time to time was derived from the disturbances of a Volcanic and earthquake -ridden land, as well as from the periodical outbreaks of disease which were wont to harry these provinces. The Spaniard-^nin former times rather than now-r^when asked if all were well with him, would reply with the affirmative ** Sin novedad,'* which implied that no news is good news. This might be taken as literally true in the early days of Central America, where anything that disturbed the even tenor of the tropical existence was very seldom of a pleasant nature.. 96 CENTRAL AMERICA So far as its strategic position was concerned, the importance of Central America of this period was of the very first order. In this respect it occupied a situation that, however great may be the prosperity that the future has in store for it, it can never hope to attain again, for its enjoyment was entirely against the natural, political, and industrial order of affairs. This may be said without indulging in any pessimism concerning the future of the Isthmus ; for during the earlier colonial period Central America was made to rank in importance above such terri- tories as those of the present-day States of Argentina and Chile, a proceeding that from the industrial and commercial point of view was manifestly out of the question. In the early history of the New World, therefore, Central America, as has already been seen, was the hub of the Americas. It has been clearly evident, too, that this advantageous situation wa,s forced upon the countries of the Isthmus rather on account of the selfish policy of Spain than because of any real terri- torial or political claims that the favoured neck of land could put forward in justification of so pre- eminent a position. The political and commercial distinctions, however, which Central America enjoyed were by no means without their corresponding disadvantages. It was undoubtedly a fine and profitable thing to serve as the depository of the gold, other precious metals, and rich wares of the vastly wealthy mineral-bearing countries bordering on the Pacific — ^but the glamour and world-wide renown of such a storehouse were not without their dangers. This was made sufficiently clear in the days of Drake, Raleigh, and other daring and honourable adventurers. Perhaps no treasure caravan in the history of the world has excited so much envy as that which went on muleback across the Isthmus of Panama. But the FOREIGN ATTACKS 97 regulations of the Indies caused Central America to be concerned in more than the transport of these precious metals. It was decreed that the return freight from Europe should arrive by way of the Isthmus as well. No exception was made to this regulation even when the goods were destined for the provinces of the Atlantic coast on the south-east of the continent of South America. According to the ideas of to-day, the proper and convenient route for goods destined for the Rio de la Plata is the voyage to Buenos Aires or Montevideo. But in the Spanish colonial era the business was not permitted to be conducted with this ludicrous simplicity. It must be admitted, more- over, that in days when sea-rovers were saiHng thickly about the seas of Spanish America the splitting up of the great periodical convoys was not without its inconveniences and dangers. In any case, Central America obtained the benefit of the rigid laws laid down by the Court of the Indies. Thus, if Buenos Aires required tools, silks, cottons, wines, or anything else of the kind, these commodities had to undergo a strangely devious route before they arrived at their destination. First of all they came southwards across the Atlantic, and were put ashore at Portobello. After this they \vent across the Isthmus of Panama on muleback, until they arrived at the town of Panama on the Pacific. Here they were again placed on board ship, and were sent south- wards along the coast, that grew continually more mountainous and more barren until Callao, the port of Lima, in Peru, was reached. At this point the much -travelled European goods were again landed, and the most strenuous part of the whole journey now lay before them. They were placed on mule- back again, and sent to rove to the south-east across the bleak and snowy Andes, until, after many weeks* journeying, by way of La Paz, Potosi, Jujuy, Salta, 7 98 CENTRAL AMERICA and Tucuman, they emerged from the mountainous regions at the city of C6rdoba. Thence they under- took their final long journey across the plains, and eventually arrived at Buenos Aires, and at the Atlantic coast which they had left thousands of miles before, at the port of Portobello. But, as has been said, if Central America obtained the benefit of this much -diverted traffic, it reaped the disadvantages corresponding to its central position, and sufi"ered many an assault and many a sack on account of its famous '* gold road," along which the heavily laden mules padded their way from' the Pacific to the Atlantic. So far as the English were concerned, the first strained visits of these were undoubtedly attempted in friendship, and the relations between the two nations on this coast were solely due to the refusal of the Spanish Court to permit any other but Spanish vessels to sail the Spanish American seas. Just after the middle of the sixteenth century Sir John Hawkins had begun a regular series of trading voyages, calling! at Cartagena and other ports in the vicinity with the object of exchanging West African slaves for the produce of the country. It was the repressive measures of the Spanish officials, and especially the treacherous attack and slaughter of the English at the port of San Juan de Ulloa in 1568, that raised the demand for reprisals on the part of Drake, Raleigh, and the rest of a company of the toughest seamen that ever lived. In 1572 Drake landed at Nombre de Dios, and a few shots were exchanged ; but, owing to a mis- understanding of signals, the landing party re- embarked in their vessels under the impression that they were obeying orders in doing so. Drake himself and his officers, finding themselves unexpectedly alone^ in one of the forts, had no option but to retire. Ii fact, according to Hakluyt, *' leaving their furniture FOREIGN ATTACKS 99 behind them, and putting off their hose, they swamme, and waded all to their Pinnassesy and so went with' their ships againe out of the Port." The great captain did not give the Spaniards long* to chuckle over his discomfiture. From there he sailed to the Sound of Darien, marched boldly inland, and lay in wait along the ** gold road." There, two companies of pack mules fell into his hands, and he marched away with their gold, there being too great a weight of silver to make it practicable for his men tq^transport it across the mountains. In tp7S John Oxenham was less fortunate, though his daring deserved success. He concealed his vessel at a point not very far from Kombre de Dios, covering her with branches of trees and with leaves. Then, making his way inland to the Chagres River, he built a pinnace, and toilfuUy crossed the Isthmus. Not only was he the first Englishman to sail the Pacific Ocean, but he actually succeeded in taking a couple of Spanish prizes there, in one of which were sixty thousand pesos in gold. Alone with his small company, as he was, it is difficult to find the equal of the consummate daring of this feat in the annals of seamen of all periods and places. But the time came when John Oxen- ham, who could not spend the rest of his life cruising in the private and forbidden Spanish South Sea, had to make his way back to the Atlantic, and on this occasion his fortune betrayed him. He and his people were surprised by the Spaniards on the way across, and the gallant John Oxenham and the majority of his men paid the penalty of defying the Spanish regulations, which was death. , The next year Master Andrew Barker, of Bristol, smarting from wrongs inflicted upon his purse and seamen by the Spaniards in the Island of Teneriffe, sailed to the Spanish Main, and made matters suffi- ciently uncomfortable for a tinie. Having captured 100 CENTRAL AMERICA a treasure -laden vessel a little to the south-west of Cartagena, his men became emboldened to attempt a land expedition, with the idea of emulating Drake's famous raid. So the expedition went on to the mouth of the River Chagres, and — ; "There wee landed lo of our men, who travelled up into the woods three or foure daies to seeke the Simerons (which are certaine valiant negros fled from their cruel masters the Spaniards, and are become mortall enemies, ready to join with the English and French against them), but in their search they could find none of them. And though our men returned all free from peril of the enemie, yet the most part of the sayd ten persons presently fell sicke, and divers other of our company ; so that within 1 4 dayes 8 or 9 of our men died of a disease called there ^the Calentura, which is a bote and vehement fever. And passing between there and Veragua, we tooke a friga^t, and some quantity of golde wee found therein. In this frigat were 23 Spaniards, whom wee set on shore, and two Flemings, whom wee brought into England with us : wee had therein also foure cast pieces of Ordinance, 3 harquebuzes on crocke, 16 Spanish calivers, and a booke of Navigation : and in this frigat some of our company came homeward into England." But the adventurers were not destined to have matters all their own way. Having fallen out among themselves, they were surprised ashore by the Spaniards, and Andrew Barker himself and eight of his men were slain. William Coxe now took charge of the expedition. The chronicle of the voyage proceeds :-^- '* After this misfortune they went to an Island distant from thence a league, where Coxe divided a chaine of golde (which was found in the captaine's chest after his death) amongst the company. After this Coxe went in a pinesse (which wee tooke at the' I FOREIGN ATTACKS; ;: ^01 Isle of Sant Francisco) with certaine others of our men in a skyffe, to the town of Truxillo, in the Bay of Honduras, which towne they surprised, and had therein wine and oyle as much as they would, and divers other good things, but no gold nor silver, nor any other treasure which they confesse. But before they could returne to their company, those that were in the barkes were had in chase by men of warre, whereby they were inforced every man to shift for himselfe : so for haste they left those that were in the Skiffe (being 8 persons) in the Bay of Honduras : what became of them afterwards God knoweth. Hereupon we determined to saile for England." In 1585 Drake set out with a powerful fleet, and after raiding the great islands of the West Indies, came to Cartagena. The town was strenuously defended, but it was finally captured after a fierce assault and after a certain amount of fighting in the streets. When Drake sailed away, his fleet was laden with much treasure that had been destined for Europe, it is true, but for a port on the Mediter- ranean much to the south of Plymouth 1 One further instance will suffice to show the methods by which the booty was won from the might of Spain. But the following is scarcely typical of the doings of the average adventurer of that par- ticular period, and certainly cannot be taken as characteristic of the methods of such great leaders as Drake. For the spirit displayed in the expedition undertaken by Christopher Newport in 1591 displays very little beyond a mere predatory instinct, which was made subservient to loftier motives in the great navigators of the sixteenth century. For all that, it is a stirring tale of the doings of bold sea-dogs, of which the following is a fragment : — ; " Being thus frustrated of our intended voyage, we stoode for the Bay of Honduras, and about die 1€2 CENTRAL AMERICA ninth of May we discovered in the afternoone a saile thwart of the Bay of Truxillo, with whom we stoode, and having a Spanish flagge out, they mistrusted us not, until we had almost set them up : and then wee went off with our boate, and tooke them within shot of the castle, and with our boates wee went and set three or foure frigats which rode afore the towne, the castle playing upon us with their ordinance. *' Our captaine having understanding by the Spaniards that there were three shippes more at Puerto de Cavallos, stood along that night for that place, but it fell out to bee so calme, that it was the fifteenth day of May or ever wee came therci ; the shippes having peradventure discovered us, stole alongst the shore towards Truxillo, so that, being voyde of that hope, we landed ; the inhabitants, for- saking the towne, fled into the mountaines. Wee remained in the towne all night, and the next day till towards night : where we found 5. or 6. tuns of quick silver, 16. tuns of old sacke, sheepe, young kids, great store of poultrie, some store of money, and good linnen, silkes, cotton-cloth, and such like : we also took three belles out of their church, and destroyed their images. The towne is of 200 houses, and wealthy : and that yeare there were foure rich ships laden from thence : but we spared these, because wee found other contentment. And having taken our pleasure of the towne, as aforesayd, wee returned aboord our ships ;, standing backe againe for Truxillo, we discovered one of the shippes which was laden at Puerto de Cavallos : but they had espied us before, as it should seeme ; for they had conveyed away as much as possibly they could ashore, and set their ship on fire, and loaded up with hides the shippe which we tooke at our first coming ; for she had but a thousand hides in her, and certeine jars of balsamum : which being accomplished, wee sunke the shippe with the rest of the goods, and so stood FOREIGN ATTACKS 108 alongst againe for Truxillo. It fell out to be so calme, that we were two and twenty dayes sailing backe that we had 'sailed in sixe dayes, which *was about forty leagues : so that when we came before Truxillo, which was about the sixth of June, we found another of the ships there, but close under the castle, her ruther unhanged, her sailes taken from the yards, etc. Notwithstanding we entered her, but they had placed such a company of musketiers under a rampire, which they had made with hides and such like, that it was too hote for us to abide, and so, betaking us to our shippes againe, and standing out of the bay into the sea, wee discovered great store of shot intrenched in those places where they sus- pected we would have landed. That night there fell such a storme of rain, thunder, lightening, and tem- pestuous weather, that our ships were dispersed either from other. We had lost our prize, and certeine frigats with the men. Two of our shippes went to seeke our prize and our men : and other two of us came homeward. And so we parted, not hearing either of other untill we came into England.'* Such minor plunderings, of course, were small beer. But there is no doubt that they entailed as much hardship and peril as any of the more notable expeditions. Sir Francis Drake himself died on board his ship off Puerto Bello in the early part of 1596, having survived his colleague, Sir John Hawkins, who accom- panied him on this last voyage, by only a few weeks. We may now turn briefly to a later and darker period of navigation in the Spanish -American seas. It remained for the buccaneers, the desperate and piratical sea-rovers, who followed in the next century, to impress upon the unfortunate inhabitants of Central America the true horrors that may attend too great a prosperity insufficiently guarded. It is, of course, impossible to enter fully here into 104 CENTRAL AMERICA the deeds of the buccaneers who hifested the Spanish Main and the West India Islands, and who attained to the zenith of their grim glory in the seventeenth century. Of that cosmopolitan gang of picturesque desperadoes there is scarcely a single name of par- ticular notoriety that has not been associated with the territories of Central America— r-almost invariably in a fashion that implied tragedy and sorrow for the Isthmus. It is true that Pierre le Grand, one of the very first of the pirates that haunted the Caribbean Sea, contented himself with small transactions with the Spanish Main itself. One of his countrymen and successors, the notorious Frangois I'Ollonois, on the other hand, more than counterbalanced le Grand's neglect of opportunities by his predatory attentions. After committing unspeakable Cruelties, he met with retribution at the hands of the Indians of Darien, to whom he had fled for refuge in the forlorn hope that they might have forgotten the iniquities he had formerly practised on them. The account of his end is thus given by John Esquemeling, the buccaneer chronicler: *' The Indians within a few days of his arrival took him prisoner and tore him in pieces alive, throwing his body limb by limb into the fire, and his ashes into the air ; to the intent no trace nor memory might remain of such an infamous, inhuman creature. One of his companions gave me an exact account of the aforesaid tragedy ; aflirming withall that he him- self had escaped the same punishment, not without the greatest of difficulties. He believed also that many of his comrades who were taken prisoners in that encounter by the Indians of Darien were after the same manner as their cruel captain torn in pieces and burned alive. Thus ends the history of the life and miserable death of that infernal wretch I'Ollonois, who, full of horrid, execrable, and enormous deeds, and also debtor to so much innocent blood, died by FOREIGN ATTACKS 105 cruel and butcherly hands, such as his own were in the course of his life." The deeds of the man who perished in this terrible fashion probably excelled in horror those of any other of the '* Brethren of the Coast." Yet he was only one of many. Such buccaneers as Coxon, Sawkins, Sharp, Mansvelt, and a multitude of their comrades, all took toll of the towns and dwellers of Central America. But the name that stands out first and foremost from the ranks of this grim' brotherhood is that of Captain Morgan. This greatest of pirates was a Welshman, who came of a sound farming stock, and his father is said to have been a rich yeoman. Morgan differed from so many of his buccaneering comrades in that his first appearance in the Wesit Indies was the result of his own love of adventure, and was not the sequel to a flight from European justice, or to a despairing admission of failure in a previous career. At that period the tales that came northward from the West Indies were sufficient to set the blood of any mettlesome young man aglow. The Carib- bean Sea, according to them, held nests of fabulously lovely, palm-covered islands, where the bold adven- turers could loll at their ease in a land of beau,teous maidens and unlimited rum, and this in the intervals between their cruises that yielded them countless rich Spanish prizes, as full of American gold as an egg is full of meat. Of course, as is usual in such reports, the rumours were neither wholly true nor entirely false. WTien young Morgan, however, found himself in a port where lay some vessels bound for the Island of Bar- badoes, he drank in all the sailors' tales with avidity, and eventually volunteered to take service in one of them. At that period a conscience in the average captain of a ship trading with the West Indies was 106 CENTRAL AMERICA an extravagant luxury that was indulged in only on the rarest occasions. One of these was not in being when the captain of Morgan's ship set sail for the glittering Caribbean, and on the arrival of the vessel at Barbadoes, he sold Henry Morgan as a slave, thus turning an extra penny of profit out of his voyage by what was considered at the time, in those latitudes, as an everyday and regular transaction. Thus young Morgan, instead of sinking Spanish vessels and lolling at his ease in a land of beauteous maidens and unlimited rum, found himself set to hoe the tobacco plantations, and to other menial and dis- agreeable tasks, which he could have undertaken in abundance at home without crossing the thousands of miles of ocean. Eventually he served his time, and obtained his liberty, but it is probable enough that it was the bitterness of this great wrong that stood in the light of his first welcome to the West Indies that assisted him upon his later career of crime. , The grim feats of Captain Morgan and his desperado companions have been told too often to need repetition here. The two greatest achievements of the Welsh buccaneer, so far as Central America was concerned, were the captuii^s of Porto Bello and Panama. The former of these expeditions was carried out by a force of no more than four hundred and sixty men. Morgan had kept the real object of the enterprise from his followers until all was ready for the attack, and when some of them, learning what was before them, began to throw doubts on the possibility of success, Morgan is said to have replied, in words that made a special appeal to the reckless spirit of the buccaneers, ** If our number is small, our hearts are great. And the fewer persons we are, the more union and better shares we shall have in the spoil." Porto Bello, which at that time was reputed to be the third strongest fortress in Spanish America, FOREIGN ATTACKS 107 was approached under cover of night. Having sur- prised the sentry, the ruthless band blew up one of the fortifications of the town, with its hapless gar- rison inside it. This was intended as a hint to the remaining inhabitants of the undesirability of con- tinuing the defence. But the town had an heroid official at its head. The Governor, collecting such of his surviving forces as he could, retired to the remaining fort, determined to hold out to. the end. Esquemeling's account of the affair is so gtaphic that I will give one of his paragraphs in full here :— : *' The assault on this castle where the Governor was was continued very furious on both sides, from break of day until noon. Yea, about this time of the day the case was very dubious which party should conquer or be conquered. At last the Pirates, perceiving they had lost many men and as yet advanced but little towards the gaining either this or the other castles remaining, thought to make use of fireballs, which they threw with their hands, designing, if possible, to burn the doors of the castle. But going about to put this into execution, the Spaniards, from the wall, let fall great quantities of stones and earthen pots full of powder and other combustible matter, which forced them to desist from that attempt. Captain Morgan, seeing this generous defence made by the Spaniards, began to despair of the whole success of the enterprise. Hereupon many faint and calm medi- tations came into his mind ; neither could he deter- mine which way to turn himself in that straitness of affairs. Being involved in these thoughts, he was suddenly animated to continue the assault, by seeing the English colours put forth at one of the lesser castles, then entered by his men, of whom he pre- sently spied a troop that came to meet him, proclaim- ing victory with loud shouts of joy. This instantly put him upon new resolutions of making new efforts to take the rest of the castles that stood out against 108 CENTRAL AMERICA him ; especially seeing the chief citizens were fled to them, and had conveyed thither great part of their riches, with all the plate belonging to the churches, and other things dedicated to divine service." In the end, Morgan and his cosmopolitan gang of ruffians were successful. But it was in vain that they endeavoured to shield their guilt by the use of the English colours, to which they had not the faintest right. The record of the criminal methods em- ployed is one of the most terrible in the dark record of such tragedies that Central America has to show. How the desperadoes advanced upon the stronghold behind the shield of hapless monks, priests, and nuns that they drove to slaughter before them is a matter of common history. When the walls had been stormed by this means, and the survivors of the garrison overwhelmed with fireballs, the rest was comparatively easy, and the great treasure for which they had worked such iniquities eventually fell into the bloodstained hands of the most pitiless of all the *• Brethren of the Coast." The one bright spot in this tale of tragedy is afforded by the conduct of the Spanish Governor. The record of his defence glows with a chivalry and courage that have never been surpassed in the history of war. Early in the engagement, when summoned to yield, he had warned Morgan that he would never surrender alive. He kept his word, fighting to the end as a most gallant soldier. He would have none of the pirates' mercy, although these, half in admira- tion of his courage, half in consideration Off the rich ransom that his live person would yield, urged him strongly more than once to accept quarter. "By no means I " was the reply of this Spanish hero. " I had rather die as a valiant soldier than be hanged as a coward ! " Even the tears and entreaties of] his wife and daughter failed to weaken his resolution, and he died FOREIGN ATTACKS 109 at his post of defence, facing his enemies to the last. It was in 1670 that Morgan set out from Chagtes on his still more ambitious enterprise that was to end in the capture of Panama, one of the richest towns of the Spanish-American Empire. On this occasion he had collected one of the most formidable forces of buccaneers that had ever been brought together. From the point of view of actual magni- tude, indeed, the affair took on the aspects of a regular expedition rather than those of a mere raid of pirates. The venture, as a matter of fact, marked the heyday of the buccaneer existence in the Caribbean. Morgan set out from the " castle " of Chagres having no less than twelve hundred men under his command. The first part of his journey lay along the River Chagres, the stream that has played so important a part in the history of the Americas, practically from the time of the first discovery of the mainland to the period of to-day, when it has had not a little to do with the construction of the famous Canal. Along this stream went thirty-two canoes, their gunwales sunk deep from the packed load of the men they bore, while five boats accompanied them, heavily laden with artillery. It was a dire menace, this, that, having already left the marks of blood and terror on so many fair spots on the shores of the Atlantic, was now daring still more in advancing upon the Pacific shores, and thus to the territories and waters which the Spaniards were given to regard as the very private heart of their great American dominions. Their bodies stiffened and cramped by the way in which they were packed together in the canoes, their cravings for food satisfied with very little beyond the whiffs of the tobacco they smoked, the sufferings of 110 CENTRAL AMERICA the buccaneers were at all events corrimensurate with the extent of the booty they went to seek. As for the assthetic, at no time were these rough-and-ready pirates disturbed by any sense of this, and it may safely be taken for granted that the tropical marvels of the banks by the side of which they were passing left them completely unmoved. They had, indeed, sufficient to occupy their minds. There was to be no rest for them at the end of this journey, in the course of which .for day after day the cramped positions of the adventurers in the boats were varied only by the strenuous and painful struggle through the morasses and vegetation of the bank. And it was all one, of course, to the feasting of the mosquitoes and the other countless malignant blchas of the neighbourhood whether their victims were sitting still afloat or struggling hard ashore. Doubt- less many of the exasperated buccaneers swore to avenge their sufferings, in accordance with the logic of their kind, on the luckless inhabitants of Panama ; if so, they kept their word. The prospect offered by the end of this dreadful journey might well have sobered the most reckless spirit among them all. It was no isolated outpost or weak garrison that they were about to attack, but one of the main defensive posts of the great Empire of Spain, fully manned, and it was ahnost certain that its commanders would be amply prepared, for it was too much to expect, even from the extraordinary good fortune that attended most of Morgan's enterprises, that so important a force as he now led could .cross the Isthmus without the news of their approach pre- ceding them. But after four days of complete privation their sufferings from the want of food became so great that they would have thankfully faced the combined armies of the Empire of Spain in order to have done with the matter for good and all, whichever way the FOREIGN ATTACKS 111 fortune of war might go. When their guides an- nounced an ambush in the forest ahead, instead of halting to form a calculated plan of advance, the buccaneers rushed forward with a fierce joy to the attack. .When they arrived at the ambuscade they found that it had been abandoned. No traces of the Spaniards remained beyond some empty leather bags that had once held bread. In a moment the pirates had fallen on these, and, cutting them to pieces, were disputing among themselves as to how this coveted but tough source of nutriment should be divided. A second ambuscade was announced a little farther on, but the site of this had been abandoned too, and here not even a further supply of bags was to be met with. " Here again he was happy," reflects Esquemeling, ** that had reserved since noon any small piece of leather whereof to make his supper, drinking after it a good draught of water for his greatest comfort. Some persons, who were never out of their mothers' kitchens, may ask how these Pirates could eat, swallow, and digest those pieces of leather, so hard and dry. To whom 1 only answer : that could they once ex- periment what hunger, or rather famine, is, they would certainly find the manner, by their own necessity, as the Pirates did. For these first took the leather, and sliced it in pieces. Then did they beat it between two stones, and rub it, often dipping it in the water of the river, to render it by these means supple and tender. Lastly, they scraped off the hair, and roasted or broiled it upon the fire. And being thus cooked they cut it into small morsels, and eat it, helping it down with frequent gulps of water, which by good fortune they had near at hand." Here is the recipe in full, then, for the preparation of a meal of leather, or rather of raw hide, for it was that which alone formed the sustenance of Morgan's men during this fateful march across the 112 CENTRAL AMERICA Isthmus. On the following day a handful or two of meal and plantains prepared the way for one real and elaborate feast ofmaize^ the only store of sub- stantial provender that had been left behind in the designedly abandoned and stripped settlements. Morgan's march to Panama, indeed, resembled in many respects Napoleon's famous advance on Moscow. The policy of defence was identical in both casesrr:r:though the one was conducted on so large a scale and the other was such a minor affair. The Isthmus had been swept as bare as the Russian plains ; the frames of the buccaneers had become almost as emaciated as those of any of the Grenadiers of the Guard, and if there were no sudden charges of horse- men armed with the Cossack spears, their place was taken by the flights of Indian arrows that came speed- ing through the air from out of the depths of the tropical forest. On the ninth day of the expedition the foremost of the buccaneers, ascending a high hill, saw a sight that Balboa had seen before them. Across the horizon stretched the glittering, blue expanse of the Pacific Ocean. Morgan's men rejoiced at the spectacle almost as greatly as had Balboa in his day. But for ^, very different reason. The discoverer of the South Sea had welcomed the sight of it as a token of new appendages to the Spanish throne. The buc- caneers saw in it the promise of the rich plunder to be wrested from out of the treasure houses of the Spanish dominion. In the distance they perceived Spanish vessels breasting the Spanish waters, and the spectacle caused their expectations of booty to be raised still higher. As the end of their journey drew near, the source of their greatest discomfort was suddenly removed. They came upon pasture land, and in a pleasant valley they met with a herd of cattle. Within a very few minutes the flesh of the hastily slaughtered FOREIGN ATTACKS 113 animals was frizzling in the flames that the starved men had flung themselves upon the branches and dead wood to obtain. Like grim giants refreshed, they proceeded on their way, taking little heed of the troops of Spanish horsemen who now began to hover about at their front, but setting up a loud and hoarse shout of joy, as all at once they caught sight of an object that told them that the hardships of their journey were over and that the business of its end was at length at hand — the loftiest spire of the town of Panama itself pricking up against the deep blue of the sky 1 That night the buccaneers laid themselves down to sleep on their arms with a confidence that was shattered for a time on the following morning, when, advancing towards the open country which surrounded the town, they perceived the magnitude of the forces that had been arrayed against them. Four regiments of foot and two squadrons of horse were drawn up to oppose their progress, while to one side were gathered together auxiliaries of a kind, the mere presence of which showed that the Spaniards were determined to leave no stone unturned to encompass the defeat of their formidable enemies. These con- sisted of a great herd of bulls, in charg'e of a com- pany of Indians and negroes, awaiting the moment when they should be let loose to charge among the ranks of the pirates and to put them to confusion. But when the fight began, and the bulls were launched upon their mission, they proved a disappoint- ment, and (although the attempt did not recoil upon the authors, as in the case of the classical elephants set upon the Romans) very few of them consented to face the fire-arms of the buccaneers. The human units of the Spanish force, valiantly though they fought, were equally unable to make headway against the desperate assault of a body of trained and utterly reckless fighters. The combat ebbed and swayed, 8 114 CENTRAL AMERICA but its trend was continually towards the devoted town, and in the end the Spaniards broke. The entrance to the town was defended again, principally by means of artillery, but, on the very threshold of the city of great booty, nothing could arrest the fierce impetu- osity of the pirates, and in a cheering tide they swept into the town, smothering the last embers of opposition as they went. For the rest — it was all that the most sanguine and sanguinary of Morgan's men had ever pictured to himself in his most complacent hours. It may be said, too, that the fate of many of the inhabitants, both men and women, was as dreadful as it had ever promised to be in the most terrible and incredible nightmare of their peaceful past. But this, too, has been told too often to need repetition here. Let it suffice to give the main results from the material point of view — 'Which, naturally, was the only one that appealed to the buccaneers. Esquemeling sums these up thus :t- ** On the 24th of February of the year 1671 Captain Morgan departed from the city of Panama, or rather from the place where the said city of Panama did stand ; of the spoils whereof he carried with him one hundred and seventy-five beasts of car- riage, laden with silver, gold, and other precious things, besides six hundred prisoners, more or less, between men, children, and slaves.'* The Spanish Empire had need not only to be rich but to be resolute to support many such blows as this. In this instance, moreover, it had to forgo even the satisfaction of seeing retribution overtake the chief culprit, for Morgan — in whom conspicuous courage was blended in a curious fashion with the very lowest depths of meanness— having first betrayed his com- rades, managed by some obscure means to procure royal protection, and even for a time tO; secure the post of Deputy-Governor of Jamaica. FOREIGN ATTACKS 115 Here is a description of the new town of Panama which rose about four miles to the east of the original city destroyed by Morgan. It gives a graphic picture of the place at the beginning of the eighteenth century :—. " It stands upon the finest and most capacious Bay in the South Sea, and is built with brick and stone, being surrounded by a stone wall, fortified with bastions and other works, planted with great guns both towards the sea and land. It lies in the jform of a half moon upon the bay, affording a most beau- tiful prospect, all the best houses and publick build- ings appearing above the walls : and what adds to the prospect are the beautiful orchards and gardens, and the pleasant country about it, diversified with hills, valleys, and delightful groves. There are no large woods or marshes near Panama, but a fine, dry cham- paign land. . . . This town, according to Funnel, contains upwards of six thousand houses, eight parish churches, besides the cathedral, thirty chapels, and several monasteries and nunneries. It is a bishop's see, suffragan to the Archbishop of Lima in Peru ; the seat of the Governor and of the Courts of Justice of this province. But what renders it most consider- able are the treasures of gold and silver and the rich merchandises of Peru, which are lodged in the magazines of this town till they are sent to Europe, as well as the merchandise sent over by the galleons from Spain, to be transported to the several cities and provinces of Peru and Chile." It will be seen that this chapter has fallen from the heroic, as exemplified by Drake, to the sordid daring typical of Morgan. We may conclude it by a return to the first and loftier note, for it has been the lot of Central America to be concerned with two of Britain's very greatest sailors, with Nelson as well as with Drake. Nelson's association with Central America has been 116 CENTRAL AMERICA to a great extent overlooked, as, indeed, from a popular historical point of view is almost inevitable in view of the overshadowing influence of the great admiral's feats on a wider stage. It was in 1780 that Horatio Nelson, as second in command to Colonel Poison, took an expedition up the River San Juan in Nicaragua and attacked the Spanish forts. The expedition, as a matter of fact, was an ad- mirably conceived one, and the idea of drawing a barrier across the narrow neck of the Isthmus and thus cutting all land communications between the great Spanish possessions in North and South America was undoubtedly sound from a strategic point of view. It had been taken into consideration that the waters of the great Lake Nicaragua' would greatly facilitate this operation, the wide area of these reducing still more the actual width of the land between the two oceans. The actual warlike operations were entirely success- ful, and Nelson gallantly carried the sixteen-gun battery of San Bartolo, in the course of which action he was wounded. The cannon shot, by the way, which caused Nelson's wound was fired by an heroic girl of sixteen, the wife of one of the Spanish officers, who did her utmost to prevent the surrender of the garrison. For this act she was made a colonel by the King of Spain, and received some decorations for her bravery. To return, however, to the British force. Ignorance on the part of the non-combatant persons responsible for the expedition concerning the nature of the country, and, above all, of the climate, wrecked its chances, and when out of 1,800 men no more than 380 remained alive, and Nelson's own health had brought him to a critical condition, there was nothing for it but to abandon the attempt. CHAPTER VII THE SCOTTISH DARIEN EXPEDITION The history of a Scottish colonial venture before the Union of that country with England — Difficulties of the Scottish merchants at the end of the seventeenth century — William Paterson, the founder of the Bank of England and of the Scottish Darien Company — Circum- stances attending the formation of the enterprise — Opposition of the East India Company — Legislation of the English Parliament dis- couraging the attempt — Successful flotation in Edidburgh-— The Isthmus of Darien as a depository for commercial goods — Theories concerning the industrial centre of the world — Preparations for the enterprise — An account of some of the stores purchased for ship- ment — Humorous account of the type of periwig provided — The sailing of the first fleet from Leith — Ardour of the volunteers — Arrival at Caledonia Bay, on the east coast of Panama — Description of the spot by one of the colonists — The construction of fortifications and dwelling-huts — Some enthusiastic first opinions — Optimistic courage in the face of a long death-list — Fever victims — The price of an ignorance of the tropics — The question of relations with the Spaniards — Military preparedness of the settlers — Result of the first expedition sent against New Edinburgh — Fate of the snow Dolphin's crew — An English royal proclamation proves fatal to the chances of the Darien Company — Havoc played by the climate — Abandonment of the settlement and departure of the survivors — Disasters of the voyage — Arrival in New York— The sole vessel to return to Scotland — The second Darien Expedition — Dramatic nature of its departure — Arrival at the deserted settlement — The colony is re-established — Defeat of a Spanish attacking force — New Edinburgh is invested by land and sea — Worn out by disease, the colonists accept an honourable capitulation — Return of the scanty survivors to Scotland — A contemporary account of the affair. Having dealt with the coming of the foreigner in war to Central America, we may now take an interesting instance at the end of the seventeenth century of his arrival in a capacity which was intended to be 117 118 CENTRAL AMERICA peaceful, but which ended in the clash of arms. In this respect the enterprise resembled that of the early navigators, though in almost all else it differed widely. The Scottish Darien Expedition resulted in one of those tragedies which, seeing that the best planned expeditions must sometimes gang agley, inevitably strew the paths of a spreading Empire. The com- pany that was formed for this purpose is of rather special historical interest, owing to the fact that the venture was essentially a Scottish one, having been brought about before the union of Scotland with England had become a political fact. There is no doubt that in the late seventeenth century the Scottish merchants and mariners had not / a few grievances relating to their commerce. The development of this was regarded with a certain jealousy by their neighbours, and it is not to be denied that the laws affecting shipping and foreign trade were so framed as to give the advantage to the Southerners whenever their interests clashed with those of their northern neighbours. At this period, there- fore, the Scottish nation was chafing beneath these restrictions, and was in a frame of mind to seize with avidity an opportunity of launching out on a project that promised an unhampered and Imperial outlet for its energies. The founder of the Scottish Darien Company was William Paterson, a sufficiently remarkable person, who in 1694 attained to great financial fame by his success in founding the Bank of England. Nowhere was Paterson's reputation more enhanced by this very noteworthy feat than among his brother Scots, and when, enthusiastic for the cause of Scotland, he went North to add to his laurels by proposing to establish a national company, on the lines of the English East India Company, that should 'trade with the East and the West Indies, he met with an enthusiastic welcome. It is impossible to enter at any length here into SCOTTISH DARIEN EXPEDITION 119 the circumstances and complications which attended the foundation of the company. In 1695 the first Scottish Parhament of King William authorized its foundation, and the concern was actually set on foot, half the shares being reserved for Scotsmen. The London East India Company, however, becoming alarmed, now took up an attitude of active hostility towards the new venture, which did, indeed, appear to threaten its interests. Both Houses of Parliament in London now interested themselves in the matter, with the result that Bills were prepared making it a criminal act for any English seaman or boatbuilder to proceed to Scotland, or to assist in Scottish navigation in any way. As a result of this the English subscribers had no option but to withdraw their subscriptions to the Scottish company. This opposition had the effect of putting the promoters on their mettle. Early in 1696 a sub- scription list was opened in Edinburgh, and the enthusiasm of all classes towards this venture triumphantly brought forth the whole of the four hundred thousand pounds which had been asked for the enterprise. The sum was a very large one for those days, and in a country as impoverished as Scotland was then, it stands as a remarkable testimonial of practical patriotism. The first overseas operations were, after all, not concerned with the East Indies. Paterson would seem to have inherited some of that remarkable instinct which showed itself so strongly in Columbus and Balboa before him, and in Lesseps and the modern North Americans after him. He was convinced— and who shall say that he was wrong? — that the Isthmus of Darien represented the centre and hub of the com- mercial earth, and that as a depository for goods it was unrivalled. It was his idea to found a good port on either side of the Isthmus, to establish the company firmly in the district, and to coijtrol from 120 CENTRAL AMERICA that admirable strategic point the commercial opera- tions between Europe, the East, and the West. Active preparations were now begun. Vast stores of the medicines of the period were accumulated ; many tons of beef, pork, and biscuits were ordered to be prepared, while twenty tuns of brandy, five tuns of claret, and twenty -three barrels of tobacco- pipes were among the list of creature comforts. The cargo included '* a bargain of Bibles and catechisms.'* There were also periwigs, of which Herries gives the following account in his Tract : — ** Periwigs, 4,000, some long, some sho;-t ; cam- paigns, Spanish bobs, and natural ones. And truly they were all natural, for being made of Highlanders' hair, which is blanched with the rain and sun, when they came to be opened in the West Indies they looked like so many of Samson's fireships that he sent among the Philistines, and could be of no use to the Colony if it were not to mix with their lime when they plastered the walls of their houses." Owing to the Acts passed by the English Parlia- ment, no vessels could be obtained from the South, and the necessary craft were ordered to be con- structed in Amsterdam and Hamburg. These arrived in the Firth of Forth at the end of 1697, and nothing now remained but to fill them up with colonists and cargo and to set out for the proposed field of industry in the Darien Isthmus. Ultimately the fleet set out from Leith on the 26th of July 1698. It consisted of three large and well- armed vessels — the St. Andrew, Unicorn, and Caledonia — ^and two smaller ones — the pink Endeavour and the snow Dolphin. The ships set out amidst a scene of great enthusiasm, and such was the eagerness on the part of the populace to join their lot with the expe- dition that a great number of stowaways had to be turned from the ships before they sailed. As it was, twelve hundred men set out in the five ships. SCOTTISH DARIEN EXPEDITION 121 The spot where these vessels finally cast anchor, after their various calls on the way, was on the eastern coast of the present Republic of Panama, and the spot is still known by the name given it by the Scottish colonists, Caledonia Bay. The aspect of the place appeared favourable, and Mr. J. S. Barbour, in his admirable account of the expedition, has quoted some interesting extracts from the journal of a Mr. Rose, one of the colonists : — ** Here you ride landlocked every way that the wind can possibly hurt you. Within this to the bottom of the harbour, till within a cable's lenth of the shoare, wee have not less than 3 fathom water, nor can a hurrycane make the least sea there. The land on the left hand coming in is a peninsula. . . . The land on the Peninsula is extraordinary good, and full of stately trees fit for all uses, and full of pleasant birds, as is also the opposit shoar, and hath several small springs which wee hope will hold in the dryest season . . . this harbour is capable of containing 1,000 of the best ships in the world, and with no great trouble wharfs may be run out to which ships of the greatest burthen may lay their sides and unload." Here the colonists were visited by a certain Captain Andreas, who one gathers was a mestizo, and who was anxious to discover the objects of the expedi- tion. Shortly afterwards Captain Andreas came to visit them again, this time ** with his travelling wife, having in all four." The Scottish settlers now applied themselves to the construction of their fortifications and dwelling -huts, and to the general business of the new colony. On the 28th of December 1698 the leaders of the colonists sent a letter from their headquarters at New Edin- burgh, Caledonia Bay, home to Scotland. In this the country in which they found themselves is spoken of in glowing terms :— 122 CENTRAL AMERICA " The wealth, fruitfulness, health and good situa- tion of the Country proves for the better, much above our greatest expectations . . .we find it very health- ful ; for though we arrived here in the Rainy season, from which we had no shelter for several weeks together, and many sick among us, yet they are so far recovered, and in so good a state of health as could hardly anywhere be expected among such a number of men together ; nor know we anything here of those several dangerous and mortal distempers so prevalent in the English and other American Islands. *' In fruitfulness this Country seems not to give place to any in the world ; for we have several of the fruits as Cocoa-Nuts, whereof chocolate is made, Bonellos Sugar-Canes, Maize, Oranges, Plantains, Mangoe, Yams, and several others, all of them of the best of their kind anywhere found. ** Nay, there is hardly a spot of ground here but what may be cultivated. . . . Here is good hunting and fowling, and excellent fishing in the bays and creeks of the Coast ; so that could we improve the season of the year just now begun, we should soon be able to subsist of ourselves, but fortifying and building will lose us a whole year's planting." Now, this was very well and gallantly crowed ! But to what extent this account makes the best of things may be judged from the death-list which accom- panied the buoyant epistle. Between the 23rd of July and Christmas Day seventy-three men and three women had perished in the course of the voyage and the sojourn in this '* healthful " spot ! Moreover, save in the case of four who were drowned and Captain Thomas Fullarton, of the Dolphin — who died sud- denly " after warm walking " — the cause of the death of all was fever or " flux." One of the three women who died was William Paterson's wife, and this catastrophe appears to have left the unfortunate man brokenhearted ; but he con- SCOTTISH DARIEN EXPEDITION 123 tinued for all that to toil manfully for the good of the settlement, that in rather more than five months had lost 6 per cent, of its mess. It is true that this was only a foretaste of the mortality from disease from which the unfortunate members of the Darien Colony were subsequently destined to suffer — very largely owing to an ignorance of the ways of the tropics, and, in many instances, to a generous spirituous diet which, healthful north of the Tweed, was fatal so much nearer the equator. But from this cause was destined to spring only a portion of their troubles. They had still to reckon wnth the Spaniards, and the official attitude of the English Parliament had been sufficiently discouraging to warn the Darien settlers that they must expect no assistance from that quarter in a campaign against . the Spaniards, supremely jealous as were these latter r of their real or imagined territorial rights. The Indians of the Darien, as hostile to the Spaniards as were those of the Mosquito Coast to the north-west, had proved themselves friendly to the Scottish settlers, and had offered to assist in any war- like undertakings against the forces of the Spanish crown. The colonists entered into a treaty with these \ Indians, but declined to assume the offensive, though \they explained that they would strenuously resist any aggression. In fact, there is no doubt that there was a quiet longing on the part of the newcomers for the Spaniards to come along and get it over. When the battery at New Edinburgh had been finished and the guns mounted, " We are now in such a condition," says the journal already quoted from, " as that nothing more is wished than a visit from Jaque." Referring, too, to a warning from their Indian friends to the effect that the Spaniards were actually preparing for an attack, "it is feared with us," continues the journal, *' they will not come." In February of 1699, however, it was ascertained 124 CENTRAL AMERICA that: a body of Spaniards was actually on its way to attack the settlement, and a party sent out from New Edinburgh for the purpose of scouting had a skirmish with a reconnoitring party of Spaniards. The main force of the Spaniards, harassed by the Indians, abandoned the attempt. After this there was peace for a time. Provisions were bought from Jamaica, and Captain Sands '* went a-turtling for the Colony." But the settlement was not destined to be long without its troubles. The snow Dolphin, on a voyage to Barbadoes for the purpose of obtaining further supplies, struck a rock, and, badly stove in, had to be run ashore at Cartagena. ' Having put her bows into this hornets' nest, the crew of the unfortunate snow were made prisoners, and sent to Spain to be tried there as pirates. Nothing but the personal intervention of King William saved them from execution, and in any case their ultimate fate could have been no light one, as they were condemned to serve on board Spanish warships on the Latin American stations— a sentence in which there seems to be discerned a certain amount of cynical irony. . ' ' i It was in May of 1699 that fell the blow that demolished the last hope of the colonists. It was learned then that the following proclamation had been issued by Sir William Beeston, the Governor of Jamaica : — ** Whereas I have received commands from His Majesty, by the Right Honourable ' James Vernon, Esquire, one of His Majesty's principal Secretaries of State, signifying to me that His Majesty is un- acquainted with the intentions and designs of the Scots settling at Darien ; and that it is contrary to the peace entered into with His Majesty's Allies, and therefore has cornmanded that no assistance be given SCOTTISH DARIEN EXPEDITION 125 them. These are, therefore, in His Majesty's name and by command, strictly to command His Majesty's subjects, whatsoever, that they do not presume, on any pretence whatsoever, to hold any correspondence with the said Scots, nor to give them any assistance of arms, ammunition, provisions, or any other neces- saries whatsoever, either by themselves or any other for them ; or by any of their vessels, or of the English nation, as they will answer the contempt of His Majesty's command to the contrary, at their utmost peril. Given under my hand and seal of arms this 8th day of April 1699, and in the eleventh year of our Sovereign Lord William the Third of England, Scotland, France, and Ireland King, and of Jamaica, Lord Defender of the Faith, etc. "William Beeston." Determined and enthusiastic as these Darien colonists had proved themselves to be, there must have been a few of their number who in their inner- most hearts must have learned of this proclamation, unsympathetic as it was, with as much relief as chagrin. For by/ the time it was made the climate had played such deadly havoc with the unfortunate settlers that it was becoming clear that 5 prolonged stay would only result in the death of all concerned. It was subsequently explained that this proclamation did not necessarily imply the end of the venture, as vessels— isome of which actually arrived at the spot after its abandonment — were prepared to brave the prohibition. But at the time this was accepted as the end of the colony by the majority of the settlers, and prepara- tions were made to evacuate the place. At this juncture no doubt the harassed folk felt the lack of Paterson's enthusiasm, for the founder of the plan was lying ill and helpless, stricken down with fever. It was a melancholy party that transferred their re- 126 CENTRAL AMERICA maining goods to the vessels, dismantled the fort, and placed the cannon on board, and finally set sail for New York on the i8th of June. Even then their troubles were not at an end. As a result of the terrible mortality the ships were now short-handed, and squalls, gales, and leaking vessels were the cause of continuous peril and anxiety. Landing at Cuba in search of water, a boat's party met with an inhospitable reception at the hands of the Spaniards, who captured the interpreter and all but secured the whole party. It was a ,sorry remnant that eventually arrived in New York, for in this last voyage alone no fewer than four hundred had perished. Out of the five vessels, moreover, which had set out carrying a freight of such high hopes, only one, the Caledonia, was destined to plough Scottish waters again. The fate of the Dolphin has already been explained : the Endeavour foundered after having been abandoned at sea, and the battered Saint Andrew was left to rot at Port Royal, while the Unicorn was left to the same fate at New York. So much for the first Darien Expedition. As luck would have it, for over a month before the date of the abandonment of New Edinburgh two relief ships had already been sailing on their way from Scotland. These were the Olive Branch and the Hopeful Binning of Bo'ness. Finding the shore of Caledonia Bay deserted, they were lying at anchor off the shore, when the loss of the Olive Branch by fire decided the other vessel, now carrying the combined ships' companies, to sail for Jamaica, at which port the majority of them died of sickness. While all these events had been occurring, the governing body of the company in Edinburgh had not been idle. Four other vessels had been prepared to carry important reinforcements out to Darien. Thirteen hundred new colonists went on board these, and they were heavily loaded, in addition, with every SCOTTISH DARIEN EXPEDITION 127 article of which it was considered the colony might stand in need. ^ The vessels were prepared to sail on the i8th of August ; but contrary winds detained 'them in the Clyde for more than a month. In the end the manner of their departure was somewhat dramatic. On the 22nd of September the first rumours of the disastrous fate of the first expedition reached the directors in Edinburgh. On learning of these the dismayed officials sent post-haste to delay the fleet until more definite information should have been received. The leaders of the expedition itself, however, seem to have shown something of the Nelson touch on this occasion, though they eventually made it plain that they lacked the Nelson judgment. The message, which reached them in the evening, led them to suspect that the proposed voyage might ultimately be countermanded. This was by no means to their taste, so they slipped away without wasting any time on ceremony early the next morning. The result of this was merely to add to the already long list of tragedies that had beset the com- pany's work. When the vessels, having lost one hundred and sixty of their company on the voyage, arrived at the deserted shore of Caledonia Bay, con- sternation prevailed, followed by numerous disputes among the settlers themselves. Some, -alarmed at the fate of their predecessors, were for sailing back to Scotland forthwith : others, of a more reckless dis- position, urged the founding of a new colony on the site of the old. Ultimately an attempt was made to put the settle- ment in repair. In the gloomy events which followed a Captain Drummond and a Captain Campbell demon- strated a determination and spirit worthy of better fortune. The old enemies of the Scots, the fevers and " fluxes," came down mercilessly upon them, and the Sp;wiiards followed in the trail of the disease. 