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 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION 
 CITYOF NEW YORK 
 
 PRfMARY GRADES 
 
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 - "il ^^'SY/ York 
 :48 (City) ;3oara 
 
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 A manual of disci' - 
 
 line and ins true tii 
 
 f o r .. .teachers of 
 
 Southern Branch 
 of the 
 
 University of California 
 
 Los Angeles 
 
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 pr U. H. \»KI,< H. T^J{ 
 
 Bookseller and Stationer, ,' 
 
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 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below 
 
 I OCT 1 7 1^^ 
 
 , APR 3d 1947 
 MAY 8 J950 
 
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 FormL-9-5m-7,'23. 

 
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 tol AnfeW ClaV,
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHQDl. 
 
 Lot Anget«s, CaJ. 
 
 A MANUAL 
 
 Discipline and Instruction 
 
 USE OF THE TEACHERS 
 
 PRIMARY SCHOOLS 
 
 UNDER THE CHABQB OF THE 
 
 Board of Education of the City of New York 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 J. S. BABCOCK 
 55 Cedar Street, N. Y. 
 
 m\
 
 CoprmGHT, 1884 
 
 By LAWRENCE D. KIERNAN 
 
 Clerk of Ike Board of EducaCion of the City of New Vork 
 
 TROWS 
 
 PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING COMPANr. 
 
 NEW YORK.
 
 
 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 The following brief extracts from the Records of the 
 Board of Education show the circumstances and authority 
 under which this Manual of Instruction was prepared : 
 
 Journal of the Board op Education for 1882, page 093 : 
 " Resolved, That the Teachers' Manual be referred to the Committee on 
 Course of Study and School Books, for such revision as may be neces- 
 sary, and report thereon to this Board." 
 
 Journal, of the Board op Education for 1883, pages 790 and 845 : 
 " Firsti That the Teachers' Manual be revised, and its provisions be 
 made to conform to the present Course of Study. That the methods 
 of instruction recommended in said Manual shall be suggestive only, 
 but that in respect to other matter, when so stated therein, said Manual 
 shall have the same force and effect as a by-law of the Board." 
 
 By the authority of the Board and the Committee on 
 Course of Study and School Books, John Jasper, City 
 Superintendent of Schools, and his Assistants, have pre- 
 pared the Manual herewith presented. 
 
 William Wood, 1 
 
 Gilbert H. Crawford, | Committee on Coum'. 
 Ferdinand Traud, ^ of Study and School 
 
 J. Edward Simmons, ] Books. 
 Edward Patterson, J 
 
 STEPHEN A. WALKER, 
 Law. D. Kiernan, President. 
 
 Clerk.
 
 \i 
 
 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 PRIMARY SCHOOLS 
 
 OF 
 
 NE\^^ YORK CITY. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Object of this Manual. — The object of tins manual 
 is to furnish teachers with the Course of Instruction pre- 
 scribed for the Primary Schools, and with instructions 
 and suggestions to aid in carrying out this course in all its 
 requirements ; also, with the by-laws, rules, and regulations 
 which relate to the duties of teachers, 
 
 |^° The Course of Studies and the by-laws and regula- 
 \^ tions contained herein are valid requirements for the gov- 
 , ernment of teachers in the discharge of their duties. As to 
 ^ the suggestions in relation to methods of teaching given 
 herewith, although they embody the results of the long 
 and wide experience of many successful teachers, and al- 
 though their proper use has uniformly led to desired ends 
 in instruction, the teacher will be at liberty to receive and 
 to use them as the counsel of a trusted friend, and to make 
 the modifications necessary to meet the particular condi-
 
 6 INTRODUCTIOlSr. 
 
 tions of the pupils under instruction ; but she will be held 
 responsible for the use of such methods as will lead pupils 
 to the attainment of proper results in their education. The 
 true education of children is not dependent upon the use 
 of any particular method. Methods of education are val- 
 uable only when they harmonize with the conditions under 
 which the mind attains knowledge. 
 
 1^^ Teachers are counselled to study carefully the sug- 
 gestions given in relation to each subject of instruction, 
 and to consider the principles that underlie and direct the 
 methods, in order wisely to modify these methods when 
 circumstances render it desirable to do so. In education 
 jprincijples ar'e like fixed laws : true inetliods of teaching 
 are only ways of obeying and carrying out those laivs. 
 
 Duties of the Teacher. — No task can be more respon- 
 sible or require the exercise of greater care than that of 
 educating the young. To perform it properly, special 
 preparation and study are indispensably necessary, nob 
 only in relation to the branches of knowledge which may 
 have been selected as a basis for the instruction, but in 
 regard to the proper methods and appliances to be em- 
 ployed, in order to render the instruction truly effective. 
 These methods must be determined by a consideration of 
 the faculties to be trained and educated, as well as the 
 nature of the subject taught. 
 
 To a great extent, experience must be our guide in 
 enabling us to judge of the character of the minds to be 
 educated, as well as to determine the means to be em- 
 ployed for carrying on the work. 
 
 The teacher's task is one of great magnitude, responsi- 
 bility, and labor. Great issues depend upon its right per- 
 formance. The future welfare of the community depends 
 upon her efforts. Neglect on her part — nay, conscious in-
 
 TNTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 efficiency — is a crime. The impressions which are made 
 by her are ineffaceable. Hence it is of supreme impor- 
 tance that her work receive all the guidance that careful 
 study and mature experience can afford. 
 
 The natural education of each child is begun before he 
 enters school, by means of his personal experience with 
 the objects and phenomena that surround him. Knowl- 
 edge is the result of experience. Every teacher should 
 aim to continue the natural processes of education by ex- 
 tending the personal experience of the pupils, so that the 
 range of objects and phenomena observed by them shall 
 be daily increased. To produce this result the teacher 
 must select suitable materials for a proper exercise of the 
 child's senses ; then stimulate the pupil's mind to work 
 upon them. 
 
 It is the teacher's duty to adjust the conditions between 
 the child's mind and the objects, so that the natural exer- 
 cise of the senses shall develop mental powder and pro- 
 duce intellectual growth. The teacher's work should cause 
 the child to notice more and more carefully his personal 
 experiences with surrounding objects, and thereby lead to 
 the formation of habits of observation. It is the teacher's 
 duty to arrange the materials to which the pupils should 
 give special attention, so as to guide their observations in 
 a manner that will lead to a proper association of their 
 experiences. 
 
 Knowledge consists in ideas and facts gained and prop- 
 erly classified by the learner. AVords memorized and re- 
 cited about an object, even though their arrangement be 
 faultless, do not by themselves constitute knowledge. The 
 child cannot be a real learner while only a passive recip- 
 ient of words. Real education comes from what the child 
 does. To effect mental development, there must be activ-
 
 8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 itj of the mind in connection with the object just as truly 
 as there must be activity of the body to promote physical 
 development. The teacher should act in accordance with 
 these facts in the application of all methods of instruction. 
 
 In no other period of education does the importance ot" 
 a proper attention to the laws of mental development rest 
 so heavily upon the teacher as it does daring the first 
 three years of the child's school life. During this period, 
 especially, should instruction commence with perceptions 
 — perceptions of form, color, sounds, number, size, quali- 
 ties ; of right and wrong actions, obedience, etc. ; and the 
 appropriate words and language should be taught to enable 
 the child to express the ideas obtained by means of these 
 different perceptions. 
 
 Ideas are obtained in different ways. Some can be 
 gained only through the sense of sight, as color / some 
 only through the sense of touch, as rough, smooth, soft, 
 hard, hot, cold ; some only through the sense of smell, as 
 odors / some only through the sense of taste, as sweet, sour, 
 hitter, pungent, astringent ; some only through the sense 
 of hearing, as spohen words, music. Of some objects ideas 
 may be gained through several of the senses, as the shape 
 of an orange by the sense of sight and of touch ; its color 
 by sight ; its odor by smell ; and other properties by taste. 
 The ease and accuracy with which ideas may be obtained 
 in these different ways depend upon the degree of devel- 
 opment which these several senses have attained. The 
 senses are the gateways through which the mind holds 
 intercourse with the world around it ; and if these be but 
 partly opened, or if freedom of communication be ob- 
 structed by neglecting the use of the proper means for 
 such intercourse, the ideas obtained must be correspond- 
 ingly dwarfed and imperfect.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 It is a well-known fact that the proper exercise of any 
 power, whether physical or mental, increases that power. 
 Exercise of the several senses is therefore the true means 
 by which the power of gaining ideas may be strengthened, 
 and tlie abihty to acquire knowledge increased. 
 
 It is also a well-known fact to all observing teachers 
 that a large proportion of yoimg children, when they lirst 
 enter school, have not learned to use their senses in such a 
 manner as to enable them to gain accurate ideas. It there- 
 fore becomes a matter of great importance that teachers 
 of young children should give special attention to provid- 
 ing suitable exercises for this purpose. 
 1*
 
 GOVERNMENT AND DISCIPLINE. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS FOR ALL THE GRADES. 
 
 Teue Objects of Discipline. — The training of pupils 
 so that they shall /brm right habits and learn self-control, 
 is the true object of discipline. In all the rules and 
 methods of discipline employed, this purpose should be 
 kept steadily in view. Discipline, in its relation to order, 
 exists for the sake of the pupils and the school. It pre- 
 pares the way for the work of instruction, and makes it 
 effective. Obedience is the first condition in discipline. 
 It includes conformity to requirements as to time, place, 
 and manner, such as punctuality, regularity, orderly habits, 
 and so forth. 
 
 " Like Begets Like." — " As is the teacher, so will be 
 the school." It is, therefore, requisite that teachers should 
 possess fixed habits of neatness, cleanliness, and order ; 
 gentleness of maimer, a watchful self-control, and a cheer- 
 ful spirit. In speaking let pleasant tones of voice prevail ; 
 then the words of reproof will be more impressive and 
 effectual. 
 
 Teachers should never forget that their pupils are con- 
 stantly and closely watching their conduct, and are prone 
 to imitate whatever they observe. Scholars should, there- 
 fore, see and hear nothing that they may not safely imi- 
 tate. There is an " unconscious tuition," the silent influ- 
 ence of which produces the most permanent effects. 
 
 Sympathy fok Childken. — Teachers should seek to ob-
 
 12 GOVERNMENT AND DISCIPLINE. 
 
 tain the sympathetic regard of the children by giving a 
 due attention to their wants and requests. These should 
 be fulfilled as far as it is proper and reasonable. Children 
 are quick to perceive and to resent injury or injustice. 
 The child who asks for the privilege of a drink of water, 
 for instance, may be suffering acutely ; and, if not ac- 
 corded relief when this seems to be perfectly practicable 
 on the part of the teacher, may feel a sense of outrage 
 which, for a time, if not permanently, would impair its 
 I'espect and regard for the teacher. The cultivation of a 
 due feeling of symjyathy for the children will wholly pre- 
 vent this. The possession of this feeling in its fulness is 
 the best foundation of success in both discipline and in- 
 struction. Kindness is the practical basis of sympathy. 
 It seeks the good of the pupil and endeavors to remove all 
 imperfections of the individual without injury to him. Its 
 influence for good is exceedingly strong, and its power 
 with children nearly irresistible. 
 
 Encourage Pupils. — Encouragemei-d inspires confi- 
 dence. Children, more than others, need encouragement. 
 It is a strong incentive to effort. Let it be given in all 
 cases where this can be honestly done. To a want of this, 
 in the discipline of classes, are to be ascribed the timidity 
 and reserve often manifested among pupils by a hesitating 
 manner and a low voice. A proper degree of encourage- 
 ment will render them confident and spirited, eager to tell 
 what they know, and in an audible tone of voice. En- 
 couragement has a peculiar influence in promoting mental 
 and moral improvement. Letting a boy know that you 
 believe there is good in him is the best way for putting it 
 there. 
 
 Devp:lop Right Opinions. — Aim to govern the class by 
 a development of public opinion among the pupils in favor
 
 GOVERNMENT AND DISCIPLINE. 13 
 
 of the right and against the wrong, and thus govern indi- 
 vidual members through the class. Give proper attention 
 to those cases of disorder by single pupils which cannot 
 be overcome through influence upon the class. Success in 
 discipline does not lie in telling individual pupils their 
 faults before the class. Attempts to detect and correct 
 each individual misdeed in detail will not develop the 
 right public opinion nor lead the pupils to a willing com- 
 pliance with the wishes of the teacher. Judicious com- 
 mendation when pupils make efforts to overcome faults 
 is more effective toward accomplishing the desired results. 
 
 Avoid Scolding. — Harsh toius are unnecessary and 
 improper. Words of disapprobation may be uttered by the 
 teacher in a tone of decision, without the use of any sever- 
 ity that would imply resentment, anger, or antipathy on 
 the part of the teacher. On the contrary, the language 
 used and the tones of the voice should always express a 
 feeling of sympathy with the child. This is the Avay to 
 win the youthful mind, and to bend the will through the 
 affections ; a different course will antagonize it and pre- 
 vent all real submission, securing only a temporary sem- 
 blance of obedience. Never ilireaten. Harsh words, 
 rough means, and appeals to corporal punishment, when 
 employed to secure school order and certain results of 
 study, break down the sense of honor and destroy in the 
 pupil the proper respect for his teacher. 
 
 Attention the Basis of Good Okder. — Good order 
 does not require pupils to occupy, foi' a long time, a fixed 
 position ; nor to assume a constrained posture ; nor to fix 
 their eyes upon a given point ; nor to be as motionless as 
 statues. All this is unnatural, and much of it positively 
 injurious, and whatever is utniatural is not good order. 
 The postures of the pupil should be graceful, easy, and
 
 14 GOVERNMENT AND DISCIPLINE. 
 
 unifonii, and should be frequently changed. The move- 
 ments, while as simultaneous as perfect attention would 
 necessarily produce, should also be easy and natural. 
 
 S^P" Intelligent attention, 2^'ompt and imlling obedi- 
 ence, with quiet, orderly movements, are the chief requisites 
 of good order. 
 
 Physical Education. — Xo system of education and 
 school management is complete which neglects to provide 
 for due attention to physical training. Children should 
 be taught how to sit, to stand, to move, to walk ; to ab- 
 stain from the nse of those things, and to avoid the doing 
 of those acts which are injurious to health. Regulations 
 and instructions in relation to this matter should be simple, 
 and due attention should be given to them at every ap- 
 propriate opportunity during the daily exercises of the 
 school. 
 
 Cleanliness of person and of clothing ; the importance 
 of breathing pui-e air, of eating proper food, of caring 
 properly for the ej^es, the teeth, and the ears; and the 
 necessity for daily physical exercise, should receive special 
 attention, and be made subjects of instruction and admoni- 
 tion. 
 
 In the matter of proper postures, movements, etc., it is 
 quite easy to enforce all necessary regulations, provided 
 they are not capriciously applied. Children must first be 
 taught them, and then never permitted to violate them 
 without admonition or correction. 
 
 Due attention should be given daily to calisthenics and 
 such other exercises as will aid the physical organs to per- 
 form their functions properly, and thereby to prepare the 
 mind for efficient activity. 
 
 Neatness, Regularity. — Xeatness, method, and regu. 
 larity are among the necessary elements of popular educa>
 
 GOVERNMENT AND DISCIPLINE. 15 
 
 tioTi. The character of children is greatly affected by 
 their surroundings. These should, therefore, be neat and 
 orderly. The rooms in which they assemble should be 
 clean, the desks and other furniture, as far as possible, 
 free from injury or defacement, everything giving evidence 
 of constant attention. Children thus unconsciously acquire 
 habits of order, neatness, and regularity, which have an 
 important bearing upon their usefulness and happiness in 
 after life. 
 
 To impart or maintain these habits, every proper means 
 should be employed, and every requisite rule should be 
 carefully and regularly enforced. 
 
 MoKAL Education. — No teacher who neglects the moral 
 training ..of the pupils in the essential elements of good 
 character does the whole duty of the instructor. The 
 main object in moral training, as in physical and intel- 
 lectual education, is to give a right direction to the action 
 of those powers that relate to this department of our 
 nature. Such training, to be effective, must provide suit- 
 able means for the exercise of the moral powers. It con- 
 sists, largely, in leading the children to understand their 
 duties to themselves and their duties toioard others. 
 Among their duties to themselves are : self-control in all 
 matters relating to conduct — of the temper, the appetite, 
 and the desires ; speaking the truth ; and self-culture in 
 all things that aid in forming a good character. Among 
 their duties to others are : obedience to parents and teach- 
 ers ; kindness to brothers, sisters, and playmates ; and the 
 practical observance of the Golden Rule. That teacher 
 who kindly respects the a-ights of the pupils, and daily 
 illustrates the great virtue — kindness — in the maruigement 
 of pupils, and in personal conduct elsewhere, will ac- 
 complish practical results in moral education which cannot
 
 16 GOVERNMENT AND DISCIPLINE. 
 
 be attained by rules or lectures. A spirit of true kind- 
 ness pervading a school will become a fountain of virtues. 
 
 Children do not comprehend virtue in the abstract ; but 
 they soon learn to understand it when they see it in the 
 actions of their teachers and parents and of others around 
 them. Let the teacher utilize the reading and other les- 
 sons, as M^ell as school incidents, in leading the children to 
 admire honesty, truth-speaking, unselfishness, true courage, 
 and all right-doing, and thus sift in and mingle the moral 
 with the mental, as Nature does in her teaching. 
 
 Lead children to discuss the character of actions de- 
 scribed in stories, reading lessons, etc., and thus aim to 
 develop in them the ability to discriminate justly between 
 the right and the wrong in their own conduct. 
 
 Social relations, the dependence of each individual upon 
 his neighbor, the necessity of labor, the benefits of society 
 and government, should be illustrated and taught by 
 means of easy and familiar lessons suited to the age and 
 capacity of the children. As the development of the 
 moral nature is of greater importance to the welfare of 
 the individual and the community than any other part of 
 education, no opportunity should be omitted for training 
 children in such habits as will cause them to grow up 
 truthful, honest, self-governing, and law-abiding citizens. 
 
 Modes of Punishment.— Every punishment should be 
 adapted to the offence. As a general principle, if pupils 
 abuse a privilege, punish by depriving them of that 
 privilege for a while. If injury be done to that which 
 belongs to another, requii-e a satisfactory reparation. 
 School ivork should never he given as a punishment. 
 
 Firmness, vigilance, and uniformity in dealing with 
 children are of the first importance. The teacher should 
 never resort to violent means, such as pushing, ])ulling, or
 
 GOVERNMENT AND DISCIPLINE. 17 
 
 shaking the children, in order to obtain tlieir attention. 
 All such practices constitute a kind of corporal punish- 
 ment which, in all its forms, is specially prohibited by the 
 Board. 
 
 Modes of punishment painful to the corporeal system, 
 such as the sustaining of wearisome burdens, unnatural 
 and long-continued attitudes of restraint, standing, kneel- 
 ing, etc., are wrongful and injurious. Equally so is the 
 confining of delinquents by tying them or by shutting 
 them in closets. These are all a resort to mere physical 
 force, instead of moral incentives, and involve no appeal 
 to a sense of honor or duty in the child. They do not 
 properly assert the authority of the teacher, nor do they 
 really produce obedience on the part of the pupil. 
 
 In directing the various movements required of the 
 pupils, care should be taken never to touch them. The 
 teacher should take such a position before the class as will 
 command the eye of every pupil, and thence direct by the 
 voice, or by a signal. Pupils must be habituated to the 
 impression that the teacher will give the commands but 
 once, and that they must be obeyed instantly. 
 
 Public exposures and badges of disgrace belong to a 
 class of punishments which, if ever resorted to, should be 
 employed under careful limitations, and with great circum- 
 spection and prudence ; for it requires a skilful, discreet, 
 and conscientious teacher to use them safely and with 
 advantage. In the discipline of girls such methods should 
 be avoided altogether, as destructive of that nice sense of 
 shame and that delicate sensibility to reputation which 
 should be carefully fostered in the female character. 
 Avoid the use of ridicule ; it is a dangerous remedy, and 
 tends to the loss of self-respect in the pupil. 
 
 Summary of Important Points. — The following is a
 
 18 GOVERNMENT AND DISCIPLINE. 
 
 brief summary of the practically important points in moral 
 education, and in the training in morals and manners : 
 
 That intellectual training, however excellent, is not 
 enough : 
 
 That public schools are instituted to make not only 
 intelligent but good citizens : 
 
 That morals and manners are best taught incidentalhj, 
 not formally ; by personal example and anecdote, not by 
 mere lecture : 
 
 That " unconscious tuition " by the force of the teach- 
 er's example, is a most powerful influence for good or for 
 evil ; and that this includes habits of personal cleanliness, 
 tidiness, the avoidance of lounging in sitting or standing, 
 etc. ; punctuality, promptness, earnestness in the right, 
 respect for the rights and feelings of pupils and others ; 
 the use of kind tones, and a kind manner; private ad- 
 monition of the erring ; the avoidance of all coarse and 
 low expressions and of every form of petty tyranny. 
 
 Among the many points upon which opportunity for 
 incidental instruction should be sought, are the following : 
 
 Kespect for parents and teachers, and for the aged ; kind- 
 ness to the infi]"m ; the avoidance of cruelty ; abhorrence of 
 brutality, including pugilism; courtesy and politeness; true, 
 and false courage ; bravery and foolhardiuess ; moral cour- 
 age and decision as indispensable to a noble character ; 
 truthfulness, and the meanness of lying ; the degradation 
 involved in habits of profanity, indecency, and intemper- 
 ance ; the avoidance of bad books, bad papers, and bad 
 companions ; the indispensable virtue of patriotism ; and, 
 generally, to do and to be right because it is right, and 
 not for fear of punishment, discovery, or disgrace.
 
 COURSE OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 PRESCRIBED FOK 
 
 PRIMARY SCHOOLS, 
 
 WITH 
 
 DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 SIXTH GRADE. 
 
 Outline Course. 
 
 Language Lessons. — Beading — familiar words, phrases, and simple 
 sentences from blackboard, chart, etc. : s])eUin(j — familiar words from 
 dictation : exercises in elementary sounds : lessons on form — square, ob- 
 long, circle, cube, ball, straight and curved lines ; on common coloi'S ; 
 on the obvious parts and common uses of familiar objects. 
 
 Number. — Counting by ones to 100, by twos and threes to 50 ; also 
 counting backward by ones from 10 : adding by ones and twos min- 
 gled, to 20 : figures to be read to 100, and written to 30. 
 
 Slate-Writing. — Short words to be printed or written from copies 
 on blackboard or chart. 
 
 Drawing. — On slate, from illustration on blackboard, from dictation, 
 and from chart : straight lines, vertical, horizontal, and oblique ; angles, 
 right, acute, and obtuse, one side of each angle being horizontal; letters 
 formed of horizontal and vertical lines ; letters formed of horizontal, 
 vertical, and oblique lines ; two familiar objects, without perspective 
 effect, represented by straight lines. 
 
 Vocal Music- — Simi)le exercises in singing, to train the pupils in the 
 use of musical sounds. 
 
 Physical Training.— As often as each half hour, at least. Careful 
 attention should be given to ventilation.
 
 INSTEUCTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Basis for Primary Teaching. — Language is the me- 
 dium of communication between mind and mind, and ren- 
 ders education possible. We perceive by means of our 
 senses ; language furnishes the symbols for the ideas we 
 thus obtain, and enables us to communicate them to others. 
 Language exists in two distinct forms, oral and written. 
 The oral form precedes the written in the order of learn- 
 ing. An American child of average development learns 
 the use and meaning of two or three hundred words be- 
 fore entering school. This stock of common words, and 
 the ideas which they represent, form the basis or starting- 
 point for the teacher's first work of instruction in written 
 language. 
 
 Inasmuch as the chiliVs hnoioledge can he extended, 
 through language, only asfa^t as ideas are acquired from 
 surrounding objects, it becomes the obvious duty of the 
 teacher of lessoois in written language to teach first the 
 forms of those words which are already known to the 
 child by their familiar use, and then to extend his vocab- 
 ulary by directing his attention to the objects, their easily 
 perceived properties, uses, shapes, color, etc. Herein 
 may be seen the intimate 7'elation between object lessons 
 and language, and also the necessity for including a wide 
 range of objects in these early lessons on written language.
 
 LANGUAGE. 21 
 
 In relation to this matter, Marcel says : 
 
 " As the child's intellect opens and becomes capable of 
 examining objects minutely, of distinguishing their resem- 
 blances and differences, of noticing their parts^ their mat- 
 ter^ their colo7\ their /brm, and their 7iumher, his attention 
 should be successively directed to all these points. Thus 
 will his mind be easily brought in contact with the exter- 
 nal world, and be duly exercised by ascribing to every 
 object of sense its qualities and peculiar condition, lie 
 will also easily remember the words, when the ideas they 
 signify are once clearly apprehended. A correct acquaint- 
 ance with the meaning and application of words must not 
 he deemed a matter of little moment m the first years of 
 life:' 
 
 In view of the foregoing statements, it will be seen that 
 ohject lessons, to be made useful, must be so conducted 
 that the pupils shall exercise their several senses. Mere 
 recitations about objects do not jpro^erly exercise the senses. 
 
 It will also be apparent that the proper development of 
 language in children must include the actual use of their 
 own senses in attention to the things and doings around 
 them. 
 
 Reading. — Before words can express knowledge to a 
 child, they must be intimately associated with things, 
 qualities, and actions, and in such a manner as to represent 
 these to his mind. During the first year of school instruc- 
 tion in reading, words should not be taught until the ideas 
 which are represented have been perceived by the learner. 
 
 Teach Woixls First. — Since neither the names nor the 
 sounds of letters represent any element in the idea which 
 a word signifies, the teaching of reading should begin 
 neither with the names of letters nor with the sounds of 
 letters, but with words as loholes.
 
 22 SIXTH GEADE. 
 
 Let the order of teaching be, first, the idea, then the 
 sjpolien word which represents it, then the printed word as 
 a sign of both the idea and the spoken word. After this 
 the forms and names of letters may be taught, the small 
 letters first (simple elements of the spoken words). The 
 sounds, etc., are to be introduced during the early lessons. 
 
 Each new word selected should be presented to the pupils, 
 first, as a spoken word^ representing an idea previously 
 possessed, or just gained by the pupils; then, as a. j)nrded 
 word. Care should be taken to ascertain that the pupils 
 completely associate these elements of reading — the idea, 
 the spoken word, and the form of the word. 
 
 Phrases and Sentences. — After the pupils have learned 
 several single words, as described above, they should be 
 taught to read them in groups or phrases, then to join 
 the phrases in sentences. In teaching a sentence, how- 
 ever, it is not necessary to wait until the pupils have 
 learned all the words in it, since many words can be learned 
 best by their use in phrases and sentences. Pupils may 
 be taught to read short, familiar sentences before they 
 have learned all tlie separate words of which these are 
 formed. See " Reading Sentences,^^ p. 23. 
 
 Meaning of ^Vo7'ds. — Especial pains should be taken to 
 cause the pupils to understand the meaning of each word 
 learned, by associating it with the object, quality, or action 
 which it represents, and also to understand the meaning 
 of phrases and sentences ; but no formal definitions should 
 he taught in the Sixth Grade. 
 
 Wo7rls that are Names. — In selecting words for the first 
 reading lessons, choose short words that are familiar names 
 of objects ; in teaching these, as far as practicable show 
 the pupils the object, then the picture, then the word. 
 While it is desirable thus to lead the pupils to distinguish
 
 LANGUAGE. 23 
 
 the object, the picture, and the word, each from the others, 
 the pnpils sliould not be required, after a few lessons, to 
 repeat these distinctions. 
 
 Words that are not Names. — In teaching words that are 
 not names, care should be taken to illustrate their mean- 
 ing by simple phrases, conversations, etc. The use of 
 phrases composed of two or three words will be found 
 beneficial in teaching words that represent actions, quali- 
 ties, etc. ; as, 7ny hat — 7ny tojy — her doll — Uue dress — old 
 cat — cross dog — red cow — hlacJc horse — neio slate — red hox 
 — spin the tojp — roll a hall — clean my slate — cold day — 
 warm day — hot stove — I hold a key — I have a hook — / 
 hold a slate — good girl — good hoy — sweet milk — a^le pie 
 — on the table — take my doll — make afire — light the lamp 
 — set the tahle — wash the dishes — shut the door — go to 
 school — learn to read, etc. It will add much interest to 
 the lessons in sentences, and will help the pupils to under- 
 stand that good reading is mucli like talking, to require 
 a child to stand before the class, take the object named in 
 one hand, and point to the words while reading the sen- 
 tence. 
 