128 CENTRAL AMERICA The Indians proved themselves as faithful friends as ever. It was from them that the settlers learned early in February that a force of Spaniards was encamped within three days' march of New Edin- burgh. Seeing that an attack was imminent, the Scotsmen determined to take the bull by the horns, and Captain Campbell, with another gallant officer, Lieutenant Tumbull, as second in command, led a force of two hundred men into the forest and fell upon the Spaniards. These latter were routed, and among the trophies collected by the colonists was the coat of the Spanish commander, which bore the badge of the Golden Fleece. Shortly after this, however, it became evident .that the colony in its diseased and weakened state had no hope of withstanding the forces of the Spanish Empire. By the end of February New Edinburgh was blockaded by eleven Spanish warships, and numbers of troops were landed to invest the place, until at length the Scottish settlers were closely besieged in their fort. Here disease continued to play havoc with them, until the number of the defenders scarcely amounted to three hundred men fit to bear arms. They ultimately obtained honourable terms of capitulation, and the survivors, sickly and weak as they were, made a bold show of it as they marched to their vessels with colours flying and drums beat- ing, the Spaniards even lending them a hand to warp the ships out of the harbour, and thus speeding the parting guests, to whom, it must be admitted, they had never vouchsafed a welcome. To complete the tale of disaster, not one of the vessels of this second fleet returned to Scotland. Strandings, hurricanes, strainings, and leaks accounted for all four, and not more than three hundred and fifty men ever saw their native land again. Seldom in the history of colonization have expeditions been dogiged by a more persistent ill -fate than these. It must be SCOTTISH DARIEN EXPEDITION 129 admitted, however, that the enthusiasm of the intend- ing settlers was founded on a want of experience of tropical living, which in itself cost the lives of hundreds who would otherwise have been saved. At the present time all that remains of the Darien Com- pany in the Isthmus are the two names, Puerto Escoces and Caledonia Bay. The tale of this most ill-fated expedition may be concluded by a very pithy account given of it in a work published some years after its abandonment : — " The settlement went on prosperously at first ; but the Spaniards complaining to the Court of England, and declaring that they should look upon it as an act of hostility, Darien having long been subject to that crown, as they alledg'd : the English East India Company also complaining of this settlement at the same time, as an infringement of their charter, the English parliament thought fit to interpose and address King William to recall his patent to the Scots Company. " The Scots, on the other hand, sent up their agents to the court of England, to represent that this was no invasion of the Spanish dominions, because they were either never possess'd of that part of the Isthmus ; or, if they were, they had been driven from it by the natives, who were at that time in the actual posses- sion of the country, and at war with the Spaniards, as they had been many years before the arrival of the Scots : but how much soever the Scots might be in the right, such was the influence of the Court of Spain and the English East India Company, that all measures were taken to ruin the Scots settlement. The English ministry prevailed on the Hamburghers to draw their money out of the stock ; and the parlia- ment of England threatened the merchants of London who had any share in it with their displeasure, if they did not disengage themselves : and orders being sent at the same time to Jamaica and the English 9 130 CENTRAL AMERICA plantations in the West Indies not to suffer the Scots to furnish themselves with provisions there, or give them any assistance, our northern neighbours were unfortunately forced to quit the enterprise, which we ourselves found reason to regret a few years after- wards, when France, in a manner, possess 'd herself of all the Spanish dominions, and among the rest of this important place, which, had Britain remained possess'd of, she might easily have stop'd those treasures coming to Europe, which so long enabled the French to carry on that second war against the Confederates. Another ill consequence this piece of injustice was attended with, was the making the Scots our enemies, and obliging us to purchase their friend- ship again, at the expence of almost four hundred thousand pounds ; and whether anything will perfectly satisfy them but the subversion of the English Con- stitution, is still a question. On the other hand, the Scots offered to share the settlement with the English, and would have been infinitely obliged to them, if they had encouraged and supported it : nor is there a spot of ground, it is agreed, on the continent of America, that could be of greater service to Britain, than that of New Edinburgh, if ever we are doomed to have a war with Spain and France again." The only circumstance that makes the affair less lamentable than it would otherwise be is that it happened more than two centuries ago ! CHAPTER VIII THE EARLY REPUBLICAN PERIOD Situation of Central America in the wars of liberation — Its peaceful transition to the status of an independent country — An adaptable Governor — Discussions concerning the future of the nation— The ex-Governor finds himself at the head of a Republican State — General Iturbide of Mexico — He proposes to incorporate Central America with his Empire of Mexico — Arrival of General Filisola, Iturbide's representative, with a force of men — The annexation of Central America proclaimed — Salvador's opposition — Filisola is defeated in that province — Downfall of Iturbide — The independence of the Isthmus is reasserted — Formation of the United Provinces of Central America — Progressive spirit displayed — The rise of political parties — The Centralists and the Liberals — Their respective composition and objects — Attitude of the Indians — Their religion — Their increasing power — Establishment of a Federal Legislature— Friction between the two parties leads to an open breach and political chaos — Murder of the Liberal Vice-President Flores — Scene of the tragedy — Salvador intervenes on behalf of the Liberal party — Warfare between the two paities — Temporary success of the Centralists — Don Francisco Morazan — The accepted leader of the Liberals — Triumph of the Liberals — Use made by them of their power — General Morazan named President of the United Provinces of Central America — Reconstruction of the Centralist party — Division of the States — The rise of Rafael Carrera. When at the beginning of the nineteenth century nearly every part of Latin America was convulsed with the war of liberation waged against Spain, Central America, or rather the kingdom of Guatemala, to give it its name of the period, found itself in a compara- tively smooth backwater of the struggle. The circumstances in Central America did not call into being an Hidalgo or a Morelos, as did the struggle in Mexico, nor a Bolivar nor San Martin, 131 132 CENTRAL AMERICA as did the fierce wars in South America. Central America, as a matter of fact, obtained its inde- pendence, but in quite another fashion. It may be said to have slid almost imperceptibly from the status of a colony of the Spanish Crown to that of an independent State. As fortune would have it, Central America was enabled to take measures for its future almost at its leisure. When the time came for the country to make its choice between the adhesion to the old monarchical regime and the adoption of the new republican order of affairs, the royalist Governor, Don w Gaviano Gainza, proved himself an unusually adapt- able person. He very soon made it clear that he had no belief in the powers of repression, even had he been able to enforce this, which, to say the least of it, was doubtful. Calling a meeting of the prin- cipal inhabitants of the city of Guatemala, he hinted plainly that it was for the Guatemaltecans themselves to decide what the future of their country was to be. Confronted by this new and undoubtedly startling problem, the assembly was by no means unanimous in its views. Partizans of both sides revealed them- selves. Many and stormy discussions followed, in the course of which much eloquence was brought to bear on both points of view ; for the Central American as an orator and ardent politician is, at the very least, as enthusiastic as any of his Latin American neighbours . In the end the advocates of independence carried the day> and on the ijtji of September 1 8 2 1 the Declaration was signed. Certainly nothing couUhave been more admirable than the tranquil manner in which this was effected. In order, for instance, that the affairs of state should be disturbed as little as possible, Gainza, the late royalist Governor, was ^ retained in his situation as head of the State ! There has probably never been an instance of a EARLY REPUBLICAN PERIOD 133 more peaceful and practical revolution. On the one day Gaviano Gainza Had been governing Guatemala as the representative of the King of Spain ; on the next a revolution had occurred, and he was govern- ing Guatemala — as the representative of the people of Guatemala ! His title was changed, and some medals were struck to commemorate the occasion, which otherwise might have passed almost unnoticed I It is a remarkable thing that a country that was destined to suffer from internal unrest more bitterly than almost any other of the Latin American States should have begun its career of independence in this calm and measured fashion. But this fortunate state of affairs was not destined to last long. As ill-luck would have it, the first causes of active disturbance in Central America did not emanate from within, but came down to make their influence felt from the north. General Iturbide's meteoric career was at the height of its brilliancy in Mexico just then. Only twelve days after the independence of Guatemala had been proclaimed, that triumphant personage entered the city of Mexico amid all the pomp and acclamation that foreshadowed the crown that he was destined to wear for so brief a time as Emperor of Mexico. Iturbide had come too rapidly into his dominion not to desire still more of its fruits. Scarcely had he grasped the reins of power when he began to long to extend the frontiers of his new government. The first symptoms of this became evident in October 1 8 2 1 , when he sent to Guatemala, proposing to add that now independent country to the territories of Mexico. The proposal was accompanied by the scarcely veiled threat that, if this suggestion were not voluntarily accepted, it would be enforced by the sword. The newly constituted State was not prepared for a development of this kind. Gainza himself does not appear to have made any definite stand— he was 134 CENTRAL AMERICA doubtless wondering by what means he could best adapt himself to the new and unpleasant circumstances — and the arrival of General Filisola from the north with a force of seven hundred men supplied an argu- ment which it was difficult for any but the most deter- mined to resi'st. So the annexation to Mexico was I j( proclaimed on the 21st of February 1822. At this period the strongest national enthusiasm of the Guatemaltecan provinces undoubtedly burned in Salvador. Salvador from the beginning had shown itself firmly opposed to the idea of annexation, and now the Salvadoreans definitely ranged themselves against the troops from Mexico. General Filisola prepared to make good the threat of his Emperor, and marched his army against the Salvadoreans. The resistance he met with was unexpectedly spirited. Filisola was twice defeated, and was forced to return with a disorganized army to Guatemala. Once arrived in the capital, he found that his oppor- tunities of distinguishing himself in Central America had vanished ; for in the city of Guatemala he learned of the revolution which had deposed the flamboyant Emperor Iturbide. The plans for the greater Mexico thus fell to pieces, and Filisola found that nothing remained for him but to Retire to the north. As he began to withdraw his troops towards Mexico he had the mortification of learning of a new assembly of the Central American Congress and of the declaration of a renewed independence. ^ Nevertheless, on his retreat through the Central American provinces of Chiapa and Soconusco, at the time bordering on the Mexican frontier, he succeeded in inducing these provinces to withdraw from the Central American Confederation and to become a part / of Mexico, to which Republic, as a matter of fact, /they have belonged ever since. It should be explained here that at this period the term *' Guatemala " was still popularly used for RUINS OF (JLIKIGUA. To race p. 134. EARLY REPUBLICAN PERIOD 135 the whole collection of Central American States, and this remained largely the case until the split up of the various provinces into "separate republics. The official nomenclature, however, was now altered. On the 24th of June 1823 a National Congress of the Central American States assembled, consist- ing of sixty -foiir deputies named by the various provinces. As a result of their deliberations the second Act of Independence, which has already been referred to, was drawn up on the ist of July. This proclaimed that the five countries of Central America would be associated together under the name of the United Provinces of Central America. The new legislature opened its sessions by the dis- play of a progressive and high-minded spirit. One of its first acts was to decree the abolition of slavery —to the credit of nearly all the Latin American Republics be it said that this was one of the first measures adopted after the winning of independence. The Central American law provided an indemnity for the owners of these slaves. But these owners, carried away by a generous impulse, refused to receive any cash consideration for the loss of their human chattels, declaring that they were acting as their consciences directed, and that they had no mind to do things by halves. The more closely the intentions of the legislators of this new State are revealed, the greater does the tragedy of its future seem. The greatest stress, for instance, was laid upon the value of education — a boon of which none of the Spanish colonials had been per- mitted to suffer from a surfeit. In matters of state, industry, and commerce the views of the pioneer states- men were equally enlightened. Much -needed reforms were introduced in officialdom, transport, manu- facturing laws, and other matters of the kind. The sole thing which had been omitted in the new con- stitution was some sort of guarantee against the evils 136 CENTRAL AMERICA of internal strife. But at that early period there was nothing to warn the inhabitants of the new State of what lay before it and them. It is presumably impossible to govern any country outside Utopia on any other but party lines, leaving out of the question, of course, the rule of a sheer autocrat. There is no doubt that the Latin Americans took to the party system like ducks to water, and they nearly always found at the beginning that they had embarked- on the troubled seas of an ever-growing storm. Out of the political confusion in which the early legislation of Central America resolved itself two definite parties very soon evolved themselves. It is worth while entering into this subject at some length, as it is on the constituents and aims of these y/two parties that much of the early history of the ^ countries of Central America is based. These two parties were known by many names, but the most general term for the one w^re the Centralists or Aristocrats, and the most popular denomination for the other was the Liberals. The Centralists comprised for the most part the colonial families who had been most closely associated with the colonial government, and who regarded themselves as the natural social leaders of the country. They stood for the Church and a somewhat similar order of affairs to that which had prevailed under the iV Spaniards, save that the government, of course, was ill to be vested in the country itself instead of in Spain, / as had been the case previously. The priests were for the most part closely associated with the Centralist party, and the rank and file was j made up of the Indian population. These latter were V^ardent supporters of the Church, although the religion of the great bulk of their number was of a type so crude as to bear very little resemblance to the Christian religion which they professed. Indeed, EARLY REPUBLICAN PERIOD 137 there is no doubt that these Indians at that period used the magnificent churches of Central America largely for the purpose of carrying on superstitions which were a survival of their ancient beliefs. This state of affairs was not brought about by any antagonism to Christianity. On the contrary, the Indians would have been mortally insulted had they been charged with a lack of understanding of the Christian faith. It was merely that they had grafted their own superstitions on to Christianity, though they were honestly unconscious of the fact. ** Viva la religi6n I " was the battle-cry of the fanatic Indian, and he saw to it that many an opponent died with the words ringing savagely in his ears. - The Liberal party, opposed to the Centralists, was /composed largely of the more enlightened and pro- 1 gressive of the Central Americans. They were opposed ^^n principle to the local Church, which was scarcely to be wondered at, considering the manner in which the Church was constituted at the time, and a certain number were inclined to imitate the extremists of the French Revolution in the matter of religion. At the same time, it seems certain enough that the greater number of the Liberals were for the reform of the Church rather than its abolition. As the politics of the new State developed the aims and methods of the Centralist party tended to become altered. The power of the whites was inclined to pass more and more into the hands of the Indians, and at one period there was a prejudice against any white man holding an office of any importance while the Centralists were in power. A fanatical prejudice against foreigners was rampant at this period, too, although this subsequently died out and was replaced by broader sentiments, as will be seen. Having now roughly explained the members and policy of the rival parties, we may return to the history of events. xl 138 CENTRAL AMERICA After a period of inevitable confusion following the Mexican interference and a rapid change of officials, a Federal Legislature was established early in 1825. The first President to be elected was Don Manuel Jos6 Arce, while Don Mariano Beltranena was appointed Vice-President/ In April 1825 the first regular meeting of the Central American Senate took place. But its members found it difficult to withdraw themselves altogether from the old associations. It was not until the end of that month that the old Court, the Audiencia, that had been part and parcel of the colonial regime, was replaced by a Central American court of justice, over which Don Tomas O'Horan was chosen to preside. Unfortunately, the labours of the Senate soon became interrupted by the heat of the newly acquired party feeling. Arce declared himself on the side of the Centralist party. Very shortly the friction between the two groups resulted in something more than mere political recrimination. A definite breach occurred, and Colonel Nicolas Raoul placed himself at the head of a party which was openly hostile to the President. Arce, attempting a coup d'etat, ordered the arrest of this latter official ; but the sole result of this was political chaos, in the course of which Arce moved the seat of the Assembly to Quezaltenango. In the confused early state of the Central American parties it happened that the Vice-President of the State, Don Cirilio Flores, was an ardent Liberal. When in Quezaltenango he gave a foretaste of his convic- tions by levying a contribution upon the convent of that place, a bold act which none had previously dared to attempt. The unfortunate Flores found that he had brought a hornets' nest about his head. He beheld himself threatened by an enraged mob, collected by the friars of the convent, and fled for his life to the church. But that building afforded him no sanctuary, for a EARLY REPUBLICAN PERIOD 139 host of furious and fanatical Indians were hard upon his heels. As the clanging of the alarm-bell sounded they swept in a grim and turbulent wave of men and women into the church, armed with the first weapons that came to hand, the chief of these being that most prominent weapon of all mobs, knives fastened to the end of poles. Then ensued a ghastly scene. Flores was dragged from the pulpit, to which spot he had run as a last refuge. His doom was now settled; but there was a pause as the Indians knelt before a crucifix, adoring it and vowing to avenge the slight they sup- posed had been put upon it. After this Flores was dragged across the church, and was flung to the horde of women outside, who beat him to death. The mutilated body was then exposed to execration in the Plaza. / : After this the situation of the Liberal party was precarious in the extreme ; but once again Salvador intervened. Championing the cause of the Liberals, ythat State sent an avenging army to the city of X^uatemala. Their arrival before the town, however, imbued the inhabitants with a frenzy of religious fanaticism. The entire populace, including bands of women armed with knives and led by priests, fell upon the Salvadorean army, the troops of which were forced to retreat and to leave the city of Guatemala to its own devices. Arce, as the head of the Centralist party, now determined to take the offensive in turn. He collected an army and marched on Salvador with the intention of coercing those who had threatened the city of Guatemala. But by the time that Arce was in a position to strike the Salvadoreans had had time to reorganize their forces, and when Arce's force got as far as Melingo it was defeated in turn. After this disaster Arce retired from the command of the Centralist army. The troops of this latter. ;< 140 CENTRAL AMERICA after a pause to make good their losses, advanced again into Salvador, and this time the expedition was successful, the Salvadorean army being defeated at Chalchapua. The Centralists, hov^ever, vi^ere unable to gain possession of the capital of Salvador, which was defended with the utmost determination by its inhabitants. In other places the Centralists met with success, and their cause appeared to be definitely in I the ascendant, when a notable man, Don Francisco A^Morazan, appeared upon the scene. Morazan, who had clearly shown himself one of the men in the State best fitted to govern, was chosen as leader of the Liberals, and in February 1829, after two years of open warfare, he raised an army from the troops of Salvador and Honduras and once again prepared to invade Guatemala. In very few campaigns has fortune shown itself so addicted to " in-and-out running " as in those of these curious early Central American wars. On this occasion it favoured the Liberal arms. Morazan*s army marched on the city of Guatemala practically without a check. After three days' fighting the town was entered in triumph, and the final victory of the Liberal party seemed assured, or, at all events, as assured as it was possible for anything to be in Central America at that period. Those in power immediately began to carry out the programme of reforms which had been one of the chief bones of contention in the struggle. The religious institutions were abolished, and many of the priests were banished, while others fled. The lead- ing Centralist families, too, were banished, in order that the stage might be free for the progress promised by the Liberals. Doubtless the enthusiasm of the Liberals led to a certain number of evils. There is probably no tide so untameable and far-reaching as that of reform when the barriers that confined it have been removed. EARLY REPUBLICAN PERIOD 141 After a time, too, the autocracy of the Government became more marked, and led to an increase in the discontent that was the only harvest reaped in abundance in Central America just then. In 183 i General Morazan was named President dI the United Provinces of Central America, and for *\ eight years after this the Liberals retained the power. After a time the forces of reaction began to set in, at first imperceptibly, and then with gradually in- creasing power. With time, too, the vigilance of the men in power tended to relax, and a thin but con- tinuous stream set in of the exiled returning from abroad. Little by little the Centralist party began to be reconstructed. At first small districts and then whole territories went over to their cause. Ultimately the armed conflict broke out afresh, the first fruits of victory going to Morazan, who defeated the Centralist Ferrera in Honduras and secured control of that province, the sympathies of which had previously inclined towards the Centralist party. The result of all these fresh complications was that three States ranged themselves on the one side and three on the other. Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica declared themselves opposed to the Federal Government, while the Liberal States of Salvador, Quezaltenango, and Honduras (though the enthusiasm of this last State for the cause was far less marked) maintained their allegiance to the Government in power. It was at this juncture that one of the most remarkable persons in the early history of Central America made his appearance, and with the rise to power of Carrera the aspect of the entire political situation became altered. CHAPTER IX THE PERIOD OF RAFAEL CARRERA Carrera's origin — Early days of an ardent Centralist — His military life and humble civil occupation— Carrera heads an outbreak at Matas- quintla — Spread of the movement — Objects of the campaign — Carrera at the head of an Indian army marches on the town of Guatemala — Dread of the inhabitants — His conditions are accepted — Scenes on the entry of the Indian army into the capital — Amazing appearance of the force — Conduct of the Indians in the town — A scene of mutual amazement — Outrages committed on the townsfolk — Intervention of the priests — Gallant behaviour of the United States Consul — The price of Carrera's departure — Rank and gifts accorded him — Final demonstration of the Indians — Departure of the force — Carrera's personality gains in prominence — The capital is attacked by Morazan — Progress of the battle — Defeat of Morazan — End of the Liberal party — Description of an interview with Carrera — Appear- ance and manners of the famous chief — He attends a religious festival — Spectacle in the cathedral — Carrera's bodyguard — A grim banner — How he was escorted home — His influence on Central American history — Speculations on what might have been — Honesty of Carrera's intentions. Rafael Carrera was a full-blooded Indian of Guate- mala who rose from a quite humble position to the place of greatest power in Central America. He served originally as a drummer in a Centralist regiment. On the victory of the Liberals it is said that he broke his drum in chagrin. This would seem an extravagant deed, even in one of the most fiery temperament, when the value and rarity of drums at that place and period are taken into consideration ! In any case, it is certain that Carrera, when scarcely out of his boyhood, retired to the village of Matas- quintla, where he performed the simple duties of a 142 PERIOD OF RAFAEL CARRERA 143 swineherd until the increasing political unrest brought him out from his retirement. The developments were proceeding very rapidly now. The Liberals had made encroachments on the property of the Church, and the Church, as it was then represented in Central America, was in no mood to bear this meekly. Stirred up by the priests, the ignorant and devoted Indians were fretting to rise against the detested enemies of the Centralists. A convenient outbreak of cholera, a disease which had hitherto spared the American Isthmus, now made its appearance, and a number of the priests took upon themselves to explain the catastrophe by alleging that the Liberals and foreigners had poisoned the wells. The consequences of this were not long in making themselves evident. The first place at which an actual outbreak occurred was Matasquintla, where the Indians, led by Rafael Carrera, rose in arms and murdered the Liberal judges. Galyez, who at the ^time was Governor of the State of Guatemala, sent officials to inquire into the cause of the grievances, but these were surrounded by the Indians and massacred. A military expedition was now sent against the rebels, and Carrera*s followers, in their turn, under- went some merciless handling. Defeated and routed, they were chased from one village to another, and from their refuges in the forest they were compelled to watch their huts disappear in flames. The out- rages committed against the women of the insurgents, including the wife of Carrera, drove the latter and his comrades to the fury of despair. After this Carrera placed himself at the head of a band of wild spirits, and began to infest the rural districts of the country. His followers rapidly in- creased, and he soon found a fairly numerous army of irregulars, or brigands — whichever you will — under his command. He now proclaimed some of the aims for 144 CENTRAL AMERICA which he fought. The chief of these were the expul- sion or death of foreigners and the restoration to the Church of all its temporal wealth and authority. Carrera's bands, in the first place, devoted them- selves to terrorizing the countryside. After a time the roads became impassable for travellers, and even for small parties of the Government troops. Presently the terror of Carrera's name grew as it was found that he actually dared to attack — and with success— villages and towns. The increasing importance of these operations tended to promote them from mere acts of brigandage to the manoeuvres of civil war. It was in this wider field of strife, in fact, that Guatemala now found itself involved. At this critical moment dissensions broke out in the Liberal party and threatened to destroy its supremacy. Under the leadership of Carrera the insurgents now boldly banded themselves together. Galvez, the Governor of Guatemala, endeavoured to collect troops to march against the rebels, but a mutiny of the soldiers revealed the insecurity of the situation. Carrera himself, at the head of a great horde of Indians, now advanced to the capital, and his advent produced the utmost terror and consterna- tion throughout the city. A parley was held, and in N the course of this the Indian 'chief demonstrated that i he was master of the situation. He demanded nothing / less, as a matter of fact, than the dismissal of Galvez I from office and the unopposed entrance into the capital I of himself and his men. * These conditions were those of a conqueror, not- withstanding the fact that no battle had been fought. Nevertheless, these demands were agreed to by the panic-stricken authorities of the city of Guatemala. Carrera and his motley army then entered the town, and the spectacle they presented was as wild and bizarre as could be imagined — far wilder, indeed, than PERIOD OF RAFAEL CARRERA 145 was relished by the terrified townsfolk into the midst of whom they came. Here is a contemporary descrip- tion of this extraordinary event by Mr. John L. Stephens : — '* Among his (Carrera's) leaders were Monreal and other known outlaws, criminals, robbers, and murderers. He himself was on horseback, with a green bush in his hat, and hung round with pieces of dirty cotton cloth, covered with pictures of the saints. A gentleman who saw them from the roof of his house, and who was familiar with all the scenes of terror which had taken place in that unhappy city, told me that he had never felt such consternation and horror as when he saw the entry of this immense mass of barbarians ; choking up the streets, all with green bushes in their hats, seeming at a distance like a moving forest ; armed with rusty muskets, old pistols, fowling-pieces, some with locks and some with- out ; sticks formed into the shape of muskets, with tinplate locks ; clubs, machetes, and knives tied to the end of long poles ; and swelling the multitude were two or three thousand women, with sacks and alforjas for carrying away the plunder. Many, who had never left their villages before, looked wild at the sight of the houses and churches, and the magnifi- cence of the city. They entered the Plaza, voci- ferating * Viva la religion, y muerte k los estranjeros I * Carrera himself, amazed at the immense ball he had set in motion, was so embarrassed that he could not guide his horse. He afterwards said that he was frightened at the difBculty of controlling this huge and disorderly mass. The traitor Barundia, the leader of the opposition, the Catiline of this rebellion, rode by his side on his entry to the Plaza. '* At sundown the whole multitude set up the Salve, or Hymn to the Virgin. The swell of human voices filled the air, and made the hearts of the inhabitants quake with fear. Carrera entered the cathedral ; the lO 146 CENTRAL AMERICA Indians, in mute astonishment at its magnificence, thronged in after him, and set up around the beautiful altar the uncouth images of their village saints. Monreal broke into the house of General Prem, and seized a uniform coat, richly embroidered with gold, into which Carrera slipped his arms, still wearing his straw hat with its green busli. A watch was brought him, but he did not know the use of it. Probably, since the invasion of Rome by Alaric and the Goths, no civilized city was ever visited by such an inundation of barbarians. . . . Words cannot convey any idea of the awful state of suspense which the city suffered, dreading every moment to hear the signal given for general pillage and massacre. The inhabitants shut themselves up in their houses, which, being built of stone, with iron balconies to the windows and doors several inches thick, resisted the assaults of straggling parties ; but atrocities more than enough were committed, as it seemed, preliminary to a general sacking. The Vice-President of the Republic was murdered ; the house of F lores, a deputy, sacked. ..." Decidedly this influx of Indians must have pre- sented an amazing and terrifying sight, sufficiently disconcerting to the boldest of the townsmen. So far as mere amazement was concerned, it was some of the more unsophisticated of the Indians who them- selves would seem to have experienced the most of this emotion. For at the sight of the buildings and churches many of these, who had never before set eyes on a structure more dignified than a primitive hut, remained for a time stupefied with wonder. When the more turbulent scenes began there were not lacking those who showed their devotion to the cause of humanity. Priests, crucifix in hand, hastened to the quarters where the fiercest trouble was im- pending, and flung themselves between the Indians and their victims. And as th^ inhabitants of the PERIOD OF RAFAEL CARRERA 147 town peered shudderingly through the ironwork that protected the windows, thanking Heaven for the thick- ness of the bars, they witnessed the courageous inter- vention of Charles Savage, the United States Consul, a white-haired veteran who at the imminent peril of his life intervened to prevent several houses from being broken into and sacked. On the third day Carrera, having been placated by a colonel's commission, a thousand rifles, eleven thousand dollars for himself and his troops, and the official appointment as commandant of the neighbour- ing province of Mita, withdrew his forces, but not before these had indulged in a sufficiently alarming demonstration ; for in the Plaza of the town they let off a number of reckless farewell volleys. Small harm resulted, however, and with the final exit of the last dusky group the harassed townsfolk began tQ breathe again. From this period onwards the remarkable personality of Carrera began to assert itself more and more pro- minently in the affairs of Central America. It was some time before he attained to the supreme power ; for he suffered defeat several times at the hands of General Morazan before this came about. The warfare between these two leaders was fierce in the extreme. The Indians throughout the entire country accepted Carrera as their leader with enthusiasm, and at one time the situation threatened to produce a racial war, an "almost unique occurrence in Latin America. But this particular peril was averted. For Carrera 's own hatred towards white men in general and foreigners in particular died away little by little as experience broadened his views, more especially after a foreign doctor had successfully cured him of a wound. Eventually Carrera became accepted as the head of the Centralist party, and, after the fortune of war had alternately inclined in either direction more than 148 CENTRAL AMERICA once, he became more or less firmly established in the city of Guatemala. Morazan marched on this place with the object of attacking him, having under his command a better disciplined force than any that Carrera possessed. A fierce fight ensued for the possession of the town. In the first place Morazan obtained the better of the affair, and for a time it looked very much as though the Liberal cause were once again about to prevail. But the Indians from the neighbouring villages flocked in to assist their chief. In the end, Morazan's men were surrounded in the Plaza. Here they continued the fight gallantly, manning the roofs and keeping up a galling fire on their adver- saries. All hope of ultimate victory, however, was gone. Morazan himself managed to escape with some five hundred men, but the rest were massacred by Carrera's ! forces, who rushed in to the slaughter with shouts of / " Viva la religi6n 1 '* *' Muera el General Morazan ! " This disaster marked the end of the Liberal party, for, although Morazan obtained one or two local successes after this, Carrera soon became all-powerful, and was known by his native followers as "El Rey de los Indios," the most fanatical even styling him "Hijo de Dios" ("the Son of God"). Morazan was obliged to flee to Chile, and all the more prominent among the Liberals were banished. I have already quoted Mr. John L. Stephens in connection with this remarkable man who played so large a part in influencing the destinies of Central America, and for a satisfactory pen portrait of Carrera it is necessary to refer to him again : — " When I entered the room," relates Mr. Stephens on the occasion of meeting the Indian chief in the early days of his power, " he was sitting at a table counting sixpenny and shilling pieces. Colonel Monte Rosa, a dark Mestitzo, in a dashing uniform, was PERIOD OF RAFAEL CARRERA 149 sitting by his side, and several other persons were in the room. He was about five feet six inches in height, with straight black hair, an Indian complexion and expression, without beard, and did not seem to be more than twenty -one years old. He wore a black bombazet roundabout jacket and pantaloons. He rose as we entered, pushed the money on one side of the table, and, probably out of respect to my coat, received me with courtesy, and gave me a chair at his side. My first remark was an expression of surprise at his extreme youth ; he answered that he was but twenty- three years old ; certainly he was not more than twenty -five ; and then, as a man conscious that he was something extraordinary, and that I knew it, with- out waiting for any leading questions, he continued, that he had begun (he did not say what) with thirteen men armed with old muskets, which they were obliged to fire with cigars ; pointed to eight places in which he had been wounded, and said that he had three balls then in his body. At this time he could hardly be recognized as the same man who, less than two years before, had entered Guatemala with a horde of wild Indians, proclaiming death to strangers. . . ." Here, too, is another description from the same pen of this amazing personality as he appeared on New Year's Day of 1840, when the religious festivals were in full swing : — ** Gentlemen well dressed and ladies in black mantas were crossing the Plaza to attend Grand Mass in the cathedral. Mozart's music swelled through the aisles. A priest in a strange tongue proclaimed morality, religion, and love of country. The floor of the church was thronged with whites, Mestitzoes, and Indians. On a high bench opposite the pulpit sat the chief of the State, and by his side Carrera, again dressed in his rich uniform. I leaned against a pillar opposite and watched his face ; and if I read him right, he had forgotten war and the stains 150 CENTRAL AMERICA of blood upon his hands, and his very soul was filled with fanatic enthusiasm ; exactly as the priests would have him. I did verily believe that he was honest in his impulses, and would do right if he knew how. Those who undertake to guide him have a fbarful responsibility. The service ended, a way was cleared through the crowd. Carrera, accompanied by the priests and the chief of the State, awkward in his movements, with his eyes fixed on the ground, or with furtive glances, as if ill at ease in being an object of so much attention, walked down the aisle. A thousand ferocious -looking soldiers were drawn up before the door. A wild burst of music greeted him, and the faces of the men glowed with devotion to their chief. A broad banner was unfurled, with stripes of black and red, a device of a death's head and legs in the centre, and on one side the words ** Viva la religi6n I " and on the other " Paz 6 muerte d los Liberales ! " Carrera placed himself at their head, and with Rivera Paz by his side, and the fearful banner floating in the air, and wild and thrilling music, and the stillness of death around, they escorted the chief of the State to his house." Such pictures as this show clearly the extraordinary \ condition of affairs which prevailed at this period. I The career of Carrera, as a matter of fact, brings us almost to the threshold of quite modern history, for in 1854 he was appointed President of Guate- mala for life, and it was not until the middle of the i86o's that death terminated the rule of this strangely ';^owerful man. The student of Central American history may well be tempted to hazard some speculations concerning what might have occurred had Fate willed it that Morazan should have guided the early progress of Central America instead of Carrera. That the advance would have been more rapid there can be no doubt, and, indeed, it is possible that many of the almost PERIOD OF RAFAEL CARRERA 151 innumerable political calamities which have overtaken the Isthmus might have been avoided. On the other hand, the turbulent element was tod rife in the Central American collection of States in the early part of the nineteenth century to justify a promise of any permanent peace ; and there is this to be said for Carrera's rule, that, although it neces- sarily lacked much in the deeper arts of statecraft, it had the crude merit of force and of a definite, if very limited, policy. Moreover, there seems no doubt that Carrera Was sufficiently honest, according to his considerably clouded lights. CHAPTER X CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE MOSQUITO COAST Amount of Central American energy expended in political strife — Rail- ways and prosperity the enemies of revolution — Brighter prospects for the future — Affairs of the nineteenth century — Some manners and customs — The habit cf wearing swords — Consequences of this — Cock-fighting as a national amusement — Description of a scene in a cockpit — Old-time etiquette concerning boots — Special rates accorded to the unshod — Outward evidence of class distinction — Amusements of the Isthmus — The Indians of the Mosquito Coast — The allies of the buccaneers — Services rendered by the natives — The Indian royalty — Loyalty of the Mosquito Indians to the British — An im- portant offer and how it was received — Establishment of the British government on the coast — A weak treaty — Fate of the Mosquito Indians — An eighteenth-century bill of fare of the Buffs Regiment at their station on the Mosquito Coast — Quaint document from one of the local kings — Captain Pirn's relations with the Indians — A native potentate as guest on a warship — Admonition to the King — The port of Greytown as the centre of international complications — Difficulties between Great Britain and Nicaragua — Military measures adopted — The treaty by which Great Britain surrendered the Mosquito Coast — Situation of the Indians — Sir Gregor M'Gregor and Honduras. It will have been sufficiently evident from the fore- going pages that up to the time of Carrera's rule politics and civil strife had absorbed an amount of Central American energy that might with advantage have been applied to more peaceful and practical matters. Central America, of course, can no longer be judged as a whole, since the old kingdom of Guatemala has now been split up into six Republics. The politics of these, moreover, are no longer similar. Nevertheless it may be said that in the majority of 152 THE MOSQUITO COAST 153 the countries the evils of political unrest have been by no means overcome even to the present day. There is no doubt, indeed, that coups d'etat have a knack of flourishing in the fertile soil of the Isthmus almost as prolifically as the coffee -shrub aind the banana. The development of so many industries on a modern basis, however, cannot fail in the ordinary nature of things to influence the situation, and to bring about a more permanent tranquillity. I have had occasion to preach with emphasis before now that there are two forces in the face of which Latin American internal unrest would seem incapable of con- tinuing. These are an efficient railway service and' a prolonged period of industrial and commercial' prosperity. Pitted against these, the most malignant political influences appear to become powerless, and eventually to die away completely. This has proved the case with every Latin American Republic that is now in really a flourishing condition, and that this state of affairs will overtake the whole of Central America sooner or later may be predicted with supreme con- fidence — indeed, with the influences at present at work, it is quite possible that this may occur at a considerably earlier date than the majority of people believe. It is true that the nineteenth century offers com- paratively little evidence of real progress. But it would decidedly not be fair to attempt to judge the future of the Isthmus by its past. The circumstances now, moreover, permit a general expansion— mental, moral, and commercial — for which there has been very little opportunity before. For the first half of the nineteenth century the industrial advance in Central America was in the main confined to the efforts of the comparatively few foreigners who came to visit the Isthmus. The great majority of the Central Americans themselves, find- ing the soil of their country yield to their wants as 154 CENTRAL AMERICA generously as it had consented to supply those of their fathers, and of their ancestors in general, paid very little attention to the affairs of industry and com- merce. They retained many manners and customs that smacked strangely of the mediaeval. Until the middle of the century, for instance, the Central American of quality carried a sword at his side when he walked the pavement— or the dust or mud that served for this — or when he rode abroad. These weapons, moreover, were by no means merely for ornament. On the occasions of Fiestas and similar gatherings they would frequently be drawn and used with fatal results. The absence of any police force made these breaches of the peace the simplest of matters, and since justice lay solely in the hands of the relatives of the slain, many feuds were fought out to the bitter end, and many families played in grim earnest the r61es of the Montagus and Capulets. The use of the sword, however, was not confined solely to the upper classes, and the attendants of one who was setting out on a journey through a country that was almost certain to be in a disturbed con- dition were usually armed not only with swords, but with any other weapon on which they could lay their hands. Cock-fighting was one of the chief amusements in Central America in the nineteenth century ; but these contests were usually short and sharp, as it was the fashion to affix small and sharp knives to the spurs, and with these formidable weapons the cocks were wont to cut each other to pieces in a very short time. The following description of Captain Pim's, who visited one of these places in 1866, gives a graphic picture of the manners and customs of this period as evidenced in the cockpit : — ** I felt quite ashamed to find myself In this place, never having entered a cockpit before, and vowed there and then — as I did at my first and last bull- THE MOSQUITO COAST 155 fight — that I would never be present again at such a brutalizing amusement. A few soldiers with muskets were standing outside to preserve order and see that nobody entered without paying ; the money taken at the doors going towards defraying the Government tax, rent of the place, umpires' fees, etc. If you enter with boots on, you have to pay a much larger sum than when you take your boots off, not because the place is so nicely carpeted that it would suffer by the tread of them — far from it, there being only the bare ground — but because the Nicaraguans, although they talk much about social equality, are divided into two distinct classes — the barefooted and the shoe -wearing. The former are the lower class ; and though some of them are very well off, they always go barefoot, or at the utmost wear sandals only. Nothing can induce them to put on shoes. They say that their friends would laugh at them, and banter them about wishing to pass off as gentlefolk. . . . The moral of it is, that if you go to a Nicaraguan cockpit, or any other place where you have to pay for admission, take off your boots, and confess yourself not to belong to the upper ten, and then you will not have to put your hand in your pocket quite so deeply as you otherwise would." A book, indeed, might be written on the mid-nine- teenth-century amusements of the Central Americans, from the curious semi -religious customs that were a survival of a mediaeval age to the games played at the Fiestas. One of these latter had its counterpart in other Latin American States, and consisted of baiting a bull, represented by a man disguised for the occasion. The practical result, however, of this particular sport was that the bull baited the populace far more than the populace baited the bull. The personality of Captain Pim brings us to the topic of the Mosquito Coast, for he was much con- cerned with this part of the world, and has a good 156 CENTRAL AMERICA deal to say of it that is of great interest. But before coming to the period with which he was concerned we may take a hurried survey of the Indians of this district, peculiarly interesting folk as these are. The friendship between the Mosquito Indians and the British is by no means the least curious in the history of such associations. It dates from the days of the buccaneers, when the Mosquito Indians, anxious to avenge the wrongs they had suffered at the hands of the Spaniards, entered into an alliance with the predatory English, French, and Dutch, and fulfilled their side of the bargain with a remarkable thorough- ness and fidelity, which, when the English found them- selves practically alone in their opposition to the Spaniards on this coast, became even more staunch than before. * Undoubtedly the land successes of the buccaneers would have been comparatively insignificant had it not been for the intelligence concerning the move- ments of the Spaniards which they obtained from their dusky friends and the services as guides that these rendered. When the days of the buccaneers came to an end, and the intercourse between the West India Islands and the Isthmus tended to grow less, the Mosquito Indians still preserved their affection for England, which was then represented in a more legal and respectable fashion than before. This was clearly demonstrated in the middle of the seventeenth century, when the son of the King of the Mosquito Coast completed his education in England, where he stayed for about three years. Shortly after this the chiefs of the various tribes met together, and as a result of this the Mosquito Territory was offered freely and unreservedly to England .\^ The Government, however, did not see its way to takb over the country completely, but it consented to accept a protectorate. It was in 1730, some years before this, that the * See Appendix. THE MOSQUITO COAST 157 first English settlements had been established at Blewfields, Black River, and Cape Gracias, on this, coast. But eleven years later a definite civil govern- ment was set up, and British garrisons were introduced. A somewhat tragic element exists in the history of this Mosquito Coast ; for almost throughout its annals it has been the fate of the staunch Indians to be far more eager to offer their loyalty than the British Government has shown itself to receive it. Occa- sionally, too, they suffered from the more or less private quarrels of officials. Thus in 1778, when the Governor of Jamaica and the Superintendent of the Mosquito Coast fell out, it was the latter who got the worst of it and was superseded. In conse- quence of this the British garrison was removed to Jamaica, and the Mosquito Coast was left to. look after itself. But there was much worse to come. In 1786 a treaty was entered into between Britain and Spain in which it was agreed that the Mosquito Coast should be evacuated by all British subjects. This weak move on the part of the British Government was followed by several Spanish expeditions to the Mosquito Coast, with the idea of punishing the now unsupported Indians for their friendship with England. But after having suffered a severe defeat at the hands of the natives at Black River in 1796, the Spanish troops abandoned these attempts for good and all. Prior to 1786 there are said to have been as many as twelve hundred British settlers in the Mosquito Coast, while the number of the aborigines themselves was estimated at about ten thousand. Before leaving this period I may refer to a very instructive document which is reproduced by Captain Bedford Pim, R.N., in his Dottlngs on the Roadside in Panama, Nicaragua, and Mosquito. This is the bill of fare of an entertainment given by the officers of a detachment of the 3rd Regiment (Buffs) at their 158 CENTRAL AMERICA station on the Mosquito Coast towards the end of the eighteenth century :— BILL OF FARE Calipash. Manati, Soused. Guana, Fricasseed. VVaree, Steaks. Turtle Soup. Armadillo Curry. Monkey, Barbacued. Parrot Pie. Antelope Roasted. Peccary, Smoked. Indian Rabbit, Boiled Hiccatee, Stewed. Calipee. It would have been of no little interest to have learned the Buffs' ideas concerning the wines to accompany this curious and rare repast in the eighteenth -century Mosquito Coast. But of these there is no record, although it is unreasonable to suppose that, at that period and place, they did not play their part in the function. It was not wine, but Jamaica spirit, which lay at the root of a letter drawn ,up at a later date by one of the Mosquito kings who had caroused not wisely but too well. The letter is highly instructive in its own way. It runs : — I hereby authorize Mr. Thomas Hedgcock, of London, to declare the grant of Blewfields to Captain Peter Le-le-Shaw, of Guernsey, to be declared null and void, in consequence of some very unpleasant circum- stances attending the death of my late brother, which appearing very suspicious against the said Peter Le-le-Shaw ; and that when I gave said grant I was not compos mentis, but had been, together with my chiefs made inebriated ; neither was I aware that my late lamented brother, George Frederick Augustus, had previously given to Captain William Smith a similar grant for said territory of Blewfields. Given under my hand at Cape Gracias a Dios, this tenth day of May 1837. [Signed) R. C. Frederick, King of the Mosquito Nation. Witnesses : Robert Haly, Peter Cox. On the whole, this document may be said to speak for itself ! THE MOSQUITO COAST 159 Fiery liquors, as a matter of fact, would seem to have constituted an hereditary weakness of the kings of the Mosquito country. Captain Pim gives an interesting account of the King of the Mosquito Coast who was ruling in 1866. This swarthy monarch, whose name was George Augustus Frederick — these potentates seem to have been stinted in their range of nomen- clature ! — spoke English without the least perceptible foreign accent. In fact, he considered that language as his proper tongue, and said that he felt more like an Englishman than anything else. He was a pleasant and well-read person, according to Captain Pim — addicted to Shakespeare, Byron, and Sir Walter Scott —at the same time Pim, on inviting him to visit his ship, found it necessary to interpose a warning in these words : — " ' My dear King,* said I, ' you are aware that the strictest discipline is, or ought to be, maintained on board a man-of-war, where it is especially necessary to stop at once the smallest tendency on the part of any of the crew to indulge that propensity for strong liquors only too generally the fault of sailors. Now, it will be impossible for me to punish any delinquents under my command, for a transgression of this kind, if they see a guest of mine, especially one in your position, setting the example. I must therefore appeal to your good feeling to refrain, while you are with me, from indulging in more wine than is needful.' " The King heartily agreed, and attributed his in- temperate habits to the absence of congenial society, and a melancholy foreboding that he was the last chief of a doomed race. These latter incidents have taken us ahead of the proper historical sequence of events. The growing importance of Greytown as a port resulted in some international complications, in which Nicaragua, Great Britain, and the United States all played their part. Thus in 1836 a force of 160 CENTRAL AMERICA Nicaraguans surprised the place, and retained posses- sion of it until they were ejected by Colonel Macdonald, the Superintendent of Belize. On his return, however, the Nicaraguans again took possession of the place. On this occasion they occupied it for some years, until a force of Mosquito Indians recaptured it. In January 1848 yet another of the see -saws of fortune occurred, and the Nicaraguans again established them- selves at the spot. This time the international com- plication was of a more serious order, and the two British war -steamers Alarm and Vixen were sent from Jamaica to Greytown to settle the matter. The Nicaraguans retreated inland up the river, followed by 260 British sailors, marines, and soldiers in twelve boats. The Nicaraguans fortified them- selves within stockades at a commanding point where the Seripiqui River joins the San Juan. This was captured by the British, who advanced farther inland, and at Granada a treaty was signed which confirmed the British in their rights and put an end to the hostilities between the two nations. Six years later, when the importance of Greytown as the Atlantic starting-point of the interoceanic route increased the friction between the Americans and the Mosquito Indians, Greytown was bombarded and burned by the United States frigate Cyane. It was by a treaty drawn up on the 28th of Novem- ber 1859 that Great Britain surrendered her claims to the Mosquito Coast. The two principal articles ran : — Article I. — Taking into consideration the peculiar geographical position of Honduras, and in order to secure the neutrality of the islands adjacent thereto with reference to any railway or other line of interoceanic com- munication which may be constructed across Honduras, Her Britannic Majesty agrees to recognize the islands, known as the Bay Islands, and situated in the Bay of Honduras, as a part of the Republic of Honduras, etc. Article II. — Her Britannic Majesty engages, etc., to recognize as be- longing to and under the sovereignty of the Republic of Honduras the country hitherto occupied and possessed by the Mosquito Indians, within the frontier of that Republic, etc. THE MOSQUITO COAST 161 Put in a nutshell, what had really occurred was that the Mosquito Indians' heads had been given up on a charger in return for a railway concession that in the end never fructified into lines and railway - engines. Incidentally, however, it had the effect of preventing any breach in the relations between Great Britain and the United States, which had become some- what strained over the matter ; and this, in view of the enormous events that are occurring to-day, may be regarded with an even deeper degree of satisfac- tion than ever before. But how much the Mosquito Indians understand of Great Britain's attitude it would be interesting to discover I In connection with these British enterprises on the Mosquito Coast, it may be of interest to recall that Sir Gregor M'Gregor, who played so prominent a part in assisting the northern forces of the South Americans, under General Bolivar, in the war of Liberation, made a bold attempt early in the nineteenth century to annex a stretch of the Honduranean coast in the neigh- bourhood of the River Poyas, as well as the islands in the Bay of Honduras. The dttempt had no permanent success ; but Sir Gregor's venture appears to have been a sufBciently ambitious one. He styled himself the Cacique of Poyas, and in 1825 a pamphlet appears to have been pub- lished by him which had much of the style of a royal proclamation. Thus it begins, ** Gregor, by the grace of God, Cacique of Poyas," and ends, *' in the year of grace 1825, and of our reign the sixth.*' But M 'Gregor's Central American dynasty appears to have begun and ended with himself. II CHAPTER XI POLITICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS Progress achieved in transport and industries — Attention now paid to commerce and the professions — Affairs of the present compared with those of the past — Hope for the future — Mexico and Central America — A catastrophe of modern Latin American history — Practical and theoretical methods of reform — The types of population inhabit- ing Mexico and Central America — The governing classes — Some characteristics — The aristocratic minority — Some examples of the Caciques and Caudillos — The path to power — The work of the secretaries — Mischief worked by the adventurers — The policy of Central America as distinguished from that of Mexico — Stages to be undergone before true democracy can be arrived at — Position of the foreigner in an unquiet State — Methods by which his situation may be estimated — Temperament of the Central American — His supposed and actual tastes — Position of the wealthier classes in times of revolution — Methods by which revolutions have been brought about by a minority of the inhabitants — Some mid-nineteenth-century instances — Usual procedure of the revolutionists — A tragic Govern- ment report — Physical characteristics of the Isthmus — Volcanoes as a salient feature — Picturesque beauties of Central America — Some geographical features — Situation of the principal towns — The choice between seismic forces and bad climate — The birth of a volcano — Unique experience of the dwellers on a hacienda. We may now turn to the modern side of Central America and see, so far as we can, what the results of its troubled past have produced in the present. There is not a little evidence of industrial and com- mercial advance. This may be seen in transport as well as in industries. In many districts railways now take the place of the cart-roads that still afford the standard means of communication in all the Republics. In some instances, too, modem machinery has been imported for mines and factories ; the motor -launch J63 POLITICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL 163 has begun to push its rapid bow through the Central American waters, and the, motor-car has already obtained a firm hold. There is undoubtedly much going on in the Isthmus at the present moment that might well cause some of the more conservative of the old South American patriots to turn in their graves . It is true that the inception of all this progress has been recent. The rapidity of the advance is therefore all the more remarkable. The average Central American, it may be S9,id, is now keenly alive to the benefits of a peaceful existence devoted to commerce and the professions. The old Central American Adam is becoming shadowy. He is rapidly going the way of many other things of the past ; but it would be premature to assert that nothing is left of him at the present moment. It is not to be denied that the affairs of Central America have suffered greatly from the continuous state of unrest which has pervaded this part of the continent ever since the cessation of the Spanish rule at the beginning of the nineteenth century. This much has been made clear from the preceding chapters. He would be a rash man, moreover, who would predict an end to this state of affairs in the immediate future, although that this desirable consummation is bound to be brought about sooner or later seems, humanly speaking, inevitable. Central America must one day come into its own, just as so many of the Latin American States have already come into their own. The sole important exception to this rule is provided by Mexico. It is not too much to say that, as regards a lapse from progress, Mexico holds a similar position in some respects in Latin America to that occupied by Prussia in Europe. It might be thought that the present-day condition of the great State of Mexico, alas ! could not fail to 164 CENTRAL AMERICA react to a certain extent on its southern neighbours. Few spectacles could be more demoralizing than that of the ruin of a Republic that half a dozen years ago was eagerly pressing forward in the van of progress— a Republic that was rich and powerful, whose credit stood high in the world's finances, whose President, if feared, was respected, and whose striking material advance was preparing an intellectual progress which, it must be admitted, had not yet found an appropriate soil in which to flourish. Certainly there could scarcely be a Central American President who, surveying Mexico as it was under the great Porfirio Diaz and as it is now under the motley collection of bandits who abuse its government, could be blamed if he determined never again to lend countenance to those liberal measures under the guise of which was brought about the ruin of Mexico I The tragedy has been extraordinarily impressive. That so stately a structure could have been brought to earth in so short a time would have been believed possible by no one either to the north or south of Mexico. There is no denying, moreover, that from the hard- and-fast practical point of view the moral that the fate of Mexico holds out is startling. A premature attempt at moral and intellectual reform in an uneasy -blooded country, peopled mostly by uneducated Indians, is as dangerous as flinging a lighted match into a magazine. In dealing with such countries as Mexico and those of Central America, the fact is too often overlooked by those Europeans and North Americans who have lacked actual first-hand experience of their circumstances that the populations of these lands are of an entirely different order from anything that these Europeans or North Americans have been accustomed to. In Great Britain or the United States a Prime Minister's or President's portfolio is now really and truly within the reach of the humblest, and this, of course, can k POLITICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL 165 only be the case where the members of a nation are to a considerable extent homogeneous. Now, in Mexico and Central America it does not in the least follow that the circumstances are parallel. Here, speaking generally, it may be said that a large majority of more or less uneducated Indians is usually governed by representatives of a small minority of educated people, who possess, for the most part, a strong strain of white blood in their veins, or who are altogether of European descent. Many of these men are brilliantly gifted ; but they are, of course, endowed with the corresponding faults of their qualities, and, as brilliancy and instability frequently run hand in hand, many of the lightning changes of government are to be explained in this fashion. It must not be inferred from this that every brilliant man in Central America is unstable. So sweeping a statement would "be as ludicrous as untrue. But there is no doubt that the ardour of a tropical sun is wont to be reflected in the impetuous characters of the inhabitants of a tropical land. Notwithstanding such inevitable defects as it may possess, it is from this aristocratic minority that the rulers of these Central Latin American countries are drawn in the natural order of events. This holds good in the main, more- over, notwithstanding such a notable exception as that provided by Carrera. Should you hear of one of the populace coming to the front in some meteoric and dazzling fashion, you may take it for granted that there is something unhealthy in his career and in the state of the country. To the anthropologist of an optimistic turn of mind this will naturally come as a profoundly gloomy theory. But very little reflection will show that its causes are perfectly simple. By what means is it possible in these parts of Latin America for an uneducated Indian, lacking all training and experience in the polite arts of government, to rise to a position in which he 166 CENTRAL AMERICA dominates thousands, or hundreds of thousands, of his countrymen? There is only one : force. And to effect its purpose this force must be relentlessly used so as to inculcate a complete terrorism into the populace in general. This is a movement which has been very pronounced throughout Latin America since the death of the Spanish power, though in the great Republics of the South it is now merely a matter of history. Hence the long tale of all those Caudillos and Caciques who have ruled in utter disregard of the lives of others. The two latest specimens of this kind are, of course, Carranza and Villa of Mexico. They are two of a most interesting army of desperado tyrants — ^best viewed from a safe distance ! — whose ruthless and dominant personalities are sufficiently picturesque in their own grim way. You may know that their path to power runs ankle -deep in blood, while it does not follow in the least that one of their select, almost royal, company can sign his name in the ordinary ink of commerce . This last possibility may well be doubted by those who read the flowery, elaborate, and admirably phrased proclamations which from time to time issue from the headquarters of one of these. These may well protest that a document such as this could not be the work of any other than a polished man of letters. And so it is — but that polished man of letters is not the Caudillo. It would seem a peculiarity of these men that, when once they are fairly launched on the road to power, they are given to attract a few of the least reputable of the educated and polite class, who, in return for the gain and privileges attaching to the despot's suite, manage to adorn the crude personality of the chief with a certain foreign glamour. There has scarcely been a tyrant of the kind in Latin America during this past century — ^for it is almost a century now since his kind first came into being — who has POLITICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL 167 not found himself provided with a secretarial staff of this order — a species of intellectual shield which has stood between his plain ignorance and the outer world. ' ' ■ ' i ' i i;-i I 1^ There is no space here to go into the details of the desperate injuries inflicted on their sufi^ering countries by men of this sort. The past of even the most flourishing and settled of the Latin American Republics — ^where conditions obtain that are practically- European — is eloquent enough on this point to all who care to read their histories. In the lands of Central America the opportunities for these desperadoes have always been more frequent, and how remote they are from being extinct is tragically shown by the present condition of Mexico. It is all the more satisfactory, then, to find that the tragic events in Mexico do not seem to have had the least evil influence on the Central American States, so far as it is possible to judge. On the contrary, the policy of the Isthmian countries would seem directly opposed to the madness of Mexico, and recent events show that German gold has had no effect in their case. It seems certain that the ultimate salvation of the less settled parts of Central America is not to be won by any direct resort to the widest interpretation of democracy in the first instance. There can be little doubt, indeed, that two or three stages have to be passed before that consummation can be arrived at. But the beginning is plainly a benevolent despotism, for by no other means will be obtained the repose necessary for the cultivation of a broader outlook and a new ethics. It is generally imagined that a condition of political unrest in one of these States reacts directly upon the foreigner resident within its frontiers. But this does not in the least follow. It is a very usual experience on the part of those who have lived 168 CENTRAL AMERICA in one of these disturbed areas not to discover the depth of their peril until they have read of it in the Press at home. There have been instances, of course, where the foreigner has been directly molested ; but this is a sufficiently rare occurrence. These remarks, let it be said, do not apply to Mexico in its present completely chaotic condition, where a number of Americans have been murdered. The circumstances there have been unusual ; for the friction between the leading bandits of Mexico and the United States Government has more than once brought the two countries within an ace of war, and has instilled a certain amount of racial hatred in many of the lower sections of the populace of the southern Republic. This condition of affairs, of course, does not apply to any of the Central American Republics. But, how- ever little the foreigner may suffer directly from a political disturbance in one of these countries, it stands to reason that his purse and his property must help \o foot the national bill piled up by these turbulent extravagances. The manner in which his assistance is demanded is occasionally arbitrary, and it is in connection with such matters that a good many inter- national incidents have arisen. It would be a grievous mistake, on the other hand, to suppose that all the principal inhabitants of Central America had nothing else to do beyond furbishing up their eloquence and their arms after one revolt in preparation for the next. The trade and the exports of these Republics afford a sufficiently satisfactory answer to any rash supposition of this kind. Never- theless, as has been said, the material harm which has been wrought by political unrest in Central America is incalculable. In the past, moreover, it has generally happened that the cost of these crush- ing revolutions has been borne by others than the revolutionists themselves. POLITICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL 169 It has been a theory among the untravelled of Europe and the United States that every Central American is by temperament and profession a revolu- tionist—in the same way that every untitled Russian was considered a Nihilist, and every Bengali babu a rajah I As a matter of fact, I think I am not exaggerating in the least when I assert that the average Central American is profoundly averse to revolutions and civil wars. He has seen too many of them at too close quarters to cherish any illusions concerning their utility or desirability. If the average Central American is inclined to view internal unrest with disfavour, how much more so is this not the case with the wealthier classes, who have all to lose and nothing to gain I In the face of this it may well be asked : how, then, is it possible to bring about these revolutions, condemned as they are by the great weight of the inhabitants? This would seem a reasonable question ; but the unfortunate thing in Central American history is that. its answer demon- strates all too clearly the power of the few to achieve one of these disturbances against the desire of the many. This may be said to have been the case practically all through the last century. Writing in 1849, almost three-quarters of a century ago, George Byam has produced some interesting paragraphs which bear on this very point. They show the lands of the Isthmus as they were at their political worst : — "In Central America every State has a small number of soldiers, ill-paid, worse fed and clothed, and of the lowest order of scoundrels ; the officers being hardly a shade better, but with a little more method in their general conduct. Leon, being the capital of the department of Nicaragua, and head- quarters for the troops, may contain fifty thousand inhabitants and about three hundred dissolute soldiers ; .^and it is by this mere handful of ruffians that revolu- Ntions are effected. A subaltern officer gains over a 170 CENTRAL AMERICA portion of the men with promises of plunder, increased pay, and promotion for the non-commissioned officers to the commissions soon to be vacant. They await the time when the barrack -guard and sentries will be all composed of men so gained over. The barracks are then taken possession of in the night, the commandant's house stormed and plundered, and next morning a few volleys of musketry make people acquainted with the fact that the late commandant and his adherents have been placed on the fatal ' Ban quota,* and have made vacancies for the successful rebels, who may most likely be destined to suffer the le'x talionis in a few months. " Armed parties are then sent round to every house to gather forced contributions, in the name of the new government, from all parties, but very especially from those who are known to be favourable to their predecessors. Those that will not or cannot pay are dreadfully ill-treated ; they are often taken out and shot before their families, and their houses, stores, or shops ransacked of everything not too hot or heavy to carry off. . . . Like many other agitations, they are invariably got up for the personal profit of a few at the expense of the great majority." Those who have read the Government report made to the Chamber of Deputies in 1853 can no longer imagine the great bulk of the respectable Central Americans as revelling in revolution. It is a suffi- ciently tragic document this, as the following sentences taken from it will show : — " Nothing remains to us but the experience of our misfortune ; but it is a blind experience, one that nourishes hatred and jealousy, that stirs up strife between men, between families, between towns, and between departments. From such discordant elements a State can never be formed." These are not the words of a reckless people plunging lightheartedly into civil war for want of a I POLITICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL 171 better education. On the contrary, they seem to breathe a spirit such as that upon which moral and material progress is built. One of the most interesting of the anthropological studies is that concerning the effects of climate on humanity. In Central America one might carry some of the prevalent theories on this subject a point farther, and wonder whether it is the explosive nature of the soil which has accounted for so much turbulence in the history of the Isthmus. The Central American, if asked to mention the prin- cipal physical characteristic of his country, would certainly reply, " Volcanoes." Were he required to give the feature next in importance, he would almost as certainly reply, " More volcanoes." The soil of the Isthmus is one of the most tortured in the world, and, as has already been seen in the history of the country, it has been responsible for many grim dramas in the course of four centuries or so. Many of these volcanoes— too numerous to be mentioned at this stage— are lofty and extremely majestic mountains, that add not a little in their peace- ful moments to the famed beauties of the Central American landscape, but that present a most terrifying spectacle in their moments of eruption. Central America is essentially a beautiful and picturesque land, rich in scenery, vegetation, and tropical products. In some respects the least striking territories of the Republic are the lowlands bordering the Atlantic, and one or two somewhat similar stretches of landscape that are set rather tamely among the glorious vistas of the Pacific coast. Elsewhere the mountains, ravines, valleys, streams, and forests of the Isthmus have evoked enthusiastic admiration from ever)^ traveller who has visited them. The physical geography of the Isthmus is fairly simple. Roughly speaking, it consists of mountain's and table-lands in the interior, which slope down / 172 CENTRAL AMERICA towards both the Atlantic and the Pacific coast. The nature of this slope is, however, widely different on the two oceans. That on many stretches of the Atlantic is gradual, permitting a great extent of low- land, which is covered for the most part by dense forest, banana plantations, and coco -nut -groves, while that on the Pacific is much more abrupt, and this shore, seen from the sea, frequently presents a magnifi- cent vista of mountains. This law, however, cannot be laid down as absolute, for there are some dis- tricts on the Atlantic coast, notably in Honduras, where the mountains rise from the edge of the sea itself. The climate varies according to the altitude, and the variations in temperature are thus very consider- able. As will be seen, the majority of the important towns are constructed on the lofty table -land in the interior. They thus obtain the benefit of a healthy climate, and at the same time run the risk of disaster by earthquake or eruption, for it is on this table- land that the seismic forces are most violently in evidence. The question is one of choice between climate and volcanic forces, for it appears quite im- possible to obtain immunity from both. Seeing that the climate is always there, and that earthquakes and eruptions are only occasional events, no doubt the Central American has chosen wisely. Central America, as a matter of fact, has had the almost unique experience of watching a volcano in the actual course of formation. This occurred towards the end of the eighteenth century, and tlie volcano in question is the mountain of Izalco, situated in the Republic of Salvador. This now raises its enormous bulk on the site of what was once a cattle hacienda, and certainly no defunct estate of the kind has ever been provided with so tremendous a tombstone, although whether this fact was of any consolation to the owner of the POLITICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL 173 place at the time it was destroyed is, to say the least of it, doubtful. It was towards the end of the year 1769 that the dwellers on this place began to be alarmed at the hints given by the subterranean forces — although none could have suspected what was actually about to occur. From that time onwards throughout the winter the earth quaked and shook with continually increasing intensity, and the subterranean noises became more and more appalling. On the 23rd of February of the following year the earth opened not more than half a mile from the home- stead. A mass of lava began to well out, and fire and smoke gushed upwards. Appalled by the cata- strophe,^ the inhabitants of the hacienda stood not upon the order of their going, but fled in the utmost haste. And it was as well for them that they did ; for, flinging out lava, ashes, and stones, the volcano built itself up on the spot, and to-day that one-time hacienda enjoys the quite unusual fate of being at the bottom of a mountain I CHAPTER XII COMMUNICATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Questions of area — Importance of railways — Insignificant length of lines at present available in Central America— ^The Guatemala system of railways — Various lines in operation — The railways of Costa Rica — The increase of the " banana lines " — Nicaragua and its system — State of railway development in Honduras — The influence of the banana trafBc — Rapid development of this — Attitude of the Honduranean Government towards railway concessions — Justification of the Republic — The railways of Salvador — A slender mileage — The Panama interoceanic line — Progress in the western province of Chiriqui — Products and industries of the Isthmus — Banana plantation — Rise of the industry — Some comparisons with cattle- breeding — Cause of the development of both — Areas where the banana obtains — The market of New Orleans — Work of the United Fruit Company — An enterprising concern — Effect on the planters — The Panama disease — Coco-nut production — The coffee industry — Districts adapted to the growth of the berry — The Central American interests — Tables showing the export of coffee from Central America — The first introduction of the berry into the Isthmus — Tables con- cerning the banana industry — Early days of the mahogany trade — First introduction of the wood into England — Aspects of the tree — Method of obtaining the timber — Present stale of the trade — Dampier on the association of the buccaneers with logwood collection — Two superseded products of Central America : indigo and cochineal — Methods by which the cochineal insect is bred — Other products of the Isthmus. , The various States of Central America, of course, know nothing of those enormous stretches of territory practically without communications which in the past have been characteristic of so many parts of South America and of Mexico, and which have been respon- sible for the isolation of so many provinces, and for much of the political unrest which has come about on account of the difficulty of communicating with 174 COMMUNICATIONS 175 the headquarters of the nation. The areas of the Isthmian countries are comparatively small, and, although some districts are still unexplored, this is owing to the difficult nature of the country rather than to any consideration of distance. It would seem, nevertheless, that it is to railways that Central America must look in the main for her material salvation. There are at the present time in the entire world very few stretches of equally fertile country that can show such insufficient railway accom- modation as the States of Central America. Had it not happened that in the majority of cases the banana country was found to be so conveniently situated for steamship traffic, there is no doubt that the situation in this respect would have already suffered considerable alteration. As it is, it seems certain that great strides will be effected in modem communications in the near future. In the meantime we may take a rapid glance at the railways as they are. . The Guatemala system of railways may be said to be the most complete — or, at all events, the least incomplete — of the six Central Republics. Guate- mala has not only a main line extending from the Atlantic shore to the Pacific, but she has an additional system, which extends itself along the Pacific coast, serving the ports of Champerico and Oc6s on its way to Mexico. Including a short section of line in the interior of Guatemala, there are probably nearly five hundred miles of rail now in working order in the Republic. The senior line is the Central Railway, which has now been in operation for over thirty years. Running northwards from San Jose, on the Pacific, it connects the capital with this port. It is this same railway, too, which branches off to the west from its main line at Escuintla, and which runs parallel with the Pacific coast for about 115 miles as far as Maza- tenango. From this point the little Occidental Rail- 176 CENTRAL AMERICA way, now under the same management as the Central, runs southward to connect with the port of Champerico, on the Pacific. The Northern Railway is also an im'portant line ; for it extends from Guatemala city northwards to the / port of Barrios, and thus, after having run a course / of nearly two hundred miles, completes the second, and longer, portion of the connection between the Atlantic and Pacific which the Central Railway had begun. The other two Guatemalan lines are the Ocos Rail- way and the Vera Paz Railway. The former runs to the west of the Mazatenango branch of the Central, supplying connection with Mexico, and taps the im- \/ portant coffee district of Tumbador. The Vera Paz Railway is also largely concerned with the coffee industry. This provides communication between Pan- cajche, in the interior of the Republic, and the port of Livingston. In order to effect this the Vera Paz line runs as far as Panzos, the navigation head of the Polochic River. From this latter point the journey is continued by steamers of flat -bottomed, stern-wheel type, which are accustomed to tow cargoes in steel barges behind them. The progressive State of Costa Rica, too, is pro- vided with an interoceanic line. This starts from Punta Arenas, in the Gulf of Nicoya, on the Pacific shore, and traverses the country, striking the Atlantic coast at the port of Limon. In passing through the centre of the Republic advantage has been taken of the lower levels of territory which separate the Cordillera Central from the Cordillera de Talamanca. This line links together the chief cities of the Republic, which are situated comparatively close to each other in the centre of the country. The most difficult gradients of the line, as might be expected, are met with on the Pacific slopes. In addition to the main railways of the country, the ** banana lines " on the Atlantic coast are increasing in number. COMMUNICATIONS 177 Nicaragua_j)ossesses no railways giving access to the Atlantic coast. On the Pacific, however, the ramifications of the Pacific Mail and Salvador Rail- way are by no means unimportant. This line starts inland from the port of Corinto, and, after flinging out a short branch to the north-west as far as El Vie jo, turns to the south-east, and runs in the direction of the great lakes, serving the towns of Managua, Jinotepe, and Granada, and then continues to the south-east on its way to the port of San Juan del Sur, on the Pacific. Honduras has to thank her banana industry for the rapid and by no means unimportant developments in her railways. After some unfortunate experience in the way of concessions — which was apparently by no means the fault of the Honduranean authorities — sufficient new lines have been arranged for to trans- form many areas of the State. Ten years ago the railway map of Honduras was practically a blank. Some of the lines which are now in existence, and others which it may be said are beginning to be in existence, are a wide -gauge line from Vera Cruz to Cuyamel, a line from La Ceiba to Yoro, and plantation lines at Colorado and Armenia. Numerous other projects of the kind are material- izing, and doubtless by the time that these lines appear in print other railways will have to be added to the list, for the progress made in the light lines is very rapid. To show how important is the transport already undertaken by these banana lines I may instance the railway to the port of La Ceiba, which already brings down enough fruit to load two fifteen hundred ton steamers weekly, and doubtless very soon larger steamers will be required in order to cope with the banana transport to New Orleans. The Honduras Government has proved itself broad- minded and liberal in these railway concessions, and, 12 178 CENTRAL AMERICA indeed, has been generous in the extreme in the grants of land that have accompanied them. ^ That this same policy will in the end prove profitable to the Republic there can be no doubt, although, as I have already remarked, some of its early experiences in this respect have been unfortunate. In his 1 91 3 report on the country Mr. Acting Consul-General Armstrong has some remarks con- cerning this which may be quoted with advantage here : — " Honduras has incurred a bad name in regard to railway concessions, having granted numberless con- cessions, on the most liberal terms, to people who were unable to obtain the confidence of the public in the flotation of their companies. These concessions usually resulted in long and troublesome lawsuits, and were eventually declared void by the Government, very often at the risk of serious diplomatic complications. These complications, becoming public, and drifting piecemeal and distorted into the Press, created a feeling of insecurity and disbelief in the good faith of the Honduranean Government ; whereas, in reality, the Government has shown considerable patience in its dealings with such questions, and in all cases a very full sense of its desire to fulfil its obligations, both in the spirit and in the letter. Those, therefore, who really are capable of undertaking and bringing to a successful issue a railway concession may expect liberal and honourable treatment at the hands of the Hondu- ranean Government." The railways of Salvador are in some respects inferior in importance to those of the neighbouring States, if for no other reason than that, possessing no Atlantic coast, an interoceanic railway is a clear im- possibility in the case of this Republic. The mileage of Salvador, as a matter of fact, is comparatively slender. Such lines as exist serve the western half of the country, and the towns of San Salvador, INDUSTRIES 179 Sonsonate, Santa Ana, and Acajutla, on the Pacific coast, are some of the principal that obtain tlie benefit of these. The chief railway in the Republic of Panama, of course, is the interoceanic line, by the side of which the Canal now runs— or floats, to be more accurate. This is the senior line of the Isthmus, and is fully described elsewhere. Railway enterprise is now making strides in the western province of Chiriqui, a new line running inland from the Pacific port of Pedregal, and important ramifications of ** banana lines " will soon be extended in the western province of Bocas del Toro. We may now take a glance at the chief products and industries of the Isthmus. The range of these is very considerable, as will be seen from the list of exports which I am enabled to give after nearly every country. The most flourishing of all are undoubtedly the banana and the coffee industries. The rise of the banana industry affords one of the chief romances of the modern industrial world. Its magnitude has now attained to a pitch which is not realized by the world in general, and, indeed, should it continue to develop at its present ratio, it may end in rivalling the vastness of the chilled- meat enterprise. The plantation of bananas, as a matter of fact, would seem to represent to the new industrial lands of the tropics that which the breeding of cattle is to the temperate regions of the New World. Both industries, moreover, have a very similar history, for it is only within the last few decades that the real development of both has come about. Cattle, for instance, have trodden the Campo and the Llanos of the Americas for centuries. But it was not until the invention of meat freezing — to say nothing of the later methods of chilling— that the industry was enabled to be conducted on a world- 180 CENTRAL AMERICA wide scale. The effect of this on the pastoral lands of Latin America has been to let loose an almost incredible amount of wealth into these countries. This will be evident when it is /explained that half a century ago a cattle beast would be killed by any travelling party merely for the sake of a steak, leaving the rest of the carcase, valueless, as a prey to the carrion birds. That same carcase to-day would be worth many sovereigns, and in the same proportion have the riches of the stockbreeders increased. The banana has a very similar tale to tell. Its groves have flourished for centuries from Paraguay in the South to Mexico in the North. It has been a godsend to the local populations ; it has been made into bread, and has served in other ways as the staff of life ; but the possible dimensions of the industry were never realized until some very wide-awake indus- trial pioneers began to arrange for special transport for this most useful fruit. After that the progress of banana planting proceeded with an extraordinary rapidity. From the point of view of the consumer, we in England have seen something of the results of this in the arrival of the banana -laden steamers at Bristol, and in the marked abundance and ubiquity of the fruit as compared with that of only a dozen years ago. So far as Central America is concerned, New Orleans is the port which counts most of all in the banana industry. In this rapidly growing banana world, inore than half of the roads and steamship tracks lead in the end to New 'Orleans. The strides made in this industry by the United States of recent years have been very great. These have been effected almost entirely by the United Fruit Com- pany of Boston, U.S.A. This concern has gone to work in a truly imperial fashion. It has not been contented with buying bananas wholesale in Central America and getting them shipped from there by INDUSTRIES 181 means of any casual cargo steamers that happened to be running. On the contrary, this far-sighted American concern had far too much confidence in the future of the banana to treat the fruit in any such haphazard fashion. It determined that it would nurse these healthy (industrially and physically) young bananas from the plantation practically to the mouth of the purchaser. For this purpose it caused to be specially constructed a fine fleet of steamers, and very soon the dwellers on the shores of the Caribbean Sea found themselves gratified by the visits of these imposing craft . But the enterprise of the United Fruit Company did not end here. The coastal zones, it is true, afforded an ideal region for the plantation of bananas, but there were other districts inland that were quite as kindly to the fruit. So the United Fruit Company, having its fleet already in action, determined to take a yet more intimate interest in the industry, and with this object it set itself to construct railway lines which should bring the straw-coloured fruit from the inland plantations to the coast. Enterprise conducted on lines such as these had its almost inevitable reward, and to-day the United Fruit Company has practically attained to the status of a trust, while, a rapidly growing octopus, its tentacles are spreading farther and farther afield. From the planter's point of view, the existence of a body as powerful as this, is by no means without its draw- backs. It is the United Fruit Company that prac- tically fixes the price that it considers it can afford to pay for the bananas, and that the company and the planters do not always see eye to eye in this respect is as certain as that no buyer and no seller can be equally pleased with the same bargain. Indeed, there is no doubt that, from the planter's 182 CENTRAL AMERICA point of view, the producer is somewhat at the mercy of the buyer. Moreover, since the area of the planta- tions is continually spreading, and the supply, there- fore, does not tend to fall below the demand, there is small likelihood of the situation becoming altered in the near future. In any case, though the planters may lay some stress upon their grievances now and then, the fact remains that, but for the institution of this American company, they would probably not be planting bananas at all. After all, there is con- siderable sanity in the blunt proverb, "He who pays the piper calls the tune." That British enterprise will soon be associated with this profitable banana field seems most probable. Indeed, it is certain that it would have come about before now, had not the European catastrophe intervened. At the same time, it would seem that there is no earthly ointment without its fiy, and this applies even to the banana trade. For in the Isthmus a disease has now begun to assert itself rather strongly. This is known as the Panama disease, and in some districts it has been sufficiently virulent to destroy entire crops of the fruit. No doubt in these days of science a remedy will soon be found for the evil, but in the meantime its consequences are sufficiently unpleasant for those whose plantations are attacked. Another industry which thrives in the same kind of country as the banana is that of coco -nut produc- tion. The trade in this is increasing in importance on the Atlantic seaboard, and considerable quanti- ties of these nuts are now e:5cported to the United States. I Coffee, as will be seen later, is not to be met with in the same territories as the other great Central American product, the banana. Coffee thrives best on the slopes and foothills of the mountains, and throughout Central America it is to be met with on INDUSTRIES 183 the Pacific slopes, its foliage being unknown among the Atlantic lowlands. These territories giving on to the Pacific are peculiarly well adapted to the growth of coffee. As a result of this, large quantities of the berry have been grown. But this easy abundance has been accom- panied by its almost inevitable disadvantage, taking the latitudes into consideration, and very little care has been exercised in the cultivation. More scientific methods are now being introduced, and the improve- ment in the crops is already noticeable in several districts . In the main it may be said that the workings of the cofTee trade differ widely from those of banana planting. Very little Central American capital and labour is concerned in the latter, as has already been seen. In the cofTee plantations, however, the Central Americans themselves have important interests, and in many districts these are worked by peasant proprietors. In the past the German interests have played a large part in the control of the Central American coffee shipment. In Europe the principal market for this is Havre, a very important coffee centre. The following tables will show some of the more recent coffee exports from Central America. In this respect and in several others, unfortunately, the precise figures for the Republic of Salvador do not seem to be available. THE COFFEE INDUSTRY Exports from Costa Rica. Bags. Tons. £ I914 283,073 17,717 959,687 184 CENTRAL AMERICA Return showing the Distribution of the Coffee Crop of Costa Rica, 1913-14. Quantity. Total. Percentage by Bags. United Kingdom and Colonies — Bags. Bags. In husk 126,951 Cleaned 87.152 214,103 75-64 United States— In husk 1,104 Cleaned 26,942 28,046 9'9i Germany — In husk 15,343 Cleaned 14,838 30,181 10-66 France — Cleaned 7,545 7,545 2-66 Other countries — '■ In husk 660 Cleaned^ 2,538 3,198 1-.3 Total- In husk 144,058 Cleaned 139,015 . 283,073 100 Note. — The number of bags shipped from Limon was 264,352 and from Punta Arenas 18,721. The proportion of coffee shipped in husk was 5o'89 per cent. 1911-12 1912-13 1910 1906 1907 1908 1909 Exports from Honduras. Exports from Nicaragua. Tons. 12,028 Exports from Guatemala. ^15,883 17,135 ;^576,i98 ;^i,23i,939 1,803,990 1,139.437 1,763,255 Panama. None. INDUSTRIES 185 Coffee, it may be said, was first introduced into Central America in 1829. Costa Rica was the first State to receive the berry, with the result that in a\ few years that Republic was raised from the position of the poorest State in the Isthmus to that of the wealthiest, and thus at length really justified the name that had been given it more than three centuries previously. The rapid increase of the early industry will be evident from the fact that in 1845 Costa Rica was already exporting 5,000,000 lb. of coffee. In 1848 it exported 10,000,000 lb., and in 1850 the shipments had risen to 14,000,000 lb. THE BANANA INDUSTRY Exports from Costa Rica. Bunches. I9I0 ... 9,097,285 I9II ... 9,309,586 I9I2 ... 10,647,702 I9I3 ... 11,170,812 I9I4 ... 10,162,912 (£972,528) Destination of the Bananas in igu Bunches. Shipped to the United States 7,095,072 Shipped to the United Kingdom 3,067,840 10,162,912 Exports from Panama. Bunches. 1911 1912 ;:: ::: ;;: Sss^""- """«» 159,213 96,000 Rice ... » 77,971 58,000 Potatoes M 172,991 103,000 Bananas Bunches 1,225,684 70,000 Tobacco Quintals 12,932 39,000 Sugar )> 166,234 110,500 Panela (brown sugar)... M 756,737 272,300 Rubber ,, 5,805 57,000 Chicle M 3,164 14,600 Cocoa M 2,861 13,700 Yuca (cassava) » 20,221 8,500 Wheat >> 259,977 156,600 Barley M 11,005 4,000 Oats t1 18,250 6,500 Broad beans )» 11,836 5,000 Chili 1) 1,167 2,800 Vegetables >) 67,011 9,800 Fruit »> 249,011 45,000 Flowers n ... 12,000 Peanuts i> 1,293 400 Cordage fibres »> 646 300 Palms Number 60,000 200 Coco-nuts Dozen 8,621 150 Hay Tons 23,455 14,000 Fodder Quintals 125,000 75,300 Broom root M 490 200 Sarsaparilla >> 121 500 Vanilla Lb. 220 70 Timber Cubic feet 4,699,741 370,800 Mahogany boards Dozen 593 650 Cedar boards » 1,318 1,500! Pine boards >» 9,317 2,500 Hardwoods Yards 552,315 3,000 Firewood Loads 28,000,000 1,687,000 Kapok Lb. 621 350 Plants .