 Letters. — When a few words have been taught as 
 wholes, the names of the letters which compose the words 
 should be given. As additional words are learned, the 
 pupils may be required to name such letters in them as 
 they have learned in previous words ; then the i-emaining 
 letters may be taught. In this way the twenty-six letters 
 of the alphabet will be taught by their use in words. Sub- 
 sequently the letters should be reviewed and learned in 
 their usual order. The small letters are to be taught first. 
 
 List of Woyrls. — The list of familiar words taught in 
 this grade should include those commonly used as names 
 of articles of dress, food, and furniture, and of utensils
 
 24 SIXTH GRADE. 
 
 used in the house ; of things used in the scliool-rooni ; 
 common animals ; names of familiar qualities, actions, 
 etc, ; such as, <3«j?, hat^ shoe, hoot, coat, vest, dress, homiet, 
 ajyi'on, shaiol ^ cake, hread, pie, milk, heef, Jish, cheese, 
 'butter ; chair, bed, sofa, table, clock, lanvp, stove, broom ^ 
 kettle, carpet, bowl, cup, pan, tub, plate, fork, knife, 
 spoon ; book, slate, sponge, bench, bell, pencil, blackboard; 
 cat, cow, dog, horse, goat, sheejt, lamb, rat, mouse, hen, 
 duck, goose, swan, chicken / old, new, good, bad, sweet, 
 sour, salt / small, large / walk, run, jump, swing, 7nde, 
 sing, tcdk,play, eat, smell, taste, see, hear, etc. 
 
 It is not the number of letters of which a word is formed 
 that makes it easy or difficult to be learned objectively ; 
 the ease of learning %oords depends upon familiarity with 
 their use in conversation. Do not, therefore, confine the 
 pupils to words which are composed of only three or four 
 letters. 
 
 To insure uniform progress in learning familiar words, 
 there should be prepared for each grade a list of suitable 
 words. This list should be prepared or approved by the 
 Principal. The list for the Sixth Grade ought to contain 
 at least one hundred and twenty-five words. To complete 
 the list in four months, the pupils would be required to 
 learn, on an average, only tioo new words each day. This 
 would leave ample time for daily reviews. 
 
 Spelling. — The spelling of words naturally follows the 
 reading of words. To teach spelling before reading leads 
 to many faults in reading. Spelling should be learned 
 through reading and writing. A knowledge of spelling is 
 chiefly useful for conveying thoughts by means of writ- 
 ing. 
 
 A variety of modes of teaching the letters and the spell- 
 ing of words may be used. The pupils may be told the
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 
 
 Lm Anjeles, Cal. 
 LANGUAGE. 25 
 
 name of each letter in a word, and be required to repeat 
 it after the teacher, as it is pointed at. The pupils may 
 point to and name each letter in the given word. They 
 may be requested to name the letters iti the order necessary 
 to fonn a given word, while the teacher writes the word 
 on the blackboard. 
 
 The teacher may rub out a letter or letters from a word 
 and request the pupils to name the letters required to com- 
 plete the word. They may also be required to spell the 
 words orally. Let them also copy the words on their 
 slates. This exercise will aid in learning the forms of 
 both letters and words, and thus will teach spelling in a 
 practical manner. 
 
 While the pupils are learning the shapes and names of 
 the letters they may be required to copy words in jyt'int 
 letters ; but as soon as practicable the script letters should 
 be used for spelling. Copying words from the black- 
 board, on slates, is an excellent exercise in spelling. This 
 should be followed later in the term by writing some of 
 these words on slates from dictation — the words selected 
 for £his purpose being short and simple ; as, ?/^«w, mat^ 
 cat, cup, pan, slate, cow, rat, mouse, lien, swan, new, run, 
 sing, etc. 
 
 Elementary Sounds. — In first presenting this subject, 
 the teacher should utter a sound, and require the pupils to 
 imitate it. Afterward the teacher should utter separate 
 sounds and request the pupils to tell what sounds are 
 made. When their organs of hearing and of speech have 
 thus been trained both to distinguish and to imitate 
 sounds, the teacher should proceed to associate the sounds 
 with the letters. The teacher should beai- in mind that it 
 is not the science of phonology, nor a description of the 
 different sounds which the several letters represent, that 
 2
 
 26 
 
 SIXTH GRADE. 
 
 should be made tlie aim of the instruction in this subject, 
 but simply and chieflj the training of the organs of hear- 
 ing in the accurate perception of spoken sounds, and of 
 the organs of speech in the correct enunciation of those 
 sounds. The purpose of training pupils to perceive and 
 utter simple elementary sounds is, to assist them to acquire 
 distinctness of articulation and correctness of pronunci- 
 ation, as they advance in the use of language. 
 
 Words Comjpared hy Sound and Form. — For the pur- 
 pose of leading the children to observe readily the an- 
 alogy of words, in their sounds and in the arrangement of 
 their letters, place in columns on the blackboard words 
 already learned, nearly similar in spelling and sound, as 
 shown in the following groups : 
 
 cat fan 
 
 pin jpen 
 
 ox 
 
 gun 
 
 'nest 
 
 rat man 
 
 tin hen 
 
 fox 
 
 run 
 
 vest 
 
 hat ran 
 
 fin ten 
 
 hox 
 
 sun 
 
 rest 
 
 mat can 
 
 chin men 
 
 top 
 
 fun 
 
 ch£st 
 
 cake arm 
 
 wing 
 
 old 
 
 vine 
 
 cow 
 
 hahe farm string 
 
 cold 
 
 pine 
 
 how 
 
 make harm sing 
 
 fold 
 
 tiine- 
 
 now 
 
 Groups of words may also be presented which will lead 
 pupils to notice the changes in sound that are produced 
 by the addition of a single letter to a word ; as. 
 
 cap 
 can 
 hat 
 
 cape 
 cane 
 hate 
 
 pin 
 
 fin 
 
 hid 
 
 pine 
 
 fine 
 
 hide 
 
 hop 
 not 
 rod 
 
 III 
 
 plum plume 
 tub tube 
 us use 
 
 ran 
 pan 
 
 rain 
 pain 
 
 met 
 set 
 
 meat 
 seat 
 
 cot 
 got 
 
 coat 
 goat 
 
 led lead 
 fed feed
 
 LANGUAGE. 27 
 
 By means of such groups of words, the pupils may be 
 led to observe the analogy which exists between the spell- 
 ing and the pronunciation, and thus to learn to pronounce 
 new words of similar formation. These exercises will 
 also aid in learning the spelling of the words thus com- 
 pared. 
 
 Reading Sentences. — When and how should instruction 
 in reading sentences begin ? 
 
 The reading should begin with short sentences that rep- 
 resent spoken sentences familiar to the. pupil. But be- 
 fore placing these sentences on the blackboard, the teacher 
 should lead the children to use the desired sentence in con- 
 ^-versation./'Tlie kind of short sentences that children will 
 readily give, and that are suitable for the first lessons in 
 reading sentences, are indicated in the phrases and short 
 sentences already given in the suggestions for teaching 
 " Words that are not Names^'' and in the following list : 
 The hall rolls / sweep the room / dust the chairs / my hird 
 sings / hear the dog hark / see the old cat / see the dog 
 run y / can fly a kite / / hold a key / / hoAje a hook • 
 Jane rolls her hoop. 
 
 In conversation, phrases and sentences are spoken as 
 wholes, with but little attention to single words. When 
 placed on the blackboard, they should he read first as 
 wholes^ and attention should be directed to single words 
 afterward. Exercises of this character lead children to 
 read at once as naturally as they speak. Teachers who 
 follow these suggestions will soon learn that they need not 
 hesitate to use some words in sentences before the pupils 
 know them by sight. 
 
 In teaching words that are thus new to the pupils, let 
 the class pronounce single words as pointed at by the 
 teacher ; let the pupils point out words as named ; let
 
 28 SIXTH GRADE. 
 
 the words be spelled singly and in groups ; let the entire 
 sentence be spelled ; rub out words, and let the pupils 
 supply them in reading. 
 
 Change words in sentences which have been learned, 
 and let the pupils read the sentences as changed. Also 
 request the pupils to suggest similar changes in other sen- 
 tences. Let them give new sentences to be written on the 
 blackboard. 
 
 In the use of charts for teaching reading, direct the at- 
 tention of the pupils first to pairs and to groups of words 
 which should be spoken together ; teach them to read 
 these together, and then the entire sentence. 
 
 Object Lessons. — Reading, spelling, and arithmetic do 
 not supply all the needed opportunities for fixing the at- 
 tention and continuing the interest of young pupils to the 
 extent necessary for securing the important results which 
 should be attained in the elementary stages of education ; 
 nor do these studies furnish the varied exercises requisite 
 for thoroughly training the several senses and the powers 
 of observation. 
 
 It is the important province of object lessons both to in- 
 troduce and to supplement the other studies of school, and 
 to bring the matters of instruction home to the pupil's 
 own experience. In these relations they become the most 
 important aid in the develojynunt of language. 
 
 Time object teaching draws its materials from all 
 brandies of knowledge, and deals with whatever things 
 should interest the child, or exercise his mind in gaining 
 and exj^essing definite ideas. 
 
 In the giving of object lessons, whatever may be the 
 topic, the teacher needs to be guided by a well-defined 
 plan. Lessons without a proper beginning or a definite 
 ending, and without special exercises by individual pupils,
 
 LAKGUAGE. 2^ 
 
 do not result in mental training. The chief purpose of 
 the lesson is not to teach the science pertaining to the ob- 
 ject presented, nor merely to tell certain facts in regard to 
 it, bat to use the object as an aid in the development and 
 training of the pupil's powers of mind in accordance with 
 tlie principles and laws that govern the development of 
 those powers. 
 
 Form. — First present the form, the square for instance, 
 as a whole ; then lead the pupils to observe those parts 
 and shapes by which it is distinguished from other forms. 
 Compare two or more forms, leading the pupils to notice 
 their resemblances, then their differences. When the pu- 
 pils can distinguish a simple form, as a square, or an ob- 
 long, require them to notice or to discover objects having 
 the same shape. Use as great a variety of objects as pos- 
 sible to illustrate and represent the several forms ; as 
 sticks, splints, strings, and marks, for lines and corners ; 
 pieces of wood, paper, and familiar objects to represent 
 forms and solids. Select accurate forms for the first illus- 
 trations, so that the ideas of the given shapes may be cor- 
 rect. In this manner proceed to teach all the forms, sol- 
 ids, and lines required in this grade — square, oblong, circle, 
 ball, cube, straight, and curved lines — using common ob- 
 jects to illustrate them, and simple terms in describing 
 them. 
 
 Do not make the desckiption of forms a jprominent feat- 
 ure of the lessons in this grade. 
 
 Coinmon Colors. — The most important purpose of the 
 lessons on color should be to develop and test the colar- 
 sense, or the ability to perceive resemblances and differ- 
 ences in colors. Use the chart of colors, color-cards, col- 
 ored papers, ribbons, and other objects, to lead the pupils 
 to distinguish and to name the common colors, red, yellow,
 
 30 SIXTH GRADE. 
 
 hl/ue, orcmge^ green, purple, etc. Show the best represent- 
 atives of each color, that the pupils may obtain correct 
 ideas of it. To give the children experience in distin- 
 guishing colors, let them place together two or more ob- 
 jects of like color. Use a variety of exercises for these 
 lessons, remembering that colors cmx he learned only hy 
 seeing them / therefore do not try to teach them hy a reci- 
 tation of their names. 
 
 Familiar Objects — their Obvious Parts and Common 
 Uses. — The particular objects most appropriate for these 
 lessons will vary with different classes. The teacher should 
 select those objects with which the pupils already have 
 some acquaintance, and use them in such a manner as to 
 connect home experiences with school lessons, and with a 
 view to teach the children to gain more definite and thor- 
 ough knowledge of the given object while training them 
 to form habits of observing more carefully and intelli- 
 gently. 
 
 The following objects are among those especially suita- 
 ble for these lessons : Children's playthings, household uten- 
 sils and tools, things used in the school-room, and other 
 objects familiar to the. pupils. 
 
 These lessons should be so conducted as to furnish such 
 information as will satisfy the natural desire of children 
 to know, and should answer those questions which the ob- 
 jects naturally prompt them to ask. Let the lessons be 
 simple and suitable to young children, and so systematized 
 as to confine attention to one thing or feature at a time, 
 thereby leading to orderly habits of learning. As far as 
 practicable arrange the exercises so that the children may 
 theinsebves ha/oe something to do with eaxih object. 
 
 Recitations about objects, without a^^tual observation^ do 
 not constitute object teaching.
 
 NUMBER. 
 
 Counting. — A child's earliest notions of number are 
 concrete, not abstract. His knowledge of number begins 
 with counting actual objects; therefore, the first exercise 
 for teaching this subject should be the counting of objects. 
 He should be taught to count his fingers, balls on the nu- 
 meral frame, panes of glass, and other objects in the room ; 
 also marks on the blackboard. When the pupils can count 
 ten objects readil}^, they should be taught figures from to 
 9 as symbols of numbers. 
 
 Figures. — Let the pupils count one hall., one pencil, one 
 finger, one tnarh, then \ea,rn figure 1 ; then count in groups 
 two halls, ttoo fingers, two pencils, two marks, etc., and 
 learn figure 2. Next lead the pupils to see that two is 
 equal to 07ie and one, or two ones. Continue to count out 
 groups of objects to represent each number, and to teach 
 the figures that represent the groups. Lead the pupils to 
 see what each number is equal to ; as, that three is equal 
 to on£ and one and one, or three ones, or two and one / 
 that foxor is equal to four ones, or three and one, two and 
 two, or tvjo twos. Proceed in a similar manner to teach 
 each number and figure as far as nine. By this means the 
 pupils will learn the real value of the figures and the num- 
 bers that are represented by them. 
 
 To give the pupils additional exercises for learning how 
 many objects each figure represents, let them count as 
 many balls, or other objects, or hold up as many fingers as 
 the given figure represents. They may be allowed, also, 
 to clap their hands three times for figure 3, four times for 
 figure 4, and so on, as another mode of showing that they 
 understand the value of the figures.
 
 32 SIXTH GKADE. 
 
 Figures in Groups. — Figures should be taught in groups, 
 as signs of numbers counted : first group, to 9 ; second 
 group, 10 to 19 ; third group, 20 to 29, etc. The counting 
 of objects should precede each group, and should extend 
 beyond the highest number of the group. No group 
 should be commenced until the preceding one has been so 
 thoroughly learned that the figures which represent each 
 inimber in it can be read at sight. Mere rote exej'cises in 
 counting should not he allowed either with or without the 
 numeral J^rame. 
 
 Adding Concrete Numhers. — The pupils may be taught 
 to add balls on the numeral frame by ones / then to add 
 figure Is in a column on the blackboard ; then to add a 
 column of Is on their slates. Subsequently teach them to 
 add balls by twos / then to add a column of 2s on the 
 blackboard ; then on their slates. Proceed in the same 
 manner with threes. Afterward the pupils may be taught 
 to add Is and 2s in the same column ; then Is, 2s, and 3s 
 in the same column. A variety of exercises should be in- 
 troduced by which the pupils will be required to add one 
 to each number from one to twenty. As far as practi- 
 cable, objects should be used by the pupils during the 
 fij-st steps of these lessons. 
 
 Iteineniber that the three stcjps to he taken in each exercise 
 are : 1, adding objects ; 2, adding figures on the black- 
 board ; 3, adding figures on slates. 
 
 Counting Bachward. — Counting backward by moving 
 away one ball at a time from a group, and telling how 
 many remain, constitutes the first step in subtracting ; 
 thus, ten halls, nine halls, eight halls, seven halls, six halls, 
 etc. Supplying the pupils with objects, as " splints," 
 which they may place on slates, held in their laps, and 
 may use in exercises for counting, adding, and subtract-
 
 NUMBER. 33 
 
 ing, will assist them in learning the three elementary 
 steps in number. 
 
 Reading and Writing Numbers. — Figures are to be 
 learned first as signs of numbers counted ; these numbers 
 should be read and written as wholes, whether expressed 
 by one or two figures. Nothing should be said about 
 numeration in the Sixth Grade. 
 
 The writing of figures^ as well as the reading of them, 
 should be taught in appropriate groups. In writing them 
 on the blackboard, the figures may be placed in their 
 groups, first in lines, as follows : 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 Afterward these groups may be written in columns, as 
 here given : 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 27 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 29 
 
 Care should be taken to have the figures properly placed 
 in the columns. 
 
 That which children recite about numbers or figures is 
 2*
 
 34 SIXTH GEADE. 
 
 of little value when compared with that which they should 
 do with them. 
 
 It is expected that the pupils, before promotion to the 
 Fifth Grade, will be able to read at sight any number 
 below 100. 
 
 K. B. — Teachers of this grade are particularly cau- 
 tioned not to allow their jmpils to count, spell, or repeat 
 words in concert with sing-song tones. 
 
 SLATE-WKITING. 
 
 It is desirable that the pupils in this grade should have, 
 at least during the first month in school, exercise in 
 making the j?/'/??^ form of letters on their slates, in order 
 to aid them in learning the alphabet. During the second 
 month in school, the icriting of simple script letters may 
 commence, from copies on the blackboard. During suc- 
 ceeding months, short words should be written from 
 copies on blackboard or chart. The form of the letters 
 should be plain, and no capitals should be used. Atten- 
 tion should be given to the position of the slate, and to 
 the manner of holding the pencil. 
 
 The pupils should be taught to read words and sentences 
 in script as a part of the plan of teaching reading from 
 the blackboards
 
 FIFTH GRADE. 
 
 Outline Course. 
 
 Language Lessons. — Reading — from the blackboard, charts, and a 
 First Reader : exercises in elementary sounds continued : the meaning of 
 words and phrases to be associated with their use in the sentences read : 
 names of pu7ictuation marks as they occur in the Reader : spelling — 
 words from the reading lessons ; also other familiar words : lessons on 
 form, as in the preceding grade, continued with proper additions ; on 
 common colors, compared and named ; on the obvious parts and uses 
 of familiar objects continued, with special attention to the development 
 of observation and language. 
 
 Number. — Counting by threes, fours, and fives to 100: adding by 
 twos, threes, fours, and fives to 30, on the blackboard and the slate : 
 subtracting on the numeral frame, twos, threes, fours, and fives, from 
 numbers below 21 ; multiplying by two the numbers below 6 : figures 
 to be read at sight from the blackboard, and written to 1,000 : Roman 
 numbers to XL. ; also their use on the clock face. 
 
 Slate-Writing. — Lessons in writing short words from copy. 
 
 Drawing. — On slate, illustrated on blackboard, from dictation and 
 from chart : draw horizontal, vertical, and oblique lines, and mark off 
 one, two, three, and four inches on them ; divide lines by points into 
 two, four, and eight equal parts ; horizontal, vertical, and oblique 
 parallel lines three inches in length, with half-iych spaces between 
 them ; square, side three inches, divided by diameters ; square, side 
 four inches, divided by diagonals ; right-angled triangles, longest side 
 four inches ; oblong, 3 in. by 2 in., divided by diagonals ; two familiar 
 objects, without perspective effect, containing the plane figures of this 
 grade. 
 
 Vocal Music. — Continued as in the Sixth Grade, with two or three 
 simple songs and the scale by rote ; represent steps of the scale, and 
 give simple ideas of time. 
 
 Physical Training. — As in the Sixth Grade.
 
 INSTRUCTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Reading. — Before pnpils are promoted to the Fifth 
 Grade they should be taught to read short sentences, as 
 described in the suggestions for the Sixth Grade. This 
 important step should be taken before books are placed in 
 their hands. The transition from reading from black- 
 board or charts, to reading from books, requires special 
 attention, in order that the first steps in reading from 
 books shall be properly taken. 
 
 Teach Use of Books. — In this grade the pupils are to be 
 taught the use of books, and how to discover M'hat the 
 groups of words and sentences tell. How may all this be 
 successfully accomplished ? Careful attention to the fol- 
 lowins: suggestions will enable teachers to find an answer 
 to this question. 
 
 Short exercises may be had from day to day for train- 
 ing the pupils to pass books from one to another in an 
 orderly manner, to hold them properly for reading, to find 
 given pages, etc. On the days in which this preliminary 
 training is given, the teacher may select from the Reader 
 two or three suitable sentences (such as contain words, 
 phrases, etc., similar to those already learned from the 
 blackboard or chart), and place them upon the blackboard, 
 and then teach the pupils as in the instructions for the 
 Sixth Grade.
 
 LANGUAGE. 37 
 
 Wbi'ds in Groups. — Pupils should be trained to notice 
 that in reading, as well as in talking, words are used in 
 groups. By writing the sentences selected from the 
 Reader somewhat as follows, the pupils may be led to give 
 due attention to this matter : 
 
 The hoy He Can 
 
 has can spin tJie cat spin 
 
 a top. his top. a top f 
 
 The cat The man Jane 
 
 is on has a fan may take 
 
 a mat. iti his hand. her fan. 
 
 When the pupils have learned the separate words and 
 the several groups on the blackboard, let them read the 
 groups in order and discover what the sentence tells. 
 Then require them to pass their books, to find the given 
 page (that containing one or more of the sentences learned 
 as above), and on it single words like those on the black- 
 board ; and then groups of words, and to read them at 
 sight. Afterward let them read from their books the 
 sentences which they have learned from the blackboard. 
 When the pupils can readily find and read the several 
 sentences of a lesson, require them to 7'ea(l the entitle lesson 
 in order, taking care that due attention is given to the 
 groups of words. 
 
 In this way proceed from day to day, teaching each les- 
 son from the blackboard before it is read from the book. 
 To prevent the pupils from repeating the sentences from 
 memory instead of reading them, place them on the black- 
 board in a different order from that which they occupy in 
 the book.
 
 38 FIFTH GRADE. 
 
 Tlie teaching of new lessons first from the blackboard 
 will keep the attention on the special point of instruction 
 more effectively than will the teaching from books alone. 
 This plan of teaching the lesson first from the blackboard 
 and then from the book maj be used to advantage for 
 several weeks at the beginning of the Fifth Grade. 
 
 1^^ In order to train pupils in habits of self-i"eliance, 
 care should be taken from the first to teach them to learn 
 the sentence hy sight. To this end the teacher shotild not 
 read the lesson for the pupil before the jpujnl has read it 
 for himself By due attention to this matter learning to 
 read hy rote, or by hearing only, will be avoided. 
 
 Ideas and Wo7xls to he Associated. — The only real use 
 of a printed or written word is to recall an idea. Such a 
 word is not taught until it has been so associated that 
 when it is seen it will recall the idea which it symbolizes. 
 The same fact may be stated in relation to sentences and 
 the ideas which they represent. Hence, the teaching of 
 reading consists essentially in leading pupils to make the 
 proper association of ideas with words and sentences, and 
 then training them to utter the words and sentences so as 
 to express those ideas clearly to others. That teaching 
 which assists these acts of association helps the child in 
 learning to read ; that which does not assist these acts of 
 association is useless, and may be even injurious to the 
 pupils. Good methods of teaching reading will ineluds 
 only those devices which aid the pujpils in associating words 
 and sentences with the ideas that they represent., and in 
 properly expressing them. 
 
 Reading Nev) Lessons from Boolcs. — After a few weeks 
 the pupils will be able to learn to read new lessons from 
 the book without first learning them fi-om the blackboard. 
 To do this successfully, the attention of the pupils must
 
 LANGUAGE. 39 
 
 be directed to groups of words and to phrases and sen- 
 tences, rather than to single words, even if the lesson con- 
 tains a few words not known to the pupils. By proper 
 instruction, these new words will be learned by their use as 
 the pupils become acquainted with the phrases and sen- 
 tences containing them. 
 
 The character of the methods that may be used in teach- 
 ing reading from books will be apparent from the follow- 
 ing illustrations : 
 
 1. Suppose the lesson selected contains the following 
 sentences : 
 
 See my top, Minnie ! 
 
 It will spin on this box, and not drop off. 
 
 Yes, I see it, Tom; but I think it will drop ofiF. 
 
 Place the books in the hands of the pupils ; then request 
 each to find two or more words that tell something. A 
 hand is raised to indicate readiness to read the words, and 
 the teacher says : What do the words that you found, tell ? 
 The child answers, " See my top." Another one says, " It 
 will spin," Another reads, " I see it." Another, " On 
 this box." Another, "It will drop off." 
 
 Afterward the teacher asks. Who said, See my top ? 
 The class may answer, " Tom." Who said, It will spin ? 
 "Tom." Who said, I see it? "Minnie." Who said, 
 On this box? "Tom." Who said. It will drop off? 
 " Minnie." What did Tom say about this ? " It will not 
 drop off." 
 
 James may now read what Tom said in the first line. 
 
 Frank may read what Tom said in the second line. 
 
 William may read what Minnie said. 
 
 Other pupils may be called upon to read the same sen- 
 tences until all in the class are familiar with them.
 
 40 FIFTH GKADE. 
 
 2. Suppose the lesson selected contains the following 
 sentences : 
 
 A boy has two legs, but a bee has six. 
 
 Has an ox six legs ? No ; it has four legs ; two on each side. 
 
 After tlie books have been placed in the hands of the 
 pnpils, the teacher may proceed as follows : "What are 
 the Jii'st two words ? The next three words ? The next 
 word ? Sound it as I do — l-u-t. Spell it. The next tioo 
 words ? The next two words ? What does this tell jou 
 about a boy ? What does it tell you about a bee ? 
 
 What is the first word in the next line? Sound it. 
 Spell it. The next two words ? The next two words ? 
 What do the five words ask ? Can you find the answer to 
 this question ? Read the first word in the answer. What 
 does the word it mean ? ]^ow read it^ and the three 
 words that follow. Read the last four words. 
 
 Kow Jane may read what this lesson says about a boy. 
 Lucy may read what it says about a bee. Susan may read 
 what it asks about an ox. Mary may read what it tells 
 you about an ox. Let one pupil read what it says about 
 a boy and a bee ; and another read all that it says about 
 an ox. 
 
 3, Suppose the lesson selected contains the following 
 sentences, in which are several words not familiar to the 
 pupils : 
 
 Tom took his pole down to the brook to fish. 
 
 O you silly little fish, look out for that sharp hook ! 
 
 Swim away, or Tom will catch you. 
 
 "There! " said Tom, " I have one, and a big one, too." 
 
 Up went the line, and down went the fish into the brook. 
 
 Tlie teacher may select one of these unfamiliar words ; 
 let the pupils try to pronounce it ; then tell them what it
 
 LANGUAGE. 41 
 
 is; let them sound it after the teacher; then spell it; 
 then tell what it means, or the teacher may explain it. 
 Proceed in this way to teach the form, meaning, and 
 pronunciation of the most difficult words; then ask the 
 pupils to read other words with those thus learned. By 
 this means the pupils will be led to read the words in 
 groups of two or more, somewhat as follows : " Tom took 
 his pole." " Down to the brook." " You silly little 
 fish." " Look out for that sharp hook." " Swim away." 
 " Tom will catch you." " I have one." " A big one, 
 too." " Up went the line." " Down went the fish." " In- 
 to the brook." 
 
 Kow read the words that tell where Tom went. Read 
 the words that tell what he took with him. Why did 
 Tom go to the brook ? Head the words that tell what 
 some one said to the fish in the brook. AVhat more was 
 said to the fish ? Read what Tom said. Read the words 
 that tell what the line did. Read those that tell what 
 became of the fish. 
 
 Afterward request separate pupils to read the several 
 lines in order. 
 
 N. B. — Sometimes it will be necessary for the teacher to 
 read a sentence in oi'der to show how it should be read, 
 and to assist the pupils in forming a standard by which 
 they may judge the character of their own i-eading. After 
 such illustration by the teacher, several pupils should be 
 requested to read the same sentence, and the others to ob- 
 serve whether it is read as the teacher read it. Such 
 training is more useful to young pupils than all the rules 
 for reading. 
 