*. Quintals 506 2,200 Total £5,166,420 206 CENTRAL AMERICA Production of Coffee by the Various Departments of Guatemala during the Season of 1909-10. Departments. Plantations. Extent. Trees. Gross Yield. Acres. Quintals. San Marcos 229 101,920 11,259,860 143,459 Quezaltenango 172 54,204 7,355,433 105,964 Chimaltenango 63 56,224 10,932,914 99,816 Solola 117 89,600 7,227,424 81,283 Santa Rosa 283 95,984 8,123,330 60,474 Suchitepequez 145 26,768 4,943,877 60,455 Escuintla 40 75,152 4,654,120 53,928 Alta Verapaz 89 307,440 5,774,670 39,423 Sacatepequez 278 14,672 1,159,677 21,190 Retalhuleu 114 16,688 2,057,606 16,330 Amatitlan 40 7,728 2,328,500 14495 Guatemala 54 3,248 276,435 4,147 Baja Verapaz 35 560 350,000 3,881 Zacapa 67 15,348 635.800 2,768 Chiquimula 167 5,376 509,550 2,235 Jutiapa and El ) Progreso j 217 560 432,950 1,027 Huehuetenango 12 336 125,480 882 Quiche 4 8,512 14,000 780 Totals 2,126 880,320 68,161,626 712,537 ' j , CHAPTER XIV NICARAGUA Area and population of the Republic — Some of the principal towns — Climatic zones of the Republic — The influence of the various altitudes — The great lakes — Physical features of Lakes Nicaragua and Managua — A peculiarity of the former — The Nicaraguan volcanoes — Mountain system — Climates of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts — Mineral and agricultural wealth — Chief products — Districts where they flourish — Racial composition of the inhabitants — Wild Indian areas — The Mosquito Indians — Troubled past of the Republic — The career of William Walker — The rapid rise to power of a stormy petrel — His retreat from the scene of his activities — His return and execution — An important pending treaty between the United States and Nicaragua — Mutual benefits likely to be derived from this — Influence of climate on human energy — The Nicaraguan departments — Granada — Managua — Some characteristics of the capital — Com- mercial taxation — Leon — Corinto and some other ports — Rivas — Chinandega, Matagalpa, and Chontales — The Blueficlds department — The headquarters of the Mosquito Indians — Physical characteristics of the district — Industries — Curious examples of the want of land communications — Managua, the capital of Nicaragua — Its situation and possibilities — The cities of Leon and Granada — British and American interests in Nicaragua — Currency of the Republic — A want of confidence and its results — The Nicaraguan exports — Tables showing these. Nicaragua is approximately as large as England without Wales. Nevertheless its area shelters no more than 600,000 inhabitants. Thus, although it is more than seven times as large as the little Republic of Salvador, it contains only half the number of in- habitants. The Republic possesses a coastline of 300 miles on the Atlantic and 200 miles on the Pacific. Although the population of Nicaragua is smaller than that of Salvador, it is the former State that 207 208 CENTRAL AMERICA can boast the larger towns. Thus Leon, the old capital, has a population which must now approach 65,000, and Managua, the present capital of the Republic, possesses some 45,000 inhabitants. Granada, too, has si population of about 16,000, while other towns that exceed 10,000 inhabitants are Matagalpa, Rivas, Ocotal, and Chinandega. Climatically, the Republic is divided according to its altitude into the three zones which in Central America are as inevitable as are the three colours of the Amazon in Northern Brazil— the yellow of the river, the blue of the sky, and the green of the foliage. The loftiest regions are those of the interior. The lands adjoining the Pacific coast come next in alti- tude, while lowest of all is the peculiar stretch of the Mosquito poast, with its coco -nut groves, man- grove swamps, and fringe of coral islands, to say nothing of those reefs in the glittering ocean on which many a marooned buccaneer has met his death in the days when the fleets of the *' Brethren of the Coast " flourished here. A feature of Nicaragua are the two great lakes that occupy the curious depression in the west of the Republic. These are Lake Nicaragua, over a hundred miles in length by forty in width, the extent of which is about 3,700 square miles — and that is therefore the largest sheet of water between Michigan on the north and Titicaca on the south— and Lake Managua, a beautiful sheet of water with an average depth of five fathoms, of rather lesser extent. But even this latter is an imposing sheet of water, being 50 miles long and 25 miles wide. A peculiar characteristic of Lake Nicaragua is that with a strong north-east wind the waters become piled up on the southern shore, and sometimes overflow on to the low-lying stretches of country. At such periods the waves of the lake mount very high. It is the presence of this lake that caused so many NICARAGUA 209 engineers to advocate the Nicaraguan interoceanic canal in preference to that of Panama. It is between these lakes and the Pacific coast that are situated the Nicaraguan volcanoes. None of these exceed 7,000 feet in height, but the force of the eruptions of some of them, notably that of Masaya, has been probably unsurpassed in the history of all such disturbances. A crater, too, that has been responsible for some very remarkable eruptions is that of Coseguina, in the north of the State. Apart from these volcanoes, the greater part of Nicaragua may be said to be mountainous. The main system is an important range traversing the centre of the Republic, while elevated plateaux extend in the north-west and north-east. The climate of both the Atlantic and Pacific coastal regions is hot, though the quality of this heat difi"ers considerably. Thus the climate of the Atlantic littoral is rainy and damp, while that of the Pacific is con- siderably drier. It is this circumstance, of course, which is principally responsible for the difference between the products of the two regions. The chief mineral wealth of Nicaragua is met with in the wooded central zone, though the Bluefields River is notable for its washings. A certain amount of gold- mining has been carried on by British and American companies, while silver-mining has been carried on to a lesser extent. The chief products of the Republic are tropical fruits, and especially bananas, coffee, tobacco, cotton, sugar, rice, cocoa, and maize. Among the charac- teristic growths are the coyal palm, which yields Vino de Coyal, or Coyal wine, and the chocolate -tree, which actually yields a more powerful essence of chocolate than the cacao. The Nicaraguan forests are not so dense, nor do they contain such heavy timber as that of the neighbouring countries. The Nicaraguan rubber industry is growing in importance, although no rubber- 14 210 CENTRAL AMERICA trees have yet been planted, the rubber being still obtained from the wild growths in the forest. It may be said of the chief products that the banana coco -nut, and timber flourish on the Atlantic coast, while sugar, cocoa, rubber, and cotton thrive best on the Pacific littoral, the coffee plantations preferring the slopes and foothills of the mountains. Much of the land is admirably adapted for the production of rice, and a considerable quantity is grown, but not sufficient to make the State self -supporting in this respect. It is supposed that of the inhabitants of Nicar^igua some two thousand are of unmixed European blood. The greatest proportion of the rest are of that mixed strain which is characteristic of most of the districts of Central America ; in many of these, however, the evidence of Spanish blood is very, strong. The wild Indian tribes, known as " Bravos," are estimated to number some 40,000. They are to be met with for the most part in the mountainous districts, and they are found principally in the provinces of Chontales, Matagalpa, and Segovia. The Mosquito Indians are supposed to amount to about 20,000. These, of course, were British subjects until the year i860, and they still cling as far as is in their power to this nationality, and, more- over, still insist on employing the English speech in addition to their own tongue. Nicaragua, as will have been gathered from the historical chapters, has suffered from revolution and civil war to a greater extent than even the majority of the Central American States. The result has been detrimental in the extreme both to wealth and popu- lation. In 1839 the capital, Leon, was captured by the joint forces of Salvador and Honduras, when the greater part of the town was destroyed and many of the inhabitants were massacred. After this trouble ensued with the British over the NICARAGUA 211 question of the sovereignty of the Mosquito Coast. As though this were not sufficient, some revolutions in the unfortunate Republic followed, and then came the influx of the armed Americans under the famous William Walker, who has been termed many things, from an ordinary filibuster to a reformer. The feats of William Walker and his daring, hard-bitten northerners are adventurous enough for the greatest glutton of incident. ' t How he became President of Nicaragua and eventually fought the four Republics of Guatemala, Salvador, Costa Rica, and Honduras supplies one of the epics of the Isthmus. Yielding at length to numbers, Walker consented to surrender to the com- mander of a United States sloop of war that was in the harbour of San Juan del Sur, and in the beginning of May 1857 he and his men were taken to North America, and it was supposed that the last had been seen of Walker. But this was not so. The man from the North who had been President of Nicaragua was irresistibly drawn to this tropical hotbed of revolution. Three years later he made his appearance at San Juan del Norte, and it seemed as though all the fat were in the fire again. But on this occasion Walker's career was short- lived. He was captured by the British and handed over to the Nicaraguans, who, after a trial by court- martial, caused him to be shot. But, although this put an end to episodes of the kind, it did not calm the internal afl"airs of the State, which have suffered from a number of outbursts since then. But it is probable now that these tragic pages of history will not repeat themselves. A very important treaty has been pending for some time between the United States and Nicaragua. By the terms of this the Northern Republic is to be permitted to intervene if the government of Nicaragua should not be of the 212 CENTRAL AMERICA kind capable or willing to protect " life, property, and individual liberty." By the further terms of this treaty Nicaragua under- takes not to contract any foreign alliance or to suffer foreign interests to interfere with her internal affairs. In consideration of the payment of the sum of three million dollars the United States is granted the ex- clusive right of all canal routes. The North American Power, moreover, obtains the advantage of a naval base. It is quite possible that by the time these lines appear in print the treaty will have been signed, in which case there is no doubt that the ultimate advantages that will accrue to Nicaragua must be considerable. It is not to be denied that there is room for pro- gress in the Republic, which in the past has not been distinguished for the energy of its inhabitants. Indeed, so lethargic and unhealthy was the place half a century ago that a visitor wrote caustically of it, ** The national ensign of Nicaragua should be a hammock waving over a graveyard." Doubtless another decade will complete the process of putting this verdict entirely out of date — not that any vast exhibition of energy is to be expected from the inhabitants of the Nicaraguan lowlands ; for climate is not to be denied in such matters, and its influence must eventually assert itself even on those who spring from an energetic stock. Nicaragua is divided into the departments of Granada, Managua, Leon, Rivas, Chinandega, Mata- galpa, Nueva Segovia, Chontales, San Juan del Norte, and Mosquitia, which last includes the territory formerly known as the Mosquito Reservation. The department of Granada is an agricultural one, and its varied altitudes permit a wide range of growths. The principal products, however, are those of the uplands, and these include coffee, maize, and NICARAGUA 213 beans. The sugar plantations in this department are of considerable importance, and, as is remarked else- where, a large quantity of cocoa is grown. The population of the district is about 35,000. The department of Managua is of small area, but its population is the second largest in the Republic, numbering some 60,000 people. This figure, as a matter of fact, has been largely swollen by the circumstance that this department includes the capital of the Republic, the city of Managua, which contains about 45,000 inhabitants. This is situated on the shores of the lake of the same name, and is a! rather listless spot, whose inhabitants exist in a hot and enervating climate. The chief products of Managua' are coffee on the mountain slopes and sugar-cane in the valleys. From this latter growth much aguardiente is distilled. It may be mentioned for the benefit of any chance British commercial traveller who may visit this depart- ment that a tax of 20 cordobas, equivalent to £4, is levied on every ambassador of commerce who arrives in Managua carrying samples. Should his energies be confined to one particular article, the tax is reduced to 10 cordobas. Considering that there are practically no manufac- tures in Managua to compete with the types of articles introduced from abroad, this particular species of pro- tection is clearly double-edged. In many respects Leon is the most important de- partment in Nicaragua. It is concerned both with agriculture and cattle -raising, and contains some of the richest districts in both these industries. The chief agricultural products are coffee and sugar. Much good pasture -land exists. The population of the department is nearly 100,000, in this being included the 65,000 inhabitants of the city of Leon. The capitals of all these three departments, it miay be said, are linked together by railway. Each of them 214 CENTRAL AMERICA ^ is thus brought into connection with the Pacific ports of Corinto and San Juan del Sur. Corinto, it may be said, is the chief Nicaraguan port on the Pacific. It is a flat and rather marshy- spot, with a few houses, for the most part covered by corrugated -iron roofs. None of the Nicaraguan ports can as yet claim much actual importance in respect of the amount of shipping tonnage that visits them. All the Nicaraguan harbours — including even the growing port of Bluefields— in all probability do not yet welcome a total tonnage of a million in the course of the year. The department of Rivas is of considerable interest for the variety of its products. Situated as it is between the great lake of Nicaragua and the Pacific coast, it is notable in the first place for its tropical growths. These include a great number of fruits, as well as rubber and cocoa. The forests contain large quantities of mahogany and cedar, and important herds of cattle are bred, a certain number of these animals being usually exported to Costa Rica. The popula- tion of Rivas is about 50,000, its chief town, Rivas, possessing some 10,000 inhabitants. The department of Chinandega lies to the north of Leon, and is notable for its mineral deposits. That of Matagalpa is situated in the north of the Republic, and there is no doubt that this district contains great potential wealth, which only awaits an efficient system of communications to be developed. As is the case with Granada, the differing altitudes of the depart- ment encourage a very wide range of products. The climate is essentially temperate in the uplands, where the European cereals, vegetables, and fruits flourish. The lower levels hold plantations of coffee, sugar, and cocoa, while beneath these again are the forest dis- tricts with their rubber-trees. But this by no means concludes the list of the industries in this fortunate department, for it possesses important stretches of NICARAGUA 215 pasture -land, where cattle are bred, and a con- siderable amount of gold -mining is carried on within its frontiers, British capital being chiefly employed for this purpose. The population of Matagalpa slightly exceeds 40,000, its capital, Matagalpa, having rather more than 16,000 inhabitants. A certain amount of coffee and cocoa is pro- duced in the department of Chontales, but the prin- cipal industries here are mining and cattle -raising. Parts of its area are wooded and contain much valuable timber, but these have not yet been exploited to any appreciable extent. The principal mineral is gold, which, although not of a very high' grade, is mined with some success. The inhabitants of Chontales number about 50,000, and the population of its capital, Juiaglpa, is somewhat in excess of 6,000. The department of Bluefields is the headquarters of the Mosquito Indians in Nicaragua, and it was formerly known as the Mosquito Reservation. In certain respects it is one of the most valuable dis- tricts in Central America. It possesses, for instance, those natural advantages that are so rare in the Isthmus, rivers that can be navigated by ocean-going craft. It is in the Bluefields district, as a matter of fact, that the greatest industrial development is now occur- ring. As is explained elsewhere, the main commercial product here is the banana, and the part played by the United States in this trade is yearly increasing in importance, the chief centres of the industry being in the neighbourhood of Great River and Pearl Lagoon. A considerable amount of mining is carried on, several important goldfields being worked. Copper is met with in paying, but less lucrative, quantities. When this district has become opened up^, there seems no doubt that a flourishing future awaits these industries. 216 CENTRAL AMERICA The port of Bluefields itself is, of course, growing in proportion with the increase of the surrounding industries, ahhough its population at the present time probably does not much exceed 6,000. It is a curious example of the want of land communications that has prevailed in Nicaragua that practically to the present day the greater part of the provisions consumed by the town of Bluefields is brought by steamer from New Orleans, in the United States. This includes even such articles as coffee, sugar, and maize — articles which form the staple products of other parts of Central America ! Indeed, the situation as regards products here has mucji in common with that of the British fishing town whose inhabitants were obliged to await the arrival of the London train before they could obtain their fish I We may now take a rapid survey of the three principal cities of the Republic. Managua, the capital of Nicaragua, is an important commercial town, situated at a very favourable strategic point so far as communications and commerce are concerned. The increasing railway facilities, together with the naviga- tion which is carried on on Lake Managua — on the shore of which the capital stands — and on the larger sheet of Lake Nicaragua, bring this place into touch with the ports on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, and — ^notwithstanding the enervating nature of its climate that has already been referred to — ^nothing but a prolonged period of internal tranquillity would seem necessary to assure an important commercial future to Managua. The two chief products of the province of Managua, it may be said, are coffee, grown in the highlands, and sugar-cane, planted in the lowlands. Leon, the old capital of Nicaragua, possesses, as has already been explained, a population exceeding that of Managua by some 20,000. In actual com- mercial importance, however, it ranks second to the capital. Like Managua, it is situated in the midst of NICARAGUA 217 a coffee and sugar-cane producing country, and in addition to this it serves as the distributing point for the mining districts of Matagalpa, Chichigalpa, and Chinandega. Granada, the third largest city of Nicaragua, occu- pies a position on the shores of Lake Nicaragua very similar to that of Managua on the lake of that name. The district in the centre of which Granada lies is very similar from the industrial point of view to that in the neighbourhood of Managua and Leon. In its vicinity is an unusually important cocoa plantation, owned by a French firm. In Nicaragua, curiously enough, the British interests are largely confined to the area of the Pacific coast, the Americans having almost the entire control of the operations on the Pacific littoral* It has been esti- mated that the total of British capital invested in Nicaragua amounts to some £500,000 ; but it is possible that rather more than this may be actually involved when the mining interests are taken into consideration. The question of Nicaraguan currency has been pro- ductive of some complications, which arose largely on account of the want of confidence displayed by the foreign and native merchants alike in the paper peso. This particular form of financial unit has been flatly refused by the business men of the Republic, and this slighted paper money has had no option but to retire from circulation as gracefully and as quietly as it could. It is being replaced by another unit, the cordoba, which has been designed to be the equivalent of the gold dollar, and is thus worth, roughly, four shillings. There seems no doubt that the cordoba is an improve- ment on the peso, since it has a reserve fund stored up in New York at its back. But even the cordoba has been received with a lack of enthusiasm that does not promise too well for the future bf this paper money.. 218 CENTRAL AMERICA The popular units for transacting business are the silver sole and the various forms of United States currency. The following tables in connection with Nicaragua show the various goods exported as well as the countries which receive them : — NICARAGUA 219 n ■rf(S t^l l-T m" CO VO cT •S f'l CO M OO vo^rt^M CS lOvOM ONO CO Q "^ CO in rt-o^ M l-T M~ M M M MM vO t^ ON '^ rfOMOO M tvOO VOOO M M M o M hHvO COOO C< M ON CO O CO C^ VO tv t^ VO o^ ^.t CO m_nO_oo^ m_^ ro OO^ M_ O^ !>. ^nQ^ CO -^ to VO O <5 * co00 OniO '^ On >:? C?^ l-T cn" CO l-T On lO t^ • NO c^ r< VO -^ ONt^ fO VO 00 Tj-ON'^C^ rt-O VO CM CO CO m" cT r? ". O O CO 00 c< vOOO M tvO 00 M On t-N\0 rj- M rf Onu-)C» C^ t>.ONVOCM 12 •^ CS 00 VO -rf- VO din o" ^o" t< t<: ocT CO rT VO m" CO VO M CO M CS O 00 ■* ■* cs ^>. VOMVO M M !>. ^l^ OO O O O lOX) covO VOOO Th o» 00 OO !>.. w ^ OO lO CO M lOO t^ M Tj-C^ ONCOVOt^O o^ Ti^ COM CO cT OO 00 M O VO M M rT i^ •+ oT cT OO t>. tv. t^ ri- ONO CM CO rT m" m" lo cT (> r - H-i n vovO CS VO ONOO o ONf>»0 CM OO C< CO rf lOM M vO^ CO o cs M vo'?^ CM m" m" ci" -,§ ^:|:> (^ (S •-' ^^ 2 '^P CM CO O On •rj- COOO M S-. cs c^o >qi *>< voOMO o r^Tj-io CO lOO 00 t^ O^ On M vO 00 CO cooo ^ O « 5 cTod CO d rf o" CJNOO" O'" coo" o ^ t^C^ VOCM O M Q ^ CM M Tt- O Q ONO O 00 N '±On voo t>N M t^o 00 00 c< 00 5 M VO r< O VO CM ■rt- COCM O t^lOOO M ^ t^ O^-rt- vO^ Th rf M M^ t^M OnCJ m Td-COVO ■<+ oo h-To" rf On i-ToO l-T d hToO vooo" m" VO m" ^ M CO lO Tj- t^ O O CO On 10 OnO VOOO VO M "^^ COM CM COCS t^M CM O rl- CM m" M ^ CO Ui CO «• ^ '^ rl- M COC< COlO -^CN rl-CO u rOGO \ M M M t^ ri-CO l>.CO CS M^ OOO s in c> . CI 00 K t^ ■"• m" m" t<; o ro • M Th Q CO fO 2" Oro ro O O Q OOO '^O M M^5 On IN.M M t~> l-> O O O ro O vO t^co oo OvO t^ ^O O^O ON l^ ■^ o" r "^co C^ oo^oT tF rC CN rfvO" CO m" oooo • rh m cor^oj O vO 00 M M C» m" lO M «. !>. O CO rl- in o O O^ O -rf lOt^ O OO 5" !>. r< rhM com VC C^^O CO ■ri-oo in o •^ M CO^M^ o LOOO M . M CO O . o . ^ ^ CO cf I o'm' : cT rf : oo" : o a to Q CO S 1 c> "^ OOO O tN, 8^ o o o o C< O O CO l>.fO oo O O O OxC mo o vO lOM t^'^i- O Tf O C^ O CO o o^o 00 lO i<.oo" ©"fC; : ©"m^iom" : vo' o'm : On CO ■^ • M O lO M t>. g r^ • r:l-0_M oo r.s O l>. O CO O Tt-M O rf- o CO* OO in O CO r^ CO CO On (N f^ CO Tf 13 ^t^ CO : t^ n : M M lOlOOO rhcocoo r^ : =; MOO in • • iot» •* O vO oo ^i, l-> 0_^ CO 9, : ^f rC oo" m" • vo" O" t^ rf c> CO tF c5~ MOO r o^in CS Tt- 1^ M Tft-lOTt- \ q^M CO w m" w o 14 iS : ; ; : ' I '. ! : t ! : : fS * ■ ' ' • • • • • • o ■4-1 !-«■ : : ! 1 : : . 1 : : : i i : : : : : : c« c .1 lit a - i a S o o. ^ g 5 w c ^H ^ o U U Q O NICARAGUA 221 00 00 lO CO Tt-Q OO M o W 00 MO lO CO o ro or>. Tf M M O 'O M to Th •>:f M r< ci o IOCS OO O 0^ CO tOt>i (S CO 'rf t>» VO Ot>. r^ ou-i oo r^ cs O M ON t>. OO lO C^ CO s • rT ri- vo^cxTsd" oin m" ocTco in • cT'^ t M lO CO • lO r< o M • 7 cs ? ^ ro cs Ov coo o rnm'so o t^t^ f^ o OO o O >» lOCOlOM u-i (S CO -^M w toiO Tl- O ro O OO 0) OO O lO o lOCOO ^N M COt^l^>0 tFvO CO q;q^c< CO rTcf xo '«*■ : ^r^ ^ OO T*- com -+0 i-i vC lO tn COOO (s a-^:) rf- OMO ON ON 00 CO >-< rt- m lO lO O -i-ri O O-H CO U-)M lO ti CO o ■^ s .% O O '^ (Jyrtq^^ u-jcoO t-.Tj-0 . 00 OO . , OO o o~ hTiOm t^ro o' cTo" vooo : pThT : J lO xj: : lo '^ O COM to cs CO cs HH vO r^ o '^ vO o o O t^ ON o q^ tj-oo_ CO o r^ t^ O '^f O o On M to OO t^ o cs . o co"^ O OO CO O CNl t^«N t^ 1 cT d~io KiO * z \ o~ . S^"^ M to •+ O ro coo O OO M O COOO ■^ o tMO On OO o cs COOO O 00 r< i^ r^ ►- o -+- rf O O ON ON CO O OO ; vO t-^vo HI lOOO CO oco o : : '^ : t>. ^ Ill iot? (5 • rFcf tF (5oo" rf lood CO • •ocT * o ... o >-i C4 VO o M CO w CS lO t^ r< Tt- n H< o col^t^iO fOt^Ti- CO O ^^ CO vO M M O ri-M ^^^S OO ro -^ «s O CO I^ o c< O t^ ON CS 00 O cT ' ONM M r' * * to \ o -: en CO O TJ - ^ Pi s 1 0) PC . , , • . • • . . • - . . . 1 • • • ^ , , . ^ M ' • • 1 • * • .... : : : : . . . • • • IS''- : : : : CO : : : : : : : : : : : G 0) : : : : : : : :§§ £ C/5 -2 S S CO * a CO S S S c fl o Si o o r3 ■=1 a K Pi C/3 (h H 222 CENTRAL AMERICA 8 OO >-c O o Q m • : ^ « vO rt-00 OO t-^\0 OO • n o vO o co^ r^oo 00 M 0,- v^m Ti- i- 00 vO O O <>co Q "^ too NO O l>* tS O rj- rt-C^ VO O CS CS ro lO i-i 80O t^ 00 o l-H O TOO M O Tt O O O O O 0;iO^^ '^ rf iOJ>; ro ro C^ O O M VO O O lO vO cs 00 T;t- O M M X) Q 00 OO O O o vO VO 00 O O o '^ CO M O CS OO lO . c> : C^vO" • ^>i^<-> o • M • • fOC< • OS o ^ : ^ "^ .S \ S B '^ I rt "5 5j "5 ' o ^ o .ti 5: W i,^ >>■« m CHAPTER XV ' COSTA RICA Costa Rica as a progressive Republic— Political stability of the Republic — Causes and results of a legitimate revolution — Population — Character of the inhabitants — Influence of the United States — An instance of fair legal procedure — Some prohibited articles — Climate and physical features — Vegetable products and minerals — Principal industries of Costa Rica — Banana and coffee planting — Respective importance of these industries — Chief centres of production — The provinces of Costa Rica — Situation and products of Guanacaste, Alajuela, San Jose, Heredia, and Cartago — The territories of Punta Arenas and Limon — Fauna — Brilliancy of the birds — The quetzal — Characteristics of the bird that has been adopted as a national emblem by Guatemala — Mammals and snakes — The Costa Rica railway — Scenery from the coast to the capital — Variety of the landscape — San Jose — Some features of a pleasant city — A French authority on the women of the capital — Municipal buildings and theatre — The luxury of a pavement — Urban improvements — The introduction of modern sanitation — Inconveniences of the rainy season — Agricultural products of the neighbourhood of San Jose — Some other industrial centres — Curious distribution of the chief towns — Ports on the Atlantic and Pacific — Maritime movements in Limon and Punta Arenas — Tables showing coffee exports. CosTA Riga is the smallest but one of the Central American States, the sole exception being Salvador. This, however, is speaking from the mere territorial point of view, for in all else but area the State plays a most notable part. Until the opportunities afforded by the new develop- ment of the banana industry opened the eyes of its neighbours and aroused them to the possibilities that had been latent in their lands, Costa Rica, judged from the commercial point of view, was considered by many as the only example of a really progressive 223 224 CENTRAL AMERICA Central American Republic. In any case, it must be said that if it can no longer claim this distinction it is rather because some of the remaining countries of the Isthmus have come into line rather than on account of retrogression on the part of Costa Rica. It cannot be said, as a matter of fact, that Costa Rica is altogether free from the atmosphere of revolution that would seem to have permeated every Central American State in the past ; for at the end of 191 6 a rising occurred, which resulted in the ejection from office of the President, Senor Alfredo Gonzalez. It seems clear, however, that this event was not the result of a mere reckless and vicious outbreak, but was the protest of the Costa Ricans against an illegal and undesirable state of affairs, which had arisen in rather a curious way. The manner, in fact, in which the now dispossessed head of the State managed to attain to the presidency appears to have been quite unconstitutional, and was merely acquiesced in for the sake of peace, this circumstance alone pro- viding a striking testimonial of the Costa Rican's love of political tranquillity. When the President, however, proceeded to take undue advantage of his quite amazing good fortune in a manner that was considered disadvantageous to the State, the Costa Ricans decided that it was time to act without delay. The coup d'etat that ensued was a model one in every respect. It was accomplished in a determined and businesslike fashion, entirely with- out tumult, and apparently without the shedding of a single drop of blood. Moreover, the object of the movement was not the placing of a rival in power, but the proclamation of a general election for a future date — a programme that was in itself a suffi- cient guarantee of good faith. Had all the political movements of the Isthmus taken this direction, the saving in blood and treasure would have sufficed to COSTA RICA 225 populate every bit of the country that is to-day unexplored and to pave the streets of each capital v^^ith gold. The population of Costa Rica has been recently estimated at 420,179 persons— a rathef surprisingly detailed figure, considering that no census has been taken for some twenty -five years. Nevertheless, the Costa Rican being a sufficiently businesslike person, it may be accepted with a certain amount of confi- dence. The only two towns it possesses that can lay claim to a population exceeding 10,000 are San Jose, the capital, with 35,000 inhabitants, and Cartago, which has nearly 13,000. This, in any case, is by no means an unsatisfactory feature, as large urban populations have no rightful place in a State that is devoted to agriculture practically in its entirety. The people of Costa Rica would seem to possess a proportion of white blood somewhat in excess of that of the average Central American State. They have proved themselves industrious agriculturists, and the inevitable Latin American rule has asserted .itself once again here ; that political tranquillity — com- parative tranquillity, if you will — goes hand in hand with material prosperity. European and North American immigrants, moreover, are numerous in Costa Rica, and their influence has been not with- out its value upon the original inhabitants of the Republic. . , Many young Costa Ricans, for example, now study at Yale and Harvard, and the mysteries of baseball are becoming less profound each year throughout the Republic, while football and polo have also obtained a footing there. These circumstances may sound trivial, but they are sufficiently significant of the relations between the two nations. That there is a vast amount lacking between the present conditions of the majority of the Central IS 226 CENTRAL AMERICA American States and the ideal, not even the most patriotic and optimistic of the Central Americans Would deny. On the other hand, it would be equally unfair to deny that in many respects there is now a tendency to advance in the right direction. Costa Rica has set an interesting example in at least one of these respects. One of the greatest troubles with which the European or United States manufacturer has always had to contend has been the inefficiency of the protection accorded by the local laws to trade -marks. Thus in the byways of many of the Latin American Republics the unsophisticated traveller might rejoice that it is possible to purchase a bottle of a well-known whisky or brandy at a price which — comparatively speaking— seems astonishingly cheap. .When the liquid is once tasted, however, any delusions on that point are apt to vanish with a fiery abruptness ; for in such cases these famous labels of the Highlands and of the Charente cover an unspeak- able multitude of moist sins. Whether the liquid is potato -spirit or fusel-oil, or any other poisonous decoc- tion of the kind, does not matter in the least, for a knowledge of the precise degree of iniquity is of small consolation to one who has had the misfortune to taste it. It happened that in Costa Rica a local company had actually gone the length of themselves registering one of these leading brands, with the enterprising idea of sheltering their own liquid beneath a famous High-'^ land mark — and perhaps preventing the legitimate ' whisky from entering the country under its own proper style ! It was actually with this plea that the local company went into court. But they met with a sane and upright judge, who decided in favour of the legiti- mate article, and thus created a precedent of marked importance to the commercial and industrial community which is interested in Costa Rica. COSTA RICA 227 All this may seem something of a storm in a tea- cup — or a tempest in a whisky -flask — but a case of this kind is of great interest to the foreign commercial world, and it is undoubtedly from events such as these that the amount of confidence in the everyday integrity of a nation is judged. There are a certain number of articles the importa- tion of which into Costa Rica is forbidden by the Government of the Republic. Some of these bear testimony to the practical spirit of the authorities, for among them are provisions in bad condition and spirits containing more than sixty degrees of pure alcohol. Incidentally it may be said, too, that the introduc- tion of war material, nitro -glycerine, and dynamite is prohibited, except by arrangement with the Govern- ment. But this goes to prove nothing either way ; for a precaution of this kind would appeal to a despotic and precarious Government as well as to a just and stable power. The majority of its lands being highlands, the climate of Costa Rica is healthy for a tropical country, although the forest -covered lowlands suffer from the same climatic disadvantages as those of the neigh- bouring Republics. A great part of the interior is a table -land. This is crossed by a mountain range, the peaks of which at one or two points attain to a height of nearly 12,000 feet. It is on this table- land that the majority of the Costa Ricans have settled, frequently at the foot of volcanoes, and thus taking all the risks which would seem inseparable from the otherwise temperate and healthy altitudes of these regions. Eruptions have played as much havoc with the lives of the Costa Ricans as with those of nearly every other Central American land. Volcanoes, however, are rare in the south of the Republic. As in the case of its sister States, the Atlantic sea- 228 CENTRAL AMERICA board of Costa Rica is densely wooded. The Pacific coast consists for the most part of savannas. It is from the territories bordering on the Atlantic, of course, that the greater part of the splen^d timber is obtained, which one day must be the source of much wealth to the Republic. Some of the most notable of these woods are mahogany, cedar, Brazil wood, evergreen oak, and ebony. It is in these low- lands, too, that the important banana industry is carried on, the coffee plantations occupying the lower slopes of the mountains. The minerals of the Republic have not yet received as much attention as they deserve^ which is not so surprising as it may sound when the wealth is taken into consideration which is being accumulated from agriculture. Costa Rica, nevertheless, is well stocked with gold, and it has deposits of silver as well. The principal mining -fields are those of Abangarez, La Union, Montezuma, and Aguacate. The annual average exportation of gold and silver bullion from the Republic amounts to a little under £200,000. There seems no doubt that petroleum exists in considerable quantities ; but, although two or three tentative efforts have been made^ this enter- prise has not yet been developed. The Indian tribes of Costa Rica are met with chiefly on the Atlantic coast. The most important group of these are the Talamancas, who from the physical point of view closely resemble the Mayas of Yucatan. Their curious thatched -roof dwellings are wont to be stockaded. The two principal industries of Costa Rica are banana and coffee planting. The bananas, of course, are produced on the Atlantic coastal lowlands, and the value of the annual export of these is now in the neighbourhood of a million pounds. The great majority of the bunches are shipped from Port Limon, but a certain proportion of those grown in the southern COSTA RICA 229 districts are sent to the Panamanian province of Bocas del Toro, and are shipped from there. About a third of the total quantity of bananas grown is exported to Great Britain ; the rest is taken by the United States. It is difficult to estimate the actual arec[ of land devoted to banana plantation, owing to the rapid spread of the industry ; but in 1 9 1 2 the extent of land thus employed was about one hundred thousand acres, and the increase since then has been con- siderable. As will be seen from the figures at the end of this chapter, the production of coffee represents a financial total which falls short of that derived from bananas by about 25 per cent. The^ various products of the Republic are referred to under the headings of the separate provinces, but we may give the chief centres of coffee here and the percentage of the crop which each produces. They are :— Per cent. Alajuela H'4^ Heredia 24-60 San Jose 42*29 Cartago 14*44 Atlantic Slope ... 4'25 Costa Rica is divided into five provinces and two Comarcas, or territories. The provinces are Guana - c,aste, Alajuela, San_Jose, Heredia, and Cartago, - The territories are Punta^Areijas and l^imon. The province of Guanacaste forms the north-western extremity of Costa Rica, and is bounded on the north by the Republic of Nicaragua, on the west by the Pacific, on the south by the Gulf of Nicoya and the province of San Jos^, and on the east by the province of Alajuela. Its chief products are timber, cattle, hides, skins, maize, beans, and gold. The province of Alajuela is bounded on the north by Nicaragua, on the east by the territory of Limon 230 CENTRAL AMERICA and the Atlantic, on the south by the provinces of Heredia and San Jos^, and on the west by that of Guanacaste. Its principal products are coffee, sugar, hides, and timber. The province of San Jos^ occupies the central portion of the Pacific coastal line. It is bounded on the north by the provinces of Alajuela and Heredia, on the east by that of Cartago, on the south by the territory of Punta Arenas and the Pacific Ocean, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Nicoya. Its chief products are coffee, rice, sugar, and beans. The province of Heredia is a small inland area, situated between the provinces of Alajuela, San Jose, and Cartago, with the territory of Limon to the west. Its chief products are cattle, hides, coffee, and sugar. Cartago is the only other inland province. This is bounded on the east by the territory of Limon, on the north by the province of Heredia, on the west by that of San ]os6y and on the south by the territory of Punta Arenas. Its chief products are coffee, sugar, hides, and cattle. The two territories of Costa Rica occupy the southern coastal lands on the Atlantic and Pacific respectively. Notwithstanding the important stretch of land they occupy, they are very sparsely populated. The territory of Limon is situated on the Atlantic, and occupies practically the entire stretch of coast- line on the Caribbean between Panama and Nicaragua. Inland, from north to south, it is bounded succes- sively by the provinces of Alajuela, Heredia, and Cartago, and by the territory of Punta Arenas. Its chief products are those of the lowlands bordering the Atlantic coast, and are bananas, timber, rubber, and cocoa. The territory of Punta Arenas occupies the southern COSTA RICA 231 part of the Pacific coastline of Costa Rica, and is bounded on the north-west by San Jos6, on the north by Cartago, on the north-east by the territory of Limon, and on the east by the RepubHc of Panama. Its products are timber, dye-woods, pearl-shell, salt, and skins. The flora and fauna of Costa Rica are very varied. In bird life the small Republic is peculiarly rich, being said to possess no fewer than seven hundred species of the feathered tribe. It would clearly be an outrage on the average reader to attempt to enumerate the various kinds of birds, to say nothing of the fact that such a task would be completely beyond the author's power. It may be said, however, that some of the most notable specimens are the white eagle, and the numerous varieties of parrots, macaws, toucans, and humming-birds. One of the most brilliant birds of Costa Rica, as well as of Central America in general, is the quetzal. This bird is about the size of a moderately large pigeon, but its tail is over a yard in length. The plumage of its body is of a beautiful emerald colour shot with gold, and its breast is a glittering carmine . This handsome bird is as remarkable for the care it takes of its beauty as for its beauty itself. It is clear that no ordinary nest would accommodate as magnificent a tail as the one it possesses. So the quetzal, going to some trouble in the matter, has developed the habit of building his house to suit his tail I This he does by making two openings, one exactly opposite the other. By this means he can enter by the one and leave by the other without having to turn in the confined space and disarrange his splendid length of tail feather. But, although the quetzal may be a slave to his tail, he resolutely refuses to render servitude in any Other fashion, He refuses tp live in a, ca^e, and 232 CENTRAL AMERICA prefers death to an existence of this sort. It is for this reason as much as for its brilliant plumage that the Republic of Guatemala has chosen this bird as its emblem. Two of the principal song-birds of Costa Rica, it may be added, are the sesontle, a sober -hued creature, and the guarda-barranco. The mammals of Costa Rica are the same to all intents and purposes as those of the neighbouring countries, and include the jaguar, puma, ant-eater, tapir, deer, porcupine, and numerous other species. Among the various species of monkeys is a curious animal with a white face. Concerning this extra- ordinary creature, Pittier remarks that it has been met with wearing a red passion-flower as a decoration in each ear 1 One hundred and fifty different species of snakes are said to exist in Costa Rica, and among the large reptiles are iguanas and lizards. The Costa Rica Railway is characteristic of many other lines proceeding inland through a tropical country, and vistas similar to those which it affords are to be met with in Mexico, Peru, and Brazil. The Costa Rica Railway is, of course, on a small scale ; but it possesses a charm which is to be outdone by no other of the more extensive transport enterprises. Since Costa Rica is the principal garden of Central America, its railway naturally obtains the full benefit of its varied scenery. Starting from the low-lying coast, it proceeds first of all through a region of tall and stately palm-trees that in themselves afford a sight worth travelling a good many hundred miles to see. After this, as the ground begins to rise imperceptibly, these palms become blended with an astonishing wealth of other tropical vegetation . Possessing comparatively little of that sombre and COSTA RICA 233 melancholy note which is typical of the depths of some of the great virgin forests of Brazil, the luxuriance of the Costa Rican growths nevertheless provides its forests with tree giants that can rival in size the majority of those of the Amazons. With the intervening spaces between the vast trunks filled in by creepers, lianas, giant ferns, smaller trees, and by the brilliant collections of blossomis of all colours, the picture of one of these lowland Costa Rican forests is perfectly entrancing, even in the eyes of one not usually impressed by these aspects of nature. These lower forest regions, however, are practically uninhabited by any other beings than the birds— of which, as has been remarked, seven hundred different species are said to exist — the snakes, and the other creatures of the woodlands. No doubt one day the axe will sound here, and much of the splendid timber will be dragged from its green fastnesses ; but it may safely be predicted that this lumber enterprise will not be conducted on a large scale for some time to come. Moreover, as is so often the case where Nature abounds in this fashion, there is an element of treachery in her beauty, for even the most enthu- siastic Costa Rican— and there are many— cannot claim that these fascinating lowland forests are healthy neighbourhoods . As the train begins to leave the low levels of the plain, the banana plantations, manned by Jamaican negroes, appear by the side of the line, each dusky labourer being provided with his little corrugated-iron shanty. The vegetation here continues luxuriant, and everywhere the great, smooth, glistening leaves of the banana-trees are backed by dense walls of other vegetation. Not until the foothills of the mountains are reached does the vegetation begin to grow less exuberant. There are innumerable coffee plantations here, and 234 CENTRAL AMERICA the Indian labourer now takes the place of the negro, who works in his own casual and happy-go-lucky fashion below. Here the mountain scenery becomes grand and rugged in many places, as though to com- pensate for the many stretches of 'stony nakedness that mark parts of the higher levels. San Jose, the capital of Costa Rica, is usually considered the pleasantest city in Central America. The majority of its houses are lowly structures, and from an architectural point of view the place is un- impressive. The setting of the town, however, is extremely picturesque. The inhabitants are famed for their hospitality, and the women of San Jos6 for their beauty. But those who go into Central America expecting to find in the capitals of these States a replica of Paris or London on a small scale will undoubtedly meet with disappointment. So far there has been little incentive to construct large and imposing urban centres in the lands that join the two great continents of the Americas, to say nothing of the lack of the popu- lation that might reasonably be expected to occupy them. Nevertheless, it is generally conceded that there is a great charm about the town of San Jos6, the capital of Costa Rica. Its dwellings are for the most part unimposing, as has been said, and much of its beauty is derived from the picturesque surroundings of the spot. For all that, it is by no means devoid of its finer urban trappings. It possesses, too, a museum, a university, and an observatory. But the chief pride of the town is centred on its theatre. There is no doubt that San Jos6 has brooked no half -measures in its theatre. This is a magnificent 'building, constructed of Carrara marble, and is said to have cost the enormous sum of ten millions of colons. In one respect it must be admitted that this imposing Structure is something of a white elephant ; for^ COSTA RICA 235 although its doors are always hospitably open to travelling dramatic companies, there are, alas 1 pain- fully few dramatic companies whose walk of life leads them in the direction of Central America. But no doubt the future will amend this condition of affairs, and the theatre can afford to wait, for its massive structure should be capable of resisting almost anything short of an earthquake. A circumstance that distinguishes San Jose from almost every other Central American city is that its streets are paved. This is a luxury that is practically unknovm elsewhere in the Isthmus, where the surface of the roadways remains more or less in its natural condition, with the result that the inhabitants are at the mercy of the thick dust or deep mud which so frequently prevails. It may be said further in favour of San Jos6 that within the last half-dozen years the city has been provided with a modern drainage system, as well as with an improved system of water supply — two other urban assets which are not yet too common in the Isthmus. Since the introduction of the new water supply there has been a marked and gratify- ing falling off in the number of typhoid fever cases. The rainy season in San Jos6 causes distinct incon- veniences, although not to the same extent as was formerly the case. The going in the neighbourhood is, however, bad, and the violent storms which occur from time to time at this period do not mend matters. This phenomenon is known as a temporal, and, to the accompaniment of loud thunder, the clouds are blown downwards along the gorges, and the weather some- times remains stormy and clouded for a week or two on end. San Jos^ is the centre of a rich agricultural dis- trict. Its elevation, of course, does not permit the growths of the full tropics, and the chief products 236 CENTRAL AMERICA of the surrounding country are coffee, sugar, beans, and vegetables and fruits in general. Cartago, the next town in size, has already been briefly referred to. This city is situated to the south- east of the capital, with which it is connected by rail- way. The surroundings of this town are very similar to those of San Josd, and, in addition, it is concerned with a certain amount of dairy produce. The timber industry exists here to a small extent as well. Cartago was almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake which occurred in 191 1, in the course of which some 5,000 of its inhabitants lost their lives. So once again here the inhabitants have had to set to work to repair the ravages of Nature. The calamity in this case did not end with the actual seismic destruction, for a severe outbreak of sickness occurred in the refuge camps of the survivors, and a great number of deaths ensued from this cause. The third Costa Rican town in point of population is Heredia, the chief city of the province of the same name. This is situated on the railway less then twenty miles to the north of San Jos^. Its population approaches 9,000, and among the chief products of its neighbourhood are coffee, sugar, cattle, and hides. Some ten miles to the west of Heredia is the town of Alajuela, the inhabitants of which exceed 7,000 in number. This is the centre of a district which yields all those products referred to in the case of Heredia, while in addition maize and rice are grown, and gold is mined. It will be evident from this that the chief towns of Costa Rica are somewhat curiously distributed. To use a racing figure of speech, the four that have just been mentioned are so close together that they might be covered by a blanket, and they thus provide an area in the central uplands of the Republic which COSTA RICA 237 is populous to quite a dense degree for an agricultural country. The two remaining towns of note consist of the chief ports on the shores of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans respectively. The port on the Pacific is Limon, the population of which slightly exceeds 7,000. This, situated in the coastal lowlands as it is, is surrounded by purely tropical country, and its products are what would naturally be expected from the district, being principally made up of bananas, cocoa, rubber, and timber. Punta Arenas, the Pacific port of Costa Rica, has a population of about 5,000. The products of its area are timber, dye-woods, rubber, pearl-shells, salt, and skins. Some figures concerning the activity of these ports of Limon and Punta Arenas will not be out of place. The former port is much the more important of the two, and was visited in 19 14 by the following steam vessels : — Entered. Nationality. With Cargo. In Ballast. Total. British Vessels. 135 Tonnage. 446,289 Vessels. 30 Tonnage. 89,508 Vessels. 165 Tonnage. 535,797 German 46 129,655 6 16,990 52 146,645 Norwegian 32 32,300 55 35,954 87 68,254 Spanish 7 25,442 - ... 7 25,442 Italian 13 39,118 ... ... 13 39,118 French 8 23,449 ... ... 8 23,449 United States ... 43 132,084 2 3,243 45 135,327 Costa Rican ... ... I 3,088 I 3,088 238 CENTRAL AMERICA Cleared. Nationality. With Cargo. In Ballast. Total. British Vessels. 128 Tonnage. 425,864 Vessels. 37 Tonnage. 110,371 Vessels. 165 Tonnage. 536,235 German 45 127,176 7 19,469 52 146,645 Norwegian 45 38,155 44 32,341 89 70,496 Spanish 5 18,088 2 7,354 7 25,442 ItaUan 8 22,991 5 16,127 13 39,118 French 7 20,189 I 3,260 8 23,449 United States ... 40 121,373 4 9,395 44 130,768 Against this the Pacific port of Punta Arenas makes a comparatively insignificant show, the total tonnage involved for steam vessels entering and clearing in the same period being under 400,000 tons. In this case the United States leads with about 200,000 tons ; Germany comes second with 60,000 tons, and Great Britain third with 40,000 tons. The following tables show the exports from Costa Rica for the period between the years i9o'9 and 1915:— Return of Exports during the Year 1910. Coffee* Bananas Cacao Mahogany Cedar Rosewood Fustic Other timbers Tortoiseshell Rubber Mother-of-pearl Hides Grindstones Gold and silver bullion I Bags I Metric tons 233,693) 12,474) Bunches 9,097,285 Metric tons 183 ... Kilos 100,573 3,923,109 ... „ 1,210,338 ... „ 416,909 ... „ 17,130 - „ 1,454 ... „ 84,261 ... „ 282,074 ••• » 375,259 ... „ 63,085 566,142 870,553 8,474 396 11,407 2,805 1,506 65 1,772 21,049 4,486 24,300 337 166,632 These are the figures for the crop exported from October i, 1909, to September 30, 1910. COSTA RICA 239 Return of Exports during the Year 1911. Coffee ^ Bananas Cacao Mahogany Cedar Rosewood Fustic Other timbers Tortoiseshell Rubber Mother-of-pearl Hides... Deer-skins Gold and silver bullion Concentrates Sugar and panela ... Oranges Sundries Total £ Bags Metric tons 206,609 ) 12,641 1 584,645 Bunches 9,309,586 890,870 Metric tons 343 17,780 ... Kilos 262,354 806 ... ,, 4,665,308 15.455 ,, 559,721 1,072 M 200,000 270 ... ... 906 ... Kilos 1,425 1,659 ,, 73,958 17,300 ... ' ,, 188,816 1,662 ... ,, 283,661 16,649 ,, 14,588 1,393 ... 240,898 ... 5,933 ... Kilos 2,005,450 19,191 ,, 61,564 209 ... 22,838 il ... 1,836,536 "S DURING THE YEAR I912 1,018,918 Bunches 10,647,702 Bags Metric tons 196,211 12,238; 729,527 » 309 17,511 ... Kilos 512,234 2,013 ,, 7,072,008 22,716 ,, 222,252 611 ... ,, 36,875 65 f> 1,344 1,810 »» 78,748 19,218 >» 198,130 1,600 „ 382,247 21,862 „ 22,186 2,116 From mines 82,288 »> ... 73,226 M ... 12,736 ... Kilos 755,742 7,231 ,, 71,025 212 ,, 451,963 2,556 ... 14.743 ... 19,564 Bananas Coffee » Cacao Mahogany Cedar Rosewood ... Genizara Tortoiseshell Rubber Mother-of-pearl ... Hides Deer-skins Gold bullion Silver bullion Concentrates Sugar and panela ... Oranges Bran and wheat residues Coin Sundries Total ... 2,050,523 * These are the figures for the crop exported from October i, 1910, to September 30, 1911. 2 These are the figures for the crop exported from October i, 191 1, to September 30, 1912, 240 CENTRAL AMERICA Return of Exports during the Year 1913. Bananas Coffee^ Cacao Mahogany Cedar Rosewood Tortoiseshell Rubber Mother-of-pearl Hides Deer-skins Gold bullion Silver bullion Concentrates ... Oranges Bran and wheat residues Sundries Metric tons Kilos Bunches 11,170,812 Bags 205,541 ] 13,019! 384 492,750 8,068,808 282,290 1,488 47,552 129,304 381,390 18,694 From mines Kilos 135,468 351,820 Total £ 1,068,977 741,890 21,615 1,770 26,410 - 767 1,828 9,154 1,694 25,542 1,757 88,478 86,407 35,327 411 1,753 10,327 2,124,107 Return of Exports during the Year 1914. £ Bananas Bunches 10,162,912 972,528 Coffee » 1 ^^^^ I Metric tons 283,073 17,717. 959,687 Cacao ,» 330 17,391 Mahogany ... ,, 477 2,014 Cedar ,, 4,783 16,815 Rosewood ... ... ,, 2,401 5,842 Other timbers ... >» 226 808 Sugar ... »» 183 4,482 Rubber ... >, i6-8 2,497 Mother-of-pearl ... „ 44 632 Hides ... » 326-5 22,798 Deer-skins ... ... J, 17-8 1,684 Gold and silver bullion and concentrates ... J ... 182,868 Oranges ... n 139-8 446 Bran and wheat residues... ,, 304-6 1,496 Tortoiseshell ... », 0-641 775 Specie ... ... ... ... 29,832 Sundries ... ... ... 12,677 Total 2,235,272 I These are the figures for the crop exported from October i, igi2, to September 30, 1913. a These are the figures for the crop exported from October i, 1913, to September 30, 1914. COSTA RICA 241 Return showing the Distribution of the Costa Rican Coffee Crop of 1911-12. Quantity. Total. Percentage by Bags. United Kingdom and Colonies — In husk Cleaned Bags, 81,278 73,422 Bags. 154,700 II.I35 23,793 5,580 1,003 78-84 570 I2II 2-84 0-51 United States— In husk Cleaned 720 10,415 Germany — In husk Cleaned 15,785 8,008 France- Cleaned Other countries — In husk Cleaned 5.580 835 168 Total- in husk Cleaned 98,618 97,593 196,211 100 Note. — The number of bags shipped from Limon was 186,470 and from Punta Arenas 9,741. The proportion of coffee shipped in husk was 50-26 per cent. 16 242 CENTRAL AMERICA Return showing the Distribution of the Costa Rican Coffee Crop of 1912-13. Quantity. Total. Percentage by Bags. United Kingdom and Colonies — In husk Cleaned Bags. 72,369 95,227 Bags. 167,596 11,694 19,096 5,130 2,025 81-54 569 United States— In husk Cleaned 971 10,723 Germany — In husk Cleaned 8,179 10,917 France- Cleaned Other countries— In husk Cleaned 5,130 125 I,(>00 929 2-50 0-98 Total- In husk Cleaned 81,644 123,897 205,541 Note. — The number of bags shipped from Limon was 194,821 and from Punta Arenas 10,720. The proportion of coffee shipped in husk was 3972 per cent. 1^' COSTA RICA 243 Return showing the Distribution of the Costa Rican Coffee Crop of 1913-14. Quantity. Total. Percentage by Bags. United Kingdom and Colonies— In husk Cleaned ... Bags. 126,951 87,152 Bags. 214,103 28,046 30,181 7,545 3,198 7564 9-91 10-66 United States— In husk Cleaned 1,104 26,942 Germany— In husk Cleaned ... 15,343 14,838 France- Cleaned Other countries — In husk Cleaned 7,545 660 2,538 2-66 113 Total- In husk Cleaned 144,058 139,015 283,073 100 Note. — The number of bags shipped from Limon was 264,352 and from Punta Arenas 18,721. The proportion of coffee shipped in husk was 50*89 per cent. CHAPTER XVI HONDURAS Area and population of the Republic— Distribution of the inhabitants — Composition of the people — Climate — Physical features — The mountains and the Mosquito Coast — Rivers — Inland communica- tions — The fate of some pioneer motor-cars — Minerals — Vegetable products — Departments of Honduras — Chief towns — Date of the establishment of the Republic— Political troubles of the past— Fate of the former capital — Tegucigalpa, the modern capital — The chief ports on the Atlantic Coast — The banana and fruit ports of Puerto Cortes, La Ceiba, and Trujillo — Increasing prosperity of the two former — The characteristics of each — The Pacific port of Amapala — Products of the Republic in the order of their importance — Situation of the banana trade — The price of land — The influence of new conditions — Products of lesser importance — Natural resources — Honduras as a field for investment — Mining — The Mina de Sangre — Nineteenth-century account of an extraordinary fluid — The islands in the Bay of Honduras — Captain Mitchell's description of the island of Roatan — An instructive account^Appearance, manners, ' and customs of the inhabitants— The predicament of former slave- owners — Honduranean tobacco — Past and present condition of the industry — Former fame of the tobacco — Possibilities of the growth to-day — Tables showing Honduranean exports and imports — British Honduras — Some details concerning the colony. The area of Honduras is about ,43,000 square miles. The last census was taken in 1910, when the population of the Republic was placed at 553,446. In a country whose interests are almost entirely bound up in agriculture and mining, it is not surprising to find no more than two towns with a population exceeding 10,000. These are Tegucigalpa, whose inhabitants number about 30,000, and Santa Rosa, the population of which is slightly in excess of 10,000. The great bulk of the population of Honduras is 244 HONDURAS 245 made up of the mixed strains of European, Indian, and negro blood. For many centuries now there has been much intercommunication between the coast of the mainland in these regions and the West Indies. As a result of this, the influence of the West Indian negro on the Atlantic, or Caribbean, coast of the Republic has been considerable. So marked, indeed, has this been in certain districts that the popular form of speech in these is still a species of pidgin -English. The same conditions apply to the climate of Honduras as to the other Republics of Central America. Owing to the comparatively lofty average height of its territories, however, Honduras enjoys a more temperate climate than some of the rest. Fortu- nately for its inhabitants, moreover, there are no volcanoes on the fertile Atlantic slope. The greater part of this differs widely from the low and swampy Mosquito Coast in the Republic of Nicaragua to the south-east. In marked contrast to the latter, the northern coast of Honduras is either itself mountainous or it is backed by the ranges that are visible from the sea. Honduras in the main is essentially a moun- tainous country, with a rather peculiar feature in the great upland plain of the Comayagua, which affords pasture -land for great herds of cattle and which, in connection with the Espino table-land, provides a plain practically from ocean to ocean. The rivers of Honduras are of little consequence from the point of view of navigation. The most im- portant of these is the Ulua. This stream suffers from the disadvantage that attends nearly every Central American river, in that its mouth is blocked against vessels of any size by a bar which is no more than a yard or so in depth. Nevertheless, the lower reaches are navigable for light -draught river steamers. Almost exactly the same conditions apply to the River Patuca. Honduranean communications, indeed, are still in 246 CENTRAL AMERICA their infancy ; for, beyond the small, but increasing, railway system, the means of transport is confined chiefly to the cumbrous and slow bullock -cart, while travel is largely effected by mules. Ten years or so ago a large number of automobiles were introduced into the country, with the object of bringing the transport question more up to date. Un- fortunately, this very laudable scheme was frustrated by the terrible condition of the roads, and after some years the interior of the Republic was strewn with stranded and wrecked motor-cars. These for the most part have had to be left to rot where they stood, for it was found impossible to bring them down to «the coast in order to be shipped elsewhere. This ending to a praiseworthy attempt is sufficiently lamentable. But it is clear that, until the Honduranean highways are improved, the only type of motor-car which will be able to negotiate them must possess some of the dauntless and indomitable framework of the "tank." There is no doubt whatever that Honduras has been richly endowed by nature with natural wealth. It is generally considered as the most prolific in this respect of all the Central American States. The actual extent of its minerals is not yet known, but there is already quite sufficient evidence to demonstrate its great poten- tial yieldings in this respect. The most abundant minerals are silver, copper, lead, and iron. Honduras ^ moreover, possesses a vast amount of riches in the territories adjoining the Atlantic coast, where the dense forests contain immense quantities of mahogany and other valuable timbers. The lumber industry here, however, has not yet been developed to any extent commensurate with its ultimate possi- bilities, and the industrial interest of the moment is centred on the rapid development of fruit-growing, more especially of banana plantation, which is trans- forming the circumstances of this coast. HONDURAS 247 Honduras is divided into fifteen departments, com- prising Tegucigalpa, El Paraiso, Choluteca, Valle, La Paz, Comayagua, Yoro, Cortes, Santa Barbara, Copan, Gracias, Intibuca, Colon, Olancho, and Las Islas. The area of Olancho is the largest of these, consisting as it does of about 10,000 square miles, while that of Las Islas is the smallest, amounting to no more than 160 square miles. One or two of the chief towns of the Republic are referred to later ; but the populations of the dozen largest may be given here. These are, according to the last figures available : — Tegucigalpa ... ... 22,137 San Pedro Sula ... 7,820 San Jacinto ... ... 14,000 Pespire ... 7,132 Santa Rosa ... ... 10,574 Comavaguela ... ... 6,825 Danlj ... 8,477 Cedros ... 6,812 Nacaome ... 8,152 Ocotepeque ... 6,225 Choluteca ... 8,035 Comayagua ... 5,791 Honduras became a separate Republic in 1839. She was the first of the allied States to withdraw from the Central American Confederation, which, born in troublous times, went to pieces eventually after a chaotic existence. It cannot be said that Honduras has known any surfeit of peace from that time to this, although, as it is, the promise of future com- mercial prosperity should go far towards clearing up the political troubles for good and all. The troubles of Honduras have not been entirely confined to internal affairs, for in the latter half of the nineteenth century she found herself at war with Salvador in 1871-72, and with Nicaragua in 1893- 94. As a result of all this the finances of the State haye been in a condition which was anything but flourishing. But the Government of the Republic as it is constituted to-day would seem thoroughly pre- pared to go with the times, and has shown itself broad-minded in encouraging foreign enterprise ; and should this situation continue, and the natural riches I 248 CENTRAL AMERICA of the country be exploited in an efficient fashion, the prosperity of Honduras should be assured. The former capital of Honduras was Comayagua, which at the beginning of the nineteenth century had a population numbering some 20,000. At one time this city was a flourishing spot, but it has never recovered from the destruction wrought upon it in 1827, when in the course of the civil wars of the Central American Confederation it was captured by the Guatemalan forces. The modern capital is Tegucigalpa, which has already been referred to. This is a picturesque town, situated in an amphitheatre among the hills, and a massive and fine old bridge spans the river on which the city stands. The chief ports on the Atlantic coast are Puerto Cortes, La Ceiba, ai)d Trujillo. Of these three, Puerto Cortes is the most important. In actual population it is of comparatively insignificant size, since its inhabitants probably do not exceed 6,000 in number. Its value as a fruit port, however, is rapidly increasing, and it is now visited by the fleets of many lines, including the vessels of the United Fruit Company. In the past the neglect of any efficient sanitary system had fully justified the city's bad reputation for health, the outbreaks of yellow fever having been frequent. The increasing importance and population of the town are now beginning to induce a better condition of affairs, and doubtless these local plagues will be removed- from Puerto Cortes before long, as they have from elsewhere. La Ceiba, situated to the east of Puerto Cortes, is another port which has gained immensely in im- portance from the striking development of the banana and general fruit trade. The actual anchorage is not so favourable as that of La Ceiba ; on the other hand, the health of the place — although far from perfect— bears a better record. The present population of the town exceeds 5,000. HONDURAS 249 Trujillo, the third Honduranean port on the Atlantic coast, is situated, roughly, as far to the east of La Ceiba as La Ceiba lies to the east of Puerto Cortes. The natural advantages of this port are great, and its reputation for health stands unusually high. Owing to a lack of inland communications, Trujillo has lagged behind in material progress, and, indeed, at the present time does not occupy anything like the position of importance that it was once wont to hold. But the favourable situation of the spot and the great fertility of the country it taps can scarcely permit this condition of affairs to last for very long. All these three Atlantic ports of Honduras, it should be said, are within three days' steam of New Orleans, and when the world's industries begin to progress in normal circumstances again, a still more rapid increase in their development may be safely looked for. i Owing to the very narrow strip of coastline which; the Republic occupies on the Pacific, Honduras' possesses only one port on this ocean. This is^ Amapala, a very picturesquely situated town, which is concerned with the produce and imports of the departments of Tegucigalpa, Paraiso, La Paz, and Choluteca. The chief vegetable products of Honduras, in the I order of their importance, are bananas, coco -nuts, f coffee, and mahogany. Beyond these a considerable amount of gold and silver is mined, and sufficient numbers of live-stock are bred to permit the export of limited quantities. It is probable that the coco -nut industry will one day become very important in the Republic, for large areas on the Atlantic coast are peculiarly well adapted for the planting of these palms, and, if properly conducted, the occupation is undoubtedly a profit- able one. It must be taken into consideration, of course, that the present price of the fertile lands on the Atlantic 250 CENTRAL AMERICA coast is by no means low. Something of a " boom " has been occurring in banana cultivation, and in these circumstances it was hardly to be expected that the price of land would remain unaffected. A year or two ago uncultivated land fetched as much as £2 per acre, and cultivated areas were worth some £40 per acre. Now, prices such as these for land on the Atlantic coast of Honduras are undoubtedly amazingly high. Some years ago they would have appeared incredible to the oldest and most experienced inhabitant of the Isthmus. It is needless to explain that one of the chief factors that has brought about this state of affairs is that the^^Atlantic products have now found their chief marl^t in the port of New Orleans, which, as has been said, is distant only three days' steam. There would seem no actual reason, however, to suppose that these values will not maintain themselves, or that they will not even eventually tend to increase. In Latin America, where commercial progress has sometimes been so phenomenally rapid, the most expert local opinion has frequently proved itself at fault, owing to an unwillingness to recognize the influence of entirely new conditions. There is no doubt, how- ever, that prices such as these increaselhenSiahcial risks of banana plantation, and cause the danger of the destruction of the crops by drought or devastating storms to be even more dreaded than before. In addition to the principal growths named, there are many others which do not occupy so prominent a position in the public eye, since they serve for internal consumption rather than for export. These include such growths as sugar, maize, frijoles, or beans, a great variety of fruits, and many similar products. It is certain that the Republic contains vast natural resources which have not yet been tapped. It is extremely rich in vegetable oils, one of the most im- portant of these being obtained from the corozo-nut. HONDURAS 251 The nature of the soil is such, too, that cocoa-planting could be carried on to a very important extent, and the same may be said of coffee, which is at present produced in very small quantities. This applies, too, to the cultivation of sugar and rice. There is no doubt, indeed, that Honduras gives con- siderable opportunities for investment, notwithstanding the fact that the advantages it offers are to a certain extent counterbalanced by labour conditions and by periods of political unrest. The mineral wealth of the country has already been referred to^ and the opportunities here would seem at the least on a par with the rest. It is said, for instance, that the New York and Honduras Rosario Mining Company has already succeeded in extracting three and a half million Sovereigns' worth of ore, having employed for this purpose a capital of a quarter of a million. The operations here are conducted about twenty miles from the capital. Referring to the general products of Honduras, Mr. E. G. Squier, writing in 1858, mentions a very curious natural phenomenon, known as the Mina de Sangreox the Faente de 5^/2^f^^— that is to say, as the Mine or Fountain of Blood. The account of this weird place recalls some of the most gruesome legends, and it will be seen that, as a product, it could claim to be unique. This was a small cavern from the roof of which dropped a liquid which exactly resembled blood in colour, smell, and taste. This resemblance appears to have been close enough to deceive the carrion birds, for the buzzards flocked to the spot in the daytime and the vamp ire -bats haunted the place at night. By the cavern itself were pools of this gruesome liquid, which dogs lapped up eagerly, while myriads of insects buzzed about the substance, which, further, had the peculiarity of corrupting. It is not to be wondered at that local superstition 252 CENTRAL AMERICA was rife concerning this Fountain of Blood. In order to be satisfied concerning the actual nature of the fluid, a certain Don Rafael Osejo sent some bottles to London for analysis, but its rapid corruption had the effect of bursting the bottles. Mr. Squier him- self relates that " by largely diluting it with water I succeeded in bringing with me to the United States two bottles of the liquid, which I submitted to Pro- fessor B. Silliman, junior, for examination. It had, however, undergone decomposition, and was very offensive. It had deposited a thick sediment, con- taining abundant traces of original organic matter. The peculiarities of the liquid are doubtless due to the rapid generation in this grotto of some very prolific species of coloured infusoria." Whether this strange cavern with its unpleasantly suggestive liquid is still in existence to-day I have no means of knowing. The islands in the Bay of Honduras have already been briefly referred to in the last of the historical chapters, in which Sir Gregor M'Gregor's claim to sovereignty over some of these is explained. It is certain that M 'Gregor was no bad judge of territory, for some of these islands, small though they are, are among the most picturesque and fertile in the world. In the majority of these the question of an anchorage presents difficulties, but this is not the case with the largest, Roatan, the area of which is some- what less than that of the Isle of Wight. A descrip- tion of this island, written by Captain Mitchell, R.N., in 1850, is so admirable that I will reproduce it in full, as it may well serve for the present day. It is, indeed, doubly interesting from the fact that it demonstrates, with the exception of an increase in plantations, how little change has been achieved from that day to this : — " The island has a singularly beautiful appearance at a distance, as you approach it in a ship. The HONDURAS 253 mountains rise in a gradual height to a. summit of 900 feet, and they seem successively to follow each other, intersected by valleys, the whole thickly and most luxuriantly wooded. As you draw near to it, you discover that palm- and coco -nut -trees encircle the shores, and forest trees of various descriptions grow on the higher hills. The natural beauty of its appearance is greatly enhanced when you cast anchor in one of its many harbours on the southern side. "In the valleys, alltfvial deposits and de,cayed vegetable matter form the soil, which is exceedingly rich and deep. On the mountains and their declivities a red clay or marl predominates. *' A great deal of good and useful timber is found spontaneously growing on the island, such as Santa Maria wood, extensively used for shipbuilding, three varieties of oak, cedar, Spanish elm, and lance wood, and the shores of the island are lined and surrounded with groves of coco -nut -trees ; a tree which, in administering to the wants of man, is hardly sur- passed in tropical regions. The seeds of this tree in remote times have been probably drifted here, and they have sprung up in abundance on a sandy and low shore, which is found so congenial to their growth. '* At present, the island produces in abundance coco- nuts, plantains, yams, bananas, pineapples, etc. ; but I feel convinced that bread-fruit, European vegetables, and productions of more temperate regions would grow here. *' The country is capable of raising all tropical productions, such as sugar, coffee, tobacco, etc., which might become staple commodities of export. ** There was found on the island previous to its being inhabited a great quantity of deer, wild hogs, Indian rabbits, parrots, pigeons, birds of various descriptions, etc. Some years ago, previous to its settlement, men from small vessels and fishing -boats, employed on the surrounding coasts, originally resorted 254 CENTRAL AMERICA to this island for the purpose of supplying themselves with game and stock. ** A great quantity of domestic animals, such as poultry, pigs, etc., are raised ; cattle might be raised, but the inhabitants have not yet the means of keeping them from destroying their plantations. *' It seems probable the island at some remote period was thickly inhabited by the Indian race. In clearing away the land for plantations, many domestic and culinary utensils have been found. There is a tradition that the Spaniards (in accordance with their system of cruelty), on their first discovery of America, depopulated the island ; they seized upon the aborigines, and took them to the continent to work in the mines, whence they never returned. ** A great deal of rain falls in the winter months from September to February. This has the effect of cooling the air beyond what is felt in the other parts of the West Indies, and the breeze tempers the influ- ence of the sun. If the people could keep themselves dry and free from damp, the climate must not only be exceedingly agreeable, but singularly pure and healthy. The dry months are much warmer ; the natives, however, do not complain of the heat ; they aver that it is the healthier portion of the year. . . . Rheumatism is very common, and a species of low fever or ague ; the latter probably arises from the land not being sufficiently cleared away, and a luxuriant and decaying vegetation ; the former from constant damp and exposure. Yet I should think, from my limited observation, that the climate is not only healthy to those bom in warm latitudes, but that Europeans, with proper precautions, might enjoy not only health, but live to a good old age. ** The population of the island is now estimated at 1, 600 or 1,700. In 1843 it was only 80. It has gone on steadily and rapidly increasing, and there are at present three births to one death. With the HONDURAS 255 means of existence at hand, and almost prepared for iliem, the young people have a disposition to marry at an early age ; their families aro large, many con- sisting of nine to ten, and even more children. They seem to be a proof of what has been often asserted in civilized countries, that a diet of vegetables and iish, or what is usually termed scanty food, is favour- able to population. ** The population is scattered in various parts along the whole seashore of the island ; from obvious reasons, they find these localities more convenient than the interior. They here erect their dwellings, in the midst of their palm and plantain groves, having their little vessels and fishing -boats in quiet and sheltered nooks, and convey their produce and seek for their wants by water-carriage. . . , The mass of the popu- lation is composed of liberated slaves from the Grand Cayman, and a small portion of the inhabitants are coloured people, also natives of that island, and formerly slave -owners. These latter people seem to be the most wretched on the island ; unaccustomed to labour, and having lost their property and their slaves, or squandered away what they obtained for them, they have no longer any means of existence. From a false feeling of pride, so universal in man, and found alike in all countries, they were unwilling to labour in a small island where they were once regarded with comparative consequence, and they emigrated and sought their fortunes on the unpeopled shores of Roatan. The slaves who had obtained their freedom, but could not procure labour in a small island like the Grand Cayman, hearing of the success of their former masters, followed in their footsteps. "The dark population, or those who were formerly slaves, from their physical powers and their habits of labour from childhood, soon surpassed the white popu- lation in the accumulation of the means of existence, and are now the most thriving and successful. If 256 CENTRAL AMERICA riches be estimated from man's wants being easily supplied, and the accumulation of more than he requires, these people are not only wealthy, but in far better circumstances than many of those who are relieved from manual labour in Europe. . . . Their character is good ; they have lived and are living with- out any form of government or restraint, and the crimes that have been committed are compara- tively few. *' Their occupation consists in cultivating their grounds and plantations, fishing, turtling, etc. Neces- sity, in all countries and in the first rude ages ofj civilization, has been fertile in invention, consequently it is by no means extraordinary to find the mass of these people familiar with those rude mechanical arts of which they stand so much in need. Every man erects his own dwelling, plants and lays out his ground — most are carpenters, some good ropemakers. They have a knowledge of boat and ship building, the making of lime, etc., and other useful attainments. Their dwellings are well and comfortably made. Their trade or commerce is in their plantains, coco -nuts, pineapples, etc., and this trade is steadily increasing. With these articles they trade to New Orleans, bringing back lumber, dry and salt provisions, etc." Much of this able description holds good in the life on the Atlantic coast of to-day, except, of course, that there are no longer any disconsolate ex-slave- owners to pitch their tents in new country and to be followed by the companies of their erstwhile slaves, somewhat lost and puzzled at the absence of those who had formerly been accustomed to shepherd them. An industry of Honduras that has not only failed to increase in importance but that has actually diminished in a fashion that can only be regarded as unnecessary is that of tobacco growing. It was at one time supposed that the occupation would be the leading one of the State, or rather of the province. HONDURAS 257 as Honduras was when the planting of tobacco was lirst seriously taken up there. The cultivation of tobacco was first introduced into the Llanos de Santa Rosa, in the department of Gracias. The increase of the production was so marked and the quality of the tobacco so fine that the colonial authorities, who were seldom backward in taking charge of a profitable business, established a royal factory on the spot, and the Crown appointed a factor to superintend its working. The fame of the Honduranean tobacco grew rapidly. It soon became popular throughout Central America, after which the demand for Honduranean cigars spread to Mexico, Peru, and eventually to Spain itself. Santa Rosa, the headquarters of its production, increased in proportion, and in 1823 it was officially promoted from the status of a village to that of a town. As fate would have it, it was from just about this time that the production of the Santa Rosa tobacco began to fall off, owing to the periods of political unrest which now began to prevail. The output still continued, however, and for a long time a certain quantity found its way to Cuba, eventually to face the world of nicotine under a Havana label, while other consignments were sent to Hamburg, where doubtless exactly the same fate awaited them, so far as labels were concerned. At the present time not only has the export trade in Honduranean tobacco entirely died away, but for many years the tobacco produced by the country has not sufficed for the local consumption. In 191 3 the cigar factory was opened again, but the enterprise was not on a sufficiently large scale to supply the local demand. It must be admitted that this is a strange con- dition of affairs, and there would seem to be a chance in the way of tobacco -planting in Honduras which, were it not for the flourishing condition of the banana 17 '25S CENTRAL AMERICA industry, would doubtless have been jumped at long ago. As it is, there would seem to be important areas of excellent tobacco land which can be obtained at almost nominal rates. The following figures will give some idea of the recent exports of Honduras : — 1911-12. 1912-13. £ £ Bananas 267,535 289,480 Coffee 15,883 17,135 Coco-nuts ... 35,013 40,417 Mahogany ... 12,241 1,250 Livestock ... 60,732 34,583 Gold and silver 228^627 HONDURAS \ 168,334 Totals of Imports. Country. 1908. 1909. 1911. 1912. United States ... Germany United Kingdom £ 375,788 49,730 67,949 £ 353,975 46,704 49.052 £ 491,725 51,804 88,482 £ 578,367 97,593 109,294 Total, including other countries 566,008 516,311 652,957 863,462 Statistics for the year 19 10 are not obtainable. Totals of Exports. ; Country. 1908. 1909. 1911. 1912. United States ... Germany United Kingdom £ 331,532 18,783 6,694 £ 373,969 14,635 2,485 £ 561,047 22,416 9,061 £ 567,083 25,000 12,500 Total, including other countries 382,096 405,776 630,146 645,000 Statistics for the year 1910 are not obtainable. HONDURAS 25 9 British Honduras— although none can deny that its geographical situation is in Central America — calls for but a small amount of space in these pages, since, part and parcel of the British Empire as is this Crown Colony, it falls by rights without the scope of the Latin American Republics with which we are dealing. Regarded from another point of view, the fact that the Union Jack waves over its( tropical lands is the very last reason why British I Honduras should be passed over in silence. We may therefore point out one or two of its most salient fea^res before passing on to Latin American soil and/affairs. Neither the actual area nor the population of British Honduras is of great importance, the extent of the first being about 7,500 square miles, and the number of the second, roughly, 44,000. Of this total the percentage of whites is very small, the population of these, all told, being estimated at some 500. The climate of the greater part of the country is not well suited to the northerner, ilthough the Cockscomb range of mountains provides a most pleasant health resort. The products of British Honduras are sufficiently varied. Beyond such minerals as gold, silver, iron, and lead, they include bananas, maize, rice, pine- apples, oranges, cocoa, coffee, cotton, rubber, coco-nut, cassava, and many fibre -producing plants. The chief industries of the colony, however, are those of mahogany and logwood. Belize is the prin- cipal centre of the former, and the logs from British Honduras are in general shipped to Liverpool, a port which is largely concerned with this trade. The capital of British Honduras is Belize. This town is picturesquely situated at the mouth of the forest -fringed Belize River. Its wooden houses are chiefly built on piles driven into the soft alluvial soil brought down by the river. The Caribbean Sea is thickly set with cays and coral reefs in this neigh- bourhood, which, of course, tend to increase the difficulties, of navigation. CHAPTER XVII PANAMA Reasons for the foundation of the State — ^Justification of the transactions — The Canal Zone — Customs regulations — Population — Chief towns — Physical features — Mountains — The River Chagres — Historic interest — Forest products — Agriculture — Minerals — Climate — The triumph of modern science — The provinces of Panama — Bocas del Toro — An important centre of banana cultivation — Vegetable and mineral products — Oil-fields — Veraguas — Resources of Code and Los Santos — Colon — Panama — Products of these districts — Population of the Canal Zone — The tourist traffic of Panama — A valuable strategic point as regards tourist routes — Commercial value of globe-trotters — Educational force of easy pilgrimages — The metamorphosis of the Panama Canal Zone — The question of landslides — General Goethals on this subject — Some previous attempts at a water route across the Isthmus — Competition between British and North Americans — The Nicaraguan route — The Panama Railway — An American enter- prise — Difficulties and dangers of the venture — The fate of many Chinese labourers — The Transit Company — Its officials — An early nineteenth-century opinion concerning the Isthmian Canal — The verdict of time on -Mr. Squier's forecast — Table showing the nature of recent exports from Panama. The Republic of Panama is the most recently founded State in the world. How long it will hold this record would seem to depend largely on the con- ditions in the Balkans, that crucible and mausoleum of petty States. The reason of the foundation of the Republic of Panama is undoubtedly unique in the story of the world. Canals have been founded for the benefit of States from time immemorial — but that a State should have been founded for the benefit of a canal is something quite new in the history of nations J , , PANAMA 261 For, of course, not even the most subtle-minded statesman can blink his eyes to the fact that 'the Canal was the sole cause of the events which led up to the untimely — or timely, if you will— revolution that ended in the separation of a part of the Isthmus from Colombia and the establishment of a State which happened to find itself imbued with the same ideas concerning canalization as the Government of the United States. Moreover, from the point of view that the greatest good for the greatest number is the best kind of good, there is very little fault to find with the trans- action. The living and tremendous fact of the Canal of to-day must excuse any irregularities that may have attended the transference of the ownership of the soil of its bed. The gigantic feat of the Panama Canal, in fact, affords one of the few salient argu- ments in favour of that dangerous doctrine that the end justifies the means. There is no need, however, to go farther into such matters here. Many books have already been written on this particular subject, and doubtless there are many more to follow. It was in 1903 that the Republic of Panama was detached from Colombia, and it was shortly after this that the Canal Zone was ceded to the United States. This consists of a strip of territory ten miles in width, five miles extending on each side of the line of the Canal itself. This zone is administered by the United States, and is entirely separate from the Republic of Panama. In order to avoid customs complications, however, the customs tariff in both the Republic and the zone has been made identical. The population of the Republic of Panama is estimated at nearly 350,000, of which total over 35,000 are uncivilized Indians. The census of 191 1 revealed the presence of 23,062 British West Indian negroes, , 262 CENTRAL AMERICA The two chief towns are Panama, at the Pacific end of the Canal, and Colon, on the Atlantic. The population of the former approaches 40,000, while that of the latter is about the half of this. Another town of importance is Bocas del Toro, an Atlantic port in the north-west of the Republic, which serves as an outlet for the rapidly growing banana industry. Like the rest of the Central Anjerican States, Panama is of a mountainous nature. The greatest elevations occur in the west, where rise the extinct, or dormant, volcanoes of Pico Blanco, which is said to attain to a height of 11,740 feet; Chiriqui, a few hundred feet lower ; and Rovalo, which just exceeds 7,000 feet. A range of lower altitude is that of Veragua, while that of San Bias is for the most below 3,000 feet. The most notable of the rivers of the Republic is the Chagres, which, running in the neighbourhood of both the Canal and the Interoceanic Railway, empties into the Atlantic near Colon. It was the presence of this Chagres River that added very much to the difficulties of the construction of the Canal. The stream has played a great part in the history of the Isthmus, for in the early days of Central America the Spaniards, hostile foreign navigators and bucca- neers alike were wont to take advantage of its stream for the purpose of assisting them to cross the narrow neck of land that separates the Atlantic from the Pacific. The bar of the Chagres River prevents any attempts at steam navigation of any importance what- ever. This is the case, too, with the Bayano River, another Panamanian stream that runs into the Pacific. The products of the magnificent lowland forests are the same as elsewhere in the Isthmus. The chief timber is mahogany, and there is no doubt that the cutting of the Canal will eventually benefit this industry to a marked extent. Other notable woods are coco- bolo, espan^, and guayacan. By far the most im- PANAMA 263 portant industry of the Republic, however, is that of banana planting, which is carried on chiefly in the north-west of the country. The other products that are exported are in the following order of importance : ivory-nuts, coco-nuts, rubber, hides, cocobolo, and mother-of-pearl shell. > Sugar, tobacco, coffee, cacao, maize, and tropical fruits are also grown, but not in quantities that leave any surplus for export. A number of experiments in cotton and vegetable silk have recently been carried out, and it is possible that the commercial results of these will be important. As regards foodstuffs, there is no doubt that the Republic at the present time imports considerable quantities which it could with ease produce for itself. The importation, for instance, of such articles as sugar, eggs, vegetables, and meat should by rights resemble the carrying of coals to Newcastle. But this is not so at present, whatever the future may have in store. A certain amount of gold is met with, but very little has been effected in the way of mining up to the present. An oil-bearing district has been dis- covered in the province of Chiriqui ; but it would appear that a concession to work it has been allowed to lapse. The climate 'of the lowlands of Panama has, of course, been notorious for generations as one of the worst, so far as Europeans were concerned, in the entire world. The mortality which occurred when the French began the work of cutting the Canal was the direct cause of the failure of that enterprise, and the experiences of the Americans in the early stages of their great feat provided an appalling death-roll. It has been left to quite recent science to discover that the perils that were put down to climate did not in reality emanate from the actual climate at all, but were to be attributed rather to causes that were in a sense accidental^ such as the presence of swamps 264 CENTRAL AMERICA and mosquitoes. With the removal of these dangers vanished the dark threat of imminent death that had overshadowed the neighbourhood for centuries, and this achievement may in its own way claim at least an equal importance with the cutting of the Canal itself. In one respect, at all events, it excels it, for with- out this triumph of science the latter great work would undoubtedly never have been completed. The Republic of Panama is divided into seven provinces. Taken in order from west to east, these are Bocas del Toro, Chiriqui, Veraguas, Los Santos, Code, Colon, and Panama. Bocas del Toro, washed by the Pacific Ocean, is practically the westernmost point on the Central American Isthmus where the banana cultivation is conducted on an important scale. The country here is admirably adapted for growing this most useful and popular fruit, and, as in many other parts of Central America, the labour for the plantations is largely provided by British West Indian negroes. There are said to be some 7,000 of these employed in this fashion. This represents a considerable per- centage of the population of the province, which totals about 23,000, of which number some 5,000 are Indians. The province of Chiriqui, situated to the south and to the east of Bocas del Toro, is one of the three Panamanian provinces which has access to both the Atlantic and Pacific. The population here is con- siderably larger than that of Bocas del Toro, amount- ing as it does to some 65,000. The agricultural wealth of the province is considerable, and it produces coffee, cocoa, sugar-cane, and tobacco. Boquete, where many British and Americans are settled, is a notable centre of coffee and cocoa. Chiriqui, more- over, as has been said, contains some oil -fields, the financial possibilities of which promised well. After these fields had been examined by British and PANAMA 265 American experts, a concession for an oil refinery was obtained from the Government. No practical result was forthcoming, however. The ports of Chiriqui are Remedios and Pedregal. Traversing the Isthmus to the east of Chiriqui is the province of Veraguas, which is principally devoted to the growing of sugar-cane and to cattle -raising. These are the chief industries, too, of the neighbour- ing provinces of Code and Los Santos, and in all three there are minerals and valuable mahogany and cedar forests. None of the resources of these areas, however, have yet been developed in a serious fashion, and it is unreasonable to expect any genuine progress in this direction until a better system of roads and inland communications in general shall have been devised. The province of Colon is, of course, world famous as containing the northern half of the Panama Canal, or, rather, the Canal Zone, which constitutes a separate State in itself and is now American soil. It has not yet been possible to establish any of the more advanced industries in the province, and the principal occupation of the Indians is the collection in the forests of the wild tropical produce, such as rubber, coco-nuts, and ivory-nuts. Including the town of Colon, the population of the province is about 32,000. On the Atlantic coast it contains two ports, Porto Bello and Nombre de Dios, which are of the greatest historical importance, but whose familiar names have unfortunately very little significance from the commercial point of view of to-day. The easternmost province is that of Panama, through which run the southern sections of the Canal. There are some valuable pasture-lands in this province, which have been famous for centuries. But for many years the cattle-breeding industry here has been suffered to lapse to a large extent. Nearly the whole population of the province— which exceeds 70,000— 266 CENTRAL AMERICA is collected in the town of Panama or to the west of the Canal Zone. From the east of the Canal Zone to the Colombian frontier there are no signs of civilization, and very few tokens of cultivation, tc be met with, and a considerable stretch of land here yet remains to be explored. The Canal Zone itself has until recently been popu- lated by one of the most cosmopolitan collections oj inhabitants in the world, for the labourers on this gigantic work have naturally been drawn from al parts of the globe. During the height of the opera- tions the population of this zone numbered ovei 60,000, of which some 30,000 were British Wesi Indians. With the conclusion of the work the grea majority of these have, of course, departed, and thus th( Panamanian Canal Zone presents the rather paradoxica spectacle of a State that has come to maturity anc success and that has become depopulated in the process An asset which in normal times must be reckonec on in the case of Panama is the tourist traffic. Thi* was increasing with an enormous rapidity until the outbreak of the European war put an end to i for the time being. There is no doubt that the situa tion of Panama offers advantages in this respect tha are practically unrivalled throughout the world. No only does the Canal present a spectacle which in itsel is unique, but it is situated at the most valuabh strategic point, not only of the commerce of th( Americas, but of the great new tourist routes whicl in the near future will probably appeal more than an] others to the increasing community of globe-trotters Now, the commercial value of these armies o globe-trotters is not to be overlooked. So far th( traffic is one which has seldom been thought worth] of official statistics, notwithstanding the fact that it; potentialities have been amply demonstrated in area: such as Switzerland, Norway, and various othe; countries, whose chief source of income is derivec i r \ fc ^■ . «» ,i PANAMA 267 from what they offer to the enjoyment or health of strangers. So far as the tourists themselves are con- cerned, there is no denying the educational force of these easy pilgrimages, where the peas in the pilgrims' shoes have been well and carefully 'boiled into the softest of silken pastes. A really progressive govern- ment might do worse than set aside a considerable sum each year to encourage the wanderings of its subjects in foreign lands. However that may be, the effect of this particular species of traffic has already made itself evident at Panama, at which place palatial hotels are now rising where formerly was nothing beyond a few lowly, houses and huts, sheltered by their groves of palm-trees. Even the banana town of Bocas del Toro, in the far west of the Republic and quite remote from the Canal itself, has now caught the spirit of the age, and, glowing brilliantly with its new installation of acetylene gas, and resplendent with its modern municipal sani- tation and trappings, it has already begun to welcome its annual flocks of many thousands of tourists. Perhaps no place in the world can show so com- plete a metamorphosis in so short a space of time as this Canal region of Panama. From a death- trap to a tourist resort in less than a quarter of a century is no mean achievement. And this is literally what has been brought about here. Considering the circumstances of recent years, it was inevitable that by far the greatest number of visitors should have been Americans . In any case, their numbers would probably have exceeded greatly those of any other nation. Panama traffic, however, can be nothing if not cosmo- politan ; for not only is it at the gates of the British touring field of the West Indies, but it stands also for the northern gate of exit of that trip now becoming so popular — the circumnavigation of the continent, starting by way of the Atlantic and ending with the Pacific, . 268 CENTRAL AMERICA There have been occasions when the slides which have occurred in the Panama Canal, and which from time to time have interrupted the interoceanic steamer traffic, have given a good deal of uneasiness to the general public, that naturally had the welfare of the great enterprise at heart. It has even been alleged that the bottom of the Gaillard Cut section of the Canal had been definitely ascertained to be nothing but a bog, and that this bog was continuously being pushed upwards, to such an extent, in fact, that the dredgers were experiencing great difficulty in keeping the channel clear. General Goethals, however, the Governor of the Canal Zone, has pointed out that these popular and pessimistic theories have no foundation in reality, as the Gaillard section had to be drilled and blasted through rock. It is an entire misconception, more- over, to suppose that the entire Gaillard section, which is eight and three-quarter miles long, is subject to these slides. The importance of these latter is not. to be minimized, but they occur only to a vital extent at the Culebra and Cucaracha subsections, which together do not exceed 4,800 feet in length — that is to say, less than a mile. It would be far too much to hope that the question of the slides has been definitely done with. At the same time, it would seem that the danger to the com- munications has been considerably exaggerated by alarmists. The history of the attempts at a water route across the Isthmus is by no means without interest, and a very short sketch of this will not be out of place here. As will be seen, the actual feat of the present day has stultified a great number of past theories and predictions. It was only some twenty years after they had secured their in'dependence that the Central Americans very wisely determined to make some practical us^ of the PANAMA 269 geographical situation of these States. They, announced their willingness to give concessions for the establish- ment of interoceanic routes. A sharp competition for the right to this now occurred between the British and North Americans. The Americans ultimately obtained the better of this, and had the benefit of the monopoly of an interoceanic route across Nicaragua — a route that ingeniously took advantage of the lake and river facilities. The Atlantic starting-point of this was Greytown, or San Juan del Norte, situated just to the north of the Costa Rican coast. From here the steamers of the Transit Company made their way up the River San Juan. These were stern -wheelers, and, although they could carry five hundred passengers, they drew no more than eighteen inches of water. On their way up these steamers had to fight with the rapids of the stream, some of which were only breasted after a long struggle. From San Carlos the route lay across Lake Nicaragua, from the westernmost point of which the journey was continued fby land to the Pacific. American enterprise began the Panama: Railway in 1850, and the line was completed from the Atlantic to the Pacific at the beginning of 1855. It was no easy task. In a minor way its difficulties were akin to those experienced by the French in their subse- quent Canal venture, and by their own countrymen again before the successful Canal was opened some sixty years later. The miasma swamps were not long in taking their revenge on the daring pioneers who ventured to disturb their unwholesome soil. It was a current saying at the time that every foot of the railway cost a human life in its construc- tion, and there is no reason, especially in the light of after events, to suppose that this statement was an exaggeration. The toll of mortality was swollen in a somewhat unusual fashion by the Chinese labourers, who assisted in large numbers in the work. 270 CENTRAL AMERICA The climate and the surroundings seem to have infused these Orientals with an extraordinary degree of melancholy. So deep became their despondency, indeed, that each morning would see dozens of their dead bodies hanging from the. trees. Ultimately it was found necessary to set a guard over their quarters at night, in order that the tropical verdure might support fewer of these new and grim blossoms. This railway, it may be said, was as much a model of its kind in its day as is the modem Canal, and the well-kept stations were the source of no little admiration and wonder. The original Transit Company which conveyed travellers across Nicaragua from one ocean to another was, as has been said, a. North American concern. Not only was it run by United States capital, but its employees were almost entirely North Americans. These were mostly from the Western States, and on the whole they would appear to have been a repre- sentative collection of specimens of the Wild West when that picturesque part of the world had a genuine claim to that title. Judged as frontiersmen, they were probably as fine a set of men as ever stepped. They were frank and happy-go-lucky to a degree, but every man was ** heeled," and no man had the faintest prejudice against using his '* gun " if he thought it necessary, or even if he considered that there was any doubt about the matter. The tales told of these mfen— quite apart, of course, from those concerning the filibusters — would suffice to fill several volumes in themselves, but considerations of space do not permit the launching out into this direction here, tempting though the subject undoubtedly is. In no other great industrial project, perhaps, have prophets been proved more at sea than in their views concerning the construction of the Panama Canal. One of the chief mid -nineteenth century authorities on PANAMA 271 Central America was Mr. E. G. Squier, who for many- years was Charge d 'Affaires of the United States to the Republics of Central America. He was a shrewd and enterprising official, but the emphasis with which he demonstrated the impossibility, of the existence of the present-day Canal is unfortunate for his reputa- tion as a seer. His views, expressed in 1870, are these : — ', *' The routes via the Atrato, and across DSrien, had been proved to be utterly impracticable. Apart from deficiencies in respect of ports, and drawbacks in respect of climate, they all involve tunnels, the shortest not less than seven miles in length. What- ever feat * engineering of the future ' may, contem- plate, that of tunnels for ocean-going ships does not fall within the range of nineteenth -century achieve- ment, nor is its realization called for by any nineteenth- century requirements. Through Nicaragua there certainly exists, as shown by the survey of Colonel Childs in 1850 (the only survey at all conforming to modern engineering requirements), a practicable canal route, with an up -lockage of 120 odd feet to Lake Nicaragua, and a corresponding down -lockage to the Pacific. Nature has here placed sufficient water reservoirs at the ' summit ' for supplying the lockage both ways, and if ever the necessity for a canal across the continent shall become sufficiently important to ensure its construction, i1: will be opened through Nicaragua, and nowhere else. The idea of an * open- cut,' founded on the tales of Cullen, Du Puydt, etc., may amuse shallow investigators for a few years longer, but will disappear with the advance of geographical knowledge." The events of less than half a century later have proved unkind to the judgment of Mr. Squier. Had he contented himself with advocating the Nicaragua route instead of condemning so completely that of Panama in advance, his theory, would haye held a 272 CENTRAL AMERICA stronger position to-day ; for it is by no means out of the question that a second canal may eventually be cut from Pacific to Atlantic by way of Lake Nicaragua. The most important recent exports from Panama have been : — 19 I. 1912. £ £ Balata .. Kilos ... ... 6,726 914 Bananas Bunches 4,258,237 214,742 4,609,138 230,888 Coco-nuts .. Kilos 3,199.297 14,826 5,617,372 27,342 Cacao n 25,126 1,387 45,047 3,532 Cocobolo 1,550,472 8,062 2,580,923 16,746 Gold .. 16,557 1,035 Hides .. Kilos 438'.382 19,709 360,644 16,760 Horns >» 4,760 85 6,617 221 Ivory-nuts >» 2,249,468 32,245 2,431,268 50,853 Mahogany »> 230,966 2,018 1,013,295 3,305 Mother-of-pearl shell. ») 651,405 14,701 458,114 16,644 Rubber 50,510 10,179 108,266 18,316 Sarsaparilla ... M 22,671 2,370 28,282 3,688 Skins • )> 111,652 4,701 75-274 3,806 Tortoiseshell ... » 4,528 6,295 6,498 7,837 ; , , CHAPTER XVIII ' : , SALVADOR Population of the smallest of the Central American Republics — Type of inhabitants — Difficulties concerned with the census in many of the Latin American States — The three chief towns of the Republic — Climatic zones — Salvador as a land of volcanoes — Other physical features — A progressive State — San Salvador, the capital — Seismic misfortunes of the city — A wooden cathedral — La Union — The chief port — Products of the Republic — Balsam — Origin of its name — Method of gathering — Other industries — Departments of Salvador — Products of each — Principal manufactures of Salvador. Of Salvador it may be said that it is the smallest but the most thickly populated of the Central American States. This latter circumstance is rather unusual in a State of the nature of Salvador, as it may be classed as an essentially agricultural country. On the whole, however, the holdings are small, being devoted to such products as coffee, sugar, and tobacco. The country, in fact, is largely one of peasant pro- prietors. Within its area of some 7,000 square miles Salvador contains over 1,000,000 inhabitants, eight of its towns claiming a population exceeding 10,000. There is no little difficulty involved, it must be said, in the compilation of the statistics which are available concerning the populations of many of the Latin American States. Seeing that so much of the wealth of these new countries is dependent on the amount of labour power which is available within their frontiers, the local statisticians are apt to suffer from the temptation — ^which their own interpretation of patriotism seldom permits them to resist — of magni- 18 273 274 CENTRAL AMERICA fying as much as possible the various populations of their respective countries. The disinterested observer, on the other hand, who is warily intent on making allowances for this particular weakness, is occasionally, given to credit the local officials with an undue amount of imagination, with the result that he himself falls into the error of underestimating the numbers of in- habitants, that, for their part, frequently have a habit of increasing with a disconcerting rapidity. In countries, of course, where a large Indian population exists the difficulty is much increased, and here the general population may in almost every case be taken as merely estimated. The three chief towns of Salvador are San Salvador, San Miguel, and Santa Ana. Both San Salvador and Santa Ana possess about 40,000 in- habitants, and San Miguel has about 10,000 less. The other towns which exceed 10,000 in population are Ahuachapan, New San Salvador, Sesuntepeque, Sonsonate, Santa Tecla, and San Vicente. It is computed that about 20,000 of the inhabitants of Salvador are of unmixed European stock. The remainder are made up for the most part of a mixture of European, Indian, and negro races, with, of course, a certain proportion of pure-blooded Indians. The climate of Salvador resembles that of the remaining countries of South America, and its various climatic zones are to be estimated by altitude rather than by latitude. Generally speaking, the inhabitants are given to avoid the low-lying, forest -covered, and unhealthy lands of the coast, and have settled on the plateaux of the volcanic regions. In the matter of its volcanic lands Salvador is very little behind its neighbours. It is true that its volcanoes cannot rival those of Guatemala in height, San Miguel, the loftiest, only just exceeding 7,000 feet. Nevertheless, they are sufficiently numerous, for within an area that is rather less than that of Wales SALVADOR 275 exist no less than seven active volcanoes, to say nothing of a host of extinct craters. Salvador possesses a single navigable river, which, considering the size of the country, is all that it has a right to expect I This is the Lempa, which has a total length of about 200 miles. It has a shallow bar, but its lower reaches are navigable up to as far as the confluence of the Tonola. Salvador is the only Central American State which possesses no coastline upon the Atlantic, being de- pendent upon the Pacific for all its maritime com- munications, and thus the opening of the Panama Canal will doubtless eventually not be without its influence on this small State. Salvador is usually credited with possessing the most stable government in the Isthmus, with the sole excep- tion of that of Costa Rica. No doubt comparisons in such matters of delicate poise are odious, but in any case Salvador can lay clajm^being one of the most progressive States of SJatffnAjher ica . At the same time, it must be admitted that its import duties are inconveniently high, and the internal taxation is not contrived on a basis to give due encouragement to local enterprise. Such disadvantages as these, how- ever, are not difficult to mend, and in this respect they must be considered as superficial rather than vital. San Salvador, the capital of the Republic, is picturesquely situated at an altitude of over 2,000 feet above the sea. As is the case with so many of the Central American cities, only two or three miles separate it from a volcano, that of San Salvador, a mountain of magnificent aspect, some 8,000 feet in height, but a very grim neighbour. In 1854 the city was practically destroyed by earthquake, and it suffered a similar catastrophe again in 1873. The third modern disaster occurred in the summer of 1 9 1 7, but comprehensive details of this have not been received 276 CENTRAL AMERICA at the time of w*riting. In this respect it has only too many companions in misfortune among the South American towns. Taught by these tragic lessons of the past, the architects of the present cathedral have caused it to be constructed of wood. It is thus to a certain extent proof against seismic action, and as it is painted a stone colour, the outward appearance of the building conforms to what is expected of a cathedral. The town possesses a considerable number of public buildings and various well-laid-out Plazas. The chief port of Salvador is that of La Union, which has a population of about 7,000. Communica- tion here between the steamer and the shore is a somewhat complicated matter, owing to the shallow- ness of the coastal waters. Landing is thus effected by launches, and subsequently by canoes. The other two ports of Salvador are La Libertad and Acajutla. It has already been said that Salvador is essentially an agricultural country. Its chief products in the order of their importance are coffee, sugar, rubber, and balsam. The coast of the Republic extending from Acajutla to La Libertad is known as the ** Costa del Balsamo," or the balsam coast. This is a mountainous and densely wooded district. The balsam is obtained in something of the same fashion as rubber. The time- honoured method is to make an incision in the trunk of the tree and to permit the matter which subse- quently exudes to be absorbed by pieces of cotton rag. The rags are then thrown into boiling water in order to detach the balsam. This balsam has always been known as " balsam of Peru," although none of it grows in the South American Republic. The reason for this is as anomalous as the nomenclature itself, for in the old days the product was wont to be sent to the Spanish merchants in the viceregal town of Callao— whence SALVADOR 277 it was sent to Spain, being shipped by way of the Isthmus from which it had originally come ! In addition to the source of wealth from timber the Republic contains some fine stretches of pasture -land, where cattle are bred in considerable numbers. Salvador is divided into fourteen departments, a very generous amount of division, considering the small area of the Republic. Taking these in order, so far as is possible, from east to west, we arrive first of all at the department of Ahuachapan, which is bounded on the west by Guatemala and on the south by the Pacific. Ahuachapan is for the most part of a moun- tainous nature, and can boast of various volcanoes. Its position on the Pacific slopes is alone almost sufficient to guarantee the production of coffee, which is grown here in abundance. Beyond this the depart- ment produces wheat, maize, sugar, tobacco, cotton, and various fruits. Santa Ana lies to the north of Ahuachapan. Its physicaT^cliaracteristics and produce are very similar to those of the first -named department. Much the same applies to the State of Sonsonate, on the Pacific coast. This department contains the im- portant port of Acajutla, and, in addition to the products already mentioned, it yields a fairly important amount of cocoa, balsam, and coco -nuts. To the east, again, of Sonsonate the department of La Libertad is of considerable industrial and com- mercial importance. Containing all the attributes of the other Pacific divisions, it is especially notable for the balsam that is met with within its territories. Bordering La Libertad is the department of San Salvador, which contains the ' capital of the Republic ; and to the north of this, again, is Chalaltenango, the largest department in the Republic, possessing an area; of some 750 square miles. Chalaltenango consists for the most part of uplands, and produces wheat, maize, frijoles, indigo, and a variety of other growths. 