 From the foregoing illustrations may be seen the im- 
 portant aims that pervade all the methods, viz. : To 
 train the pupils in habits of finding out for themselves
 
 42 FIFTH GRADE. 
 
 the thoughts contained in each sentence, so as to make the 
 lesson read as real as a story told, and to develop the 
 ability to read the story as if they were telling it. 
 
 Many other methods may be used to accomplish the 
 same purpose. Two or three methods may be employed 
 in the same lesson, on different days. The results will be 
 satisfactory when the pupils have attained the ability to 
 read new lessons intelligently. 
 
 Faults to he Avoided. — There should be no so-called 
 " study " or " spelling " in concert for the purpose of 
 learning the spelling of new words. Such a plan employs 
 had methods and leads to meclianical results in reading / 
 no Principal should pei^mit their use. Those who concen- 
 trate their efforts in teaching reading from books, first 
 upon individual words, then upon the pronunciation of 
 those words in their order, lead their pupils astray. 
 
 Do not teach the pupils to say ^Hhu hoy,''"' '•'"iu toj).^^ 
 Good usage requires that the and a before words com- 
 mencing with consonant sounds should be spoken lightly 
 and with the following word, but they should never he jper- 
 verted to thit and ii. 
 
 When the child learns to spell the., let him give the first 
 sound to the e in pronouncing it. But when he reads this 
 word in a sentence, as, see the cat and the dog jplay, let 
 him pronounce it with the following word, as if it formed 
 the first syllable of that word, speaking the lightly, as in 
 the words e-vent', e-vade'. The a, when used as a word in 
 like circumstances, should be pronounced like a in a-muse' . 
 
 j[[^° The practice of requiring children to point at each 
 word read should he avoided, as it leads to reading words 
 singly instead of in their proper groups, and prevents due 
 attention to the thought represented by the sentence. 
 The pupils can " keep the place " in the lesson by point-
 
 LANGUAGE. 43 
 
 ing at each line as it is read ; but even this practice should 
 be used only for a short time. Before leaving the Fifth 
 Grade the pupils should be able to " keep the place " with- 
 out pointing at all. 
 
 Progress in Reading. — The number of new reading 
 lessons each week should be from three to five. After 
 three-fourths of the pupils have learned to read a lesson in 
 a proper manner, a class should not be kept on that lesson 
 for the purpose of training each forgetful child to remem- 
 ber the spelling of every word in it. Learning to read 
 being the chief business in these lessons, spelling should 
 not be allowed to interfere with it. In the Fifth Grade, 
 not less than three jpaxjes of reading {in an ordinary first 
 reading hooJc) should he taught each week during the first 
 month ; and four or five pages each week during subse- 
 quent months. 
 
 Meaning of Words. — It is expected that each teacher 
 will make her pupils familiar with the meaning of the 
 principal words of the reading lesson, by conversation, 
 questions, illustrations, etc. In reviewing lessons, in 
 order to ascertain whether the pupils know how to apply 
 the words, the teacher should request them to use the 
 word in saying something ; as, " A cart has two wheels." 
 " Snow is white." " I hold my book." " I must obey my 
 mother." " My book is we?/?." " Horses eat hay.'''' " I 
 found a slate pencil." " It is dark at night." " A hive 
 is a house for beea." " A swan has a long neck." " A 
 fish can swim.''^ " We light a lamp at night." " A bird 
 can fly." " A horse is in the harnP " I live in a housed'' 
 " My sponge is full of holes," etc. Even this exercise 
 should not be made a formal one ; but it should be of a 
 conversational character. 
 
 Exercises in the use of words should be given in con-
 
 44 FIFTH GEADE. 
 
 nection with each reading lesson ; and the pupils should 
 be required to show the meaning of the words and phrases 
 used while their books are open at the lesson. This will 
 lead to the formation of the habit of attending to the 
 meaning of what is read. 
 
 Elementary Sounds. — Exercises similar to those of the 
 Sixth Grade should be continued, and be so conducted as 
 to train the pupils in distinctness of enunciation, both in 
 speaking and in reading. Direct attention to the sounds 
 of given letters in words of the reading lesson. Request 
 the pupils to find words in which a has the same sound 
 that it has in at / the sound that a has in take / that a has 
 in all ^ that a has in car. In the same manner lead the 
 pupils to find words having sounds of o, of e, of i, of u. 
 Teach the pupils to find /"-sounds, ^-sounds, m-sounds, etc. 
 
 Punctuation Marks. — Teach the names of such marks 
 as occur in the reading lesson, and give a simple explan- 
 ation of the use of the period and the question mark ; tw 
 formal definitions of them should he allowed. 
 
 Spelling. — The exercises in spelling in this grade be- 
 come more distinct from those in reading than in the 
 Sixth Grade, Pupils should learn to spell hy cojyying 
 words on their slates., and also by oral exercises. In oral 
 spelling, the word should be distinctly pronounced by 
 the pupil before spelling it ; then each letter should be 
 clearly uttered, a pause heing made between syllables, and 
 the word again be pronounced. 
 
 An interesting exercise in written spelling may be had 
 by placing on the blackboard a list of words, and requir- 
 ing the pupils to copy these words on their slates, and 
 then, in opposite columns, to write other words formed by 
 omitting letters, or by affixing other letters, or otherwise 
 changing some part of the given words. T\iq first col-
 
 LAISTGUAGE. 
 
 45 
 
 umns, given below, may represent the list of words writ- 
 ten by the teacher, and the other columns those formed 
 by the pupils. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 2. 
 
 hate 
 
 hat 
 
 horse 
 
 house 
 
 mouse 
 
 mate 
 
 mat 
 
 could 
 
 would 
 
 shoxdd 
 
 late 
 
 ate 
 
 kind 
 
 find 
 
 hlind 
 
 cold 
 
 old 
 
 wood 
 
 good 
 
 stood 
 
 sold 
 
 told 
 
 tJiese 
 
 them, 
 
 the 
 
 rose 
 
 nose 
 
 nest 
 
 rest 
 
 vest 
 
 talk 
 
 walk 
 
 cake 
 
 lake 
 
 rake 
 
 stove 
 
 store 
 
 heat 
 
 neat 
 
 scat 
 
 sing 
 
 ring 
 
 sight 
 
 light 
 
 right 
 
 The words learned in the Sixth Grade should be re- 
 viewed in the Fifth, and about 07ie hundred and fifty new 
 words learned. Among these there should be included 
 familiar words, such as were indicated for the Sixth 
 Grade. Special attention should be given to words found 
 to be difficult in the previous grade. 
 
 N. B. — All teachers are especially warned not to use 
 any concert exercises for studying or recitations. 
 
 Object Lessons. — The instructions given in relation to 
 this subject, for the Sixth Grade, and the subjects and 
 methods stated there, are appropriate for the exercises of 
 this grade also. It is desirable, however, that the lessons 
 on each topic (form, color, etc.) be divided into three or 
 four parts, each part to occupy the time given to that 
 topic for one mouth. By this means each month of the 
 grade will have its due proportion of new lessons, and 
 ample time will be left for reviews. For illustration : 
 
 Form. — During i\\Q first month in this grade the lessons
 
 46 FIFTH GRADE. 
 
 on Foi'in might be devoted to a careful review of the in- 
 structions of the previous grade, with the addition of wave 
 and spiral lines ; also position of lines, as vertical, hori- 
 zontal, oblique. 
 
 During the second month add sphere, hemisphere, and 
 semi-circle. 
 
 During the third tnonth there may be added cylinder 
 and triangle. 
 
 During \\iq fourth month there may be added acute, ob- 
 tuse, and right angles. 
 
 1^^ In giving new lessons on form, the teacher should 
 proceed as in the Sixth Grade. In reviewing lessons, the 
 pupils &\\o\A^point out the forms ; mention objects of simi- 
 lar shape ; try to make the sha])c from paper or other ap- 
 propriate material ; draw it, and finally descmbe it. 
 
 Color. — The lessons on Color, in this grade, should re- 
 quire the pupils to match colors ; to point out and name 
 the colors learned in the previous grade ; to learn the 
 names of other common colors, ?i?,pinJc, scarlet, sky-blue, 
 violet, broion, drab, etc. ; and to name objects having these 
 colors. 
 
 An important part of the instructions should consist 
 of exercises in matching like colors, and in separating un- 
 like colors. 
 
 Familiar Objects. — Exercises similar to those of the 
 Sixth Grade should be continued, and the number of ob- 
 jects used for lessons be increased. It is desirable to lead 
 the pupils to notice the action of their own senses, and to 
 observe how they distinguish one object from another ; to 
 notice how they learn the shape, color, taste, and other 
 qualities of objects, and what they learn by a given sense. 
 For instance, some things are learned by sight ; as, colors, 
 shapes, etc. : some by taste ; as, sweet, sour, salt, bitter :
 
 NUMBER. 47 
 
 some by toucli ; as, hot, cold, hard, soft, etc. The pupils 
 may be trained to observe these facts readily, by requiring 
 them to tell how they find out that a thing is sweet, sour, 
 salt ; hard, soft ; hot, cold, warm ; rough, smooth ; heavy, 
 light. These exercises, if properly conducted, will aid them 
 in learning the meaning of w^ords in the reading lessons. 
 
 1^^ Whenever possible, arrange the exercises of each 
 subject so that the pupils may be called upon to do some- 
 thing with their hands. Children lem'n tnuch faster hy 
 doing than by merely repeating what they have been told. 
 
 NUMBER. 
 
 Counting and Adding. — These should be continued as 
 in the previous grade, and extended so as to mclwdie fours 
 and fives. Care should be taken to cause the pupils to 
 count the halls and not to alloio a mere recitation of xoovds 
 hy rote. Commence the counting with one and proceed 
 by threes. Afterward commence with two and proceed 
 by threes. Give similar exercises in counting and adding 
 with ybi^/'s 2iXiAfimes. When the pupils have become fa- 
 miliar with such exercises, let them add twos and threes 
 alternately ; also threes and fours alternately ; the sum 
 only should be named, after the two or the three has been 
 added, thus (2 and 3 alternately) : 3, 5, 8, 10, 13, 15, 18, 20, 
 23, 25, etc. ; also (3 and 4) : 4, 7, 11, 14, 18, 21, 25, etc. 
 
 After the counting and adding on the numeral frame, 
 write the same numbers in their order on the blackboard, 
 and teach the pupils to add their signs, the figm-es. Next 
 require these to be copied on slates and added. 
 
 Adding figures., " on the blackboard and the slates, 2s, 
 38, 48, 58 to 30," may be presented in the following form 
 for the first lessons :
 
 48 FIFTH GKADE. 
 
 222222222222222 
 
 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14, etc. 
 
 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 
 
 33333333 3 333333 
 
 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14, etc. 
 
 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 
 
 444444444444444 
 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14, etc. 
 
 555555555555555 
 
 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14, etc. 
 
 For these exercises, only one number, as 2, with its sev- 
 eral additions, should be put on the blackboard, or on the 
 slate, at a time. The design of these combinations is to 
 make the pupils familiar with the sums produced by the 
 additions of 2s, 3s, 4s, 5s to numbers below 30. 
 
 Oral adding may be effectively reviewed by questions 
 such as the following : 4 and how many are 6 ? 2 and 
 how many are 6 ? 3 and how many are 6 ? 6 and how 
 many are 8 ? 4 and how many are 8 ? 
 
 Subtracting. — This exercise is to be continued, as in the 
 previous grade, and to include the taking away of halh, or 
 other objects, by tivos, threes^ fours, and Jives, from groups 
 containing fewer than 21. The teacher can devise many 
 ways for giving this exercise. 
 
 Multiplying hy Two. — By means of balls, splints, or 
 other objects, and by marks on the blackboard and on the 
 slate, illustrate the idea of taking the same number two
 
 NUMBER. 49 
 
 times, as a step introductory to multiplying. Additional 
 illustrations may be given by arranging dots, or marks, in 
 
 groups, as follows : Two . . . , are 4 ; two are 6 ; 
 
 two are 8 ; two are 10. Two II 
 
 II are 4; two III III are 6 ; two Mil Mil are 8 ; two lllll 
 Hill are 10. In reading these, let the pupils say tioo tioos 
 are four ; tioo threes are six ; two fours are eight ; two Jives 
 ai'e ten. The pupils will notice that taking a number of 
 objects two times is very much like adding two groups, or 
 numbers. 
 
 As far as practicaljle these exercises should be so con- 
 ducted that the jpuplls will arrange the objects in proper 
 groups. 
 
 Reading and Writing Figures to 1,000. — The pupils 
 having learned in the previous grade to read figures to 100 
 and to write them to 30, exercises should now be given to 
 extend this work. This can be thoroughly accomplished 
 by arranging numbers in groups to be read without nu- 
 meration, and to be copied on slates. 
 
 First Oroup. 
 
 Second Group. 
 
 Third Oroup. 
 
 Fourth Oi'oup. 
 
 10 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 11 
 
 200 
 
 101 
 
 201 
 
 12 
 
 300 
 
 102 
 
 202 
 
 13 
 
 400 
 
 103 
 
 203 
 
 14 
 
 500 
 
 104 
 
 204 
 
 15 
 
 600 
 
 105 
 
 205 
 
 16 
 
 700 
 
 106 
 
 206 
 
 17 
 
 800 
 
 107 
 
 207 
 
 18 
 
 900 
 
 108 
 
 208 
 
 19 
 
 1,000 
 
 109 
 
 209 
 
 20 
 
 
 110 
 
 210 
 
 etc., 
 
 
 etc., 
 
 etc., 
 
 to 
 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 99 
 
 
 199 
 
 299
 
 50 FIFTH GRADE. 
 
 Subsequently these numbers should be read and written 
 without regard to this order. 
 
 If properly conducted, these lessons will train the pu- 
 pils to read and write numbers through 199 in one month, 
 and any number below 1,000 in three months. 
 
 Roman Numhers. — It is well that the pupils should 
 first learn the value of each of the three letters used to 
 I'epresent numbers below forty : I, one / V, jive / X, ten. 
 When the values of these letters have been learned, pro- 
 ceed to teach the value of II, two ; XX, twenty. Then 
 teach the vahie of III, three / XXX, thirty. Then teach 
 the numbers in their order and their use in reading-books. 
 In this grade the pupils should be taught how to tell the 
 time by the clock, at least so far as to include the hours, 
 half -hours, and quarter-hours. 
 
 SLATE-WEITmG. 
 
 When the pupils enter this grade, they should be suffi- 
 ciently familiar with scri/pt letters to enable them to read 
 known words, plainly written on the blackboard, with a 
 fair degree of readiness. More attention should now be 
 given to coj)ying shn2>le words in script. Each child may 
 be taught to copy his or her name in plain script, with the 
 proper capitals. 
 
 Attention should be given to the manner of holding the 
 pencil, and to the position of the slate.
 
 FOURTH GRADE. 
 
 Outline Course. 
 
 Language Lessons. — Reading — through a First Reader or in an ea?y 
 Second Reader : the meaning of words and phrases to be taught from the 
 sentence : exercises in elementary souruls, continued : names of punc- 
 tuation marks, continued ; spelling — words from tlie reading lessons and 
 other familiar words : lessons on form, continued, with appropriate ad- 
 ditions ; on co^ continued ; on familiar objects, continued, with obvious 
 qualities added. 
 
 Arithmetic. — Numeration and Notation — through six places : add- 
 ing single columns of ten figures, including 6, 7, 8, and 9 ; adding 
 orally by sixes, sevens, eights, nines, and tens : subtracting threes, 
 fours, fives, and sixes from numbers below 81 : midtiplying numbers 
 below 11 by two : simple practical questions : Roman numbers to C. 
 
 Slate-Writing. — Short sentences from copy. 
 
 Drawing. — On slate, illustrated on blackboard, from dictation and 
 from chart ; equilateral and isosceles triangles, longest line four inches ; 
 rhomb, side four inches ; rhomboid, 4 in. by 2 in. ; concentric squares, 
 sides four inches and two inches, on diagonals ; concentric squares, sides 
 four inches and one inch, on diameters ; regular octagon ; two familiar 
 objects, without perspective efifect, containing the plane figures of this 
 grade. 
 
 Vocal Music. — Instruction as in Fifth Grade, continued, with addi- 
 tional songs by rote. 
 
 Physical Training. — Every half hour, from two to three minutes. 
 Careful attention to be given to ventilation.
 
 INSTRUCTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Reading. — The teacher, on beginning the instruction in 
 reading for the Fourth Grade, will find it advisable to 
 read the suggestions for teaching this subject in the Fifth 
 Grade. It will be found useful to place on the blackboard 
 the most difficult new words in the lesson, and to make 
 the pupils familiar with them before the reading books 
 are put into their hands. Most of the exercises for teach- 
 ing the words of new lessons should be given with the 
 books. 
 
 Conversational Exercise. — Before the pupils are re- 
 quired in turn to read a new lesson, their attention should 
 be directed to the meaning of the important loords in it, 
 to the principal facts or thoughts of the sentences, and to 
 the subject of the lesson, in such a manner as will cause 
 them to understand what they are subsequently to read. 
 To do this the teacher may conduct a cotiversational exer- 
 cise with the class somewhat as follows, while the pupils 
 have their books open at the given lesson : 
 
 What is this lesson about ? What does the first line tell 
 you about it ? Who said that ? What question do you 
 find in the first paragraph ? Can you find the answer to 
 that question ? 
 
 The first pupil may read the question. The next one 
 may read the answer.
 
 LANGUAGE. 63 
 
 Now look at the next verse, and tell me what it is 
 about ? 
 
 Suppose the lesson to be about two boys who broke a 
 bowl, one of whom proposed to charge the mishap to the 
 dog. 
 
 The teacher might say : 
 
 We are going to read about two boys. Who will look 
 at the lesson and tell me their names? Who can tell how 
 old these boys were ? 
 
 Which boy would always tell his father and mother 
 when he did anything wrong ? Did the other boy do so ? 
 What would he do ? Which was the better boy ? 
 
 Who can tell me where these boys were ? Where was 
 their mother ? What was in the room with them ? What 
 did one of the boys say ? What did the boys do with the 
 dog ? What happened while they were playing ? Who 
 spoke first after the accident ? What did he say ? 
 
 By means of such an examination of the lesson, with 
 their books open, the pupils will learn both the words and 
 their general meaning, so as to be able to answer the ques- 
 tions of the teacher in an intelligent manner, and thus 
 will be prepared to read the lesson properly. Next re- 
 quire the several pupils to read singly. Take care that 
 they read each sentence as it should be spoken when tell- 
 ing the story. 
 
 During all the exercises in reading care should be taken 
 to make the pupil know the loords at sight, to know ivhat 
 they mean in the lesson, and to read in an easy manner, 
 xmth tones of voice resem^hling those heard in good conver- 
 sation. 
 
 That the pupils may know what is meant by good read- 
 ing, examples must be given by the teacher, but the pu- 
 pils should not he taught to read hy imitation alone. It
 
 54 FOURTH GRADE. 
 
 is important to train them so that they shall learn to de- 
 pend upon their own understanding of the lesson as the 
 means of deciding how it should be read. Thus they will 
 acquire the power of self -improvement, and of reading in- 
 telligently. 
 
 As a means of leading the pupils to discover the thoughts 
 of the sentences and to trai7i their judgment in deciding 
 how to read them, let the following questions be asked fre- 
 quently, viz. : What does this say ? How should it he 
 said ? 
 
 Such a process of teaching will develop in the pupils 
 the power to read new lessons with far better results than 
 can be attained where pupils are taught to read chiefly 
 from imitation. 
 
 Faults in reading are most easily overcome when the 
 efforts to correct them are directed chiefly to one kind at 
 a time, and the training to overcome it is continued until 
 the pupils clearly perceive the nature of the fault, and 
 can take the means to correct it. 
 
 N. B. — From three to four of the visual reading les- 
 sons of an easy Second Header ought to he taught each 
 week in the Fourth Grade. 
 
 Meaning of Woi'ds. — The exercises for teaching the 
 meaning of words in this grade should generally be con- 
 ducted with the books open at the reading lesson. Sepa- 
 rate words should be examined by the pupils to ascertain 
 what they mean ; groups of words should be considered 
 also. This practice ^vill lead to a better knowledge of sin- 
 gle words and a more complete understanding of the les- 
 son. Formal definitions should he a/uoided. Let the pu- 
 pils say sometliing about it that M'ill show that a word is 
 understood, or let them use it in a sentence. 
 
 Elementary Sounds. — Instruction in this subject should
 
 LANGUAGE. 55 
 
 be given from tlie words of tlie reading lesson witK the 
 hooks open. Words containing combinations of sounds 
 that are new to the pupils may be illustrated from the 
 blackboard ; then the pupils should be required to find 
 the same combinations of sounds in words of the lesson. 
 Bj this means the pupils will be trained to discover the 
 pronunciation of new words in the reading lessons. For 
 instance, when the pupils have been shown on the black- 
 board that there are but three sou7ids in light, and that g 
 and h are silent, they can readily find in their reading les- 
 son similar combinations, in such words as night, sight, 
 might, right, hright, etc. In like manner when they learn 
 the sound of ch in child, they can find the same sound in 
 chide, chair, chart, church, charm, etc. When they dis- 
 cover that e is sile^it in slate, they will soon notice the si- 
 lent e in late, take, cake, make, rak£, etc. 
 
 The pupils should be taught to answer the following 
 and similar questions relating to sounds of letters : What 
 sound has a in face f In chalk f In what ? What 
 sound has e in me f In they f Whut sound has o in 
 school f In come f In door ? The answer to each of 
 these questions should be given by uttering the sound. 
 The teacher asks : Which sound a has in that ? In talk ? 
 In what? Which sound o has in school? In come ? In 
 door ? Which sound has e in men ? In they ? The pu- 
 pil should answer — " Second sound of a ; " " Fourtii 
 sound of a ; " " Second sound of o ; " " Third sound of 
 /" "Second sound of u ;'''' " First sound of o ; " " Second 
 sound of e ; " " First sound of «." 
 
 Pimctuation. — The names of all the punctuation marks 
 that occur in the lessons read should be taught, and the 
 tises of the period, question mark, hyphen, and quotation 
 marks should be illustrated. The time commonly spent
 
 56 FOURTH GRADE. 
 
 in feachiiig definitions of these marks is wasted. Too 
 much attention is jpaid to the comma, and the result is 
 faulty reading. Let the pupils be required to find ques- 
 tion marks, to tell what question is asked in each case, and 
 to find the answer to the question. Let them find hy- 
 phens that join two words, and hyphens that show that a 
 part of the word is on the next line. Let them find quo- 
 tation marks, and tell which words are quoted, and who 
 said them. 
 
 Spelling. — Review familiar words of the Fifth Grade ; 
 add new ones ; give the pupils exercises in writing words 
 whicli they have learned to spell orally. The suggestions 
 for the previous grade are generally applicable to this grade. 
 
 Object Lessons. — The general plan prescribed for the 
 previous grades may be continued in the Fourth with 
 more advanced steps. The fact that the pupils are to be 
 trained in habits of observing and comparing, and in stat- 
 ing wherein resemblances and differences exist in the ob- 
 jects observed, should be kept in view by the teacher dur- 
 ing the lessons of the entire grade. 
 
 Form. — In teaching a new form, the form should be 
 shown, and the pupils be led to know its prominent pecu- 
 liarities, to compare it with like and with unlike shapes, 
 and to distinguish the differences between it and the un- 
 like ones. They should, as far as practicable, be required 
 to represent the shapes of plane forms thus learned, by 
 cutting or folding paper, and of solids, by cutting pota- 
 toes, etc. 
 
 The for77is of the preceding grades should be reviewed, 
 and the following be added : different kinds of triangles, 
 rhomb, rhomboid, crescent, prism, pyramid, and cone. 
 
 Color. — The pupils should be taught to distinguish and 
 name the most prominent colors, including common shades
 
 LANGUAGE. 57 
 
 and tints ; as, crifnson, scarlet, pink, yellow, lemon, blue, 
 sky-blue, green, orange, j^urjgle, violet, lavender, hroion, 
 drab, etc. 
 
 Specimens of each color taught should be shown the 
 pupils; they should compare and match like colors and 
 distinguish differences in color. 
 
 2^P^ See instructions in Sixth Grade. 
 
 Objects— their Parts, Uses, and Qualities. — The sub- 
 jects of the preceding grades are to be continued in this, 
 with appropriate additions. Attention is to be given to the 
 names and uses of the jparts of objects considered, and to 
 their prominent qualities. If, for instance, a slate is the 
 subject of a lesson, the pupil should name the sides or 
 faces of the slate, the frame, the grooves in the frame, 
 and the parts which fasten the frame together ; he should 
 state the uses of the faces of the slate, of the frame, of 
 the grooves, and of the fastenings at the corners. A simi- 
 lar plan should be pursued with other objects. 
 
 The qualities should include such as are expressed by 
 the terms porous j slippery, sticky j brittle, tough^ trans- 
 parent, opaque / combustible, infiammable / etc. 
 
 These qualities will be more easily remembered by the 
 pupils if they are led to compare the opposite or distin- 
 guishing characteristics of those arranged in pairs, as indi- 
 cated by the punctuation above. 
 
 81^^ It should be remembered that these qualities are 
 to be illustrated by the teacher, one at a time, and the pu- 
 pils to be led to observe the same quality in several objects, 
 before the name of it is given. Teach the children to no- 
 tice that chalk, candy, glass, etc., loill b)\'ak easily ; then 
 give the name brittle to express the idea which has been 
 gained by seeing several objects break easily. Pursue a 
 similar course in teaching each quality.
 
 58 FOURTH GRADE. 
 
 In reviewing these lessons ask questions in different 
 forms, as : Hoio did the candy break ? " Easily." ^hat 
 may you say of it because it broke easily ? " It is brittle." 
 Why do you say chalk is brittle? "Because it hreali-i 
 emilyy When may you say a thing is brittle? "When 
 it may be easily hrokenP How can you find whether a 
 stick is brittle ? " Try if it will hreah easily.'''' By these 
 varied forms of questions the pupils will associate brittle 
 with the idea easily broken^ so that they can give an intel- 
 ligent and appropriate answer to any form of question 
 about the quality. 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Numeration and Notation. — Two periods are required 
 in this grade. The three places of the units' j)eriod &\\o\\\d. 
 be taught first, and so thoroughly, both by blackboard and 
 slates, that the pupils can name each place in the period 
 at sight, in order and out of order ; and can write any 
 number in it from dictation, before instruction with the 
 period of thousam.ds is begun. Two or three weeks may 
 be spent on the period of units. 
 
 On commencing with the jperiod of thousands, the pu- 
 pils should be taught the nanie and number of each place 
 in both periods, as first, second, third place for units ; 
 fourth, fifth, sivth place for thousands. This might be il- 
 lustrated on the blackboard by writing a line of figures, 
 thus: 654 321, leaving a space between the periods. 
 
 Require the pupils to name each place, as first place 
 (units), second place (tens), third place (hundreds),y6»w/'^/i 
 jjla^e (thousands), fifth place (tens of thousands), sixth 
 plox^e (hundreds of thousands) ; then to name it out of or-
 
 ARITHMETIC. 59 
 
 der, as thousands, fourth place ; teTis, second place ; units, 
 first place ; hundreds of thousands, sixth place, etc. 
 
 Begin notation by dictating numbers for the pupils to 
 write, using at first only two places ,' as, 5 units and 3 
 tens ; 2 units and G tens ; 1 unit and 9 tens ; 7 tens ; 3 
 tens and 6 units. As the numbers are written the teacher 
 may ask different pupils : What figure did you write in 
 the tens' place f What in the units' place f Proceed in a 
 similar manner to teach the writing of numbers through 
 hundreds, or the units' period. Then change the form of 
 dictation by saying : Write one hundred and fifty-two. 
 Ask : What figure did you loAte in the tens' p>lace ? What 
 in the hundreds' jylace ? After sufiicient practice with 
 numbers in the first period, proceed with the second, or 
 thousands' period, in the same way ; first by naming one 
 place at a time, then by giving the entire number, some- 
 what as follows : write 2 units, 6 tens, T hundreds, 1 thou- 
 sand, 5 tens of thousands, 3 hundreds of thousands. Then 
 dictate numbei's out of order ; as, G hundreds, 5 units, 2 
 tens, 4 thousands, 8 hundreds of thousands, 3 tens of thou- 
 sands. Afterward dictate numbers as follows : write 419 
 thousand, 312 ; 9 thousand, and 1 ; 301 thousand, 80G, etc. 
 