278 CENTRAL AMEHICA The department of Cuscatlan, to the south-east of this, yields similar products, and is noted for the good quality of the cigars that it manufactures. The scenery in parts of this division is peculiarly fine, even for a land that is famed throughout its length and breadth for the beauty of its landscape. The department of La Paz combines the charac- teristics of the uplands and the low-lying districts, and its products, in consequence, are those of both levels. It contains a certain amount of valuable forest country. San Vicente has the reputation of being the most beautiful department in Salvador. Its scenery is in many districts extraordinarily grand and imposing. It contains a number of volcanoes, and its products are those of the mountains. The department of Cabaiias, bounded by Honduras on the north, consists almost entirely of mountainous territory, and is chiefly remarkable for the gold and indigo that it produces. That of Usulutan, too, is for the most part mountainous. This is the third largest department in the Republic, possessing an area of some 700 square miles. The coastal district of Usulutan is the most broken in the country, and the indentations and lagoons at the back of the island of San Sebastian are of considerable extent, and have many ramifications. Some of the main products are tobacco, maize, rice, and frljoles. On the eastern frontier there remain the three departments of San Miguel, Morazan, and La Union. San Miguel, although it is washed by the Pacific, possesses no port, the coast being ill-adapted to any anchorage. The principal products are cofi"ee, indigo, cocoa, cereals, sugar, and other growths. Among the manufactures are rum and tortoise-shell objects. The produce of the department of Morazan, to the north of this, is very similar. The department of La Union is the last on the SALVADOR 279 Pacific coast. It gives for the most part on the beautiful Gulf of Fonseca, a stretch of water bordered by many volcanoes. On this is situated the port of La Union, that has already been referred to as the chief coastal town of the Republic. In addition to the ordinary industries of the Pacific coast, oyster fisheries are carried on to an important extent here, the quality of the La Union oysters being famous. Among the chief manufactures of Salvador are cigars, rum, sugar, salt, and turpentine. A number of woollen and cotton mills exist, and the people are skilled weavers. There are potteries, cheese manu- factories, and general distilleries in various parts of the country, while the oysters of La Union give rise to an industry in their preservation. CHAPTER XIX SOME NATURAL HISTORY NOTES Descriptions of animals in the days of the Conquistador cs — How the creatures fared at the hands of the early voyagers — Aspect of a whale — The sea- wolves — A quaint conception — Some feats of imagination — Description of a marvellous bird — An old account of the first vegetables and fruits introduced by the Spaniards — An account of some of the native fruits and animals — A glance at the fauna of the Isthmus — Beasts of prey — The tapir, wolf, peccary, and deer — Some characteristic creatures of the Americas — Howling monkeys — Peculiarities of these animals — The birds of Central America — Great variety — The vampire bat — Reptiles and fish — The oysters of Fonseca Bay — Insect life of the Isthmus — Pests of the tropics — Flora — Some growths typical of the plains and of the uplands — The pine forests of the interior — The mahogany tree — Other valuable woods — Dye-woods — A strange growth — The acacia and blackberry — Textile plants — Cacti and orchids — Tropical fruits — Maize — The flowers of Central America. The attempts of the early Spanish voyagers at the description of the Central American natural history were almost inevitably confused and inaccurate, even at such times when there was no desire to draw the long bow in the matter of the size and ferocious appearance of the snakes, beasts, and fish that they met with. In the nomenclature of animals these early naturalists were, to say the least of it, casual, and by the time that the various species had been translated into English the results were frequently confusing. Thus it is a little startling to read that in the Central American seas there are *' roaches, soles, turbits, eels, sardins, sea and shell-fish of all sorts." SOME NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 281 It is still more surprising to meet with the following description, which can scarcely apply to any other but the ordinary whale — which was an even more familiar object in those days than it is now : — *' They are often terrify'd in these Seas by a certain monstrous Fish, the very Sight whereof makes the Mariners tremble for Fear, especially those in small Vessels, which are in great danger of being overset by them, because they cast a vast (Quantity of Water out of their Nostrils with an almost incredible Strength ; when they appear above Water, they dis- cover their Wings almost like two Arms, each of which being twenty or twenty -eight Foot long, and the Head fourteen or fifteen, judge of the bulk of the whole Body of this Animal, which is not much inferior to that of a middle-siz'd Vessel." The actual description here is very little exaggerated, although a modern whale might not quite recognize his appearance and habits from it. Then, too, there were the sea -wolves, in which we undoubtedly come across another old and familiar friend, the seal, in somewhat unusual and motley descriptive clothing. This is the creature that is ** the nimblest Fish of all, they go out of the Water to sleep upon the Sands, and sleep so sound that you may hear them snoaring at a great distance ; so they are easily taken or kill'd whilst they are asleep. The Females bring forth two young ones, whom they nourish with the Milk of their Breasts. . . . These Sea -wolves are eighteen or twenty Foot long, and eight in Circumference : Their Teeth are very sharp, and they Prey upon other Fish, who make open War against them in vast Shoals, surround and bite them ; but the Sea-wolves commonly make their Party good, let the odds of Numbers be never so much against them. They make a great Noise whilst they are fighting, you see the Water bubble, and the Waves 282 CENTRAL AMERICA rise up to the height of the Mast of a Ship, and the Surface appears all Bloody." This latter powerful feat of imagination is charac- teristic of the period, which seemed to Encourage this curious blending of the actual and the legendary. It was the same with the birds, for by the side of the " Sparrows that sing very melodiously " was a weird and bizarre creature, whose feathers were spotted like a leopard, and that was a bird of prey both by sea and land ; thus, " One of his Feet is large and broad like that of a Goose, and the other has a Talon like an Eagle : if any Fish are sporting on the Surface of the Water, he spies them at a great distance, in the Air, and coming down swiftly upon them, gripes them with his Talons, and with his other Foot swims away at his own Ease, and eats them ; but if he happens to light upon a very stout Fish, he carries it to the next Rock or Tree ; for, as I told you already, this is an amphibious Biid, he preys not only upon Fish ; but upon Lizards also, for want of Fishes." It would be possible, of course, to continue instances of this kind indefinitely ; but the temptation must be resisted ; for it is not in the reasonable nature of things that these pages should be peopled entirely by weird animals, one-half of which is as we see them now, and the rest evolved from the excited imaginations of the sixteenth- and seventeenth -century travellers . Here are some observations made by Du Perier at the end of the seventeenth century that already savour of a certain accuracy and of a curbed imagination : — ** Admiral Christopher Columbus, before he dy'd, advis'd his Catholick Majesty to plant the principal of his Colonies in the provinces of Beragua and Uraba, because there were to be found the greatest number of, and the most commodious ports : Beragua was afterwards nam'd Castilia d'Oro ; and Uraba, New SOME NATURAL HISTORY NOTE, .^g^ Andalusia. Houses and a church were built there ; and a bishop was sent thither, to instruct the Indians in the Catholick faith. Grains of all sorts were brought to sow the land, as likewise to produce good fruits, of which, in a short time, there was great abundance ; for cucumbers, melons, and pumpions grow and become ripe there in twenty days ; lettice, sorrel, and other herbs, will be ready to gather in ten. The fruits of the country are excellent, and among the rest, those of a tree which the Indians call Guaianaba, which produces apples something like those of Europe, but more inclined to the shape of a citron ; another tree call'd Guarabana, bears a sort of fruit like melons ; but of so exquisite a taste, that none of our fruits of Europe can come near it. This is what the King of Spain said of them, when one of them was presented to him, which had been care- fully kept during the voyage. All the woods are full of those plums which the physicians call mirabolans, which are dry'd to make use of upon medicinal occa- sions ; hogs, by eating of this fruit in the woods, become exceeding fat ; their flesh is firmer, and of a more exquisite relish than ours. *' The number of animals equals that of the fruits : there are to be found in the woods lions, tigers, lynxes, foxes, stags, and monstrous animals ; among the rest, there's one of these last as large as an ox or a mule, but somewhat inclin'd to the shape of an elephant ; he has long whiskers, hoofs like a horse, and hanging ears like an elephant, but shorter. Many rivers empty themselves into the Gulph of Uraba, whereof one is exceeding deep, and above four miles broad ; the Spaniards term it Rio Grande, or the Great River : great numbers of pheasants and peacocks are to be found on its shores, but of colours very different from ours. There are many other sorts of birds, whose melody is charming, and taste excellent. The quantity, of parrots of all sorts and sizes is infinite : 282 CENTRAL AMERICA ^'but the Spaniards who go to the Indies, apply them- selves to something better than bird-catching." The actual fauna and flora of the Central America of to-day are referred to briefly in the chapters on the various Republics. It would be as well, however, to give a rapid glance at the general collection of creatures and growths met with in the tropical lands of the Isthmus. Among the largest of the beasts of prey are the jaguar and the puma. It has been stated that in Guatemala the jaguar is not dangerous to mankind, but this can hardly be taken seriously ; for it would be difficult to understand the reason why this fierce animal should abandon its usual habits in these par- ticular regions. If this were said of the puma, it would appear reasonable enough ; for this creature frequently shows a strong disinclination to attack man, and there are even instances given on reliable authority where the puma has shown itself amicably disposed towards human beings. This inclination certainly does not hold good in the case of cattle, on which it preys mercilessly. In addition to the puma and the ordinary jaguar, the black jaguar exists, though this handsome animal is very rare— which is perhaps as well, for it is the fiercest of all the predatory animals of the Americas. Among the lesser animals of a similar nature that inhabit the forests are the wild cat, ocelot, and a number of others of the kind. All these, it may be said, are met with throughout the Isthmus, for the Variety in the natural conditions of the various Republics is not sufficient to permit any wide differences in the fauna of the entire region. That queer quadruped, the tapir, is common in many of the coastal districts, and its heavy body and long snout are by no means an unusual sight. Four species of this are said to exist. The wolf, though far rarer, is occasionally met with. Wild hogs exist, and herds of peccaries roam the remoter districts, an SOME NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 285 encounter with these fierce little pigs, armed with their knifelike tusks, being an adventure that is some- times sufficiently perilous. Deer, though not common, are met with. Two varieties exist, the smaller of the two being provided with very large antlers. Among the smaller creatures are the grey squirrel, the red squirrel, racoon, opossum, and armadillo, the last being typical of the fauna of the Americas. Another animal of this kind is the ant-eater, a curious creature that is provided with an enormously long tongue for the purpose of licking up its ant food, and also with unusually powerful claws, which constitute most formidable weapons of defence. Several species of ant-eater exist. Among the various species of the simian tribe are the howling monkeys. These insignificant little animals have probably been the cause of more alarm than any others to newcomers in the Central and South American forests. The note, ridiculously out of proportion to the size of their frame, resembles the roaring of a lion, and, heard at night, is apt to produce a most startling impression. Central America shares the characteristic in fauna that is common throughout Latin America, in that its territories are far more densely inhabited by birds than by any other form of animal life. It would be impossible to describe here the very great number of species which exist. The names of some of the prin- cipal species will give an idea of the extent of their variety. ^ Among these are macaws, parrots, parroquets, toucans, the quetzal (which was the imperial bird of the Quiches), tanagers, carpenter -birds, pigeons, doves, humming-birds, eagles, falcons, vultures, hawks, Turkey buzzards, owls, red and yellow spurwings, cranes, ducks, quail, snipe, and many scores of other species. One of the tnost notable of the birds is the great white falcon, it may be said, and among the 286 CENTRAL AMERICA parroquets a striking yellow species is occasionally met with. The vampire bat prevails in certain districts. This very unpleasant creature lives by the extraction of blood from human beings and from animals, such as horses and cattle. It attacks its victim when asleep, and the incision that it makes in the latter's skin is so tiny that the person or animal attacked is scarcely ever disturbed by the actual operation, and it is only on awakening that the loss of blood is discovered— a loss that, in the case of animals, if continued for several nights in succession, may have serious con- sequences. The Central American snakes are more numerous on the Pacific than on the Atlantic coast. These include the boa-constrictor, anaconda, corrial, tama- gasa, and rattlesnake. Crocodiles, iguanas, and smaller lizards are common, while tortoises are suffi- ciently numerous for their shells to constitute an article of commerce. The multitudes of bull-frogs are as noisy in the lowlands of the Isthmus as elsewhere, and in the mangrove -swamps are innumerable crabs. There is also a black-and-white land crab. Some of the principal salt-water fish are the bSrra- couta, parrot -fish, snapper, shad, flounder, sword-fish, and cat-fish. Sharks are very numerous in these regions, both in the Atlantic and the Pacific. Beyond these are a number that inhabit the esteros, or lagoons, and fish are fairly abundant in some of the lakes, notably in Lake Managua. The great manatee obtains in some of the lagoons on the Atlantic coast, though it does not seem to be met with on the Pacific. A fine specimen of this will weigh nearly a ton. Turtle are found in considerable numbers, especially on the Mosquito Coast, while oysters are sufficiently good and numerous in Fonseca Bay for their cult to have become an industry. As may be imagined, the insect life of the Isthmus SOME NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 287 is abundant in the extreme. The most brilliant aspects of this are represented by the gorgieous butterflies, and the seamy side is only too plainly revealed by the countless insect pests— from the ordinary mosquito and garrapata, or tick, to the stinging ants and flies— which perform their duties of pestering with a most noxious enthusiasm. The greatest variety of these, of course, is met with in the lowland forest country. The langosta, or locust, appears in its vast cloud- like swarms from time to time, and causes the agri- cultural damage that is inseparable from the advent of the insect. As a spectacular set-off to these pests, it may be mentioned that in the coastal regions the nocturnal illuminations caused by the fire -flies are most brilliant. After this very cursory glimpse at a fauna which in itself demands several volumes for its proper description, we may turn to an equally curt survey of the principal vegetable products of the Isthmus. The flora of the Isthmus, needless to say, varies according to the altitude of the territory. Thus, whereas in the lowlands growths such as the rubber - tree, coco -nut -palm, copaiba, and similar growths of the high tropics flourish, the forests of the uplands are composed largely of pines, one of the most notable trees here being the pitch-pine, which abounds more particularly in Honduras. The extent of many of these pine forests of the interior is very great. Many of the pine and cypress -trees, too, are exceedingly fme specimens, and the seed of some of them has been introduced into other countries with such suc- cessful results that it seems possible that a certain industry may be the consequence of this, although, even with the most favourable developments, it could never well rank as anything beyond a minor one. One of the most famous of the Central American trees is the mahogany, which is referred to in some detail elsewhere in this book. It is the greatest of 288 CENTRAL AMERICA all the forest trees of the Isthmus, and it is said .to take three hundred years to attain to its full size. Among the other woods are the lignum vitse, rosewood, silk-cotton, cedar, espane, guayacan, cocobolo, various kinds of oak, calabash -tree, granadillo, and numerous other varieties. The chief species of dyewoods are the Brazil-wood, fustic, dragon's blood, and annatlo. The indigo shrub flourishes more especially in Guate- mala ; but the commercial value of indigo has now much declined, owing to the invention of aniline dyes. The handsome tree-fern is met with throughout the lower levels of the forests. There are one or two growths which are peculiar to the various Republics. Among these is the Sapranthus Nicaragaensis, which, it is generally held, is confined to Nicaragua. Its flowers rather resemble Julips. On first unclosing their petals they are of a green colour. After a time they darken and turn into a very sombre purple, and at this stage they begin to emit an odour which is extraordinarily repulsive. The typical tree of the savannas is the acacia, and on these open spaces blackberries abound in a pro- fusion similar to that experienced in Southern Chile. Other growths are the agave, wild cocoa, pimiento- tree, and vanilla. Among the most notable of the medicinal growths of the Isthmus is the balsam, which flourishes in Salvador. Numerous other products of the kind, such as sarsaparilla and ipecacuanha, are abundant. Among the textiles is the Mexican ixtle, which grows in Central America under the name of pita. The fibre of this is used for the manufacture of hammocks and for other purposes of the kind. Just as the giant cactus is characteristic of the bare and rocky volcanic slopes, so the orchid suggests the rich profusion and tangled growths of the tropical forest. The aspect of many of the Central American cacti is exceedingly curious, more especially in those SOME NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 289 districts where their massive spiked stems attain to a. density that almost suggests a forest. The blossoms of many of the species are exceedingly brilliant. A certain amount of orchid collection is carried on in the Isthmus, and the plants are exported to Europe and the United States. The principal native fruits include the mango and the guava, both of these equally delicious in their own fashion, which offer great possibilities in the way of preserving. Beyond these are the alligator pear, less generally popular, the tamarind, citron, granadillo, manzanilla, and a number of others. Maize, the only cereal indigenous to the Americas, flourishes in most of the districts, and, together with the frijoles beans, forms the staple food of the lower classes of the Isthmus. It is impossible to attempt any detailed descrip- tion of the glories of the tropical blossoms of Central America. As may be expected, the orchids and air plants in the forests and the varieties of flowers in the forest clearings are innumerable. Thick jungle, however, more especially that which is as dense as much of the Costa Rican forest, is somewhat dis- appointing in this respect, for, although many of the trees bear the most brilliant blossoms, these unclose themselves to the sunlight at the tops of the trees, and are quite invisible to one toilfully making his way below. One of the most notable of the flowers of the open country is the convolvulus. A splendid blue specimen of this flower that covers great stretches of ground has been called ** the glory of Nicaragua." A curious kind of convolvulus, too, is one that flowers in the night-time, and the blossoms of which begin to fade with the first rays of the sun. 19 CHAPTER XX BRITISH INTERESTS IN CENTRAL AMERICA (I) Central America as a market for British goods — Distinctions between the Isthmus and the Southern KepubHcs — Influence of the geographical situation — Advantages enjoyed by the United States — Industrial metamorphosis of the latter Republic — An importer instead of an exporter of chilled meat — The export of manufactures — Present sympathies between the Americans of the North and the South — How this affects commerce — Necessity of more strenuous British enter- prise — The international policy of Central America — The adoption of the cause of progress — British commercial travellers required for the Isthmus — Type of man wanted — The advantages of a knowledge of Spanish — Opportunities which will occur — Position of the British trade with Central America — The present-day value of Consular Reports — Past frame of mind of the British industrial world — Propor- tion of the trade of Central America obtained by the United States, Great Britain, and Germany — Figures showing the respective exports of each to the Isthmus. In considering Central America as a market for British goods, it would be as well to point out in the first place the circumstances which govern the commercial situation as compared with those which apply to South America ; for in the eyes of many the respective commercial positions of Central and South America are identical. This, however, is by no means the case. Quite apart from the distinctions unavoidable between the dealings with great and powerful Republics and those with small States that in the past have not always proved themselves too stable, the respective geo- graphical situation of the two sets of countries is in itself sufficient to account for some widely varied influences. 290 BRITISH INTERESTS 291 Thus the great Republics of South America stand out boldly, from a practical point of view almost equidistant from Europe, the United States, and Australasia. In the matter of industrial and com- mercial competition, therefore, they offer a fair field for the chief producing nations of the world. In the race for their markets every one starts from the " scratch " mark. Now, from their mere geographical situation it is clear that this cannot be the case with the Central American Republics. It is true that the large and tortured area of Mexico deprives them of any actual territorial contact with the United States. Never- theless, the southernmost point of the Florida penin- sula stretches down to within two or three hundred miles of Cuba, which brings it in comparative proximity to the Isthmus, while no more than two or three days' steam separates the Atlantic coastline of the Isthmus from the port of New Orleans itself. The advantages which a proximity of this kind must produce in all matters of trade competition are too obvious to need to be pointed out in detail here. It is true that it is only of recent years that the United States has begun to make full use of these advan- tages ; but the reason for this lay with the economic ^ situation oFthe United States itself, rather than with any real difficulties in the relations with the people of the Isthmus. The reason, in fact, is so simple that it is only after some hesitation that I confide it to the reader, who is almost certainly acquainted with its few bald details ! But since these are, even now, not quite universally recognized, and since they have a very important bearing on the matter under review, it may as well be explained here without further prelude that the United States has only recently come to the end of the first flush of its youthful force as a State. In the past it has held the position now occupied 292 CENTRAL AMERICA by the Latin American Republics. Its comparatively small population set to work with the virgin riches of the soil, and produced far more of the prime wants of mankind than they could possibly make use of themselves. The world in general— including the great majority of the inhabitants of the United States — watched the development of the North American industries and the increase of its population very much as a matter of course — as, indeed, humanly speaking, it was. But the great majority failed to grasp the full meaning of that which was happening. With the gradual filling up of its empty corners the industrial life of the United States became more complex. No more virgin soil remained to yield its products with the exuberant generosity of the new lands. The history of other nations was repeating itself : the pastoral industry was giving way to the agricultural ; the agricultural was yielding to the call of the factories. It was only a very few years ago that occurred what was probably the greatest and most significant of all the signs of this change. That was when the United States ceased to export its chilled meat and began to import this from South America instead — a process that must become more and more accentuated as the population of the Northern Republic continues to increase. There can be no doubt, surely, that this marked the definite transformation of the United States from a country that in meat 'had been self-supporting, and that had possessed a surplus for export, to a manufacturing land whose industrial existence and whose food had already begun to depend upon its relations with other countries. As the natural tendency is for the ratio of this movement to increase, its force is bound to become more and more marked in Central America— there is no need of a peculiarly astute prophet to predict as much as that. It is a force with which British manu- BRITISH INTERESTS 293 facturers will have to reckon : hence the reason of this somewhat lengthy digression. There is, incidentally, another element which must assist to influence the situation. That is the part which the United States is now playing in the world's struggle against autocracy. The lively sympathies aroused in the Latin American Republics — ^which are fully referred to elsewhere in this book — can scarcely fail to make themselves evident in a practical as well as a sentimental fashion. Although it is abundantly clear that the lofty policy of the United States was entirely unconcerned with any such result, it should exercise a powerful influence on the trade with Central and South America. Taking all this into consideration, there is no doubt that British commercial men will have to make a more strenuous effort in the future than they have in the past if they wish the position of their trade to remain in any way satisfactory. The present moment is probably one of the most unfavourable in the whole course of commercial history to venture any predictions. The influences at work are so enormous and so far-reaching that circumstances which are merely local must of neces- sity lose much of their importance, since they are largely at the mercy of the enormous and world-wide forces which have been set in motion from without. So far as the policy of Central American States is concerned, this has already been made clear. They have definitely cast their votes against the Powers representing autocracy and the New Barbarism, and this they have done with a gratifying earnestness and enthusiasm. In this matter it must be put to the honour of Guatemala that she has taken the lead, and that she has broken off relations with the Central Powers of Europe. From the point of view of the entire world — ^with the exception of Germany and her allied dupes— this 294 CENTRAL AMERICA marks the definite entry of Guatemala into the com- pany of the forces of progress. And, although no official declaration has yet been made, it is manifest that the views of the other Central American Powers are similar. Thus there is no doubt that a portion of that sympathy extended to the United States will be offered to ourselves and to our Allies in general. It is likely enough, therefore, that the commercial situation in Central America will remain in many respects similar to what it was before the outbreak of the war. So far as can be gathered from the position of to-day, however, it would seem probable that the future weakness of Germany and the un- popularity of her cause will result in the loss of a, great part of her trade with the Isthmus. It will be strange, indeed, if the end of the war does not provide a unique opportunity for the im- provement of British trade with Central America. But in order to bring this about some more enterprising methods piust be adopted. What is wanted in Central America at the present moment are British commer- cial travellers of a good stamp, who are possessed of a working knowledge of the Spanish language. The measure of success that would be achieved by a properly equipped man could scarcely fail to be considerable. It is true that the number of available British commercial travellers who have the advantage of the Spanish tongue is limited. But surely that is all the more reason why this drawback should be removed as speedily as possible. Indeed, to a young man entering upon a commercial career, a sound knowledge of Spanish constitutes a very valuable asset at the present day. It is true that in Central America he would meet with rivals of other nationalities, but he would have practically a virgin field so far as his own countrymen were con- cerned. The most efficient salesman, on the other hand, who was acquainted with no other tongue but BRITISH INTERESTS 295 his own would, of course, be at the mercy of interpreters, and would thus be at a serious disadvantage. It will be seen from the figures given later on in this chapter that the position now occupied by British goods in the Isthmus is far from satisfactory. But, although at the present time Great Britain does not possess the advantage that was once hers in this part of the world, it should be by no means difficult to improve largely on the existing situation. But for this, it must be repeated, more enterprising methods are undoubtedly essential. It should be said in fairness to our Consular Reports that these documents tend to gain more and more in commercial interest and practical value. The British exporter who is concerned with the Latin American markets would do well to make a point of studying these. There is no doubt, however, that the average business man does not feel himself drawn towards any perusal of the kind, as he is given to regard the pub- lication as necessarily of an amateurish nature, compiled as it is by persons not financially interested in trade. Whether this latter be the case or not, of recent years these Consular Reports have been practically unanimous in pointing out the small trouble taken by British manufacturers to supply the Latin American markets compared with the pains taken by their com- petitors of other nationalities. The fact is that during the past quarter of a century the British industrial world has been in a frame of mind which in a com- petitive era is sheerly suicidal. It has been satisfied with what it had. It is a lamentable fact that, in the strenuous life of to-day, this easy and moral con- tent is the short cut to complete ruin. It resembles the peaceful waters of a stagnant backwater that lag behind at the side of the stream, and eventually become choked with weeds and sediment. 296 CENTRAL AMERICA Up to the time of the outbreak of the European War the bulk of the Central American trade has been in the hands of the United States, Great Britain, and Germany. The strategic advantages of the situa- tion naturally lie with the first of these three countries, and the advantage of the possession of a port such as New Orleans, which is within two or three days' steam of these Southern States, is not to be over- estimated. There would seem to be no reason, on the other hand, why the commercial value of our own island of Jamaica should not be considerably enhanced in this respect. As a depository for the supply of Central America, it occupies an absolutely unrivalled position. As a matter of fact, ever since Jamaica became British its influence upon Central America has been marked, to say nothing of the fact that its British negroes have played an important part in the actual develop- ment of the resources of Central America, and this condition of affairs now tends to become accentuated with the increase of the banana plantations, for, from the point of view of labour, the negro is undoubtedly the king of the banana world here. In order to appreciate the position as it has been" until recently, it is necessary to glance at the respec- tive imports into the countries of Central America from the United States, Great Britain, and Germany. We may begin with Guatemala, concerning which country, however, no very recent official figures would seem available. Nevertheless, the tendency of the later years is sufficiently well known to make it possible to dispense with these, and the following totals of the imports from all countries will serve as a basis' :— I 1908 931,035 1909 •• — — 837,214 1910 .„ 1,066,325 BRITISH INTERESTS 297 In the year 1909 the proportion of these totals as distributed between the United States, Great Britain, and Germany was respectively 42, 22, and 23 per cent. Much the same percentages hold good in the years 1908 and 19 10. Considering the advantages that she has enjoyed, it is not astonishing that the United States should have almost equalled the com- bined shipments of Great Britain and Germany. At the same time, it cannot be said that the position of the British goods is satisfactory, for they have tended to lose ground, and in some cases have actually tended to decrease, while the German articles, being more vigorously pushed, have shown a proportionate increase. But of this more later. Concerning the Costa Rican imports, more recent figures are at hand. These, however, do not provide more satisfactory reading. The totals of the recent imports into Costa Rica are these : — 1912 2,087,197 1913 1,787,335 1914 1,554,083 The proportion of this, distributed in 191 2 among the goods of the same three countries, is, roughly : United States 50, Great Britain 16, and Germany 17 per cent. In 191 3 the United States had gained one point, while Great Britain and Germany had each dropped two, while in 19 14 the United States had gained two more points. Great Britain had lost one more point, while Germany (whose shipping, of course, disappeared from the face of the open waters in August) lost nearly a point and a half. i In the case of Nicaragua, Great Britain has held her own far better. The figures given here are in American dollars, and, as they will serve equally well for purposes of conlparison, these may be retained 298 CENTRAL AMERICA here. The total imports from 191 1 to 191 3 were : — 1911 5,724,688 1912 4,966,812 1913 5,769,999 The shipments from the three countries under review were : — 19II. I9I2. I9I3. 2,754,940 1,412,295 642,752 2,549,026 939,260 604,037 3,244,007 1,150,611 619,212 United States ... Great Britain ... Germany In this case, it will be noticed, although the situa- tion as against Germany is so much more favourable, the proportion of trade compared with that of the United States is very similar. The corresponding figures for Honduras are : — Imports. £ 1909 516,311 I9I0 Not available 1911 652,957 I0I2 863,462 The respective shipments for the three countries were : — 1909. 1910. 1911. £ £ £ United states ... ... 373,969 561,047 567,083 Great Britain ... 2,485 9,o6r 12,500 Germany ... 14,635 22,416 25,000 As is only to be expected, the United States have secured the lion's share of the imports into the new Republic of Panama. The grand totals of these imports during 1 9 1 o, 1 9 1 1 , and 1 9 1 2 amounted respectively to £2,008,679, £1,980,488, and £1,974,324. BRITISH INTERESTS 299 The proportions shipped by the three countries principally, involved were : — 1910. 191 1. 1912. £ £ £ United states ... ... 1,125,529 1,024,589 1,082,661 United Kingdom ... 433,329 454,541 484,326 Germany ... 194,759 223,845 191,560 Unfortunately, I have no precise figures available concerning Salvador ; but here again it may be taken for granted that, although in this case Great Britain's proportion is larger than is the case in the majority of the Republics, her exports have been more and more encroached upon by those of other nations. CHAPTER XXI BRITISH INTERESTS IN CENTRAL AMERICA (II) The United States as the chief exporter to Central America — German methods in Latin America — The achievements of a State-aided commerce— Results of official backing and intrigue — Diplomacy and orders — Methods employed — The United States as a competitor — Similarity of British and North American methods — Relations between the United States and the Latin Americans — Misunderstand- ings in the past — Causes of the distrust — Result of the part played by the great Republic in the world's struggle — The ethics of Latin America — Convictions and ideals as the causes of political unrest — Good faith shown by the United States in her recent dealings with Central Americans — President Wilson's striking action — British ship- ping concerned with Central America — Competition of the American and German commercial fleets in the past — Origin of the American passenger traffic — Methods employed by the German ship-owners — Satisfactory enterprise of the British lines — An excess of broad- mindedness in some travellers — Desirability of supporting the Red Ensign — A former appeal of the author's brought up to date. It would be strange, indeed, if the United States, having once captured the lead in the exports to Central America, did not maintain her position. From our own point of view there can be very little cause for com- plaint in a situation of the kind, so long as our owm lesser exports continue to increase in proportion.. ^"7^ I have had occasion to observe before, when we find ourselves in competition with America we contend on common ground. There is far more in this than is generally sup- posed. It is one thing to compete with a nation that employs the same, or similar, commercial methods as ourselves. It is quite another thing to contend with the rivalry of a nation such as the Germans, 300 BRITISH INTERESTS 301 the third of the three peoples who have had the chief share of the Central American trade during the past quarter of a century. It is only, too clear now that the interpretation of business methods by the modern German includes an insidious„^rQp_aganda that has been largely assisted by the German State. There is no doubt, indeed, that the modem German, having drunk in the Prussian theories ceaselessly dinned into his head by statesmen, professors, and the latest type of Teutonic commercial magnates alike, had carried on his commercial campaign for many years in precisely the spirit in which he is abusing the laws of humanity and war alike in the war which is still raging. The difference lies meriely in the fact that at the present time his complete reckless- ness is openly and defiantly exhibited, while in the commercial days before the war this spirit was of necessity disguised as much as possible. It is to be supposed that the weapons of the Potsdam party will soon come home to roost sharply upon their own heads. This is not the place to discuss the depth of their sins. Yet this much must, at all events, be put to the credit of their energy that never was more determination shown in a bad cause. Just as the German soldier has had the support of illegal and inhuman contrivances, such as poison gas, liquid fire, and other diabolical weapons of the kind, so the German manufacturer and merchant in the days of peace enjoyed an assistance from his Govemm,ent that was of a kind previously quite unknown in the world of commerce. This has been quite as evident in Central America as elsewhere. We have here the rather curious spectacle of a State-aided commerce, such as one might expect from' a Socialist State, inaugurated by the sole remaining European autocracy. The objects of this are suffi- ciently plain now ; for the resultant funds played their part in the increase of the army and the navy 302 CENTRAL AMERICA and in the general preparations for the domination of the world. But as it was, for many years the resources of aU the German officials, from the Kaiser downwards — or upwards— were placed unreservedly, at the disposal of the merchants. For many years now complaints have been rife concerning the supineness of our diplomatic repre- sentatives in certain Latin American countries. Their methods were compared unfavourably with those of their German colleagues. These latter, in fact, were held up by many of the general public in Latin America as models of what these officials should be. Nothing was too much trouble for them. They were prepared to go to any lengths to assist their com- mercial countrymen in the pushing of their goods, and to employ every available means of official pressure which could be brought to bear in order to *' land " the orders that were coveted by the German manu- facturers. It is difficult to see on what grounds these officials deserved the praise that was heaped on them from certain quarters. It is quite clear that the methods to which they resorted were not in the least com- patible with their profession. The duties of a minister plenipotentiary or of an ambassador are sufficiently varied ; but they certainly do not include touting for commercial orders and obtaining them by means of more or less indirect bribery. A procedure such as this, although it may prove extremely profitable for a certain number of years, can have no other result in the end but to bring a very high and honourable office into disrepute. One of the unfortunate results of a policy of this kind is that it ultimately involves retaliation, just as we were obliged to meet poison gas with poison gas and Zeppelins with aeroplanes. Up to the outbreak of the Great War we had not employed any official retaliatory measures, and apparently some time would BRITISH INTERESTS 303 have elapsed before we would have been prepared to do so. At the time of writing it appears improbable that the need for this will arise, since, when the world is again open to the German merchants, it is scarcely possible to believe that the circumstances will be such as to permit them to continue in the future their policy of the past. With the United States, it is needless to remark, j no situation of this kind has arisen. In Latin America and elsewhere British and American merchants have competed in the open and fair markets, and where one has obtained the better of the other it may be taken for granted that it was on account of efficiency and shrewdness rather than because of official intrigues. It seems clear, not only on this account, but on many others, that the progress of the United States should be watched by us with a measure of sympathy only second to that with which we regard our own. ' ,. It must be admitted that the North Americans have not always been popular in Latin America. There has been considerable anxiety in the past in many of the Southern Republics concerning the claws of the eagle and the length to which its powerful wings might carry it. It has been frequently said that the Monroe Doctrine did not mean " America for the Americans," but rather " America for the North » Americans " — a supposition that has given many a / Latin American statesman many a sleepless night. But it is necessary to judge things as they are, and the policy of the United States, as it is now clearly developing, shows absolutely no signs what- ever of any aggression towards their Latin American , neighbours. On the other hand, the history of the past few years has produced much eloquent testimony to the contrary. That in the face of the continuous provocation afforded by Carranza of Mexico, not only, to the North Americans but to his own unfortunate 304 CENTRAL AMERICA countrymen, the United States has abstained from interfering in the internal affairs of the lesser Republic shows a scrupulous desire to respect the sovereignty of the Southern State that should be quite convincing as to the lofty ideals which prevail at Washington. There is no doubt, indeed, that much of the dis- trust arose through a mutual want of comprehension ; since, curiously enough, in the past the North American has understood far less of his Southern neighbours than the average European. But there seems no doubt now that the cordiality between the United States and Latin America must be vastly increased. The part played by the great Republic in the world's struggle can scarcely fail to bring about a result such as this. Latin America has been regarded too frequently as a territory chiefly notable for revolutions and internal strife. It must be frankly admitted that the States of Central America have been for the most part among those that have gone ^towards justifying this theory, erroneous enough though it is in the case of so many of the Southern Republics. But if the history of Latin America— and of Central America in especial— is inordinately concerned with political unrest, in common fairness the motives of this must be taken into consideration. One has heard rather too much of those Presi- dents who, having served a profitable term of office, spend the luxurious afternoons of their lives enjoying in Paris the Parisian fruits of a practically unlimited banking account. It would be absurd to deny that there have been sufficiently numerous instances of this kind of thing, but to regard this particular species | of retirement as the normal lot of the average Central I American President would be far more ridiculous still. I Convictions and ideals have played a greater part in Central American affairs than is generally believed. It is true that an enormous number of crimes have BRITISH INTERESTS 305 been committed in the name of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity. But it is equally true that the majority of those who committed those crimes were genuine and ardent believers in these conditions of life, and would themselves have died in upholding them, as indeed many did. After all, it is nothing beyond a fe^v outer circumstances which separate those who lead a quiet and sheltered existence and those whose life is spent among turbulent and violent surroundings. The spiritual goal of the two is frequently absolutely identical. The spirit of liberty burns as strongly in these small Republics as it does even in the great land of the United States. The periods of despotism that have from time to time intruded themselves into the life of their communities have ended by rendering the appreciation -of this all the keener. There is no doubt that their dread of the attitude of the United States -towards themselves was very real. It was almost inevitable, too, that this should have been intensified by the North American policy in regard to the Panama Canal and by the annexation of the Canal Zone. Much bitterness was evident con- cerning this, and the sentiment was freely expressed in a mass of literature published in Colombia and Central America, as well as in some other parts of the continent. The attitude, indeed, was one of tense expectancy — ^somewhat resembling that of the small birds of the field when a hawk with vibrating wings is hovering above them. But it is now clear to them that it was no hawk that hovered above them, but an eagle, whose horizon was wider and loftier than they had imagined. To drop all this metaphor, it is now plain enough that the United States has an end in view which represents something beyond the mere coining I of dollars, and that her role of protector is in actual ' fact a high and honourable one. 20 a06 CENTRAL AMERICA It is not too much to say that the spirit shown by the United States in its recent conferences with the Latin American peoples has demonstrated a genuin^e desire to further the brotherhood of nations. It would be the height of unfairness not to admit this, even though there have been times when it was the hobby of the United States to twist the Hon's tail, and when we, for our part, had no objection to pulhng out a few feathers from that of the eagle. Even so, the proceedings were accompanied by. a considerable amount of mutual respect ! Indeed, in dealing with this subject, even at the risk of bordering on the fulsome, it is necessary ,to continue a quite monotonous flow of praise. In superficial matters there is no doubt that a wide gap still separates the Americans of the North and of the South. But in essential matters an unexpectedly rapid advance has been made. President Wilson would seem to have shown a very marked genius in his later handling of the Pan-American problems. .Whether he were dealing with the great Republic of Brazil or the tiny one of Salvador, he made it clear that he respected the sovereignty and the rights of the other State just as much as he would have the other respect the similar attributes of the United States. There was one action above all which tended to dissipate any lingering doubts concerning the policy of North America. This was Wilson's famous appeal for arbitration in the midst of his difficulties with Mexico. There is no doubt that it came in a sense as a surprise, since the respective situations of the great Northern Power and the chaotic helplessness of the torn and frenzied Southern Republic seemed to call for nothing of the kind. But when, instead of putting pressure on the weakness of Mexico, Wilson appealed to Argentina, Brazil, and Chile to arbitrate between the United States and Mexico, a thrill of admiration went through every territory of Latin BRITISH INTERESTS 307 America. It was an act of chivalry ; but it was . something more. It was the practical proof of they good faith of the North American. It is owing to this that a Pan-American Congress of to-day is a thing that counts, and that such events as that of Nicaragua placing herself under the definite protectorate of the United States became possible. . All this must be taken into account in considering the relations which will obtain between the United States and the Latin American Republics when the normal conditions of existence are resumed at the conclusion of the war. It is a prospect which Great Britain can well afford to regard with gratification ; for in any case there has always been room for the American and the Englishman to work side by side, and with the same ideals before them and the same goal in view, it is certain that the associations between the two will now become more closely knit than ever before — not even excluding the period before the American revolution. It is somewhat diflficult to write definitely concern- ing the steamship communications of Central America at the present juncture. The British lines, repre- sented chiefly by the Royal Mail Steam Packet and the Pacific Steam Navigation Companies, have pro- vided very admirable communications with the Isthmus, the R.M.S.P. approaching it from the Atlantic by way of the West Indies, and the P.S.N.C. coming up from the south by way of the Magellan Straits or Cape Horn, as the case may be. As in all other matters concerning the Isthmus, the competition has been provided almost together by the Americans and the Germans. Indeed, the American competition in this respect is probably keener in Central America than in any other part of the world. As will be seen elsewhere in this book, the cause of this has not lain in a revival of the American shipping interests for the sake of increasing 308 CENTRAL AMERICA the fleets that sail under the Stars and Stripes, but is merely part of the important enterprise conducted by the Americans in Central America. The American fleet serving the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus came into being .originally, not in order to carry passengers, but to transport fruit. It forms part of the organization that nurses the banana from its bunch under the enormous smooth leaves to the consumer's mouth in New Orleans, New York, Boston, or elsewhere. The United Fruit Steamship Company, m fact, began to cater for its passengers as the result of an afterthought. The traffic is now increasing rapidly, and as the interests of the United States increase in Central America, the importance of the port of New Orleans grows in a like ratio. The principal German lines which have been serving the Isthmus in the past are the Hamburg-American and the Kosmos lines. At the time of writing^ it would be premature to hazard an opinion concerning the ultimate fate of both these enterprises. It is sincerely to be hoped that the renbwal of the era of peace will witness the transfer of their craft to the Red Ensign in compensation for the losses incurred as a result of the submarine crimes. In the mean- time, since it is impossible to count definitely on any such eventuality until it has actually come about, it will be as well, as a matter of precaution, to consider the situation as it was just previous to the outbreak of the war. At that period there is no doubt that the German lines were putting up a strong fight for the control of the mercantile navigation of both the Southern Atlantic and the Southern Pacific. Their methods were characteristic, and included the tearing up of whole reams of paper in the shape of agreements and conventions with steamship companies of other nations. The attack, indeed, was a formidable one, and in- cluded several rate wars and other strenuous com- BRITISH INTERESTS 309 petitive outbursts. The object, of course, was to drive all rival shipping from the seas — for the programme was as fully developed (though far less generally realized) in its own way in the days of peace as its fiendish parallel has been extended in these times of war. / What the upshot would have been had the British steamship companies proved as lethargic as were many other branches of the British industries it is difficult to say. It is possible, indeed probable, that had not these concerns banded themselves together to resist the German onslaught, there might have occurred one of the greatest industrial disasters that Great Britain has ever known — the very greatest, in fact, for it is impossible to think of Britain as Britain if shorn of the full glory of her mercantile fleet. As it was, thanks to the combination of British lines the danger was averted, and the R/ed Ensign was holding its own in a most satisfactory fashion when the war broke out. But if we are to suppose — ^principally for the sake of the illustration though it be — that much the same situation that prevailed before is to be continued after it, then there is a good deal more to be said on the subject. There is no doubt that a certain section of the travelling British public had fallen into the snare cunningly set for them by the Germans, who were only too willing to exchange sprats for mackerel all the time. None can deny the advertising efficiency of the Hamburg -American and North German Lloyd Lines, and it is clear enough that it was part of their policy to take special measures to ingratiate some of the more important of the foreign passengers whom they secured. As a result of this, the section of the British travelling public to which I have referred — a section sufficiently small in numbers but eloquent in its opinions — took upon itself to sing the praises of the German lines in no uncertain fashion, and, in 310 CENTRAL AMERICA fact, to act as the most efficient advertising agents, which was exactly what the directors of the German lines had planned. To give the latter their due— and it would be extremely unwise to attempt anything else— none can accuse them of a want of thoroughness. It would, moreover, be the height of folly to expect efficiency to be ignored and custom to be obtained merely because of sentimental reasons. Had the British lines been in actual fact inferior to those of another country, in common justice no objection could have been taken to loss of passengers by the British fleets, although the motives which induced a desertion of the Red Ensign are certainly to be regretted. This is a point, as a matter of fact, on which considerable stress should be laid. It has been part of the efficient German advertising campaign to pro- pound as widely as possible the doctrine that the comfort experienced on the German ships was in excess of that to be obtained on the vessels of any