 Adding. — In the Fifth Grade, pupils added single col- 
 umns on blackboard, and copied and added similar col- 
 umns on their slates ; begin in the Fourth Grade with 
 dictating short columns of figures to be added on the 
 slates. The column should gradually be made longer, un- 
 til the pupils can add a column of ten figures, principally 
 6s, Ts, 8s, and 9s. 
 
 Teachers are particularly enjoined to keep in mind that 
 counting is not adding. 
 
 Oral Drills in Adding. — In order to secure facility and 
 accuracy in adding, pupils require training with special
 
 60 FOURTH GRADE. 
 
 reference to the various sums that may be produced by 
 the combination of two digits. The desired result may be 
 attained by proper attention to adding by decades. The 
 '* oral drills " are designed to furnish exercises for such 
 training. The following arrangement will show the form 
 in which the numbers may be placed on the blackboard, 
 and will also show the meaning of the term decade as here 
 en] ployed : 
 
 2 12 22 32 42 52 62 72 82 92 
 
 2222222222 
 
 4 14 24 34 44 54 64 74 84 94 
 
 2 12 22 32 42 52 62 72 82 92 
 3333333333 
 
 5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 
 
 5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 
 4444444444 
 
 In this way let all the numbers, from 1 to 9, be com- 
 bined with numbers from 2 to 99. The combinations 
 may be erased as fast as the pupils have learned them, 
 and new combinations may be given. After they have 
 learned them in the order of the decades, let new com- 
 binations be formed out of the order of decades ; as, 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 35 
 
 44 
 
 7 
 
 27 
 
 76 
 
 86 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 9 19 39 49 13 33 83 93 
 
 ^y this means children can be led to observe that the 
 gum of 9 and 7 always gives the unit figure, 6, whether
 
 ARITHMETIC. 61 
 
 the numbers be 19 and 7, or 29 and 7, or 37 and 9, or 87 
 and 9 ; and tliat the same is true of any two digits. By 
 attending to this fact, they can readily acquire the habit 
 of adding {not countiiig), both rapidly and accurately. 
 
 When the pupils have made good progress in adding as 
 described above, short columns of foui* or five figures each 
 should be given them, for an application of the experience 
 gained by these drills. 
 
 A few figures arranged in a circle on the blackboard 
 will furnish a simple means of exercising the pupils in 
 adding, each pupil in turn adding a single figure to the 
 amount obtained by the preceding pupil. 
 
 Oral Drills in Subtracting. — The first lessons in sub- 
 tracting should commence with counting backward, or 
 " counting off " numbers, as introduced in the previous 
 grades ; but in this grade the numbers to be subtracted 
 should extend to 6s. 
 
 The exercise in oi'al drill for adding 77ia7/ he reversed 
 for teaching tlie pupils to subtract ; as, 2 from 94, 92 ; 2 
 from 84, 82 ; 2 from 74, 72 ; 7 from 93, 86 ; 7 from 83, 
 76 ; 7 from 73, 66 ; etc. 
 
 By such exercises teach the pupils to observe that in 
 subtracting, as in adding, the same digits always produce 
 the same unit figure. 
 
 3fidtiplf/ing hy Two. — Continue illustrations with balls, 
 splints, marks, etc., as in the previous grade. 
 
 Practical Questions. — Exercises should be given for 
 adding concrete numbers silently ; as, How many are 9 
 cents, 5 cents, 8 cents, 4 cents, and 6 cents ? How many 
 are 3 dollars, 7 dollars, 9 dollars, 6 dollars, and 4 dollars ? 
 How many are 12 pencils, 4 pencils, 8 pencils, 6 pencils, 
 and 10 pencils? The teacher should give the numbers 
 slowly at first, allowing the pupils time to add each ; at a
 
 62 FOURTH GRADE. 
 
 signal from the teacher, let the pupils write on their slates 
 the answer only. 
 
 For questions, without using slates for answers, ask : 
 How many are 8 cents and 6 cents? Ans. — "14 cents." 
 How many are 6 apples and 13 apples. Ans. — " 19 ap- 
 ples." How many are 27 pencils and 6 pencils? Ans. — 
 "33 pencils." How many are 15 dollars, 3 dollars, 8 dol- 
 lars, and 6 dollars? A?is. — "32 dollars." 
 
 For subtracting^ simple questions may be asked, using 
 concrete numbers ; as. If you have 8 cents and spend 3 
 cents, how many cents will you have left ? Ans. — " 5 
 cents." If you have 11 marbles and lose 5, how many 
 will you have left ? Ans. — " 6 marbles." If you have 6 
 cakes and eat 3, how many will you have left ? Ans. — 
 " 3 cakes." If you make 13 marks on your slate and rub 
 out 5 of them, how many will remain ? Ans. — " 8 
 marks." 
 
 Exercises similar to the following may be employed with 
 much benefit to the pupils. The teacher says : "Mary had 
 12 cents and lost 5." The pupil should say, " Mary had 
 7 cents left." The teacher says, " John has 12 cents and 
 Jane has 6." One pupil says, " Both together have 18 
 cents." Another pupil says, " John had 6 cents more 
 than Jane." 
 
 Roman Numhers. — In this grade the following key to 
 Roman numbers should be explained to the pupils, and 
 numerous applications of it made. By this means the 
 necessity of memorizing the several combinations maj^ be 
 avoided. 
 
 First. — When letters representing equal values stand 
 side by side ; also, when a letter representing a smaller 
 number stands on the right-\\^x\d side of one representing 
 a larger number, the several ^■alues are to be added ; as, II,
 
 SLATE-WRITING. 63 
 
 two ; XX, twenty / XXX, thirty / VI, six ; 'KY^ffteen / 
 LX, sixty. 
 
 Second. — When a letter representing a smaller number 
 stands at the left-\\?a\di of one representing a larger num- 
 ber, the value of the left-\mn(\. letter is to be taken from 
 the value of the right-XmniS. letter. Examples : The value 
 of I is taken from the value of Y in the combination of 
 lY, to represent ybz^r. XL represents forty, because ten, 
 the value of X, taken from ffty, the value of L, leaves 
 forty. XC stands for ninety, because ten taken from one 
 hundred leaves ninety. 
 
 Whenever I or X is placed between two letters having 
 a greater value its value is taken from that letter which 
 follows. 
 
 Brief reviews of the application of this Jiey, in deter- 
 mining the value of given combinations, with the addition 
 of D and M, in Roman numbers for the other grades, will 
 secure all the knowledge of this subject that is desirable. 
 
 SLATE-WEITING. 
 
 Exercises in slate-writing, similar to those of the Fifth 
 Grade, should be continued, with more attention to words 
 containing long letters, and lessons in writing short sen- 
 tences on slates. Each pupil should be required to write 
 his or her name. 
 
 The words written should be placed at a sufficient dis- 
 tance from the slate-frame, to allow proper freedom for 
 the movement of the hand. 
 
 The pupils can be greatly encouraged by selecting each 
 day several slates that show greatest improvement, and 
 placing them in a position where the Principal and visitors 
 may examine them. The Principal should take special 
 pains to notice each slate thus selected.
 
 THIRD GRADE. 
 
 Outline Course. 
 
 Language Lessons. — Reading — in a Second Reader : the meaning of 
 words and phrases read: elementary sounds continued: panctiuition 
 continued : spelling — words from reading lessons, and other familiar 
 words, orally and on the slate : lessons on form reviewed, and con- 
 tinued with proper additions ; on familiar objects continued, to include 
 objects outside of the school-room. 
 
 Arithmetic. — Numeration and Notation — through nine places: ad- 
 dition — columns of ten figures, including examples with concrete num- 
 bers : simple practical questions in addition and subtraction, to be 
 worked itithout slate and pencil: inultiplicution table — through six times 
 twelve : Roman numbers continued and reviewed. 
 
 Slate-Writing and Penmanship. — On slates— sentences continued ; 
 on paper — letters and short words without capitals. 
 
 Drawing. — On slates, illustrated on blackboard, from dictation and 
 from chart : a regular hexagon ; two or more symmetrical arrangements 
 of straight lines in the square, hexagon, octagon, and equilateral tri- 
 angle ; two familiar objec s without perspective effect, composed of 
 straight lines. 
 
 Sewing. — In girls' classes. 
 
 Vocal Music. — Instruction continued, with the use of staff, clef, 
 notes of different lengths, time, etc. 
 
 Physical Training. — Each half hour, from two to three minutes ; 
 attention to be given to ventilation.
 
 INSTRUCTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Beading. — Teachers will do well to read, at the outset, 
 the instructions given for the Fourth Grade, especially 
 those that relate to the Conversational Exercises about 
 new lessons, and to the meaning of words. 
 
 The fact that the chief purpose of learning to read is to 
 enable the reader to gain knowledge from books, should 
 lead to the use of such methods in teaching as will most 
 effectively develop in the pupils the ability to do this. 
 In the order of proceeding, the thoughts of the lesson 
 should receive attention first ; the manner of uttering the 
 thoughts should be attended to next : the former includes 
 the meaning of sentences, phrases, and single words ; the 
 latter includes the sound of letters, pronunciation, inflec- 
 tion, emphasis, etc. 
 
 Require pupils to find groups of words that should be 
 read together, and train them to read the thoughts repre- 
 sented by such groups. For this purpose lead them to 
 ascertain first what the phrase or sentence says {what thought 
 it represents)'., then to consider hoio it should he 8j)oJcen. 
 These or similar inquiries should be made by both pupils 
 and teacher throughout each new lesson, and be followed 
 by careful reading in accordance with the correct answers 
 to these inquiries. 
 
 Meaning of Words. — As a practical mode of ascertain-
 
 66 THIRD GRADE. 
 
 ing liow well the pupils understand the meaning of a 
 sentence, or of a single word, require a pupil to read the 
 phrase or sentence in which the word occurs, substituting 
 for it another word or a phrase, and require the class to 
 notice whether the meaning of the sentence remains the 
 same. The pupils may also be requested to use the given 
 word in a new sentence. 
 
 Elementary Sounds. — Instruction in this subject should 
 be continued in a manner similar to that described for the 
 Fourth Grade. Teach the pupils to distinguish sounds of 
 letters in words ; as, s in his, was, rose, steps ; c in cold, 
 school, cent ; th in thm^ thmk, ^Aree, ^Ais, ^Aat, ^Aese ; and 
 to observe the sound of gfi in congh, tongh ; a in what, 
 any ; o in for, short, come, does ; and the silent letters in 
 knoiv, thotigh, tho?^^At. 
 
 Attention may also be given to those diacritical marks 
 that indicate the Jirst and the second sounds of the vowels, 
 the Jc-sound of c, and the z-sound of s. 
 
 SpeUing. — In oral spelling the pupils should be required 
 to pronounce the word after the teacher, to speak each let- 
 ter distinctly, to 7nake distinct pauses between syllables , and 
 to pronounce the word again after the letters have been 
 named. 
 
 Spelling is learned most thoroughly by writing the 
 words, and therefore every lesson in spelling in this grade 
 should be written by the pupils at least twice — once from 
 copy and once from dictation. The list of familiar words 
 taught in the previous grade should be reviewed, and new 
 words should be added. 
 
 Object Lessons. — The instructions for the previous 
 grades will suggest to teachers methods for conducting the 
 object lessons of the Third Grade. 
 
 Foi^i. — The forms of the previous grades are to be re-
 
 ARITHMETIC. 67 
 
 viewed in this grade. These reviews should inchide the 
 actual representation of the forms by the pupils (either by 
 drawing them, or by making the forms out of paper or 
 other appropriate material), and the naming of objects 
 which possess the forms. Attention should also be given 
 to the terms circumference, diameter, diagonal, plane and 
 curved surfaces, and face, as a part of a surface. The 
 teacher should carefully discriminate between 2^ form and 
 its houndary. 
 
 Objects — their Paints, Uses, and Qualities. — The meth- 
 ods of the preceding grades are to be continued in this ; 
 the observations by the pupils to extend to objects outside 
 of the school-room, and to malxxdiQ flowers, fruits, etc., in 
 their season. 
 
 The qualities should include such as are indicated by 
 the terms ahsorhent, flexible, jpUable, elastic, compressible, 
 liquid, solid, soluble, fusible, congealed. The ideas of 
 these qualities should be developed objectively and the 
 pupils' experiences should be used for additional illustra- 
 tions. Attention should be directed to those qualities 
 that render the object most useful ; as, in the sponge, ab- 
 sorbent, compressible, elastic — not opaque, combustible, etc. 
 
 AKITHMETIO. 
 
 Numeration and Notation are to be extended in tliis 
 grade, so as to include nine places. The pupils should be 
 taught to name either of the places readily, in order and 
 out of order, and to write from dictation any number re- 
 quiring not more than nine figures. 
 
 Lead the pupils to notice that each period — units' period, 
 thousands' period, 'inillions' 2'^>'>-<^d — contains the same
 
 68 THIRD GRADE. 
 
 terms, and in the same order, and to designate the three 
 places of these periods as units, tens, hundreds. 
 
 Notation. — The periods should be separated by a little 
 more space than is usually left between the figures of a 
 period ; the spaces should not be made too wide. If marks 
 are used for separating periods they should not he made to 
 resemihle the decimal jpoint. 
 
 Addition. — As a first step in this grade, teach the pu- 
 pils " to carry " the tens to the next column. For the first 
 lessons give examples with two short columns only. As 
 soon as the pupils understand the process of " carrying," 
 gradually make the exainples longer, and more difficult, by 
 extending the length and the number of the columns. 
 Generally give more exanvples with a few long columns / 
 seldom with many columns. 
 
 1^. B. — Special attention should be given to the use of 
 practical examples with concrete numbers. 
 
 Adding without counting should continue to be promi- 
 nent in the exercises for drilling the pupils. 
 
 The usual names of the answer in addition — sum., 
 amount — should be taught in this grade ; also the sign of 
 addition, +. 
 
 For Oral Drills in adding and subtracting^ and for 
 practical questions, consult the suggestions for the Fourth 
 Grade. 
 
 The following examples will suggest appropriate forms 
 for answering questions for this grade : 
 
 If a coat cost $15, and a hat $5, how much will both 
 cost ? Ans. — Both will cost $20, which is the sum of $15 
 and $5. 
 
 Henry had 8 marbles and bought -1 more ; how many 
 marbles had he then ? Ans. — Henry then had 12 mar- 
 bles, which is the sum of 8 marbles and 4 marbles.
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 69 
 
 A boy had 9 apples and gave away 5 of them ; how 
 many apples had he left ? Ans. — He had 4 apples left ; 
 because 5 apples taken from 9 apples will leave 4 apples. 
 
 The full form of the answer should be required only 
 occasionally ; in nearly all cases very brief answers should 
 be given ; as (in the examples above), $20, 12, 4. 
 
 Multijjlication Table. — First illusti'ate the table by balls 
 on the numeral frame, or marks on the blackboard. 
 
 (See suggestions in Fifth and Fourth Grades.) 
 
 The following forms, and their obvious connections and 
 relations, will indicate the processes to be employed in this 
 grade : 
 
 Two 
 
 2s 
 
 are 4 
 
 3 times 2 are 
 
 6 
 
 Two 
 
 3s 
 
 " 6 
 
 2 " 
 
 3 " 
 
 6 
 
 Two 
 
 4s 
 
 " 8 
 
 4 " 
 
 2 " 
 
 8 
 
 Two 58 
 
 " 10 
 
 2 " 
 
 4 " 
 
 8 
 
 Two 
 
 6s 
 
 " 12 
 
 5 " 
 
 2 " 
 
 10 
 
 Two 
 
 7s 
 
 " 14, 
 
 etc. 2 " 
 
 5 " 
 
 10, etc. 
 
 3x2= 6 
 
 
 4x2 = 
 
 3x3= 
 
 2x4= 
 
 4x4= 
 
 6x2=12 
 
 
 3x2= 
 
 5x3 = 
 
 3x5= 
 
 4x7= 
 
 9x2=18 
 
 
 5x2= 
 
 7x3= 
 
 2x9= 
 
 6x4= 
 
 4x2= 8 
 
 
 9x3= 
 
 3x4= 
 
 3x7= 
 
 4x9= 
 
 7x2=14 
 
 
 4x3= 
 
 5x4= 
 
 4x8 = 
 
 8x2= 
 
 5x2=10 
 
 
 6x3 = 
 
 8x4= 
 
 3x9= 
 
 3x6= 
 
 
 
 8x3= 
 
 7x4= 
 
 2x7= 
 
 4x5 = 
 
 etc. 
 
 New tables should not be presented before the pupils 
 have learned thoroughly each preceding one through the 
 different forms. 
 
 Roman N^umhers. — ^eQ suggestions in Fourth Grade, 
 for continuing and reviewing the subject.
 
 70 THIRD GRADE. 
 
 WRITING. 
 
 Slate- Writing. — Exercises are to be continued in wi-iting 
 on slates, in accordance with the general directions for 
 the pi-eceding grades. Spelling and slate-writing may be 
 combined for drill exercises in writing, after the necessary 
 instruction as to the form of the letters has been given. 
 
 Penmaiiship. — Exercises in writing with pen and ink 
 are to begin in this grade. Special pains should, there- 
 fore, be taken by the teacher to instruct the pupils as to 
 proper positions for sitting, the manner of holding the 
 pen, and the position of the hand and of the writing- 
 book. As soon as practicable, let the pupils begin to 
 write simple words (without capitals), the forms of which 
 they have learned in slate-writing. 
 
 It is not necessary that the pupils should fill all the 
 lines under each copy of the writing-book. Whenever 
 they have made sufficient progress to be able to proceed 
 with the next copy in order, let them go on with it.
 
 SECOND GRADE. 
 
 Outline Course. 
 
 Language Lessons. — Bmding — through Second Reader : the mean- 
 ing of words aod phrases read : elementary sounds in the pronunciation 
 of words : punctuatioti marks : sj)eUmg, oral and written — words from 
 reading lessons, and other familiar words : lessons on form reviewed, 
 with appropriate additions ; on familiar objects continued : exercises in 
 place and direction. 
 
 Arithmetic. — Written and mental — addition, sithtraetion, and nuilti- 
 plication (multipliers not to contain more than two figures), with practi- 
 cal examples : multiplication table completed : table§ of Federal Money, 
 Time, Liquid and Dry Measures. 
 
 Slate-Wkiting AND Penmanship. — On ak^es— sentences continued: 
 on paper — continued, with capitals ; each child to write his name. 
 
 Drawing. — On slates, illustrated on blackboard, from dictation and 
 from chart : simple curves on vertical and horizontal bases of four inches, 
 with altitude of one-fourth and of one-third of the base ; symmetrical 
 arrangement of simple curved lines in the equilateral triangle, square, 
 oblong, rhomb, hexagon, and octagon, the sides of the triangle, square 
 and rhomb being four inches ; two or more familiar objects, without 
 perspective effect, composed of the plane figures of this grade. 
 
 Sewing. — (In girls' classes.) 
 
 Vocal Music. — Instruction continued, as in previous grade ; sing- 
 ing notes in groups, pupils to beat time. 
 
 Physical Training.— As in previous grades.
 
 INSTRUCTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Reading. — The general methods for the preceding 
 grades may be employed in this grade, with such modifi- 
 cations as -will adapt the instruction to the special needs of 
 the pupils. Attention should be given to reading groups 
 of words, phrases, and sentences so as to express the 
 meaning clearly. Mivphasis and Inflection must be taught 
 chiefly by imitation ; and the pupil should be led to per- 
 ceive liow they aid in expressing the thoughts more 
 clearly. 
 
 Should the teacher find her class using monotonous or 
 other unnatural tones, several selections may be made of 
 reading lessons that are composed chiefly of conversations. 
 These may be used for training the pupils to read in easy, 
 speaking tones. 
 
 As to the amoimt of reading which the class is taken 
 over, two extremes should be avoided — that of keeping 
 the pupils too long on the same lesson, and that of read- 
 ing over many lessons without sufficient attention to the 
 matter and manner of reading. The first extreme destroys 
 the pupils' interest in this exercise, and prevents them 
 from acquiring the habit of reading to gain information ; 
 the second leads to carelessness in manner, and to the habit 
 of reading without sufficient attention to the thoughts
 
 LANGUAGE. 73 
 
 expressed. When the class is able to read a lesson prop- 
 erly it should not be required to read it over and over 
 again, although the pupils may not be able to spell all 
 the words in it. 
 
 N. B. — Reading and the meaning of words should pro- 
 ceed together ; the spelling exercises may be conducted 
 separately. 
 
 Meaning of Words. — See suggestions in previous grades. 
 
 Lessons on this subject might be given in connection 
 with slate-writing. During these exercises, faults of lan- 
 guage should be corrected. 
 
 Elementary Sounds. — About five minutes, in connec- 
 tion with each reading lesson, will be sufficient to accom- 
 plish all that is desirable, if instruction in this subject has 
 been properly given in the previous grades. 
 
 When the reader used renders it practicable, attention 
 should be directed to the diacritical marks in the lessons 
 read. 
 
 In conducting the exercises in sounds, care should be 
 taken to train the pupils in habits of distinctness of 
 enunciation, and in the use of smooth tones of voice : 
 uttering the sounds of words separately will aid in secur- 
 ing distinct enmiciation ; and making the sounds with 
 vai-ious pitches and different volumes of voice will aid in 
 producing smooth tones. 
 
 Spelling. — It is intended that more attention shall be 
 given to written spelling than to oral, in the Second and 
 First Grades. The exercises should be conducted chiefly 
 by dictation. 
 
 Words should be selected chiefly from reading lessons, 
 and other common words should be added. The spelling 
 of words taught in the preceding grades should be re- 
 viewed. 
 
 4
 
 74 SECOND GRADE. 
 
 Ohject Lessons. — The reviews of the topics under this 
 liead should not consist of mere repetitions of the lessons 
 given injyrevious grades. 
 
 Forms. — Continue as in previous grades, and add 
 o'adius, pentagon, hexagon, octagon, eUijjse, oval, ovoid, 
 etc. 
 
 Ohjects — their IlateHals, Qualities, and Uses. — It will 
 be observed that the material of which an object is com- 
 posed is an additional matter for notice in this grade. 
 Objects composed of %oood, iron, lead, cojyper, silver, gold, 
 glass, stone, leather, cloth, jpajper, ruhher, silk, cotton, wool, 
 hrich, sand, etc., are suggested as suitable topics. 
 
 The additional qualities should include such as are 
 indicated by the tei-ms fhrous, gramdated / pungent, as- 
 ti-ingent • jla/vor, fragrant, odorous, aromatic / malleable, 
 ductile. In the examination of objects, the pupils should 
 pay chief attention to distinguishing those properties 
 which give fecial value to the material, a/nd adapt it to 
 a particular use, that they may discover and understand 
 why different materials are used in making different ob- 
 jects. 
 
 Place and Direction. — This subject may be taught in 
 the following manner : 
 
 First Step. — Train the pupils to observe and describe 
 the position of objects on the table in front of them, using 
 the terms right, left, front, back ; and then of objects on 
 the floor of the room. 
 
 Second Step. — Teach east, west, north, and south, and 
 apply these in telling the location of familiar places. 
 
 Illustrate both steps by simplest diagrams on slate and 
 blackboard.
 
 ARiTmrETic. 76 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Addition. — Continue the written exercises as in the 
 Third Grade ; also, tlie exercises for training the pupils to 
 add without counting. Due use is to be made of practical 
 examples with concrete numbers. 
 
 Suhtrctction. — The processes of subtraction are to be 
 taught in this grade. These may be arranged in steps 
 and presented in the following order : 
 
 First Step. — Give short examples in which each figure 
 in the subtrahend represents a smaller number than the 
 figure above it in the minuend. 
 
 Second Step. — Give examples in which it is necessary to 
 transfer or " borrow " from a column of a higher denom- 
 ination. 
 
 Third Step. — Give examples with naughts in the min- 
 uend which will make it necessary to transfer from the 
 third or fourth place to the left. 
 
 Illustrate Xhejii'st and second steps with sticks, by using 
 single sticks to represent units, bundles of ten sticks to 
 represent the tens, and bundles of a hundred sticks — or 
 ten bundles of ten sticks — to represent the hundreds. 
 
 Illustrate the second step by cents, dimes, and dollars ; 
 also, show how to transfer from the tens by changing the 
 dime to cents, or units ; and how to transfer from the 
 hundreds by changing the dollar to dimes, or tens. This 
 process may be illustrated on the blackboard with examples 
 similar to the following : 
 
 (1-) (2.) 
 
 z. /o /o z. /o io 
 
 $/ id. 2 c. /A. Xt. % units. 
 
 $2 5 d. 6 c. 2 A. 5 «!. 6 u. 
 
 $2 5t^. 6 c. 2 5 6
 
 76 SECOND GRADE. 
 
 
 (3.) 
 
 
 
 (4.) 
 
 
 A 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 , 
 
 . 
 
 
 / 
 
 t 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 2 5 6 2 5 6 
 
 It will be observed that in the above examples the first 
 (1) represents dollars, dimes, and cents; the second (2), 
 third (3), and fourth (4) represent hundreds, tens, and 
 units. In the third example, the transferring of one of a 
 higher denomination is represented by cancelling the figure 
 and writing the remainder above it ; while in the fourth 
 example, the fact that one has been taken away is indi- 
 cated by a dot only, over the figure from which it was 
 taken. 
 
 The two following examples illustrate the process of 
 subtracting when a naught occurs in the ininuend: 
 
 9 
 
 5 70 J€r 70 . 
 
 ^/046104 
 
 53485348 
 
 T 5 6 Y 5 6 
 
 In the above example the pupils might say, 8 from 14 
 leaves 6 ; 4 from 9 leaves 5 ; 3 from 10 leaves Y. This 
 process prepares the pupils to understand readily the 
 operations in " Compound Numbers." 
 
 The above and similar illustrations should be repeated 
 until the process is understood ; after which the actual 
 cancellation should be omitted, and dots used. The use of 
 dots over the minuend may be continued for several 
 weeks; but neither of these devices should be used longer 
 than is absolutely necessary.
 
 AKITHMETIC. 77 
 
 The terms employed in subtraction, minuend, subtra- 
 hend, and remaii^der or difference, should be taught and 
 used in connection with the examples for this grade ; also 
 the sign of subtraction (— ) and that of multiplication ( x ). 
 
 Multvplication. — Examples to include those with two 
 figures in the multiplier. The instruction may be given 
 in four steps, as follows : 
 
 First Step. — Give examples in which no single product 
 will exceed nine. 
 
 Second Step. — Give examples in which some of the 
 single products w^ill be greater than nine, making it neces- 
 sary " to carry " to the product in the next column. Use 
 for multipliers only single figures, such as 2, 3, 4, and 5. 
 
 Third Step. — Give examples in which the multiplicands 
 contain one or more naughts, with multipliers from 6 to 
 12, inclusive. 
 
 Fourth Step. — Give examples with naughts in the mul- 
 tiplicands, and use for multipliers 13, 21, etc. ; and teach 
 the pupils where to write the first figure in each partial 
 jyroduct. Subsequently, multipliers with other numbers 
 of two figures may be given. As early as practicable in- 
 troduce the short and proper method of multiplying by 
 10, 20, 90, etc. ; and thereafter allow no other form to be 
 used. 
 
 As illustrations, the following are given : 
 
 27 2,700 
 
 90 90 
 
 2,430 243,000 
 
 First illustrate each step on the blackboard, allowing the 
 pupils to copy the same examples on their slates ; then 
 give them similar examples to do on their slates. Give
 
 78 SECOND GRADE. 
 
 abundant practice to make the pupils familiar with each 
 step before taking up the succeeding one. A well-taught 
 class ought to master all of these steps in multiplication in 
 four weeks. 
 