other nationality. It is not necessary to labour the point. The war has exhibited only too plainly the type of strategy employed. This doctrine, however — in common with so many others of a similar nature — is directly in opposition to facts. It is unnecessary here, of course, to enter into any wider field than that of Central America in order to demonstrate this. The vessels of the Royal Mail Steam Packet, the Pacific Steam Navigation Com- pany, and those of the other British lines that ply here uphold in every respect the best traditions of the British mercantile marine. In organization and arrangements they are, moreover, essentially up to date. It is true that the civility and attention are of a quieter and less advertising type ; but surely it need not be taken that they are any the less thorough because of that. On the contrary, the world has now had the opportunity of comparing motives and BRITISH INTERESTS 311 of judging which is the more genuine and reliable of the two. In connection with such points as these, at the risk of boring the reader, I should like to quote a para- graph which I wrote some ten years ago in another work, Madeira: Old and New. The weapons of prophets and self-appointed flagellators are so often turned against themselves that the temptation to justify a past attitude is almost irresistible when the oppor- tunity occurs I None can now say that the following admonition was entirely without reason, although un- doubtedly there were few who would admit this at the time :— *' Narrow-mindedness in international competition is admittedly reprehensible. Yet I must confess that 1 am wont to listen with some impatience to the clamour- ings of those Englishmen who advocate foreign lines. Admitting freely that some of them are quite excel- lent, the preference might surely still be given to an English company of equal merit. At the present juncture there is more involved than the mere advantage of one company over another. The foreigners, with patriotic common sense, travel by their own lines ; a number lof Englishmen, with what they would term broad-minded impartiality, spread their custom over all. A man has the right to travel by any line he chooses, I think I hear the reader exclaim. Perfectly true. There is no more law to stop him than there is to prevent him from dropping a bag of sovereigns into the English Channel if the pro- ceeding amuses him. Yet it is precisely this boasted impartiality that has wrought such ai change in British commerce during the past two decades. Even if the powers that be — to use a hackneyed metaphor — elect to fight with boxing-gloves and windy dogma against a mailed fist that strikes practical commercial blows with perfect logic, there is no reason why the public should hasten the inevitable result by its in- 312 CENTRAL AMERICA difference to. the future. And the extent of the mischief that has already been wrought is as yet clear to very few indeed. There are many human ostrich heads in England, and a desert of sand for them to wallow in'! '* There can be no necessity whatever to repeat this warning at the present time. The ' fully revealed Prussian policy has clearly dissolved the last doubt that can have existed on the "subject. Nevertheless, it is not outside the bounds of possibility that the time may come when the prospect of some quite spurious advantages may tempt a certain number of travellers to return to the shortsighted errors of thfe past. But should they give way to such utterly futile inclinations, they will assuredly not only fail to gain the slightest material advantage, but will liave assisted to bring about a grave disservice to British shipping. In fact, to such as these one can only say — the blood of the Red Ensign be upon their heads ! Beyond this it is clearly impossible to say anything at the present juncture ; for where so much is in the melting-pot the precise proportions of gold and of alloy that have to emerge are still a matter of un- certainty, not only as regards shipping, but in connection with the entire range of British interests in Central America. APPENDIX HISTORICAL An old account of Santa Cruz del Quiche — A quaint account of the Central American Indians — Some habits and customs of the early Guatemalans — The ruins at Copan, as described by the Licenciado Palacios in 1576 — A letter from the King of Spain to Vasco Nuiiez de Balboa — John Chilton's account of some early voyagings off the Central American coast — John Esquemeling's relation concerning the Mosquito Indians — Captain Basil Hall's description of Panama in 1822 — A description of the city of Old Guatemala — An account of the earthquake of 1854 which destroyed the city of San Salvador. The following is the account of Santa Cruz del Quiche written at the beginning of the seventeenth century, and translated into English by Lieutenant J. Baily in 1823 : — "Santa Cruz del Quiche is a village seated on an extensive open plain, fertile in the extreme, producing grain, vege- tables, and delicate fruits, in proportionate abundance. It is but moderately populous, and contains a Dominican convent with the title of a priory. The history of this place is singular, as it was once the large and opulent city of Ututlan, the court of the native kings of Quiche, and indubitably the most sumptuous that was discovered by the Spaniards in this country. That indefatigable writer, Francisco de Fuentes, the historian, who went to Quiche for the purpose of collecting information, partly from the antiquities of the place and partly from manu- scripts, has given a tolerably good description of this capital. It stood nearly in the situation that Santa Cruz now occupies, and it is presumable that the latter was one of its suburbs ; it was surrounded by a deep ravine that formed a natural fosse, leaving only two very narrow roads as entrances to the city, both of which were so well de- fended by the castle of Resguardo as to render it impreg- nable. The centre of the city was occupied by the royal 315 316 APPENDIX palace, which was surrounded by the houses of the nobility ; the extremities were inhabited by the plebeians. The streets were very narrow, but the place was so populous as to enable the king to draw from it alone no less than 72,000 combatants to oppose the progress of the Spaniards. It contained many very sumptuous] edifices ; the most superb of them was a seminary, where between five and six thousand children were educated ; they were all main- tained and provided for at the charge of the royal treasury ; their instruction was superintended by seventy masters and professors. The castle of the Atalaya was a remarkable structure, which, being raised four stories high, was capable of furnishing quarters for a very strong garrison. The castle was not inferior to the other ; it extended 180 paces in front, 230 in depth, and was five stories high. The grand alcazar, or palace of the kings of Quiche, surpassed every other edifice, and in the opinion of Torquemada, it could compete in opulence with that of Moctesuma in Mexico, or that of the Incas in Cuzco. The front of this building extended from east to west 376 geometrical paces, and in depth 728 ; it was constructed of hewn stone of different colours ; its form was elegant and altogether most magnificent ; there were six principal divisions : the first contained lodgings for a numerous troop of lancers, archers, and other well-disciplined troops, constituting the royal bodyguard ; the second was destined to the accommodation of the princes and relations of the king, who dwelt in it and were served with regal splendour, as long as they remained unmarried ; the third was appropriated to the use of the king, and contained distinct suites of apartments for the mornings, evenings, and nights. In one of the saloons stood the throne, under four canopies of plumage ; the ascent to it was by several steps. In this part of the palace were the treasury, the tribunals of the judges, the armoury, the gardens, aviaries, and menageries, with all the requisite offices appending to each department. The fourth and fifth divisions were occupied by the queens and royal concubines ; they were necessarily of great extent, from the immense number of apartments requisite for the accommodation of so many females, who ere all maintained in a style of sumptuous magnificence; gardens APPENDIX 817 for their recreation, baths, and proper places for breeding geese that were kept for the sole purpose of furnishing feathers, with which hangings, coverings, and similar orna- mental articles were made. Contiguous to this division was the sixth and last ; this was the residence of the king's daughters and other females of the blood royal, where they were educated and attended in a manner suitable to their rank. The nation of the Quiches or Tultecas extended its empire over the greatest portion of the present kingdom of Guatemala ; and, on the authority of the manuscripts mentioned above (which were composed by some of the Caciques who first acquired the art of writing) it is related that from Tanuh, who commanded them, and conducted them from the old to the new con- tinent, down to Tecum Umam, who reigned at the period when the Spaniards arrived, there was a line of twenty monarchs." It will be noticed that this last statement does not tally with the number of kings (twelve) given in the body of this book. But this only affords one more instance of the thousands of discrepancies which confront the student of the early history of these districts of the Americas. Here is an early account of the Indians of Central America which is, although accurate only up to a certain point, worthy of note on account of its quaintness : — " The Difference between the Lands and Possessions cause continual Wars among the Indians. They that have least are continually to dispossess those that have more. They make Slaves of all they become Masters of, and set Seals upon their Chains, as most Persons of Quahty in Europe do their Coats of Arms on their Blacks Collars. Some Lords pull out one of the fore Teeth of their Slaves to distinguish them by that Mark. The Cannibals that inhabit along the Coast of Carthagena make no Slaves ; they eat all they take, both Men and Women. They give Quarter neither to Strangers nor their Enemies. They preserve some Women indeed for their domestick Services, and 318 APPENDIX Children to make Soldiers of, but the greatest part they devour. They geld the Children of Foreigners to make them grow fat and render them more delicious Food, as we do Capons in Europe. That they may make them more frightful in War they are accustom'd to paint their Faces black and red. " They have among them certain Religious People, whom they call Tequinas, and to whom they pay the greatest respect. These Tequinas consult the Devil about all affairs of State, as whether they shall go to War or not, and at what Time, to which the Devil, being an old Astrologer, often gives such Answers as prove proper, which the Tequinas immediately make a Report of to the People. The Indians, deceiv'd by these Predictions, see the Effect of all these Things that had been foretold them a long while before they happen, which enclines them easily to believe the rest. There are certain Provinces where human Flesh is offer'd in sacrifice to these Demons, but in some they content themselves to burn Incense and sweet Odours to them. '' If it happens the Success does not answer the Predic- tions of the Tequina, he impudently tells the People God has chang'd his Mind, and is not asham'd to impose on poor Ignorants in the grossest Manner. They pay their principal Devotions to the Sun and Moon, but they likewise look upon their Caciques as visible Gods. They pay them all imaginable Respect and do them all the Service within their Power. When any Cacique comes to die, his chief Servants, both Men and Women, kill themselves to accom- pany and serve him in the other World. It is a common error among these Wretches tliat those who make away with themselves for the sake of their Cacique go with them directly to Heaven, to do them the same Services they did them here on Earth, whereas if they should die natural deaths, they think they should not be so certain of such Happiness. They believe also that the Souls of those who have not the Courage to kill themselves, die with their Bodies like those of other Indians that have not the Honour to belong to the Caciques. Before they make away with themselves, they have the Precaution to bury in the Ground a certain Quantity of Maiz and other APPENDIX 319 Provisions to subsist them in the other World, or to sow some Grain if by chance they happen to want Maiz in that Country. " Upon the Sea Coasts the Indians compose a Poyson of certain odoriferous Apples, Ants, Scorpions, and other venomous Insects pounded together, of all which they make a kind of black Pitch with which they rub their Arrows when they go out to fight. Those that are wounded with these Arrows immediately die mad. They throw themselves on the Ground, bite their Flesh, and tear it to Pieces, without its being possible to cure them." It is said it was by order of King Philip of Spain that much information concerning the aboriginal inhabitants of Guatemala was compiled in the year 1580. The following is the gist of that which concerns their costume : — ''The dresses of the noble Indians differed from those of the commoners, as did those of the civilized of the population from those of the barbarians. It is known from tradition, from ancient manuscripts, and from paintings still extant in the convents of Guatemala, that the nobles wore a dress of white cotton, dyed or stained with different colours, the use of which was prohibited to the other ranks. This vestment consisted of a shirt and white breeches, decorated with fringes ; ovei; these was drawn another pair of breeches, reaching to the knees, and ornamented with a species of embroidery ; the legs were bare, the feet protected by sandals, fastened over the instep, and at the heel, by thongs of leather ; the sleeves of the shirt were looped above the elbow, with a blue or red band ; the hair was worn long, and tressed behind with a cord of the colour used upon the sleeves, and terminating in a tassel, which was a distinction peculiar to the great captains ; the waist was girded with a piece of cloth of various colours, fastened in a knot before ; over the shoulders was thrown a white mantle, ornamented with figures of birds, lions, and other decorations of cords and fringe. The ears and lower lip were pierced, to receive star-shaped pendants 320 APPENDIX of gold or silver ; the insignia of office or dignity were carried in the hand. The Indians of modern times differ from the ancients only in wearing the hair short, the sleeves loose, and by the omission of earrings and lip ornaments. '* The civilized natives dress with great decency ; they wear a species of petticoat, that descends from the middle of the body to the ankles, and a robe over the shoulders, reaching to the knees ; this was formerly worked with thread of different colours, but is now embroidered with silk. The hair is formed into tresses with cords of various hues, and they wear ornaments in the ears and nether lip. " The habit of the mazagueles is simple, and very poor : they are not permitted the use of cotton, and substitute for it cloth made of pita. The dress is simply a long shirt, the flaps of which are drawn between the legs and fastened ; a piece of the same stuff is tied round the waist, and a similar piece forms a covering for the head. Some of the Indians of the southern coast wear this dress ; but generally, in the warm districts, they go naked, with the exception of the maztlate, or piece of cloth worn round the middle for the sake of decency. "The barbarians, or unreclaimed Indians, of Guatemala, unlike those of Sinaloa, who go in a state of perfect nudity, wear a cloth round the middle and passing between the fork. This covering, among the chiefs, is of white cotton ; but the common people make it of a piece of bark ; which, after being soaked for some days in a river, and then well beaten, resembles a fine chamois leather of a buff colour. They always paint themselves black, rather for the purpose of defence against mosquitoes than for ornament ; a strip of cotton is bound round the head, and in it are stuck some red feathers. Green feathers are the distinguishing marks of their chiefs and nobles. The hair flows loose upon the shoulders ; the lower lip and nose are decorated with rings ; they carry a bow and arrow in their hand and have a quiver suspended from the shoulder." APPENDIX 321 This account, too, of the habits and customs of these early Guatemalans is of unusual interest : — "As soon as they (the children) begin to run alone, they are made to carry little burdens, proportioned to their strength. At five or six years of age they are taken into the fields to cut forage, which they call sacat^ or to carry home little bundles of wood. As they increase in years the boys are taught by their fathers to hunt, fish, and till the ground, the use of the bow, and other similar arts : the mothers instruct the girls from their tenderest years to grind corn, procuring for them small stones suitable to their management, and in the other employments peculiar to their sex, such as dressing and spinning cotton and pita^ and to weave the different sorts of cloth. They are accustomed to bathe very frequently, twice or even three times a day. The mothers are extremely suspicious, and will not suffer their daughters to be absent from home scarcely a minute. The young men Hve at the expense of their fathers ; but whatever they gain by labour is delivered into the parents^ hands. In this manner they are maintained until they marry. ^' When a marriage is to be celebrated, on the appointed day the priest of the village, the principal cacique^ and the relations on both sides assemble at the house of the calpul to whom the bride and bridegroom belong. The priest then desires the young man to confess to him all the sins of his past life ; the same is then required of the bride. After having separately told all their misdeeds, the relations are admitted, with the presents they intend to make, and with which the young couple are decorated. After this they are carried upon the shoulders of those who assist at the ceremony to the house intended for them, where they are placed in bed and the door fastened ; the marriage ceremony is then complete. . . . " In their visits they make long harangues, remarkable only for the repetition of the same expressions. If they take their children with them, they make them keep pro- found silence. When intrusted with a secret, the utmost confidence may be placed in their tenaciousness, as they will risk their lives rather than reveal it. If a question be asked, a direct answer is never given : perhaps^ yes, or 21 322 APPENDIX no is the usual reply. They place great reliance on the Spaniards, and when the latter become their guests, they give up everything to them with much cheerfulness and satisfaction ; but of the negroes they entertain such dis- like and distrust, that if they know one to be gone in any particular road they have occasion to pass, it is a sufficient reason for them to proceed by a different way. Intercourse with them is troublesome, particularly with those employed as couriers, who, as soon as they have deUvered a letter intrusted to their care, take post opposite the house of the person to whom it is directed, where they will remain until they are dispatched with the reply. As they find warmth agreeable, they have a fire- place in their dwellings, and they deUght much to bask in the sun and bathe in the warm springs. They are much addicted to drunkenness, and have a propensity equally strong to superstition ; to particularize examples of which might amuse, but the details would extend beyond reason- able limits.'^ The famous ruins at Copan are thus described by the Licenciado Palacios, who wrote in 1576 : — " Pursuing the road to San Pedro, we find in the first town in the province of Honduras, which is called Copan, the ruins of superb edifices which appear to have belonged to a great city, such, it may well be presumed, as could never have been built by a people so rude as the natives of the country. They are situated on the banks of a beautiful stream, in a well-chosen and extensive plain, temperate in climate, fertile in soil, and abounding in fish and game. Among these ruins are trees which appear to have been planted by the hands of man, and other things of a remarkable character. Before reaching them we find very heavy walls, and an enormous eagle carved in stone, bearing on its breast a square shield, each side of which measures nearly a quarter of a yard, and which is covered with unknown characters. Proceeding further, we find the figure of a great giant in stone, which the old Indians call the APPENDIX 823 guardian of the sanctuary. Still further on is a cross of stone, three palms in height, of which one arm is broken. We next find ruined edifices, the stones of which are sculptured with much skill, and a statue more than four yards in height which resembles the figure of a bishop with his pontifical ornaments. A well carved mitre surmounts his head, and he has a ring on his finger. Near this is a large square, surrounded by steps, which, from the descriptions, resembles the Coliseum at Rome. In some places there are as many as eighty steps remaining. It is paved with beautiful stones, all square and well worked. Here are six very large statues, three of which represent men with armour, in the form of mosaics, and with ribbons bound around their legs. Their arms are loaded with ornaments. Two represent women, with long robes and head-dresses in the Roman style. The sixth is the statue of a bishop, holding in his hands a packet resembling a box. It would seem that these statues are idols, for before each one of them is a large stone like those which served for sacrifices, with a groove to carry'off the blood. We find also the altars on which the ancient in- habitants burned their perfumes ; and in the centre of the square is a basin of stone, which, it would seem, served for purposes of baptism, or in which they made their sacrifices in common. Beyond the square we come to an elevation, ascended by a great number of steps, upon which, without doubt, they had dances and celebrated the rites of their religion. It appears to have been constructed with the greatest care, for throughout we find the stones excellently well worked. At one side of this edifice is a tower or terrace, very high, and dominating the river which flows at its base. A large piece of the wall has fallen, exposing the entrances of two caverns, very long and narrow, most care- fully constructed. I have not been able to discover anything in them, nor the purposes for which they were built. There is here a grand stairway of many steps, descending to the river. There are also many other remains which prove that the country was formerly inhabited by a numerous popula- tion, civilized, and possibly advanced in the arts. I en- deavoured in all possible ways to ascertain from the Indians for what purpose these monuments had been built. To this end I interrogated the old men, since their ancient books no 324 APPENDIX longer exist in the country, the only one that I knew of being in my possession ; but all that I could learn was that, according to tradition, they had been constructed by a powerful lord who came from Yucatan, and who, after a number of years, returned to his country, leaving the city he had built entirely deserted. And this seems most likely, for tradition also says that the people of Yucatan formerly conquered the provinces of Ayazal, Lacandon, Chiquamula, and Copan. It appears that these edifices resemble those which the first Spaniards discovered in Yucatan and Tabasco, where also there were figures of bishops and armed men, as well as of crosses.'^ A letter from the King of Spain, written on the 14th of August [514, to Vasco Nunez de Balboa, acknowledging the great services rendered by the latter to the Crown in his successful journey across the Isthmus of Panama, and in his discovery of the South Sea or Pacific. This letter is one of those discovered and collected by the indefatigable Chilean historian, Jose Toribio Medina. "The King — Vasco Nunez de Balboa. Miguel de Pasa- monte, our Treasurer-General of the Indies, has sent me two copies of some of the letters you wrote him, which you say are similar to those you have written to me on the 12th of March, and which Arbolancha is carrying home. As Arbolancha has not yet arrived, I am awaiting his advent before making a decision concerning your requests. Con- cerning yourself, this letter is merely to tell you that I have rejoiced to read your letters, and to learn of that which you have discovered in those parts of the New World bordering the South Sea and the Gulf of San Miguel, for which I give much thanks to Our Lord, and I hope that all will be for His service. To you I give my thanks, and I deeply appreciate that which you have laboured to do, which was worthy of a tried and faithful servant. And I have taken note of the services of those who made the journey with you, of their toils, hunger, and sufferings, and since this has been of such great service to God and our- APPENDIX 325 selves, and of great utility to the kingdom, you may cherish the hope that you and they will be well rewarded and remunerated, and that I will always bear in mind your services and theirs, to the end that you may receive your deserts, and, concerning yourself, I will see to it that you will be honoured and that your services will be recompensed, because it is clear to me that in your enterprise you have done very well, and it has appeared good to me that in the journey you should have dealt reasonably and gently with the Indian chiefs. All who are occupied in our service should do the same everywhere. When your letters arrived Pedrarias had already departed with the fleet which we ordered to sail to the country of Castilla del Oro, to which he goes in the capacity of our Captain-General and Governor. I am now writing to him to instruct him to regard your affairs favourably, and to treat you as a person who has served me, and is serving me, well, and whom I desire to reward, and I hold it for certain that he will act thus. You, pending my decision as to your post, which will be soon, God wiUing, may serve me by assisting and advising him in all that he has to do with the good will that you have before demonstrated, and which I look to see in you now. Even if he does not ask you about all things, be careful to advise and counsel him to do what it seems to you that he ought, especially in the matters concerning the fort and the roads that you made. I am writing to him to tell him to be influenced by this. Shortly I will cause to be made known to you those affairs which concern yourself. " At ValladoHd, the nineteenth day of August 15 14. " I, THE King." I quote the- following extract in full from Hakluyt, though it is not concerned solely with Central America, as in its way it constitutes one of the most remarkable first-hand documents in English of a period when the privilege of visiting the territories of Spanish America was sufficiently rare in the case of foreigners to be reserved almost altogether for the unfortunate prisoners captured by the Spaniards 326 APPENDIX for the offence of trespassing in their alleged private oceans : — "A notable discourse of Mr. John Chilton, touching the people, maners, mines, cities, forces, and other memor- able things of New Spaine, and other provinces in the West Indies, scene and noted by himselfe in the time of his travels, continued in those parts, the space of seventeene or eighteene yeeres. " In the yeere of our Lord 1561, in the moneth of July, I John Chilton went out of this city of London into Spaine, where I remained for the space of seven yeres, and from thence I sailed into Nova Hispania, and so travelled there, and by the South Sea, unto Peru, the space of seventeene or eighteene yeeres : and after that time expired, I returned into Spaine, and so in the yere 1856 in the moneth of July, I arrived at the aforesayd city of London : where perusing the notes which I had taken in the time of my travel in those yeeres, I have set downe as followeth. '* In the yeere 1568, in the moneth of March, being desirous to see the world, I embarked my selfe in the bay of Cadiz in Andaluzia, in a shippe bound for the Isles of the Canaries, where she tooke in her lading, and set forth from thence for the voyage, in the moneth of June, the same yere. Within a moneth after we fell in with the Isle of S. Domingo, and from thence directly to Nova Hispania, and came into the port of S. John de Ullua, which is a little Island standing in the sea, about two miles from the land, where the king mainteineth about 50 souldiers, and captain es, that keepe the forts, and about 150 negroes, who all the yeere long are occupied in carying of stones for building, and other uses, and to helpe to make fast the ships that come in there, with their cables. There are built two bulwarkes at ech ende of a wall, that standeth likewise in the sayde Island, where the shippes use to ride, made fast to the sayd wall with their cables, so neere, that a man may leape ashore. From this port I journeyed by land to a towne called Vera Cruz, standing by a rivers side, where all the factours of the Spanish merchants dwell which receive the goods of such ships as come thither, and also lade the same with sugh APPENDIX 327 treasure and merchandize as they returne back into Spaine. They are in number about foure hundred, who onely remaine there, during the time that the Spanish fleet dischargeth and is loden againe, which is from the end of August to the beginning of April following. And then for the un- wholesomnesse of the place they depart thence sixteene leagues further up within the countrey, to a towne called Zalapa, a very healthfuU soile. There is never any woman delivered of childe in this port of Vera Cruz : for so soone as they perceive themselves conceived with child, they get them into the countrey, to avoid the perill of the infected aire, although they use every morning to drive thorow the towne above two thousand head of cattell, to take away the ill vapours of the earth. From Zalapa seven leagues I came to another place, named Perota, wherein are certaine houses builded of straw, called by the name of ventas, the in- habitants whereof are Spaniards, who accustome to harbour such travellers as are occasioned to journey that way up into the land. It standeth in a great wood of Pine and Cedar trees, the soile being very colde, by reason of store of snow, which lieth on the mountaines there all the yere long. There are in that place an infinite number of deere, of bignesse like unto great mules, having also homes of great length. From Perota nine leagues I came to the Fuentes of Ozumba, which fuentes are springs of water issuing out of certeine rocks into the midst of the high wayes, where likewise are certaine ranges and houses, for the uses before mentioned. Eight leagues off from this place I came to the city of the Angels, so called by that name of the Spanyards, which inhabit there to the number of a thousand, besides a great number of Indians. This city standeth in very plaine fields, having neere adjoyning to it many sumptuous cities, as namely the city of Tlaxcalla, a city of two hundred thousand Indians, tributaries to a king, although he exacteth no other tribute of them then a handfull of wheat apiece, which amounteth to thirteene thousand hanneges yeerely, as hath appeared by the kings books of account. And the reason why he contenteth himself with this tribute onely from them, is, because they were the occasion that he tooke the city of Mexico, with whom the Tlajccallians had v^arre at the same time when 328 APPENDIX the Spanyards came into the countrey. The governour of this city is a Spanyard, called among them the Alcalde mayor, who administreth chief est causes of justice both unto the Christians and Indians, referring smaller and lighter vices, as drunkennesse and suchlike, to the judge- ment and discretion of such of the Indians as are chosen every yeere to rule amongst them, called by the name of Alcaldes. These Indians from foureteene yeeres olde upwards, pay unto the king for their yerely tribute one ounce of silver, and an hannege of maiz, which is valued among them commonly at twelve reals of plate. The widowes among them pay halfe of this. The Indians, both of this city, and of the rest, lying about Mexico, goe clothed with mantles of linnen cloth made of cotton wooll, painted thorowout with works of divers and fine colours. It is distant from the city of the Angels foure leagues to the Northward, and foureteene from Mexico. There is another city a league from it, called Chetula, consisting of more than sixty thousand Indians, tributaries, and there dwell not above twelve Spanyards there. From it, about two leagues, there is another, called Acassingo, of above fifty thousand Indians, and about eight or twelve Spanyards, which standeth at the foot of the Vulcan of Mexico, on the East side. There are besides these, three other great cities, the one named Tepiaca, a very famous city, Waxazingo, and Tichamachalcho : all these in times past belonged to the king- dome of Tlaxcalla : and from these cities they bring most of their Cochinilla into Spaine. The distance from the city of the Angels to the city of Mexico is twenty leagues. This city of Mexico is the city of greatest fame in all the Indies, having goodly and costly houses in it, builded all of lime and stone, and seven streets in length, and seven in breadth, with rivers running thorow every second street, by which they bring their provision in canoas. It is situated at the foot of certaine hilles, which conteine in compasse by esti- mation 'above twenty leagues, compassing the sayd city on the one side, and a lake which is foureteene leagues about on the other side. Upon which lake there are built many notable and sumptuous cities, as the city of Tescuco, where the Spanyards built sixe frigats, at that time when they conquered Mexico, and where also Fernando Cortes APPENDIX 329 made his abode five or six moneths in curing of the sicknesse of his people, which they had taken at their comming into the countrey. There dwell in this city about sixty thousand Indians, which pay tribute to the king. In this city the sayd Fernando built the finest church that ever was built in the Indies, the name whereof is S. Peters. " After I had continued two yeeres in this city, being desirous to see further the countreys, I imployed that which I had, and tooke my voyage towards the provinces of Cali- fornia, in the which was discovered a certeine countrey by a Biscaine, whose name was Diego de Guiara, and called it after the name of his countrey. New Biscay, where I solde my merchandise for exchange of silver, for there were there certaine rich mines discovered by the aforesayd Biskayne. Going from Mexico I directed my voyage somewhat toward the Southwest, to certaine mines, called Tamascaltepec, and so travelled forward the space of twenty days, thorow desert places unhabited, till I came to the valley of S. Bartholomew, which joyneth to the province of New Biscay. In all these places the Indians for the most parte go naked, and are wilde people. Their common armour is bowes and arrowes : they use to eate up such Christians as they come by. From hence departing, I came to another province named Xalisco, and from thence to the port of Navidad, which is 120 leagues from Mexico, in which port arrive alwayes in the moneth of April, all the ships that come out of the South Sea from China, and the Philippinas, and there they lay their merchandise ashore. The most part whereof is mantles made of Cotton wooll, Waxe, and fine platters gilded, made of earth, and much golde. "The next summer following, being in the yeere 1570 (which was the first yeere that the Popes Buls were brought into the Indies) I undertooke another voyage towards the province of Sonsonate, which is in the kingdome of Guati- mala, whither I caried divers merchandize of Spaine, all by land on mules backs. The way thitherward from Mexico is to the city of the Angels, and from thence to another city of Christians 80 leagues off, called Guaxaca, in which there dwelt about 50 Spanyards, and many Indians. All the Indians of this province pay their tribute in mantles of Cotton wooll, and cochinilla, whereof there groweth abun- 330 APPENDIX dance thorowout this countrey. Neere to this place there lieth a port in the South sea, called Aguatulco, in the which there dwell not above three or four Spanyards, with certaine Negroes, which the king mainteineth there : in which place Sir Francis Drake arrived in the yeere 1579, in the moneth of April, where I lost with his being there above a thousand duckets, which he tooke away, with much other goods of other merchants of Mexico, from one Francisco Gomes Rangifa, factour there for all the Spanish merchants that then traded in the South sea : for from this port they use to imbarke all their goods that goe for Peru, and to the kingdome of Honduras. From Guaxaca I came to a towne named Nixapa, which standeth upon certaine very high hilles in the province of Sapotecas, wherein inhabit about the number of twenty Spanyards, by the King of Spaines commandement, to keepe that country in peace : for the Indians are very rebellious : and for this purpose hee bestoweth on them the townes and cities that be within that province. From hence I went to a city called Tecoantepec, which is the farthest towne to the Eastward in all Nova Hispania, which some time did belong to the Marques de Valle, and because it is a very fit port, standing in the South sea, the king of Spaine, upon a rebellion made by the sayd Marques against him, tooke it from him, and doth now possesse it as his owne. Heere in the yeere 1572 I saw a piece of ordinance of brasse, called a Demy culverin, which came out of a ship called the Jesus of Lubec^ which Captaine Hawkins left in S. John de Ullua, being in fight with the Spanyards in the yeere 1568, which piece they afterwards caried 100 leagues by land over mighty mountaines to the sayd city, to be embarked there for the Philippinas. Leaving Tecoantepec, I went still along by the South sea about 150 leagues in the desolate province of Soconusco, in which province there groweth cacao, which the Christians cary from thence into Nova Hispania, for that it will not grow in any colde country. The Indians of this countrey pay the king their tribute in cacao, giving him four hundred cargas, and every carga is 24,000 almonds, which carga is worth in Mexico thirty pieces of reals of plate. They are men of great riches, and withall very proud : and in all this province thorowout, there dwell not twenty Christians, I APPENDIX 331 travelled thorow another province called Suchetepec ; and thence to the province of Guasacapan : in both which provinces are very few people, the biggest towne therein having not above two hundred Indians. The chiefest merchandise there is cacao. Hence I went to the city of Guatimala, which is the chiefe city of all this kingdome : in this city doe inhabit about 80 Spanyards : and here the king hath his governours, and councell, to whom all the people of the kingdome repaire for justice. This city standeth from the coast of the South sea 14 leagues within the land, and is very rich, by reason of the golde that they fetch out of the coast of Veragua. From this city to the Eastward 60 leagues lieth the province Sonsonate, where I solde the merchandize I caried out of Nova Hispania. The chiefest city of this province is called S. Salvador, which lieth 7 leagues from the coast of the South sea, and hath a port lying by the sea coast, called Acazutla, where the ships arrive with the merchandize they bring from Nova Hispania ; and from thence lade backe againe the cacao : there dwell heere to the number of threescore Spaniards. From Son- sonate I travelled to Nicoia, which is in the kingdome of Nicaragua, in which port the king buildeth all the shipping that travel out of the Indies to the Malucos. I went forward from thence to Costa rica, where the Indians both men and women go all naked, and the land lieth betweene Panama and the kingdome of Guatimala : and for that the Indians there live as warriers, I durst not passe by land, so that here, in a towne called S. Salvador, I bestowed that which I caried in annile (which is a kinde of thing to die blew withall) which I caried with me to the port of Cavallos, lying in the kingdome of Honduras, which port is a mighty huge gulfe, and at the comming in at the one side of it there lieth a towne of little force, without ordinance or any other strength, having in it houses of straw : at which towne the Spanyards use yeerely in the moneth of August to unlade foure ships which come out of Spaine laden with rich merchandise called Annile and Cochinilla (although it be not of such value as that of Nova Hispania) and silver of the mines of Tomaangua, and golde of Nicaragua, and hides, and Salsa perilla, the best in all the Indies : all which merchandize they returne, and depart from thence alwayes 332 APPENDIX in the moneth of April following, taking their course by the Island of Jamaica, in which Island there dwell on the West side of it certaine Spanyards of no great number. From this place they go to the Cape of S. Anthony, which is the uttermost part of the westward of the Island of Cuba, and from thence to Havana lying hard by, which is the chiefest port that the king of Spaine hath in all the countries of the Indies, and of greatest importance: for all the ships, both from Peru, Honduras, Porto rico, S. Domingo, Jamaica, and all other places of his Indies, arrive there in their returne to Spaine, for that in this port they take in victuals and water, and the most part of their lading : here they meet from all the foresayd places alwayes in the beginning of May by the kings commandement : at the entrance of this port it is so narrow, that there can scarse come in two ships together, although it be above sixe fadome deepe in the narrowest place of it. In the North side of the comming in there standeth a tower, in which there watcheth every day a man to descrie the sailes of ships which hee can see on the sea, and as many as he discovereth, so many banners he setteth upon the tower, that the people of the towne (which standeth within the port about a mile from the tower) may understand thereof. Under this tower there lieth a sandy shore, where men may easily go aland ; and by the tower there runneth a hill along by the waters side, which easily with small store of ordinance subdueth the towne and port. The port within is so large that there may easily ride a thousand saile of ships without anker or cable, for no winde is able to hurt them. There inhabit within the towne of Havana about three hundred Spanyards, and about three- score souldiers, which the king mainteineth there for the keeping of a certeine castle which hee hath of late erected, which hath planted in it about twelve pieces of small ordinance, and is compassed round with a small ditch, wherethorow at their pleasure they may let in the sea. About two leagues from Havana there lieth another towne called Wanabacoa, in which there is dwelling about an hundred Indians, and from this place 60 leagues there lieth another towne named Bahama, situate on the North side of the Island. The chiefest city of this Island of Cuba (which is above 200 leagues in length) is also called Sant APPENDIX 333 lago de Cuba, where dwelleth a bishop and about two hundred Spanyards ; whiche towne standeth on the South side of the Island about lOo leagues from Havana. All the trade of this Island is cattell, which they kill onely for the hides that are brought thence into Spaine : for which end the Spanyards mainteine there many negroes to kil their cattell, and foster a great number of hogs, which being killed, and cut into small pieces, they dry in the sun, and so make it provision for the ships which come for Spaine. " Having remained in this Island two moneths, I tooke shipping in a frigat, and went over to Nombre de Dios, and from thence by land to Panama, which standeth upon the South sea. From Nombre de Dios to Panama is 17 leagues distance : from which towne there runneth a river which is called the river of Chagre, which runneth within 5 leagues of Panama, to a place called Cruzes ; thorow the river they cary their goods, and disimbarke them at the sayd Cruzes, and from thence they are conveyed on mules backs to Panama by land ; where they againe imbarke them in certeine small ships in the South sea for all the coast of Peru. In one of these ships I went to Potossi, and from thence by land to Cusco, and from thence to Paita. " Here I remained the space of seven moneths, and then returned into the kingdome of Guatimala, and arrived in the province of Nicoia, and Nicaragua. From Nicaragua I travelled by land to a province called Nicamula (which lieth towards the North sea in certaine high mountaines) for that I could not passe thorow the kingdome of Guatimala at that time for waters, wherewith all the Low countreys of the province of Soconusco, lying by the South sea, are drowned with the raine that falleth above in the mountaines, enduring alwayes from April to September : which season for that cause they call their winter. From this province I came into another called De Vera Paz, in which the chiefest city is also called after that name, where there dwelleth a bishop and about forty Spanyards. Among the mountaines of this countrey toward the North sea, there is a province called La Candona, where are Indian men of war which the king can not subdue, for that they have townes and fortes in a great lake of water above in the sayd mountaines : the most part of them goe naked, and some 334 APPENDIX weare mantles of cotton wooll. Distant from this about 80 leagues, I came into another province called the province of Chiapa, wherein the chiefest city is called Sacatlan, where there dwelleth a bishop and about an hundred Spanyards. In this countrey there is great store of Cotton wooll, whereof the Indians make hne linnen cloth, which the Christians buy and cary into Nova Hispania. The people of this province pay their tribute all in Cotton wooll and Feathers. Foureteene leagues from this city there is another called Chiapa, where are the finest gennets in all the Indies, which are caried hence to Mexico, 300 leagues from it. From this city I travelled still thorow hilles and mountaines, till I came to the end of this province, to a hill called Ecatepec, which in English signifieth The hill of winde : for that they say, it is the highest hill that ever was discovered : for from the top of it may be discovered both the North and the South seas ; and it is in height supposed to be nine leagues. They which travell over it, lie alwayes at the foot of it over night, and begin their journey about midnight, to travell to the top of it before the Sunne rise the next day, because the winde bloweth with such force afterwards, that it is impossible for any man to goe up : from the foot of this hill to Tecoantepec, the first towne of Nova Hispania, are about fifteen leagues. And so from hence I journeyed to Mexico. . . . *^The king hath tribute brought him yerely out of the Indies into Spaine between nine and ten millions of gold and silver : for he receiveth of every Indian which is subject unto him (excepting those which do belong to the Incommenderos, which are the children of those Spanyards who first conquered the land, to whom the king gave and granted the government of the cities and townes subdued for three lives) twelve reals of plate, and a hannege of maiz, which is a wheat of the countrey (five of them making a quarter of English measure), and of every widow woman he hath sixe reals, and half a hannege of maiz. And so if any Indian have twenty children in his house, he payeth for every one of them, being above fifteene yeres old, after that rate. This wheat being duly brought to the governour of every province and city, is sold in Mexico by the kings governours there every yere ; so that the money received APPENDIX 335 for it, is put into the kings Treasurie there, and so is yeerely caried from thence into Spaine. Of the Spanyards which are owners of the mines of gold and silver, he receiveth the fift part of it, which he calleth his quintas, which being taken out of the heape, there is his armes set on it ; for otherwise it may not be brought out of the land into Spaine, under paine of death. The marke of silver, which is eight ounces, when it cometh out of the mines, not having the kings scale upon it, is woorth three and forty reals of plate, and so it is current : and when they will bring it for Spaine, they cary it to the kings Treasure house, where his scale is set upon it ; and so it is raised in value thereby to threescore and foure reals of plate : and so the king hath for his custome of every marke of plate one and twentie reals. " From the yere of 1570, which was the yeere that the Popes buls came into the Indies, as is afore mentioned, he hath received both of the Indians which are tributaries unto him, and also of all others belonging to the Incommenderos, of every one being above twelve yeeres of age, foure reals of every bull. Also they cary other pardons with them into the Indies, for such as be dead, although an hundred yeres before the Spanyards came into the countrey : which pardons the friers in their preachings perswaded the poore Indians to take, telling them that with giving foure reals of plate for a Masse, they would deliver their soules out of purgatory. Of the Christians hkewise dwelling there he hath foureteene reals for every bull : and there be certaine buls brought thither for the Christians besides the former, which serve for pardoning all such faults, wherein they have trespassed either against the king by keeping backe his customes, or one against another by any other injury ; for every hundred crownes whereof a mans conscience doth accuse him that he hath deceived the king or any other, he must give ten for a bull, and so after that rate for every hundred which he hath in any way stollen, and so is pardoned the fault. The revenue of his buls after this manner yeeldeth unto his treasury yeerely above three millions of gold, as I have bene credibly informed, although of late both the Spanyards and Indians do refuse to take the buls ; for that they perceive he doth make a yeerely custome of it : onely ech Indian taketh one pardon for all his householde (whereas in 886 APPENDIX former time every Indian used to take one for every person in his house), and teareth the same into small pieces, and giveth to every one of his householde a little piece, saying thus, they need now no more, seeing in that which they bought the yeere before they had above ten thousand yeres pardon. These pieces they sticke up in the wall of the houses where they lie. Both the Christians and Indians are weary with these infinite taxes and customes, which of late he hath imposed upon them, more than in the yeeres before : so as the people of both sorts did rebell twise in the time that I was among them, and would have set up another king of themselves ; for which cause the king hath com- manded upon paine of death, that they should not plant either wine or oile there, but should stand in need of them to be brought out of Spaine, although there would more grow there in foure yeares, then there groweth in Spaine in twenty, it is so fertile a countrey. '' And the king to keepe the countrey alwayes in sub- jection, and to his owne use, hath streightly provided by lawe, upon paine of death, and losse of goods, that none of these countreys should traffique with any other nation, although the people themselves doe now much desire to trade with any other then with them, and would undoubtedly doe, if they feared not the perill ensuing thereupon. " About Mexico, and in other places in Nova Hispania, there groweth a certeine plant called magueis, which yeeldeth wine, vinegar, hony, and blacke sugar, and of the leaves of it dried they make hempe, ropes, shooes which they use, and tiles for their houses : and at the ende of every leafe there groweth a sharpe point like an awle, wherewith they use to bore or pearce thorow any thing. *^ Thus to make an end, I have heere set downe the summe of all the chiefest things that I have observed and noted in my seventeene yeres travell in those parts." John Esquemeling, the buccaneer author, gives an inter- esting account of these Mosquito Indians in 1678, at a time when the " Brethren of the Coast " still flourished. Speaking of those in the neighbourhood of Cape Gracias a Dios, he says ; — APPENDIX 337 " We directed our course . . . towards the Cape of Gracias a Dios, where we had fixed our last hopes of finding pro- visions. For thither do usually resort many Pirates, who entertain a friendly correspondence and trade with the Indians of those parts. Being arrived at the said cape, we hugely rejoiced, and gave thanks to God Almighty for having delivered us out of so many dangers, and brought us to this place of refuge, where we found people who showed us most cordial friendship, and provided us with all necessaries whatsoever. " The custom of this island is such that, when any Pirates arrive there, every one has the liberty to buy for himself an Indian woman, at the price of a knife, or any old axe, wood-bill, or hatchet. By this contract the woman is obliged to remain in the custody of the Pirate all the time he stayeth there. She serves him in the meanwhile, and brings him victuals of all sorts that the country affords. The Pirate moreover has liberty to go where he pleases, either to hunt, or fish, or about any other divertisements of his pleasure ; but withal is not to commit any hostility or depredation upon the inhabitants, seeing the Indians bring him in all that he stands in need of, or that he desires. " Through the frequent converse and familiarity these Indians have with the Pirates they sometimes go to sea with them, and remain among them for whole years without returning home. Whence it comes that many of them can speak EngHsh and French, and some of the Pirates their Indian language. They are very dextrous at darting with the javelin, whereby they are very useful to the Pirates, towards the victualUng their ships, by the fishery of tortoises and manitas, a sort of fish so called by the Spaniards. For one of these Indians is alone sufficient to victual a vessel of an hundred persons." After an elaborate description of the manners and customs of these people, Esquemeling concludes with a curious note upon widows, who had to wait upon their deceased husbands' ghostly desires for a year : — " When the widow has thus completed her year, she opens the grave and takes out all her husband's bones. These she 22 338 APPENDIX scrapes and washes very well, and afterwards dries against the beams of the sun. When they are sufficiently dried, she ties them all together and puts them into a cabala^ being a certain pouch or satchel, and is obliged for another year to carry them upon her back in the daytime, and to sleep upon them in the night, until the year be completely expired. This ceremony being finished, she hangs up the bag and bones against the post of her own door, in case she be mistress of any house. But having no house of her own, she hangs them at the door of her next neighbour or relation ... if any Pirate marries an Indian woman, she is bound to do with him, in all things, as if he were an Indian man born." A much later account by the American, Mr. E. G. Squier, written in 1858, of these same people is, from the British point of view, tinged with the bias that existed at the time between the two nations on the vexed subject of the Mosquito Coast. It is, however, of distinct interest as giving the American point of view. It runs as follows : — " These Sambos or Mosquitos are a mixed race of negroes and Indians. It seems that early in the seventeenth century a large slaver was driven ashore not far from Cape Gracias. The negroes escaped, and although at first they encountered hostility from the Indians, they finally made peace and intermixed with them. The buccaneers had their haunts among them during the period of their domination in the Caribbean Sea, and bequeathed to them a code of morality, which subsequent relations with smugglers and traders have not contributed to improve. The negro element was augmented from time to time by runaway slaves (cimarrones) from the Spanish settlement, and by the slaves brought from Jamaica by the planters who attempted to establish them- selves on the coast during the early part of the last century. "The Sambos were fostered by the royal governors of Jamaica during the wars with Spain as a means of annoyance to the Spaniards, and with the altimate purpose of obtaining APPENDIX 339 possession of their country. Governor Trelawney, in 1740, procured from some of the chiefs a cession of the entire shore to the British Crown, which act was followed up by the appointment of a Governor or Superintendent, the erection of forts, and other evidences and acts of occupation and sovereignty. The pretensions thus set up were, never- theless, formally and fully relinquished by subsequent treaties with Spain, which provided for the destruction of the English forts and