 The terms used in multiplication, multijilicand, imilti- 
 jplier, 2>rodi('Ct, and jpartial jtt'oduct^ should be taught be- 
 fore the pupils are promoted to the next grade. 
 
 Simple practical examples are to be given in addition, 
 subtraction, and multiplication. 
 
 MerdobL Arithmetic. — Read carefully the suggestions on 
 praGtical questions in the Third Grade. The questions 
 should be more difficult than in the preceding grades. 
 The following examples will suggest appropriate forms for 
 answering questions in this grade : 
 
 A man paid %Vl for a barrel of flour, $6 for a ton of 
 coal, and $4 for a load of wood ; how much did he pay 
 for all ? Ans. — He paid for all $22, which is the sum of 
 $12, $6, and $4. 
 
 A farmer paid $50 for a cow, and sold her for $37 ; 
 how much did he lose ? Ans. — He lost $13, which is the 
 difference between $37 and $50. 
 
 What will 6 oranges cost at 4 cents each ? Ans. — 24 
 cents : if one orange costs 4 cents, 6 oranges will cost 6 
 times 4 cents, which are 24 cents. 
 
 The rapid combination of nurnhers, mentally, should be 
 made a special exercise at least once a week. In the drills 
 for this purpose the teacher may dictate as follows : 9 + 
 6 + 7 + 8 + 6 + 5 + 9 + 8; write answer. 30-7—5- 9 ; 
 write answer. 23+4— 5+3 + 7— 8 ; write answer. The 
 pupils will make the combinations silently, and write on 
 their slates the answer only. The teacher may then ascer- 
 tain how many are correct. 
 
 Multiplication Table. — Teach as directed for the Third
 
 ARITHMETIC. 79 
 
 Grade, after which the entire table may be reviewed in 
 the following form : 
 
 5x6 
 
 are 
 
 30 
 
 
 In 
 
 30 1 
 
 ;her( 
 
 5 are 
 
 5 sixes 
 
 6x5 
 
 u 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 (( 
 
 u 
 
 6 fives 
 
 5x9 
 
 a 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 a 
 
 ii 
 
 5 nines 
 
 9x5 
 
 a 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 a 
 
 ii 
 
 9 fives 
 
 6x7 
 
 a 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 6 sevens 
 
 7x6 
 
 u 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 a 
 
 ii 
 
 7 sixes 
 
 8x9 
 
 li 
 
 72 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 u 
 
 ii 
 
 8 nines 
 
 9x8 
 
 « 
 
 72, 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 72 
 
 a 
 
 ii 
 
 9 eights, etc. 
 
 "When the pupils have become somewhat familiar with 
 these forms on the blackboard, they may write them on 
 their slates, using such numbers as the teacher may dictate. 
 
 The review should include questions similar to the fol- 
 lowing : "Which is the greater, 3 nines, or 4 sevens ? 4 
 nines, or 12 threes ? 7 sevens, or 12 fours ? 8 eights, or 7 
 nines ? 10 fours, or 5 eights ? 5 fours, or 10 twos ? 5 fives, 
 or 8 tlirees ? 
 
 Common Tables. — The tables of weights and measures 
 should be introduced by talks with the pupils about their 
 experience in seeing them used, and by other familiar il- 
 lustrations. The table of United States Money may be 
 illustrated by the use of cents, dimes, and dollars ; that of 
 Time by the use of a clock dial, and by attention to days, 
 weeks, months, and years ; that of Liquid Measure by 
 what the children know about buying milk, molasses, and 
 kerosene, by the pint, quart, and gallon ; that of Dry 
 Measure by their purchases of fruits, nuts, and vegetables, 
 by the quart, small measure, and peck. 
 
 After talking with the pupils about a given table, write 
 it on the blackboard, and let the pupils repeat it ; then let
 
 80 
 
 SECOND GRADE. 
 
 them copy it on slates, both in the order of the table and 
 in a different order. Continue the repetition and copying 
 until the table is thoroughly learned. 
 
 TABLES FOR CLASSES OF THE SECOND GRADE. 
 United States Moxey. 
 
 10 mills make 1 cent. 
 10 cents " 1 dime. 
 10 dimes " 1 dollar. 
 10 dollars " 1 eagle. 
 
 100 cents are one dollar. 
 50 " " one half-dollar. 
 25 " " one quarter-dollar. 
 75 " " three-quarters of a 
 dollar. 
 
 Liquid Measure. 
 
 4 gills make 1 pint. 
 2 pints " 1 quart. 
 4 quarts " 1 gallon. 
 
 Dry Measure. 
 
 2 pints make 1 quart. 
 
 2 quarts " 1 small measure. 
 
 8 quarts " 1 peck. 
 
 4 pecks " 1 busheL 
 
 Time Measure. 
 
 60 seconds make 1 minute. 
 
 60 minutes 
 
 24 hours 
 7 days 
 
 30 or 31 days 
 
 12 months 
 
 52 weeks 
 365 days 
 100 years 
 
 1 hour. 
 1 day. 
 1 week. 
 1 month. 
 1 year. 
 1 year. 
 1 year. 
 1 century. 
 
 Days of the Week. 
 
 Sunday, 
 
 Monday, 
 
 Tuesday, 
 
 Wednesday, 
 
 Thursday, 
 
 Friday, 
 
 Saturday. 
 
 Seasons of the Tear. 
 
 Spring, 
 Summer, 
 Autumn, or Fall, 
 Winter. 
 
 March, | • 
 
 April, > are the Spring months. 
 
 May, ) 
 
 June, ) 
 
 July, \ 
 
 August, ; 
 
 September, 
 
 October, 
 
 November, 
 
 December, 
 
 January, 
 
 February, 
 
 are the Summer 
 months. 
 
 are the Autumn, or 
 Fall months. 
 
 are the Winter 
 months.
 
 WEITING. 81 
 
 In reviewing these tables, the teacher may question the 
 pupil somewhat as follows : How many hours make a day ? 
 How many days make a year ? How many days make a 
 week ? How many weeks make a year ? How many 
 minutes make an hour ? How many months make a year ? 
 Which is the shortest measure of time ? Which is the 
 longest measure of time ? 
 
 How many quarts make a gallon ? How many quarts 
 in seven gallons ? How many quarts make a peck ? How 
 many pints in five quarts ? How many quarts in three 
 pecks ? Which is the more, one bushel or three pecks ? 
 
 Simple questions in mental arithmetic may be given, 
 with a view to a practical application of the foregoing 
 tables. 
 
 WRITING. 
 
 Slate- Writing. — The exercises in writing on slates are 
 to be continued in this grade. Pay increased attention to 
 the use of capitals, periods, and question marks. When 
 words are written in columns, in a spelling exercise, use 
 capitals with the proper names only. Spelling on slates 
 should be closely connected with the lessons on slate- writing. 
 
 Penmanship. — Writing with pen and ink is to be con- 
 tinued ; the simple capitals to be included. Each child to 
 be taught to write his name properly. 
 
 It is not necessary that the pupils should fill all the lines 
 under each copy of the writing-book. Whenever they 
 have made sufficient progress to be able to proceed with 
 the next copy in order, let them go on with it — but there 
 should be system in the progress : all the pupils in the 
 grade should receive instruction relative to the same 
 points, and write the same words simultaneously ; thus all 
 4*
 
 82 SECOND GRADE. 
 
 will attend to the same thing; at the same time, and pro- 
 ceed to a new lesson together. 
 
 Before leaving this grade, the pupil ought to be able to 
 write simple sentences neatly with the pen ; to write his 
 own name and age ; also the day of the month, and the 
 year, in proper form.
 
 FIRST GRADE. 
 
 Outline Course. 
 
 Language Lessons. — Feadinrj—ot the grade of an easy Third 
 Reader : the meaning of words and phrases read : elementary sounds in 
 the pronunciation of words : punctuation marks : spelling, as in the 
 previous grade : lessons on objects, as in the previous grades, with more 
 complete descriptions of objects ; special attention to be given to those 
 properties which fit the objects for their particular uses: geography, 
 without text-books— points of the compass ; location and direction of 
 familiar places ; elementary definitions ; shape of the earth, and situa- 
 tion of the principal countries and bodies of water. 
 
 Arithmetic. — Written and Mental.— Addition and stibiraction con- 
 tinued ; multiplication — multiplicand not exceeding six figures, multi- 
 plier not exceeding four figures ; division — divisors not exceeding 25 ; 
 practical examples in the several rules : tables of Long Measure and 
 Avoirdupois Weight, with review of previous grade ; simple practical 
 questions. 
 
 Slate-Writing and Penmanship.- On slates— hr\&i descriptions of 
 familiar objects : on jmper — words with capitals ; during the last half 
 of this grade one lesson each week to be written from dictation. 
 
 Drawing. — On slate and paper, ilhistrated on blackboard, from dic- 
 tation and from chart : quadrants with radius of two inches ; design 
 composed of straght and simple curved lines symmetrically arranged 
 in the square, equilateral triangle, hexagon, and octagon ; two ovato 
 conventional leaves on axis of three inches. 
 
 Sewing. — (In girls' classes.) 
 
 Vocal Music. — Instruction continued as in Second Grade ; teach the 
 singing of simple tunes in the natural scale by numerals, syllables, let- 
 ters, la, la, la, and by appropriate words 
 
 Physical Training. — As in previous grades. 
 
 Manners and Morals. — Due attention to be given in each grade to 
 training pupils in right habits.
 
 INSTRUCTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Reading. — The instructions for teaching reading in the 
 two preceding grades, are appropriate as suggestions for 
 this grade. While chief attention should be given to 
 such reading as will enable the pupils to gain the thoughts 
 readily from the printed page, due attention should also 
 be given to such elocutionary exercises as will increase the 
 pupils' ability to speak those thoughts in such a manner 
 that those who listen may understand them. 
 
 For the purpose of training pupils to gain knowledge 
 by siUnt reading., require them to read a paragraph si- 
 lently^ and then to state the substance of what it con- 
 tains. 
 
 As an exercise in language, allow the pupils to choose a 
 familiar reading lesson, and to write from memory the 
 substance of the lesson, chiefly in their own language. 
 Require different pupils to read what they have written, 
 and other members of the class to notice how their own 
 statements differ from those read. Then the pupils may 
 1)0 allowed to correct their own statements, and to write 
 the lesson again. An exercise of this kind may be given 
 once a week, in place of the reading and slate-icriting ex- 
 ercises. It would be profitable, also, for the teacher to 
 vary this language exercise by reading a short, interesting 
 story and requiring the pupils to write about it.
 
 LANGUAGE, 85 
 
 Meaning of Words. — Read carefully the suggestions 
 given in the Third and Second Grades. 
 
 Elementary Sounds and Punctuation. — The suggestions 
 already given for the preceding grades will indicate what 
 ought to be done in these matters. 
 
 Such additional attention should be given to diacritical 
 marks as will enable the pupils to ascertain by their aid 
 how the given words in the Readers should be pronounced, 
 and will prepare them for using dictionaries for this pur- 
 pose. 
 
 SjielUng. — More attention should be given to written 
 than to oral spelling. Words may be dictated for the pu- 
 pils to write on their slates ; short sentences may be given 
 for the same purpose ; the pupils may be required to write 
 in groups the names of kinds of food, of articles of cloth- 
 ing, of furniture, of tools, of occupations, of annuals, 
 of trees, of fruits, of things that may be purchased at 
 a grocery, etc., etc. These exercises will enable pupils 
 to learn the spelling of a large class of words in common 
 use. 
 
 Object Lessons. — Through the instruction of the preced- 
 ing grades the pupils will have become familiar with the 
 forms, colors, qualities, materials, and uses of common ob- 
 jects, have learned the terms necessary to an intelligent 
 description of them, and have been provided with suitable 
 facts, to prepare them for practical lessons in language. 
 It is intended that the pupils shall be taught in this grade 
 how to use these facts in gaining a more complete knowl- 
 edge of the materials, qualities, and uses of articles of food 
 and clothing ; also, how to gain appropriate information 
 in relation to occupations, trades, productions, and arti- 
 cles of manufacture. To this end it is desirable that the 
 classification of substances as animal^ veyetable, and rnineral
 
 86 FIRST GRADE. 
 
 should n w be taught. Lead the pupil to observe that 
 animals ha/ve animal life, take food, grow, ii'eathe, move 
 from jolace to jplace hy their own joower, have feeling, 
 and die • that vegetables have vegetable life, take food, 
 grow, and die / that Tiiinerals have no life, take no food, 
 do not grow, breathe, 7nove, nor die. 
 
 Animals and vegetables have organized parts — that is, 
 parts adapted to separate and particular purposes ; as, 
 eyes, ears, hands, hair, nails, bones, muscles, blood ; roots, 
 trunks, limbs, wood, sap, bark, leaves, buds, blossoms, 
 fruit, etc. Minerals have no such organized parts. 
 
 The pupils may also be taught that substances such 
 as wool, hair, bone, and skin, which once formed parts of 
 animals, etc., are called animal substances ; that wood, 
 bark, gum, and sugar, which once formed parts of vegeta- 
 bles, are called vegetable substances. 
 
 Objects are to be used, as previously, whenever they 
 may be necessary to proper instruction : select chiefly 
 those objects with which the pupils have some acquaint- 
 ance by personal observation. In giving a lesson the fol- 
 lowing steps should be taken : 
 
 First. Find what the pupils already know about the ob- 
 ject ; notice and correct their wrong impressions. 
 
 Second. Teach them to examine the object systemat- 
 ically in learning its properties, uses, etc. 
 
 Third. Train the pupils to describe the object intelli- 
 gently (stating its chief property, and its most important 
 qualities and uses), and to give other interesting facts con- 
 cerning it. 
 
 Tojpics for the Lessons. — The following list will indicate 
 topics appropriate for lessons in this grade : 
 
 Apple, banana, fig, lemon, orange, peacli, raisin ; coffee, corn, ginger, 
 nuts, pepper, potato, peanut, rice, salt, sugar, coru-starch, tapioca,
 
 LANGUAGE. 87 
 
 wheat ; brick, cotton, calico, flax, glass, earthen-ware, India-rubber, 
 leather, paper, silk, soap, wool ; roots, buds, leaves, blossoms, fruit ; 
 camphor, chalk, coal, cork, copper, iron, lead, whalebone ; baker, 
 blacksmith, carpenter, dressmaker, farmer, grocer, hatter, mason, mil- 
 liner, painter, printer, shoemaker, tailor ; cat, cow, dog, duck, fish, goat, 
 goose, hen, horse, sheep, etc. 
 
 It is not supposed that lessons will be given on all the 
 above topics, nor that the teacher will confine the lessons 
 to those in this list ; but it is desired that the number of 
 lessons shall be sufficient to teach the pupils such modes 
 of observation as will prepare them for obtaining useful 
 knowledge from surrounding objects. If right methods 
 of conducting the lessons be employed, eight or ten sub- 
 jects, embracing a suitable variety, will be sufficient to ac- 
 complish the purpose. 
 
 The general plan of proceeding with the lessons may be 
 understood from the following points in the examination 
 of the object : 
 
 What is it, animal, vegetable, or mineral f 
 
 Is it a natural jproduction or a manufacture ? 
 
 Where and hoio is it obtained f 
 
 What are the chief occupations or trades required to 
 obtain or to jproduce it ? 
 
 Which are its most useful qualities f 
 
 What are its chief uses? 
 
 What is its general shape ? — its color ? 
 
 Give a brief description of the object. 
 
 What is produced by the occupation of ? 
 
 What does the do ? 
 
 In view of the great practical importance of the sub- 
 ject, the condition of the pupils, especially the boys, in 
 relation to color-blindness and other defects of visual per- 
 ception, should be carefully ascertained. For this pur-
 
 88 FIKST GRADE. 
 
 pose, test the pupils' ability to distinguish and match reds^ 
 greens^ and jpurjjles. Harmony of colors should receive 
 attention, especially from the girls. 
 
 Geography. — The instruction of the Primary Course in 
 geography is to be given without text-books. It is impor- 
 tant that the first lesson commence with things known by 
 the pupils through their personal experience. Attention 
 may be directed — 
 
 First. — To the location, direction, and comparative dis- 
 tance from the school, of the streets in the immediate vi- 
 cinity, and of a few important ones farther away ; also, 
 of familiar parks, depots, ferries, and of a few prominent 
 public buildings and places, such as City Uall, churches, 
 libraries, post-office stations, etc. 
 
 Second. — To the relative location and direction of places 
 in the vicinity of the city. As far as possible the location 
 of these places should be shown by an outline map of 
 ISTew York and vicinit}^, or by sketches on the blackboard. 
 
 During these lessons the terms river, hay, island, ocean, 
 strait, etc., will be employed, and the meaning of these 
 terms should be taught, with the aid of chart, map, black- 
 board, or other available objects. 
 
 The names and location of islands, rivers, oceans, etc., 
 need not be taught at this stage of the lessons. 
 
 Third. — Extend the lessons about places, villages, etc., 
 by means of the personal experience of members of the 
 class, as obtained by their visits, excursions, and vacation 
 travels. Let the places so mentioned be pointed out on 
 maps. These lessons will prepare the pupils for under- 
 standing more clearly subsequent lessons about distant 
 places. 
 
 Fourth. — In giving the pupils ideas of the shajpe of the 
 earth, use marbles, balls, oranges, and the terrestrial globe.
 
 LANGUAGE. 89 
 
 Teach the location of different countries, islands, etc., on 
 the globe first. 
 
 Fifth. — To assist the pupils in remembering the names 
 and locations of the grand divisions, associate with the 
 places, as they are pointed out on the globe and on the 
 map, familiar people, animals, and productions, somewhat 
 as follows : ]S*^orth America, the country in which we live ; 
 South America, the home of the monkey, and the place 
 where Brazil nuts, cocoanuts, and India-rubber are ob- 
 tained ; Africa, the home of the Negro, the camel, ostrich, 
 lion, and zebra ; Asia, the home of the Chinese, of the 
 elephant, the tiger, and the place where tea, pepper, cloves, 
 and cinnamon grow ; Australia, the land of the kangaroo ; 
 Europe, the home of the English, Irish, German, French, 
 Italians, etc. 
 
 In a similar manner the names and locations of countries 
 and other places may be learned ; as, Greenland, the home 
 of the white bear, and the waters around it, the home of 
 the whale from the mouth of which whalebone is ob- 
 tained ; "West Indies, the place whence we obtain oranges, 
 bananas, etc. ; Spain, the country where cork and raisins 
 are produced. 
 
 The most important groups of islands, two or three of 
 the largest rivers and prominent ranges of mountains, and 
 a few of the largest cities of the world may be included in 
 these lessons ; also the cold and warm countries may be 
 pointed out: the boundaries and caj)itals of countries 
 should not he taught. 
 
 Care should be taken that the pupils do not obtain the 
 false impression that, to travel from a place represented 
 at or near the bottom of a map toward a place represented 
 at or near the top of the map, one mnst go nj). In lead- 
 ing the pupils to avoid this common error, point out the
 
 90 FIRST GEADE. 
 
 course of the St. Lawrence River, and cause them to 
 understand that its waters flow chwn toward the north- 
 east, and Qiot ujnoard. 
 
 The relative direction and location of places may bo 
 easily illustrated by simple dots on the blackboard, and on 
 slates. 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Addition and Suhtraction. — Continued and special at- 
 tention should be given to teaching the uses of these rules 
 by means of practical examples. It is expected that the 
 pupils will have been taught so thoroughly before they are 
 placed in this grade that each one will be able to add and 
 subtract with facility', and with a good degree of accuracy; 
 yet reviews of these rules should be had, with examples as 
 above stated, at least twice each week. 
 
 MultijMcation. — The simple processes of multiplication 
 having been taught in the previous grade, the exercises 
 given for this grade should be presented in steps, some- 
 what as follows : 
 
 First Step. — Use multipliers similar to the following: 
 120, 34:8, 5,630 ; multiplicands not to contain more than 
 four figures. 
 
 Second Step. — Use multipliers similar to the following : 
 40G, 9,030, 8,007 ; multiplicands not to contain more than 
 five figures. 
 
 Pupils should be carefully trained to write the first 
 figure of each imrtial product under the figure used as a 
 multiplier. 
 
 1^^ Hevieiu each step with jyractical examples enibrac- 
 ing transactions that come within the ohset^ation of the 
 pupils.
 
 ARITHMETIC. 91 
 
 Dwision. — The idea of separating groups of objects and 
 numbers into several equal parts having been illusti-ated 
 with objects, etc., as an introductory step to division, the 
 teacher should now proceed to show the different ways hy 
 which division inay he rejwesented with figures. 
 
 First Step. — Place upon the blackboard the following 
 forms of division : 
 
 2)8( 2)8 8-^2= 
 
 Tell the pupils that each of these forms of writing 
 numbers means that they are to find how many tioos there 
 are in eight ; or, that the number 8 is to be divided into 
 two equal parts. Let the pupils tell how many each part 
 will contain ; then write the number in connection with 
 each example, as follows : 
 
 2)8(4 2)8_ 8-^2=4. 8=4 
 
 8 4 2 
 
 After repeating the four modes of representing division, 
 with other numbers, require the pupils to copy each form 
 on the slate, and to perform the division. 
 
 N. B. — Do not allow the pupils to say " divide two into 
 eight." Eight is divided hy two. 
 
 Second Step. — Proceed to illustrate the process of 
 division by the long division form, using small numbers 
 for the divisor. Use examples first in which each figure 
 of the dividend will contain the divisor without a re- 
 mainder, thus :
 
 92 
 
 
 FIRST GRADE, 
 
 2)48(24 
 4 
 
 3)96(32 
 9 
 
 08 
 8 
 
 06 
 6 
 
 4)84(21 
 
 04 
 4 
 
 
 
 Third Step. — Give examples, with the divisor of one 
 figure, in which remainders occur during tlie partial 
 divisions, thus : 
 
 4)976(244 8)952(119 7)861(123 
 
 8 8 ^ 7 
 
 17 15 16 
 
 16 8 14 
 
 16 72 21 
 
 16 72 21 
 
 
 
 Fourth Step. — Teach ^^ short division,^^ first bj working 
 the same example hy hoth the long and the short form, 
 thus leading the children to see that one form is nnich 
 shorter than the other, therefore may be called short 
 division, and that the other, as appropriately, may be 
 called long division. 
 
 The illustrations for any one of these steps need not 
 occupy the time given to division for more than one week. ; 
 and the time devoted to the four steps should not exceed 
 that assigned to this portion of arithmetic for one Tnonth. 
 When the divisor is less than 13, do not allow the long 
 division form to he tised after the pupils understand the 
 difference hetween the two processes.
 
 AEITHMETIC. 93 
 
 Fifth Step — Give examples with divisors from 13 to 25, 
 to be worked by long division, the dividends varying from 
 four to six figures, including the use of naughts. 
 
 Examples should be given with a oiaught in the divisor, 
 and also (at the right hand) in the dividend ; as, 30)4560 : 
 the pupils should be required to work such examples by 
 short division. 
 
 Aim first to make the pupils understand the process of 
 the rule ; then train them to he accurate / and finally, drill 
 in rajpidity. Never attempt to gain rapidity to the neg- 
 lect of accuracy. 
 
 As soon as the pupils understand the manner of doing 
 the work in an}'^ rule, give practical examples : do not wait 
 for either accuracy or rapidity before giving such ques- 
 tions. 
 
 |^° The ability of pupils to work practical examples in 
 the four simpjle rules^ is the real test of tJieir knowledye of 
 this subject. 
 
 Mental Arithmetic. — The forms for answering ques- 
 tions in addition, subtraction, and multiplication, in this 
 grade, may be the same as in the Second Grade. Ques- 
 tions may also be introduced which may require both ad- 
 dition and subtraction for their solution, as : 
 
 Henry had 18 cents ; he gave 2 cents for pencils, and 
 6 cents for a sponge ; how many cents had he left ? 
 Ans. 10. Henry spent the sum of 2 cents and 6 cents, 
 which was 8 cents. He then had left the difference be- 
 tween 8 cents and 18 cents, which is 10 cents. 
 
 The same example might be performed by the subtrac- 
 tion of 2 cents, and then of 6 cents. 
 
 Division. — The two following examples will illustrate 
 forms of solution appropriate for mental questions in di- 
 vision :
 
 94 
 
 FIRST GRADE. 
 
 How many tops at 3 cents each can be bought for 12 
 cents ? Ans. 4. As many tops as 3 cents, the price of 1 
 top, is contained times in 12 cents, which is 4 times. 
 
 If 2 apples cost 4 cents, what will 1 apple cost ? Aiis. 
 2 cents. If 2 apples cost 4 cents, 1 apple will cost one- 
 lialf of 4 cents, which is 2 cents. 
 
 Oral Drills for rapid combinations of numbers may 
 embrace combinations with mnltiplication, addition, di- 
 vision, and subtraction. See also suggestions for oral 
 drills in the previous grades. 
 
 Multij^lication Tcihle, reviewed as a Division Table. — 
 In making this review the teacher may ask, How many 
 fours in 20 ? How \w?iwy Jives in 30 ? How many tioelves 
 in 4S ? etc. The form of the questions may be changed 
 to. In 40, how many eights f How many nines in 72 ? 
 The teacher can easily change the form of this review so 
 as to make it both practical and interesting. 
 
 Tables of Weights and Measures. — Review the tables of 
 the Second Grade, and teach the f ollo^ving : 
 
 Common, or Atoikdcpois Weight. 
 
 10 ounces make 1 pound. 
 
 8 " "1 half pound. 
 
 4 " "1 quarter of a pound. 
 
 100 pounds " 1 hundred weight. 
 20 hundred weight make 1 ton. 
 2,000 pounds make 1 ton. 
 
 Miscellaneous Tables. 
 
 13 things 
 
 make 1 dozen. 
 
 44 " 
 12 dozen 
 
 " 1 gross. 
 " 1 " 
 
 12 gross 
 20 things 
 24 sheets 
 
 " 1 great gross. 
 
 " 1 score. 
 
 " 1 quire of paper. 
 
 20 quires 
 
 " 1 ream. 
 
 Reviews. — After these tables have been thoroughly learned in order, 
 the teacher should conduct brief reviews of the tables of both the First 
 and Second Grades, by questions somewhat like the following : 
 
 How many inches in three-quarters of a yard ? How many yards in 
 one rod ? How many rods in a mile ? How many pounds in a lialf 
 ton ? How many pecks in twelve bushels ? How many qiiarts in nine 
 gallons ? How many days in a year ? How many months in half a 
 year ? Which is the longer, six feet or two yards ? How many buttons
 
 WRITING — DRAWING. 95 
 
 in a gross ? How many sheets of paper in a quire ? How many in half 
 a quire ? 
 
 Simple questions in mental arithmetic may be given, 
 with a view to a practical application of the foregoing 
 tables. 
 
 WKITING. 
 
 Slate- Writing. — Continue instruction in the use of capi- 
 tals, the period, the interrogation mark, and the hyphen ; 
 the pupils should be taught that a syllable can never be 
 divided. Exercises should be had in writing brief de- 
 scriptions of familiar objects, and the substance of some 
 previous lesson. The pupils of this grade should be 
 trained in writing exercises from dictation. 
 
 Penmanshij). — In addition to the exercises in the writ- 
 ing-book, occasional lessons should be given in copying 
 sentences from the blackboard. During the last half of 
 this grade, exercises should be given in writing from dic- 
 tation. 
 
 DKAWING. 
 
 General Suggestions to Teachers of Primary Schools, 
 
 In all the grades particular attention should be given to 
 the manner in which the children hold their pencils. Pen- 
 cils should not be held as pens are ; the farther the 
 point of the pencil is from the end of the fingers, the 
 better. 
 
 An active interest will be awakened and kept up by fre- 
 quent illustrations on the blackboard, and by the use of 
 forms and objects. The teaching should be from illustra-
 
 96 SPECIAL SUGGESTIONS, 
 
 tion on the blackboard, from dictation, and from cliart. 
 (Any printed copy may be considered a chart). 
 
 During the exercises from dictation, let the whole class 
 work together, doing the same thing at the same time. 
 Call pupils to the board often, and let them draw for the 
 class. This practice will familiarize the pupils with draw- 
 ing on a vertical surface, and will create and foster a spirit 
 of generous rivalry. Exercises in drawing from memory 
 something previously drawn from copy, will be found to 
 be very valuable. All rudimental work should be done 
 as rapidly as possible, and little or no erasing be allowed. 
 
 All class-teachers are earnestly advised to familiarize 
 themselves not only with the requirements of the grade 
 they teach, but also with those of the preceding grades. 
 They will find that the more familiar they become with 
 their work, the more interest will they take in it ; and 
 that the scholars catch the zeal of the teacher. On the 
 subject of drawing, much valuable information may be ob- 
 tained from manuals and teachers' guides, and from the 
 larger works which can be found in our public libraries. 
 
 It should be borne in mind that skill is acquired through 
 persistent effort and practice. Hence, all pupils should be 
 encouraged to try and to keep on trying, no matter how 
 unsuccessful they at first may be. Praise the efforts of 
 the ambitious pupils, and the slothful will be aroused to 
 greater exertion. 
 
 Special Suggestions to Teachers of Pkimaky Grades. 
 
 sixth grade. 
 
 The drawing lessons in this grade should be short and 
 be given daily. During the exercise do not allow time for 
 erasing a line. Train the pupils in habits of neatness,
 
 DRAWING. 97 
 
 care, and readiness, by requiring tliem to draw promptly 
 and rapidly. Remember that yon are giving the children 
 their first impressions as to the manner of doing this work, 
 and that first impressions are especially important. 
 
 Illustrate the different positions of the straight lines by 
 the use of a pointer, and call attention to lines and angles 
 as seen in the frame of a slate, the edges of a book, etc., 
 etc. In the drawing of straight lines many simple com- 
 binations can be made, so that each lesson shall be to a 
 certain extent new, and yet give the special practice re- 
 quired. In the lessons on the different angles, introduce 
 variety by making different arrangements of the angles ; 
 and, when drawing the letters, group them and make 
 words. 
 
 The slate-pencils for drawing should be long and weU 
 pointed. 
 
 FIFTH GRADE. 
 
 The suggestions for the Sixth Grade are also applicable 
 to the Fifth. Continue the training to form the habit of 
 drawing without stopping to erase. In marking off inches 
 on lines, care should be taken that the pupils' first practice 
 should be as accurate as possible, in order that the ayo 
 may be trained to judge correctly of proportion and form. 
 In the beginning, aids in measuring should be permitted 
 in order to teach the iyich and the accurate division of 
 lines ; but these exercises in measuring and division should 
 be repeated in the same lesson without aids. In this way 
 the eye, though unaided, will soon measure correctly. 
 
 In teaching the triangles and square^ pursue the same 
 course ; first, with some aid which will insure accuracy, 
 and then in the same lesson without such aid. An envel- 
 ope, a slate-frame, a tin pan, etc., etc., will answer for 
 objects to be drawn without perspective effect.
 
 SPECIAL SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 FOURTH GKADE. 
 
 Forms slionld be used in explaining the geometric fig- 
 ures in this grade. These may be easily procured by 
 drawing the figures on card-board, and cutting them out. 
 By the use of these forms the pupils will get a clear idea 
 of what they are to draw, and interest will be awakened. 
 For discipline let short exercises in dictation be frequently 
 given. Insist upon rapid drawing ; avoid erasing. The 
 pupils will, by drawing, learn to draw. 
 
 THIRD GRADE. 
 
 Much improvement will be secured by drawing rapidly 
 the same figures of different sizes. Different symmetrical 
 arrangements of straight lines in the plane figures speci- 
 fied for this grade, should be shown to the class, by draw- 
 ings on the blackboard. 
 
 SECOND GRADE. 
 
 The suggestions for the Third Grade are all applicable 
 to this. The repetitions of the same figure in different 
 sizes and proportion are especially recommended. 
 
 FIRST GRADE. 
 
 The requirements of this grade are comparatively light. 
 The main difficulty will be found in the fact that drawing 
 on paper is now commenced. Much care will be necessary 
 on the part of the teacher in order to keep the pupils from 
 making heavy lines, soiling the paper, etc. See that the 
 pencils are held properly (General Suggestions), and that 
 each line is drawn by all the pupils of the class at one and 
 the same time ; also that little or no erasing takes place.
 
 GENERAL REGULATIONS. 
 
 EELATIYE TO PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 Size of Class. — No class shall contain more than seventy- 
 five pupils ; this is a very important restriction, and should 
 be strictly observed by every Principal. (See " Seating 
 Capacity," on a subsequent page.) 
 
 Progress of Classes. — Whenever it is found that a class 
 has advanced further in one or two subjects of its grade 
 than it has in others, the Principal of the school may di- 
 rect the teacher to devote less time to the subjects in 
 which the class has thus advanced, and to give more time 
 to the subjects in which the class has made the least prog- 
 ress : provided, however, that the law prescribing the 
 minimum time per week be strictly complied with. By 
 this means the grade of the class may be equalized in all 
 its studies. 
 
 The Course of Study for one grade must be completed 
 and thoroughly reviewed, and the ^\r^\\& pi^otnoted, before 
 they can enter upon any part of the Course of Study of 
 the next higher grade. 
 
 In each grade, certain subjects, such as Arithmetic, Spell- 
 ing, and Object Lessons, may be profitably divided into 
 four parts, to be assigned to as many successive months ; 
 the work of the fifth month to include a careful reconsid- 
 eration of the essential points. This plan, if adopted,
 
 100 GENERAL REGULATIONS. 
 
 will be understood not to supersede the " brief monthly 
 reviews " specifically called for by the Course of Study. 
 
 Progress of Pupils. — It often happens that two or three 
 pupils so far outsti'ip their fellows in a single month that 
 it would be better, both for those pupils and for the class, 
 to place these rapid learners in a class of the next grade 
 above. For making these transfers of the most advanced 
 individual pupils, some such system might be adopted as 
 the following : 
 
 Announce to the class that at the end of each month, 
 except the one preceding the examination for general pro- 
 motions, two or three of the pupils who are found to have 
 made the greatest progress will be promoted to the next 
 class above. This would act as an incentive to progress 
 upon the members of the class : it would also aid in keep- 
 ing the upper classes full, and would tend to relieve the 
 general crowded condition of the lower classes, in which 
 most of the pupils admitted after the formation of the 
 class are placed. (See " Promotions from Primary 
 Schools," under Duties of Principals — page 114.) 
 
 Tinie Devoted to Redtatioiis, Study, etc. — Xo class in 
 the primary course should be required to spend more than 
 half an hour, at one time, upon the same exercise. 
 
 The mind, as well as the body, needs rest. A change 
 of subject, and a change in the manner of conducting class 
 exercises, are necessary to furnish opportunities for rest 
 during school hours. 
 
 Taking Books Home. — Xo books should be taken home, 
 nor should lessons be given to be studied after school 
 hours, in any class below the Second Grade. 
 
 Study at Home. — The two higher classes may be as- 
 signed a short hsson each day for study out of school ; but 
 such lesson should not be so long as to require a child of
 
 GENERAL REGULATIONS. 101 
 
 ordinary capacity more than half an liour to learn it. The 
 chief object of these lessons should he to train the children 
 in habits of study aiui self-reliance. 
 
 Reviews. — In connection with each new lesson, such a 
 review of previous lessons in the same subject should be 
 had, as will cause the pupils properly to associate the facts 
 previously learned and those of the new lesson. 
 
 Brief reviews of the lessons on each subject should be 
 had on Friday of each week. 
 
 General reviews should be had at least once during each 
 month. On these occasions the leading facts learned in 
 previous grades should be included. 
 
 Sewing. — Instruction in sewing to be given to the fe- 
 male pupils of Primaiy Schools and Department^ in the 
 Third, Second, and First Grades. 
 
 Yocal Music. — Instruction in vocal music shall be given 
 to the pupils in every grade. The music used shall be 
 such as is found in the books contained in the supply list 
 of the Board of Education. 
 
 Physical Training. — The pupils should be exercised 
 daily, in such a manner as to expand the lungs, develop 
 the nniscles, and impart an easy and graceful carriage to 
 the body. Calisthenic exercises, to the utmost practicable 
 extent, should be employed for the attainment of these 
 objects. Let the windows be opened, both at the top and 
 at the bottom, for two or three minutes, while the pupils 
 stand and sit several times in succession, and also while 
 they engage in other physical exercises. Due attention 
 should be given to secure a good ventilation of the class- 
 room, but all improper use of the windows and exposure 
 of pupils to drafts while sitting must be carefully avoided. 
 (See " Physical Education," page 14.) 
 
 Discipline. — The children should never be compelled to
 
 102 GENERAL REGULATIONS. 
 
 sit without employment for the mind, the hands ^ or the hody. 
 As a means of preserving good order in the class, attract 
 the attention of the pupils bj introducing new subjects, by 
 changing the manner of giving the lesson, or by allowing 
 individual pupils to take a special part in the lesson exer- 
 cises. 
 
 They should be taught cleanliness by being led to ob- 
 serve what it is to be cleanly ; and to be truthful and obe- 
 dient, by perceiving examples of these virtues ; and to 
 avoid all bad habits, by being led to look upon them with 
 dislike. They should be led to do right by encouragement 
 rather than driven to do so by fear. Judicious praise is 
 more efficient than scolding. (See " Government and 
 Discipline " for instructions.) 
 
 Manners and Morals. — Such instruction should be 
 given daily to the pupils of all the grades as will foster a 
 spirit of kindness and courtesy toward one another, a feel- 
 ing of respect toward parent and teacher, and a love of 
 cleanliness, order, law, and truth. (See " Moral Educa- 
 tion," page 15 ; also " Government and Discipline," page 
 11, for instructions.) 
 
 Use of Pencils and Pens. — The pupils shall not be al- 
 lowed to write with short pencils. Particular care must 
 be given to methods of holding both pencil and pen, and 
 to the position of the body while writing. 
 
 School Sessio7is. — The several schools shall be opened at 
 nine o'clock a.m., and the sessions shall be continued until 
 three o'clock p.m., with an intermission of one hour at 
 noon, when the pupils may leave school. An intermis- 
 sion, not to exceed twenty minutes, may also be given 
 during the morning sessions. 
 
 No school shall be dismissed, except by special authority 
 of the Trustees, sooner than three o'clock p.m., except that
 
 GENERAL REGULATIONS. 103 
 
 in case of very wet or stormy weather the Principal may 
 detain the pupils in school between the hours of twelve 
 and one o'clock ; but in such cases the school shall be dis- 
 missed for the day at two o'clock p.m. 
 
 Meritorious pupils, as a reward, may be permitted to 
 leave school one hour earlier on Friday of each week. In 
 no case shall any school be dismissed before three o'clock 
 P.M., except as provided in Section 64. (By-Laws, § G3, 
 page 146, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Vacations and Holidays. — The vacations and holidays 
 allowed in the schools in the several wards shall be as 
 follows : 
 
 Every Saturday throughout the year ; the day commonly 
 known as Good Friday ; the twenty-second day of Febru- 
 ary ; the fourth day of July ; any day appointed by the 
 President of the United States or the Governor of the 
 State for a public fast or thanksgiving, and the day there- 
 after ; the twenty-fifth day of December, the second day 
 of January, and the intermediate days ; the thirtieth day of 
 May ; election day ; the day next following any day above 
 specified, when such latter day shall be Sunday, and the 
 interval between the third of July and the second Mon- 
 day in September. (By-Laws, part of § 63, page 147, 
 Manual 1883.) 
 
 Reading the Bible. — All the schools of this city under 
 the jurisdiction of the Board of Education shall be opened 
 with reading a portion of the Holy Scriptures, without 
 note or comment. (By-Laws, § 134, page 207, Manual 
 1883.) 
 
 Doors to he Unfastened. — And all modes of egress, in- 
 cluding the visitors' doors, shall be left unfastened during 
 school hours. (By-Laws, § 61, part of subdivision 2, 
 page 138, Manual 1883.)
 
 104 GENEEAL REGULATIONS. 
 
 Pupils Must he Residents of the City. — Ko person otlier 
 tlian an actual resident of the city of ISTew York shall be 
 allowed to attend the ISTormal College or any school under 
 the control of this Board. A boarding and lodging, by a 
 minor, within the city, who leaves the house of his or her 
 parents in another State or county, merely to gain an op- 
 portunity to attend the Public Schools, does not constitute 
 such minor a resident within the meaning of the statute. 
 
 Where a parent, residing in another State or in another 
 county, sends his minor child to the city of New Yoi'k for 
 the temporary purpose of enabling that child to attend 
 and receive the benefits of the Public Schools, in nowise 
 parting -with his control over such child, and intending 
 that the child shall return to him as soon as that tempo- 
 rary process is accomplished, such child, although not re- 
 turning to his parents, except at considerable intervals of 
 time, is not a resident in the city of New York within the 
 meaning of Section 35 of the Act organizing and regulating 
 the free school system within the city of New York. 
 
 Cases will occur to which this rule may not be applica- 
 ble to the facts ; in such case, if the teacher has any dif- 
 ficulty in determining whether the child be a resident, it 
 shall be referred to the Board. (By-Laws, § 127, page 
 200, Manual 18S3.) 
 
 Ages of. Pupils. — All children between the ages of five 
 and twenty-one years, residing in the city and county, shall 
 be entitled to attend any of the common schools therein. 
 (Statute Laws, § 1051, page 36, Manual 1S83.) 
 
 Vaccination. — No pupil shall be allowed to attend any 
 school, nor shall any teacher be employed in the same, 
 unless such pupil or teacher has been vaccinated. 
 
 Every Principal of a school shall require satisfactory 
 evidence of such vaccination as a requisite for the admis-
 
 GENEEAL REGULATIONS. 106 
 
 sion, employment, or continuance of a pupil or teacher, and 
 the Principal shall also enter in the register of the school 
 the dates, as near as possible, of the respective vaccina- 
 tions of the pupils and teachers, and shall co-operate with 
 such agents of the Board of Health as may be authorized 
 to visit the schools for the purpose of examining and vac- 
 cinating the pupils, and shall require a revaccination of all 
 pupils ascertained by said agents of the Board of Health 
 not to be fully protected by a former vaccination, and no 
 pupil refusing to be so re vaccinated, either by the agent 
 of the Board of Health, or by the physician of the family 
 to which he or she may belong, shall be permitted to at- 
 tend any Public School until such requirement is fully 
 complied with. 
 
 A certificate of any physician in good standing in his 
 profession, stating that the pupil does not require revac- 
 cination, shall be accepted by the agents of the Board of 
 Health in lieu of a personal examination. (By-Laws, § 
 130, page 205, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Contagious Diseases. — "Whenever it becomes known to 
 the Principal or teacher in charge of a school that a con- 
 tagious disease prevails in a house other than a tenement 
 in which a child or children attending the school lives or 
 live, such child or children shall be immediatedly excluded 
 from the school, and shall not be readmitted except as 
 elsewhere in this article provided. 
 
 Whenever the Principal or teacher in charge ascertains 
 that a contagious disease other than small-pox or typhus 
 fever exists in a tenement-house, but on one floor only, 
 a child or children living on another floor of the same 
 house need not be for this reason excluded, but children 
 thus situated must be questioned daily about their health 
 and that of their respective families ; and must be sent
 
 106 GENERAL REGULATIONS. 
 
 liome at the first symptom of illness, or the first intelli- 
 gence of contagion in their families. 
 
 But if a contagious disease of any description exists on 
 more than one floor of a tenement-house, or if the disease 
 existing on only one floor be small-pox or typhus fever, 
 all children living in the house must be promptly excluded 
 from school. 
 
 Children excluded pursuant to the above rules shall not 
 be again permitted to attend school — 
 
 In case of scarlet fever, until three weeks after the 
 heginning of the last case, on the floor or in the house, 
 according to whether the exclusion has applied to a floor 
 or an entire house under the above rules. 
 
 In case of Tneasles, until two weeks after the heginning 
 of the last case, on the floor or in the house, according to 
 the extent of the exclusion. 
 
 In case of diphtheria, until one week after the termina- 
 tion of the last case, on the floor or in the house, accord- 
 ing to the exclusion. 
 
 In any case of scarlet fever, measles, or diphtheria, until 
 a certificate of the Board of Health is produced, stating 
 that the apartments, bedding, and clothing affected by the 
 contagion have been properly disinfected. 
 
 If the disease be small-pox or typhiis fener, q\vA^xqxv 
 who have been in such a case excluded must not resume 
 their attendance without producing a certificate from the 
 Board of Health stating that it is safe for them to do so. 
 
 Kew scholars applying for admission, and living in 
 houses or on floors where a contagious disease prevails, 
 must be admitted or excluded in compliance with the 
 above rules. 
 
 Principals and teachers in charge are required to com- 
 municate to the Clerk of the Board of Education any
 
 GENERAL REGULATIONS. 107 
 
 information received by them relative to this subject and 
 not known to be in his possession. (By-Laws, § 166, page 
 283, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Seating Cwpaciiy. — It shall be the duty of every Prin- 
 cipal to reject all applications for the admission of pupils 
 into any school or class whenever the room occupied by 
 the same is filled to the extent of its seating capacity. In 
 fixing the seating capacity of rooms, the following shall 
 be a minimun allowance of floor surface and air space 
 per pupil : 
 
 In the three lower classes of Primary Schools and De- 
 partments, five square feet and seventy cubic feet. 
 
 In the three higher grades, six square feet and eighty 
 cubic feet. 
 
 In the four lower grades of Grammar Schools, seven 
 square feet and ninety cubic feet. 
 
 In the four higher grades, nine square feet and one hun- 
 dred cubic feet. 
 
 In the admission of pupils, those residing nearest to any 
 school shall in all cases have the preference. All rejected 
 applicants shall be sent to the nearest school having ac- 
 commodations for them. 
 
 The seating capacity of each room in each school build- 
 ing (estimated in accordance with the provisions of this 
 By-Law) shall be conspicuously posted in each room. (By- 
 Laws, § 33, subdivision 14, page 103, Manual 1883.) 
 
 See " Size of Class," page 99. 
 
 License Necessary. — No person shall be permitted to 
 perform service in any position as a teacher until licensed. 
 * * * (By-Laws, § 25, part of subdivision 2, page 
 79, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Teachers to Rejjort their Absence. — Any teacher absent 
 from duty shall report promptly, in writing, to the Princi-
 
 108 GENERAL REGULATIONS. 
 
 pal of the school, the cause of such absence, and state its 
 probable duration, and any teacher wilfully making a false 
 report shall thereby forfeit his or her position. * * * 
 
 ^0 subordinate teacher, absent from duty, who fails to 
 communicate promptly with the Principal, shall be excused 
 for such absence, nor shall any teachers absent be excused 
 except upon a report thereon by the Principal to the Board 
 of Trustees of the Ward. (By-Laws, § 33, part of sub- 
 division 8, page 99, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Female Teachers to Itejport Marriage. — Any female 
 teacher marrying, shall report in writing her married name 
 and address to the Clerk of this Board and Chairman of 
 the Board of Trustess of the Ward in which she is em- 
 ployed ; and any teacher failing to comply with this by- 
 law within thirty days after her marriage, shall thereby 
 forfeit her position as teacher, and all salary that may be 
 due her from the time of her marriage. (By-Laws, § 33, 
 subdivision 8 ; amended October 4, 1883.) 
 
 Time Occupied in Teaching. — It shall be the duty of 
 every teacher to occupy the whole of each school session, 
 or time for which the teacher is employed, in the purposes 
 of instruction, or the making of entries necessary to be 
 made at the time ; and no assistant teacher shall draw a 
 salary or receive compensation as a special teacher, if em- 
 ployed as such during the regular school hours. (By-Laws, 
 § 33, subdivision 12, page 102, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Forfeiture of Position. — The situation of a teacher or 
 janitor shall be forfeited for disgraceful or immoral con- 
 duct, incompetency, or wilful violation of any rule or 
 regulation of this Board ; and no teacher or janitor so re- 
 moved shall thereafter be employed in any school, unless 
 the forfeiture be remitted by this Board. (By-Laws, § 
 135, page 208, Manual 1883.)
 
 GENEEAL REGULATIONS. 109 
 
 See, also, Violation of the By-Law relative to corporal 
 punishment. 
 
 Corporal Punishment Prohibited. — No corporal punish- 
 ment of any description shall hereafter be inflicted in any 
 of the common schools. (By-Laws, § 44, page 119, 
 Manual 1883.) 
 
 Violation of this By-Law. — It shall be the duty of every 
 Principal, Trustee, Inspector, or Superintendent, when cog- 
 nizant of the fact, to report to the Board of Education the 
 name of any teacher who may have resorted to unusual 
 punishments tending to inflict physical injury, or to 
 evade the by-law abolishing corporal punishment in the 
 schools under the control of the Board. 
 
 Any teacher found guilty of a violation of the by-laws 
 of this Board, in regard to corporal punishment, shall be 
 liable to a penalty of forfeiture from his or her salary of 
 not less than five nor more than thirty days' pay, or dis- 
 missal from school, as in the discretion of the Committee 
 on Teachers may be deemed just and proper; provided the 
 action of the Committee be approved by the Board of 
 Education. (By-Laws, § 44, page 119, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Experienced Teachers for Fifth and Sixth Grades. — The 
 Fifth and Sixth Grades of the Primary Schools and De- 
 partments shall be under the supervision and instruction 
 of teachers whose expeiuence and capacity render them es- 
 pecially fitted for this duty. (By-Laws, § 33, subdivision 
 13, page 102, Manual 1883.) 
 
 liev lew of Studies to Precede Promotions. — Every ex- 
 amination for promotion to a higher grade shall be preceded 
 by a thorough review of all the studies pursued in the 
 grade from which said promotion is to be made. (By- 
 Laws, § 154, page 262, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Credit Marks. — 1. In every class -of the Primary and
 
 110 GENERAL REGULATIONS. 
 
 Grammar Schools tlie daily record of credit marks awarded 
 to the pupils for regular and punctual attendance, and for 
 excellence in deportment and in the several studies and 
 exercises, shall be kept in the book known as " School Rec- 
 ord Ko. 7." 
 
 2. In all of the Grammar Grades, and in the Primary 
 Grades 1, 2, and 3, the daily maxinmm of credit marks for 
 conduct shall be 10 ; for regular and punctual attendance, 
 10 ; and for each recitation or other exercise, 10. In 
 awarding the credit marks, the various degrees of merit 
 shall be indicated by 10 for " perfect," 8 to 5 for " imper- 
 fect," and for " failure." 
 
 3. At the close of each calendar month, the product 
 obtained by multiplying the whole number of recitations 
 and other class exercises during the month by 10, added 
 to the product of the whole number of school-days of 
 the month by 20, shall constitute the standard number 
 for that month. This number shall form the basis of all 
 merit rolls, certificates of merit, and monthly reports to 
 parents. 
 
 4. In the Primary Grades 4, 5, and G, the daily maxi- 
 mum of credit marks for conduct shall be 10 ; for regular 
 and punctual attendance, 10 ; and for all of the class exer- 
 cises taken together, 10 ; the maximum of forfeiture for 
 or during any one exercise being 2. The standard number 
 for the month shall be obtained by multiplying the number 
 of school-days by 30. 
 
 5. If extra credit marks are awarded for superior merit, 
 they shall in no case be allowed to exceed ten per cent, of 
 the standard number. 
 
 6. In no case shall credit marks earned for attendance, 
 or for recitations or other exercises, be forfeited for mis- 
 conduct.
 
 GENEKAL REGULATIONS. Ill 
 
 7. In the column headed "attendance," each half day's 
 attendance shall be marked separately. 
 
 8. When diaries are used, they shall be marked to cor- 
 respond with the general class record kept as above directed. 
 
 9. Whenever it shall be satisfactorily shown by the cer- 
 tificate of the parent or guardian that pupils have been 
 prevented from attending school in consequence of sickness 
 or religious observances, their absence shall be excused 
 without a forfeiture of the usual certificate of merit, and 
 as far as possible without loss of class standing thereby. 
 Such pupils are nevertheless to be considered as absentees. 
 (By-Laws, § 128, page 202, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Incorrigible Pupils. — Any pupil found to be incorrigible, 
 or persistently disobedient to and regardless of the rules 
 and regulations prescribed for the government of the 
 school or class, or of resisting the authority of the Princi- 
 pal or class teacher, or who, by a reckless depravity, may 
 injure or demoralize the school or class, may be suspended 
 by the Principal from the school. 
 
 It shall be the duty of the Principal of every school 
 thus suspending a pupil, to give immediate notice thereof 
 to the parent or guardian of such pupil, and also to re- 
 port the same to the City Superintendent and the Chair- 
 man of the Board of Trustees of the Ward. 
 
 The parent or guardian of such pupil may, within ten 
 days thereafter, appeal from the action of the Principal 
 to the said Trustees, who shall thereupon investigate 
 the matter, and report their action to the City Superin- 
 tendent. 
 
 If no such appeal be taken, or if such appeal be dis- 
 missed by the Trustees, it shall be the duty of the City 
 Superintendent to notify the Principal of every other 
 school for the same sex, of the name of such suspended
 
 112 GENERAL REGULATIONS. 
 
 pupil, and he or she shall not be admitted into the same 
 or any other school until satisfactory proof of amendment 
 on the part of such pupil shall have been furnished to the 
 City Superintendent, whose certificate of the removal of 
 the disability shall entitle any suspended pupil to read- 
 mission in the same or any other school. 
 
 The Trustees may require the transfer of any pupil sus- 
 pended from one school to any other school under their 
 management, if, in their judgment, they shall deem it 
 beneficial or advantageous to such pupil. (By-Laws, § 
 44, page 119, ManuallsSS.) 
 
 Piqnls not to he Sent from School. — Pupils shall not be 
 sent from the school premises, upon errands, during the 
 school hours, except in cases of necessity or emergency, 
 and with the consent of the pupil, and in such cases only 
 by the authority of the Principal or Acting Principal, who 
 only shall be authorized to send a pupil of suitable age and 
 discretion, and shall record in a suitable book the name of 
 the pupil so sent, with the date, the occasion, and the du- 
 ration of absence. (By-Laws, § 65, subdivision 4, page 
 150, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Exhibitions. — No public exhibition requiring special 
 preparation shall be given in any school or department, if 
 at all, oftener than once during each year, except by per- 
 mission of the Board of Trustees, and no public exhibition 
 or entertainment shall be given outside the school build- 
 ing without the consent of the Board of Education, (^By- 
 Laws, § 156, page 263, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Gifts Prohibited. — No teacher shall make or contribute 
 any gift to a school officer or superintendent, nor shall 
 money or other things be in any case collected or taken 
 from a pupil or teacher, for the purpose of presenting a 
 gift or testimonial to a teacher, school officer, or superin-
 
 GENERAL KEGULATIONS. 113 
 
 tendent, or for any other purpose, unless previously sanc- 
 tioned by this Board. (By-Laws, § 133, page 206, Manual 
 1883.) 
 
 Extra Compensation to Teachers. — No compensation 
 shall be received by any teacher for instruction given in 
 any school building, except the salaries paid by this Board. 
 (By-Laws, § 133, part of subdivision 1, page 207, Manual 
 1883.) 
 
 See also " Time Occupied in Teaching," page 108. 
 
 Duties of Principals. 
 
 8haU Keep Register of Daily Attendance of Teachers. — 
 It shall be the duty of every Principal to keep a register 
 of the attendance of teachers, in which shall be entered 
 daily the time of the arrival and departure of each teacher, 
 and any absence from duty, with the reason of such ab- 
 sence. (By-Laws, § 33, subdivision 10, page 101, Manual 
 1883.) 
 
 Shall Report Absences of Teachers. — It shall be the 
 duty of the Principal to report, without delay, all ab- 
 sences of teachers in his or her school, to the Board of 
 ^Trustees, with a statement of the cause of each absence as 
 far as known. (By-Laws, § 33, part of subdivision 8, 
 page 99, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Shall Report other Tacts. — The Principals of the several 
 schools shall report to the City Superintendent, each 
 month, such facts as he may require in relation to the at- 
 tendance of teachers and pupils. (By-Laws, § 25, subdivi- 
 sion 5, page 80, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Suspension of Pupils. — It shall be the duty of the I'riu- 
 cipal of every school thus suspending a pupil to give im- 
 mediate notice thereof to the parent or guardian of such
 
 114 C4ENERAL REGULATIONS. 
 
 pupil, and also to report the same to the City Superintend- 
 ent and the Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the 
 Ward. (By-Laws, § 44, part of subdivision 1, page 119, 
 Manual 1883.) 
 