the unqualified abandonment of the shore. Nor were these pretensions renewed so long as Spain retained her power in America. It was not until her dominion was succeeded by the feeble sovereignty of the Spanish-American Republics that the traditionary policy of Great Britain on the Mosquito Shore was revived. Its revival has led to that singular complication which is now familiar to the public as ' the Mosquito question.' "The relations of the Sambos, first with the buccaneers, and subsequently with the English, by supplying them with fire-arms and other means of aggression, made them formid- able to the neighbouring Indian tribes. They often left the creeks and lagoons of the shore, and, going up the various rivers, made descents on the Indian towns on their banks, carrying off the inhabitants to be sold as slaves. For many years an active traffic was thus kept up with Jamaica. As a consequence, the Indian towns nearest the coast and most exposed to these incursions were either abandoned entirely, or their inhabitants purchased security from attack by annual presents of boats, skins, and other products of their country to the piratical Sambos. '' But with the decline and final suppression of the traffic in Indian slaves, the Mosquito Sambos have lost much of their activity, and have surrendered themselves more and more to their besetting vice of drunkenness, which, operating on constitutions radically tainted and weakened by unrestrained licentiousness, is hastening their utter extinction." It will be seen from this that Mr. Squier is severe both on the British policy of that day and on the Sambos. But the latter, not having yet accompHshed their utter extinction, still survive, and it is not to be denied that the old Adam 340 APPENDIX is still fairly strong within them. They still prefer above all things, moreover, to consider themselves as British subjects. Few more interesting accounts of Panama, as that historical city appeared at the beginning of the nineteenth century, have ever been written than by Captain Basil Hall, whose chronicles concerning Latin America of that period are worthy of a wider attention than they have generally received. His visit occurred at a time when the Spanish flag was waving but precariously over that part of the continent : — " We anchored in Panama roads at nine in the morning of the 2nd of February 1822, and as no one on board was acquainted with the place, a fisherman was called alongside, who undertook to pilot our boat through the reefs to the landing place. On rowing round the angle of the fortifi- cations encircling the town, which is built on a rocky peninsula, we found ourselves in a beautiful little bay, strongly marked with the peculiar features of the torrid zone. The beach was fringed with plantain- and banana- trees, growing amongst oranges, figs, and limes, and number- less rich shrubs, shaded by the tamarind-tree rising higher than any of the others, excepting the tall, graceful coco-nutj with its feathery top and naked stem. Close to the grounc and almost hid by the foliage, were clustered groups o^ cane-built huts, thatched with palm leaves ; and on th( sandy beach before them lay the canoes of the natives hollowed out of single trees ; while others were paddlin| across the bay, or skimming along under a mat sail, hoisted' on a bamboo mast ; all contributing, with the clear sky and hot weather, to give what is called an Oriental aspect to th( scene. " Our surprise on landing was considerable, to hez the negroes and negresses who crowded the wharf speaking English, with a strong accent, which we recog«j nized as that of the West Indies ; a peculiarity, as we foundj acquired from constant intercourse kept up across th( Isthmus with Jamaica. Most of the natives also spok( APPENDIX 841 English, more or less corrupted. Innumerable other trivial circumstances of dress and appearance and manners con- spired to make us feel that we had left the countries purely Spanish, and excluded by the ancient policy from all foreign intercourse. " We had no letters of introduction, but this appeared to be immaterial, for we had scarcely left the boat before a gentleman, a native of the place, but speaking English perfectly, introduced himself, and made us an offer of his house and his best services during our stay. This ready hospitality would surprise a stranger landing at a European port, but in distant regions, where few ships of war are seen, the officers are always received with attention and confidence : for as they can have no views of a commercial nature, they are at once admitted to the society as persons quite dis- interested. This cordial reception, which is universal in every part of the world remote from Europe, independently of being agreeable, is also highly convenient ; and com- pensates, in a great measure, to naval travellers for the interruptions to which they are always liable in their researches by the calls of professional duty. " Our hospitable friend being connected with the West Indies, as most of the Panama houses are, put into our hands a file of newspapers, principally Jamaica Gazettes ; and as we had not seen a paper in English for many months, nothing could be more acceptable. But upon examining them we discovered that most of the news they contained came to us trebly distilled, via Jamaica, via New York, via Liverpool, from London. In some of these papers we saw our own ship mentioned ; but in the several transfers which the reports had undergone, from paper to paper, we could scarcely recognize our own proceedings. " We had been led to expect that Panama was still under the Spaniards, and the first indication we had of the contrary was the flag of another nation flying on the fort. We had by this time, indeed, become so familiar with revolutions, and had learned to consider every government in that country so unsettled, that we ceased to be much surprised by any such change, however sudden, ... So gently, indeed, was the revolution brought about, that the inhabitants did not even change their governor, but left him 842 APPENDIX the option of continuing in his old situation or of retiring. When the alternative was put to him, he shrugged his shoulders, whiffed his cigar for a few minutes, and replied that he had no sort of objection to remain : upon which the inhabitants deliberately hauled down the flag of Spain, hoisted that of Bolivar in its place, proclaimed a free trade, and let all other things go on as before/' The following is a description of the city of Old Guate- mala, given in the first years of the nineteenth century: — " The city of Old Guatemala, once the metropolis of the kingdom, the seat of an archbishop, and one of the hand- somest cities of the New World, was founded by Pedro de Alvarado, on the day of the festival of St. James in the year 1524, on which account it is generally called the City of Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala ; and supposed to be under the special patronage of that saint, for which reason the metropolitan church was endowed by Pope Julius the Third, in 1551, with all the privileges and indulgences enjoyed by the celebrated church of St. Jago in GaHcia. St. Cecilia is also considered patroness of the city, because the kings of the Kachiquel nation, who received the Spaniards with marks of friendship and submission in 1524, but who revolted from them in 1526, were effectually subdued on St. Cecilia's Day ; in commemoration of this victory, the royal standard is annually, on that festival, borne in procession through the city, accompanied by the governor, all the officers of state, the clergy, and the nobility ; and because the Mexican and Tlascalteca Indians of Almolonga aided the Spaniards in the expedition against the Kachi- queles, their descendants are entitled to join the annual pageant, which they do, clothed in military habits, armed with muskets and lances, and distinguished by appropriate banners ; some of the chief persons of the tribes sHng behind their shoulders bows elegantly adorned with feathers and jewels, which greatly add to the splendour of the exhibition. As the capital of the kingdom, it was the residence of the governor and captain-general, who is also APPENDIX 848 president of the chancery and the royal audiencia. The chancery, erected in 1542, was then, as it is now, composed of a president, a regent, four oidors or judges, two fiscals, a chief alguacil, and a chancellor, two secretaries, and a com- petent number of subaltern officers. The public bodies at the seat of government are a general board of intestacy (Juzgado- general de Intestados), and another of lands ; the royal superior tribunal of accounts ; the royal caxa-matriz, or general treasury ; a board of customs ; administration of the post-office ; a general directory of tobacco ; administration of gunpowder and playing cards ; tribunal of the cruzada (to direct the means of converting the Indians) ; the royal consulate ; the royal mint ; and the illustrious cabildo, or the council of justice and government of the most loyal and noble city of Guatemala, to which body the Emperor Charles the Fifth, in 1532, granted armorial bearings, viz. a shield, charged with three mountains on a field gules, the centre one vomiting fire, and surmounted by the Apostle St. James, on horseback, armed, and brandishing a sword ; an orle, with eight shells or, on a field, azure ; crest, a crown. In 1566, Philip the Second granted the title of most loyal and most noble city. The illustrious cabildo is composed of two alcaldes, a royal standard-bearer, alguacil-mayor, a provincial alcalde, eight regidors, and a syndic. The royal and pontifical university of St. Carlos, and the Protomedicato, or college of physicians, are noble ornaments to the city ; the first of these bodies was founded by Charles the Second, in 1676, who granted to it all the privileges enjoyed by the universities of Mexico and Lima ; it has 12 professorships and a public library ; the academic senate at present consists of more than 50 doctors. The latter was instituted by royal permission in 1793, and is composed of a president, two examiners, and a fiscal. The economical society of Friends of the Kingdom was instituted in 1795, and confirmed by royal decree of the 21st of October, in the same year ; although its functions were suspended, in 1799, by royal authority, it had subsisted long enough to leave lasting memorials of its progress in the academies of drawing and models which it established, and which are carefully preserved, and in the royal cabinet of natural history, that it laid the basis of. Besides these institutions, there are three schools for the gratuitous instruc- 344 APPENDIX tion of youth in the initiatory branches of literature, and two classes of Latin grammar." The foregoing gives a clear insight into the cumbrous and pompous methods by which the Spanish colonies were administered, and, so far as the university is concerned, is eloquent of the great number of doctors and officials who were gathered together in order to inculcate very little beyond the elements of learning ; for beyond this point it was not the Spanish colonial policy to encourage knowledge. The following very graphic description of the earthquake which destroyed the city of San Salvador in 1854 was published by the '' Boletin Extraordinario del Gobierno del Salvador" on the 2nd of May 1854 : — " The night of the i6th of April 1854 will ever be one of sad and bitter memory for the people of Salvador. On that unfortunate night, our happy and beautiful capital was made a heap of ruins. Movements of the earth were felt on the morning of Holy Thursday, preceded by sounds like the rolling of heavy artillery over pavements, and like distant thunder. The people were a little alarmed in consequence of this phenomenon, but it did not prevent them from meeting in the churches to celebrate the solemnities of the day. On Saturday all was quiet and confidence was restored. The people of the neighbourhood assembled as usual to celebrate the Passover. The night of Saturday was tranquil, as was also the whole of Sunday. The heat, it is true, was considerable, but the atmosphere was calm and serene. For the first three hours of the evening nothing unusual occurred, but at half-past nine a severe shock of an earthquake, occurring without the usual prehminary noises, alarmed the whole city. Many families left their houses and made encampments in the public squares, while others prepared to pass the night in their respective courtyards. '' Finally, at ten minutes to eleven, without premonition of any kind, the earth began to heave and tremble with such fearful force that in ten seconds the entire city was pros- trated. The crashing of houses and churches stunned the APPENDIX 845 ears of the terrified inhabitants, while a cloud of dust from the falling ruins enveloped them in a pall of impenetrable darkness. Not a drop of water could be got to relieve the half-choked and suffocating people, for the wells and fountains were filled up or made dry. The clock-tower of the cathedral carried a great part of that edifice with it in its fall. The towers of the church of San Francisco crushed the episcopal oratory and part of the palace. The church of Santo Domingo was buried beneath its towers, and the college of the Assumption was entirely ruined. The new and beautiful edifice of the University was demolished. The church of the Merced separated in the centre, and its walls fell outward to the ground. Of the private houses a few were left standing, but all were rendered uninhabitable. It is worthy of remark that the walls left standing are old ones ; all those of modern construction have fallen. The public edifices of the Government and city shared the common destruction. ^*The devastation was effected, as we have said, in the first ten seconds ; for, although the succeeding shocks were tremendous, and accompanied by fearful rumblings beneath our feet, they had comparatively trifling results, for the reason that the first had left but little for their ravages. " Solemn and terrible was the picture presented on the dark, funereal night, of a whole people clustering in the plazas, and on their knees crying with loud voices to Heaven for mercy, or in agonizing accents calling for their children and friends, which they believed to be buried beneath the ruins ! A heaven opaque and ominous ; a movement of the earth rapid and unequal, causing a terror indescribable ; an intense sulphurous odour filling the atmosphere, and indi- cating an approaching eruption of the volcano ; streets filled with ruins, or overhung by threatening walls ; a suffocating cloud of dust, almost rendering respiration im- possible — such was the spectacle presented by the unhappy city on that memorable and awful night. ... It was found that the loss of life had been much less than was supposed, and it now appears probable that the number of the killed will not exceed one hundred, and of wounded fifty. Among the latter is the bishop, who received a severe blow on the head ; the late president, Sefior Dueiias ; a daughter of the 846 APPENDIX president, and the wife of the secretary of the Legislative Chambers, the latter severely. " Fortunately, the earthquake has not been followed by rains, which gives an opportunity to disinter the public archives, as also many of the valuables contained in the dwellings of the citizens. " The movements of the earth still continue, with strong shocks, and the people, fearing a general swallowing up of the site of the city, or that it may be buried under some sudden eruption of the volcano, are hastening away, taking with them their household gods, the sweet memories of their infancy, and their domestic' animals, perhaps the only property left for the support of their families, exclaiming with Virgil, ' Nos patrice fines et dulcia linqiiimus arva.' '* Unfortunately for the peace of Central American life, the set of incidents described here only constitute one of an almost innumerable series. COMMERCIAL Tables detailing the nature of all the imports into the Central American States— Currency of the various Republics— Weights and measures — Quotation from the 1913 Consular Report on Honduras In normal circumstances a profound apology would have been necessary for the introduction of the formidable mass of statistics which occupy this Commercial Appendix. The situation being what it is, no such apology is called for, or, indeed, justified, for in the industrial struggle that can scarcely fail to succeed the war of arms every scrap of information of the kind has its own value. It is not to be denied that the intrinsic value of statistics can seldom be patent to those not directly concerned in the particular branch of commerce to which they refer. As a result of this the perusal of all these figures is usually a sufficiently dull affair. At the present time, however, it may fairly be urged that these usually soulless collections of figures have been lent a new, and strangely eloquent, tongue, and he who is determined to ignore them must utterly fail to grasp the industrial situation that they reveal to-day. It is true that the practical manufacturer, exporter, and merchant has seldom allowed himself to be much impressed by the value of statistics. He is frequently given to assert that, while others may make a hobby of playing about with figures if they will, he himself, forgoing any such luxury, will attend to strict business, and will continue to make and ship and sell his goods much as before. The practical industrial and commercial man has much the same horror of theory that a genuine salt-water " shell- back " experiences 348 APPENDIX whose knowledge is challenged by a landsman who has just bought a motor-launch I Clearly enough, statistics would be the last things to appeal to for assistance, were matters of technical knowledge involved. But in the case of commercial imports and exports no such circumstances arise. Here they show the broad results that the merchant or manufacturer frequently ignores from the mere fact of being too close to his work to be able to realize them. It is surely an axiom of modern competition that he who fails to compare the results of his work with those achieved by his rivals can have very little idea of his place in the race of commerce. In such cases it is usually left for some un- expected crisis to let a flood of disagreeable and peace- shattering light upon a commercial situation which it is already too late to retrieve. In the old days, of course, it was possible for a craftsman to go about his work, throwing his best efforts in a sturdy but tranquil fashion into his creations, and, so long as his workmanship were good, taking comparatively little notice of market prices or of competition. But, as ill-fortune will have it, there is very little room left for these old-fashioned craftsmen in the complicated world of to-day. It is possible that circumstances may again arise to permit the flourishing of such past-masters of their craft as Wedgwood, Stradivari, and the whole very honourable company who worked rather in order to produce good results than in order to make financial fortunes out of their efforts. But at the present time it is a tragic fact that the majority of these would be rapidly reduced to selling matches in the gutter for a livelihood. The exigencies of modern commerce demand a struggle that in many respects — as has been said — resembles a race, during which only too short a time can be spared for the contemplation of the actual ground won or lost, since the effort must be unceasingly directed to maintaining or improving the position of each competitor. It is in this respect that the actual competitor frequently shows himself too indifferent to the advance made by his APPENDIX 349 rivals — an advance that modern circumstances decree can only be made at his expense. So here again the mere spectator is not altogether without his uses, and in a lesser fashion can imitate the coach of a racing-eighths crew, who, although plodding along on the bank instead of on the water, can give strenuous, and sometimes exhilaratingly forcible, advice, which is by no means always wasted. 850 APPENDIX < o h iS 1 i o 1 f ^11 = ^:1^1 = : =§: 1= §: to 'O TS o) CO "55 "JJ CO CO *? *?« "P 'S 'S "S c a> 'S ? oS "S 'S q3 *c c oj !§ ►§ ,^ ^ ►§ ^5 d O lO CO f<> t-t t^ CO M M Ti- CO N O 00 t^ tv, rj- nQ .•:3 c^ CO m lo Tj- t^ T3" M N C^ M 1 lO oo vo NO o oo . ^ "^ 2 U & ^ ^ 2^ ^ 1 < CO > • Si • T3 -tt : : f|5 5 a- £ la 5 §^« -^ "^ ^ APPENDIX 351 y British :, grey and reds ; in- ler colours) r British [crease) erman (in- increase, J5 "3 1) 11 ^ fabrics of y from Ger- it '— » >~> ^ Principall (decrease Turkey crease, ot Principall (decrease Principall Chiefly ra British Chiefly G German British d( Principall pure woe Principall many German Principall from Un dom : ?:.^ : . \0 CO f i : : •^co . : t^ • CO . t^vO . :8 : - .... lOO . , ' t^M : : ; 1 : Tt-co : • • 6 : : : * : s : * o o •o -C! 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Tj- vO to CO o ON i ^ ■* rf Ov t^ ° c^ t^ ■^ o CO vO" W o" ■^ to to ^ CO o o c< ^ . . . . . . y—t : : ; CO : n s (S a •^ u o :3 858 APPENDIX o < CO en » H O Q W" O < > H < . ^s. n M vO M CO Ov w 00 ov ov S8 11 M M X OO ^ ^ VO Ov VO <> 1 M OO lO t-i vO" CO » ^ CO vl fO hT VO t-T 2* »~ ^ M M M 00 Tf CO M t>. o VO CO 00 o o Ov ^. 8 lO so t>. to 00_ t^ c< CO ^ OO R: ov to* OO lO o" in ocT ■^ t^ 00 CO lO 1-^ S f^ t^ M ^ M O ^ % OO tc IJ T? vO" c» CO vO t^ a "^ o lO t>. TO 00 c< ri S o CO lO lO vO 00 M VO o c< CJ vq^ VO ^N O^ o 00 CO 5 (> 1 c> vO" i-T oo" OO CO vO~ vO- SQ CO 0^ Si ^ M lO 00 § ;? ^ S: cT -^^ «« M fr, CO g o CO O ITi M c< VO 00 «^ ^. M q^ ^ ^ VO ^ ^ to % li^ cS CO cxT >o" CO o" lO rT K oo" O "^ 3 ^ ^ ^ ^ VO M M CO % ^ OO CO H ^ rF CO n M r? c« CO o n in CO VO 00 OO ^ VO 00 r^ i? lO o VO t^ tv. 00 OO 00 CO t^ c< N 00 o M VO Ov Is ^ tT oo" l>i ^ s §^ VO ^ SQ^ p ^ >o ^ w t-N M^ c^ m" VO t-T M 2* c« 0^ OO c^ Ov ^ tN, vO Tf 00 Td- . in O t^ t>. in rj- v^ t>. VO OO t>. to VO lO M !>. qv O ^ CO to CO :§ O" On rF oo" H-T t 10 o" i-C rF la M S? r^ M o lO 00 l>l Ov ^ •^ O OO r*- 00 -<*• « Ti- n CO o cT rf o" w CO ; ; ; I : : I ; I I I • • * • • ! • : J J ! 1 ': : :* : : ; CO 1 : 1 S in ^ tiiO : : : 3 8 B H I cr CO ;>^ U : '- ; o a c o 73 13 ?^ < o W s B o >% •S c ^ 1 1 S 1 s C/3 o 2 O APPENDIX 359 O H „• "* t^ '^ « 00 OO o 00 ^ ov 52 00 ^g^ vO VO to to 00 to rt ro VO ^s. rj- to t>. M la 1< OO CO oo~ pT 00 dv O ^cT OO ON o O^ <«*• c» ON tN. M M t^ to . c< M* M~ !>; ►-T M M r< ^ M in O Ov CO Tj- OO r^ . ^ c< c< CO '* o VO 00 CO to a •^- q_ 't ^ M to to to t^ 0) 00 5 o r«S w t^ vO" l.^" ^ CO r^ S ^ 3 M 8 CO VO M vO to H « VO «s CO c< 00 00 o rF cT »>: to c< t^ vO o c^ t^ o 00 M o . o t^ vg^ lO o vO l_l ''^ c» '* M CO cs M CO to CO* C< o^ CO cs o^ Ov o^ t>. to tri '^ S rf cT od" CO to <> rT go s g: rt- M vO Q M to M 00 Tj; M T^ r>i ^ lO CO ro cf vO M ^ 8 ^ 8 vS ^ ^ M 00 5o c M to t to 00 ^ 00 lO ro <> to to to 00*" C?^ <-« to O lO ^ w t>. o t^ Q o» lO vO M to TO 3» Cl M cT VO*" t-T M lO l_f Td- M 00 CO to n ov CI Tt- en ri. o CO 00 Ov . <^ " ^ q^ On 00 to cs VO OO vO m to <:> to lO ■^ cT CO cT § ^ i& o o M ? On N to CO a H - N cT CO -^ M *"* M . , • . . . . . • . i : : : : : : 1 3 H CO 1 H c« ! 1 : • : O c rS 5? o o 1 c : : : §• Ul 1 (73 8 s ii g iJ C >, •S S-i •S u CS 'c5 J3 C (U C u s a, -*-' rt t3 o (X4 CO o •-^ s:? 360 APPENDIX M, ,_, cooc< c< vO C» vO OO CO M oo O coo Tj- CO Th O CO CO CO CO Tf CO M_ On in CO !>. t>> M t>>(S r* C>00 cs ^^ Tj-O Tf •S t"^ t^d^ vo~ oo' rf )^ OvThvO VO •^m" ^ -^ lOd M CO ■^ ■ -^ •OvO rom o GOO O lo oo o M CO O Tf O r>. M o lO t^O cs O ovn rj-co CO M OS M s !>. rv rJ-CS cs 00 00 1-1 00 C4 Ovt^ tJ" VOO CO CO CO t^t^iOt^ cs O M O ^ oo" cTt^ cs" CS VO CO u c* rf\n CO cooo t^co O CO t^ w cs ^ NO lO VO M t>. J? ' 1 ^ vo too o rfO cooo VO lOiO'd- rt-iOCl OS M <6 COtv. C>< CO lO CO Ov CO c< O M Ti- M 0^ c3 VO »^^"^«> sOoo corl- OvOO OvCO •^co cou*> CO tO^ lO ^d t cou-ics cT " CO g 1 ^ M CO cs c< 2 ^ M to o 00 CO r< O^ CO 00 OO CO -^ocj^ O f4 t> M § i?vovS 2 o S.S^S' VO Ovt^ O T^U-5 0^ 00 ^ M VOTf ^ C?^'< CO coo COT*- o tJ-C< CO M r>. "d- rt ':!■ S cT m" « M C3 P << ^ ]0 M CJ O ID lOO WVO COVOCOVO cooo 00 u; Ov 1000*0 o M O vOt> s cooo o Ovtr^t^rf 1^ M t>vO t^O O Tt-T* ^lOOO H-l n SO- lO o" cf ^f CO CO ocf cT rf locT ^ M M M 00 M •*co"^J- CO J2 M F-« 8 5 S^ M vo r^ CO o a^^ C^OOOO lO CO M M O o M M oo O ^hO 8 t>» lOtOvO CO OnOvCI c< OvrJ-Ov ■^ S 9 ^?g^S vOtO-^ lOOO O i ri? |voK^ o r? p* i : : : : : • • • • I 7 : : = : : • : S! XI u en a 2 1 1 : : : : : '' : : ; • ••• • : ; : a ii a • : : : : : III s" ; : : : : : : : |s ^ Sco S CO >, TS S CO a CO 2 o- li O (U S oT CO o .oo co<5 1 fO m" rooo" vO" m" CO CO tOOO'vO" CO voconO to CO VO CO M M t^ M M M T^f cs l-l M M t*-mnO N 00 rtro O "2^^^ n OTf t^ o CI t^o M VOOCO rf ro rot^ ^0< OMO VO 00 On to C< VO VO M vq^ro cs CD VOO 00 lO c» CO O "^ l-H t^ x±lO OtO O •* 1 oo^oo" tF ro CO lO vOvO~ vd" COt^vd" (Otorf t^ VO cs to > CO M r< o vO 00 O c^ \o f^ oo o CS 00 O M CO g M ON O cot^ vO TfOOO t^vq_rtq; t>. rt- t->i O CO CI O CO CO t-TvO^O tF rfONTi-iO ci COvO M oT rf ^M o" Om" W lO O^CX) M M M roM voM Ooo roO U-5 ri-CO^>. M M 00 O NO lOlOM OO ON C< 00 vonO Tt- M CO O O cs ooo o cs CS CS CO CO CO CO t^ «S oo O CO M voro O^ 00 COONO cs t^ Thco VO cs oo'co o" cf; OCO VOVOtJ-CO oo" m"tFo" o" cf toi>l MM rft^ COvO ■^CS cs C< O M 00 W M VO t>. t>. rl-MvO M M mvo O\o M M CS T^ l^vot^CO O M 00 Tj- NO o c^ o M t^M VO oo oo M VO O -n- M NO foir^io t^OO \0 NO (^ VOM M o cs voco 00 O CM o 1-^ OC^ 'd- OCO CO VO 8^^^ cf O^vO" r? ^ cT o" ■># oo" COCO rf ono" i>; cT CO M cs c< M M M \0 M oo CO fS O cot^ COM cv^ vO COt^ O 00 vovoo O cor^tvr< M oo oo VO t^ O C^ lO vow to c^ ot^t~^ cs vO lOcO Tt ri-t^ -^vo CO C^ O O loori VO 00 cfcT rf Cf^t^ M CO O^vocTvo ooo" pT t? oo" c< cs o 00 M coi>. M TtCOM Tl-vo-* 00 M M to c^ t^NO M t^M OCO CO M M « M W) a • • • • . • • • . ... • ... . ... •S o 71 i:::: 1 U 1 u. • • • • _1 ^ c3 ^ o > o .... C3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c : : : : CO 4j o Sen ? a. Sen §- ^ Sen 2i _o S •rt O 0) 1 o aj O N H-l 8^! M 00 0_\0^ tOOO t^ M OO ■^ (S M M CO M ro 03 O M 00 CO g vOOO q;^0^ CO to O" coiOO" "d-CS CO o\ o c> o CJ CO t^ O M 0( cooo o tOlr)^N vO O OO O M^t^ M lO vQ^ CO M^ocT t^ M O CO t^ CO cT CO M M CS C^ CO M M lO com :3 <><5'<5'oo ^: o coo c^ t^ CMOM vO Tt OCO 5^ OO COC^O OOO COt>i 00\O O Cl^ iocoi>;t^ O M C< vO Tf CO rj- . C>« -^M OO w 100. C< O 00 t^ CS OO M CS O^ -^ CS^ CO vO" lO CO of CS t^ Tt-M COM CO CO CO rJ-vO O rl-tovo vq^ tsc<^ q^ cT td/) CO Tt-MvO CS \0 M 00^ ON Tj- ri- ser CO C> CO M Tl-OO COOO l>s Tt- 00 i !<; cioo" CO O CS Ti-M OO M M r^ cooo ^N OO O O CO r*;0O^J>. M_ CO "<# cod^ « Tf tN. C« l>.vO Ost>. lOM cooo 00 00 OsO inoo f^ cs t^M O C< IH CS lOOO CO CO O O COOMOO lOOO 00 CO coo lOvO lO Tl-C< CO vO tN O CO OsvO 0\ t;!- M 00 00 CO CO C< OJ N 00 n-M M CO M M O ^O Tt- Os rJ-vO t^iO t^MOO f^vOcon ci looo CO cs«vocoo inovco '^coO'^ ^„ K? ^ '^ V3 ^^ *^ 9, "^ ^ "^ ^^ ^'^^'~l'~l O^co-^t^ rfi-n'Mod" dscoiOlO CO^CO (^ ThlOCOM OCOIOM rj- ■rJ-\0 t^vO TfCO COMC< VOIO CS \Omm c^S : : o g CO c c 15 : o as : C5 rn ci C S C^ o 2 w CO g »^:ai o en C <_) APPENDIX 363 i 30 ^>M rt"fO ^ M 00 voco'vo M OvO t^ ^^^^ c>« tnco 00 rj-ioco CM c?; cT o" to t^vO com" CO "* ON C^ M M TfTftO M M M M OO VO" 00 Q mnO O lO M CMOvO vO CSvOOO O Tj-OO CNvO ThO VO O too CO O vO CS «s ^o^ M 00 ^lOi^OO ^-^ ^ NO t^M cT M M Ht M~ \00 M §§ -" MOO 00 o too c» o OOO vO 00 O CO O OO q_ ■:*• t>;tOlOrJ ro c< xo C4 O hT vo'oo" cT c5 00 COIOM COcf rf to N r»- vO CJ o t>Hr» CS M t^voo ro O^ Tj-cOiO 1 O OnOO O-OO TfTi- 00 M CO M to CO Ci t^. ^ ^. CO M 0^ O^ to rs CS fooMOrn ^co CO c>(>cs" '^ CO C>co cots m" M t^ M rJ M ON % 00 t^ Oco t^iOOO t^ ■"^ On ON 00 o o 00 r> ONtnoo Tj- u-5 3.a^ CO CM>, Q M Tj-M O ^:g8K CO CS t>, CO M CS r>,oo ^. O^CO -^00 tO00_T*;(S inoo coco o" i-T M~ o't^oo'ocT cotooo cT Cs" r?cotO 00 Tj- 00 M rj-M cot>.^ tOM M to en .... J. 7j • : : : : : : : I : : : : • : : :■ : : : : 1 "o ^ n ui n « 1 1 1 L... a u a • • • • : : ; : "a r t • z 1 ' : : : : : : : 3 Ba, Sco a s« O s« E §^ C/3 O (U O S a o (u •o O (U is o s s &«8 ^ ^ Stat ny Kin coun s3 ^«8 and ■ Stat ny Kin coun ■S •c rt T3 , •d OST! ^ c3 73 03-0 ^ ..•a rt-o - ' ■*-> Siife and nitei erm nite ther o -BSii^ ^ S 6ii^ SiiSii^ ••-< Ui "-1 i~< ^•5£ Nc fl3'S£ a 1 S S'c^ C S G^ CS C o o o 1 POPO u POPO 1 gPOPO >j n »J u o 364 APPENDIX o oo o ^" 00 ooo oo \0~ rfco t-T . O VOIOO CO iOc» \0 0< ° O" tF -^ !>; r< c^ N Th 00 ■Tj-t^O rocs M ro O CS O M t^ONOO o O O M CS C^ O t~:;*0 0\ M Ov l-l M M Tj-lO M rt- rj- O CS CS OCO O 00 00 vO oo" cT rf m' CO CM ^s o too u->0 t^ t-i r^\0 s O O O CO t>.cs_qv vo IOCS t^ o lOOO M vO M T^ O O^ vO CO •^CO 00 t^ i-i 00 l-< CO rl-vO t^ o too tv. ^OO CO m" o" coo" CO CO M OrfOOvO . O OO t>. >-" en M OO Ov i;J- :§ O" rf ^ o" M V? ^ O VOM CO •^ ■^lOO CO M d" d" t>.CO CS M t^ ^cooo r^^N ■^co vO_v0^vO^ CO TtlOM M W CM M rJ-QvO CO CS OO M 00 vO Oco tN. CO O I lOcO I t^oo < i 83 u3 5 M O 0) is I -a ^'55 ^ . . . : I °^ ^^ 6 « S (U C CTJ a> O (U G c >00 too 00 M O 00 cs vo OO" rf tC; oo 00 M 00 lO Tf 00 00 Tj- t^ •^vO 00 vO O O t^ oo" C>vO" r? 00 Td-M CO Tf- t^ M M CO O Th t^ coo CJ^ od" c?> co^cT o Tho w vO CO cs vo CI o c^ vo qviov vor< O r*- CO OvO 00 >C oo CO >-< l-l M 00 lO CMOU-5 O O OnOO 00 vO t^ to CO vO OMOco lO^OiOOO O O 00 to O M rroo cs xo c> o oo oo oo"o*" t^ ■^ M CS r^MOM t->.iooi VO CS HH O W COCS M t>. OOf^O Tt-coiOTt- -^lOMO ■rt-Ot^t^ M lOCOO CO CS O\00 00 CS 0> CO lO Or^OO CO lOClcOOv o^t^iori t^ ^ ^^ "^ *^ ^ ^*^ "O Y} ^ "^ *^ °°. ^^^ "^ "^ *^ ^ ^ '^ ooo ^ CO vo" VO cR cT od" i-TocT co cf d^o" tF co co tC to CONOOCOO lOClMvOM M 00 t^ COOv ^-t COOO C^ t>. coo_r>i vO" M n" m C< 00 O P< O t^lOCO 00 00 t^oo K cot^od O M oo 'lO COtN. CO C< M CO lO rM-i rt- CO O CO O C^ 00 \0_ ^ cooo Tt; C5 CO o" =1 c . •a o Xi O 1) I'd "C • ^^ ■S g 3 O "as 0) 'O oS _ .-^ 3 ti O P O c r3 to coii u d to O 4) O H 366 APPENDIX PANAMA Table showing Total Imports during the Years 1911-12. Articles. Alimentary pastes Automobiles and accessories Beans ... Beer Bicycles Bitters Biscuits Blacking Books — Plain Printed Boots and shoes Brandy Brooms Building material Butter Buttons Candles Carriages and accessories ... Carts and accessories Cattle Caustic soda Cement Champagne Cheese Chocolate Cigarettes Clothing, ready-made Coal Codfish Coffee Condensed milk Corks ... Cotton thread Cutlery Drugs ... Dynamite Earthenware Eggs Electrical material Fire-arms Fish, preserved Flour Food, preserved Fruit Furniture Gasoline Glassware 1912. Kilos. £ Kilos. £ 348,726 7A^7 239,776 4,047 15,209 1,916 49,139 4,131 631,586 11,524 755,638 10,897 5,416,129 46,957 4,136,318 29,584 11,496 1,660 12,215 1,823 62,058 1,546 219,379 2,226 704,893 13,066 697,674 10,639 26,622 874 35,476 1,452 13,270 1,047 17,661 1,262 39,125 3,815 36,303 3,812 466,366 93,862 395,819 80,765 189,350 17,917 7,187 448 45,662 2,104 47,966 ^^773 1,604,378 17,175 837,757 5,735 508,503 12,825 905,906 30,052 5,808 1,108 7,498 1,940 174,076 6,620 166,110 5,446 65,121 2,950 26,437 1,185 33,891 1,660 43,321 1,837 24,631 576 10,614 690 114,838 1,133 142,871 948 9,308,888 14,930 8,370,336 10,829 71,185 5,552 64,184 9,854 190,276 11,007 174,710 10,841 102,168 6,455 100,613 7,216 98,851 20,180 171,946 28,339 437,740 88,368 416,286 80.800 6,608,251 3,218 1,453,536 2,087 411,130 11,318 274,391 7,142 286,306 16,555 157,888 10,057 2,618,777 57,262 2,451,158 66,080 63,184 3,342 38,696 2,024 45.831 8,146 47,667 7,900 13,617 1,090 6,546 1,760 1,192,348 61,394 1,444,453 60,041 14,951 747 15,676 752 172,022 3,383 129,637 4,62c 186,248 7,218 159,172 8,030 255,610 11,057 401,091 22,424 15,255 3,191 109,900 7,372 95,968 1,827 54,351 1,185 7,079,579 74,168 7,902,900 79,515 1,845,096 43,622 1,515,539 40,977 1,079,070 14,926 1,245,293 16,354 849,744 21,911 983,232 32,351 576,646 5,145 892,746 2,332 149,242 4,663 148,645 4,534 APPENDIX 367 Table showing Total Imports during the Years 1911-12— cowW. Articles. 1912. Gin Ginger ale Gunpowder Haberdashery Hams Hardware Hats Hay Hops Iron — Bars ^ Piping Roofing Sheets Other forms Ironmongery Jams Jewellery Lamps Lard Leather goods Lucerne Lumber Machetes Machinery Maize Marble Margarine Matches Mattresses Meat, salted Merchandise, unspecified Mineral waters Musical instruments Oats Office material Oil- Olive Linseed Lubricating Onions Opium Paint Paper — Printing Wrapping Writing Peas Perfumery Petroleum Phonographs, etc. ... Photographic material Kilos. £ Kilos. £ 84,527 1,967 25,794 1,070 65,444 1,055 50,780 804 34,060 2,048 29,701 1,725 165,914 25,140 130,029 32,932 230,587 8,983 259,298 9,946 751,529 27,342 341,287 16,260 115,236 23,011 102,219 22,409 366,978 1,449 193,954 634 209,157 2,673 12,148 1,181 241,287 2,024 167,977 1,093 202,853 2,768 405,448 9,481 479,528 5,912 835,080 9,263 849,251 9,678 484,226 6,626 518,281 12,477 616,447 15,645 15,514 2,591 10,450 1,914 270,338 8,587 324,143 11,012 2,831 2,409 5,032 2,052 82,396 3,108 61,049 3,302 1,098,321 27,276 1,115,505 35,647 40,400 5,835 44,302 7,151 1,934,625 7,012 1,850,286 6,458 27,517,131 45,532 18,142,145 41,739 62,434 4,965 35,594 2,456 1,027,912 41,823 227,104 11,232 1,429,170 5,108 i,33>557 5,416 97,712 3,785 6,375 230 317,938 10,718 210,568 8,863 202,976 5,631 194.931 6,365 99,897 2,499 125,043 3,395 1,460,239 21,686 1,391,174 24,485 1,063,047 33,148 946,614 41,294 591,156 8,488 196,674 5,316 20,156 2,310 14,467 2,504 934,026 7.285 869.852 5,208 92,920 5,659 57,163 3,867 961,845 20,223 824,324 14-346 219,110 6,183 155,471 5,942 278,693 4,746 864,124 9,356 938,163 8,216 730,648 5,842 8,698 13,495 11,415 14,669 1,154,441 13,861 481,418 11,470 77,038 1,584 93,304 1,094 319,777 4,192 468,382 5,265 59,419 2,500 56,548 2,264 276,565 5,124 352,776 5,689 139,610 16,413 161,040 13,853 3,598,835 16,917 3,319,553 17,107 24,842 3,146 20,046 2,286 27,897 4.896 30,374 7,059 368 APPENDIX Table showing Total Imports during the Years igii-i2-~contd. Articles. igii. 1912. Kilos. £ Kilos. £ Pianos 14,901 1,441 21,814 2,251 Plumbing material 309,356 6,796 242,070 5,727 Porcelain 134,127 3,605 138,522 3,908 Potatoes 3,475,864 16,334 3,156,760 15,651 Poultry 86,947 4,451 102,064 4,508 Printed matter 57,868 3,770 60,914 5-932 Railway material 1,477,554 17,611 8,338,780 28.135 Rice 9,458,458 81,665 9,489,442 97,281 Rope 147,976 4.566 84,956 3,101 „ shoes {alpargatos) 63,457 5,333 109,135 9,150 Rubber goods 46,837 3,294 31,991 2,837 Sacks 123,443 1,968 145,089 2,736 Salt 1,106,410 3,213 574.960 1,983 Sardines 172,572 6,090 173,306 6,773 Sauces 66,829 1,581 66,593 1,544 Scientific instruments 13,330 2,078 3,550 769 Sewing machines 178,344 8,413 290,941 14,741 Soap 2,323,368 32,676 2,350,606 34,052 Spirit 45,587 2,615 44,033 1,272 Starch 241,120 2,115 147,302 1,259 Steel 404,043 5.814 974,619 8.445 Stoves 84,743 2,200 60,975 2,248 Sugar. 3,033,627 36,086 4,039,259 50,617 Syrups 40,910 2,141 38,015 1,957 Tea 114,253 6,471 142,296 8,983 Textiles- Cotton 1,204,743 154,965 1,121,412 168,560 Linen 118,907 22,201 52,586 12,394 Silk 22,814 13,183 19,244 11,998 „ and cotton 5,962 2,686 7,225 2,936 Wool 107,938 24,390 114,133 35,902 „ and cotton 23,185 4,667 30,762 7,063 Tobacco t29,8o6 8,261 128,548 8,230 „ manufactured 189,760 27,888 188,561 21,359 Tools 77,518 4,613 66,324 3,569 Toys 47,643 3,217 92,067 4,453 Trapiches (sugar-mills) 47,405 980 26,685 725 Typewriters 84,175 4,221 4,572 1,807 Umbrellas 21,131 3,310 6,502 1,134 Vegetables 462,666 3,277 518,417 4,529 Vermouth 203,251 4,850 220,948 4,749 Vinegar 140,860 1,182 144,514 1,426 Watches and clocks 19,182 1,877 8,291 1,471 Whisky 334,699 20,179 204,856 9,268 Window glass 110,232 3,209 43,686 985 Wine- Red , 1,176,846 22,820 1,244,104 17,905 White 162,244 3,269 116,560 2,689 Sparkling 28,319 1,270 13,961 669 Other ... 387,830 8,282 220,579 6,386 Wire netting 595,183 6,686 956,254 8,965 APPENDIX 369 Table showing Principal Imports and Countries op Origin during the years i9ii-i2. Articles and Countries from which Imported. igi2. Beer — United Kingdom ... United States Germany Biscuits — United Kingdom ... United States Boots and shoes — United Kingdom ... United States China Butter and margarine- United Kingdom ... United States Denmark Germany Cement — United States Germany Belgium Clothing- United Kingdom ... United States Germany Switzerland Spain France Condensed milk — United Kingdom ... United States Germany Italy Drugs — United Kingdom ... United States Germany France Food, preserved — United Kingdom ... United States France Spain Furniture — United Kingdom ... United States Germany Kilos. 678,812 4,242,283 336,418 194,918 483,827 3,980 424,942 36,480 184,397 181,334 432,776 21,921 5,669,929 1,760,354 1,339,026 65,700 311,583 15,571 1,225 28,376 1,498,556 164,495 762,104 146,678 242,908 423,435 401,628 81,388 295,291 1,224,295 81,388 50,189 88,074 698,129 24 50,727 £ 8,020 31,892 4,775 5,923 5,502 735 90,589 2,123 10,345 6,531 4,472 1,681 8,815 3,768 I,6l2 16,522 56,650 6,496 453 4,350 32,429 3,778 17,943 2,605 11,204 25,045 17,605 5,090 5,394 27,597 3,465 2,230 1,492 17,713 1,277 Kilos. 536,275 3,263,274 206,033 185,022 489,662 9,086 352,206 33,175 101,123 198,524 67,025 13,654 7,170,428 149,796 1,045,099 52,304 321,820 13,770 102 9,719 5,837 2,042,321 143,721 103,741 128,541 341,624 852,983 123,799 73,403 246,443 927,508 100,320 64,162 116,750 785,450 56,338 £ 3,989 21,257 2,669 3,058 7,070 765 78,246 1,277 5,282 6,440 6,303 1,308 9,277 185 1,288 12,397 60,094 4,087 21 1,246 1,570 55,903 5,552 1,855 2,228 10,559 34,657 5,627 7,522 4,400 26,519 3,911 2,184 2,116 26,251 2,601 870 APPENDIX Table showing Principal Imports and Countries of Origin DURING THE YEARS 1^11-12— continued. Articles and Countries from which Imported. 191 1. igi2. Haberdashery- Kilos. £ Kilos. £ United Kingdom 112,576 14,735 83,433 22,013 United States 40,720 6,474 35,396 6,814 Germany 8,133 3,175 5,224 1,990 France 3,241 437 3,855 1,057 Hardware- United Kingdom 167,149 5,291 38,082 1,802 United States 556,320 20,418 293,310 14,076 Germany 26,728 1,594 7,512 254 Hats- United Kingdom 52,720 8,474 50,826 1,852 United States 34,655 7,237 22,953 6,428 Italy 14,089 3,166 9,527 2,483 Iron and steel — United Kingdom 906,068 13,755 482,265 10,033 United States 2,762,522 43,345 9,372,825 64,234 Germany Jam- United Kingdom 142,097 6,209 157,881 4,919 209,745 5,355 216,278 5,683 United States 46,175 2,464 92,467 4,553 Machinery- United Kingdom 84,801 3,931 4,471 2,401 United States 782,389 31,615 164,131 6,898 Germany 184,644 5,750 8,530 226 Other countries 5,736 475 9,531 430 Mineral waters- United Kingdom 88,063 1,475 102,125 1,596 United States 83,289 867 64,966 1,112 Belgium 75,611 1,871 73,448 1,582 Paint- United Kingdom 311,983 6,411 388,109 7,451 United States 834,598 7,304 140,245 3,900 Perfumery- United Kingdom 26,982 2,411 24,092 2,035 France 35,025 6,312 31,935 4,216 Germany 61,062 5,953 61,784 4,366 United Sts^^es 16,131 1,209 40,022 3,038 Potatoes — United Kingdom 1,611,413 3,465 1,556,253 6,178 United States 1,802,643 12,545 1,553,168 9,298 Rice— United Kingdom 1,345,702 9,257 1,318,593 14,533 Germany 6,447,129 61,545 7,055,697 70,798 United States 395,292 4,663 558,108 7,885 China 520,993 3,078 545,353 3,957 APPENDIX 871 Table showing Principal Imports and Countries of Origin DURING THE YEARS 1911-12 — Continued. Articles and Countries from which Imported. Soap — United Kingdom United States Sugar- United Kingdom United States Spanish America Germany Textiles- Cotton— United Kingdom United States Germany Italy Spain Linen — United Kingdom China Silk- United Kingdom China United States Germany Wool and wool and cotton- United Kingdom Italy United States Tobacco, manufactured — United Kingdom United States Belgium Whisky- United Kingdom United States Wine of all kinds — United Kingdom France United States Spain Germany Italy 19x1. Kilos. 1,015,005 1,298,769 503,290 394,338 1,313,156 722,468 540,868 504,895 92,864 20,773 72,561 2,111 3,591 15,121 2,262 109,496 10,661 39,921 98,660 44,739 150,545 162,354 211,211 224,848 721,944 386,169 129,248 90,649 £ 11,855 20,309 4,639 7,653 14,020 9,750 90,005 49,795 7,806 1,183 15,791 1,036 2,168 8,920 1,180 25,377 1,565 15,829 5,274 2,621 5,809 13,293 4,220 13,447 9,653 6,624 2,528 2,301 1913. Kilos. 1,050,788 1,288,888 1,429,581 1,662,726 184,000 302,116 600,946 414,491 76,482 9,659 10,198 55,589 2,957 3,352 15,624 2,834 1,126 114,561 11,877 10,341 27,962 91,238 36,827 87,048 117,796 32,626 247,401 732,335 433,357 70,285 58,565 £ 12,498 21,116 9,716 25,678 1,600 3,049 97,791 47,242 18,677 1,409 1,549 13,626 430 1,466 8,961 1,785 652 9,529 2,465 1,429 11,211 4,513 2,137 3,597 5,671 1,324 5,309 9,832 6,625 2,447 1,736 372 APPENDIX Table showing Value of Imports at Colon during the Year 1913. Articles. United States. United Kingdom. Germany, France. Spain. Animals Automobiles and parts Beer Cement Cigars, cigarettes and tobacco Confectionery Drugs Dry goods Furniture Hardware Mats Kerosene Leather Liquors Lumber Machinery Paints Provisions Shoes Sewing machines Soap and candles Tiles ^ Other articles Total ... 506 2,525 6,199 2,964 14,255 463 4,588 116,598 11,328 5,963 1,530 9,558 955 7,730 18,230 3,216 2,084 61,312 15,993 1,020 1,197 604 4,782 89 2,451 3,358 570 75,571 1,025 1,772 1,367 4,514 "795 17,087 1,177 4,674 "846 1,028 526 932 15,593 867 2,262 430 4^286 21,212 392 233 217 1,358 3,034 250 279 562 6,037 1,808 871 10 552 203 233 305 293,600 115,296 47,978 14,199 16,293 HONDURAS Merchandise Imported into Honduras during the Year 1911-12, WITH Value and Country of Origin. Articles. United States. Germany. United Kingdom. Other Countries Total. Agricultural implements 13,228 if6o8 £ 1,743 £ 29 16,608 Animals 667 13 12 692 Arms and munitions 9,655 752 58 61 10,526 Dynamite « 4,943 ... 4,943 Candles 2,978 542 190 .~ 3,710 Carts 3,383 67 ... 3,450 Cement 2,389 86 206 ... 2,681 Chinaware 1,305 1,484 172 29 2,990 Copper goods 198 55 151 5 409 Cordage, rope 1,648 60 1,708 Coal 3,571 ... 344 ... 3,915 Chemicals, drugs, etc. «. 22,382 2,110 421 1,341 26,254 APPENDIX 878 Merchandise Imported into Honduras during the Year 1911-12, WITH Value and Country of Origin— continued. Articles. Cotton goods — Unbleached muslin Prints Hose Drills Laces Blankets Various Electrical supplies Hats Iron and ironware * ... Lamps Leather goods, saddles, gloves, etc Linen Musical instruments ... Matches Mineral waters Notions Oils Oilcloth Varnish, paints, etc. ... Paper Postage stamps Provisions Perfumery Rubber goods Shoes, boots Silver, coined Silk, manufactured ... Steel cutlery Sweets Soap Spices Skins, tanned Tobacco Kerosene Tallow Toys Tar Wood furniture Timber Wool Wines, spirits, beer, etc. Wire Total ... belts, United States. 55,599 23,871 2,159 29,591 399 1,807 28,727 4,385 2,489 30,005 923 2,486 1.695 1,732 407 1,224 3,684 624 1,499 2,673 54,400 89,134 1,545 859 18,678 12,000 1,617 1,086 2,150 2,789 902 1,028 1,430 3,249 1,361 219 2,085 3,005 20,399 357 5,809 5,263 Germany. 592 591 1,059 2,058 1,125 1,074 10,627 491 1,074 1,883 77 1,110 32 661 967 30 3,363 562 1,102 81 4,355 United Kingdom, 491,725 51,804 2,995 10,474 III 6,320 2,219 1,561 44,299 319 6,075 I 1,033 577 56 84 287 366 51 314 98 other Countries 2,613 2,295 673 361 35 463 258 74 20 449 34 II 656 112 35 1,569 607 138 125 867 139 225 440 23 184 112 ... 570 ... 132 129 5 2 I 37 ... ... 22 ... 477 18 56 5 35 ... 574 236 I ... 127 ... 1,385 2,530 731 2,592 245 12 3,159 357 603 200 620 659 6,268 320 469 2 182 172 78 179 46 901 1,559 5 14 549 Total. 88,482 20,946 59,543 35,539 3,529 38,684 4,363 5,101 89,921 4,876 4,202 38,432 1,003 4,811 815 2,476 2,934 567 5,469 6,171 1,782 1,908 7,675 54,400 94,715 2,404 1,211 19,172 12,000 2,420 3,400 3,281 3,477 1,198 1,730 1,566 3,287 1,383 770 2,125 3,816 20,526 5,003 11,805 5,275 652,957 ^ Including buckets, tools, irou sheeting, screws, piping, loclfs, beds, safes, boilers, tanks, railway stores, etc, CURRENCY IN THE CENTRAL AMERICAN REPUBLICS The currency of Guatemala is the paper dollar. A certain amount of nickel coin is, however, in circulation. The value of the paper dollar fluctuates considerably, and the average for recent years has not fallen much short of the equivalent of 100 dollars to the British sovereign. In Costa Rica the monetary unit is the gold colon, which at the present time is worth about is. lod. The gold coins are the 20 colon, 10 colon, 5 colon, and 2 colon pieces. The silver coins are the 50 cent, 25 cent, 10 cent, and 5 cent pieces. British, French, United States, and German gold is legal tender. Nicaragua has quite recently converted her currency, converting the peso into the cordoba, the equivalent of a gold dollar. The paper peso, having been regarded with a complete lack of confidence, has now been withdrawn from circulation. The monetary unit of Honduras is the silver dollar, which is equal to about is. 8d. in ordinary times, although its value is, of course, subject to fluctuations. The monetary unit of Salvador is the peso, which averages in value about is. 8d. The nominal currency of Panama is the balboa, or gold dollar, the financial equivalent of the United States dollar. The actual money in use is the peso, or silver dollar, worth half a balboa. United States currency is legal tender. 374 APPENDIX 375 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Guatemala. The metric system is used. The vara equals 33 inches. Measures are occasionally quoted in English yards. The quintal (100 Spanish lb.) equals ioi*8 lb. English. The arroha equals 25-4 lb. English. Costa Rica. The Guatemaltecan weights and measures given above apply also to Costa Rica. There are in addition : — Lineal and Land Measures. 10,000 square varas (varas cuadrodas) = i manzana = 172 acres. I "43 1 manzanas = i hectarea = 2*46 acres. 64"89 manzanas = I caballeria = 11 1*37 acres. Dry Measures, 4 cuartillos = I cajuela, 20 cajuelas = i fajtega = 400 litres = 10*9988 bushels. Special Measures for the Sale and Purchase of Coffee in Fruit. 4 cuartillos =1 cajuela. 20 cajuelas = i fanega «= 400 litres = io"9988 bushels. Liquid Measures. I botella = 1*179 pints. 5 boiellas = i Spanish gallon = 120 liquid ounces. Honduras. The vara is in use for measures, and the libra, aroba, and quintal for weights. Salvador. As above. Panama. Measures as above. Weights. I kilo = 2,2046 lb. 1,000 kilos = I ton (approximately). I litre = 1*76 pints, 376 APPENDIX It has been the author's fate so frequently to din into the ears of the pubHc the necessity that merchants and exporters should conform in trade customs to the desires of their customers in South America, that he welcomes the following extract, taken from the 1913 Consular Report on Honduras. The advice contained in it is undoubtedly sound. " British merchants have not much to fear if they will take an interest in the Honduranean markets. As a general rule their prices exclude competition, whereas the quaUties continue to enjoy the reputation of being unequalled. *' A good deal of correspondence has been received at this Consulate from British manufacturers in regard to trade. Nearly all this correspondence is of a circular-letter form, and seldom exceeds a few lines asking if there is an opening for this or that article, and rarely contains any information which would enable a Consul to know just where to look for information that would be of value. If British manufacturers would state more precisely and in a concise form the substance and quality of their goods, and give a few prices of their special lines, it would enable the Consul in making inquiries to ascertain from local merchants their cost prices of the particular articles in which British manufacturers are interested — information which they withhold unless for purposes of comparison. '•Again, British manufacturers show a marked lack of originaUty in their printed letter-headings. In a great number of instances absolutely no information is to be gathered from these as to what the nature of their business is, and in some cases the references made in the communica- tions are so technical as to be scarcely intelligible. In not a few instances letters have been returned to this Consulate marked ' Not to be found,' due to insufficient address on the letter-headings. " American and German manufacturers seem to have made a special study of these matters, and from their letters which are occasionally received at this Consulate, they would appear to be very explicit in stating their require- ments. In other words, there is a close co-operation between American and German manufacturers and their APPENDIX 377 Consuls, which might with advantage be imitated by British traders. " It will be gathered from the tables of imports and exports that the business of Honduras is small, and in a great number of cases it would not be worth the while of British manufacturers to send out commercial travellers to a place so inaccessible as Tegucigalpa unless such travellers can represent four or five industries. And since it is of great importance that a Consul should exercise care to avoid recommending to British manufacturers markets where there is little or no sale for their manufactures, it would perhaps be of value to state here what lines commercial travellers visiting Honduras usually represent. These are as follows : Cotton goods and crochet trimmings, paper, ironmongery, wines and spirits, drugs and medicines (patent), boots and shoes, haberdashery and perfumery." INDEX Agricultural production- Costa Rica, 228 Guatemala, 205, 206 Nicaragua, 210 Panama, 263 Salvador, 277 Agua, volcano, 74 Alajuela, 236 Alvarado, Gonzalo de, 72 Alvarado, Pedro de, 30, 31, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73 Amapala, 249 Ant-eater, 285 Antigua, city of, 77 Arce, Manuel, 138, 139 Art, ancient Indian, 33, 34 Atitlan, Lake, 193, 194 volcano, 193 Automobiles in Honduras, 246 Aztec Indians, 26 Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, 45, 50, 51-60 Balsam, 276, 277 Balsas, 193, 194 Banana industry, 179, 180, 181, 182, 185 Barbour, J. S., quoted, 121 Barker, Andrew, 99, 100 Bastidas, Rodrigo de, 45, 46 Bat, vampire, 286 Belize, 259 Bill of fare of the Buffs Regiment on the Mosquito Coast, 158 Birds, 285, 286 Birds, imaginary, 282 Bluefields, port of, 216 Bocas del Toro, 262 Province, 264 '•' Brethren of the Coast," 337 British Honduras, 259 British interests in Nicaragua, 217 Buccaneers, 104-14 Bull-baiting, 155 Byam, George, 169 Cackchiquele Indians, 30 Cacti, 288, 289 Canal, Panama, 266, 267, 268 Carib Indians, 41 Carrera, Rafael, 142-51 Cartago, 236 Central American ideals, 305 Centralist Party, 136, 137 Chagres River, 262 Champerico, 197 Characteristics of the Central Ameri- cans, 168, 169, 170, 171 Chibcha Indians, 26, 28 Chicle, 200 Chilton, John, 326 Chinese settlers, 201 Chiriqui Province, 264 Cigars, Honduranean, 257 Coban, 198 Cochineal, 189 Cock-fighting, 154, 155 Coffee, 182, 183, 184, 185, 229, 241, 242, 243 Coinage, cocoa, 32 Colon, 262 Province, 264 Colonial policy of Spain, 96 Colonial^Regulations, 89, 90 Columbus, Bartholomew,'42, 43, 44 Columbus, Christopher, 37," 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43,;45 Comayagua, 248 Commercial competition between Great Britain, the United States, and Germany, 302, 303, 304 379 380 INDEX Commercial travellers, type re- quired, 294 Consular Reports, 295 Contreras, Hernando, 63, 64, 65 Contreras, Rodrigo de, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65 Convolvulus, 289 Copan, description of ruins, 322, 323, 324 Corinto, 214 Coroza nut, 201 Cortes, 30, 31, 67, 68 Coseguina, volcano, 209 Costa Rica, 224-43 Cueba, Beatrice de la, 73, 74 Currency, 217, 374 Davila, Gil Gonzalez, 60, 61 Davila, Pedrarias, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60 Deer, 285 Departments of Honduras, 247 Departments of Nicaragua, 212 Departments of Salvador, 277 Description of the city of Old Gua- temala, 342, 343, 344 Destruction of Old Guatemala city, 74 Destruction of San Salvador, 344, 345, 346 Diaz, Porfirio, 164 Diplomatic procedure, 303 Drake, Sir Francis, 98, 99, loi, 103 Early natural history notes, 229- 83 Enciso, Martin Fernandez de, 47 Esquemeling, John, quoted, 336, 337, 338 Estcros, Guatemala, 195 Exports — Costa Rica, 238, 239, 240 Guatemala, 204 Honduras, 258 Nicaragua, 218, 219, 220, 221 Panama, 272 Extract from Consular Report on Honduras, 376, 377 Fauna, 284-7 Fish, 286 Fish, quaint descriptions of, 280 Filisola, General, 134 Flora, 287, 288, 289 Flores, Cirilio, 138, 139 Flowers, 288, 289 Foundation of the Republic of Pana- ma, 260, 261 Fruits, 289 Fuego, volcano, 74, 75, 76, 193 Gage, Thomas, 93 Gainza, Gaviano, 132, 133 Galleons, routes of, 86, 87 Gasca, Pedro de la, 80, 81, 82 Geographical and commercial situa- tion, 291 Germans in Guatemala, 201, 202 German trading methods, 301, 302 Shipping competition, 307-10 Goethals, General, 268 " Gold Road," the, 98 Greytown, 269 Guatemala, 191-206 City, 198 Guerra, Cristobal, 46 Habits of the early Guatemalans, 319, 320, 321, 322 Hakluyt, quoted, 326-36 Hall, Captain Basil, description of Panama, 340, 341, 342 Hawkins, Sir John, 98, 103 Heredia, 236 Herrera, Judge, 62 Imports — Costa Rica, 297 Guatemala, 296, 297, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355, 35^, 357 Honduras, 298, 372, 373 Nicaragua, 297, 298, 358, 359, 360 361, 362, 363, 364, 365 Panama, 298, 366, 367, 368, 369, 370, 371, 372 Incas, 26 Indians, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 Guatemala, i INDEX 381 Indigo, 189 Industries, early, 32 Insects, 286, 287 International influences, 291, 292, 293, 294 Iturbide, Emperor, 133, 134 Jaguar, 284 Jamaica, 296 La Ceiba, 248 La Union, 276 Land values, 250, 251 Leon, 213, 216 Letter from the King of Spain to Balboa, 324, 325 Liberal party, 137 Limon, 237 Livingston, Port, 196 Locusts, 287 M'Gregor, Sir Gregor, 161 " Magualism," 35, 36 Mahogany, 186, 187, 188, 287, 288 Maize, 199 Mammals, 232 Managua city, 213, 216 Managua, Lake, 208 Markham, Sir Clements, quoted, 59 Marriage ceremonies of the Indians, an ancient account, 321 Masaya, volcano, 209 Maudslay, Professor, 68 Maya-Quiche Empire, 30 Medicinal growths, 288 Mendez, Diego, 42, 44 Methods of British travellers, 311, 312 Mexico, 164 Mina de Sangre, 251, 252 Minerals, 209, 228, 246, 249, 251, 259 Mint, opening of the Royal, 91, 92 Mitchell, Captain, R.N., quoted, 252 Monkeys, 285 Morales, Gaspar de, 57 Morazan, Francisco, 140, 141, 148 Morgan, Captain, 105-14 Mosquito Coast, 338, 339 Mosquito Indians, 156-61, 210, 338, 339 Nahua Indians, 29 Native agriculture, early, 32 Needs of British commerce, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297 Negroes, West Indian, 261, 296 Nelson, Horatio, 116, 117 New Spain, description of, 326, 336 Newport, Christopher, loi, 102, 103 Nicaragua, 208-22 Lake, 208 Nicaraguan Canal scheme, 271, 272 Nicuesa, Diego, 46, 47 Nifio, Alonso, expedition of, 84, 85 North Americans in Central America, 303-8 Ocos, 197, 198 Ojeda, Alonzo de, 46, 47 Old account of the Central American Indians, 317, 318, 319 Opera House, San Jose, 234, 235 Orchids, 289 Origin of American Indians, 27, 28, 29, 30 Oxenham, John, 99 Oysters, 286 Pan-American problems, 306 Panama, 260-72 Canal, 266, 267, 268 Canal Zone, 266, 267 City, 113, 114, 115, 262 Province, 265 Railway, 269, 270 Papal bulls, 89 Paterson, William, ii8, 119, 122, 123 Peccary, 284 Peonage, 202, 203, 204 Pestilence, ravages of, 79, 80 Physical characteristics of the Isthmus, 171, 172, 173 Pim, Captain, 154, 155, 159 Pizarro, Gonzalo, 80, 81, 82 Pizarro, Francisco, 51 Population statistics, 274, 275 Porto Bello, captured by Morgan, 107, 108 Fairs at, 86 382 INDEX Position of British in the Isthmus, 295 Priests, Indian, 32, 33, 34 Products of Nicaragua, 209, 210 Prohibited imports into Costa Rica, 227 Provinces of Costa Rica, 229 Panama, 264 Puerto Barrios, 195, 196 Puerto Cortes, 248 Puma, 284 Punta Arenas, 237, 238 / Quetzal, 231 Quevado, Bishop of Darien, 58 Quezaltenango,'^i98 Quibian, 42, 43 Quiche Indians, 26, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35,36 Railways — Costa Rica, 176, 232 Guatemala, 175 Honduras, 176 Nicaragua, 177 Panama, 179 Salvador, 178 Reptiles, 286 Revolutions, 168, 169, 170 Roatan, 1 island of, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256 Royal Audience of Guatemala and Nicaragua, 77, 78 Salvador, 274-9 San Jose (Costa Rica), 233, 234 Port, 196 San Salvador, city, 275, 276 Cathedral, 276 Sanchez, Juan, 43 Santa Cruz del Quiche, 315, 316, 317 Santa Maria, volcano, 193 Santa Rosa tobacco, 257 Scottish Darien Expedition, 117-30 Sculpture, ancient Indian, 33, 34 " Sea-wolves," 281 Shipments from Europe and the United States, 298, 299 Snakes, 286 Solola, 198 Spanish colonial fleets, 88, 89 Squier, Mr. E. G., 251, 271, 338, 339 Steamship companies, 307-312 Stephens, Mr. John L., quoted, 145, 146, 148, 149, 150 Superstitions, Indian, 35, 36 Tajamulco, volcano, 193 Tapir, 284 Tegucigalpa, 248 Temporal^ 235 Timber, 228, 246, 259, 262, 263, 287, 288 Tobacco, Honduranean, 257, 258 Toltec Indians, 29 Totonicapan, 198 Trade winds, superstitions concern- ing, 39, 40 Transit Company, 269, 270 Transport, colonial, 97, 98 Treaty between the United States and Nicaragua, 211, 212 Trujillo, 249 United Fruit Company, 180, i8i, 182, 308 United States, 291, 292, 293 Vampire bat, 286 Veraguas, Province, 265 Volcano, formation of, 172, 173 Votan, 29 Walker, William, 211 Washington Irving, quoted, 41 Weights and Measures, 375 West Indian negroes, 261, 296 Whale, early description of, 281 Wheat, 199, 200 Wilson, President, 306 Xibalba Empire, 29 Zone of the Panama Canal, 261 Zutuhile Indians, 30 Printed in Great Britain by UNWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED WOEING AND LONDON w^m U DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. 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