 School Sessions Omitted. — A special report from the 
 Principal of each school shall accompany each pay-roll, 
 stating whether or not the whole or a part of any session 
 of such school has been omitted previous to the date of 
 such report, and subsequently to the last preceding report, 
 other than such vacations and holidaj's as are specially 
 allowed by the By-Laws of the Board of Education ; and 
 if the whole or a part of any session has been so omitted, 
 for what reason, and by what authority the same was 
 omitted. (By-Laws, § 65, page 148, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Principals may Visit other Schools. — The Board of 
 Trustees of any ward may, however, permit any Princi- 
 pal therein, who may apply therefor, to absent himself or 
 herself from his or her department or school, without loss 
 of pay, for a period not exceeding three days in any one 
 year, for the purpose of visiting other schools in the city, 
 but such absence shall be reported, as required by the 
 succeeding subdivision. (By-Laws, § 33, subdivision 7.) 
 
 Provide Statement for Examiner. — AYhenever any 
 school is visited for examination by the City Superintend- 
 ent, or his assistants, it shall be the duty of the Principal 
 of said school to provide the examiner with a statement 
 showing the number of pupils on record in the class, the 
 length of time in it, their age, the studies pursued, the 
 progress of the pupils therein, and such other facts as he 
 may deem requisite to enable him to form a correct esti- 
 mate of the efficiency of the instruction imparted. (By- 
 Laws, § 162, page 265, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Promotions from Primary Schools. — Promotions shall
 
 GENERAL REGULATIONS. 115 
 
 be made from the Primary to the Grammar Schools semi- 
 annually, and not oftener, except by the written permis- 
 sion of the City Superintendent ; and no pupil shall be 
 promoted from any Primary School rmless examined in 
 all the studies jpr escribed for the First Grade of the Course 
 of Instruction for P rhnary Schools, ?c[\^ found qualified 
 by the Principal of the Department into which the pro- 
 motion is to be made ; and Avhen found qualified, such 
 pupils shall be promoted without delay. 
 
 Pupils may be transferred from the Primary to the 
 Grammar Schools before completing the First Primary 
 School Grade, with the consent of the Committee on 
 Course of Study and School Books, and on the recommen- 
 dation of the City Superintendent, to whom application 
 may be made by the Trustees in any ward, showing that 
 said transfer is necessary in order to relieve the crowded 
 condition of any Primary School, and to fill vacancies in 
 the classes of the Grammar School. Pupils thus trans- 
 ferred to any Grammar School shall, however, be taught in 
 the Primary Grade until regularly promoted from the same, 
 but may be counted as a part of the regular attendance of 
 the Grammar School. (By-Laws, § 149, page 213, Manual 
 1883.) 
 
 P%i])ils Leaving School hetvjcen the Ages of Fight and 
 Fourteen. — The Principal of every school shall transmit 
 to the City Superintendent, hereinafter mentioned, at the 
 close of each week, a list of children between the ages of 
 eight and fourteen years, who, such Principal shall have 
 reason to believe, have left the school for the purpose 
 of engaging in any employment. 
 
 It shall be the duty of the Principal of every school to 
 report to the Agent of Truancy, for the district in which 
 such school is situated, the names of all children between
 
 116 GENERAL KEGULATIONS. 
 
 the ages of eight and fourteen years, and those only, 
 whose non-attendance at school, such Principal has reason 
 to believe, is the result of a truant disposition. (By-Laws, 
 § 144, subdivisions 3 and 5, pages 220 and 221, Manual 
 1883.) 
 
 Keep Record of Truants between Ages of Eight and 
 Fourteen. — It shall be the duty of the Principal of every 
 school to keep a record, in a register especially provided 
 for that purpose, of all children between the ages of eight 
 and fourteen years, who have been reported to the Agents 
 of Truancy hereinafter mentioned, for a violation of the 
 said Act of May 11, 1874, as amended May 28, 1876, to- 
 gether with an accurate record of the disposition made 
 of each case by said Agent of Truancy, when reported by 
 them to said Principal. 
 
 It shall also be the duty of said Principal, when an 
 Agent of Truancy shall bring to a school any child, be- 
 tween the ages of eight and fourteen years, not registered 
 as a pupil of said school, to enter his or her name upon 
 said special register, and to note upon said register any 
 facts relating to said child that may have been communi- 
 cated to said Principal by said Agent of Truancy. (By- 
 Laws, § 144, subdivision 1, page 219, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Keep Register of Residence of Patents, etc. — It shall 
 be the duty of every Principal, on the reopening of the 
 schools in September of each year, to ascertain and regis- 
 ter the residences of the parents or guardians of each 
 and every pupil attending or applying for admission to 
 the school. (By-Laws, § 65, subdivision 2, page 149, 
 Manual 1883.) 
 
 Keep Record of Children Refused Admission. — The 
 Principal of each school and department under the juris- 
 diction of the Board of Education shall be required to keep
 
 GENERAL REGULATIONS. 117 
 
 a record of all children wlio are refused admission, and the 
 names, ages, and residences of the same shall be inserted 
 in the monthly report made to the City Superintendent. 
 (By-Laws, § 65, subdivision 3, page 149, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Drills for Eajyid Dismission. — The Principals of the 
 several schools and departments shall, under the direction 
 of the City Superintendent, instruct and train the pupils 
 by means of drills, so that they may, on a sudden emer- 
 gency, be able to leave the building in the shortest possi- 
 ble time and without confusion or panic. (By-Laws, § 25, 
 subdivision 6, page 80, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Shall Examine Classes and Report. — The Principals of 
 the schools shall examine all their classes in the prescribed 
 branches of study at least twice a year, namely, inmie- 
 diately before each regular promotion, and record the re- 
 sults of the same in a book kept for that purpose. A re- 
 port of all such examinations shall be sent to the City 
 Superintendent, who shall have it recorded in a book kept 
 for that purpose. The adjectives to be used by the Prin- 
 cipals in such examination shall be the same as those 
 made use of by the Superintendent under these by-laws. 
 (By-Laws, § 161, page 265, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Ascertain that Teacher has License. — It shall be the 
 duty of the Principal of each school to ascertain that every 
 subordinate teacher has received a proper license before 
 such teacher shall be assigned to any duty. (By-Laws, 
 § 25, part of subdivision 2, page 79, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Employ Medical Service in Case of Accident. — The 
 Clerk of the Board shall furnish the Principals of the 
 Public Schools in the several wards with a correct list of 
 the names and residences of the Police Surgeons and 
 Health Inspectors living nearest to such schools respec- 
 tively, with instructions that in case of accidents said
 
 118 GENERAL REGULATIONS. 
 
 Principals sliall send for and ask the medical oflScers herein 
 named for such aid as the necessities of the case may re- 
 quire, and in case of the ahsence of such officers, the 
 Principal of the school where the accident happens is 
 empowered to employ the services of the first available 
 medical practitioner at the expense of this Board. (By- 
 Laws, § 129, page 204, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Pujyils not to Piuxhase Sujyplies. — The Principal of the 
 school shall procure from the depository, and furnish each 
 pupil with the books, slate, and other supplies required to 
 be used by such pupil ; and no pupil shall be requested or 
 required to purchase any book or other article of supply. 
 
 School Sitpplies — Inventory. — When supplies of any kind 
 ai'e needed for any school, they shall be plainly entered in 
 the pass-book provided by the Committee, and the list 
 shall be dated and attested by the signature of the Prin- 
 cipal, and countersigned by the proper officer or committee 
 of the Board of Trustees authorized for the purpose. 
 
 An accurate inventory shall be made, during the last 
 week in each year, of the books, slates, maps, and all other 
 articles usually embraced under the name of supplies, in 
 every school within the jurisdiction of the Board of Edu- 
 cation — blank forms of inventory being furnished by the 
 Clerk for the purpose — the same, when completed, to be 
 forwarded to and filed in the Clerk's office. 
 
 The inventory shall designate the three conditions of 
 supplies on hand, in separate columns, viz., Good, Half- 
 worn, and Old. In estimating the stock on hand, the whole 
 of the class " Good " shall be entered on the list, one-half of 
 the class " Half-worn," and one-fourth of the class " Old," 
 the total being the quantity on lumd of each item. (By- 
 Laws, §§ 122 and 123, pages 193 and 194, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Admission of Pupils to School Building ^ and their
 
 GENERAL REGULATIONS. 119 
 
 Supervision. — It shall be the duty of the Principal of the 
 school to make provision for the admission of pupils into 
 the building at 8.40 a.m., and on stormy mornings at 8.20 ; 
 and also to provide suitable supervision of the play- 
 grounds, by one or more teachers, while the pupils remain 
 in the yard. 
 
 It shall be the duty of the Principal to make the neces- 
 sary inspection to ascertain that the school-rooms, yards, 
 etc., are kept in a cleanly condition, and to report in 
 writing to the Board of Trustees any neglect on the part 
 of the janitor, and to report in writing repeated subse- 
 quent neglect to the City Superintendent. 
 
 Order of Exercises. — In arranging the order of exer- 
 cises of any Primary School or Department, the minimum 
 time per week shall be as follows : Language lessons, six 
 hours; arithmetic, four hours; writing, two hours; draw- 
 ing, thirty minutes ; geography (1st grade), thirty minutes ; 
 sewing (1st, 2d, and 3d grades, girls), one hour. 
 
 Opening exercises, fifteen minutes; morning recess, 
 grades 6, 5, and 4, twenty minutes ; grades 3, 2, and 1, 
 fifteen minutes ; noon intermission, one hour. The re- 
 maining time per week may be distributed at the discre- 
 tion of the Principal. Opening exercises to commence 
 punctually at nine o'clock a.m., and dismissal at three 
 o'clock r.M. Primary Departments may commence to dis- 
 miss at 2.50 o'clock p.m. !No class exercises shall take 
 place before nine o'clock a.m., or after three o'clock p. m. 
 
 Duties of Janitors. 
 
 During School Hours. — It shall be the duty of the 
 janitors to remain in the school buildings, or adjacent 
 grounds, during the whole time the schools are in session,
 
 120 GENERAL REGULATIONS. 
 
 and be at all times ready to render personal assistance in 
 case of any emergency. 
 
 ■3f * '){• * -X- * -Sf * 
 
 Rejyort to Princij)al. — They shall also report in person 
 to the Principal of each school at each and every daily 
 school session ; and they shall also ascertain, on the first 
 day of every month, by the index of the gas-meters in 
 their respective schools, the amount of gas consumed 
 during the preceding month, and report the same in writ- 
 ing to the Clerk of the Board of Education, who shall 
 keep a record of the same. 
 
 It shall be the dut}' of all janitors who reside on the 
 premises to leave some responsible person in charge dur- 
 ing their occasional absence. 
 
 Janitors who do not reside on the premises must visit 
 the school building for a sufficient time on each day when 
 the schools are not in session ; but in no case should their 
 place of residence be further than five hundred yards from 
 the school premises, unless permission be given by the en- 
 gineer to the contrary, and all such permissions given by 
 him to be reported to the Board foi' its approval. 
 
 Respoixsihlefor Security of Buildings. — All janitors will 
 be held responsible for the security of the school buildings, 
 by locking or otherwise securing all doors, gates, windows, 
 and other means of access. They must also report immedi- 
 ately, to the Trustees or Principal, any damage that may 
 happen to any part of the school property. (By-laws, § 
 61, subdivisions 2 and 3, page 138, Manual 1883.) 
 
 Teachers^ Manual. — If adopted by said Board, it {The 
 Teachers' Manual) shall become valid as a rule for the gov- 
 ernment of teachers in the discharge of their duties, except 
 so far as its provisions are inconsistent with the By-Laws of 
 the Board. (By-Laws, § 28, subd. 5, p. 88, Manual 1883.)
 
 COURSE OF INSTRUCTION IN TOCAL MUSIC. 
 
 PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 SIXTH GRADE. 
 
 As this grade consists of the youngest children, great 
 care should be taken that they acquire a good, pure tone, 
 avoiding all harsh sounds, etc. The exercises should be 
 of the simplest character, the children learning to use 
 musical sounds before being taught the signs used to rep- 
 resent them. Therefore, it is appropriate to teach the 
 pupils to sing the first three sounds of the scale in order, 
 by numerals, as : 1, 2 ; 1, 2 ; 1, 2, 3 ; 1, 2, 3 ; 1, 2, 2 ; 1, 
 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3 ; 1, 2, 3 ; 1, 2, 3, 3, etc. The teacher should 
 sing the exercises first, and then have the pupils repeat 
 them. 
 
 After they have thoroughly learned the scale thus far, 
 let them proceed to fa, and so on to sol (the fifth) of the 
 scale, but not beyond it in this grade, although, when the 
 children's voices admit of it, the whole scale may be sung 
 for the purpose of illustration. 
 
 The children should sing with both loud and soft tones, 
 and should be required to sing separately as much as pos- 
 i sible. A few rote songs within easy compass of the chil- 
 dren's voices may also be taught. 
 
 As the exercises of this grade are exclusively designed 
 to train the pupils to distinguish musical sounds, and to 
 6
 
 122 INSTRUCTION IN VOCAL MUSIC. 
 
 cultivate the voice so as to produce them, no attention 
 need be given to the staff, or to any otlier musical signs. 
 
 FIFTH GRADE. 
 
 Explain the use of notes as the signs of musical sounds ; 
 and of the staff, in representing which notes are to be sung 
 low and which higher. Give the simplest idea of time, 
 using the whole and the half note to represent respectively 
 a long sound and a short one. Use one added line below 
 the staff. Teach the children the position of the notes on 
 the staff, and also teach them to sing the scale, ascending 
 and descending, with numerals and syllables ; then teach 
 them to sing different combinations of the scale, with some 
 of the sounds repeated two or three times in succession, 
 as : 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, etc. Sing these combinations 
 of sounds with syllables also. 
 
 After the class is well instructed in singing with sylla- 
 bles, la may be used for all the notes of the exercises. 
 Exercise the children in singing with smooth, pure tones; 
 also, with loud and soft tones. The individual singing of 
 the children must not be neglected in these exercises. 
 Teach two or three simple rote songs. 
 
 FOTJKTH GRADE. 
 
 Eeview the instruction previously given upon the staff. 
 Drill in exercises similar to the following, with numerals 
 and syllables : 1, % 3, 3, 2, 3, 2, 3, 2, 1 ; 3, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 3, 
 2, 1, 2, 1, 1, etc. Xo further intervals than seconds need 
 be used in this grade. 
 
 The teacher may write an exercise on the blackboard, 
 and request the pupils to copy the same on their slates. 
 Let the class sing the exercises from the slates. The exer- 
 cises of this grade may commence on any note of the scale.
 
 INSTRUCTION IN VOCAL MUSIC. 123 
 
 TIIIKD GRADE. 
 
 Teach the use of the clef. Explain the use of the whole, 
 half, and quarter notes ; and also the use of a hold, har, 
 measure, and time. Teach the children to beat 2-4 time, 
 being very careful that the beats are correct, and that they 
 are not hurried. Continue this practice of beating the 
 time until the pupils are acquainted with it. Review what 
 has already been taught, and add exercises containing no 
 further intervals than thirds, such as the following : 1, 
 
 2, 3, 3, 1, 3, 1 ; 1, 2, 3,1, 3, 1, 3 ; 1,2, 3, 2, 3, 4, 3, 4, 5, 
 5, 4, 3, 2, 1. 
 
 The teacher should remember that the definitions, and 
 descriptions of notes, staff, clef, bars, and other musical 
 signs, are to be given only in explanation of the uses of 
 the signs and of that which they represent. 
 
 SECOND GRADE. 
 
 Teach the children to beat triple time. Exercises 
 should not be sung which embrace more notes than the 
 octave from C below the staff to C in the third space, but 
 should include every variety of time thus far taught. 
 
 Review and extend drills for making the pupils familiar 
 with the different sounds of the scale, with intervals, skips, 
 etc., using alternately numerals, syllables, and letters. 
 Also call upon the class to sing from dictation, as : 1, 1, 2, 
 
 3, 3, 1, 3, 4, 5, 5, 1, 3, 5 ; 1, 3, 5, 8 ; 8, 5, 3, 1, 5, 8, 5, 1, 
 2, 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 1, 4 ; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 1, 6, 1, 6. 
 
 Drill in singing with loud and soft tones alternately ; 
 also let the singing of one measure be loud, and then of 
 another soft. In this grade the class may learn to sing 
 simple tunes by note, then to sing the same with appro-
 
 124 INSTRUCTION IN VOCAL MUSIC. 
 
 priate words. Special attention should be given to the 
 expression. 
 
 Continue to exercise the pupils in singing alone. Select 
 the best singers to sing given notes, as do, mi, sol ^ then 
 let the class imitate. Pupils may copy exercises written 
 in numerals by writing the notes on a staff. They may 
 write in numerals an exercise given in notes, and then 
 sing the same from their slates. 
 
 FIRST GRADE. 
 
 Explain 4-4 time ; and continue to practise the scale 
 promiscuously, as : 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, etc. Practise exercises 
 in 3-4 and 4-4 time alternately. Great care should be 
 taken to insure correct intonation, and to prevent all bois- 
 terous or harsh singing. Require smooth, pure tones, 
 and loud and soft tones. Review all that has been taught 
 in the other grades. Practise the entire scale as follows : 
 1, 2, 3, 1, 3, 1, 3 ; 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 4, etc. 
 
 Teach the singing of simple tunes in the natural scale 
 by numerals, syllables, letters, la, la, and by appropriate 
 words. Give attention to accent, singing phrases, and the 
 proper expression, and continue the writing of musical ex- 
 ercises on the slate, as in the previous gi-ades. 
 
 Rules Relating to the Posttike or the Body ant) the 
 Position of the Mouth. 
 
 The singer should stand upright, letting the body rest 
 upon both feet, the heels just touching each other. 
 Throwing the weight upon one foot is to be avoided, be- 
 cause it forces the body into a curved and inelegant posi- 
 tion, and causes tones produced to be wanting in precision.
 
 INSTRUCTION IN VOCAL MUSIC. 125 
 
 The arms should neither be fixed rigidly by the side nor 
 be folded across the chest. 
 
 The head should be held easily erect. 
 
 The shoulders should be thrown back, the chest inflated, 
 and the abdomen somewhat drawn in so as to allow the 
 lungs fully to expand. 
 
 The mouth should be opened wide enough to admit the 
 passage of the thumb in its breadth between the front 
 teeth. The jaws should be held one exactly above the 
 other, and the tongue be allowed to lie flat in the mouth, 
 before any attempt to sing is made. This position of the 
 organs in question should be assumed, lest the nasal 
 sound of n become audible ; and it must not be altered 
 during the continuance of a tone, for by every such 
 change the tone is modified. 
 
 Beware especially of any distortion of the countenance. 
 
 The Breathing. 
 
 The management of the breath in singing is of the 
 greatest importance ; for upon the manner and regularity 
 of the singer's breathing depend the formation of the 
 tone and the successful rendering of the musical phrases 
 and of the text. 
 
 The breathing should be done inaudibly. The pupil 
 should be especially instructed in the art of producing 
 prolonged tones at as little expense of breath as possible ; 
 at first with soft tones, with loud tones afterward. 
 
 Breath may be taken at any point where the meaning 
 of the text and the connection of the melody will not be 
 interrupted ; therefore, after pauses or punctuation marks ; 
 at the completion of a musical group ; before long notes ; 
 before the last or after the first beat of a measure ; or, in
 
 126 INSTRUCTION IN VOCAL MUSIC. 
 
 other words, after the accented beats. The latter direction 
 is given, because at such points a better conclusion of the 
 melody is possible. It is a rule of the first importance 
 that breath be not taken at a bar ; that is, after an un- 
 accented beat. An exception to this rule is made only 
 when the rhythmic structure of the melody, or the punc- 
 tuation, demands it. 
 
 The time that is needed for breathing never is to be 
 taken from the tone hefore, but from the tone after which 
 breath is drawn. For instance, if the tone after which 
 one breathes is represented by a quarter note, it is sung 
 as an eighth note, the other half of its value in time being 
 used for breathing. 
 
 As the singer should always have a good supply of 
 breath on hand, prudence demands that he should not 
 only use his breath economically, but that he always 
 should take breath wherever, according to the foregoing 
 rules, he is permitted to do so ; for if he do not, he may 
 be forced to breathe when the rules forbid it. Neglect of 
 this wise precaution is apt to force the singer to " press " 
 the tone, whereby it receives a languid, thin, uneasy 
 coloring. 
 
 After one long, full breath has been taken, it is well 
 that the subsequent breathings be short or medium in 
 length ; otherwise the lungs may become fatigued. It is, 
 perhaps, needless to add that the physical constitution 
 and the age of the singer must always be taken into con- 
 sideration. 
 
 Pkontjnciation. 
 
 The pronunciation of the words of the text must be 
 clear and correct. A distinct enunciation is of great im-
 
 INSTKUCTION IN VOCAL MUSIC. 127 
 
 portance in singing ; for upon a clear utterance of the 
 vowel sounds depends the beauty of the tones, and upon 
 a distinct pronunciation of the consonants depends the 
 hearer's understanding of the words of the text. 
 
 Miisical accent or rhythm is simple or compound. 
 Double time and triple time are forms of simple rhythm, 
 in each of which the first beat is accented. Double time 
 gives origin to quadruple time ; triple time to sextuple, 
 9-8, and 12-8 time. 
 
 Expression depends upon the choice of the right tempo 
 and pitch, the proper degree of loudness, and upon cor- 
 rect declamation. 
 
 In singing, beware of dragging and shouting. The 
 initial tone must be given precisely, even in piano pas- 
 sages. The sliding of the voice in search of the right 
 tone is not to be tolerated. The singing must pour forth 
 as from a single mouth. 
 
 Gloomy weather causes the spirit to flag, and makes 
 every exertion a burden ; the judicious teacher will take 
 this into consideration in determining the possibilities 
 regarding correctness.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 COUESE OF INSTRUCTION PRESCRIBED FOR 
 GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 
 
 EIGHTH GRADE. 
 
 Outline Coursk 
 
 1. Language Lessons. — Reading oi the grade of a Third Reader: 
 oral lessons on the qualities and uses of familiar objects, such as articles 
 of clothing, food, materials for building, and so forth : compositions upon 
 subjects connected with the oral lessons of the grade : spelling, meaning, 
 and use of words, chiefly from the lessons of the reading book, and from 
 the oral lessons of the grade ; also selected miscellaneous words in gen- 
 eral use, at least 150 in number, to be taught chiefly by writing them 
 separately, and in short sentences from dictation. 
 
 2. Arithmetic— Written and Mental. — Through the simple rules and 
 Federal money, with practical examples. Tables of weights and meas- 
 ures to be taught, with simple practical applications. 
 
 3. Geography (without text- book).— The World: fr.om globes and 
 outline maps. 
 
 4. Penmanship. — Words of various length, presented in the order of 
 their diificulty. Practice in capit(ds continued. 
 
 5. Drawing. — On paper, illustrated on blackboard, from dictation 
 and from chart. 
 
 Draw semicircles on vertical and horizontal diameters of four inches. 
 Bi-symmetrical arrangements of simple and compound curves on verti- 
 cal axis, two of each. Two simple historic borders, illustrating horizon- 
 tal repetition of a unit. Two conventional cordate leaves ; symmetrical 
 an-angemeut of these leaves in the equilateral triangle and the octagon.
 
 INSTRUCTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 READING. 
 
 General Suggestions for all Grades. 
 
 1. The number of reading lessons should bear a reason- 
 able relation to the time the pupils have been in the 
 grade. Xo selection, other than the best English poetry, 
 should be so long dwelt upon and so frequently repeated 
 as to render the exercise a mere recitation. 
 
 2. Should a large number of consecutive lessons in the 
 Reader be of the same general character, a part should be 
 omitted, so as to give variety of style and subject. 
 
 3. Where two or more classes are in different parts of 
 the same grade, and use the same Reader, care should be 
 taken to have a corresponding difference in their reading 
 lessons. 
 
 4. Distinctness of articulation and the avoidance of all 
 improper clipping of terminations, and of the omission or 
 slurring of syllables, should receive careful and constant 
 attention. 
 
 5. Xew and difficult words should be carefully pro- 
 nounced and explained before the piece or paragraph is 
 read by the pupils. 
 
 6. "VThere diacritical marks are used in the Reading 
 Book the pupils should be taught to understand and apply 
 them.
 
 APPENDIX. 131 
 
 7. Lists of common words liable to be mispronomieed, 
 such as length and strength, should be made by the teacher, 
 and the class be exercised upon them. The elementary 
 sounds, and their more difficult combinations in words and 
 phrases which require great mobility of the vocal organs 
 (especially final consonants)^ should receive frequent at- 
 tention. Particular attention should be given to pupils of 
 foreign birth or parentage, so as to insure their mastery of 
 the principal difficulties of English pronunciation. 
 
 8. Pupils should read only such selections as are within 
 their ready comprehension, and should be accustomed to 
 state, in their own language, the important facts, prin- 
 ciples, and moral lessons therein taught. Words, phrases, 
 or allusions should be briefly explained whenever neces- 
 sary for the proper understanding of the piece read. 
 
 9. The voice and manner of the pupil should accord 
 with the character and sentiment of the selection. All 
 drawling, sing-song tones should be prevented. This is 
 easily done when the pupils are led to understand and 
 enter into the spirit of the piece. 
 
 10. At least once a week it is expedient to require all 
 the pupils, except the one reading, to close their books. 
 In this way the class will be better able to criticise, and 
 the criticism will be more just and valuable. Besides, 
 while the other pupils will all be kept on the alert to 
 listen, the pupil reading will unavoidably endeavor to pro- 
 nounce correctly, enunciate distinctly, and emphasize nat- 
 urally. Additional effect will be given to these exercises 
 by requiring the pupils to reproduce, in their own lan- 
 guage, the substance of what has been read to them. The 
 principal application of this most important exercise is in 
 the use of supplementary Readers. 
 
 11. As silent reading constitutes nearly all the reading
 
 132 APPENDIX. 
 
 that is of practical use and value to us, this method of 
 reading should be commenced and tested in school. It is, 
 therefore, desirable that exercises in which the class read 
 silently should be given with proper frequency. The 
 teacher can determine the results of the pupils' efforts by 
 appropriate questioning and by calling upon the pupils to 
 tell the whole or a part of the matter thus read. 
 
 ORAL LESSONS. 
 
 General Suggestions foe all, Grades. 
 
 1. The leading objects in this branch of instruction are, 
 first, to cultivate habits of observation and reflection^ and 
 second, to ^\sq facility in description^ both oral and writ- 
 ten. Avoid everything- tending to convert these lessons 
 into recitations of set forms of words, however these forms 
 may have been obtained, however well they may be un- 
 derstood by the pupils, and however important the facts 
 thus stated. 
 
 2. In the selection of topics, ^^ familiar objects^'' and 
 familiar animals, plants, and minerals take precedence of 
 all others. 
 
 It is neither possible nor desirable to attempt to teach 
 all, or even the greater part of the topics that might be 
 classified with the requirements of any grade. No topic 
 should be treated exhaustively, nor should the topics se- 
 lected he so FEW or so frequently reviewed as to narrow 
 down or suspend the discipiline of the observing faculty. 
 Too many reviews of a topic extinguish the pupil's interest 
 in it, and are worse than a mere waste of time ; they are 
 positively injm-ious. The selection and limitation are left 
 to the good sense of the teacher. 
 
 3. The objective method of teaching presents two dis-
 
 APPENDIX. 133 
 
 tinct though intimately related departments: jyerceptive 
 teaching J in which the object, as an acorn or an egg, is 
 directly presented to the pupil's senses ; and concejytwe 
 teaching^ in which impressions previously received are re- 
 called, arranged, and utilized, the objects themselves not 
 being presented to the senses during the lesson. An oak, 
 an elephant, or a thunder-storm, would fall under the 
 latter department. 
 
 The use of ficUires^ models, or other sensible represen- 
 tations of objects, is an important combination and 
 modification of the two principal methods, and should be 
 often employed. 
 
 4. Definitions should be very sparingly introduced, and 
 never in the first stages of a subject. If given at all, they 
 should sum up knowledge already attained. The terms 
 organic, ino7'ganic, animal, vegetable, and mineral, are 
 prominent among the very few terms requiring definition. 
 Such definitions should be prepared for by a process at 
 once inductive and objective. 
 
 5. No fact which the teacher can readily lead the pupil 
 to discover or ascertain for himself should be imparted 
 by the teacher. Invportant facts not readily derived from 
 the pupil's own observation must of course be supplied by 
 the teacher. Avoid overloading a topic with details, es- 
 pecially those of technology. As far as the character of 
 the general subject of the grade will allow, no topic should 
 be selected in which the number oi facts to he told bears a 
 large proportion to those which the pupil may be led to 
 
 find out for himself. 
 
 6. The language used hy the pujul must he entirely his 
 own, excepting, of course, the few indispensable definitions. 
 Even these definitions should form no part of any continu- 
 ous oral or written statement.
 
 134 APPENDIX. 
 
 Note. — The following exemplifies the pupil's only use of definitions : 
 Teacher — You said coal is a mineral. What do you mean by «u'/iero^.? 
 You said it is a fossil substance. What do you mean by fossU f 
 
 Y. The 2'>^(^cess employed will present two distinct stages : 
 Fh'st, the analytical or preparatory, in which the teacher 
 leads the pupil to discover or to remember the properties 
 or peculiarities of an object, or to state any other impor- 
 tant facts associated with it. The statements by the pupil 
 will be, of course, in his own words ; and the additional 
 statements which the teacher himself may find it necessary 
 to make, will be given in the form of familiar conversation. 
 This stage gives the principal discipline of the powers of 
 observation and reflection. 
 
 The points thus considered and the facts thus stated 
 should be written upon the black-board in the briefest 
 possible synoptical form, each one after it has been con- 
 sidered. "While some such synopsis is indispensahle to 
 the teacher as the first step of preparation for giving the 
 lesson, it should never be presented to i\\Q pupil except by 
 the gradual process above indicated. (See I^ote-books, 
 paragraph 9.) 
 
 8. The second or review sta^e of the process is based 
 upon the results of the first., and furnishes the principal 
 discipline of the powers of oral and written statement. 
 The facts already considered should be rearranged, if 
 necessary, into an orderly synopsis upon the black-board, 
 the pupils being called upon to assist in this arrangement. 
 This furnishes a valuable and appropriate discipline of 
 logical faculty. Pupils should then be required, in turn, 
 to state what they can recall of each item of the synopsis, 
 then of each group of items, and, lastly, of the whole sub- 
 ject. Then the synopsis may be wholly or in part removed 
 or hidden, and the oral process of review repeated. As a
 
 APPENDIX. 135 
 
 final stage, and before dismissing the subject, an extempore 
 composition, first witli and then without the aid of the 
 synopsis upon the board, should be written upon the slate 
 bj each pupil. (See Comjwsition.) 
 
 9. Note-hooks. — No one can give an " oral language 
 lesson " properly without special and careful jyr'ejpai'ation 
 for teaching that lesson. To attempt to do otherM'ise is 
 to fail. A synoptical outline or syllabus of the chief points 
 or items in each lesson should therefore be carefully made 
 ready beforehand ; and, in order to economize the time 
 and labor of the teacher, to facilitate the few necessary 
 reviews, and to furnish a proper record of the work that 
 has been done or attempted during the term, these synop- 
 ses should be recorded in a note-ljooh, together with such 
 additional memoranda of authorities, illustrations, etc., as 
 the teacher may think expedient. But it is particularly 
 enjoined that these synopses and memoranda shall, as far 
 as possible, consist of words and brief phrases only, merely 
 full enough for their proper use, namely, to assist the 
 memory of the teache?'^ to remind, not to inform. 
 
 If, on the other hand, the proposed lesson is written out 
 in sentences instead of separate words and phrases, the 
 teacher can scarcely avoid using these sentences, word for 
 word, over and over again in the exercises, and the note- 
 hook becomes virtually a text-book, and a very crude and 
 imperfect one. In such case, no " oral language lesson " is 
 really given ; the oral responses of the pupils are merely 
 recitations of " set forms of words," and the final exercise 
 in writing, instead of being a composition hy the pupil, is 
 only a memorized composition which has been written and 
 dictated hy the teacher. In this connection, see particularly 
 the^r-s^ paragraph of these general suggestions.
 
 ] 36 APPENDIX. 
 
 ORAL LESSONS OF THE EIGHTH GRADE. 
 
 The teacher is particularly referred to the preceding 
 general suggestions and to the directions and suggestions 
 given under the First Primary Grade. It is important 
 that special care be taken that the class in the Grammar 
 School Grade does not go over the topics taught before 
 the promotion from the Primary. To this end the record 
 of the promotions from the Primary should contain a list 
 of those topics that were used in the Primary " object les- 
 sons." The teacher of the Eighth Grade should have a 
 copy of this list in her note-book. 
 
 List of Topics suitable fok Eighth Gkade. — This 
 list is only suggestive^ no one will have time to take up 
 even half of these topics : make selections. With the 
 consent of the Principal the teacher may substitute any 
 other topic or topics that may properly be included under 
 " food, clothing, or building materials." Avoid all minute 
 details of technology. Do not " review " a topic so often 
 as to destroy the pupil's interest. Avoid frequent repeti- 
 tion of definitions : correct all crudities of language — do 
 not here dioell upon them, but note the most important, 
 that they may form a part of the class exercises in correc- 
 tion of errors in speech. 
 
 Vegetable Food — Bread Grains. — Wheat, rye, oats, barley, maize, 
 buckwheat, rice. All of them seeds. Relation of some to straw. 
 Planted every year. Trace from sowing to bread, but not too minutely. 
 In geographical references use map of the world. Kinds of bread. 
 Flour, grits, cracked wheat ; meal, hominy, samp, green corn, corn 
 starch (other starches) ; misuses of grain in preparing various intoxicat- 
 ing drinks. 
 
 Common Esculent Vegetables. — Select chief ones in the general order 
 of their annual production. Tell where city children may see them 
 growing.
 
 APPENDIX. 137 
 
 Berries, Melons, and Fruits. — Domestic ones first; foreign — oranges, 
 lemons, bananas, pineapples, figs, prunes, raisins, etc. Wine, cider, 
 vinegar. 
 
 Sugar. — Cane, beet, maple, sorghum, molasses ; other kinds and 
 sources of sugar, in honey, milk, fruits, licorice ; glucose or corn sugar. 
 
 Beverages. — Tea, coffee, chocolate. 
 
 Spices. — Black pepper, white pepper, red pepper, cloves, nutmegs, 
 mace, allspice, cinnamon, ginger ; other condiments — mustard, horse- 
 radish, salt, vinegar, catsup, etc. 
 
 ANiMAii Food. — Flesh of domestic animals — beef, mutton, pork, 
 poultry, of other animals — game, fish, oysters, etc., etc. 
 
 Butter, cheese, lard, milk. — Trades and occupations connected with 
 food. 
 
 Clothing — Vegetable Origin. — Muslin, calico, linen. India-rubber, etc. 
 Animal Origin. — Woolens, silks, leather, furs, etc. 
 How furs and woolen clothes keep us warm. Trades and occupations 
 connected with clothing. 
 
 BuHiDING Materials. — Common building stones — kinds of fine 
 building stones — mortar, glass, paints, lumber — metals. Trades and oc- 
 cupations connected with building and building materials. 
 
 Miscellaneous. — Matches, paper, soap, charcoal, coal, fire, feathers, 
 glue, ivory, plaster, putty, ink. 
 
 Objects — easily procurable. — Small bunches of heads of wheat, rye, 
 barley, ear of corn, sprigs of rice, small bottles or boxes containing va- 
 rious grains, hulled and unhuUed rice, bran, unbolted and bolted flour ; 
 piece of sugar-cane or of corn-stalk, little boxes of sugar in three or four 
 kinds or forms ; coffee, raw and roasted ; tea, green and black ; cocoa- 
 nuts, almonds, peach-pits, apples, oranges, etc. , each in its season ; 
 wool, cotton, hemp, flax, silk, and pieces of their fabrics ; bits of leather, 
 and of furs of various kinds ; pieces of common woods, smoothed to 
 show the grain, etc., etc.; pictures of objects. 
 
 These and many others are frequently found in schools. The skil- 
 ful teacher finds them indispensable. 
 
 Reference Books. — Sheldon's Object Lessons ; Sheldon's Elemen- 
 tary Instruction ; Parker's Talks on Teaching ; and, especially, articles 
 in Appleton's, Chambers', Johnson's, and other cyclopaedias.
 
 138 APPENDIX. 
 
 COMPOSITION. 
 
 General Suggestions for all Grades. 
 
 1. Compositions on the subjects of the oral lessons are 
 specially prescribed for all grades excepting the first. 
 
 2. When any topic, such as sugar, nickel, the circulation 
 of the blood, or the indestructibility of matter, has been 
 as fully treated in the conversational lesson and review 
 as may be thought expedient, the exercise in composition 
 should immediately follow. Tliis should be a class exer- 
 cise on slates. Care sliould be taken that the pupils do 
 not make them so long as to prevent proper correction. 
 
 3. A few pupils should be called upon in turn to read 
 what they have written, and should be led by judicious 
 questioning to detect any important errors in the language 
 used, or in the statement of facts. Under proper restric- 
 tion, mutual criticism by the members of the class can be 
 made a very profitable exercise. 
 
 4. To insure a proper variety of thought and expression 
 it is necessary that the oral lesson which forms the basis of 
 the composition should be so selected as to give a consider- 
 able number of interesting points or items. If injuriously 
 frequent repetition and review are avoided, the several 
 pupils will recall different groups of items, and all undue 
 sameness will be prevented. When identical phrases or 
 sentences are frequently found in the exercises of the pu- 
 pils, they are unquestionable evidence of bad methods both 
 in the oral lessons and in the teaching of composition. No 
 definitions should be found in a composition. Their only 
 proper use is distinctly stated on page 133. 
 
 5. Some of the compositions written upon the slates
 
 APPENDIX. 139 
 
 should be copied by the pupils upon paper. This should 
 be done at least once a month in grades eight to three, and 
 twice a month in the higher grades. As these are to be 
 separately corrected by the teacher and returned to the 
 pupils for rewriting, it is expected that the teacher will so 
 adjust the length of the compositions that their correction 
 will make no excessive demand upon his time. On the 
 other hand, they should not be so brief as to fail to fur- 
 nish the pupils with sufficient exercise. 
 
 6. The pupil should write his name and the date upon 
 each composition. All those of the same date should be 
 fastened together, so that the sequence of packets may 
 show the frequency of the lessons and the general progress 
 of the class. A list of all the subjects that have been used 
 during the term for compositions on the slate should also 
 be kept. 
 
 7. Written reviews of the lessons in geography and his- 
 tory are perhaps the very best method of permanently 
 fixing in the memory the facts taught by those studies, 
 and, therefore, should not be omitted : such written re- 
 views, however, should not be classed as compositions. 
 
 SPELLING. 
 
 General Suggestions for all Grades. 
 
 1. The exercises should be both oral and written, but 
 principally written. 
 
 2. Two lists of words that are to be studied by the pu- 
 pils should be kept by the teacher of each class. The first 
 should include only the words selected, as prescribed, from 
 the reading and oral lessons. Care should be taken to 
 avoid the repetition of words that have already been thor-
 
 140 APPENDIX. 
 
 oughlj fixed in the piipiFs memory by exercises in previous 
 grades. Words needing review on account of their diffi- 
 culty should form a part of the second prescribed, or mis- 
 cellaneous, list kept by the teacher. Both the miscella- 
 neous words selected and those taken from the Reader 
 should be suitable to the age and mental development of 
 the pupils. 
 
 3. " Miscellaneous words " will include the ordinary 
 proper names of persons (not the surnames), and common 
 words of the daily life of the household, the shop, and the 
 street. 
 
 In the selection of proper names, geographical and 
 personal, special care should be taken to include only such 
 as the pupils may have occasion to use in writing ; as 
 Chicago, Brooklyn, and Aaron, and not Tapajos, Pyrrhus, 
 and Richelieu. 
 
 4. In writing short sentences from dictation, special at- 
 tention should be given to words which are similar in 
 sound but are spelled differently. Instances will present 
 themselves, both in the selections from the reading lessons 
 and in the miscellaneous words. Thus, piece will require 
 to be compared and contrasted with peace ; pHnciple with 
 principal^ etc. 
 
 5. The written exercises should be as neat as possible, 
 care being taken to train pupils in habits of orderly ar- 
 rangement of their work on the slate and on paper. 
 
 6. When sentences are given, particular attention should 
 be paid to the ordinary troublesome monosyllables, the 
 proper use of capitals, the sign of the possessive case, the 
 period, the interrogation mark, and the use of the hyphen 
 in a word divided at the end of a line.
 
 APPENDIX. 141 
 
 MEANING AND USE OF WORDS. 
 
 General Suggestions for all Grades. 
 
 1. In selecting words for these exercises, two leading 
 purposes should be specially kept in view : (1) To impress 
 or illustrate the particular meaning of the word as used in 
 the lesson ; (2) to enlarge and correct the pupil's own vo- 
 cabulary. 
 
 2. Where a word has, in common use, two or more 
 meanings quite diverse, a separate illustration should be 
 required for each ; and where several words differently 
 spelled have the same or a similar pronunciation, a sepa- 
 rate construction should be required for each in the writ- 
 ten exercises, 
 
 3. A pupil's vocabulary should be understood to consist 
 of the words that he will use in speaking and writing, and 
 of those words only. Words that are found chiefly in 
 books, and in reference to which an appeal to the dic- 
 tionary must be made, are of little or no importance so far 
 as the pupils in our schools are concerned. Such words 
 as " through," " chimney," and " apron," which the schol- 
 ars habitually use correctly in speech, should be spelled ; 
 to require a special sentence for their use is a waste of 
 time. " Valetudinarian," " argosy," "asphyxia," "proto- 
 plasm," and others, which the pupil may never use in con- 
 struction, the teacher should carefully avoid. When such 
 words do occur in the reading lesson or elsewhere, for the 
 illustration of the passage the meaning should be given by 
 the teacher, no special memorizing on the part of the pu- 
 pils being required. The context and the dictionary will 
 do what little remains to be done. To spell such words, 
 or to use them in sentences, is worse than idle.
 
 142 APPENDIX. 
 
 4. Do not attempt too much. Four or five -words a day 
 are enough, if thoroughly taught and carefully reviewed. 
 Of these words the teachers should keep special lists, and 
 class lists should be compared, in order that useless dupli- 
 cation may be avoided. The intelligent use of a word in 
 a sentence constructed by the pupil, is the best test of his 
 knowledge of the meaning of the word. Home exercises 
 in the construction of sentences to illustrate the proper 
 uses of words should never be given. No other exercise 
 is so dependent upon the prompt criticism of the teacher. 
 
 5. In the higher grades a few common synonyms, such 
 as divide and separate, reflect and consider^ etc., if made 
 to form a part of these exercises, will add to their variety 
 and profit. 
 
 AEITHMETIC. 
 
 Ifental Arithmetic. — 1. The mental arithmetic should 
 both precede and accompany the written arithmetic. The 
 principal distinction between these two divisions of the 
 subject is, that when the numbers involved are too great 
 or too many to be readily retained in the memory, the 
 slate should be employed as an assistant. 
 
 2. The exercises in mental arithmetic should, as far as 
 possible, be of the most practical chai-acter. As a rule, 
 examples given should be silently wrought by the class 
 simultaneously, and the results obtained be written upon 
 the slates promptly, and at a given signal. Tlie analysis 
 may then be required of the pupils. 
 
 3. The explanatory or analytic statements made by the 
 pupil should be of the simplest and most direct character 
 consistent with clearness, and all unnecessary repetition of
 
 APPENDIX. 143 
 
 formulae sliould be carefully avoided. Where this is not 
 done, the principal effort of the pupil is to recall in due 
 order the set form of words, rather than to form the 
 arithmetical combinations necessary to the solution. 
 
 4. Besides simple examples in the four fundamental 
 rules and federal money, very simple operations involv- 
 ing practical applications of the selected tables of money, 
 weight, and measure, should constitute a portion of the 
 exercises in mental arithmetic. 
 
 5. In the explanation or analysis of examples, in mental 
 as well as in written arithmetic, the pupils should occa- 
 sionally be called upon, before solving, to state the ques- 
 tion. 
 
 6. Mental exercises in arithmetic should be conducted 
 in a spirited manner. They should always have the char- 
 acter of extemporized exercises. 
 
 Writteji Arithmetic. — 1. The slates should be kept in 
 the best condition as to cleanness ; the figures should be 
 distinctly and neatly made, and be written in lines parallel 
 to the upper edge of the slate. A reasonable allowance 
 should be made for imperfections in the forms of figures 
 in exercises in which rapidity is required ; yet, every effort 
 should be made to fix in the pupils habits of care, neatness, 
 and system in all that pertains to the written exercises. 
 
 2. Exercises in adding columns of figures should be 
 given with such frequency as may be found necessary to 
 produce and i-etain accuracy and rapidity, 
 
 3. Every form of counting, whether by fingers, dots, 
 marks, or other devices, should be strictly prohibited, and 
 the class should be frequently tested for this special pur- 
 pose. 
 
 4. The pupil should name only the results arising from 
 the additions of the successive figures, avoiding all that
 
 144 APPENDIX. 
 
 oral or mental repetition of the tables which is known 
 as the "spelling process," and all other unnecessary for- 
 mulae. 
 
 5. Tlie above remark, in regard to the oi-al or mental 
 repetition of tlie tables, applies to all the fundamental 
 rules and their applications. The processes should be re- 
 duced to the most concise form practicable. 
 
 6. When pupils show an ability to add two or more 
 figures at a time, they should be encouraged to do so in 
 exercises that are wrought out silently. 
 
 7. When the divisor is less than 13, the long division 
 process is not to be employed or allowed. Examples with 
 such divisors as 60, 1,200, etc., should be solved by short 
 division. 
 
 8. Short practical examples, involving two or more of 
 the rules, should frequently be given, and in such a way 
 as to cultivate the intelligence of the pupil. 
 
 9. Examples requiring a very large number of figures 
 for their solution should be avoided, except as far as they 
 may be necessary in order to give practical expertness. 
 
 10. Examples should be given to test the pupils' accu- 
 racy in writing numbers requiring Os, and their knowledge 
 of the proper methods when the multiplier or divisor 
 contains Os. 
 
 11. Analogous exercises in federal money should be 
 substituted for those in the simple rules referred to in the 
 preceding sections, as soon as may be found expedient. 
 
 12. Exercises should be given to insure facility in read- 
 ing and writing federal money, and in reducing, by inspec- 
 tion, and without analysis, dollars, etc., to cents or to 
 mills, and conversely. 
 
 13. In all practical examples, instead of telling pupils to 
 add, subtract, multiply, or divide, give the question in such
 
 APPENDIX. 145 
 
 a manner as to oblige them to determine for themselves 
 tlie method and principle to be employed. 
 
 14. No detailed analysis is necessary in addition or sub- 
 traction. 
 
 15. Give examples of bills of purchase or sale involving 
 several items, and similar to those required in daily life. 
 
 16. Exercises in arithmetic are not to be assigned for 
 home study except in the First Grade. (See § 155 of the 
 By-Laws, 1883.) 
 
 FORMS OF ARITHMETICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 A. {Fundamental) — Multiplication. 
 
 Question. — If 1 yard cost $3, what will 4 yards cost ? 
 Analysis. — If 1 yard cost $3, 4 yards will cost 4 times $3, or $12. 
 Note 1. — Avoid the too concise form " will cost 4 times 3, or 12." 
 Note 2.— Question.— It |1 will buy 3 yards, what will $4 buy ? 
 Analysis. — Similar to A. 
 
 B. {Derived) — Division. (1.) 
 
 Question. — If 1 yard cost $3, how many yards may be bought for $12 ? 
 Analysis. — If 1 yard cost $3, $12 will buy as many yards as $3 are con- 
 tained times in $12, or 4 yards. 
 Note. — Avoid the too concise form " as many as 3 are contained in 12." 
 
 C. {Derived) — Division. (2. ) 
 
 Question. — If 4 yards cost $12, what will 1 yard cost ? 
 Analysis.— U 4 yards cost $13, 1 yard will cost i of $12, or $3. 
 Note. — Avoid the very faulty forms " as much as 4 is contained in 
 $12," or "times in 12," or " 4 is contained in 12." 
 
 D. {Derived) — Division. (3.) 
 
 Question.— It $4 buy 12 yards, what will $1 buy ? 
 
 Analysis.— It $4 buy 12 yards, $1 will buy i of 12 yards, or 3 yards. 
 
 Combinations of A, B, C, D. 
 C and A. Division and Multiplication. 
 Question. — If 4 yards cost $12, what will 9 yards cost ? 
 Analysis. — First by C for price of 1 yard, then by A for price of 9 yards. 
 C and B. Division. i^)and{\). 
 Question. — If 4 yards cost $12, how many yards may be bought for $27 ?
 
 146 APPENDIX. 
 
 Analysis. — First by C for price of 1 yard, then by B for number of 
 yards. 
 
 D and A. Division and Multiplication. 
 
 Question.— Jf $4 buy 12 yards, what will $11 buy ? 
 
 Analysis. —First by D for what $1 will buy, then by A, Note 2, for what 
 $11 will buy. 
 
 Note. — Avoid set forms of giving questions. — Vary the order of statement 
 as far as is consistent with perfect clearness. For instance, 
 the *' C and B" question might have been put thus: 
 Spent $27 for cloth. How many yards did I buy, if $12 
 bought 8 yards ? or, how many yards for $27, if 4 yards 
 cost $3 ? etc., etc. 
 
 TABLES OF MONEY, WEIGHT, ETC. 
 
 The teaching of the Tables of Money., Weight., Measure., 
 etc., should be restricted to tlie following : 
 
 1. Federal Money. — The usual table, its notation, and halves, 
 quarters, and eighths of the dollar. The difference between the full 
 table and money of accounts. Adversely to the use of the terms slril- 
 ling and penny. 
 
 2. Length.— \2 in. = 1 ft., 3 ft. = 1 yd., 5i yds. = 1 rod, 220 yds. = 
 1 furlong, 8 furlongs, or 1,760 yds., or 5,280 ft. = 1 mile. 
 
 3. Surface. — 144 sq. in. = 1 sq. ft, 9 sq. ft. = 1 sq. yd., 30^ sq. yds. 
 = 1 sq. rod. 
 
 4. Solidity.— 1, '728 cu. in. = 1 cu. ft., 27 cu. ft. = 1 cu. yd., 128 cu. 
 ft. = 1 cord of wood. 
 
 5. Dry Capacity. — 2 pts. = 1 qt., 8 qts. =: 1 peck, 4 pecks, or 2,150 
 cu. in. = 1 bu., 36 bu. r= 1 chaldron. 
 
 6. Liquid Capacity. — 4 gills = 1 pt. , 2 pts. = 1 qt., 4 qts., or 231 cu. 
 in. — 1 gal. 
 
 Note. — The dry quart is about one-sixth greater than the liquid 
 quart. 
 
 7. Avoirdupois Weight.— Id oz. = 1 lb., 100 lbs. = 1 cwt., 2,000 lbs., 
 or 20 cwt. = 1 ton, 2,240 lbs. = 1 long ton, or old ton. 
 
 Note. — The pound avoirdupois — 7,000 grains troy; the ounce = 437^ 
 grains. 
 
 8. Troy Weig7it.—24 grs. = 1 dwt., 20 dwt. = 1 oz., 12 oz. = 1 lb.
 
 APPENDIX. 147 
 
 Note. — The pound troy contains 5,760 grains ; the ounce, 480 grains. 
 The pound troy is the standard unit of weight. 
 
 Time-table and Calendar. — Explain leap year. Tell time by tlie clock. 
 
 Miscellaneous Table. — Teach dozen, gross, score, quire, ream. 
 
 General Note. — Pupils should be carefully taught the meanings, 
 uses, and simple practical applications of these tables. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 General Suggestions for all Grades. 
 
 1. It is of the first importance that geography should be 
 so taught and reviewed, as not to leave in the mind of the 
 pupil a mere collection of facts, without mutual relation 
 or dependence. On the contrary, the pupil should, from 
 the first, be taught to consider the earth as man's dwelling- 
 place — its motions as bringing him the alternation of day 
 and night, and the changes of the seasons — \is land-surf ace 
 as the chief theatre of animal and vegetable life — the 
 ocean as the world's broad highway, and the exhaustless 
 source of clouds and rains, so necessary to every form of 
 life on the land-surface ; its currents as modifying the 
 climate of continents and islands — the great permanent 
 ai7'-cui'7'ents as carrying to the land the moisture from the 
 sea — the onountains as its condensers, as well as the chief 
 soui'ce of mineral wealth — the sjyrings and rivers, with 
 their branches, as carrying back again the ever-circulating 
 water of the ocean — and its cities and towns, not as black 
 dots on a map, in colored patches which he has learned to 
 call countries, perhaps near some crooked black streaks, 
 which he has learned to call rivers, but as the centres of 
 social life and development, the seats of government, and 
 the crowded, busy hives of limuau industry and intelli- 
 gence.
 
 148 APPENDIX. 
 
 When geography is thus tanglit, it is one of the most 
 interesting, important, and practical of studies ; but, if it 
 is taught chiefly as a description, by unvarying formulae, 
 of rivers, capes, peninsulas, boundaries, etc., supplemented, 
 perhaps, by a precise, verbatim repetition of the descrip- 
 tive geography, as contained in even the very best text- 
 book, it is one of the dullest and most unprofitable. 
 
 2. Globes and maps are indispensable auxiliaries. There 
 is no more common and pernicious error than that of sub- 
 stituting the text-booJc for the teacher, who thus is degraded 
 into a mechanical hearer of lessons. 
 
 The pupil should be taught to have distinctly before his 
 mind's eye the contour of the country wliich he may be 
 studying, and its leading physical and political features ; 
 to this end, rough sketching of maps (from memory) will 
 be of great assistance. 
 
 In all grades there should be exercises in latitude and 
 longitude, and in imaginary travels by land and by sea. 
 
 The teacher of geography will find in the daily newspa- 
 per a valuable auxiliary, giving information of important 
 events transpiring in countries under consideration. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY (EIGHTH GRADE). 
 
 In teaching the liemispheres, only such topics should be 
 included as may readily be taught by means of a hlack- 
 hoard, a globe, and an outline map of the hemispheres. 
 It is of the greatest importance that the pupil's first im- 
 pressions be formed from the globe, rather than from the 
 flat and distorted representation of the map. 
 
 The following are the princi})al points in the require-
 
 APPENDIX. 149 
 
 ments of this grade. The work done should be tested in 
 review, bj placing the pointer in the hand of the pupil. 
 
 Theybrw of the earthy its magnitude, the continents and 
 grand divisions, their relative positions, their connecting 
 isthmuses, and a few of their most important projections 
 — tlie oceans, their positions, and principal arms and 
 islands — five or six of the mountain systems of Amer- 
 ica, and a dozen in the rest of the world ; three or four 
 well-known volcanoes — about a dozen each of the chief 
 rivers and straits, and about half as many great lakes — 
 in a very general way, the location of the most important 
 countries, such as the United States, Great Britain, Ger- 
 many, China, Japan, etc., and of a dozen of the most 
 important cities of the world. With each of these cities 
 and countries some interesting or important fact should 
 be at once associated. 
 
 A general notion of climate, as affected by distance from 
 the equator, by elevation, and by the great ocean currents 
 — the motions of the earth, and the inclination of its axis 
 — the seasons — latitude and longitude — the zones, their 
 limits, and a very few of their well-known and character- 
 istic plants and animals — and, in a very general way, the 
 location of the chief races of mankind. Only such defini- 
 tions should be included as are strictly elementary.
 
 Wk
 
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 J74
 
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